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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/38454-8.txt b/38454-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a9b4892 --- /dev/null +++ b/38454-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,15836 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 12, Slice 8, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 12, Slice 8 + "Haller, Albrecht" to "Harmonium" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: December 31, 2011 [EBook #38454] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters, [oo] for infinity symbol and [dP] for partial differential + symbol. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE HALLER, ALBRECHT VON: "From a literary point of view the + main result of this, the first of his many journeys through the + Alps, was his poem entitled Die Alpen, which was finished in March + 1729, and appeared in the first edition (1732) of his Gedichte." + 'poem' amended from 'peom'. + + ARTICLE HAMBURG: "... and if the progress of the tide up the river + gives indication of danger, another three shots follow." 'another' + amended from 'other'. + + ARTICLE HARBOUR: "Ostend is the only jetty harbour in which a large + sluicing basin has been recently constructed, but it can only + provide for the maintenance of deep-water quays in its vicinity; + ..." 'harbour' amended from 'habour'. + + ARTICLE HARMONICA: "... Franz Leppich's panmelodicon in 1810, + Buschmann's uranion in the same year, &c. Of most of these nothing + now remains but the name and a description in the Allgemeine + musikalische Zeitung ..." Added 'in'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME XII, SLICE VIII + + Haller, Albrecht to Harmonium + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + HALLER, ALBRECHT VON HANDICAP + HALLER, BERTHOLD HANDSEL + HALLEY, EDMUND HANDSWORTH + HALLGRÍMSSON, JÓNAS HANDWRITING + HALLIDAY, ANDREW HANG-CHOW-FU + HALLIWELL-PHILLIPPS, ORCHARD HANGING + HALLOWE'EN HANGÖ + HALLSTATT HANKA, WENCESLAUS + HALLUCINATION HANLEY + HALLUIN HANNA, MARCUS ALONZO + HALM, CARL FELIX HANNAY, JAMES + HALMA HANNEN, JAMES HANNEN + HALMAHERA HANNIBAL (Carthaginian statesman) + HALMSTAD HANNIBAL (Missouri, U.S.A.) + HALO HANNINGTON, JAMES + HALOGENS HANNINGTON + HALS, FRANS HANNO + HALSBURY, HARDINGE GIFFARD HANOI + HALSTEAD HANOTAUX, ALBERT AUGUSTE GABRIEL + HALT HANOVER (province of Prussia) + HALUNTIUM HANOVER (city of Prussia) + HALYBURTON, JAMES HANOVER (Indiana, U.S.A.) + HALYBURTON, THOMAS HANOVER (New Hampshire, U.S.A.) + HAM (son of Noah) HANOVER (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.) + HAM (town of France) HANRIOT, FRANÇOIS + HAMADAN HANSARD, LUKE + HAMADHANI HANSEATIC LEAGUE + HAMAH HANSEN, PETER ANDREAS + HAMANN, JOHANN GEORG HANSI + HAMAR HANSOM, JOSEPH ALOYSIUS + HAMASA HANSON, SIR RICHARD DAVIES + HAMBURG (German state) HANSTEEN, CHRISTOPHER + HAMBURG (German seaport) HANTHAWADDY + HAMDANI HANUKKAH + HAMELIN, FRANÇOIS ALPHONSE HANUMAN + HAMELN HANWAY, JONAS + HAMERLING, ROBERT HANWELL + HAMERTON, PHILIP GILBERT HAPARANDA + HAMI HAPLODRILI + HAMILCAR BARCA HAPTARA + HAMILTON HAPUR + HAMILTON, MARQUESSES & DUKES OF HARA-KIRI + HAMILTON, ALEXANDER HARALD + HAMILTON, ANTHONY HARBIN + HAMILTON, ELIZABETH HARBINGER + HAMILTON, EMMA HARBOUR + HAMILTON, JAMES HARBURG + HAMILTON, JAMES HAMILTON HARCOURT + HAMILTON, JOHN HARCOURT, SIMON HARCOURT + HAMILTON, PATRICK HARCOURT, SIR WILLIAM VENABLES VERNON + HAMILTON, ROBERT HARCOURT, WILLIAM VERNON + HAMILTON, THOMAS HARDANGER FJORD + HAMILTON, WILLIAM HARDEE, WILLIAM JOSEPH + HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM (1730-1803) HARDENBERG, KARL AUGUST VON + HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM (1788-1856) HARDERWYK + HAMILTON, WILLIAM GERARD HARDICANUTE + HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM ROWAN HARDING, CHESTER + HAMILTON (town of Australia) HARDING, JAMES DUFFIELD + HAMILTON (river of Canada) HARDINGE, HENRY HARDINGE + HAMILTON (city of Canada) HARDOI + HAMILTON (burgh of Scotland) HARDOUIN, JEAN + HAMILTON (New York, U.S.A.) HARDT, HERMANN VON DER + HAMILTON (Ohio, U.S.A.) HARDT, THE + HAMIRPUR HARDWAR + HAMITIC RACES AND LANGUAGES HARDWICKE, PHILIP YORKE + HAMLET HARDY, ALEXANDRE + HAMLEY, SIR EDWARD BRUCE HARDY, THOMAS + HAMLIN, HANNIBAL HARDY, SIR THOMAS DUFFUS + HAMM HARDY, SIR THOMAS MASTERMAN + HAMMAD AR-RAWIYA HARDYNG, JOHN + HAMMER, FRIEDRICH JULIUS HARE, AUGUSTUS JOHN CUTHBERT + HAMMER HARE, SIR JOHN + HAMMERBEAM ROOF HARE, JULIUS CHARLES + HAMMERFEST HARE + HAMMER-KOP HAREBELL + HAMMER-PURGSTALL, JOSEPH HAREM + HAMMERSMITH HARFLEUR + HAMMER-THROWING HARIANA + HAMMER-TOE HARINGTON, SIR JOHN + HAMMOCK HARIRI + HAMMOND, HENRY HARI-RUD + HAMMOND HARISCHANDRA + HAMON, JEAN LOUIS HARITH IBN HILLIZA UL-YASHKURI + HAMPDEN, HENRY BOUVERIE BRAND HARIZI, JUDAH BEN SOLOMON + HAMPDEN, JOHN HARKNESS, ALBERT + HAMPDEN, RENN DICKSON HARKNESS, ROBERT + HAMPDEN-SIDNEY HARLAN, JAMES + HAMPSHIRE HARLAN, JOHN MARSHALL + HAMPSTEAD HARLAND, HENRY + HAMPTON, WADE HARLAY DE CHAMPVALLON, FRANÇOIS DE + HAMPTON (Middlesex, England) HARLECH + HAMPTON (Virginia, U.S.A.) HARLEQUIN + HAMPTON ROADS HARLESS, GOTTLIEB CHRISTOPH + HAMSTER HARLESS, GOTTLIEB CHRISTOPH ADOLF VON + HANAPER HARLINGEN + HANAU HARMATTAN + HANBURY WILLIAMS, SIR CHARLES HARMODIUS + HANCOCK, JOHN HARMONIA + HANCOCK, WINFIELD SCOTT HARMONIC + HANCOCK HARMONICA + HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF HARMONIC ANALYSIS + HAND HARMONICHORD + HANDEL, GEORGE FREDERICK HARMONIUM + HANDFASTING + + + + +HALLER, ALBRECHT VON (1708-1777), Swiss anatomist and physiologist, was +born of an old Swiss family at Bern, on the 16th of October 1708. +Prevented by long-continued ill-health from taking part in boyish +sports, he had the more opportunity for the development of his +precocious mind. At the age of four, it is said, he used to read and +expound the Bible to his father's servants; before he was ten he had +sketched a Chaldee grammar, prepared a Greek and a Hebrew vocabulary, +compiled a collection of two thousand biographies of famous men and +women on the model of the great works of Bayle and Moreri, and written +in Latin verse a satire on his tutor, who had warned him against a too +great excursiveness. When still hardly fifteen he was already the author +of numerous metrical translations from Ovid, Horace and Virgil, as well +as of original lyrics, dramas, and an epic of four thousand lines on the +origin of the Swiss confederations, writings which he is said on one +occasion to have rescued from a fire at the risk of his life, only, +however, to burn them a little later (1729) with his own hand. Haller's +attention had been directed to the profession of medicine while he was +residing in the house of a physician at Biel after his father's death in +1721; and, following the choice then made, he while still a sickly and +excessively shy youth went in his sixteenth year to the university of +Tübingen (December 1723), where he studied under Camerarius and +Duvernoy. Dissatisfied with his progress, he in 1725 exchanged Tübingen +for Leiden, where Boerhaave was in the zenith of his fame, and where +Albinus had already begun to lecture in anatomy. At that university he +graduated in May 1727, undertaking successfully in his thesis to prove +that the so-called salivary duct, claimed as a recent discovery by +Coschwitz, was nothing more than a blood-vessel. Haller then visited +London, making the acquaintance of Sir Hans Sloane, Cheselden, Pringle, +Douglas and other scientific men; next, after a short stay in Oxford, he +visited Paris, where he studied under Ledran and Winslöw; and in 1728 he +proceeded to Basel, where he devoted himself to the study of the higher +mathematics under John Bernoulli. It was during his stay there also that +his first great interest in botany was awakened; and, in the course of a +tour (July-August, 1828), through Savoy, Baden and several of the Swiss +cantons, he began a collection of plants which was afterwards the basis +of his great work on the flora of Switzerland. From a literary point of +view the main result of this, the first of his many journeys through the +Alps, was his poem entitled _Die Alpen_, which was finished in March +1729, and appeared in the first edition (1732) of his _Gedichte_. This +poem of 490 hexameters is historically important as one of the earliest +signs of the awakening appreciation of the mountains (hitherto generally +regarded as horrible monstrosities), though it is chiefly designed to +contrast the simple and idyllic life of the inhabitants of the Alps with +the corrupt and decadent existence of the dwellers in the plains. + +In 1729 he returned to Bern and began to practise as a physician; his +best energies, however, were devoted to the botanical and anatomical +researches which rapidly gave him a European reputation, and procured +for him from George II. in 1736 a call to the chair of medicine, +anatomy, botany and surgery in the newly founded university of +Göttingen. He became F.R.S. in 1743, and was ennobled in 1749. The +quantity of work achieved by Haller in the seventeen years during which +he occupied his Göttingen professorship was immense. Apart from the +ordinary work of his classes, which entailed upon him the task of newly +organizing a botanical garden, an anatomical theatre and museum, an +obstetrical school, and similar institutions, he carried on without +interruption those original investigations in botany and physiology, the +results of which are preserved in the numerous works associated with his +name; he continued also to persevere in his youthful habit of poetical +composition, while at the same time he conducted a monthly journal (the +_Göttingische gelehrte Anzeigen_), to which he is said to have +contributed twelve thousand articles relating to almost every branch of +human knowledge. He also warmly interested himself in most of the +religious questions, both ephemeral and permanent, of his day; and the +erection of the Reformed church in Göttingen was mainly due to his +unwearied energy. Notwithstanding all this variety of absorbing +interests he never felt at home in Göttingen; his untravelled heart kept +ever turning towards his native Bern (where he had been elected a member +of the great council in 1745), and in 1753 he resolved to resign his +chair and return to Switzerland. + +The twenty-one years of his life which followed were largely occupied in +the discharge of his duties in the minor political post of a +_Rathhausammann_ which he had obtained by lot, and in the preparation of +his _Bibliotheca medica_, the botanical, surgical and anatomical parts +of which he lived to complete; but he also found time to write the three +philosophical romances--_Usong_ (1771), _Alfred_ (1773) and _Fabius and +Cato_ (1774),--in which his views as to the respective merits of +despotism, of limited monarchy and of aristocratic republican government +are fully set forth. About 1773 the state of his health rendered +necessary his entire withdrawal from public business; for some time he +supported his failing strength by means of opium, on the use of which he +communicated a paper to the _Proceedings_ of the Göttingen Royal Society +in 1776; the excessive use of the drug is believed, however, to have +hastened his death, which occurred on the 17th of December 1777. Haller, +who had been three times married, left eight children, the eldest of +whom, Gottlieb Emanuel, attained to some distinction as a botanist and +as a writer on Swiss historical bibliography (1785-1788, 7 vols.). + + Subjoined is a classified but by no means an exhaustive list of his + very numerous works in various branches of science and literature (a + complete list, up to 1775, numbering 576 items, including various + editions, was published by Haller himself, in 1775, at the end of vol. + 6 of the correspondence addressed to him by various learned + friends):--(1) Anatomical:--_Icones anatomicae_ (1743-1754); + _Disputationes anatomicae selectiores_ (1746-1752); and _Opera acad. + minora anatomici argumenti_ (1762-1768). (2) Physiological:--_De + respiratione experimenta anatomica_ (1747); _Primae lineae + physiologiae_ (1747); and _Elementa physiologiae corporis humani_ + (1757-1760). (3) Pathological and surgical:--_Opuscula pathologica_ + (1754); _Disputationum chirurg. collectio_ (1777); also careful + editions of Boerhaave's _Praelectiones academicae in suas + institutiones rei medicae_ (1739), and of the _Artis medicae + principia_ of the same author (1769-1774). (4) Botanical:--_Enumeratio + methodica stirpium Helveticarum_ (1742); _Opuscula botanica_ (1749); + _Bibliotheca botanica_ (1771). (5) Theological:--_Briefe über die + wichtigsten Wahrheiten der Offenbarung_ (1772); and _Briefe zur + Vertheidigung der Offenbarung_ (1775-1777). (6) Poetical:--_Gedichte_ + (1732, 12th ed., 1777). His three romances have been already + mentioned. Several volumes of lectures and "Tagebücher" or journals + were published posthumously. + + See J. G. Zimmermann, _Das Leben des Herrn von Haller_ (1755), and the + articles by Förster and Seiler in Ersch and Gruber's _Encyklopädie_, + and particularly the detailed biography (over 500 pages) by L. Hirzel, + printed at the head of his elaborate edition (Frauenfeld, 1882) of + Haller's _Gedichte_. + + + + +HALLER, BERTHOLD (1492-1536), Swiss reformer, was born at Aldingen in +Württemberg, and after studying at Pforzheim, where he met Melanchthon, +and at Cologne, taught in the gymnasium at Bern. He was appointed +assistant preacher at the church of St Vincent in 1515 and people's +priest in 1520. Even before his acquaintance with Zwingli in 1521 he had +begun to preach the Reformation, his sympathetic character and his +eloquence making him a great force. In 1526 he was at the abortive +conference of Baden, and in January 1528 drafted and defended the ten +theses for the conference of Bern which established the new religion in +that city. He left no writings except a few letters which are preserved +in Zwingli's works. He died on the 25th of February 1536. + + Life by Pestalozzi (Elberfeld, 1861). + + + + +HALLEY, EDMUND (1656-1742), English astronomer, was born at Haggerston, +London, on the 29th of October 1656. His father, a wealthy soapboiler, +placed him at St Paul's school, where he was equally distinguished for +classical and mathematical ability. Before leaving it for Queen's +College, Oxford, in 1673, he had observed the change in the variation of +the compass, and at the age of nineteen, he supplied a new and improved +method of determining the elements of the planetary orbits (_Phil. +Trans._ xi. 683). His detection of considerable errors in the tables +then in use led him to the conclusion that a more accurate ascertainment +of the places of the fixed stars was indispensable to the progress of +astronomy; and, finding that Flamsteed and Hevelius had already +undertaken to catalogue those visible in northern latitudes, he assumed +to himself the task of making observations in the southern hemisphere. A +recommendation from Charles II. to the East India Company procured for +him an apparently suitable, though, as it proved, ill-chosen station, +and in November 1676 he embarked for St Helena. On the voyage he noticed +the retardation of the pendulum in approaching the equator; and during +his stay on the island he observed, on the 7th of November 1677, a +transit of Mercury, which suggested to him the important idea of +employing similar phenomena for determining the sun's distance. He +returned to England in November 1678, having by the registration of 341 +stars won the title of the "Southern Tycho," and by the translation to +the heavens of the "Royal Oak," earned a degree of master of arts, +conferred at Oxford by the king's command on the 3rd of December 1678, +almost simultaneously with his election as fellow of the Royal Society. +Six months later, the indefatigable astronomer started for Danzig to set +at rest a dispute of long standing between Hooke and Hevelius as to the +respective merits of plain or telescopic sights; and towards the end of +1680 he proceeded on a continental tour. In Paris he observed, with G. +D. Cassini, the great comet of 1680 after its perihelion passage; and +having returned to England, he married in 1682 Mary, daughter of Mr +Tooke, auditor of the exchequer, with whom he lived harmoniously for +fifty-five years. He now fixed his residence at Islington, engaged +chiefly upon lunar observations, with a view to the great desideratum of +a method of finding the longitude at sea. His mind, however, was also +busy with the momentous problem of gravity. Having reached so far as to +perceive that the central force of the solar system must decrease +inversely as the square of the distance, and applied vainly to Wren and +Hooke for further elucidation, he made in August 1684 that journey to +Cambridge for the purpose of consulting Newton, which resulted in the +publication of the _Principia_. The labour and expense of passing this +great work through the press devolved upon Halley, who also wrote the +prefixed hexameters ending with the well-known line-- + + Nec fas est propius mortali attingere divos. + +In 1696 he was, although a zealous Tory, appointed deputy comptroller of +the mint at Chester, and (August 19, 1698) he received a commission as +captain of the "Paramour Pink" for the purpose of making extensive +observations on the conditions of terrestrial magnetism. This task he +accomplished in a voyage which lasted two years, and extended to the +52nd degree of S. latitude. The results were published in a _General +Chart of the Variation of the Compass_ in 1701; and immediately +afterwards he executed by royal command a careful survey of the tides +and coasts of the British Channel, an elaborate map of which he produced +in 1702. On his return from a journey to Dalmatia, for the purpose of +selecting and fortifying the port of Trieste, he was nominated, November +1703, Savilian professor of geometry at Oxford, and received an honorary +degree of doctor of laws in 1710. Between 1713 and 1721 he acted as +secretary to the Royal Society, and early in 1720 he succeeded Flamsteed +as astronomer-royal. Although in his sixty-fourth year, he undertook to +observe the moon through an entire revolution of her nodes (eighteen +years), and actually carried out his purpose. He died on the 14th of +January 1742. His tomb is in the old graveyard of St Margaret's church, +Lee, Kent. + +Halley's most notable scientific achievements were--his detection of the +"long inequality" of Jupiter and Saturn, and of the acceleration of the +moon's mean motion (1693), his discovery of the proper motions of the +fixed stars (1718), his theory of variation (1683), including the +hypothesis of four magnetic poles, revived by C. Hansteen in 1819, and +his suggestion of the magnetic origin of the aurora borealis; his +calculation of the orbit of the 1682 comet (the first ever attempted), +coupled with a prediction of its return, strikingly verified in 1759; +and his indication (first in 1679, and again in 1716, Phil. Trans., No. +348) of a method extensively used in the 18th and 19th centuries for +determining the solar parallax by means of the transits of Venus. + + His principal works are _Catalogus stellarum australium_ (London, + 1679), the substance of which was embodied in vol. iii. of Flamsteed's + _Historia coelestis_ (1725); _Synopsis astronomiae cometicae_ (Oxford, + 1705); _Astronomical Tables_ (London, 1752); also eighty-one + miscellaneous papers of considerable interest, scattered through the + _Philosophical Transactions_. To these should be added his version + from the Arabic (which language he acquired for the purpose) of the + treatise of Apollonius _De sectione rationis_, with a restoration of + his two lost books _De sectione spatii_, both published at Oxford in + 1706; also his fine edition of the _Conics_ of Apollonius, with the + treatise by Serenus _De sectione cylindri et coni_ (Oxford, 1710, + folio). His edition of the _Spherics_ of Menelaus was published by his + friend Dr Costard in 1758. See also _Biographia Britannica_, vol. iv. + (1757); _Gent. Mag._ xvii. 455, 503; A. Wood, _Athenae Oxon._ (Bliss), + iv. 536; J. Aubrey, _Lives_, ii. 365; F. Baily, _Account of + Flamsteed_; Sir D. Brewster, _Life of Newton_; R. Grant, _History of + Astronomy_, p. 477 and _passim_; A. J. Rudolph, _Bulletin of + Bibliography_, No. 14 (Boston, 1904); E. F. McPike, "Bibliography of + Halley's Comet," _Smithsonian Misc. Collections_, vol. xlviii. pt. i. + (1905); _Notes and Queries_, 9th series, vols. x. xi. xii., 10th + series, vol. ii. (E. F. McPike). A collection of manuscripts regarding + Halley is preserved among the Rigaud papers in the Bodleian library, + Oxford; and many of his unpublished letters exist at the Record Office + and in the library of the Royal Society. (A. M. C.) + + + + +HALLGRÍMSSON, JÓNAS (1807-1844), the chief lyrical poet of Iceland, was +born in 1807 at Steinsstaðir in Eyjafjarðarsýsla in the north of that +island, and educated at the famous school of Bessastaðr. In 1832 he went +to the university of Copenhagen, and shortly afterwards turned his +attention to the natural sciences, especially geology. Having obtained +pecuniary assistance from the Danish government, he travelled through +all Iceland for scientific purposes in the years 1837-1842, and made +many interesting geological observations. Most of his writings on +geology are in Danish. His renown was, however, not acquired by his +writings in that language, but by his Icelandic poems and short stories. +He was well read in German literature, Heine and Schiller being his +favourites, and the study of the German masters and the old classical +writers of Iceland opened his eyes to the corrupt state of Icelandic +poetry and showed him the way to make it better. The misuse of the Eddic +metaphors made the lyrical and epical poetry of the day hardly +intelligible, and, to make matters worse, the language of the poets was +mixed up with words of German and Danish origin. The great Danish +philologist and friend of Iceland, Rasmus Rask, and the poet Bjarni +Thórarensen had done much to purify the language, but Jónas Hallgrímsson +completed their work by his poems and tales, in a purer language than +ever had been written in Iceland since the days of Snorri Sturlason. The +excesses of Icelandic poetry were specially seen in the so-called +_rímur_, ballads of heroes, &c., which were fiercely attacked by Jónas +Hallgrímsson, who at last succeeded in converting the educated to his +view. Most of the principal poems, tales and essays of Jónas +Hallgrímsson appeared in the periodical _Fjölnir_, which he began +publishing at Copenhagen in 1835, together with Konráð Gíslason, a +well-known philologist, and the patriotic Thómas Saemundsson. _Fjölnir_ +had in the beginning a hard struggle against old prejudices, but as the +years went by its influence became enormous; and when it at last +ceased, its programme and spirit still lived in _Ný Félagsrit_ and other +patriotic periodicals which took its place. Jónas Hallgrímsson, who died +in 1844, is the father of a separate school in Icelandic lyric poetry. +He introduced foreign thoughts and metres, but at the same time revived +the metres of the Icelandic classical poets. Although his poetical works +are all comprised in one small volume, he strikes every string of the +old harp of Iceland. (S. Bl.) + + + + +HALLIDAY, ANDREW [ANDREW HALLIDAY DUFF] (1830-1877), British journalist +and dramatist, was born at Marnoch, Banffshire, in 1830. He was educated +at Marischal College, Aberdeen, and in 1849 he came to London, and +discarding the name of Duff, devoted himself to literature. His first +engagement was with the daily papers, and his work having attracted the +notice of Thackeray, he was invited to write for the _Cornhill +Magazine_. From 1861 he contributed largely to _All the Year Round_, and +many of his articles were republished in collected form. He was also the +author, alone and with others, of a great number of farces, burlesques +and melodramas and a peculiarly successful adapter of popular novels for +the stage. Of these _Little Em'ly_ (1869), his adaptation of _David +Copperfield_, was warmly approved by Dickens himself, and enjoyed a long +run at Drury Lane. Halliday died in London on the 10th of April 1877. + + + + +HALLIWELL-PHILLIPPS, JAMES ORCHARD (1820-1889), English Shakespearian +scholar, son of Thomas Halliwell, was born in London, on the 21st of +June 1820. He was educated privately and at Jesus College, Cambridge. He +devoted himself to antiquarian research, particularly in early English +literature. In 1839 he edited Sir John Mandeville's _Travels_; in 1842 +published an _Account of the European MSS. in the Chetham Library_, +besides a newly discovered metrical romance of the 15th century +(_Torrent of Portugal_). He became best known, however, as a +Shakespearian editor and collector. In 1848 he brought out his _Life of +Shakespeare_, which passed through several editions; in 1853-1865 a +sumptuous edition, limited to 150 copies, of Shakespeare in folio, with +full critical notes; in 1863 a _Calendar of the Records at +Stratford-on-Avon_; in 1864 a _History of New Place_. After 1870 he +entirely gave up textual criticism, and devoted his attention to +elucidating the particulars of Shakespeare's life. He collated all the +available facts and documents in relation to it, and exhausted the +information to be found in local records in his _Outlines of the Life of +Shakespeare_. He was mainly instrumental in the purchase of New Place +for the corporation of Stratford-on-Avon, and in the formation there of +the Shakespeare museum. His publications in all numbered more than sixty +volumes. He assumed the name of Phillipps in 1872, under the will of the +grandfather of his first wife, a daughter of Sir Thomas Phillipps the +antiquary. He took an active interest in the Camden Society, the Percy +Society and the Shakespeare Society, for which he edited many early +English and Elizabethan works. From 1845 Halliwell was excluded from the +library of the British Museum on account of the suspicion attaching to +his possession of some manuscripts which had been removed from the +library of Trinity College, Cambridge. He published privately an +explanation of the matter in 1845. His house, Hollingbury Copse, near +Brighton, was full of rare and curious works, and he generously gave +many of them to the Chetham library, Manchester, to the town library of +Penzance, to the Smithsonian Institute, Washington, and to the library +of Edinburgh university. He died on the 3rd of January 1889. + + + + +HALLOWE'EN, or ALL HALLOWS EVE, the name given to the 31st of October as +the vigil of Hallowmas or All Saints' Day. Though now known as little +else but the eve of the Christian festival, Hallowe'en and its formerly +attendant ceremonies long antedate Christianity. The two chief +characteristics of ancient Hallowe'en were the lighting of bonfires and +the belief that of all nights in the year this is the one during which +ghosts and witches are most likely to wander abroad. Now on or about the +1st of November the Druids held their great autumn festival and lighted +fires in honour of the Sun-god in thanksgiving for the harvest. Further, +it was a Druidic belief that on the eve of this festival Saman, lord of +death, called together the wicked souls that within the past twelve +months had been condemned to inhabit the bodies of animals. Thus it is +clear that the main celebrations of Hallowe'en were purely Druidical, +and this is further proved by the fact that in parts of Ireland the 31st +of October was, and even still is, known as _Oidhche Shamhna_, "Vigil of +Saman." On the Druidic ceremonies were grafted some of the +characteristics of the Roman festival in honour of Pomona held about the +1st of November, in which nuts and apples, as representing the winter +store of fruits, played an important part. Thus the roasting of nuts and +the sport known as "apple-ducking"--attempting to seize with the teeth +an apple floating in a tub of water,--were once the universal occupation +of the young folk in medieval England on the 31st of October. The custom +of lighting Hallowe'en fires survived until recent years in the +highlands of Scotland and Wales. In the dying embers it was usual to +place as many small stones as there were persons around, and next +morning a search was made. If any of the pebbles were displaced it was +regarded as certain that the person represented would die within the +twelve months. + + For details of the Hallowe'en games and bonfires see Brand's + _Antiquities of Great Britain_; Chambers's _Book of Days_; Grimm's + _Deutsche Mythologie_, ch. xx. (_Elemente_) and ch. xxxiv. + (_Aberglaube_); and J. G. Frazer's _Golden Bough_, vol. iii. Compare + also BELTANE and BONFIRE. + + + + +HALLSTATT, a market-place of Austria, in Upper Austria, 67 m. S.S.W. of +Linz by rail. Pop. (1900) 737. It is situated on the shore of the +Hallstatter-see and at the foot of the Hallstatter Salzberg, and is +built in amphitheatre with its houses clinging to the mountain side. The +salt mine of Hallstatt, which is one of the oldest in existence, was +rediscovered in the 14th century. In the neighbourhood is the celebrated +Celtic burial ground, where a great number of very interesting +antiquities have been found. Most of these have been removed to the +museums at Vienna and Linz, but some are kept in the local museum. + +The excavations (1847-1864) revealed a form of culture hitherto unknown, +and accordingly the name Hallstatt has been applied to objects of like +form and decoration since found in Styria, Carniola, Bosnia (at +Glasinatz and Jezerin), Epirus, north Italy, France, Spain and Britain +(see CELT). Everywhere else the change from iron weapons to bronze is +immediate, but at Hallstatt iron is seen gradually superseding bronze, +first for ornament, then for edging cutting instruments, then replacing +fully the old bronze types, and finally taking new forms of its own. +There can be no doubt that the use of iron first developed in the +Hallstatt area, and that thence it spread southwards into Italy, Greece, +the Aegean, Egypt and Asia, and northwards and westwards in Europe. At +Noreia, which gave its name to Noricum (q.v.) less than 40 m. from +Hallstatt, were the most famous iron mines of antiquity, which produced +the Noric iron and Noric swords so prized and dreaded by the Romans +(Pliny, _Hist. Nat._ xxxiv. 145; Horace, _Epod._ 17. 71). This iron +needed no tempering, and the Celts had probably found it ready smelted +by nature, just as the Eskimo had learned of themselves to use telluric +iron embedded in basalt. The graves at Hallstatt were partly inhumation +partly cremation; they contained swords, daggers, spears, javelins, +axes, helmets, bosses and plates of shields and hauberks, brooches, +various forms of jewelry, amber and glass beads, many of the objects +being decorated with animals and geometrical designs. Silver was +practically unknown. The weapons and axes are mostly iron, a few being +bronze. The swords are leaf-shaped, with blunt points intended for +cutting, not for thrusting; the hilts differ essentially from those of +the Bronze Age, being shaped like a crescent to grasp the blade, with +large pommels, or sometimes with antennae (the latter found also in +Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden, Switzerland, the Pyrenees, Spain, north +Italy): only six arrowheads (bronze) were found. Both flanged and +socketed celts occurred, the iron being much more numerous than the +bronze. The flat axes are distinguished by the side stops and in some +cases the transition from palstave to socketed axe can be seen. The +shields were round as in the early Iron Age of north Italy (see +VILLANOVA). Greaves were found at Glasinatz and Jezerin, though not at +Hallstatt; two helmets were found at Hallstatt and others in Bosnia; +broad bronze belts were numerous, adorned in _repoussé_ with beast and +geometric ornament. Brooches are found in great numbers, both those +derived from the primitive safety-pin ("Peschiera" type) and the +"spectacle" or "Hallstatt" type found all down the Balkans and in +Greece. The latter are formed of two spirals of wire, sometimes four +such spirals being used, whilst there were also brooches in animal +forms, one of the latter being found with a bronze sword. The Hallstatt +culture is that of the Homeric Achaeans (see ACHAEANS), but as the +brooch (along with iron, cremation of the dead, the round shield and the +geometric ornament) passed down into Greece from central Europe, and as +brooches are found in the lower town at Mycenae, 1350 B.C., they must +have been invented long before that date in central Europe. But as they +are found in the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age, the early iron +culture of Hallstatt must have originated long before 1350 B.C., a +conclusion in accord with the absence of silver at Hallstatt itself. + + See Baron von Sacken, _Das Grabfeld von Hallstatt_; Bertrand and S. + Reinach, _Les Celtes dans les vallées du Pô et du Danube_; W. + Ridgeway, _Early Age of Greece_; ARCHAEOLOGY (plate). (W. Ri.) + + + + +HALLUCINATION (from Lat. _alucinari_ or _allucinari_, to wander in mind, +Gr. [Greek: alyssein] or [Greek: alyein], from [Greek: alê], wandering), +a psychological term which has been the subject of much controversy, and +to which, although there is now fair agreement as to its denotation, it +is still impossible to give a precise and entirely satisfactory +definition. Hallucinations constitute one of the two great classes of +all false sense-perceptions, the other class consisting of the +"illusions," and the difficulty of definition is clearly to mark the +boundary between the two classes. _Illusion_ may be defined as the +misinterpretation of sense-impression, while _hallucination_, in its +typical instances, is the experiencing of a sensory presentation, i.e. a +presentation having the sensory vividness that distinguishes perceptions +from representative imagery, at a time when no stimulus is acting on the +corresponding sense-organ. There is, however, good reason to think that +in many cases, possibly in all cases, some stimulation of the +sense-organ, coming either from without or from within the body, plays a +part in the genesis of the hallucination. This being so, we must be +content to leave the boundary between illusions and hallucinations +ill-defined, and to regard as illusions _those false perceptions in +which impressions made on the sense-organ play a leading part in +determining the character of the percept_, and as hallucinations _those +in which any such impression is lacking, or plays but a subsidiary part +and bears no obvious relation to the character of the false percept_. + +As in the case of illusion, hallucination may or may not involve +delusion, or belief in the reality of the object falsely perceived. +Among the sane the hallucinatory object is frequently recognized at once +as unreal or at least as but quasi-real; and it is only the insane, or +persons in abnormal states, such as hypnosis, who, when an hallucination +persists or recurs, fail to recognize that it corresponds to no physical +impression from, or object in, the outer world. Hallucinations of all +the senses occur, but the most commonly reported are the auditory and +the visual, while those of the other senses seem to be comparatively +rare. This apparent difference of frequency is no doubt largely due to +the more striking character of visual and auditory hallucinations, and +to the relative difficulty of ascertaining, in the case of perceptions +of the lower senses, e.g. of taste and smell, that no impression +adequate to the genesis of the percept has been made upon the +sense-organ; but, in so far as it is real, it is probably due in part to +the more constant use of the higher senses and the greater strain +consequently thrown upon them, in part also to their more intimate +connexion with the life of ideas. + +The hallucinatory perception may involve two or more senses, e.g., the +subject may seem to see a human being, to hear his voice and to feel the +touch of his hand. This is rarely the case in spontaneous hallucination, +but in hypnotic hallucination the subject is apt to develop the object +suggested to him, as present to one of his senses, and to perceive it +also through other senses. + +Among visual hallucinations the human figure, and among auditory +hallucinations human voices, are the objects most commonly perceived. +The figure seen always appears localized more or less definitely in the +outer world. In many cases it appears related to the objects truly seen +in just the same way as a real object; e.g. it is no longer seen if the +eyes are closed or turned away, it does not move with the movements of +the eyes, and it may hide objects lying behind it, or be hidden by +objects coming between the place that it appears to occupy and the eye +of the percipient. Visual hallucinations are most often experienced when +the eyes are open and the surrounding space is well or even brightly +illuminated. Less frequently the visual hallucination takes the form of +a self-luminous figure in a dark place or appears in a luminous globe or +mist which shuts out from view the real objects of the part of the field +of view in which it appears. + +Auditory hallucinations, especially voices, seem to fall into two +distinct classes--(1) those which are heard as coming from without, and +are more or less definitely localized in outer space, (2) those which +seem to be within the head or, in some cases, within the chest, and to +have less definite auditory quality. It seems probable that the latter +are hallucinations involving principally kinaesthetic sensations, +sensations of movement of the organs of speech. + +Hallucinations occur under a great variety of bodily and mental +conditions, which may conveniently be classified as follows. + + +I. _Conditions which imply normal waking Consciousness and no distinct +Departure from bodily and mental Sanity._ + +a. It would seem that a considerable number of perfectly healthy persons +occasionally experience, while in a fully waking state, hallucinations +for which no cause can be assigned. The census of hallucinations +conducted by the Society for Psychical Research showed that about 10% of +all sane persons can remember having experienced at least one +hallucination while they believed themselves to be fully awake and in +normal health. These sporadic hallucinations of waking healthy persons +are far more frequently visual than auditory, and they usually take the +form of some familiar person in ordinary attire. The figure in many +cases is seen, on turning the gaze in some new direction, fully +developed and lifelike, and its hallucinatory character may be revealed +only by its noiseless movements, or by its fading away _in situ_. A +special interest attaches to hallucinations of this type, owing to the +occasional coincidence of the death of the person with his hallucinatory +appearance. The question raised by these coincidences will be discussed +in a separate paragraph below. + +b. A few persons, otherwise normal in mind and body, seem to experience +repeatedly some particular kind of hallucination. The voice ([Greek: +daimonion]) so frequently heard by Socrates, warning or advising him, is +the most celebrated example of this type. + + +II. _Conditions more or less unusual or abnormal but not implying +distinct Departure from Health._ + +a. A kind of hallucination to which perhaps every normal person is +liable is that known technically as "recurrent sensation." This kind is +experienced only when some sense-organ has been continuously or +repeatedly subjected to some one kind of impression or stimulation for a +considerable period; e.g. the microscopist, after examining for some +hours one particular kind of object or structure, may suddenly perceive +the object faithfully reproduced in form and colour, and lying, as it +were, upon any surface to which his gaze is directed. Perhaps the +commonest experience of this type is the recurrence of the sensations of +movement at intervals in the period following a sea voyage or long +railway journey. + +b. A considerable proportion of healthy sane persons can induce +hallucinations of vision by gazing fixedly at a polished surface or +into some dark translucent mass; or of hearing, by applying a large +shell or similar object to the ear. These methods of inducing +hallucinations, especially the former, have long been practised in many +countries as modes of divination, various objects being used, e.g. a +drop of ink in the palm of the hand, or a polished finger-nail. The +object now most commonly used is a polished sphere of clear glass or +crystal (see CRYSTAL-GAZING). Hence such hallucinations go by the name +of _crystal visions_. The crystal vision often appears as a picture of +some distant or unknown scene lying, as it were, in the crystal; and in +the picture figures may come and go, and move to and fro, in a perfectly +natural manner. In other cases, written or printed words or sentences +appear. The percipient, seer or scryer, commonly seems to be in a fully +waking state as he observes the objects thus presented. He is usually +able to describe and discuss the appearances, successively +discriminating details by attentive observation, just as when observing +an objective scene; and he usually has no power of controlling them, and +no sense of having produced them by his own activity. In some cases +these visions have brought back to the mind of the scryer facts or +incidents which he could not voluntarily recollect. In other cases they +are asserted by credible witnesses to have given to the scryer +information, about events distant in time or place, that had not come to +his knowledge by normal means. These cases have been claimed as evidence +of telepathic communication or even of clairvoyance. But at present the +number of well-attested cases of this sort is too small to justify +acceptance of this conclusion by those who have only secondhand +knowledge of them. + +c. Prolonged deprivation of food predisposes to hallucinations, and it +would seem that, under this condition, a large proportion of otherwise +healthy persons become liable to them, especially to auditory +hallucinations. + +d. Certain drugs, notably opium, Indian hemp, and mescal predispose to +hallucinations, each tending to produce a peculiar type. Thus Indian +hemp and mescal, especially the latter, produce in many cases visual +hallucinations in the form of a brilliant play of colours, sometimes a +mere succession of patches of brilliant colour, sometimes in +architectural or other definite spatial arrangement. + +e. The states of transition from sleep to waking, and from waking to +sleep, seem to be peculiarly favourable to the appearance of +hallucinations. The recurrent sensations mentioned above are especially +prone to appear at such times, and a considerable proportion of the +sporadic hallucinations of persons in good health are reported to have +been experienced under these conditions. The name "hypnagogic" +hallucinations, first applied by Alfred Maury, is commonly given to +those experienced in these transition states. + +f. The presentations, predominantly visual, that constitute the +principal content of most dreams, are generally described as +hallucinatory, but the propriety of so classing them is very +questionable. The present writer is confident that his own +dream-presentations lack the sensory vividness which is the essential +mark of the percept, whether normal or hallucinatory, and which is the +principal, though not the only, character in which it differs from the +representation or memory-image. It is true that the dream-presentation, +like the percept, differs from the representative imagery of waking life +in that it is relatively independent of volition; but that seems to be +merely because the will is in abeyance or very ineffective during sleep. +The wide currency of the doctrine that classes dream-images with +hallucinations seems to be due to this independence of volitional +control, and to the fact that during sleep the representative imagery +appears without that rich setting of undiscriminated or marginal +sensation which always accompanies waking imagery, and which by contrast +accentuates for introspective reflection the lack of sensory vividness +of such imagery. + +g. Many of the subjects who pass into the deeper stages of hypnosis +(see HYPNOTISM) show themselves, while in that condition, extremely +liable to hallucination, perceiving whatever object is suggested to them +as present, and failing to perceive any object of which it is asserted +by the operator that it is no longer present. The reality of these +positive and negative hallucinations of the hypnotized subject has been +recently questioned, it being maintained that the subject merely gives +verbal assent to the suggestions of the operator. But that the +hypnotized subject does really experience hallucinations seems to be +proved by the cases in which it is possible to make the hallucination, +positive or negative, persist for some time after the termination of +hypnosis, and by the fact that in some of these cases the subject, who +in the post-hypnotic state seems in every other respect normal and wide +awake, may find it difficult to distinguish between the hallucinatory +and real objects. Further proof is afforded by experiments such as those +by which Alfred Binet showed that a visual hallucination may behave for +its percipient in many respects like a real object, e.g. that it may +appear reflected in a mirror, displaced by a prism and coloured when a +coloured glass is placed before the patient's eyes. It was by means of +experiments of this kind that Binet showed that hypnotic hallucinations +may approximate to the type of the illusion, i.e. that some real object +affecting the sense-organ (in the case of a visual hallucination some +detail of the surface upon which it is projected) may provide a nucleus +of peripherally excited sensation around which the false percept is +built up. An object playing a part of this sort in the genesis of an +hallucination is known as a "_point de repère_." It has been maintained +that all hallucinations involve some such _point de repère_ or objective +nucleus; but there are good reasons for rejecting this view. + +h. In states of ecstasy, or intense emotional concentration of +attention upon some one ideal object, the object contemplated seems at +times to take on sensory vividness, and so to acquire the character of +an hallucination. In these cases the state of mind of the subject is +probably similar in many respects to that of the deeply hypnotized +subject, and these two classes of hallucination may be regarded as very +closely allied. + + +III. _Hallucinations which occur as symptoms of both bodily and mental +diseases._ + +a. Dr H. Head has the credit of having shown for the first time, in +the year 1901, that many patients, suffering from more or less painful +visceral diseases, disorders of heart, lungs, abdominal viscera, &c., +are liable to experience hallucinations of a peculiar kind. These +"visceral" hallucinations, which are constantly accompanied by headache +of the reflected visceral type, are most commonly visual, more rarely +auditory. In all Dr Head's cases the visual hallucination took the form +of a shrouded human figure, colourless and vague, often incomplete, +generally seen by the patient standing by his bed when he wakes in a +dimly lit room. The auditory "visceral" hallucination was in no instance +vocal, but took such forms as sounds of tapping, scratching or rumbling, +and were heard only in the absence of objective noises. In a few cases +the "visceral" hallucination was bisensory, i.e. both auditory and +visual. + +In all these respects the "visceral" hallucination differs markedly from +the commoner types of the sporadic hallucination of healthy persons. + +b. Hallucinations are constant symptoms of certain general disorders +in which the nervous system is involved, notably of the _delirium +tremens_, which results from chronic alcohol poisoning, and of the +delirium of the acute specific fevers. The hallucinations of these +states are generally of a distressing or even terrifying character. +Especially is this the rule with those of _delirium tremens_, and in the +hallucinations of this disease certain kinds of objects, e.g. rats and +snakes, occur with curious frequency. + +c. Hallucinations occasionally occur as symptoms of certain nervous +diseases that are not usually classed with the insanities, notably in +cases of epilepsy and severe forms of hysteria. In the former disorder, +the sensory aura that so often precedes the epileptic convulsion may +take the form of an hallucinatory object, which in some cases is very +constant in character. Unilateral hallucinations, an especially +interesting class, occur in severe cases of hysteria, and are usually +accompanied by hemi-anaesthesia of the body on the side on which the +hallucinatory object is perceived. + +d. Hallucinations occur in a large, but not accurately definable, +proportion of all cases of mental disease proper. Two classes are +recognized: (1) those that are intimately connected with the dominant +emotional state or with some dominant delusion; (2) those that occur +sporadically and have no such obvious relation to the other symptoms of +disease. Hallucinations of the former class tend to accentuate, and in +turn to be confirmed by, the congruent emotional or delusional state; +but whether these are to be regarded as primary symptoms and as the +cause of the hallucinations, or _vice versa_, it is generally impossible +to say. Patients who suffer delusions of persecution are very apt to +develop later in the course of their disease hallucinations of the +voices of their persecutors; while in other cases hallucinatory voices, +which are at first recognized as such, come to be regarded as real and +in these cases seem to be factors of primary importance in the genesis +of further delusions. Hallucinations occur in almost every variety of +mental disease, but are commonest in the forms characterized by a cloudy +dream-like condition of consciousness, and in extreme cases of this sort +the patient (as in the delirium of chronic alcohol-poisoning) seems to +move waking through a world consisting largely of the images of his own +creation, set upon a background of real objects. + +In some cases hallucinations are frequently experienced for long periods +in the absence of any other symptom of mental disorder, but these no +doubt usually imply some morbid condition of the brain. + +_Physiology of Hallucination._--There has been much discussion as to the +nature of the neural process in hallucination. It is generally and +rightly assumed that the hallucinatory perception of any object has for +its immediate neural correlate a state of excitement which, as regards +its characters and its distribution in the elements of the brain, is +entirely similar to the neural correlate of the normal perception of the +same object. The hallucination is a perception, though a false +perception. In the perception of an object and in the representation of +it, introspective analysis discovers a number of presentative elements. +In the case of the representation these elements are memory images only +(except perhaps in so far as actual kinaesthetic sensations enter into +its composition); whereas, in the case of the percept, some of these +elements are sensations, sensations which differ from images in having +the attribute of sensory vividness; and the sensory vividness of these +elements lends to the whole complex the sensory vividness or reality, +the possession of which character by the percept constitutes its +principal difference from the representation. Normally, sensory +vividness attaches only to those presentative elements which are excited +through stimulations of the sense-organs. The normal percept, then, owes +its character of sensory reality to the fact that a certain number of +its presentative elements are sensations peripherally excited by +impressions made upon a sense-organ. The problem is, then, to account +for the fact that the hallucination contains presentative elements that +have sensory vividness, that are sensations, although they are not +excited by impressions from the external world falling upon a +sense-organ. Most of the discussions of this subject suffer from the +neglect of this preliminary definition of the problem. Many authors, +notably W. Wundt and his disciples, have been content to assume that the +sensation differs from the memory-image only in having a higher degree +of intensity; from which they infer that its neural correlate in the +brain cortex also differs from that of the image only in having a higher +degree of intensity. For them an hallucination is therefore merely a +representation whose neural correlate involves an intensity of +excitement of certain brain-elements such as is normally produced only +by peripheral stimulation of sensory nerves in the sense-organs. But +this view, so attractively simple, ignores an insuperable objection. +Sensory vividness is not to be identified with superior intensity; for +while the least intense sensation has it, the memory image of the most +intense sensation lacks it completely. And, since intensity of +sensation is a function of the intensity of the underlying neural +excitement, we may not assume that sensory vividness is also the +expression in consciousness of that intensity of excitement. If Wundt's +view were true a progressive diminution of the intensity of a sensory +stimulus should bring the sensation to a point in the scale of +diminishing intensity at which it ceases to be sensation, ceases to have +sensory vividness and becomes an image merely. But this is not the case; +with diminishing intensity of stimulation, the sensation declines to a +minimal intensity and then disappears from consciousness. This objection +applies not only to Wundt's view of hallucinations, but also to H. +Taine's explanation of them by the aid of his doctrine of "reductives," +for this too identifies sensory vividness with intensity. (H. Taine, _De +l'intelligence_, tome i. p. 108.) + +Another widely current explanation is based on the view that the +representation and the percept have their anatomical bases in different +element-groups or "centres" of the brain, the "centre" of the +representation being assigned to a higher level of the brain than that +of the percept (the latter being sometimes assigned to the basal ganglia +of the brain, the former to the cortex). It is then assumed that while +the lower perceptual centre is normally excited only through the +sense-organ, it may occasionally be excited by impulses playing down +upon it from the corresponding centre of representation, when +hallucination results. + +This view also is far from satisfactory, because the great additions +recently made to our knowledge of the brain tend very strongly to show +that both sensations and memory-images have their anatomical bases in +the same sensory areas of the cerebral cortex; and many considerations +converge to show that their anatomical bases must be, in part at least, +identical. + +The views based on the assumptions of complete identity, and of complete +separateness, of the anatomical bases of the percept and of the +representation are then alike untenable; and the alternative--that their +anatomical bases are in part identical, in part different, which is +indicated by this conclusion--renders possible a far more satisfactory +doctrine. We have good reason to believe that the neural correlate of +sensation is the transmission of the nervous impulse through a +sensori-motor arc of the cortex, made up of a chain of neurones; and the +view suggests itself that the neural correlate of the corresponding +memory-image is the transmission of the impulse through a part only of +this chain of cortical elements, either the efferent motor part of this +chain or the afferent sensory part of it. Professor W. James's theory of +hallucinations is based on the latter assumption. He suggests that the +sensory vividness of sensation and of the percept is due to the +discharge of the excitement of the chain of elements in the forward or +motor direction; and that, in the case of the image and of the +representation, the discharge takes place, not in this direction through +the efferent channel of the centre, but laterally into other centres of +the cortex. Hallucination may then be conceived as caused by +obstruction, or abnormally increased resistance, of the paths connecting +such a cortical centre with others, so that, when it becomes excited in +any way, the tension or potential of its charge rises, until discharge +takes place in the motor direction through the efferent limbs of the +sensori-motor arcs which constitute the centre. + +It is a serious objection to this view that, as James himself, in common +with most modern authors, maintains, every idea has its motor tendency +which commonly, perhaps always, finds expression in some change of +tension of muscles, and in many cases issues in actual movements. Now if +we accept James's theory of hallucination, we should expect to find that +whenever a representation issues in bodily action it should assume the +sensory vividness of an hallucination; and this, of course, is not the +case. + +The alternative form of the view that assumes partial identity of the +anatomical bases of the percept and the representation of an object, +would regard the neural correlate of the sensation as the transmission +of the nervous impulse throughout the length of the sensori-motor arc +of the cortex, from sensory inlet to motor outlet; and that of the image +as its transmission through the efferent part of this arc only; that is +to say, in the case of the image, it would regard the excitement of the +arc as being initiated at some point between its afferent inlet and its +motor outlet, and as spreading, in accordance with the law of forward +conduction, towards the motor outlet only, so that only the part of the +arc distal or efferent to this point becomes excited. + +This view of the neural basis of sensory vividness, which correlates the +difference between the sensation and the image with the only known +difference between their physiological conditions, namely the peripheral +initiation of the one and the central initiation of the other, enables +us to formulate a satisfactory theory of the physiology of +hallucinations. + +The anatomical basis of the perception and of the representation of any +object is a functional system of nervous elements, comprising a number +of sensori-motor arcs, whose excitement by impulses ascending to them by +the sensory paths from the sense-organs determines sensations, and whose +excitement in their efferent parts only determines the corresponding +images. In the case of perception, some of these arcs are excited by +impulses ascending from the sense-organs, others only by the spread of +the excitement through the system from these peripherally excited arcs; +while, in the case of the representation, all alike are excited by +impulses that reach the system from other parts of the cortex and spread +throughout its efferent parts only to its motor outlets. + +If then impulses enter this system by any of the afferent limbs of its +sensori-motor arcs, the presentation that accompanies its excitement +will have sensory vividness and will be a true perception, an illusion, +or an hallucination, according as these impulses have followed the +normal course from the sense-organ, or have been diverted, to a lesser +or greater degree, from their normal paths. If any such neural system +becomes abnormally excitable, or becomes excited in any way with +abnormal intensity, it is thereby rendered a path of exceptionally +low-resistance capable of diverting to itself, from their normal path, +any streams of impulses ascending from the sense-organ; which ascending +impulses, entering the system by its afferent inlets, excite sensations +that impart to the presentation the character of sensory vividness; the +presentation thus acquires the character of a percept in spite of the +absence of the appropriate impression on the sense-organ, and we call it +an hallucination. + +This view renders intelligible the _modus operandi_ of many of the +predisposing causes of hallucination; e.g. the pre-occupation with +certain representations of the ecstatic, or of the sufferer from +delusions of persecution; the intense expectation of a particular sense +impression, the generally increased excitability of the cortex in states +of delirium; in all these conditions the abnormally intense excitement +of the cortical systems may be supposed to give them an undue directive +and attractive influence upon the streams of impulses ascending from the +sense-organs, so that sensory impulses may be diverted from their normal +paths. Again, it renders intelligible the part played by chronic +irritation of a sense-organ, as when chronic irritation of the internal +ear leads on to hallucinations of hearing; perhaps also the chronic +irritation of sensory nerves that must accompany the states of visceral +disease, shown by Head to be so frequently accompanied by a liability to +hallucinations; for any such chronic irritation supplies a stream of +disorderly impulses rising constantly from the sense-organ, for the +reception of which the brain has no appropriate system, and which, +therefore, readily enters any organized cortical system that at any +moment constitutes a path of low-resistance. A similar explanation +applies to the influence of fixed gazing upon a crystal, or the placing +of a shell over the ear, in inducing visual and auditory hallucinations. +The "recurrent sensations" experienced after prolonged occupation with +some one kind of sensory object may be regarded as due to an abnormal +excitability of the cortical system concerned, resulting from its unduly +prolonged exercise. The hypothesis renders intelligible also the +liability to hallucination of persons in the hysterical and hypnotic +states, in whose brains the cortical neural systems are in a state of +partial dissociation, which renders possible an unduly intense and +prolonged excitement of some one system at the expense of all other +systems (cf. HYPNOTISM). + +_Coincidental Hallucinations._--It would seem that, in well-nigh all +countries and in all ages, apparitions of persons known to be in distant +places have been occasionally observed. Such appearances have usually +been regarded as due to the presence, before the bodily eye of the seer, +of the ghost, wraith, double or soul of the person who thus appears; +and, since the soul has been very commonly supposed to leave the body, +permanently at death and temporarily during sleep, trance or any period +of unconsciousness, however induced, it was natural to regard such an +appearance as evidence that the person whose wraith was thus seen was in +some such condition. Such apparitions have probably played a part, +second only to that of dreams, in generating the almost universal belief +in the separability of soul and body. + +In many parts of the world traditional belief has connected such +apparitions more especially with the death of the person so appearing, +the apparition being regarded as an indication that the person so +appearing has recently died, is dying or is about to die. Since death is +so much less common an event than sleep, trance, or other form of +temporary unconsciousness, the wide extension of this belief suggests +that such apparitions may coincide in time with death, with +disproportionate frequency. The belief in the significance of such +apparitions still survives in civilized communities, and stories of +apparitions coinciding with the death of the person appearing are +occasionally reported in the newspapers, or related as having recently +occurred. The Society for Psychical Research has sought to find grounds +for an answer to the question "Is there any sufficient justification for +the belief in a causal relation between the apparition of a person at a +place distant from his body and his death or other exceptional and +momentous event in his experience?" The problem was attacked in a +thoroughly scientific spirit, an extensive inquiry was made, and the +results were presented and fully discussed in two large volumes, +_Phantasms of the Living_, published in the year 1886, bearing on the +title-page the names of Edmund Gurney, F. W. H. Myers and F. Podmore. Of +the three collaborators Gurney took the largest share in the planning of +the work, in the collection of evidence, and in the elaboration and +discussion of it. + +Gurney set out with the presumption that apparitions, whether +coincidental or not, are hallucinations in the sense defined above; that +_they are false perceptions_ and are not excited by any object or +process of the external world acting upon the sense-organs of the +percipient in normal fashion; that they do not imply the presence, in +the place apparently occupied by them, of any wraith or any form of +existence emanating from, or specially connected with, the person whose +phantasm appears. This initial assumption was abundantly justified by an +examination of a large number of cases for it, which showed that, in all +important respects, most of these apparitions of persons at a distance, +whether coincidental or not, were similar to other forms of +hallucination. + +The acceptance of this conclusion does not, however, imply a negative +answer to the question formulated above. The Society for Psychical +Research had accumulated an impressive and, to almost all those who had +first-hand acquaintance with it, a convincing mass of experimental +evidence of the reality of telepathy (q.v.), the influence of mind on +mind otherwise than through the recognized channels of sense. The +successful experiments had for the most part been made between persons +in close proximity, in the same room or in adjoining rooms; but they +seemed to show that the state of consciousness of one person may induce +directly (i.e. without the mediation of the organs of expression and +sense-perception) a similar state of consciousness in another person, +especially if the former, usually called the "agent," strongly desired +or "willed" that this effect should be produced on the other person, the +"percipient." + +The question formulated above thus resolved itself for Gurney into the +more definite form, "Can we find any good reason for believing that +coincidental hallucinations are sometimes veridical, that the state of +mind of a person at some great crisis of his experience may +telepathically induce in the mind of some distant relative or friend an +hallucinatory perception of himself?" It was at once obvious that, if +coincidental apparitions can be proved to occur, this question can only +be answered by a statistical inquiry; for each such coincidental +hallucination, considered alone, may always be regarded as most educated +persons of the present time have regarded them, namely, as merely +accidental coincidences. That the coincidences are not merely accidental +can only be proved by showing that they occur more frequently than the +doctrine of chances would justify us in expecting. Now, the death of any +person is a unique event, and the probability of its occurrence upon any +particular day may be very simply calculated from the mortality +statistics, if we assume that nothing is known of the individual's +vitality. On the other hand, hallucinatory perceptions of persons, +occurring to sane and healthy individuals in the fully waking state, are +comparatively rare occurrences, whose frequency we may hope to determine +by a statistical inquiry. If, then, we can obtain figures expressing the +frequency of such hallucinations, we can deduce, by the help of the laws +of chance, the proportion of such hallucinations that may be expected to +coincide with (or, for the purposes of the inquiry, to fall within +twelve hours of) the death of the person whose apparition appears, if no +causal relation obtains between the coinciding events. If, then, it +appears that the proportion of such coincidental hallucinations is +greater than the laws of probability will account for, a certain +presumption of a causal relation between the coinciding events is +thereby established; and the greater the excess of such coincidences, +the stronger does this presumption become. Gurney attempted a census of +hallucinations in order to obtain data for this statistical treatment, +and the results of it, embodied in _Phantasms of the Living_, were +considered by the authors of that work to justify the belief that some +coincidental hallucinations are veridical. In the year 1889 the Society +for Psychical Research appointed a committee, under the chairmanship of +the late Henry Sidgwick, to make a second census of hallucinations on a +more extensive and systematic plan than the first, in order that the +important conclusion reached by the authors of _Phantasms of the Living_ +might be put to the severer test rendered possible by a larger and more +carefully collected mass of data. Seventeen thousand adults returned +answers to the question, "Have you ever, when believing yourself to be +completely awake, had a vivid impression of seeing or being touched by a +living being or inanimate object, or of hearing a voice; which +impression, so far as you could discover, was not due to any external +physical cause?" Rather more than two thousand persons answered +affirmatively, and to each of these were addressed careful inquiries +concerning their hallucinatory experiences. In this way it was found +that of the total number, 381 apparitions of persons living at the +moment (or not more than twelve hours dead) had been recognized by the +percipients, and that, of these, 80 were alleged to have been +experienced within twelve hours of the death of the person whose +apparition had appeared. A careful review of all the facts, conditions +and probabilities, led the committee to estimate that the former number +should be enlarged to 1300 in order to make ample allowance for +forgetfulness and for all other causes that might have tended to prevent +the registration of apparitions of this class. On the other hand, a +severe criticism of the alleged death-coincidences led them to reduce +the number, admitted by them for the purposes of their calculation, to +30. The making of these adjustments gives us about 1 in 43 as the +proportion of coincidental death-apparitions to the total number of +recognized apparitions among the 17,000 persons reached by the census. +Now the death-rate being just over 19 per thousand, the probability that +any person taken at random will die on a given day is about 1 in 19,000; +or, more strictly speaking, the average probability that any person will +die within any given period of twenty-four hours duration is about 1 in +19,000. Hence the probability that any other particular event, having no +causal relation to his death, but occurring during his lifetime (or not +later than twelve hours after his death) will fall within the same +twenty-four hours as his death is 1 in 19,000; i.e. if an apparition of +any individual is seen and recognized by any other person, the +probability of its being experienced within twelve hours of that +individual's death is 1 in 19,000, if no causal relation obtains between +the two events. Therefore, of all recognized apparitions of living +persons, 1 only in 19,000 may be expected to be a death-coincidence of +this sort. But the census shows that of 1300 recognized apparitions of +living persons 30 are death-coincidences and that is equivalent to 440 +in 19,000. Hence, of recognized hallucinations, those coinciding with +death are 440 times more numerous than we should expect, if no causal +relation obtained; therefore, if neither the data nor the reasoning can +be destructively criticized, we are compelled to believe that some +causal relation obtains; and, since good evidence of telepathic +communication has been experimentally obtained, the least improbable +explanation of these death-apparitions is that the dying person exerts +upon his distant friend some telepathic influence which generates an +hallucinatory perception of himself. + +These death-coincidences constitute the main feature of the argument in +favour of telepathic communication between distant persons, but the +census of hallucinations afforded other data from which a variety of +arguments, tending to support this conclusion, were drawn by the +committee; of these the most important are the cases in which the +hallucinatory percept embodied details that were connected with the +person perceived and which could not have become known to the percipient +by any normal means. The committee could not find in the results of the +census any evidence sufficient to justify a belief that hallucinations +may be due to telepathic influence exerted by personalities surviving +the death of the body. + +The critical handling of the cases by the committee seems to be above +reproach. Those who do not accept their conclusion based on the +death-coincidences must direct their criticism to the question of the +reliability of the reports of these cases. It is to be noted that, +although only those cases are reckoned in which the percipient had no +cause to expect the death of the person whose apparition he experienced, +and although, in nearly all the accepted cases, some record or +communication of the hallucination was made before hearing of the death, +yet in very few cases was any contemporary written record of the event +forthcoming for the inspection of the committee. (W. McD.) + + + + +HALLUIN, a frontier town of northern France, in the department of Nord, +near the right bank of the Lys, 14 m. N. by E. of Lille by rail. Pop. +(1906) town, 11,670; commune, 16,158. Its church is of Gothic +architecture. The manufactures comprise linen and cotton goods, chairs +and rubber goods, and brewing and tanning are carried on; there is a +board of trade arbitration. The family of Halluin is mentioned as early +as the 13th century. In 1587 the title of duke and peer of the realm was +granted to it, but in the succeeding century it became extinct. + + + + +HALM, CARL FELIX (1809-1882), German classical scholar and critic, was +born at Munich on the 5th of April 1809. In 1849, after having held +appointments at Spires and Hadamar, he became rector of the newly +founded Maximiliansgymnasium at Munich, and in 1856 director of the +royal library and professor in the university. These posts he held till +his death on the 5th of October 1882. It is chiefly as the editor of +Cicero and other Latin prose authors that Halm is known, although in +early years he also devoted considerable attention to Greek. After the +death of J. C. Orelli, he joined J. G. Baiter in the preparation of a +revised critical edition of the rhetorical and philosophical writings of +Cicero (1854-1862). His school editions of some of the speeches of +Cicero in the Haupt and Sauppe series, with notes and introductions, +were very successful. He also edited a number of classical texts for the +Teubner series, the most important of which are Tacitus (4th ed., 1883); +_Rhetores Latini minores_ (1863); Quintilian (1868); Sulpicius Severus +(1866); Minucius Felix together with Firmicus Maternus _De errore_ +(1867); Salvianus (1877) and Victor Vitensis's _Historia persecutionis +Africanae provinciae_ (1878). He was also an enthusiastic collector of +autographs. + + See articles by W. Christ and G. Laubmann in _Allgemeine deutsche + Biographie_ and by C. Bursian in _Biographisches Jahrbuch_; and J. E. + Sandys, _Hist. of Classical Scholarship_, iii. 195 (1908). + + + + +HALMA (Greek for "jump"), a table game, a form of which was known to the +ancient Greeks, played on a board divided into 256 squares with wooden +_men_, resembling chess pawns. In the two-handed game 19 men are +employed on each side, coloured respectively black and white; in the +four-handed each player has 13, the men being coloured white, black, red +and green. At the beginning of the game the men are drawn up in +triangular formation in the enclosures, or _yards_, diagonally opposite +each other in the corners of the board. The object of each player is to +get all his men into his enemy's yard, the player winning who first +accomplishes this. The moves are made alternately, the mode of +progression being by a _step_, from one square to another immediately +adjacent, or by a jump (whence the name), which is the jumping of a man +from a square in front of it into an empty square on the other side of +it. This corresponds to jumping in draughts, except that, in halma, the +hop may be in any direction, over friendly as well as hostile men, and +the men jumped over are not taken but remain on the board. + +In the four-handed game either each player plays for himself, or two +adjacent players play against the other two. + + See _Card and Table Games_, by Professor Hoffmann (London, 1903). + + + + +HALMAHERA ["great land"; also Jilolo or Gilolo], an island of the Dutch +East Indies, belonging to the residency of Ternate, lying under the +equator and about 128° E. Its shape is extremely irregular, resembling +that of the island of Celebes. It consists of four peninsulas so +arranged as to enclose three great bays (Kayu, Bicholi, Weda), all +opening towards the east, the northern peninsula being connected with +the others by an isthmus only 5 m. wide. On the western side of the +isthmus lies another bay, that of Dodinga, in the mouth of which are +situated the two islands Ternate and Tidore, whose political importance +exceeds that of the larger island (see these articles). Of the four +peninsulas of Halmahera the northern and the southern are reckoned to +the sultanate of Ternate, the north-eastern and south-eastern to that of +Tidore; the former having eleven, the latter three districts. The +distance between the extremities of the northern and southern +peninsulas, measured along the curve of the west coast, is about 240 m.; +and the total area of the island is 6700 sq. m. Knowledge of the island +is very incomplete. It appears that the four peninsulas are traversed in +the direction of their longitudinal axis by mountain chains 3000 to 4000 +ft. high, covered with forest, without a central chain at the nucleus of +the island whence the peninsulas diverge. The mountain chains are +frequently interrupted by plains, such as those of Weda and Kobi. The +northern part of the mountain chain of the northern peninsula is +volcanic, its volcanoes continuing the line of those of Makian, Ternate +and Tidore. Coral formations on heights in the interior would indicate +oscillations of the land in several periods, but a detailed geology of +the island is wanting. To the north-east of the northern peninsula is +the considerable island of Morotai (635 sq. m.), and to the west of the +southern peninsula the more important island of Bachian (q.v.) among +others. Galela is a considerable settlement, situated on a bay of the +same name on the north-east coast, in a well cultivated plain which +extends southward and inland. Vegetation is prolific. Rice is grown by +the natives, but the sago tree is of far greater importance to them. +Dammar and coco-nuts are also grown. The sea yields trepang and pearl +shells. A little trade is carried on by the Chinese and Macassars of +Ternate, who, crossing the narrow isthmus of Dodinga, enter the bay of +Kayu on the east coast. The total population is estimated at 100,000. + +The inhabitants are mostly of immigrant Malayan stock. In the northern +peninsula are found people of Papuan type, probably representing the +aborigines, and a tribe around Galela, who are Polynesian in physique, +possibly remnants, much mixed by subsequent crossings with the Papuan +indigenes, of the Caucasian hordes emigrating in prehistoric times +across the Pacific. M. Achille Raffray gives a description of them in +_Tour du monde_ (1879) where photographs will be found. "They are as +unlike the Malays as we are, excelling them in tallness of stature and +elegance of shape, and being perfectly distinguished by their oval face, +with a fairly high and open brow, their aquiline nose and their +horizontally placed eyes. Their beards are sometimes thick; their limbs +are muscular; the colour of their skins is cinnamon brown. Spears of +iron-wood, abundantly barbed, and small bows and bamboo arrows free from +poison are their principal weapons." They are further described as +having temples (_sabuas_) in which they suspend images of serpents and +other monsters as well as the trophies procured by war. They believe in +a better life hereafter, but have no idea of a hell or a devil, their +evil spirits only tormenting them in the present state. + +The Portuguese and Spaniards were better acquainted with Halmahera than +with many other parts of the archipelago; they called it sometimes Batu +China and sometimes Moro. It was circumnavigated by one of their vessels +in 1525, and the general outline of the coasts is correctly given in +their maps at a time when separate portions of Celebes, such as Macassar +and Menado, are represented as distinct islands. The name (Jilolo) was +really that of a native state, the sultan of which had the chief rank +among the princes of the Moluccas before he was supplanted by the sultan +of Ternate about 1380. His capital, Jilolo, lay on the west coast on the +first bay to the north of that of Dodinga. In 1876 Danu Hassan, a +descendant of the sultans of Jilolo, raised an insurrection in the +island for the purpose of throwing off the authority of the sultans of +Tidore and Ternate; and his efforts would probably have been successful +but for the intervention of the Dutch. In 1878 a Dutch expedition was +directed against the pirates of Tobalai, and they were virtually +extirpated. Slavery remains in the interior. Missionary work, carried on +in the northern peninsula of Halmahera since 1866, has been fairly +successful among the heathen natives, but less so among the Mahommedans, +who have often incited the others against the missionaries and their +converts. + + + + +HALMSTAD, a seaport of Sweden, chief town of the district (_län_) of +Halland, on the E. shore of the Cattegat, 76 m. S.S.E. of Gothenburg by +the railway to Helsingborg. Pop. (1900), 15,362. It lies at the mouth of +the river Nissa, having an inner harbour (15 ft. depth), an outer +harbour, and roads giving anchorage (24 to 36 ft.) exposed to S. and +N.W. winds. In the neighbourhood there are quarries of granite, which is +exported chiefly to Germany. Other industries are engineering, +shipbuilding and brewing, and there are cloth, jute, hat, wood-pulp and +paper factories. The principal exports are granite, timber and hats; and +butter through Helsingborg and Gothenburg. The imports are coal, +machinery and grain. Potatoes are largely grown in the district, and the +salmon fisheries are valuable. The castle is the residence of the +governor of the province. There are both mineral and sea-water baths in +the neighbourhood. + +Mention of the church of Halmstad occurs as early as 1462, and the +fortifications are mentioned first in 1225. The latter were demolished +in 1734. There were formerly Dominican and Franciscan monasteries in the +town. The oldest town-privileges date from 1307. During the revolt of +the miner Engelbrekt, it twice fell into the hands of the rebels--in +1434 and 1436. The town appears to have been frequently chosen as the +meeting-place of the rulers and delegates of the three northern +kingdoms; and under the union of Kalmar it was appointed to be the place +for the election of a new Scandinavian monarch whenever necessary. The +_län_ of Halland formed part of the territory of Denmark in Sweden, and +accordingly, in 1534, during his war with the Danes, Gustavus Vasa +assaulted and took its chief town. In 1660, by the treaty of Copenhagen, +the whole district was ceded to Sweden. In 1676 Charles XII. defeated +near Halmstad a Danish army which was attempting to retake the district, +and since that time Halland has formed part of Sweden. + + + + +HALO, a word derived from the Gr. [Greek: halôs], a threshing-floor, and +afterwards applied to denote the disk of the sun or moon, probably on +account of the circular path traced out by the oxen threshing the corn. +It was thence applied to denote any luminous ring, such as that viewed +around the sun or moon, or portrayed about the heads of saints. + +In physical science, a halo is a luminous circle, surrounding the sun or +moon, with various auxiliary phenomena, and formed by the reflection and +refraction of light by ice-crystals suspended in the atmosphere. The +optical phenomena produced by atmospheric water and ice may be divided +into two classes, according to the relative position of the luminous +ring and the source of light. In the first class we have _halos_, and +_coronae_, or "glories," which encircle the luminary; the second class +includes _rainbows_, _fog-bows_, _mist-halos_, _anthelia_ and +_mountain-spectres_, whose centres are at the anti-solar point. Here it +is only necessary to distinguish halos from coronae. Halos are at +definite distances (22° and 46°) from the sun, and are coloured red on +the _inside_, being due to refraction; coronae closely surround the sun +at variable distances, and are coloured red on the _outside_, being due +to diffraction. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +The phenomenon of a solar (or lunar) halo as seen from the earth is +represented in fig. 1; fig. 2 is a diagrammatic sketch showing the +appearance as viewed from the zenith; but it is only in exceptional +circumstances that all the parts are seen. Encircling the sun or moon +(S), there are two circles, known as the inner halo I, and the outer +halo O, having radii of about 22° and 46°, and exhibiting the colours of +the spectrum in a confused manner, the only decided tint being the red +on the inside. Passing through the luminary and parallel to the horizon, +there is a white luminous circle, the _parhelic circle_ (P), on which a +number of images of the luminary appear. The most brilliant are situated +at the intersections of the inner halo and the parhelic circle; these +are known as _parhelia_ (denoted by the letter p in the figures) (from +the Gr. [Greek: para], beside, and [Greek: hêlios], the sun) or +"mock-suns," in the case of the sun, and as _paraselenae_ (from [Greek: +para] and [Greek: selênê], the moon) or "mock-moons," in the case of the +moon. Less brilliant are the parhelia of the outer halo. The parhelia +are most brilliant when the sun is near the horizon. As the sun rises, +they pass a little beyond the halo and exhibit flaming tails. The other +images on the parhelic circle are the _paranthelia_ (q) and the +_anthelion_ (a) (from the Greek [Greek: anti], opposite, and [Greek: +hêlios], the sun). The former are situated at from 90° to 140° from the +sun; the latter is a white patch of light situated at the anti-solar +point and often exceeding in size the apparent diameter of the luminary. +A vertical circle passing through the sun may also be seen. From the +parhelia of the inner halo two oblique curves (L) proceed. These are +known as the "arcs of Lowitz," having been first described in 1794 by +Johann Tobias Lowitz (1757-1804). Luminous arcs (T), tangential to the +upper and lower parts of each halo, also occur, and in the case of the +inner halo, the arcs may be prolonged to form a quasi-elliptic halo. + +The physical explanation of halos originated with René Descartes, who +ascribed their formation to the presence of ice-crystals in the +atmosphere. This theory was adopted by Edmé Mariotte, Sir Isaac Newton +and Thomas Young; and, although certain of their assumptions were +somewhat arbitrary, yet the general validity of the theory has been +demonstrated by the researches of J. G. Galle and A. Bravais. The memoir +of the last-named, published in the _Journal de l'École royale +polytechnique_ for 1847 (xviii., 1-270), ranks as a classic on the +subject; it is replete with examples and illustrations, and discusses +the various phenomena in minute detail. + +The usual form of ice-crystals in clouds is a right hexagonal prism, +which may be elongated as a needle or foreshortened like a thin plate. +There are three refracting angles possible, one of 120° between two +adjacent prism faces, one of 60° between two alternate prism faces, and +one of 90° between a prism face and the base. If innumerable numbers of +such crystals fall in any manner between the observer and the sun, light +falling upon these crystals will be refracted, and the refracted rays +will be crowded together in the position of minimum deviation (see +REFRACTION OF LIGHT). Mariotte explained the inner halo as being due to +refraction through a pair of alternate faces, since the minimum +deviation of an ice-prism whose refracting angle is 60° is about 22°. +Since the minimum deviation is least for the least refrangible rays, it +follows that the red rays will be the least refracted, and the violet +the more refracted, and therefore the halo will be coloured red on the +inside. Similarly, as explained by Henry Cavendish, the halo of 46° is +due to refraction by faces inclined at 90°. The impurity of the colours +(due partly to the sun's diameter, but still more to oblique refraction) +is more marked in halos than in rainbows; in fact, only the red is at +all pure, and as a rule, only a mere trace of green or blue is seen, the +external portion of each halo being nearly white. + +The two halos are the only phenomena which admit of explanation without +assigning any particular distribution to the ice-crystals. But it is +obvious that certain distributions will predominate, for the crystals +will tend to fall so as to offer the least resistance to their motion; a +needle-shaped crystal tending to keep its axis vertical, a plate-shaped +crystal to keep its axis horizontal. Thomas Young explained the parhelic +circle (P) as due to reflection from the vertical faces of the long +prisms and the bases of the short ones. If these vertical faces become +very numerous, the eye will perceive a colourless horizontal circle. +Reflection from an excess of horizontal prisms gives rise to a vertical +circle passing through the sun. + +The parhelia (p) were explained by Mariotte as due to refraction through +a pair of alternate faces of a vertical prism. When the sun is near the +horizon the rays fall upon the principal section of the prisms; the +minimum deviation for such rays is 22°, and consequently the parhelia +are not only on the inner halo, but also on the parhelic circle. As the +sun rises, the rays enter the prisms more and more obliquely, and the +angle of minimum deviation increases; but since the emergent ray makes +the same angle with the refracting edge as the incident ray, it follows +that the parhelia will remain on the parhelic circle, while receding +from the inner halo. The different values of the angle of minimum +deviation for rays of different refrangibilities give rise to spectral +colours, the red being nearest the sun, while farther away the +overlapping of the spectra forms a flaming colourless tail sometimes +extending over as much as 10° to 20°. The "arcs of Lowitz" (L) are +probably due to small oscillations of the vertical prisms. + +The "tangential arcs" (T) were explained by Young as being caused by the +thin plates with their axes horizontal, refraction taking place through +alternate faces. The axes will take up any position, and consequently +give rise to a continuous series of parhelia which touch externally the +inner halo, both above and below, and under certain conditions (such as +the requisite altitude of the sun) form two closed elliptical curves; +generally, however, only the upper and lower portions are seen. +Similarly, the tangential arcs to the halo of 46° are due to refraction +through faces inclined at 90°. + +The paranthelia (q) may be due to two internal or two external +reflections. A pair of triangular prisms having a common face, or a +stellate crystal formed by the symmetrical interpenetration of two +triangular prisms admits of two internal reflections by faces inclined +at 120°, and so give rise to two colourless images each at an angular +distance of 120° from the sun. Double internal reflection by a +triangular prism would form a single coloured image on the parhelic +circle at about 98° from the sun. These angular distances are attained +only when the sun is on the horizon, and they increase as it rises. + +The anthelion (a) may be explained as caused by two internal reflections +of the solar rays by a hexagonal lamellar crystal, having its axis +horizontal and one of the diagonals of its base vertical. The emerging +rays are parallel to their original direction and form a colourless +image on the parhelic circle opposite the sun. + + REFERENCES.--Auguste Bravais's celebrated memoir, "Sur les halos et + les phénomènes optiques qui les accompagnent" (_Journ. École poly._ + vol. xviii., 1847), contains a full account of the geometrical theory. + See also E. Mascart, _Traité d'optique_; J. Pernter, _Meteorologische + Optik_ (1902-1905); and R. S. Heath, _Geometrical Optics_. + + + + +HALOGENS. The word halogen is derived from the Greek [Greek: hals] +(sea-salt) and [Greek: gennan] (to produce), and consequently means the +sea-salt producer. The term is applied to the four elements fluorine, +chlorine, bromine and iodine, on account of the great similarity of +their sodium salts to ordinary sea-salt. These four elements show a +great resemblance to one another in their general chemical behaviour, +and in that of their compounds, whilst their physical properties show a +gradual transition. Thus, as the atomic weight increases, the state of +aggregation changes from that of a gas in the case of fluorine and +chlorine, to that of a liquid (bromine) and finally to that of the solid +(iodine); at the same time the melting and boiling points rise with +increasing atomic weights. The halogen of lower atomic weight can +displace one of higher atomic weight from its hydrogen compound, or from +the salt derived from such hydrogen compound, while, on the other hand, +the halogen of higher atomic weight can displace that of lower atomic +weight, from the halogen oxy-acids and their salts; thus iodine will +liberate chlorine from potassium chlorate and also from perchloric acid. +All four of the halogens unite with hydrogen, but the affinity for +hydrogen decreases as the atomic weight increases, hydrogen and fluorine +uniting explosively at very low temperatures and in the dark, whilst +hydrogen and iodine unite only at high temperatures, and even then the +resulting compound is very readily decomposed by heat. The hydrides of +the halogens are all colourless, strongly fuming gases, readily soluble +in water and possessing a strong acid reaction; they react readily with +basic oxides, forming in most cases well defined crystalline salts which +resemble one another very strongly. On the other hand the stability of +the known oxygen compounds increases with the atomic weight, thus iodine +pentoxide is, at ordinary temperatures, a well-defined crystalline +solid, which is only decomposed on heating strongly, whilst chlorine +monoxide, chlorine peroxide, and chlorine heptoxide are very unstable, +even at ordinary temperatures, decomposing at the slightest shock. +Compounds of fluorine and oxygen, and of bromine and oxygen, have not +yet been isolated. In some respects there is a very marked difference +between fluorine and the other members of the group, for, whilst sodium +chloride, bromide and iodide are readily soluble in water, sodium +fluoride is much less soluble; again, silver chloride, bromide and +iodide are practically insoluble in water, whilst, on the other hand, +silver fluoride is appreciably soluble in water. Again, fluorine shows a +great tendency to form double salts, which have no counterpart among the +compounds formed by the other members of the family. + + + + +HALS, FRANS (1580?-1666), Dutch painter, was born at Antwerp according +to the most recent authorities in 1580 or 1581, and died at Haarlem in +1666. As a portrait painter second only to Rembrandt in Holland, he +displayed extraordinary talent and quickness in the exercise of his art +coupled with improvidence in the use of the means which that art secured +to him. At a time when the Dutch nation fought for independence and won +it, Hals appears in the ranks of its military gilds. He was also a +member of the Chamber of Rhetoric, and (1644) chairman of the Painters' +Corporation at Haarlem. But as a man he had failings. He so ill-treated +his first wife, Anneke Hermansz, that she died prematurely in 1616; and +he barely saved the character of his second, Lysbeth Reyniers, by +marrying her in 1617. Another defect was partiality to drink, which led +him into low company. Still he brought up and supported a family of ten +children with success till 1652, when the forced sale of his pictures +and furniture, at the suit of a baker to whom he was indebted for bread +and money, brought him to absolute penury. The inventory of the property +seized on this occasion only mentions three mattresses and bolsters, an +armoire, a table and five pictures. This humble list represents all his +worldly possessions at the time of his bankruptcy. Subsequently to this +he was reduced to still greater straits, and his rent and firing were +paid by the municipality, which afterwards gave him (1664) an annuity of +200 florins. We may admire the spirit which enabled him to produce some +of his most striking works in his unhappy circumstances: we find his +widow seeking outdoor relief from the guardians of the poor, and dying +obscurely in a hospital. + +Hals's pictures illustrate the various strata of society into which his +misfortunes led him. His banquets or meetings of officers, of +sharpshooters, and gildsmen are the most interesting of his works. But +they are not more characteristic than his low-life pictures of itinerant +players and singers. His portraits of gentlefolk are true and noble, but +hardly so expressive as those of fishwives and tavern heroes. + +His first master at Antwerp was probably van Noort, as has been +suggested by M. G. S. Davies, but on his removal to Haarlem Frans Hals +entered the atelier of van Mander, the painter and historian, of whom he +possessed some pictures which went to pay the debt of the baker already +alluded to. But he soon improved upon the practice of the time, +illustrated by J. van Schoreel and Antonio Moro, and, emancipating +himself gradually from tradition, produced pictures remarkable for truth +and dexterity of hand. We prize in Rembrandt the golden glow of effects +based upon artificial contrasts of low light in immeasurable gloom. Hals +was fond of daylight of silvery sheen. Both men were painters of touch, +but of touch on different keys--Rembrandt was the bass, Hals the treble. +The latter is perhaps more expressive than the former. He seizes with +rare intuition a moment in the life of his sitters. What nature displays +in that moment he reproduces thoroughly in a very delicate scale of +colour, and with a perfect mastery over every form of expression. He +becomes so clever at last that exact tone, light and shade, and +modelling are all obtained with a few marked and fluid strokes of the +brush. + +In every form of his art we can distinguish his earlier style from that +of later years. It is curious that we have no record of any work +produced by him in the first decade of his independent activity, save an +engraving by Jan van de Velde after a lost portrait of "The Minister +Johannes Bogardus," who died in 1614. The earliest works by Frans Hals +that have come down to us, "Two Boys Playing and Singing" in the gallery +of Cassel, and a "Banquet of the officers of the 'St Joris Doele'" or +Arquebusiers of St George (1616) in the museum of Haarlem, exhibit him +as a careful draughtsman capable of great finish, yet spirited withal. +His flesh, less clear than it afterwards becomes, is pastose and +burnished. Later he becomes more effective, displays more freedom of +hand, and a greater command of effect. At this period we note the +beautiful full-length of "Madame van Beresteyn" at the Louvre in Paris, +and a splendid full-length portrait of "Willem van Heythuysen" leaning +on a sword in the Liechtenstein collection at Vienna. Both these +pictures are equalled by the other "Banquet of the officers, of the +Arquebusiers of St George" (with different portraits) and the "Banquet +of the officers of the 'Cloveniers Doelen'" or Arquebusiers of St Andrew +of 1627 and an "Assembly of the officers of the Arquebusiers of St +Andrew" of 1633 in the Haarlem Museum. A picture of the same kind in the +town hall of Amsterdam, with the date of 1637, suggests some study of +the masterpieces of Rembrandt, and a similar influence is apparent in a +picture of 1641 at Haarlem, representing the "Regents of the Company of +St Elizabeth" and in the portrait of "Maria Voogt" at Amsterdam. But +Rembrandt's example did not create a lasting impression on Hals. He +gradually dropped more and more into grey and silvery harmonies of tone; +and two of his canvases, executed in 1664, "The Regents and Regentesses +of the Oudemannenhuis" at Haarlem, are masterpieces of colour, though in +substance all but monochromes. In fact, ever since 1641 Hals had shown a +tendency to restrict the gamut of his palette, and to suggest colour +rather than express it. This is particularly noticeable in his flesh +tints which from year to year became more grey, until finally the +shadows were painted in almost absolute black, as in the "Tymane +Oosdorp," of the Berlin Gallery. As this tendency coincides with the +period of his poverty, it has been suggested that one of the reasons, if +not the only reason, of his predilection for black and white pigment was +the cheapness of these colours as compared with the costly lakes and +carmines. + +As a portrait painter Frans Hals had scarcely the psychological insight +of a Rembrandt or Velazquez, though in a few works, like the "Admiral de +Ruyter," in Earl Spencer's collection, the "Jacob Olycan" at the Hague +Gallery, and the "Albert van der Meer" at Haarlem town hall, he reveals +a searching analysis of character which has little in common with the +instantaneous expression of his so-called "character" portraits. In +these he generally sets upon the canvas the fleeting aspect of the +various stages of merriment, from the subtle, half ironic smile that +quivers round the lips of the curiously misnamed "Laughing Cavalier" in +the Wallace Collection to the imbecile grin of the "Hille Bobbe" in the +Berlin Museum. To this group of pictures belong Baron Gustav +Rothschild's "Jester," the "_Bohémienne_" at the Louvre, and the "Fisher +Boy" at Antwerp, whilst the "Portrait of the Artist with his second +Wife" at the Ryks Museum in Amsterdam, and the somewhat confused group +of the "Beresteyn Family" at the Louvre show a similar tendency. Far +less scattered in arrangement than this Beresteyn group, and in every +respect one of the most masterly of Frans Hals's achievements is the +group called "The Painter and his Family" in the possession of Colonel +Warde, which was almost unknown until it appeared at the winter +exhibition at the Royal Academy in 1906. + +Though a visit to Haarlem town hall, which contains the five enormous +Doelen groups and the two Regenten pictures, is as necessary for the +student of Hals's art as a visit to the Prado in Madrid is for the +student of Velazquez, good examples of the Dutch master have found their +way into most of the leading public and private collections. In the +British Isles, besides the works already mentioned, portraits from his +brush are to be found at the National Gallery, the Edinburgh Gallery, +the Glasgow Corporation Gallery, Hampton Court, Buckingham Palace, +Devonshire House, and the collections of Lord Northbrooke, Lord +Ellesmere, Lord Iveagh and Lord Spencer. + +At Amsterdam is the celebrated "Flute Player," once in the Dupper +collection at Dort; at Brussels, the patrician "Heythuysen"; at the +Louvre, "Descartes"; at Dresden, the painter "Van der Vinne." Hals's +sitters were taken from every class of society--admirals, generals and +burgomasters pairing with merchants, lawyers, clerks. To register all +that we find in public galleries would involve much space. There are +eight portraits at Berlin, six at Cassel, five at St Petersburg, six at +the Louvre, two at Brussels, five at Dresden, two at Gotha. In private +collections, chiefly in Paris, Haarlem and Vienna, we find an equally +important number. Amongst the painter's most successful representations +of fishwives and termagants we should distinguish the "Hille Bobbe" of +the Berlin Museum, and the "Hille Bobbe with her Son" in the Dresden +Gallery. Itinerant players are best illustrated in the Neville-Goldsmith +collection at the Hague, and the Six collection at Amsterdam. Boys and +girls singing, playing or laughing, or men drinking, are to be found in +the gallery of Schwerin, in the Arenberg collection, and in the royal +palace at Brussels. + +For two centuries after his death Frans Hals was held in such poor +esteem that some of his paintings, which are now among the proudest +possessions of public galleries, were sold at auction for a few pounds +or even shillings. The portrait of "Johannes Acronius," now at the +Berlin Museum, realized five shillings at the Enschede sale in 1786. The +splendid portrait of the man with the sword at the Liechtenstein gallery +was sold in 1800 for £4, 5s. With his rehabilitation in public esteem +came the enormous rise in values, and, at the Secretan sale in 1889, the +portrait of "Pieter van de Broecke d'Anvers" was bid up to £4420, while +in 1908 the National Gallery paid £25,000 for the large group from the +collection of Lord Talbot de Malahide. + +Of the master's numerous family none has left a name except FRANS HALS +THE YOUNGER, born about 1622, who died in 1669. His pictures represent +cottages and poultry; and the "Vanitas" at Berlin, a table laden with +gold and silver dishes, cups, glasses and books, is one of his finest +works and deserving of a passing glance. + +Quite in another form, and with much of the freedom of the elder HALS, +DIRK HALS, his brother (born at Haarlem, died 1656), is a painter of +festivals and ball-rooms. But Dirk had too much of the freedom and too +little of the skill in drawing which characterized his brother. He +remains second on his own ground to Palamedes. A fair specimen of his +art is a "Lady playing a Harpsichord to a Young Girl and her Lover" in +the van der Hoop collection at Amsterdam, now in the Ryks Museum. More +characteristic, but not better, is a large company of gentle-folk rising +from dinner, in the Academy at Vienna. + + LITERATURE.--See W. Bode, _Frans Hals und seine Schule_ (Leipzig, + 1871); W. Unger and W. Vosmaer, _Etchings after Frans Hals_ (Leyden, + 1873); Percy Rendell Head, _Sir Anthony Van Dyck and Frans Hals_ + (London, 1879); D. Knackfuss, _Frans Hals_ (Leipzig, 1896); G. S. + Davies, _Frans Hals_ (London, 1902). (P. G. K.) + + + + +HALSBURY, HARDINGE STANLEY GIFFARD, 1ST EARL OF (1825- ), English lord +chancellor, son of Stanley Lees Giffard, LL.D., was born in London on +the 3rd of September 1825. He was educated at Merton College, Oxford, +and was called to the bar at the Inner Temple in 1850, joining the North +Wales and Chester circuit. Afterwards he had a large practice at the +central criminal court and the Middlesex sessions, and he was for +several years junior prosecuting counsel to the treasury. He was engaged +in most of the celebrated trials of his time, including the Overend and +Gurney and the Tichborne cases. He became queen's counsel in 1865, and a +bencher of the Inner Temple. Mr Giffard twice contested Cardiff in the +Conservative interest, in 1868 and 1874, but he was still without a seat +in the House of Commons when he was appointed solicitor-general by +Disraeli in 1875 and received the honour of knighthood. In 1877 he +succeeded in obtaining a seat, when he was returned for Launceston, +which borough he continued to represent until his elevation to the +peerage in 1885. He was then created Baron Halsbury and appointed lord +chancellor, thus forming a remarkable exception to the rule that no +criminal lawyer ever reaches the woolsack. Lord Halsbury resumed the +position in 1886 and held it until 1892 and again from 1895 to 1905, his +tenure of the office, broken only by the brief Liberal ministries of +1886 and 1892-1895, being longer than that of any lord chancellor since +Lord Eldon. In 1898 he was created earl of Halsbury and Viscount +Tiverton. Among Conservative lord chancellors Lord Halsbury must always +hold a high place, his grasp of legal principles and mastery in applying +them being pre-eminent among the judges of his day. + + + + +HALSTEAD, a market-town in the Maldon parliamentary division of Essex, +England, on the Colne, 17 m. N.N.E. from Chelmsford; served by the Colne +Valley railway from Chappel Junction on the Great Eastern railway. Pop. +of urban district (1901), 6073. It lies on a hill in a pleasant wooded +district. The church of St Andrew is mainly Perpendicular. It contains a +monument supposed to commemorate Sir Robert Bourchier (d. 1349), lord +chancellor to Edward III. The Lady Mary Ramsay grammar school dates from +1594. There are large silk and crape works. Two miles N. of Halstead is +Little Maplestead, where the church is the latest in date of the four +churches with round naves extant in England, being perhaps of +12th-century foundation, but showing early Decorated work in the main. +The chancel, which is without aisles, terminates in an apse. Three +miles N.W. from Halstead are the large villages of Sible Hedingham (pop. +1701) and Castle Hedingham (pop. 1097). At the second is the Norman keep +of the de Veres, of whom Aubrey de Vere held the lordship from William +I. The keep dates from the end of the 11th century, and exhibits much +fine Norman work. The church of St Nicholas, Castle Hedingham, has fine +Norman, Transitional and Early English details, and there is a black +marble tomb of John de Vere, 15th earl of Oxford (d. 1540), with his +countess. + +There are signs of settlement at Halstead (Halsteda, Halgusted, Halsted) +in the Bronze Age; but there is no evidence of the causes of its growth +in historic times. Probably its situation on the river Colne made it to +some extent a local centre. Throughout the middle ages Halstead was +unimportant, and never rose to the rank of a borough. + + + + +HALT. (1) An adjective common to Teutonic languages and still appearing +in Swedish and Danish, meaning lame, crippled. It is also used as a +verb, meaning to limp, and as a substantive, especially in the term +"string-halt" or "spring-halt," a nervous disorder affecting the muscles +of the hind legs of horses. (2) A pause or stoppage made on a march or a +journey. The word came into English in the form "to make alto" or "alt," +and was taken from the French _faire alte_ or Italian _far alto_. The +origin is a German military term, _Halt machen_, _Halt_ meaning "hold." + + + + +HALUNTIUM (Gr. [Greek: Alontion], mod. S. Marco d'Alunzio), an ancient +city of Sicily, 6 m. from the north coast and 25 m. E.N.E. of Halaesa. +It was probably of Sicel origin, though its foundation was ascribed to +some of the companions of Aeneas. It appears first in Roman times as a +place of some importance, and suffered considerably at the hands of +Verres. The abandoned church of S. Mark, just outside the modern town, +is built into the cella of an ancient Greek temple, which measures 62 +ft. by 18. A number of ancient inscriptions have been found there. + + + + +HALYBURTON, JAMES (1518-1589), Scottish reformer, was born in 1518, and +was educated at St Andrews, where he graduated M.A. in 1538. From 1553 +to 1586 he was provost of St Andrews and a prominent figure in the +national life. He was chosen as one of the lords of the congregation in +1557, and commanded the contingents sent by Forfar and Fife against the +queen regent in 1559. He took part in the defence of Edinburgh, and in +the battles of Langside (1568) and Restalrig (1571). He had stoutly +opposed the marriage of Mary with Darnley, and when, after Restalrig, he +was captured by the queen's troops, he narrowly escaped execution. He +represented Morton at the conference of 1578, and was one of the royal +commissioners to the General Assembly in 1582 and again in 1588. He died +in February 1589. + + + + +HALYBURTON, THOMAS (1674-1712), Scottish divine, was born at Dupplin, +near Perth, on the 25th of December 1674. His father, one of the ejected +ministers, having died in 1682, he was taken by his mother in 1685 to +Rotterdam to escape persecution, where he for some time attended the +school founded by Erasmus. On his return to his native country in 1687 +he completed his elementary education at Perth and Edinburgh, and in +1696 graduated at the university of St Andrews. In 1700 he was ordained +minister of the parish of Ceres, and in 1710 he was recommended by the +synod of Fife for the chair of theology in St Leonard's College, St +Andrews, to which accordingly he was appointed by Queen Anne. After a +brief term of active professorial life he died from the effects of +overwork in 1712. + + The works by which he continues to be known were all of them published + after his death. Wesley and Whitefield were accustomed to commend them + to their followers. They were published as follows: _Natural Religion + Insufficient, and Revealed Religion Necessary, to Man's Happiness in + his Present State_ (1714), an able statement of the orthodox + Calvinistic criticism of the deism of Lord Herbert of Cherbury and + Charles Blount; _Memoirs of the Life of Mr Thomas Halyburton_ (1715), + three parts by his own hand, the fourth from his diary by another + hand; _The Great Concern of Salvation_ (1721), with a word of + commendation by I. Watts; _Ten Sermons Preached Before and After the + Lord's Supper_ (1722); _The Unpardonable Sin Against the Holy Ghost_ + (1784). See Halyburton's _Memoirs_ (1714). + + + + +HAM, in the Bible. (1) [Hebrew: Ham], _Ham_, in Gen. v. 32, vi. 10, vii. +13, ix. 18, x. 5, 1 Chron. i. 4, the _second_ son of Noah; in Gen. ix. +24, the _youngest_ son (but cf. below); and in Gen. x. 6, 1 Chron. i. 8, +the father of Cush (Ethiopia), Mizraim (Egypt), Phut and Canaan. Genesis +x. exhibits in the form of genealogies the political, racial and +geographical relations of the peoples known to Israel; as it was +compiled from various sources and has been more than once edited, it +does not exactly represent the situation at any given date,[1] but Ham +seems to stand roughly for the south-western division of the world as +known to Israel, which division was regarded as the natural sphere of +influence of Egypt. Ham is held to be the Egyptian word _Khem_ (black) +which was the native name of Egypt; thus in Pss. lxxviii. 51, cv. 23, +27, cvi. 22, Ham = Egypt. In Gen. ix. 20-26 Canaan was originally the +third son of Noah and the villain of the story. Ham is a later addition +to harmonize with other passages. + +(2) [Hebrew: Ham], _Ham_, 1 Chron. iv. 40, apparently the name of a +place or tribe. It can hardly be identical with (1); nothing else is +known of this second Ham, which may be a scribe's error; the Syriac +version rejects the name. + +(3) [Hebrew: Ham], _Ham_, Gen. xiv. 5; the place where Chedorlaomer +defeated the Zuzim, apparently in eastern Palestine. The place is +unknown, and the name may be a scribe's error, perhaps for Ammon. (W. H. +Be.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] A. Jeremias, _Das A.T. im Lichte des alten Orients_, p. 145, + holds that it represents the situation in the 8th century B.C. + + + + +HAM, a small town of northern France, in the department of Somme, 36 m. +E.S.E. of Amiens on the Northern railway between that city and Laon. +Pop. (1906), 2957. It stands on the Somme in a marshy district where +market-gardening is carried on. From the 9th century onwards it appears +as the seat of a lordship which, after the extinction of its hereditary +line, passed in succession to the houses of Coucy, Enghien, Luxembourg, +Rohan, Vendôme and Navarre, and was finally united to the French crown +on the accession of Henry IV. Notre-Dame, the church of an abbey of +canons regular of St Augustin, dates from the 12th and 13th centuries, +but in 1760 all the inflammable portions of the building were destroyed +by a conflagration caused by lightning, and a process of restoration was +subsequently carried out. Of special note are the bas-reliefs of the +nave and choir, executed in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the crypt +of the 12th century, which contains the sepulchral effigies of Odo IV. +of Ham and his wife Isabella of Béthencourt. The castle, founded before +the 10th century, was rebuilt early in the 13th, and extended in the +14th; its present appearance is mainly due to the constable Louis of +Luxembourg, count of St Pol, who between 1436 and 1470 not only +furnished it with outworks, but gave such a thickness to the towers and +curtains, and more especially to the great tower or donjon which still +bears his motto _Mon Myeulx_, that the great engineer and architect +Viollet-le-Duc considered them, even in the 19th century, capable of +resisting artillery. It forms a rectangle 395 ft. long by 263 ft. broad, +with a round tower at each angle and two square towers protecting the +curtains. The eastern and western sides are each defended by a +demi-lune. The Constable's Tower, for so the great tower is usually +called in memory of St Pol, has a height of about 100 ft., and the +thickness of the walls is 36 ft.; the interior is occupied by three +large hexagonal chambers in as many stories. The castle of Ham, which +now serves as barracks, has frequently been used as a state prison both +in ancient and modern times, and the list of those who have sojourned +there is an interesting one, including as it does Joan of Arc, Louis of +Bourbon, the ministers of Charles X., Louis Napoleon, and Generals +Cavaignac and Lamoricière. Louis Napoleon was there for six years, and +at last effected his escape in the disguise of a workman. During +1870-1871 Ham was several times captured and recaptured by the +belligerents. A statue commemorates the birth in the town of General Foy +(1775-1825). + + See J. G. Cappot, _Le Château de Ham_ (Paris, 1842); and Ch. Gomart, + _Ham, son château et ses prisonniers_ (Ham, 1864). + + + + + +HAMADAN, a province and town of Persia. The province is bounded N. by +Gerrus and Khamseh, W. by Kermanshah, S. by Malayir and Irak, E. by +Savah and Kazvin. It has many well-watered, fertile plains and more than +four hundred flourishing villages producing much grain, and its +population, estimated at 350,000--more than half being Turks of the +Karaguzlu (black-eyed) and Shamlu (Syrian) tribes--supplies several +battalions of infantry to the army, and pays, besides, a yearly revenue +of about £18,000. + +Hamadan, the capital of the province, is situated 188 m. W.S.W. of +Teheran, at an elevation of 5930 ft., near the foot of Mount Elvend (old +Persian _Arvand_, Gr. _Orontes_), whose granite peak rises W. of it to +an altitude of 11,900 ft. It is a busy trade centre with about 40,000 +inhabitants (comprising 4000 Jews and 300 Armenians), has extensive and +well-stocked bazaars and fourteen large and many small caravanserais. +The principal industries are tanning leather and the manufacture of +saddles, harnesses, trunks, and other leather goods, felts and copper +utensils. The leather of Hamadan is much esteemed throughout the country +and exported to other provinces in great quantities. The streets are +narrow, and by a system called Kucheh-bandi (street-closing) established +long ago for impeding the circulation of crowds and increasing general +security, every quarter of the town, or block of buildings, is shut off +from its neighbours by gates which are closed during local disorders and +regularly at night. Hamadan has post and telegraph offices and two +churches, one Armenian, the other Protestant (of the American +Presbyterian Mission). + +Among objects of interest are the alleged tombs of Esther and Mordecai +in an insignificant domed building in the centre of the town. There are +two wooden sarcophagi carved all over with Hebrew inscriptions. That +ascribed to Mordecai has the verses Isaiah lix. 8; Esther ii. 5; Ps. +xvi. 9, 10, 11, and the date of its erection A.M. 4318 (A.D. 557). The +inscriptions on the other sarcophagus consist of the verses Esther ix. +29, 32, x. 1; and the statement that it was placed there A.M. 4602 (A.D. +841) by "the pious and righteous woman Gemal Setan." A tablet let into +the wall states that the building was repaired A.M. 4474 (A.D. 713). +Hamadan also has the grave of the celebrated physician and philosopher +Abu Ali ibn Sina, better known as Avicenna (d. 1036). It is now +generally admitted that Hamadan is the Hagmatana (of the inscriptions), +Agbatana or Ecbatana (q.v., of the Greek writers), the "treasure city" +of the Achaemenian kings which was taken and plundered by Alexander the +Great, but very few ancient remains have been discovered. A rudely +carved stone lion, which lies on the roadside close to the southern +extremity of the city, and by some is supposed to have formed part of a +building of the ancient city, is locally regarded as a talisman against +famine, plague, cold, &c., placed there by Pliny, who is popularly known +as the sorcerer Balinas (a corruption of Plinius). + +Five miles S.W. from the city in a mountain gorge of Mount Elvend is the +so-called Ganjnama (treasure-deed), which consists of two tablets with +trilingual cuneiform inscriptions cut into the rock and relating the +names and titles of Darius I. (521-485 B.C.) and his son Xerxes I. +(485-465 B.C.). (A. H. S.) + + + + +HAMADHANI, in full ABU-L FADL AHMAD IBN UL-HUSAIN UL-HAMADHANI +(967-1007), Arabian writer, known as Badi' uz-Zaman (the wonder of the +age), was born and educated at Hamadban. In 990 be went to Jorjan, where +he remained two years; then passing to Nishapur, where he rivalled and +surpassed the learned Khwarizmi. After journeying through Khorasan and +Sijistan, he finally settled in Herat under the protection of the vizir +of Mahmud, the Ghaznevid sultan. There he died at the age of forty. He +was renowned for a remarkable memory and for fluency of speech, as well +as for the purity of his language. He was one of the first to renew the +use of rhymed prose both in letters and _maqamas_ (see ARABIA: +_Literature_, section "Belles Lettres"). + + His letters were published at Constantinople (1881), and with + commentary at Beirut (1890); his _maqamas_ at Constantinople (1881), + and with commentary at Beirut (1889). A good idea of the latter may + be obtained from S. de Sacy's edition of six of the _maqamas_ with + French translation and notes in his _Chrestomathie_ arabe, vol. iii. + (2nd ed., Paris, 1827). A specimen of the letters is translated into + German in A. von Kremer's _Culturgeschichte des Orients_, ii. 470 sqq. + (Vienna, 1877). (G. W. T.) + + + + +HAMAH, the Hamath of the Bible, a Hittite royal city, situated in the +narrow valley of the Orontes, 110 English miles N. (by E.) of Damascus. +It finds a place in the northern boundaries of Israel under David, +Solomon and Jeroboam II. (2 Sam. viii. 9; 1 Kings viii. 65; 2 Kings xiv. +25). The Orontes flows winding past the city and is spanned by four +bridges. On the south-east the houses rise 150 ft. above the river, and +there are four other hills, that of the _Kalah_ or castle being to the +north 100 ft. high. Twenty-four minarets rise from the various mosques. +The houses are principally of mud, and the town stands amid poplar +gardens with a fertile plain to the west. The castle is ruined, the +streets are narrow and dirty, but the bazaars are good, and the trade +with the Bedouins considerable. The numerous water-wheels (_naurah_,) of +enormous dimension, raising water from the Orontes are the most +remarkable features of the view. Silk, woollen and cotton goods are +manufactured. The population is about 40,000. + +In the year 854 B.C. Hamath was taken by Shalmaneser II., king of +Assyria, who defeated a large army of allied Hamathites, Syrians and +Israelites at Karkor and slew 14,000 of them. In 738 B.C. Tiglath +Pileser III. reduced the city to tribute, and another rebellion was +crushed by Sargon in 720 B.C. The downfall of so ancient a state made a +great impression at Jerusalem (Isa. x. 9). According to 2 Kings xvii. +24, 30, some of its people were transported to the land of N. Israel, +where they made images of Ashima or Eshmun (probably Ishtar). After the +Macedonian conquest of Syria Hamath was called Epiphania by the Greeks +in honour of Antiochus IV., Epiphanes, and in the early Byzantine period +it was known by both its Hebrew and its Greek name. In A.D. 639 the town +surrendered to Abu 'Obeida, one of Omar's generals, and the church was +turned into a mosque. In A.D. 1108 Tancred captured the city and +massacred the Ism'aileh defenders. In 1115 it was retaken by the +Moslems, and in 1178 was occupied by Saladin. Abulfeda, prince of Hamah +in the early part of the 14th century, is well known as an authority on +Arab geography. + + + + +HAMANN, JOHANN GEORG (1730-1788), German writer on philosophical and +theological subjects, was born at Königsberg in Prussia on the 27th of +August 1730. His parents were of humble rank and small means. The +education he received was comprehensive but unsystematic, and the want +of definiteness in this early training doubtless tended to aggravate the +peculiar instability of character which troubled Hamann's after life. In +1746 be began theological studies, but speedily deserted them and turned +his attention to law. That too was taken up in a desultory fashion and +quickly relinquished. Hamann seems at this time to have thought that any +strenuous devotion to "bread-and-butter" studies was lowering, and +accordingly gave himself entirely to reading, criticism and philological +inquiries. Such studies, however, were pursued without any definite aim +or systematic arrangement, and consequently were productive of nothing. +In 1752, constrained to secure some position in the world, he accepted a +tutorship in a family resident in Livonia, but only retained it a few +months. A similar situation in Courland he also resigned after about a +year. In both cases apparently the rupture might be traced to the +curious and unsatisfactory character of Hamann himself. After leaving +his second post he was received into the house of a merchant at Riga +named Johann Christoph Behrens, who contracted a great friendship for +him and selected him as his companion for a tour through Danzig, Berlin, +Hamburg, Amsterdam and London. Hamann, however, was quite unfitted for +business, and when left in London, gave himself up entirely to his +fancies, and was quickly reduced to a state of extreme poverty and want. +It was at this period of his life, when his inner troubles of spirit +harmonized with the unhappy external conditions of his lot, that he +began an earnest and prolonged study of the Bible; and from this time +dates the tone of extreme pietism which is characteristic of his +writings, and which undoubtedly alienated many of his friends. He +returned to Riga, and was well received by the Behrens family, in whose +house he resided for some time. A quarrel, the precise nature of which +is not very clear though the occasion is evident, led to an entire +separation from these friends. In 1759 Hamann returned to Königsberg, +and lived for several years with his father, filling occasional posts in +Königsberg and Mitau. In 1767 he obtained a situation as translator in +the excise office, and ten years later a post as storekeeper in a +mercantile house. During this period of comparative rest Hamann was able +to indulge in the long correspondence with learned friends which seems +to have been his greatest pleasure. In 1784 the failure of some +commercial speculations greatly reduced his means, and about the same +time he was dismissed with a small pension from his situation. The +kindness of friends, however, supplied provision for his children, and +enabled him to carry out the long-cherished wish of visiting some of his +philosophical allies. He spent some time with Jacobi at Pempelfort and +with Buchholz at Walbergen. At the latter place he was seized with +illness, and died on the 21st of June 1788. + + Hamann's works resemble his life and character. They are entirely + unsystematic so far as matter is concerned, chaotic and disjointed in + style. To a reader not acquainted with the peculiar nature of the man, + which led him to regard what commended itself to him as therefore + objectively true, they must be, moreover, entirely unintelligible and, + from their peculiar, pietistic tone and scriptural jargon, probably + offensive. A place in the history of philosophy can be yielded to + Hamann only because he expresses in uncouth, barbarous fashion an idea + to which other writers have given more effective shape. The + fundamental thought is with him the unsatisfactoriness of abstraction + or one-sidedness. The _Aufklärung_, with its rational theology, was to + him the type of abstraction. Even Epicureanism, which might appear + concrete, was by him rightly designated abstract. Quite naturally, + then, Hamann is led to object strongly to much of the Kantian + philosophy. The separation of sense and understanding is for him + unjustifiable, and only paralleled by the extraordinary blunder of + severing matter and form. Concreteness, therefore, is the one demand + which Hamann expresses, and as representing his own thought he used to + refer to Giordano Bruno's conception (previously held by Nicolaus + Curanus) of the identity of contraries. The demand, however, remains + but a demand. Nothing that Hamann has given can be regarded as in the + slightest degree a response to it. His hatred of system, incapacity + for abstract thinking, and intense personality rendered it impossible + for him to do more than utter the disjointed, oracular, obscure dicta + which gained for him among his friends the name of "Magus of the + North." Two results only appear throughout his writings--first, the + accentuation of belief; and secondly, the transference of many + philosophical difficulties to language. Belief is, according to + Hamann, the groundwork of knowledge, and he accepts in all sincerity + Hume's analysis of experience as being most helpful in constructing a + theological view. In language, which he appears to regard as somehow + acquired, he finds a solution for the problems of reason which Kant + had discussed in the _Kritik der reinen Vernunft_. On the application + of these thoughts to the Christian theology one need not enter. + + None of Hamann's writings is of great bulk; most are mere pamphlets of + some thirty or forty pages. A complete collection has been published + by F. Roth (_Schriften_, 8vo, 1821-1842), and by C. H. Gildemeister + (_Leben und Schriften_, 6 vols., 1851-1873). See also M. Petri, + _Hamanns Schriften u. Briefe_, (4 vols., 1872-1873); J. Poel, _Hamann, + der Magus im Norden, sein Leben u. Mitteilungen aus seinen Schriften_ + (2 vols., 1874-1876); J. Claassen, _Hamanns Leben und Werke_ (1885). + Also H. Weber, _Neue Hamanniana_ (1905). A very comprehensive essay on + Hamann is to be found in Hegel's _Vermischte Schriften_, ii. (Werke, + Bd. xvii.). On Hamann's influence on German literature, see J. Minor, + _J. G. Hamann in seiner Bedeutung für die Sturm- und Drang-Periode_ + (1881). + + + + +HAMAR, or STOREHAMMER (GREAT HAMAR), a town of Norway in Hedemarken +_amt_ (county), 78 m. by rail N. of Christiania. Pop. (1900), 6003. It +is pleasantly situated between two bays of the great Lake Mjösen, and is +the junction of the railways to Trondhjem (N.) and to Otta in +Gudbrandsdal (N.W.). The existing town was laid out in 1849, and made a +bishop's see in 1864. Near the same site there stood an older town, +which, together with a bishop's see, was founded in 1152 by the +Englishman Nicholas Breakspeare (afterwards Pope Adrian IV.); but both +town and cathedral were destroyed by the Swedes in 1567. Remains of the +latter include a nave-arcade with rounded arches. The town is a centre +for the local agricultural and timber trade. + + + + +HAMASA (HAMASAH), the name of a famous Arabian anthology compiled by +Habib ibn Aus at-Ta'i, surnamed Abu Tammam (see ABU TAMMAM). The +collection is so called from the title of its first book, containing +poems descriptive of constancy and valour in battle, patient endurance +of calamity, steadfastness in seeking vengeance, manfulness under +reproach and temptation, all which qualities make up the attribute +called by the Arabs _hamasah_ (briefly paraphrased by at-Tibrizi as +_ash-shiddah fi-l-amr_). It consists of ten books or parts, containing +in all 884 poems or fragments of poems, and named respectively--(1) +_al-Hamasa_, 261 pieces; (2) _al-Marathi_, "Dirges," 169 pieces; (3) +_al-Adab_, "Manners," 54 pieces; (4) _an-Nasib_, "The Beauty and Love of +Women," 139 pieces; (5) _al-Hija_, "Satires," 80 pieces; (6) _al-Adyaf +wa-l-Madih_, "Hospitality and Panegyric," 143 pieces; (7) _as-Sifat_, +"Miscellaneous Descriptions," 3 pieces; (8) _as-Sair wa-n-Nu'as_, +"Journeying and Drowsiness," 9 pieces; (9) _al-Mulah_, "Pleasantries," +38 pieces; and (10) _Madhammat-an-nisa_, "Dispraise of Women," 18 +pieces. Of these books the first is by far the longest, both in the +number and extent of its poems, and the first two together make up more +than half the bulk of the work. The poems are for the most part +fragments selected from longer compositions, though a considerable +number are probably entire. They are taken from the works of Arab poets +of all periods down to that of Abu Tammam himself (the latest +ascertainable date being A.D. 832), but chiefly of the poets of the +Ante-Islamic time (_Jahiliyyun_), those of the early days of Al-Islam +(_Mukhadrimun_), and those who flourished during the reigns of the +Omayyad caliphs, A.D. 660-749 (_Islamiyyun_). Perhaps the oldest in the +collection are those relating to the war of Basus, a famous legendary +strife which arose out of the murder of Kulaib, chief of the combined +clans of Bakr and Taghlib, and lasted for forty years, ending with the +peace of Dhu-l-Majaz, about A.D. 534. Of the period of the Abbasid +caliphs, under whom Abu Tammam himself lived, there are probably not +more than sixteen fragments. + +Most of the poems belong to the class of extempore or occasional +utterances, as distinguished from _qasidas_, or elaborately finished +odes. While the latter abound with comparisons and long descriptions, in +which the skill of the poet is exhibited with much art and ingenuity, +the poems of the _Hamasa_ are short, direct and for the most part free +from comparisons; the transitions are easy, the metaphors simple, and +the purpose of the poem clearly indicated. It is due probably to the +fact that this style of composition was chiefly sought by Abu Tammam in +compiling his collection that he has chosen hardly anything from the +works of the most famous poets of antiquity. Not a single piece from +Imra 'al-Qais (Amru-ul-Qais) occurs in the _Hamasa_, nor are there any +from 'Alqama, Zuhair or A'sha; Nabigha is represented only by two pieces +(pp. 408 and 742 of Freytag's edition) of four and three verses +respectively; 'Antara by two pieces of four verses each (id. pp. 206, +209); Tarafa by one piece of five verses (id. p. 632); Labid by one +piece of three verses (id. p. 468); and 'Amr ibn Kulthum by one piece of +four verses (id. p. 236). The compilation is thus essentially an +anthology of minor poets, and exhibits (so far at least as the more +ancient poems are concerned) the general average of poetic utterance at +a time when to speak in verse was the daily habit of every warrior of +the desert. + +To this description, however, there is an important exception in the +book entitled _an-Nasib_, containing verses relating to women and love. +In the classical age of Arab poetry it was the established rule that all +_qasidas_, or finished odes, whatever their purpose, must begin with the +mention of women and their charms (_tashbib_), in order, as the old +critics said, that the hearts of the hearers might be softened and +inclined to regard kindly the theme which the poet proposed to unfold. +The fragments included in this part of the work are therefore generally +taken from the opening verses of _qasidas_; where this is not the case, +they are chiefly compositions of the early Islamic period, when the +school of exclusively erotic poetry (of which the greatest +representative was 'Omar ibn Abi Rabi'a) arose. + +The compiler was himself a distinguished poet in the style of his day, +and wandered through many provinces of the Moslem empire earning money +and fame by his skill in panegyric. About 220 A.H. he betook himself to +Khorasan, then ruled by 'Abdallah ibn Tahir, whom he praised and by whom +he was rewarded; on his journey home to 'Irak he passed through +Hamadhan, and was there detained for many months a guest of Abu-l-Wafa, +son of Salama, the road onward being blocked by heavy falls of snow. +During his residence at Hamadhan, Abu Tammam is said to have compiled or +composed, from the materials which he found in Abu-l-Wafa's library, +five poetical works, of which one was the _Hamasa_. This collection +remained as a precious heirloom in the family of Abu-l-Wafa until their +fortunes decayed, when it fell into the hands of a man of Dinawar named +Abu-l-'Awadhil, who carried it to Isfahan and made it known to the +learned of that city. + +The worth of the _Hamasa_ as a store-house of ancient legend, of +faithful detail regarding the usages of the pagan time and early +simplicity of the Arab race, can hardly be exaggerated. The high level +of excellence which is found in its selections, both as to form and +matter, is remarkable, and caused it to be said that Abu Tammam +displayed higher qualities as a poet in his choice of extracts from the +ancients than in his own compositions. What strikes us chiefly in the +class of poetry of which the _Hamasa_ is a specimen, is its exceeding +truth and reality, its freedom from artificiality and hearsay, the +evident first-hand experience which the singers possessed of all of +which they sang. For historical purposes the value of the collection is +not small; but most of all there shines forth from it a complete +portraiture of the hardy and manful nature, the strenuous life of +passion and battle, the lofty contempt of cowardice, niggardliness and +servility, which marked the valiant stock who bore Islam abroad in a +flood of new life over the outworn civilizations of Persia, Egypt and +Byzantium. It has the true stamp of the heroic time, of its cruelty and +wantonness as of its strength and beauty. + + No fewer than twenty commentaries are enumerated by Hajji Khalifa. Of + these the earliest was by Abu Riyash (otherwise ar-Riyashi), who died + in 257 A.H.; excerpts from it, chiefly in elucidation of the + circumstances in which the poems were composed, are frequently given + by at-Tibrizi (Tabrizi). He was followed by the famous grammarian + Abu-l-Fath ibn al-Jinni (d. 392 A.H.), and later by Shihab ad-Din + Ahmad al-Marzuqi of Isfahan (d. 421 A.H.). Upon al-Marzuqi's + commentary is chiefly founded that of Abu Zakariya Yahya at-Tibrizi + (b. 421 A.H., d. 502), which has been published by the late Professor + G. W. Freytag of Bonn, together with a Latin translation and notes + (1828-1851). This monumental work, the labour of a life, is a treasure + of information regarding the classical age of Arab literature which + has not perhaps its equal for extent, accuracy, and minuteness of + detail in Europe. No other complete edition of the _Hamasa_ has been + printed in the West; but in 1856 one appeared at Calcutta under the + names of Maulavi Ghulam Rabbani and Kabiru-d-din Ahmad. Though no + acknowledgment of the fact is contained in this edition, it is a + simple reprint of Professor Freytag's text (without at-Tibrizi's + commentary), and follows its original even in the misprints (corrected + by Freytag at the end of the second volume, which being in Latin the + Calcutta editors do not seem to have consulted). It contains in an + appendix of 12 pages a collection of verses (and some entire + fragments) not found in at-Tibrizi's recension, but stated to exist in + some copies consulted by the editors; these are, however, very + carelessly edited and printed, and in many places unintelligible. + Freytag's text, with at-Tibrizi's commentary, has been reprinted at + Bulaq (1870). In 1882 an edition of the text, with a marginal + commentary by Munshi 'Abdul-Qadir ibn Shaikh Luqman, was published at + Bombay. + + The _Hamasa_ has been rendered with remarkable skill and spirit into + German verse by the illustrious Friedrich Rückert (Stuttgart, 1846), + who has not only given translations of almost all the poems proper to + the work, but has added numerous fragments drawn from other sources, + especially those occurring in the _scholia_ of at-Tibrizi, as well as + the Mu'allaqas of Zuhair and 'Antara, the _Lamiyya_ of Ash-Shanfarà, + and the Banat Su'ad of Ka'b, son of Zuhair. A small collection of + translations, chiefly in metres imitating those of the original, was + published in London by Sir Charles Lyall in 1885. + + When the _Hamasa_ is spoken of, that of Abu Tammam, as the first and + most famous of the name, is meant; but several collections of a + similar kind, also called _Hamasa_, exist. The best-known and earliest + of these is the _Hamasa_ of Buhturi (d. 284 A.H.), of which the unique + MS. now in the Leiden University Library, has been reproduced by + photo-lithography (1909); a critical edition has been prepared by + Professor Chlikho at Beyreuth. Four other works of the same name, + formed on the model of Abu Tammam's compilation, are mentioned by + Hajji Khalifa. Besides these, a work entitled _Hamasat ar-Rah_ ("the + Hamasa of wine") was composed of Abu-l-'Alaal-Ma'arri (d. 429 A.H.). + (C. J. L.) + + + + +HAMBURG, a state of the German empire, on the lower Elbe, bounded by the +Prussian provinces of Schleswig-Holstein and Hanover. The whole +territory has an area of 160 sq. m., and consists of the city of Hamburg +with its incorporated suburbs and the surrounding district, including +several islands in the Elbe, five small enclaves in Holstein; the +communes of Moorburg in the Lüneburg district of the Prussian province +of Hanover and Cuxhaven-Ritzebüttel at the mouth of the Elbe, the island +of Neuwerk about 5 m. from the coast, and the bailiwick (_amt_) of +Bergedorf, which down to 1867 was held in common by Lübeck and Hamburg. +Administratively the state is divided into the city, or metropolitan +district, and four rural domains (or _Landherrenschaften_), each under a +senator as _praeses_, viz. the domain of the Geestlande, of the +Marschlande, of Bergedorf and of Ritzebüttel with Cuxhaven. +Cuxhaven-Ritzebüttel and Bergedorf are the only towns besides the +capital. The Geestlande comprise the suburban districts encircling the +city on the north and west; the Marschlande includes various islands in +the Elbe and the fertile tract of land lying between the northern and +southern arms of the Elbe, and with its pastures and market gardens +supplying Hamburg with large quantities of country produce. In the +Bergedorf district lies the Vierlande, or Four Districts (Neuengamme, +Kirchwärder, Altengamme and Curslack), celebrated for its fruit gardens +and the picturesque dress of the inhabitants. Ritzebüttel with Cuxhaven, +also a watering-place, have mostly a seafaring population. Two rivers, +the Alster and the Bille, flow through the city of Hamburg into the +Elbe, the mouth of which, at Cuxhaven, is 75 m. below the city. + +_Government._--As a state of the empire, Hamburg is represented in the +federal council (_Bundesrat_) by one plenipotentiary, and in the +imperial diet (_Reichstag_) by three deputies. Its present constitution +came into force on the 1st of January 1861, and was revised in 1879 and +again in 1906. According to this Hamburg is a republic, the government +(_Staatsgewalt_) residing in two chambers, the Senate and the House of +Burgesses. The Senate, which exercises the greater part of the executive +power, is composed of eighteen members, one half of whom must have +studied law or finance, while at least seven of the remainder must +belong to the class of merchants. The members of the Senate are elected +for life by the House of Burgesses; but a senator is free to retire from +office at the expiry of six years. A chief (_ober-_) and second +(_zweiter-_) burgomaster, the first of whom bears the title of +"Magnificence," chosen annually in secret ballot, preside over the +meetings of the Senate, and are usually jurists. No burgomaster can be +in office for longer than two years consecutively, and no member of the +Senate may hold any other public office. The House of Burgesses consists +of 160 members, of whom 80 are elected in secret ballot by the direct +suffrages of all tax-paying citizens, 40 by the owners of house-property +within the city (also by ballot), and the remaining 40, by ballot also, +by the so-called "notables," i.e. active and former members of the law +courts and administrative boards. They are elected for a period of six +years, but as half of each class retire at the end of three years, new +elections for one half the number take place at the end of that time. +The House of Burgesses is represented by a _Bürgerausschuss_ (committee +of the house) of twenty deputies whose duty it is to watch over the +proceedings of the Senate and the constitution generally. The Senate can +interpose a veto in all matters of legislation, saving taxation, and +where there is a collision between the two bodies, provision is made for +reference to a court of arbitration, consisting of members of both +houses in equal numbers, and also to the supreme court of the empire +(_Reichsgericht_) sitting at Leipzig. The law administered is that of +the civil and penal codes of the German empire, and the court of appeal +for all three Hanse towns is the common _Oberlandesgericht_, which has +its seat in Hamburg. There is also a special court of arbitration in +commercial disputes and another for such as arise under accident +insurance. + +_Religion._--The church in Hamburg is completely separated from the +state and manages its affairs independently. The ecclesiastical +arrangements of Hamburg have undergone great modifications since the +general constitution of 1860. From the Reformation to the French +occupation in the beginning of the 19th century, Hamburg was a purely +Lutheran state; according to the "Recess" of 1529, re-enacted in 1603, +non-Lutherans were subject to legal punishment and expulsion from the +country. Exceptions were gradually made in favour of foreign residents; +but it was not till 1785 that regular inhabitants were allowed to +exercise the religious rites of other denominations, and it was not till +after the war of freedom that they were allowed to have buildings in the +style of churches. In 1860 full religious liberty was guaranteed, and +the identification of church and state abolished. By the new +constitution of the Lutheran Church, published at first in 1870 for the +city only, but in 1876 extended to the rest of the Hamburg territory, +the parishes or communes are divided into three church-districts, and +the general affairs of the whole community are entrusted to a synod of +53 members and to an ecclesiastical council of 9 members which acts as +an executive. Since 1887 a church rate has been levied on the +Evangelical-Lutheran communities, and since 1904 upon the Roman +Catholics also. The German Reformed Church, the French Reformed, the +English Episcopal, the English Reformed, the Roman Catholic, and the +Baptist are all recognized by the state. Civil marriages have been +permissible in Hamburg since 1866, and since the introduction of the +imperial law in January 1876 the number of such marriages has greatly +increased. + +_Finance._--The jurisdiction of the Free Port was on the 1st of January +1882 restricted to the city and port by the extension of the Zollverein +to the lower Elbe, and in 1888 the whole of the state of Hamburg, with +the exception of the so-called "Free Harbour" (which comprises the port +proper and some large warehouses, set apart for goods in bond), was +taken into the Zollverein. + +_Population._--The population increased from 453,000 in 1880 to 622,530 +in 1890, and in 1905 amounted to 874,878. The population of the country +districts (exclusive of the city of Hamburg) was 72,085 in 1905. The +crops raised in the country districts are principally vegetables and +fruit, potatoes, hay, oats, rye and wheat. For manufactures and trade +statistics see HAMBURG (city). + +The military organization of Hamburg was arranged by convention with +Prussia. The state furnishes three battalions of the 2nd Hanseatic +regiment, under Prussian officers. The soldiers swear the oath of +allegiance to the senate. + + + + +HAMBURG, a seaport of Germany, capital of the free state of Hamburg, on +the right bank of the northern arm of the Elbe, 75 m. from its mouth at +Cuxhaven and 178 m. N.W. from Berlin by rail. It is the largest and most +important seaport on the continent of Europe and (after London and New +York) the third largest in the world. Were it not for political and +municipal boundaries Hamburg might be considered as forming with Altona +and Ottensen (which lie within Prussian territory) one town. The view of +the three from the south, presenting a continuous river frontage of six +miles, the river crowded with shipping and the densely packed houses +surmounted by church towers--of which three are higher than the dome of +St Paul's in London--is one of great magnificence. + +The city proper lies on both sides of the little river Alster, which, +dammed up a short distance from its mouth, forms a lake, of which the +southern portion within the line of the former fortifications bears the +name of the Inner Alster (_Binnen Alster_), and the other and larger +portion (2500 yards long and 1300 yards at the widest) that of the Outer +Alster (_Aussen Alster_). The fortifications as such were removed in +1815, but they have left their trace in a fine girdle of green round the +city, though too many inroads on its completeness have been made by +railways and roadways. The oldest portion of the city is that which lies +to the east of the Alster; but, though it still retains the name of +Altstadt, nearly all trace of its antiquity has disappeared, as it was +rebuilt after the great fire of 1842. To the west lies the new town +(Neustadt), incorporated in 1678; beyond this and contiguous to Altona +is the former suburb of St Pauli, incorporated in 1876, and towards the +north-east that of St Georg, which arose in the 13th century but was not +incorporated till 1868. + +[Illustration: Map of Hamburg.] + +The old town lies low, and it is traversed by a great number of narrow +canals or "fleets" (_Fleeten_)--for the same word which has left its +trace in London nomenclature is used in the Low German city--which add +considerably to the picturesqueness of the meaner quarters, and serve as +convenient channels for the transport of goods. They generally form what +may be called the back streets, and they are bordered by warehouses, +cellars and the lower class of dwelling-houses. As they are subject to +the ebb and flow of the Elbe, at certain times they run almost dry. As +soon as the telegram at Cuxhaven announces high tide three shots are +fired from the harbour to warn the inhabitants of the "fleets"; and if +the progress of the tide up the river gives indication of danger, +another three shots follow. The "fleets" with their quaint medieval +warehouses, which come sheer down to the water, and are navigated by +barges, have gained for Hamburg the name of "Northern Venice." They are, +however, though antique and interesting, somewhat dismal and unsavoury. +In fine contrast to them is the bright appearance of the Binnen Alster, +which is enclosed on three sides by handsome rows of buildings, the +Alsterdamm in the east, the Alter Jungfernstieg in the south, and the +Neuer Jungfernstieg in the west, while it is separated from the Aussen +Alster by part of the rampart gardens traversed by the railway uniting +Hamburg with Altona and crossing the lakes by a beautiful bridge--the +Lombards-Brücke. Around the outer lake are grouped the suburbs +Harvestehude and Pösseldorf on the western shore, and Uhlenhorst on the +eastern, with park-like promenades and villas surrounded by well-kept +gardens. Along the southern end of the Binnen Alster runs the +Jungfernstieg with fine shops, hotels and restaurants facing the water. +A fleet of shallow-draught screw steamers provides a favourite means of +communication between the business centre of the city and the outlying +colonies of villas. + +The streets enclosing the Binnen Alster are fashionable promenades, and +leading directly from this quarter are the main business thoroughfares, +the Neuer-Wall, the Grosse Bleichen and the Hermannstrasse. The largest +of the public squares in Hamburg is the Hopfenmarkt, which contains the +church of St Nicholas (Nikolaikirche) and is the principal market for +vegetables and fruit. Others of importance are the Gänsemarkt, the +Zeughausmarkt and the Grossneumarkt. Of the thirty-five churches +existing in Hamburg (the old cathedral had to be taken down in 1805), +the St Petrikirche, Nikolaikirche, St Katharinenkirche, St Jakobikirche +and St Michaeliskirche are those that give their names to the five old +city parishes. The Nikolaikirche is especially remarkable for its spire, +which is 473 ft. high and ranks, after those of Ulm and Cologne, as the +third highest ecclesiastical edifice in the world. The old church was +destroyed in the great fire of 1842, and the new building, designed by +Sir George Gilbert Scott in 13th century Gothic, was erected 1845-1874. +The exterior and interior are elaborately adorned with sculptures. +Sandstone from Osterwald near Hildesheim was used for the outside, and +for the inner work a softer variety from Postelwitz near Dresden. The +Michaeliskirche, which is built on the highest point in the city and has +a tower 428 ft. high, was erected (1750-1762) by Ernst G. Sonnin on the +site of the older building of the 17th century destroyed by lightning; +the interior, which can contain 3000 people, is remarkable for its bold +construction, there being no pillars. The St Petrikirche, originally +consecrated in the 12th century and rebuilt in the 14th, was the oldest +church in Hamburg; it was burnt in 1842 and rebuilt in its old form in +1844-1849. It has a graceful tapering spire 402 ft. in height (completed +1878); the granite columns from the old cathedral, the stained glass +windows by Kellner of Nuremberg, and H. Schubert's fine relief of the +entombment of Christ are worthy of notice. The St Katharinenkirche and +the St Jakobikirche are the only surviving medieval churches, but +neither is of special interest. Of the numerous other churches, +Evangelical, Roman Catholic and Anglican, none are of special interest. +The new synagogue was built by Rosengarten between 1857 and 1859, and to +the same architect is due the sepulchral chapel built for the Hamburg +merchant prince Johann Heinrich, Freiherr von Schröder (1784-1883), in +the churchyard of the Petrikirche. The beautiful chapel of St Gertrude +was unfortunately destroyed in 1842. + +Hamburg has comparatively few secular buildings of great architectural +interest, but first among them is the new Rathaus, a huge German +Renaissance building, constructed of sandstone in 1886-1897, richly +adorned with sculptures and with a spire 330 ft. in height. It is the +place of meeting of the municipal council and of the senate and contains +the city archives. Immediately adjoining it and connected with it by two +wings is the exchange. It was erected in 1836-1841 on the site of the +convent of St Mary Magdalen and escaped the conflagration of 1842. It +was restored and enlarged in 1904, and shelters the commercial library +of nearly 100,000 vols. During the business hours (1-3 P.M.) the +exchange is crowded by some 5000 merchants and brokers. In the same +neighbourhood is the Johanneum, erected in 1834 and in which are +preserved the town library of about 600,000 printed books and 5000 MSS. +and the collection of Hamburg antiquities. In the courtyard is a statue +(1885) of the reformer Johann Bugenhagen. In the Fischmarkt, immediately +south of the Johanneum, a handsome fountain was erected in 1890. +Directly west of the town hall is the new Stadthaus, the chief police +station of the town, in front of which is a bronze statue of the +burgomaster Karl Friedrich Petersen (1809-1892), erected in 1897. A +little farther away are the headquarters of the Patriotic Society +(_Patriotische Gesellschaft_), founded in 1765, with fine rooms for the +meetings of artistic and learned societies. Several new public buildings +have been erected along the circuit of the former walls. Near the west +extremity, abutting upon the Elbe, the moat was filled in in 1894-1897, +and some good streets were built along the site, while the Kersten +Miles-Brücke, adorned with statues of four Hamburg heroes, was thrown +across the Helgoländer Allee. Farther north, along the line of the +former town wall, are the criminal law courts (1879-1882, enlarged 1893) +and the civil law courts (finished in 1901). Close to the latter stand +the new supreme court, the old age and accident state insurance offices, +the chief custom house, and the concert hall, founded by Karl Laeisz, a +former Hamburg wharfinger. Farther on are the chemical and the physical +laboratories and the Hygienic Institute. Facing the botanical gardens a +new central post-office, in the Renaissance style, was built in 1887. At +the west end of the Lombards-Brücke there is a monument by Schilling, +commemorating the war of 1870-71. A few streets south of that is a +monument to Lessing (1881); while occupying a commanding site on the +promenades towards Altona is the gigantic statue of Bismarck which was +unveiled in June 1906. The Kunst-Halle (the picture gallery), containing +some good works by modern masters, faces the east end of +Lombards-Brücke. The new Natural History Museum, completed in 1891, +stands a little distance farther south. To the east of it comes the +Museum for Art and Industry, founded in 1878, now one of the most +important institutions of the kind in Germany, with which is connected a +trades school. Close by is the Hansa-fountain (65 ft. high), erected in +1878. On the north-east side of the suburb of St Georg a botanical +museum and laboratory have been established. There is a new general +hospital at Eppendorf, outside the town on the north, built on the +pavilion principle, and one of the finest structures of the kind in +Europe; and at Ohlsdorf, in the same direction, a crematorium was built +in 1891 in conjunction with the town cemeteries (370 acres). There must +also be mentioned the fine public zoological gardens, Hagenbeck's +private zoological gardens in the vicinity, the schools of music and +navigation, and the school of commerce. In 1900 a high school for +shipbuilding was founded, and in 1901 an institute for seamen's and +tropical diseases, with a laboratory for their physiological study, was +opened, and also the first public free library in the city. The river is +spanned just above the Frei Hafen by a triple-arched railway bridge, +1339 ft. long, erected in 1868-1873 and doubled in width in 1894. Some +270 yds. higher up is a magnificent iron bridge (1888) for vehicles and +foot passengers. The southern arm of the Elbe, on the south side of the +island of Wilhelmsburg, is crossed by another railway bridge of four +arches and 2050 ft. in length. + +_Railways._--The through railway traffic of Hamburg is practically +confined to that proceeding northwards--to Kiel and Jutland--and for the +accommodation of such trains the central (terminus) station at Altona is +the chief gathering point. The Hamburg stations, connected with the +other by the Verbindungs-Bahn (or metropolitan railway) crossing the +Lombards-Brücke, are those of the Venloer (or Hanoverian, as it is often +called) Bahnhof on the south-east, in close proximity to the harbour, +into which converge the lines from Cologne and Bremen, Hanover and +Frankfort-on-Main, and from Berlin, via Nelzen; the Klostertor-Bahnhof +(on the metropolitan line) which temporarily superseded the old Berlin +station, and the Lübeck station a little to the north-east, during the +erection of the new central station, which occupies a site between the +Klostertor-Bahnhof and the Lombards-Brücke. Between this central station +and Altona terminus runs the metropolitan railway, which has been raised +several feet so as to bridge over the streets, and on which lie the +important stations Dammtor and Sternschanze. An excellent service of +electric trams interconnect the towns of Hamburg, Altona and the +adjacent suburbs, and steamboats provide communication on the Elbe with +the riparian towns and villages; and so with Blankenese and Harburg, +with Stade, Glückstadt and Cuxhaven. + +_Trade and Shipping._--Probably there is no place which during the last +thirty years of the 19th century grew faster commercially than Hamburg. +Its commerce is, however, almost entirely of the nature of transit +trade, for it is not only the chief distributing centre for the middle +of Europe of the products of all other parts of the world, but is also +the chief outlet for German, Austrian, and even to some extent Russian +(Polish) raw products and manufactures. Its principal imports are coffee +(of which it is the greatest continental market), tea, sugar, spices, +rice, wine (especially from Bordeaux), lard (from Chicago), cereals, +sago, dried fruits, herrings, wax (from Morocco and Mozambique), +tobacco, hemp, cotton (which of late years shows a large increase), +wool, skins, leather, oils, dyewoods, indigo, nitrates, phosphates and +coal. Of the total importations of all kinds of coal to Hamburg, that of +British coal, particularly from Northumberland and Durham, occupies the +first place, and despite some falling off in late years, owing to the +competition made by Westphalian coal, amounts to more than half the +total import. The increase of the trade of Hamburg is most strikingly +shown by that of the shipping belonging to the port. Between 1876 and +1880 there were 475 sailing vessels with a tonnage of 230,691, and 110 +steam-ships with a tonnage of 87,050. In 1907 there were (exclusive of +fishing vessels) 470 sailing ships with a tonnage of 271,661, and 610 +steamers with a tonnage of 1,256,449. In 1870 the crews numbered 6900 +men, in 1907 they numbered 29,536. + +_Industries._--The development of manufacturing industries at Hamburg +and its immediate vicinity since 1880, though not so rapid as that of +its trade and shipping, has been very remarkable, and more especially +has this been the case since the year 1888, when Hamburg joined the +German customs union, and the barriers which prevented goods +manufactured at Hamburg from entering into other parts of Germany were +removed. Among the chief industries are those for the production of +articles of food and drink. The import trade of various cereals by sea +to Hamburg is very large, and a considerable portion of this corn is +converted into flour at Hamburg itself. There are also, in this +connexion, numerous bakeries for biscuit, rice-peeling mills and spice +mills. Besides the foregoing there are cocoa, chocolate, confectionery +and baking-powder factories, coffee-roasting and ham-curing and smoking +establishments, lard refineries, margarine manufactories and +fish-curing, preserving and packing factories. There are numerous +breweries, producing annually about 24,000,000 gallons of beer, spirit +distilleries and factories of artificial waters. Yarns, textile goods +and weaving industries generally have not attained any great dimensions, +but there are large jute-spinning mills and factories for cotton-wool +and cotton driving-belts. Among other important articles of domestic +industry are tobacco and cigars (manufactured mainly in bond, within the +free harbour precincts), hydraulic machinery, electro-technical +machinery, chemical products (including artificial manures), oils, +soaps, india-rubber, ivory and celluloid articles and the manufacture of +leather. + +Shipbuilding has made very important progress, and there are at present +in Hamburg eleven large shipbuilding yards, employing nearly 10,000 +hands. Of these, however, only three are of any great extent, and one, +where the largest class of ocean-going steamers and of war vessels for +the German navy are built, employs about 5000 persons. There are also +two yards for the building of pleasure yachts and rowing-boats (in both +which branches of sport Hamburg takes a leading place in Germany). Art +industries, particularly those which appeal to the luxurious taste of +the inhabitants in fitting their houses, such as wall-papers and +furniture, and those which are included in the equipment of ocean-going +steamers, have of late years made rapid strides and are among the best +productions of this character of any German city. + + _Harbour._--It was the accession of Hamburg to the customs union in + 1888 which gave such a vigorous impulse to her more recent commercial + development. At the same time a portion of the port was set apart as a + free harbour, altogether an area of 750 acres of water and 1750 acres + of dry land. In anticipation of this event a gigantic system of docks, + basins and quays was constructed, at a total cost of some £7,000,000 + (of which the imperial treasury contributed £2,000,000), between the + confluence of the Alster and the railway bridge (1868-1873), an entire + quarter of the town inhabited by some 24,000 people being cleared away + to make room for these accessories of a great port. On the north side + of the Elbe there are the Sandtor basin (3380 ft. long, 295 to 427 ft. + wide), in which British and Dutch steamboats and steamboats of the + Sloman (Mediterranean) line anchor. South of this lies the Grasbrook + basin (quayage of 2100 ft. and 1693 ft. alongside), which is used by + French, Swedish and transatlantic steamers. At the quay point between + these two basins there are vast state granaries. On the outer (i.e. + river) side of the Grasbrook dock is the quay at which the emigrants + for South America embark, and from which the mail boats for East + Africa, the boats of the Woermann (West Africa) line, and the + Norwegian tourist boats depart. To the east of these two is the small + Magdeburg basin, penetrating north, and the Baaken basin, penetrating + east, i.e. parallel to the river. The latter affords accommodation to + the transatlantic steamers, including the emigrant ships of the + Hamburg-America line, though their "ocean mail boats" generally load + and unload at Cuxhaven. On the south bank of the stream there follow + in succession, going from east to west, the Moldau dock for river + craft, the sailing vessel dock (Segelschiff Hafen, 3937 ft. long, 459 + to 886 ft. wide, 26¼ ft. deep), the Hansa dock, India dock, petroleum + dock, several swimming and dry docks; and in the west of the free + port area three other large docks, one of 77 acres for river craft, + the others each 56 acres in extent, and one 23¾ ft. deep, the other + 26¼ ft. deep, at low water, constructed in 1900-1901. In 1897 Hamburg + was provided with a huge floating dock, 558 ft. long and 84 ft. in + maximum breadth, capable of holding a vessel of 17,500 tons and + draught not exceeding 29 ft., so constructed and equipped that in time + of need (war) it could be floated down to Cuxhaven. During the last 25 + years of the 19th century the channel of the Elbe was greatly improved + and deepened, and during the last two years of the 19th century some + £360,000 was spent by Hamburg alone in regulating and correcting this + lower course of the river. The new Kuhwärder-basin, on the left bank + of the river, as well as two other large dock basins (now leased to + the Hamburg-American Company), raise the number of basins to twelve in + all. + + _Emigration._--Hamburg is one of the principal continental ports for + the embarkation of emigrants. In 1881-1890, on an average they + numbered 90,000 a year (of whom 60,000 proceeded to the United + States). In 1900 the number was 87,153 (and to the United States + 64,137). The number of emigrant Germans has enormously decreased of + late years, Russia and Austria-Hungary now being most largely + represented. For the accommodation of such passengers large and + convenient emigrant shelters have been recently erected close to the + wharf of embarkation. + + _Health and Population._--The health of the city of Hamburg and the + adjoining district may be described as generally good, no epidemic + diseases having recently appeared to any serious degree. The malady + causing the greatest number of deaths is that of pulmonary + consumption; but better housing accommodation has of late years + reduced the mortality from this disease very considerably. The results + of the census of 1905 showed the population of the city (not including + the rural districts belonging to the state of Hamburg) to be 802,793. + + Hamburg is well supplied with places of amusement, especially of the + more popular kind. Its Stadt-Theater, rebuilt in 1874, has room for + 1750 spectators and is particularly devoted to operatic performances; + the Thalia-Theater dates from 1841, and holds 1700 to 1800 people, and + the Schauspielhaus (for drama) from 1900 people, and there are some + seven or eight minor establishments. Theatrical performances were + introduced into the city in the 17th century, and 1678 is the date of + the first opera, which was played in a house in the Gänsemarkt. Under + Schröder and Lessing the Hamburg stage rose into importance. Though + contributing few names of the highest rank to German literature, the + city has been intimately associated with the literary movement. The + historian Lappenberg and Friedrich von Hagedorn were born in Hamburg; + and not only Lessing, but Heine and Klopstock lived there for some + time. + +_History._--Hamburg probably had its origin in a fortress erected in 808 +by Charlemagne, on an elevation between the Elbe and Alster, as a +defence against the Slavs, and called Hammaburg because of the +surrounding forest (_Hamme_). In 811 Charlemagne founded a church here, +perhaps on the site of a Saxon place of sacrifice, and this became a +great centre for the evangelization of the north of Europe, missionaries +from Hamburg introducing Christianity into Jutland and the Danish +islands and even into Sweden and Norway. In 834 Hamburg became an +archbishopric, St Ansgar, a monk of Corbie and known as the apostle of +the North, being the first metropolitan. In 845 church, monastery and +town were burnt down by the Norsemen, and two years later the see of +Hamburg was united with that of Bremen and its seat transferred to the +latter city. The town, rebuilt after this disaster, was again more than +once devastated by invading Danes and Slavs. Archbishop Unwan of +Hamburg-Bremen (1013-1029) substituted a chapter of canons for the +monastery, and in 1037 Archbishop Bezelin (or Alebrand) built a stone +cathedral and a palace on the Elbe. In 1110 Hamburg, with Holstein, +passed into the hands of Adolph I., count of Schauenburg, and it is with +the building of the Neustadt (the present parish of St Nicholas) by his +grandson, Adolph III. of Holstein, that the history of the commercial +city actually begins. In return for a contribution to the costs of a +crusade, he obtained from the emperor Frederick I. in 1189 a charter +granting Hamburg considerable franchises, including exemption from +tolls, a separate court and jurisdiction, and the rights of fishery on +the Elbe from the city to the sea. The city council (_Rath_), first +mentioned in 1190, had jurisdiction over both the episcopal and the new +town. Craft gilds were already in existence, but these had no share in +the government; for, though the Lübeck rule excluding craftsmen from the +_Rath_ did not obtain, they were excluded in practice. The counts, of +course, as over-lords, had their _Vogt_ (_advocatus_) in the town, but +this official, as the city grew in power, became subordinate to the +_Rath_, as at Lübeck. + +The wealth of the town was increased in 1189 by the destruction of the +flourishing trading centre of Bardowieck by Henry the Lion; from this +time it began to be much frequented by Flemish merchants. In 1201 the +city submitted to Valdemar of Schleswig, after his victory over the +count of Holstein, but in 1225, owing to the capture of King Valdemar +II. of Denmark by Henry of Schwerin, it once more exchanged the Danish +over-lordship for that of the counts of Schauenburg, who established +themselves here and in 1231 built a strong castle to hold it in check. +The defensive alliance of the city with Lübeck in 1241, extended for +other purpose by the treaty of 1255, practically laid the foundations of +the Hanseatic League (q.v.), of which Hamburg continued to be one of the +principal members. The internal organization of the city, too, was +rendered more stable by the new constitution of 1270, and the +recognition in 1292 of the complete internal autonomy of the city by the +count of Schauenburg. The exclusion of the handicraftsmen from the +_Rath_ led, early in the 15th century, to a rising of the craft gilds +against the patrician merchants, and in 1410 they forced the latter to +recognize the authority of a committee of 48 burghers, which concluded +with the senate the so-called First Recess; there were, however, fresh +outbursts in 1458 and 1483, which were settled by further compromises. +In 1461 Hamburg did homage to Christian I. of Denmark, as heir of the +Schauenburg counts; but the suzerainty of Denmark was merely nominal and +soon repudiated altogether; in 1510 Hamburg was made a free imperial +city by the emperor Maximilian I. + +In 1529 the Reformation was definitively established in Hamburg by the +Great Recess of the 19th of February, which at the same time vested the +government of the city in the _Rath_, together with the three colleges +of the _Oberalten_, the Forty-eight (increased to 60 in 1685) and the +Hundred and Forty-four (increased to 180). The ordinary burgesses +consisted of the freeholders and the master-workmen of the gilds. In +1536 Hamburg joined the league of Schmalkalden, for which error it had +to pay a heavy fine in 1547 when the league had been defeated. During +the same period the Lutheran zeal of the citizens led to the expulsion +of the Mennonites and other Protestant sects, who founded Altona. The +loss this brought to the city was, however, compensated for by the +immigration of Protestant refugees from the Low Countries and Jews from +Spain and Portugal. In 1549, too, the English merchant adventurers +removed their staple from Antwerp to Hamburg. + +The 17th century saw notable developments. Hamburg had established, so +early as the 16th century, a regular postal service with certain cities +in the interior of Germany, e.g. Leipzig and Breslau; in 1615 it was +included in the postal system of Turn and Taxis. In 1603 Hamburg +received a code of laws regulating exchange, and in 1619 the bank was +established. In 1615 the Neustadt was included within the city walls. +During the Thirty Years' War the city received no direct harm; but the +ruin of Germany reacted upon its prosperity, and the misery of the lower +orders led to an agitation against the _Rath_. In 1685, at the +invitation of the popular leaders, the Danes appeared before Hamburg +demanding the traditional homage; they were repulsed, but the internal +troubles continued, culminating in 1708 in the victory of the democratic +factions. The imperial government, however, intervened, and in 1712 the +"Great Recess" established durable good relations between the _Rath_ and +the commonalty. Frederick IV. of Denmark, who had seized the opportunity +to threaten the city (1712), was bought off with a ransom of 246,000 +_Reichsthaler_. Denmark, however, only finally renounced her claims by +the treaty of Gottorp in 1768, and in 1770 Hamburg was admitted for the +first time to a representation in the diet of the empire. + +The trade of Hamburg received its first great impulse in 1783, when the +United States, by the treaty of Paris, became an independent power. From +this time dates its first direct maritime communication with America. +Its commerce was further extended and developed by the French +occupation of Holland in 1795, when the Dutch trade was largely directed +to its port. The French Revolution and the insecurity of the political +situation, however, exercised a depressing and retarding effect. The +wars which ensued, the closing of continental ports against English +trade, the occupation of the city after the disastrous battle of Jena, +and pestilence within its walls brought about a severe commercial crisis +and caused a serious decline in its prosperity. Moreover, the great +contributions levied by Napoleon on the city, the plundering of its bank +by Davoust, and the burning of its prosperous suburbs inflicted wounds +from which the city but slowly recovered. Under the long peace which +followed the close of the Napoleonic wars, its trade gradually revived, +fostered by the declaration of independence of South and Central +America, with both of which it energetically opened close commercial +relations, and by the introduction of steam navigation. The first +steamboat was seen on the Elbe on the 17th of June 1816; in 1826 a +regular steam communication was opened with London; and in 1856 the +first direct steamship line linked the port with the United States. The +great fire of 1842 (5th-8th of May) laid in waste the greatest part of +the business quarter of the city and caused a temporary interruption of +its commerce. The city, however, soon rose from its ashes, the churches +were rebuilt and new streets laid out on a scale of considerable +magnificence. In 1866 Hamburg joined the North German Confederation, and +in 1871, while remaining outside the Zollverein, became a constituent +state of the German empire. In 1883-1888 the works for the Free Harbour +were completed, and on the 18th of October 1888 Hamburg joined the +Customs Union (Zollverein). In 1892 the cholera raged within its walls, +carried off 8500 of its inhabitants, and caused considerable losses to +its commerce and industry; but the visitation was not without its +salutary fruits, for an improved drainage system, better hospital +accommodation, and a purer water-supply have since combined to make it +one of the healthiest commercial cities of Europe. + + Further details about Hamburg will be found in the following works: O. + C. Gaedechens, _Historische Topographie der Freien und Hansestadt + Hamburg_ (1880); E. H. Wichmann, _Heimatskunde von Hamburg_ (1863); W. + Melhop, _Historische Topographie der Freien und Hansestadt Hamburg von + 1880-1895_ (1896); Wulff, _Hamburgische Gesetze und Verordnungen_ + (1889-1896); and W. von Melle, _Das hamburgische Staatsrecht_ (1891). + There are many valuable official publications which may be consulted, + among these being: _Statistik des hamburgischen Staates_ (1867-1904); + _Hamburgs Handel und Schiffahrt_ (1847-1903); the yearly + _Hamburgischer Staatskalender_; and _Jahrbuch der Hamburger + wissenschaftlichen Anstalten_. See also _Hamburg und seine Bauten_ + (1890); H. Benrath, _Lokalführer durch Hamburg und Umgebungen_ (1904); + and the consular reports by Sir William Ward, H.B.M.'s consul-general + at Hamburg, to whom the author is indebted for great assistance in + compiling this article. + + For the history of Hamburg see the _Zeitschrift des Vereins für + hamburgische Geschichte_ (1841, fol.); G. Dehio, _Geschichte des + Erzbistums Hamburg-Bremen_ (Berlin, 1877); the _Hamburgisches + Urkundenbuch_ (1842), the _Hamburgische Chroniken_ (1852-1861), and + the _Chronica der Stadt Hamburg bis 1557_ of Adam Tratziger (1865), + all three edited by J. M. Lappenberg; the _Briefsammlung des + hamburgischen Superintendenten Joachim Westphal 1530-1575_, edited by + C. H. W. Sillem (1903); Gallois, _Geschichte der Stadt Hamburg_ + (1853-1856); K. Koppmann, _Aus Hamburgs Vergangenheit_ (1885), and + _Kammereirechnungen der Stadt Hamburg_ (1869-1894); H. W. C. Hubbe, + _Beiträge zur Geschichte der Stadt Hamburg_ (1897); C. Mönckeberg, + _Geschichte der Freien und Hansestadt Hamburg_ (1885); E. H. Wichmann, + _Hamburgische Geschichte in Darstellungen aus alter und neuer Zeit_ + (1889); and R. Bollheimer, _Zeittafeln der hamburgischen Geschichte_ + (1895). + + + + +HAMDANI, in full ABU MAHOMMED UL-HASAN IBN AHMAD IBN YA'QUB UL-HAMDANI +(d. 945), Arabian geographer, also known as Ibn ul-Ha'ik. Little is +known of him except that he belonged to a family of Yemen, was held in +repute as a grammarian in his own country, wrote much poetry, compiled +astronomical tables, devoted most of his life to the study of the +ancient history and geography of Arabia, and died in prison at San'a in +945. His _Geography of the Arabian Peninsula_ (_Kitab Jazirat ul-'Arab_) +is by far the most important work on the subject. After being used in +manuscript by A. Sprenger in his _Post- und Reiserouten des Orients_ +(Leipzig, 1864) and further in his _Alte Geographie Arabiens_ (Bern, +1875), it was edited by D. H. Müller (Leiden, 1884; cf. A. Sprenger's +criticism in _Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft_, +vol. 45, pp. 361-394). Much has also been written on this work by E. +Glaser in his various publications on ancient Arabia. The other great +work of Hamdani is the _Iklil_ (Crown) concerning the genealogies of the +Himyarites and the wars of their kings in ten volumes. Of this, part 8, +on the citadels and castles of south Arabia, has been edited and +annotated by D. H. Müller in _Die Burgen und Schlösser Südarabiens_ +(Vienna, 1879-1881). + + For other works said to have been written by Hamdani cf. G. Flügel's + _Die grammatischen Schulen der Araber_ (Leipzig, 1862), pp. 220-221. + (G. W. T.) + + + + +HAMELIN, FRANÇOIS ALPHONSE (1796-1864), French admiral, was born at Pont +l'Évêque on the 2nd of September 1796. He went to sea with his uncle, J. +F. E. Hamelin, in the "Vénus" frigate in 1806 as cabin boy. The "Vénus" +was part of the French squadron in the Indian Ocean, and young Hamelin +had an opportunity of seeing much active service. She, in company with +another and a smaller vessel, captured the English frigate "Ceylon" in +1810, but was immediately afterwards captured herself by the "Boadicéa," +under Commodore Rowley (1765-1842). Young Hamelin was a prisoner of war +for a short time. He returned to France in 1811. On the fall of the +Empire he had better fortune than most of the Napoleonic officers who +were turned ashore. In 1821 he became lieutenant, and in 1823 took part +in the French expedition under the duke of Angoulême into Spain. In 1828 +he was appointed captain of the "Actéon," and was engaged till 1831 on +the coast of Algiers and in the conquest of the town and country. His +first command as flag officer was in the Pacific, where he showed much +tact during the dispute over the Marquesas Islands with England in 1844. +He was promoted vice-admiral in 1848. During the Crimean War he +commanded in the Black Sea, and co-operated with Admiral Dundas in the +bombardment of Sevastopol 17th of October 1854. His relations with his +English colleague were not very cordial. On the 7th of December 1854 he +was promoted admiral. Shortly afterwards he was recalled to France, and +was named minister of marine. His administration lasted till 1860, and +was remarkable for the expeditions to Italy and China organized under +his directions; but it was even more notable for the energy shown in +adopting and developing the use of armour. The launch of the "Gloire" in +1859 set the example of constructing sea-going iron-clads. The first +English iron-clad, the "Warrior," was designed as an answer to the +"Gloire." When Napoleon III. made his first concession to Liberal +opposition, Admiral Hamelin was one of the ministers sacrificed. He held +no further command, and died on the 10th of January 1864. + + + + +HAMELN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover, at the +confluence of the Weser and Hamel, 33 m. S.W. of Hanover, on the line to +Altenbeken, which here effects a junction with railways to Löhne and +Brunswick. Pop. (1905) 20,736. It has a venerable appearance and has +many interesting and picturesque houses. The chief public buildings of +interest are the minster, dedicated to St Boniface and restored in +1870-1875; the town hall; the so-called Rattenfängerhaus (rat-catcher's +house) with mural frescoes illustrating the legend (see below); and the +Hochzeitshaus (wedding house) with beautiful gables. There are +classical, modern and commercial schools. The principal industries are +the manufacture of paper, leather, chemicals and tobacco, sugar +refining, shipbuilding and salmon fishing. By the steamboats on the +Weser there is communication with Karlshafen and Minden. In order to +avoid the dangerous part of the river near the town a channel was cut in +1734, the repairing and deepening of which, begun in 1868, was completed +in 1873. The Weser is here crossed by an iron suspension bridge 830 ft. +in length, supported by a pier erected on an island in the middle of the +river. + +The older name of Hameln was Hameloa or Hamelowe, and the town owes its +origin to an abbey. It existed as a town as early as the 11th century, +and in 1259 it was sold by the abbot of Fulda to the bishop of Minden, +afterwards passing under the protection of the dukes of Brunswick. About +1540 the Reformation gained an entrance into the town, which was taken +by both parties during the Thirty Years' War. In 1757 it capitulated to +the French, who, however, vacated it in the following year. Its +fortifications were strengthened in 1766 by the erection of Fort George, +on an eminence to the west of the town, across the river. On the +capitulation of the Hanoverian army in 1803 Hameln fell into the hands +of the French; it was retaken by the Prussians in 1806, but, after the +battle of Jena, again passed to the French, who dismantled the +fortifications and incorporated the town in the kingdom of Westphalia. +In 1814 it again became Hanoverian, but in 1866 fell with that kingdom +to Prussia. + +_Legend of the Pied Piper._--Hameln is famed as the scene of the myth of +the piper of Hameln. According to the legend, the town in the year 1284 +was infested by a terrible plague of rats. One day there appeared upon +the scene a piper clad in a fantastic suit, who offered for a certain +sum of money to charm all the vermin into the Weser. His conditions were +agreed to, but after he had fulfilled his promise the inhabitants, on +the ground that he was a sorcerer, declined to fulfil their part of the +bargain, whereupon on the 26th of June he reappeared in the streets of +the town, and putting his pipe to his lips began a soft and curious +strain. This drew all the children after him and he led them out of the +town to the Koppelberg hill, in the side of which a door suddenly +opened, by which he entered and the children after him, all but one who +was lame and could not follow fast enough to reach the door before it +shut again. Some trace the origin of the legend to the Children's +Crusade of 1211; others to an abduction of children; and others to a +dancing mania which seized upon some of the young people of Hameln who +left the town on a mad pilgrimage from which they never returned. For a +considerable time the town dated its public documents from the event. +The story is the subject of a poem by Robert Browning, and also of one +by Julius Wolff. Curious evidence that the story rests on a basis of +truth is given by the fact that the Koppelberg is not one of the +imposing hills by which Hameln is surrounded, but no more than a slight +elevation of the ground, barely high enough to hide the children from +view as they left the town. + + See C. Langlotz, _Geschichte der Stadt Hameln_ (Hameln, 1888 fol.); + Sprenger, _Geschichte der Stadt Hameln_ (1861); O. Meinardus, _Der + historische Kern der Rattenfängersage_ (Hameln, 1882); Jostes, _Der + Rattenfänger von Hameln_ (Bonn, 1885); and S. Baring-Gould, _Curious + Myths of the Middle Ages_ (1868). + + + + +HAMERLING, ROBERT (1830-1889), Austrian poet, was born at +Kirchenberg-am-Walde in Lower Austria, on the 24th of March 1830, of +humble parentage. He early displayed a genius for poetry and his +youthful attempts at drama excited the interest and admiration of some +influential persons. Owing to their assistance young Hamerling was +enabled to attend the gymnasium in Vienna and subsequently the +university. In 1848 he joined the student's legion, which played so +conspicuous a part in the revolutions of the capital, and in 1849 shared +in the defence of Vienna against the imperialist troops of Prince +Windischgrätz, and after the collapse of the revolutionary movement he +was obliged to hide for a long time to escape arrest. For the next few +years he diligently pursued his studies in natural science and +philosophy, and in 1855 was appointed master at the gymnasium at +Trieste. For many years he battled with ill-health, and in 1866 retired +on a pension, which in acknowledgment of his literary labours was +increased by the government to a sum sufficient to enable him to live +without care until his death at his villa in Stiftingstal near Graz, on +the 13th of July 1889. Hamerling was one of the most remarkable of the +poets of the modern Austrian school; his imagination was rich and his +poems are full of life and colour. His most popular poem, _Ahasver in +Rom_ (1866), of which the emperor Nero is the central figure, shows at +its best the author's brilliant talent for description. Among his other +works may be mentioned _Venus im Exil_ (1858); _Der König von Sion_ +(1869), which is generally regarded as his masterpiece; _Die sieben +Todsünden_ (1872); _Blätter im Winde_ (1887); _Homunculus_ (1888); _Amor +und Psyche_ (1882). His novel, _Aspasia_ (1876) gives a finely-drawn +description of the Periclean age, but like his tragedy _Danton und +Robespierre_ (1870), is somewhat stilted, showing that Hamerling's +genius, though rich in imagination, was ill-suited for the realistic +presentation of character. + + A popular edition of Hamerling's works in four volumes was published + by M. M. Rabenlechner (Hamburg, 1900). For the poet's life, see his + autobiographical writings, _Stationen meiner Lebenspilgerschaft_ + (1889) and _Lehrjahre der Liebe_ (1890); also M. M. Rabenlechner, + _Hamerling, sein Leben und seine Werke_, i. (Hamburg, 1896); a short + biography by the same (Dresden, 1901); R. H. Kleinert, _R. Hamerling, + ein Dichter der Schönheit_ (Hamburg, 1889); A. Polzer, _Hamerling, + sein Wesen und Wirken_ (Hamburg, 1890). + + + + +HAMERTON, PHILIP GILBERT (1834-1894), English artist and author, was +born at Laneside, near Shaw, close to Oldham, on the 10th of September +1834. His mother died at his birth, and having lost his father ten years +afterwards, he was educated privately under the direction of his +guardians. His first literary attempt, a volume of poems, proving +unsuccessful, he devoted himself for a time entirely to landscape +painting, encamping out of doors in the Highlands, where he eventually +rented the island of Innistrynych, upon which he settled with his wife, +a French lady, in 1858. Discovering after a time that his qualifications +were rather those of an art critic than of a painter he removed to the +neighbourhood of his wife's relatives in France, where he produced his +_Painter's Camp in the Highlands_ (1863), which obtained a great success +and prepared the way for his standard work on _Etching and Etchers_ +(1866). In the following year he published a book, entitled +_Contemporary French Painters_, and in 1868 a continuation, _Painting in +France after the Decline of Classicism_. He had meanwhile become art +critic to the _Saturday Review_, a position which, from the burden it +laid upon him of frequent visits to England, he did not long retain. He +proceeded (1870) to establish an art journal of his own, _The +Portfolio_, a monthly periodical, each number of which consisted of a +monograph upon some artist or group of artists, frequently written and +always edited by him. The discontinuance of his active work as a painter +gave him time for more general literary composition, and he successively +produced _The Intellectual Life_ (1873), perhaps the best known and most +valuable of his writings; _Round my House_ (1876), notes on French +society by a resident; and _Modern Frenchmen_ (1879), admirable short +biographies. He also wrote two novels, _Wenderholme_ (1870) and +_Marmorne_ (1878). In 1884 _Human Intercourse_, another valuable volume +of essays, was published, and shortly afterwards Hamerton began to write +his autobiography, which he brought down to 1858. In 1882 he issued a +finely illustrated work on the technique of the great masters of various +arts, under the title of The _Graphic Arts_, and three years later +another splendidly illustrated volume, _Landscape_, which traces the +influence of landscape upon the mind of man. His last books were: +_Portfolio Papers_ (1889) and _French and English_ (1889). In 1891 he +removed to the neighbourhood of Paris, and died suddenly on the 4th of +November 1894, occupied to the last with his labours on _The Portfolio_ +and other writings on art. + + In 1896 was published _Philip Gilbert Hamerton: an Autobiography_, + 1834-1858; and a _Memoir by his Wife_, 1858-1894. + + + + +HAMI, a town in Chinese Turkestan, otherwise called KAMIL, KOMUL or +KAMUL, situated on the southern slopes of the Tian-Shan mountains, and +on the northern verge of the Great Gobi desert, in 42° 48´ N., 93° 28´ +E., at a height above sea-level of 3150 ft. The town is first mentioned +in Chinese history in the 1st century, under the name I-wu-lu, and said +to be situated 1000 lis north of the fortress Yü-men-kuan, and to be the +key to the western countries. This evidently referred to its +advantageous position, lying as it did in a fertile tract, at the point +of convergence of two main routes running north and south of the +Tian-Shan and connecting China with the west. It was taken by the +Chinese in A.D. 73 from the Hiungnu (the ancient inhabitants of +Mongolia), and made a military station. It next fell into the bands of +the Uighurs or Eastern Turks, who made it one of their chief towns and +held it for several centuries, and whose descendants are said to live +there now. From the 7th to the 11th century I-wu-lu is said to have +borne the name of Igu or I-chu, under the former of which names it is +spoken of by the Chinese pilgrim, Hsüan tsang, who passed through it in +the 7th century. The name Hami is first met in the Chinese _Yüan-shi_ or +"History of the Mongol Dynasty," but the name more generally used there +is Homi-li or Komi-li. Marco Polo, describing it apparently from +hearsay, calls it Camul, and speaks of it as a fruitful place inhabited +by a Buddhist people of idolatrous and wanton habits. It was visited in +1341 by Giovanni de Marignolli, who baptized a number of both sexes +there, and by the envoys of Shah Rukh (1420), who found a magnificent +mosque and a convent of dervishes, in juxtaposition with a fine Buddhist +temple. Hadji Mahommed (Ramusio's friend) speaks of Kamul as being in +his time (c. 1550) the first Mahommedan city met with in travelling from +China. When Benedict Goes travelled through the country at the beginning +of the 17th century, the power of the king Mahommed Khan of Kashgar +extended over nearly the whole country at the base of the Tian-Shan to +the Chinese frontier, including Kamil. It fell under the sway of the +Chinese in 1720, was lost to them in 1865 during the great Mahommedan +rebellion, and the trade route through it was consequently closed, but +was regained in 1873. Owing to its commanding position on the principal +route to the west, and its exceptional fertility, it has very frequently +changed hands in the wars between China and her western neighbours. Hami +is now a small town of about 6000 inhabitants, and is a busy trading +centre. The Mahommedan population consists of immigrants from Kashgaria, +Bokhara and Samarkand, and of descendants of the Uighurs. + + + + +HAMILCAR BARCA, or BARCAS (Heb. _barak_ "lightning"), Carthaginian +general and statesman, father of Hannibal, was born soon after 270 B.C. +He distinguished himself during the First Punic War in 247, when he took +over the chief command in Sicily, which at this time was almost entirely +in the hands of the Romans. Landing suddenly on the north-west of the +island with a small mercenary force he seized a strong position on Mt. +Ercte (Monte Pellegrino, near Palermo), and not only maintained himself +against all attacks, but carried his raids as far as the coast of south +Italy. In 244 he transferred his army to a similar position on the +slopes of Mt. Eryx (Monte San Giuliano), from which he was able to lend +support to the besieged garrison in the neighbouring town of Drepanum +(Trapani). By a provision of the peace of 241 Hamilcar's unbeaten force +was allowed to depart from Sicily without any token of submission. On +returning to Africa his troops, which had been kept together only by his +personal authority and by the promise of good pay, broke out into open +mutiny when their rewards were withheld by Hamilcar's opponents among +the governing aristocracy. The serious danger into which Carthage was +brought by the failure of the aristocratic generals was averted by +Hamilcar, whom the government in this crisis could not but reinstate. By +the power of his personal influence among the mercenaries and the +surrounding African peoples, and by superior strategy, he speedily +crushed the revolt (237). After this success Hamilcar enjoyed such +influence among the popular and patriotic party that his opponents could +not prevent him being raised to a virtual dictatorship. After recruiting +and training a new army in some Numidian forays he led on his own +responsibility an expedition into Spain, where he hoped to gain a new +empire to compensate Carthage for the loss of Sicily and Sardinia, and +to serve as a basis for a campaign of vengeance against the Romans +(236). In eight years by force of arms and diplomacy he secured an +extensive territory in Spain, but his premature death in battle (228) +prevented him from completing the conquest. Hamilcar stood out far above +the Carthaginians of his age in military and diplomatic skill and in +strength of patriotism; in these qualities he was surpassed only by his +son Hannibal, whom he had imbued with his own deep hatred of Rome and +trained to be his successor in the conflict. + + This Hamilcar has been confused with another general who succeeded to + the command of the Carthaginians in the First Punic War, and after + successes at Therma and Drepanum was defeated at Ecnomus (256 B.C.). + Subsequently, apart from unskilful operations against Regulus, nothing + is certainly known of him. For others of the name see CARTHAGE, + SICILY, Smith's _Classical Dictionary_. So far as the name itself is + concerned, _Milcar_ is perhaps the same as _Melkarth_, the Tyrian god. + + See Polybius i.-iii.; Cornelius Nepos, _Vita Hamilcaris_; Appian, _Res + Hispanicae_, chs. 4, 5, Diodorus, _Excerpta_, xxiv., xxv.; O. Meitzer, + _Geschichte der Karthager_ (Berlin, 1877), ii. also PUNIC WARS. + (M. O. B. C.) + + + + +HAMILTON, the name of a famous Scottish family. Chief among the legends +still clinging to this important family is that which gives a descent +from the house of Beaumont, a branch of which is stated to have held the +manor of Hamilton in Leicestershire; and it is argued that the three +cinquefoils of the Hamilton shield bear some resemblance to the single +cinquefoil of the Beaumonts. In face of this it has been recently shown +that the single cinquefoil was also borne by the Umfravilles of +Northumberland, who appear to have owned a place called Hamilton in that +county. It may be pointed out that Simon de Montfort, the great earl of +Leicester, in whose veins flowed the blood of the Beaumonts, obtained +about 1245 the wardship of Gilbert de Umfraville, second earl of Angus, +and it is conceivable that this name Gilbert may somehow be responsible +for the legend of the Beaumont descent, seeing that the first authentic +ancestor of the Hamiltons is one Walter FitzGilbert. He first appears in +1294-1295 as one of the witnesses to a charter by James, the high +steward of Scotland, to the monks of Paisley; and in 1296 his name +appears in the Homage Roll as Walter FitzGilbert of "Hameldone." Who +this Gilbert of "Hameldone" may have been is uncertain, "but the fact +must be faced," Mr John Anderson points out (_Scots Peerage_, iv. 340) +"that in a charter of the 12th of December 1272 by Thomas of Cragyn or +Craigie to the monks of Paisley of his church of Craigie in Kyle, there +appears as witness a certain 'Gilbert de Hameldun _clericus_,' whose +name occurs along with the local clergy of Inverkip, Blackhall, Paisley +and Dunoon. He was therefore probably also a cleric of the same +neighbourhood, and it is significant that 'Walter FitzGilbert' appears +first in that district in 1294 and in 1296 is described as son of +Gilbert de Hameldone...." Walter FitzGilbert took some part in the +affairs of his time. At first he joined the English party but after +Bannockburn went over to Bruce, was knighted and subsequently received +the barony of Cadzow. His younger son John was father of Alexander +Hamilton who acquired the lands of Innerwick by marriage, and from him +descended a certain Thomas Hamilton, who acquired the lands of +Priestfield early in the 16th century. Another Thomas, grandson of this +last, who had with others of his house followed Queen Mary and with them +had been restored to royal favour, became a lord of session as Lord +Priestfield. Two of his younger sons enjoyed also this legal +distinction, while the eldest, Thomas, was made an ordinary lord of +session as early as 1592 and was eventually created earl of Haddington +(q.v.). It is interesting to note that the 5th earl of Haddington by his +marriage with Lady Margaret Leslie brought for a time the earldom of +Rothes to the Hamiltons to be added to their already numerous titles. + +Sir "David FitzWalter FitzGilbert," who carried on the main line of the +Hamiltons, was taken prisoner at the battle of Neville's Cross (1346) +and treated as of great importance, being ransomed, it is stated, for a +large sum of money; in 1371 and 1373 he was one of the barons in the +parliament. Of the four sons attributed to him David succeeded in the +representation of the family, Sir John Hamilton of Fingaltoun was +ancestor of the Hamiltons of Preston, and Walter is stated to have been +progenitor of the Hamiltons of Cambuskeith and Sanquhar in Ayrshire. + +David Hamilton, the first apparently to describe himself as lord of +Cadzow, died before 1392, leaving four or five sons, from whom descended +the Hamiltons of Bathgate and of Bardowie, and perhaps also of Udstown, +to which last belong the lords Belhaven. + +Sir John Hamilton of Cadzow, the eldest son, was twice a prisoner in +England, but beyond this little is known of him; even the date of his +death is uncertain. His two younger sons are stated to have been +founders of the houses of Dalserf and Raploch. His eldest son, James +Hamilton of Cadzow, like his father and great-grandfather, visited +England as a prisoner, being one of the hostages for the king's ransom. +From him the Hamiltons of Silvertonhill and the lords Hamilton of +Dalzell claim descent, among the more distinguished members of the +former branch being General Sir Ian Hamilton, K.C.B. James Hamilton was +succeeded by his eldest son Sir James Hamilton of Cadzow, who was +created in 1445 an hereditary lord of parliament, and was thereafter +known as Lord Hamilton. He had allied himself some years before with the +great house of Douglas by marriage with Euphemia, widow of the 5th earl +of Douglas, and was at first one of its most powerful supporters in the +struggle with James II. Later, however, he obtained the royal favour and +married about 1474 Mary, sister of James III. and widow of Thomas Boyd, +earl of Arran. Of this marriage was born James, second Lord Hamilton, +who as a near relative took an active part in the arrangements at the +marriage of James IV. with Margaret Tudor; being rewarded on the same +day (the 8th of August 1503) with the earldom of Arran. A champion in +the lists he was scarcely so successful as a leader of men, his struggle +with the Douglases being destitute of any great martial achievement. Of +his many illegitimate children Sir James Hamilton of Finnart, beheaded +in 1540, was ancestor of the Hamiltons of Gilkerscleugh; and John, +archbishop of St Andrews, hanged by his Protestant enemies, was ancestor +of the Hamiltons of Blair, and is said also to have been ancestor of +Hamilton of London, baronet. James, second earl of Arran, son of the +first earl by his second wife Janet Beaton, was chosen governor to the +little Queen Mary, being nearest of kin to the throne through his +grandmother, though the question of the validity of his mother's +marriage was by no means settled. He held the governorship till 1554, +having in 1549 been granted the duchy of Châtellerault in France. In his +policy he was vacillating and eventually he retired to France, being +absent during the three momentous years prior to the deposition of Mary. +On his return he headed the queen's party, his property suffering in +consequence. He was succeeded in the title in 1579 by his eldest son +James, whose qualities were such that he was even proposed as a husband +for Queen Elizabeth, but unfortunately he soon after became insane, his +brother John, afterwards first marquess of Hamilton, administering the +estates. From the third son, Claud, descends the duke of Abercorn, heir +male of the house of Hamilton. + +The first marquess of Hamilton had a natural son, Sir John Hamilton of +Lettrick, who was legitimated in 1600 and was ancestor of the lords +Bargany. His two legitimate sons were James, 3rd marquess and first duke +of Hamilton, and William, who succeeded his brother as 2nd duke and was +in turn succeeded under the special remainder contained in the patent of +dukedom, by his niece Anne, duchess of Hamilton, who was married in 1656 +to William Douglas, earl of Selkirk. The history of the descendants of +this marriage belongs to the great house of Douglas, the 7th duke of +Hamilton becoming the male representative and chief of the house of +Douglas, earls of Angus. + +The above mentioned Claud Hamilton, who with his brother, the first +marquess, had taken so large a part in the cause of Queen Mary, was +created a lord of parliament as Lord Paisley in 1587. He had five sons, +of whom three settled in Ireland, Sir Claud being ancestor of the +Hamiltons of Beltrim and Sir Frederick, distinguished in early life in +the Swedish wars, being ancestor of the viscounts Boyne. + +James, the eldest son of Lord Paisley, found favour with James VI. and +was created in 1603 Lord of Abercorn, and three years later was advanced +in the peerage as earl of Abercorn and lord of Paisley, Hamilton, +Mountcastell and Kilpatrick. His eldest son James, 2nd earl of Abercorn, +eventually heir male of the house of Hamilton and successor to the +dukedom of Châtellerault, was created in his father's lifetime lord of +Strabane in Ireland, but he resigned this title in 1633 in favour of his +brother Claud, whose grandson, Claud, 5th Lord Strabane, succeeded +eventually as 4th earl of Abercorn. This earl, taking the side of James +II., was with him in Ireland, his estate and title being afterwards +forfeited, while his kinsman Gustavus Hamilton, afterwards first Lord +Boyne, raised several regiments for William III., and greatly +distinguished himself in the service of that monarch. His brother +Charles, 5th earl of Abercorn, who obtained a reversal of the attainder, +died without issue surviving in 1701 when the titles passed to his +kinsman James Hamilton, grandson of Sir George Hamilton of Donalong in +Ireland and great-grandson of the first earl. This branch, most faithful +to the house of Stuart, counted among its many members distinguished in +military annals Count Anthony Hamilton, author of the _Mémoires du comte +de Gramont_ and brother of "la belle Hamilton." James, 6th earl of +Abercorn (whose brother William was ancestor of Hamilton of the Mount, +baronet), was a partizan of William III., and obtained in 1701 the +additional Irish titles of lord of Mountcastle and viscount of Strabane. + +The 8th earl of Abercorn, who was summoned to the Irish house of peers +in his father's lifetime as Lord Mountcastle, was created a peer of +Great Britain in 1786 as Viscount Hamilton of Hamilton in +Leicestershire, and renewed the family's connexion with Scotland by +repurchasing the barony of Duddingston and later the lordship of +Paisley. His nephew and successor was created marquess of Abercorn in +1790, and was father of James, 1st duke of Abercorn. + + See the article Hamilton and other articles on the different branches + of the family (e.g. Haddington and Belhaven) in Sir J. B. Paul's + edition of Sir R. Douglas's _Peerage of Scotland_; and also G. + Marshall, _Guide to Heraldry and Genealogy_. + + + + +HAMILTON, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OF. The holders of these titles descended +from Sir James Hamilton of Cadzow, who was made an hereditary lord of +parliament in 1445, his lands and baronies at the same time being +erected into the "lordship" of Hamilton. His first wife Euphemia, widow +of the 5th earl of Douglas, died in 1468, and probably early in 1474 he +married Mary, daughter of King James II. and widow of Thomas Boyd, earl +of Arran; the consequent nearness of the Hamiltons to the Scottish crown +gave them very great weight in Scottish affairs. The first Lord Hamilton +has been frequently confused with his father, James Hamilton of Cadzow, +who was one of the hostages in England for the payment of James I.'s +ransom, and is sometimes represented as surviving until 1451 or even +1479, whereas he certainly died, according to evidence brought forward +by J. Anderson in _The Scots Peerage_, before May 1441. James, 2nd Lord +Hamilton, son of the 1st lord and Princess Mary, was created earl of +Arran in 1503; and his son James, who was regent of Scotland from 1542 +to 1554, received in February 1549 a grant of the duchy of Châtellerault +in Poitou. + +JOHN, 1st marquess of Hamilton (c. 1542-1604), third son of James +Hamilton, 2nd earl of Arran (q.v.) and duke of Châtellerault, was given +the abbey of Arbroath in 1551. In politics he was largely under the +influence of his energetic and unscrupulous younger brother Claud, +afterwards Baron Paisley (c. 1543-1622), ancestor of the dukes of +Abercorn. The brothers were the real heads of the house of Hamilton, +their elder brother Arran being insane. At first hostile to Mary, they +later became her devoted partisans. Their uncle, John Hamilton, +archbishop of St Andrews, natural son of the 1st earl of Arran, was +restored to his consistorial jurisdiction by Mary in 1566, and in May of +the next year he divorced Bothwell from his wife. Lord Claud met Mary on +her escape from Lochleven and escorted her to Hamilton palace. John +appears to have been in France in 1568 when the battle of Langside was +fought, and it was probably Claud who commanded Mary's vanguard in the +battle. With others of the queen's party they were forfeited by the +parliament and sought their revenge on the regent Murray. Although the +Hamiltons disavowed all connexion with Murray's murderer, James Hamilton +of Bothwellhaugh, he had been provided with horse and weapons by the +abbot of Arbroath, and it was at Hamilton that he sought refuge after +the deed. Archbishop Hamilton was hanged at Stirling in 1571 for alleged +complicity in the murder of Darnley, and is said to have admitted that +he was a party to the murder of Murray. At the pacification of Perth in +1573 the Hamiltons abandoned Mary's cause, and a reconciliation with the +Douglases was sealed by Lord John's marriage with Margaret, daughter of +the 7th Lord Glamis, a cousin of the regent Morton. Sir William Douglas +of Lochleven, however, persistently sought his life in revenge for the +murder of Murray until, on his refusal to keep the peace, he was +imprisoned. On the uncertain evidence extracted from the assassin by +torture, the Hamiltons had been credited with a share in the murder of +the regent Lennox in 1571. In 1579 proceedings against them for these +two crimes were resumed, and when they escaped to England their lands +and titles were seized by their political enemies, James Stewart +becoming earl of Arran. John Hamilton presently dissociated himself from +the policy of his brother Claud, who continued to plot for Spanish +intervention on behalf of Mary; and Catholic plotters are even said to +have suggested his murder to procure the succession of his brother. +Hamilton had at one time been credited with the hope of marrying Mary; +his desires now centred on the peaceful enjoyment of his estates. With +other Scottish exiles he crossed the border in 1585 and marched on +Stirling; he was admitted on the 4th of November and formally reconciled +with James VI., with whom he was thenceforward on the friendliest terms. +Claud returned to Scotland in 1586, and the abbey of Paisley was erected +into a temporal barony in his favour in 1587. Much of his later years +was spent in strict retirement, his son being authorized to act for him +in 1598. John was created marquess of Hamilton and Lord Evan in 1599, +and died on the 6th of April 1604. + +His eldest surviving son JAMES, 2nd marquess of Hamilton (c. 1589-1625), +was created baron of Innerdale and earl of Cambridge in the peerage of +England in 1619, and these honours descended to his son James, who in +1643 was created duke of Hamilton (q.v.). William, 2nd duke of Hamilton +(1616-1651), succeeded to the dukedom on his brother's execution in +1649. He was created earl of Lanark in 1639, and in the next year became +secretary of state in Scotland. Arrested at Oxford by the king's orders +in 1643 for "concurrence" with Hamilton, he effected his escape and was +temporarily reconciled with the Presbyterian party. He was sent by the +Scottish committee of estates to treat with Charles I. at Newcastle in +1646, when he sought in vain to persuade the king to consent to the +establishment of Presbyterianism in England. On the 26th of September +1647 he signed on behalf of the Scots the treaty with Charles known as +the "Engagement" at Carisbrooke Castle, and helped to organize the +second Civil War. In 1648 he fled to Holland, his succession in the next +year to his brother's dukedom making him an important personage among +the Royalist exiles. He returned to Scotland with Prince Charles in +1650, but, finding a reconciliation with Argyll impossible, he refused +to prejudice Charles's cause by pushing his claims, and lived in +retirement chiefly until the Scottish invasion of England, when he acted +as colonel of a body of his dependants. He died on the 12th of September +1651 from the effects of wounds received at Worcester. He left no male +heirs, and the title devolved on the 1st duke's eldest surviving +daughter Anne, duchess of Hamilton in her own right. + +Anne married in 1656 William Douglas, earl of Selkirk (1635-1694), who +was created duke of Hamilton in 1660 on his wife's petition, receiving +also several of the other Hamilton peerages, but for his life only. The +Hamilton estates had been declared forfeit by Cromwell, and he himself +had been fined £1000. He supported Lauderdale in the early stages of his +Scottish policy, in which he adopted a moderate attitude towards the +Presbyterians, but the two were soon alienated, through the influence of +the countess of Dysart, according to Gilbert Burnet, who spent much time +at Hamilton Palace in arranging the Hamilton papers. With other Scottish +noblemen who resisted Lauderdale's measures Hamilton was twice summoned +to London to present his case at court, but without obtaining any +result. He was dismissed from the privy council in 1676, and on a +subsequent visit to London Charles refused to receive him. On the +accession of James II. he received numerous honours, but he was one of +the first to enter into communication with the prince of Orange. He +presided over the convention of Edinburgh, summoned at his request, +which offered the Scottish crown to William and Mary in March 1689. His +death took place at Holyrood on the 18th of April 1694. His wife +survived until 1716. + +JAMES DOUGLAS, 4th duke of Hamilton (1658-1712), eldest son of the +preceding and of Duchess Anne, succeeded his mother, who resigned the +dukedom to him in 1698, and at the accession of Queen Anne he was +regarded as leader of the Scottish national party. He was an opponent of +the union with England, but his lack of decision rendered his political +conduct ineffective. He was created duke of Brandon in the peerage of +Great Britain in 1711; and on the 15th of November in the following year +he fought the celebrated duel with Charles Lord Mohun, narrated in +Thackeray's _Esmond_, in which both the principals were killed. His son, +James (1703-1743), became 5th duke, and his grandson James, 6th duke of +Hamilton and Brandon (1724-1758), married the famous beauty, Elizabeth +Gunning, afterwards duchess of Argyll. James George, 7th duke +(1755-1769), became head of the house of Douglas on the death in 1761 of +Archibald, duke of Douglas, whose titles but not his estates then +devolved on the duke of Hamilton as heir-male. Archibald's brother +Douglas (1756-1799) was the 8th duke, and when he died childless the +titles passed to his uncle Archibald (1740-1819). His son Alexander, +10th duke (1767-1852), who as marquess of Douglas was a great collector +and connoisseur of books and pictures (his collections realized £397,562 +in 1882), was ambassador at St Petersburg in 1806-1807. His sister, Lady +Anne Hamilton, was lady-in-waiting and a faithful friend to Queen +Caroline, wife of George IV.; she did not write the _Secret History of +the Court of England ..._ (1832) to which her name was attached. William +Alexander, 11th duke of Hamilton (1811-1863), married Princess Marie +Amélie, daughter of Charles, grand-duke of Baden, and, on her mother's +side, a cousin of Napoleon III. The title of duke of Châtellerault, +granted to his remote ancestor in 1548, and claimed at different times +by various branches of the Hamilton family, was conferred on the 11th +duke's son, William Alexander, 12th duke of Hamilton (1845-1895), by the +emperor of the French in 1864. His sister, Lady Mary Douglas-Hamilton, +married in 1869 Albert, prince of Monaco, but their marriage was +declared invalid in 1880. She subsequently married Count Tassilo +Festetics, a Hungarian noble. The 12th duke left no male issue and was +succeeded in 1895 by his kinsman, Alfred Douglas, a descendant of the +4th duke. Claud Hamilton, 1st Baron Paisley, brother of the 1st marquess +of Hamilton, was, as mentioned above, ancestor of the Abercorn branch of +the Hamiltons. His son, who became earl of Abercorn in 1606, received +among a number of other titles that of Lord Hamilton. This title, and +also that of Viscount Hamilton, in the peerage of Great Britain, +conferred on the 8th earl of Abercorn in 1786, are borne by the dukes of +Abercorn, whose eldest son is usually styled by courtesy marquess of +Hamilton, a title which was added to the other family honours when the +2nd marquess of Abercorn was raised to the dukedom in 1868. + + See John Anderson, _The House of Hamilton_ (1825); _Hamilton Papers_, + ed. J. Bain (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1890-1892); Gilbert Burnet, _Lives of + James and William, dukes of Hamilton_ (1677); _The Hamilton Papers + relative to 1638-1650_, ed. S. R. Gardiner for the Camden Society + (1880); G. E. C[okayne], _Complete Peerage_ (1887-1898); an article by + the Rev. J. Anderson in Sir J. B. Paul's edition of the _Scots + Peerage_, vol. iv. (1907). + + + + +HAMILTON, ALEXANDER (1757-1804), American statesman and economist, was +born, as a British subject, on the island of Nevis in the West Indies on +the 11th of January 1757. He came of good family on both sides. His +father, James Hamilton, a Scottish merchant of St Christopher, was a +younger son of Alexander Hamilton of Grange, Lanarkshire, by Elizabeth, +daughter of Sir R. Pollock. His mother, Rachael Fawcett (Faucette), of +French Huguenot descent, married when very young a Danish proprietor of +St Croix, John Michael Levine, with whom she lived unhappily and whom +she soon left, subsequently living with James Hamilton; her husband +procured a divorce in 1759, but the court forbade her remarriage.[1] +Such unions as hers with James Hamilton were long not uncommon in the +West Indies. By her James Hamilton had two sons, Alexander and James. +Business misfortunes having caused his father's bankruptcy, and his +mother dying in 1768, young Hamilton was thrown upon the care of +maternal relatives at St Croix, where, in his twelfth year, he entered +the counting-house of Nicholas Cruger. Shortly afterward Mr Cruger, +going abroad, left the boy in charge of the business. The extraordinary +specimens we possess of his mercantile correspondence and friendly +letters, written at this time, attest an astonishing poise and maturity +of mind, and self-conscious ambition. His opportunities for regular +schooling must have been very scant; but he had cultivated friends who +discerned his talents and encouraged their development, and he early +formed the habits of wide reading and industrious study that were to +persist through his life. An accomplishment later of great service to +Hamilton, common enough in the Antilles, but very rare in the English +continental colonies, was a familiar command of French. In 1772 some +friends, impressed by a description by him of the terrible West Indian +hurricane in that year, made it possible for him to go to New York to +complete his education. Arriving in the autumn of 1772, he prepared for +college at Elizabethtown, N.J., and in 1774 entered King's College (now +Columbia University) in New York City. His studies, however, were +interrupted by the War of American Independence. + +A visit to Boston seems to have thoroughly confirmed the conclusion, to +which reason had already led him, that he should cast in his fortunes +with the colonists. Into their cause he threw himself with ardour. In +1774-1775 he wrote two influential anonymous pamphlets, which were +attributed to John Jay; they show remarkable maturity and controversial +ability, and rank high among the political arguments of the time.[2] He +organized an artillery company, was awarded its captaincy on +examination, won the interest of Nathanael Greene and Washington by the +proficiency and bravery he displayed in the campaign of 1776 around New +York City, joined Washington's staff in March 1777 with the rank of +lieutenant-colonel, and during four years served as his private +secretary and confidential aide. The important duties with which he was +entrusted attest Washington's entire confidence in his abilities and +character; then and afterwards, indeed, reciprocal confidence and +respect took the place, in their relations, of personal attachment.[3] +But Hamilton was ambitious for military glory--it was an ambition he +never lost; he became impatient of detention in what he regarded as a +position of unpleasant dependence, and (Feb. 1781) he seized a slight +reprimand administered by Washington as an excuse for abandoning his +staff position.[4] Later he secured a field command, through Washington, +and won laurels at Yorktown, where he led the American column in the +final assault on the British works. In 1780 he married Elizabeth, +daughter of General Philip Schuyler, and thus became allied with one of +the most distinguished families in New York. + +Meanwhile, he had begun the political efforts upon which his fame +principally rests. In letters of 1779-1780[5] he correctly diagnoses the +ills of the Confederation, and suggests with admirable prescience the +necessity of centralization in its governmental powers; he was, indeed, +one of the first, if not to conceive, at least to suggest adequate +checks on the anarchic tendencies of the time. After a year's service in +Congress in 1782-1783, in which he experienced the futility of +endeavouring to attain through that decrepit body the ends he sought, he +settled down to legal practice in New York.[6] The call for the +Annapolis Convention (1786) was Hamilton's opportunity. A delegate from +New York, he supported Madison in inducing the Convention to exceed its +delegated powers and summon the Federal Convention of 1787 at +Philadelphia (himself drafting the call); he secured a place on the New +York delegation; and, when his anti-Federal colleagues withdrew from the +Convention, he signed the Constitution for his state. So long as his +colleagues were present his own vote was useless, and he absented +himself for some time from the debates after making one remarkable +speech (June 18th, 1787). In this he held up the British government as +the best model in the world.[7] Though fully conscious that monarchy in +America was impossible, he wished to obtain the next best solution in an +aristocratic, strongly centralized, coercive, but representative union, +with devices to give weight to the influence of class and property.[8] +His plan had no chance of success; but though unable to obtain what he +wished, he used his great talents to secure the adoption of the +Constitution. + +To this struggle was due the greatest of his writings, and the greatest +individual contribution to the adoption of the new government, _The +Federalist_, which remains a classic commentary on American +constitutional law and the principles of government, and of which Guizot +said that "in the application of elementary principles of government to +practical administration" it was the greatest work known to him. Its +inception, and much more than half its contents were Hamilton's (the +rest Madison's and Jay's).[9] Sheer will and reasoning could hardly be +more brilliantly and effectively exhibited than they were by Hamilton +in the New York convention of 1788, whose vote he won, against the +greatest odds, for the ratification of the Constitution. It was the +judgment of Chancellor James Kent, the justice of which can hardly be +disputed, that "all the documentary proof and the current observation of +the time lead us to the conclusion that he surpassed all his +contemporaries in his exertions to create, recommend, adopt and defend +the Constitution of the United States." + +When the new government was inaugurated, Hamilton became secretary of +the treasury in Washington's cabinet.[10] Congress immediately referred +to him a press of queries and problems, and there came from his pen a +succession of papers that have left the strongest imprint on the +administrative organization of the national government--two reports on +public credit, upholding an ideal of national honour higher than the +prevalent popular principles; a report on manufactures, advocating their +encouragement (e.g. by bounties paid from surplus revenues amassed by +tariff duties)--a famous report that has served ever since as a +storehouse of arguments for a national protective policy;[11] a report +favouring the establishment of a national bank, the argument being based +on the doctrine of "implied powers" in the Constitution, and on the +application that Congress may do anything that can be made, through the +medium of money, to subserve the "general welfare" of the United +States--doctrines that, through judicial interpretation, have +revolutionized the Constitution; and, finally, a vast mass of detailed +work by which order and efficiency were given to the national finances. +In 1793 he put to confusion his opponents who had brought about a +congressional investigation of his official accounts. The success of his +financial measures was immediate and remarkable. They did not, as is +often but loosely said, create economic prosperity; but they did prop +it, in an all-important field, with order, hope and confidence. His +ultimate purpose was always the strengthening of the union; but before +particularizing his political theories, and the political import of his +financial measures, the remaining events of his life may be traced. + +His activity in the cabinet was by no means confined to the finances. He +regarded himself, apparently, as premier, and sometimes overstepped the +limits of his office in interfering with other departments. The +heterogeneous character of the duties placed upon his department by +Congress seemed in fact to reflect the English idea of its primacy. +Hamilton's influence was in fact predominant with Washington (so far as +any man could have predominant influence). Thus it happens that in +foreign affairs, whatever credit properly belongs to the Federalists as +a party (see also the article FEDERALIST PARTY) for the adoption of that +principle of neutrality which became the traditional policy of the +United States must be regarded as largely due to Hamilton. But allowance +must be made for the mere advantage of initiative which belonged to any +party that organized the government--the differences between Hamilton +and Jefferson, in this question of neutrality, being almost purely +factitious.[12] On domestic policy their differences were vital, and in +their conflicts over Hamilton's financial measures they organized, on +the basis of varying tenets and ideals which have never ceased to +conflict in American politics, the two great parties of Federalists and +Democrats (or Democratic-Republicans). On the 31st of January 1795 +Hamilton resigned his position as secretary of the treasury and returned +to the practice of law in New York, leaving it for public service only +in 1798-1800, when he was the active head, under Washington (who +insisted that Hamilton should be second only to himself), of the army +organized for war against France. But though in private life he remained +the continual and chief adviser of Washington--notably in the serious +crisis of the Jay Treaty, of which Hamilton approved. Washington's +_Farewell Address_ (1796) was written for him by Hamilton. + +After Washington's death the Federalist leadership was divided (and +disputed) between John Adams, who had the prestige of a varied and great +career, and greater strength than any other Federalist with the people, +and Hamilton, who controlled practically all the leaders of lesser rank, +including much the greater part of the most distinguished men of the +country, so that it has been very justly said that "the roll of his +followers is enough of itself to establish his position in American +history" (Lodge). But Hamilton was not essentially a popular leader. +When his passions were not involved, or when they were repressed by a +crisis, he was far-sighted, and his judgment of men was excellent.[13] +But as Hamilton himself once said, his heart was ever the master of his +judgment. He was, indeed, not above intrigue,[14] but he was +unsuccessful in it. He was a fighter through and through, and his +courage was superb; but he was indiscreet in utterance, impolitic in +management, opinionated, self-confident, and uncompromising in nature +and methods. His faults are nowhere better shown than in his quarrel +with John Adams. Three times, in order to accomplish ends deemed by him, +personally, to be desirable, Hamilton used the political fortunes of +John Adams, in presidential elections, as a mere hazard in his +manoeuvres; moreover, after Adams became president, and so the official +head of the party, Hamilton constantly advised the members of the +president's cabinet, and through them endeavoured to control Adams's +policy; and finally, on the eve of the crucial election of 1800, he +wrote a bitter personal attack on the president (containing much +confidential cabinet information), which was intended for private +circulation, but which was secured and published by Aaron Burr, his +legal and political rival. + +The mention of Burr leads us to the fatal end of another great political +antipathy of Hamilton's life. He read Burr's character correctly from +the beginning; deemed it a patriotic duty to thwart him in his +ambitions; defeated his hopes successively of a foreign mission, the +presidency, and the governorship of New York; and in his conversations +and letters repeatedly and unsparingly denounced him. If these +denunciations were known to Burr they were ignored by him until his last +defeat. After that he forced a quarrel on a trivial bit of hearsay (that +Hamilton had said he had a "despicable" opinion of Burr); and Hamilton, +believing as he explained in a letter he left before going to his +death--that a compliance with the duelling prejudices of the time was +inseparable from the ability to be in future useful in public affairs, +accepted a challenge from him. The duel was fought at Weehawken on the +Jersey shore of the Hudson opposite the City of New York. At the first +fire Hamilton fell, mortally wounded, and he died on the following day, +the 12th of July 1804. Hamilton himself did not intend to fire, but his +pistol went off as he fell. The tragic close of his career appeased for +the moment the fierce hatred of politics, and his death was very +generally deplored as a national calamity.[15] + +No emphasis, however strong, upon the mere consecutive personal +successes of Hamilton's life is sufficient to show the measure of his +importance in American history. That importance lies, to a large extent, +in the political ideas for which he stood. His mind was eminently +"legal." He was the unrivalled controversialist of the time. His +writings, which are distinguished by clarity, vigour and rigid +reasoning, rather than by any show of scholarship--in the extent of +which, however solid in character Hamilton's might have been, he was +surpassed by several of his contemporaries--are in general strikingly +empirical in basis. He drew his theories from his experiences of the +Revolutionary period, and he modified them hardly at all through life. +In his earliest pamphlets (1774-1775) he started out with the ordinary +pre-Revolutionary Whig doctrines of natural rights and liberty; but the +first experience of semi-anarchic states'-rights and individualism ended +his fervour for ideas so essentially alien to his practical, logical +mind, and they have no place in his later writings. The feeble +inadequacy of conception, infirmity of power, factional jealousy, +disintegrating particularism, and vicious finance of the Confederation +were realized by many others; but none other saw so clearly the concrete +nationalistic remedies for these concrete ills, or pursued remedial ends +so constantly, so ably, and so consistently. An immigrant, Hamilton had +no particularistic ties; he was by instinct a "continentalist" or +federalist. He wanted a strong union and energetic government that +should "rest as much as possible on the shoulders of the people and as +little as possible on those of the state legislatures"; that should have +the support of wealth and class; and that should curb the states to such +an "entire subordination" as nowise to be hindered by those bodies. At +these ends he aimed with extraordinary skill in all his financial +measures. As early as 1776 he urged the direct collection of federal +taxes by federal agents. From 1779 onward we trace the idea of +supporting government by the interest of the propertied classes; from +1781 onward the idea that a not-excessive public debt would be a +blessing[16] in giving cohesiveness to the union: hence his device by +which the federal government, assuming the war debts of the states, +secured greater resources, based itself on a high ideal of nationalism, +strengthened its hold on the individual citizen, and gained the support +of property. In his report on manufactures his chief avowed motive was +to strengthen the union. To the same end he conceived the constitutional +doctrines of liberal construction, "implied powers," and the "general +welfare," which were later embodied in the decisions of John Marshall. +The idea of nationalism pervaded and quickened all his life and works. +With one great exception, the dictum of Guizot is hardly an +exaggeration, that "there is not in the Constitution of the United +States an element of order, of force, of duration, which he did not +powerfully contribute to introduce into it and to cause to +predominate." + +The exception, as American history showed, was American democracy. The +loose and barren rule of the Confederation seemed to conservative minds +such as Hamilton's to presage, in its strengthening of individualism, a +fatal looseness of social restraints, and led him on to a dread of +democracy that he never overcame. Liberty, he reminded his fellows, in the +New York Convention of 1788, seemed to be alone considered in government, +but there was another thing equally important: "a principle of strength +and stability in the organization ... and of vigour in its operation." But +Hamilton's governmental system was in fact repressive.[17] He wanted a +system strong enough, he would have said, to overcome the anarchic +tendencies loosed by war, and represented by those notions of natural +rights which he had himself once championed; strong enough to overbear all +local, state and sectional prejudices, powers or influence, and to +control--not, as Jefferson would have it, to be controlled by--the people. +Confidence in the integrity, the self-control, and the good judgment of +the people, which was the content of Jefferson's political faith, had +almost no place in Hamilton's theories. "Men," said he, "are reasoning +rather than reasonable animals." The charge that he laboured to introduce +monarchy by intrigue is an under-estimate of his good sense.[18] +Hamilton's thinking, however, did carry him foul of current democratic +philosophy; as he said, he presented his plan in 1787 "not as attainable, +but as a model to which we ought to approach as far as possible"; +moreover, he held through life his belief in its principles, and in its +superiority over the government actually created; and though its +inconsistency with American tendencies was yearly more apparent, he never +ceased to avow on all occasions his aristocratic-monarchical partialities. +Moreover, his preferences for at least an aristocratic republic were +shared by many other men of talent. When it is added that Jefferson's +assertions, alike as regards Hamilton's talk[19] and the intent and +tendency of his political measures, were, to the extent of the underlying +basic fact--but discounting Jefferson's somewhat intemperate +interpretations--unquestionably true,[20] it cannot be accounted strange +that Hamilton's Democratic opponents mistook his theoretic predilections +for positive designs. Nor would it be a strained inference from much that +be said, to believe that he hoped and expected that in the "crisis" he +foresaw, when democracy should have caused the ruin of the country, a new +government might be formed that should approximate to his own ideals.[21] +From the beginning of the excesses of the French Revolution he was +possessed by the persuasion that American democracy, likewise, might at +any moment crush the restraints of the Constitution to enter on a career +of licence and anarchy. To this obsession he sacrificed his life.[22] +After the Democratic victory of 1800, his letters, full of retrospective +judgments and interesting outlooks, are but rarely relieved in their +sombre pessimism by flashes of hope and courage. His last letter on +politics, written two days before his death, illustrates the two sides of +his thinking already emphasized: in this letter he warns his New England +friends against dismemberment of the union as "a clear sacrifice of great +positive advantages, without any counterbalancing good; administering no +relief to our real disease, which is democracy, the poison of which, by a +subdivision, will only be more concentrated in each part, and consequently +the more virulent." To the end he never lost his fear of the states, nor +gained faith in the future of the country. He laboured still, in mingled +hope and apprehension, "to prop the frail and worthless fabric,"[23] but +for its spiritual content of democracy he had no understanding, and even +in its nationalism he had little hope. Yet probably to no one man, except +perhaps to Washington, does American nationalism owe so much as to +Hamilton. + +In the development of the United States the influence of Hamiltonian +nationalism and Jeffersonian democracy has been a reactive union; but +changed conditions since Hamilton's time, and particularly since the +Civil War, are likely to create misconceptions as to Hamilton's position +in his own day. Great constructive statesman as he was, he was also, +from the American point of view, essentially a reactionary. He was the +leader of reactionary forces--constructive forces, as it happened--in +the critical period after the War of American Independence, and in the +period of Federalist supremacy. He was in sympathy with the dominant +forces of public life only while they took, during the war, the +predominant impress of an imperfect nationalism.[24] Jeffersonian +democracy came into power in 1800 in direct line with colonial +development; Hamiltonian Federalism was a break in that development; and +this alone can explain how Jefferson could organize the Democratic Party +in face of the brilliant success of the Federalists in constructing the +government. Hamilton stigmatized his great opponent as a political +fanatic; but actualist as he claimed to be,[25] Hamilton could not see, +or would not concede, the predominating forces in American life, and +would uncompromisingly have minimized the two great political conquests +of the colonial period--local self-government and democracy. + +Few Americans have received higher tributes from foreign authorities. +Talleyrand, personally impressed when in America with Hamilton's +brilliant qualities, declared that he had the power of divining without +reasoning, and compared him to Fox and Napoleon because he had "deviné +l'Europe." Of the judgments rendered by his countrymen, Washington's +confidence in his ability and integrity is perhaps the most significant. +Chancellor James Kent, and others only less competent, paid remarkable +testimony to his legal abilities. Chief-justice Marshall ranked him +second to Washington alone. No judgment is more justly measured than +Madison's (in 1831): "That he possessed intellectual powers of the first +order, and the moral qualities of integrity and honour in a captivating +degree, has been awarded him by a suffrage now universal. If his theory +of government deviated from the republican standard he had the candour +to avow it, and the greater merit of co-operating faithfully in maturing +and supporting a system which was not his choice." + +In person Hamilton was rather short and slender; in carriage, erect, +dignified and graceful. Deep-set, changeable, dark eyes vivified his +mobile features, and set off his light hair and fair, ruddy complexion. +His head in the famous Trumbull portrait is boldly poised and very +striking. The captivating charm of his manners and conversation is +attested by all who knew him, and in familiar life he was artlessly +simple. Friends he won readily, and he held them in devoted attachment +by the solid worth of a frank, ardent, generous, warm-hearted and +high-minded character. Versatile as were his intellectual powers, his +nature seems comparatively simple. A firm will, tireless energy, +aggressive courage and bold self-confidence were its leading qualities; +the word "intensity" perhaps best sums up his character. His Scotch and +Gallic strains of ancestry are evident; his countenance was decidedly +Scotch; his nervous speech and bearing and vehement temperament rather +French; in his mind, agility, clarity and penetration were matched with +logical solidity. The remarkable quality of his mind lay in the rare +combination of acute analysis and grasp of detail with great +comprehensiveness of thought. So far as his writings show, he was almost +wholly lacking in humour, and in imagination little less so. He +certainly had wit, but it is hard to believe he could have had any touch +of fancy. In public speaking he often combined a rhetorical +effectiveness and emotional intensity that might take the place of +imagination, and enabled him, on the coldest theme, to move deeply the +feelings of his auditors. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Hamilton's _Works_ have been edited by H. C. Lodge (New + York, 9 vols., 1885-1886, and 12 vols., 1904); all references above + are first to the latter edition, secondly (in brackets) to the former. + There are various additional editions of _The Federalist_, notably + those of H. B. Dawson (1863), H. C. Lodge (1888), and--the most + scholarly--P. L. Ford (1898); cf. _American Historical Review_, ii. + 413, 675. See also James Bryce, "Predictions of Hamilton and de + Tocqueville," in _Johns Hopkins University Studies_, vol. 5 + (Baltimore, 1887); and the capital essay of Anson D. Morse in the + _Political Science Quarterly_, v. (1890), pp. 1-23. For a bibliography + of the period see the _Cambridge Modern History_, vol. vii. pp. + 780-810. The unfinished _Life of Alexander Hamilton, by his Son_, J. + C. Hamilton, going only to 1787 (New York, 2 vols., 1834-1840), was + superseded by the same author's valuable, but partisan and uncritical + _History of the Republic ... as traced in the Writings of Alexander + Hamilton_ (New York, 7 vols., 1857-1864; 4th ed., Boston, 1879). + Professor W. G. Sumner's _Alexander Hamilton_ (Makers of America + series, New York, 1890) is appreciative, and important for its + criticism from the point of view of an American free-trader; see also, + on Hamilton's finance and economic views, Prof. C. F. Dunbar, + _Quarterly Journal of Economics_, iii. (1889), p. 32; E. G. Bourne in + ibid. x. (1894), p. 328; E. C. Lunt in _Journal of Political Economy_, + iii. (1895), p. 289. Among modern studies must also be mentioned J. T. + Morse's able _Life_ (1876); H. C. Lodge's (in the American Statesmen + series, 1882); and G. Shea's two books, his _Historical Study_ (1877) + and _Life and Epoch_ (1879). C. J. Riethmüller's _Hamilton and his + Contemporaries_ (1864), written during the Civil War, is sympathetic, + but rather speculative. The most vivid account of Hamilton is in Mrs + Gertrude Atherton's historical romance, _The Conqueror_ (New York, + 1902), for the writing of which the author made new investigations + into the biographical details, and elucidated some points previously + obscure; see also her _A Few of Hamilton's Letters_ (1903). F. S. + Oliver's brilliant _Alexander Hamilton: An Essay on American Union_ + (London, 1906), which uses its subject to illustrate the necessity of + British imperial federation, is strongly anti-Jeffersonian, but no + other work by a non-American author brings out so well the wider + issues involved in Hamilton's economic policy. (F. S. P.; H. Ch.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] These facts were first definitely determined by Mrs Gertrude + Atherton from the Danish Archives in Denmark and the West Indies; see + article in _North American Review_, Aug. 1902, vol. 175, p. 229; and + preface to her _A Few of Hamilton's Letters_ (New York, 1903). + + [2] These were written in answer to the widely read pamphlets + published over the _nom de plume_ of "A Westchester Farmer," and now + known to have been written by Samuel Seabury (q.v.). Hamilton's + pamphlets were entitled "A Full Vindication of the Measures of the + Congress from the Calumnies of their Enemies," and "The Farmer + Refuted." Concerning them George Ticknor Curtis (_Constitutional + History of the United States_, i. 274) has said, "There are displayed + in these papers a power of reasoning and sarcasm, a knowledge of the + principles of government and of the English constitution, and a grasp + of the merits of the whole controversy, that would have done honour + to any man at any age. To say that they evince precocity of intellect + gives no idea of their main characteristics. They show great + maturity--a more remarkable maturity than has ever been exhibited by + any other person, at so early an age, in the same department of + thought." + + [3] George Bancroft was the first to point out that there is small + evidence that Hamilton ever really appreciated Washington's great + qualities; but on the score of personal and Federalist indebtedness + he left explicit recognition. + + [4] For Hamilton's letter to General Schuyler on this episode--one of + the most important letters, in some ways, that he ever wrote--see the + _Works_, ix. 232 (8: 35). + + [5] Especially the letter of September 1780 to James Duane, _Works_, + i. 213 (1: 203); also the "Continentalist" papers of 1781. + + [6] His most famous case at this time (_Rutgers_ v. _Waddington_) was + one that well illustrated his moral courage. Under a "Trespass Law" + of New York, Elizabeth Rutgers, a widow, brought suit against one + Joshua Waddington, a Loyalist, who during the war of American + Independence, while New York was occupied by the British, had made + use of some of her property. In face of popular clamour, Hamilton, + who advocated a conciliatory treatment of the Loyalists, represented + Waddington, who won the case, decided in 1784. + + [7] As Mr Oliver points out (_Alexander Hamilton_, p. 156), + Hamilton's idea of the British constitution was not a correct picture + of the British constitution in 1787, and still less of that of the + 20th century. "What he had in mind was the British constitution as + George III. had tried to make it." Hamilton's ideal was an elective + monarchy, and his guiding principle a proper balance of authority. + + [8] Briefly, he proposed a governor and two chambers--an Assembly + elected by the people for three years, and a Senate--the governor and + senate holding office for life or during good behaviour, and chosen, + through electors, by voters qualified by property; the governor to + have an unqualified veto on federal legislation; state governors to + have a similar veto on state legislation, and to be appointed by the + federal government; the federal government to control all militia. + See _Works_, i. 347 (1: 331); and cf. his correspondence, which is + scanty, _passim_ in later years, notably x. 446, 431, 329 (8: 606, + 596, 517), and references below. + + [9] Nearly all the papers in _The Federalist_ first appeared (between + October 1787 and April 1788) in New York journals, over the signature + "Publius." Jay wrote only five. The authorship of twelve of them is + uncertain, and has been the subject of much controversy between + partisans of Hamilton and Madison. Concerning _The Federalist_ + Chancellor James Kent (_Commentaries_, i. 241) said: "There is no + work on the subject of the Constitution, and on republican and + federal government generally, that deserves to be more thoroughly + studied. I know not indeed of any work on the principles of free + government that is to be compared, in instruction and intrinsic + value, to this small and unpretending volume.... It is equally + admirable in the depth of its wisdom, the comprehensiveness of its + views, the sagacity of its reflections, and the fearlessness, + patriotism, candour, simplicity, and elegance, with which its truths + are uttered and recommended." + + [10] The position was offered first to Robert Morris, who declined + it, expressing the opinion that Hamilton was the man best fitted to + meet its problems. + + [11] Hamilton's _Report on Manufactures_ (1791) by itself entitles + him to the place of an epoch-maker in economics. It was the first + great revolt from Adam Smith, on whose _Wealth of Nations_ (1776) he + is said to have already written a commentary which is lost. In his + criticism on Adam Smith, and his arguments for a system of moderate + protective duties associated with the deliberate policy of promoting + national interests, his work was the inspiration of Friedrich List, + and so the foundation of the economic system of Germany in a later + day, and again, still later, of the policy of Tariff Reform and + Colonial Preference in England, as advocated by Mr Chamberlain and + his supporters. See the detailed account given in the article + PROTECTION. + + [12] That is, while Jefferson hated British aristocracy and + sympathized with French democracy, Hamilton hated French democracy + and sympathized with British aristocracy and order; but neither + wanted war; and indeed Jefferson, throughout life, was the more + peaceful of the two. Neutrality was in the line of commonplace + American thinking of that time, as may be seen in the writings of all + the leading men of the day. The cry of "British Hamilton" had no good + excuse whatever. + + [13] e.g. his prediction in 1789 of the course of the French + Revolution; his judgments of Burr from 1792 onward, and of Burr and + Jefferson in 1800. + + [14] After the Democrats won New York in 1799, Hamilton proposed to + Governor John Jay to call together the out-going Federalist + legislature, in order to choose Federalist presidential electors, a + suggestion which Jay simply endorsed: "Proposing a measure for party + purposes which it would not become me to adopt."--_Works_, x. 371 (8: + 549). Compare also with later developments of ward politics in New + York City, Hamilton's curious suggestions as to Federalist charities, + &c., in connexion with the Christian Constitutional Society proposed + by him in 1802 to combat irreligion and democracy (_Works_, x. 432 + (8: 596). + + [15] Hamilton's widow, who survived him for half a century, dying at + the age of ninety-seven, was left with four sons and four daughters. + He had been an affectionate husband and father, though his devotion + to his wife had been consistent with occasional lapses from strict + marital fidelity. One intrigue into which he drifted in 1791, with a + Mrs Reynolds, led to the blackmailing of Hamilton by her husband; and + when this rascal, shortly afterwards, got into trouble for fraud, his + relations with Hamilton were unscrupulously misrepresented for + political purposes by some of Hamilton's opponents. But Hamilton + faced the necessity of revealing the true state of things with + conspicuous courage, and the scandal only reacted on his accusers. + One of them was Monroe, whose reputation comes very badly out of this + unsavoury affair. + + [16] In later years he said no debt should be incurred without + providing simultaneously for its payment. + + [17] He warmly supported the Alien and Sedition Laws of 1798 (in + their final form). + + [18] The idea, he wrote to Washington, was "one of those visionary + things none but madmen could undertake, and that no wise man will + believe" (1792). And see his comments on Burr's ambitions, _Works_, + x. 417, 450 (8: 585, 610). We may accept as just, and applicable to + his entire career, the statement made by himself in 1803 of his + principles in 1787: "(1) That the political powers of the people of + this continent would endure nothing but a representative form of + government. (2) That, in the actual situation of the country, it was + itself right and proper that the representative system should have a + full and fair trial. (3) That to such a trial it was essential that + the government should be so constructed as to give it all the energy + and the stability reconcilable with the principles of that theory." + + [19] Cf. Gouverneur Morris, _Diary and Letters_, ii. 455, 526, 531. + + [20] Cf. even Mr Lodge's judgments, pp. 90-92, 115-116, 122, 130, + 140. When he says (p. 140) that "In Hamilton's successful policy + there were certainly germs of an aristocratic republic, there were + certainly limitations and possibly dangers to pure democracy," this + is practically Jefferson's assertion (1792) that "His system flowed + from principles adverse to liberty"; but Jefferson goes on to add: + "and was calculated to undermine and demolish the republic." As to + the intent of Hamilton to secure through his financial measures the + political support of property, his own words are honest and clear; + and in fact he succeeded. Jefferson merely had exaggerated fears of a + moneyed political engine, and seeing that Hamilton's measures of + funding and assumption did make the national debt politically useful + to the Federalists in the beginning he concluded that they would seek + to fasten the debt on the country for ever. + + [21] Cf. Gouv. Morris, _op. cit._ ii. 474. + + [22] He dreamed of saving the country with an army in this crisis of + blood and iron, and wished to preserve unweakened the public + confidence in his personal bravery. + + [23] His own words in 1802. In justification of the above statements + see the correspondence of 1800-1804 _passim_--_Works_, vol. ix.-x. + (or 7-8); especially x. 363, 425, 434, 440, 445 (or 8: 543, 591, 596, + 602, 605). + + [24] Cf. Anson D. Morse, article cited below, pp. 4, 18-21. + + [25] Chancellor Kent tells us (_Memoirs and Letters_, p. 32) that in + 1804 Hamilton was planning a co-operative Federalist work on the + history and science of government on an inductive basis. Kent always + speaks of Hamilton's legal thinking as deductive, however (ibid. p. + 290, 329), and such seems to have been in fact all his political + reasoning: i.e. underlying them were such maxims as that of Hume, + that in erecting a stable government every citizen must be assumed a + knave, and be bound by self-interest to co-operation for the public + good. Hamilton always seems to be reasoning deductively from such + principles. He went too far and fast for even such a Federalist + disbeliever in democracy as Gouverneur Morris; who, to Hamilton's + assertion that democracy must be cast out to save the country, + replied that "such necessity cannot be shown by a political + ratiocination. Luckily, or, to speak with a reverence proper to the + occasion, providentially, mankind are not disposed to embark the + blessings they enjoy on a voyage of syllogistic adventure to obtain + something more beautiful in exchange. They must feel before they will + act" (_op. cit._ ii. 531). + + + + +HAMILTON, ANTHONY, or ANTOINE (1646-1720), French classical author, was +born about 1646. He is especially noteworthy from the fact that, though +by birth he was a foreigner, his literary characteristics are more +decidedly French than those of many of the most indubitable Frenchmen. +His father was George Hamilton, younger brother of James, 2nd earl of +Abercorn, and head of the family of Hamilton in the peerage of +Scotland, and 6th duke of Châtellerault in the peerage of France; and +his mother was Mary Butler, sister of the 1st duke of Ormonde. According +to some authorities he was born at Drogheda, but according to the London +edition of his works in 1811 his birthplace was Roscrea, Tipperary. From +the age of four till he was fourteen the boy was brought up in France, +whither his family had removed after the execution of Charles I. The +fact that, like his father, he was a Roman Catholic, prevented his +receiving the political promotion he might otherwise have expected on +the Restoration, but he became a distinguished member of that brilliant +band of courtiers whose chronicler he was to become. He took service in +the French army, and the marriage of his sister Elizabeth, "la belle +Hamilton," to Philibert, comte de Gramont (q.v.) rendered his connexion +with France more intimate, if possible, than before. On the accession of +James II. he obtained an infantry regiment in Ireland, and was appointed +governor of Limerick and a member of the privy council. But the battle +of the Boyne, at which he was present, brought disaster on all who were +attached to the cause of the Stuarts, and before long he was again in +France--an exile, but at home. The rest of his life was spent for the +most part at the court of St Germain and in the _châteaux_ of his +friends. With Ludovise, duchesse du Maine, he became an especial +favourite, and it was at her seat at Sceaux that he wrote the _Mémoires_ +that made him famous. He died at St Germain-en-Laye on the 21st of April +1720. + +It is mainly by the _Mémoires ducomte de Gramont_ that Hamilton takes +rank with the most classical writers of France. It was said to have been +written at Gramont's dictation, but it is very evident that Hamilton's +share is the most considerable. The work was first published anonymously +in 1713 under the rubric of Cologne, but it was really printed in +Holland, at that time the great patroness of all questionable authors. +An English translation by Boyer appeared in 1714. Upwards of thirty +editions have since appeared, the best of the French being Renouard's +(1812), forming part of a collected edition of Hamilton's works, and +Gustave Brunet's (1859), and the best of the English, Edwards's (1793), +with 78 engravings from portraits in the royal collections at Windsor +and elsewhere, A. F. Bertrand de Moleville's (2 vols., 1811), with 64 +portraits by E. Scriven and others, and Gordon Goodwin's (2 vols., +1903). The original edition was reprinted by Benjamin Pifteau in 1876. +In imitation and satiric parody of the romantic tales which Antoine +Galland's translation of _The Thousand and One Nights_ had brought into +favour in France, Hamilton wrote, partly for the amusement of Henrietta +Bulkley, sister of the duchess of Berwick, to whom he was much attached, +four ironical and extravagant _contes_, _Le Bélier_, _Fleur d'épine_, +_Zénéyde_ and _Les Quatre Facardins_. The saying in _Le Bélier_' +"Bélier, mon ami, tu me ferais plaisir si tu voulais commencer par le +commencement," has passed into a proverb. These tales were circulated +privately during Hamilton's lifetime, and the first three appeared in +Paris in 1730, ten years after the death of the author; a collection of +his _Oeuvres diverses_ in 1731 contained the unfinished _Zénéyde_. +Hamilton was also the author of some songs as exquisite in their way as +his prose, and interchanged amusing verses with the duke of Berwick. In +the name of his niece, the countess of Stafford, Hamilton maintained a +witty correspondence with Lady Mary Wortley Montagu. + + See notices of Hamilton in Lescure's edition (1873) of the _Contes_, + Sainte-Beuve's _Causeries du lundi_, tome i., Sayou's _Histoire de la + littérature française à l'étranger_ (1853), and by L. S. Auger in the + _Oeuvres complètes_ (1804). + + + + +HAMILTON, ELIZABETH (1758-1816), British author, was born at Belfast, of +Scottish extraction, on the 21st of July 1758. Her father's death in +1759 left his wife so embarrassed that Elizabeth was adopted in 1762 by +her paternal aunt, Mrs Marshall, who lived in Scotland, near Stirling. +In 1788 Miss Hamilton went to live with her brother Captain Charles +Hamilton (1753-1792), who was engaged on his translation of the +_Hedaya_. Prompted by her brother's associations, she produced her +_Letters of a Hindoo Rajah_ in 1796. Soon after, with her sister Mrs +Blake, she settled at Bath, where she published in 1800 the _Memoirs of +Modern Philosophers_, a satire on the admirers of the French Revolution. +In 1801-1802 appeared her _Letters on Education_. After travelling +through Wales and Scotland for nearly two years, the sisters took up +their abode in 1803 at Edinburgh. In 1804 Mrs Hamilton, as she then +preferred to be called, published her _Life of Agrippina, wife of +Germanicus_; and in the same year she received a pension from +government. _The Cottagers of Glenburnie_ (1808), which is her +best-known work, was described by Sir Walter Scott as "a picture of the +rural habits of Scotland, of striking and impressive fidelity." She also +published _Popular Essays on the Elementary Principles of the Human +Mind_ (1812), and _Hints addressed to the Patrons and Directors of +Public Schools_ (1815). She died at Harrogate on the 23rd of July 1816. + + _Memoirs of Mrs Elizabeth Hamilton_, by Miss Benger, were published in + 1818. + + + + +HAMILTON, EMMA, LADY (c. 1765-1815), wife of Sir William Hamilton +(q.v.), the British envoy at Naples, and famous as the mistress of +Nelson, was the daughter of Henry Lyon, a blacksmith of Great Neston in +Cheshire. The date of her birth cannot be fixed with certainty, but she +was baptized at Great Neston on the 12th of May 1765, and it is not +improbable that she was born in that year. Her baptismal name was Emily. +As her father died soon after her birth, the mother, who was dependent +on parish relief, had to remove to her native village, Hawarden in +Flintshire. Emma's early life is very obscure. She was certainly +illiterate, and it appears that she had a child in 1780, a fact which +has led some of her biographers to place her birth before 1765. It has +been said that she was first the mistress of Captain Willet Payne, an +officer in the navy, and that she was employed in some doubtful capacity +by a notorious quack of the time, Dr Graham. In 1781 she was the +mistress of a country gentleman, Sir Harry Featherstonhaugh, who turned +her out in December of that year. She was then pregnant, and in her +distress she applied to the Hon. Charles Greville, to whom she was +already known. At this time she called herself Emily Hart. Greville, a +gentleman of artistic tastes and well known in society, entertained her +as his mistress, her mother, known as Mrs Cadogan, acting as housekeeper +and partly as servant. Under the protection of Greville, whose means +were narrowed by debt, she acquired some education, and was taught to +sing, dance and act with professional skill. In 1782 he introduced her +to his friend Romney the portrait painter, who had been established for +several years in London, and who admired her beauty with enthusiasm. The +numerous famous portraits of her from his brush may have somewhat +idealised her apparently robust and brilliantly coloured beauty, but her +vivacity and powers of fascination cannot be doubted. She had the +temperament of an artist, and seems to have been sincerely attached to +Greville. In 1784 she was seen by his uncle, Sir William Hamilton, who +admired her greatly. Two years later she was sent on a visit to him at +Naples, as the result of an understanding between Hamilton and +Greville--the uncle paying his nephew's debts and the nephew ceding his +mistress. Emma at first resented, but then submitted to the arrangement. +Her beauty, her artistic capacity, and her high spirits soon made her a +great favourite in the easy-going society of Naples, and Queen Maria +Carolina became closely attached to her. She became famous for her +"attitudes," a series of _poses plastiques_ in which she represented +classical and other figures. On the 6th of September 1791, during a +visit to England, she was married to Sir W. Hamilton. The ceremony was +required in order to justify her public reception at the court of +Naples, where Lady Hamilton played an important part as the agent +through whom the queen communicated with the British minister--sometimes +in opposition to the will and the policy of the king. The revolutionary +wars and disturbances which began after 1792 made the services of Lady +Hamilton always useful and sometimes necessary to the British +government. It was claimed by her, and on her behalf, that she secured +valuable information in 1796, and was of essential service to the +British fleet in 1798 during the Nile campaign, by enabling it to obtain +stores and water in Sicily. These claims have been denied on the rather +irrelevant ground that they are wanting in official confirmation, which +was only to be expected since they were _ex hypothesi_ unofficial and +secret, but it is not improbable that they were considerably +exaggerated, and it is certain that her stories cannot always be +reconciled with one another or with the accepted facts. When Nelson +returned from the Nile in September 1798 Lady Hamilton made him her +hero, and he became entirely devoted to her. Her influence over him +indeed became notorious, and brought him much official displeasure. Lady +Hamilton undoubtedly used her influence to draw Nelson into a most +unhappy participation in the domestic troubles of Naples, and when Sir +W. Hamilton was recalled in 1800 she travelled with him and Nelson +ostentatiously across Europe. In England Lady Hamilton insisted on +making a parade of her hold over Nelson. Their child, Horatia Nelson +Thompson, was born on the 30th of January 1801. The profuse habits which +Emma Hamilton had contracted in Naples, together with a passion for +gambling which grew on her, led her into debt, and also into extravagant +ways of living, against which her husband feebly protested. On his death +in 1803 she received by his will a life rent of £800, and the furniture +of his house in Piccadilly. She then lived openly with Nelson at his +house at Merton. Nelson tried repeatedly to secure her a pension for the +services rendered at Naples, but did not succeed. On his death she +received Merton, and an annuity of £500, as well as the control of the +interest of the £4000 he left to his daughter. But gambling and +extravagance kept her poor. In 1808 her friends endeavoured to arrange +her affairs, but in 1813 she was put in prison for debt and remained +there for a year. A certain Alderman Smith having aided her to get out, +she went over to Calais for refuge from her creditors, and she died +there in distress if not in want on the 15th of January 1815. + + AUTHORITIES.--_The Memoirs of Lady Hamilton_ (London, 1815) were the + work of an ill-disposed but well-informed and shrewd observer whose + name is not given. _Lady Hamilton and Lord Nelson_, by J. C. Jefferson + (London, 1888) is based on authentic papers. It is corrected in some + particulars by the detailed recent life written by Walter Sichel, + _Emma, Lady Hamilton_ (London, 1905). See also the authorities given + in the article NELSON. (D. H.) + + + + +HAMILTON, JAMES (1769-1831), English educationist, and author of the +Hamiltonian system of teaching languages, was born in 1769. The first +part of his life was spent in mercantile pursuits. Having settled in +Hamburg and become free of the city, he was anxious to become acquainted +with German and accepted the tuition of a French emigré, General +d'Angelis. In twelve lessons he found himself able to read an easy +German book, his master having discarded the use of a grammar and +translated to him short stories word for word into French. As a citizen +of Hamburg Hamilton started a business in Paris, and during the peace of +Amiens maintained a lucrative trade with England; but at the rupture of +the treaty he was made a prisoner of war, and though the protection of +Hamburg was enough to get the words _effacé de la liste des prisonniers +de guerre_ inscribed upon his passport, he was detained in custody till +the close of hostilities. His business being thus ruined, he went in +1814 to America, intending to become a farmer and manufacturer of +potash; but, changing his plan before he reached his "location," he +started as a teacher in New York. Adopting his old tutor's method, he +attained remarkable success in New York, Baltimore, Washington, Boston, +Montreal and Quebec. Returning to England in July 1823, he was equally +fortunate in Manchester and elsewhere. The two master principles of his +method were that the language should be presented to the scholar as a +living organism, and that its laws should be learned from observation +and not by rules. His system attracted general attention, and was +vigorously attacked and defended. In 1826 Sydney Smith devoted an +article to its elucidation in the _Edinburgh Review_. As text-books for +his pupils Hamilton printed interlinear translations of the Gospel of +John, of an _Epitome historiae sacrae_, of Aesop's _Fables_, Eutropius, +Aurelius Victor, Phaedrus, &c., and many books were issued as +Hamiltonian with which he had nothing personally to do. He died on the +31st of October 1831. + + See Hamilton's own account, _The History, Principles, Practice and + Results of the Hamiltonian System_ (Manchester, 1829; new ed., 1831); + Alberte, _Über die Hamilton'sche Methode_; C. F. Wurm, _Hamilton und + Jacotot_ (1831). + + + + +HAMILTON, JAMES HAMILTON, 1ST DUKE OF (1606-1649), Scottish nobleman, +son of James, 2nd marquess of Hamilton, and of the Lady Anne Cunningham, +daughter of the earl of Glencairn, was born on the 19th of June 1606. As +the descendant and representative of James Hamilton, 1st earl of Arran, +he was the heir to the throne of Scotland after the descendants of James +VI.[1] He married in his fourteenth year May Feilding, aged seven, +daughter of Lord Feilding, afterwards 1st earl of Denbigh, and was +educated at Exeter College, Oxford, where he matriculated on the 14th of +December 1621. He succeeded to his father's titles on the latter's death +in 1625. In 1628 he was made master of the horse and was also appointed +gentleman of the bedchamber and a privy councillor. In 1631 Hamilton +took over a force of 6000 men to assist Gustavus Adolphus in Germany. He +guarded the fortresses on the Oder while Gustavus fought Tilly at +Breitenfeld, and afterwards occupied Magdeburg, but his army was +destroyed by disease and starvation, and after the complete failure of +the expedition Hamilton returned to England in September 1634. He now +became Charles I.'s chief adviser in Scottish affairs. In May 1638, +after the outbreak of the revolt against the English Prayer-Book, he was +appointed commissioner for Scotland to appease the discontents. He +described the Scots as being "possessed by the devil," and instead of +doing his utmost to support the king's interests was easily intimidated +by the covenanting leaders and persuaded of the impossibility of +resisting their demands, finally returning to Charles to urge him to +give way. It is said that he so far forgot his trust as to encourage the +Scottish leaders in their resistance in order to gain their favour.[2] +On the 27th of July Charles sent him back with new proposals for the +election of an assembly and a parliament, episcopacy being safeguarded +but bishops being made responsible to future assemblies. After a wrangle +concerning the mode of election he again returned to Charles. Having +been sent back to Edinburgh on the 17th of September, he brought with +him a revocation of the prayer-book and canons and another covenant to +be substituted for the national covenant. On the 21st of November +Hamilton presided over the first meeting of the assembly in Glasgow +cathedral, but dissolved it on the 28th on its declaring the bishops +responsible to its authority. The assembly, however, continued to sit +notwithstanding, and Hamilton returned to England to give an account of +his failure, leaving the enemy triumphant and in possession. War was now +decided upon, and Hamilton was chosen to command an expedition to the +Forth to menace the rear of the Scots. On arrival on the 1st of May 1639 +he found the plan impossible, despaired of success, and was recalled in +June. On the 8th of July, after a hostile reception at Edinburgh, he +resigned his commissionership. He supported Strafford's proposal to call +the Short Parliament, but otherwise opposed him as strongly as he could, +as the chief adversary of the Scots; and he aided the elder Vane, it was +believed, in accomplishing Strafford's destruction by sending for him +to the Long Parliament. Hamilton now supported the parliamentary party, +desired an alliance with his nation, and persuaded Charles in February +1641 to admit some of their leaders into the council. On the death of +Strafford Hamilton was confronted by a new antagonist in Montrose, who +detested both his character and policy and repudiated his supremacy in +Scotland. On the 10th of August 1641 he accompanied Charles on his last +visit to Scotland. His aim now was to effect an alliance between the +king and Argyll, the former accepting Presbyterianism and receiving the +help of the Scots against the English parliament, and when this failed +he abandoned Charles and adhered to Argyll. In consequence he received a +challenge from Lord Ker, of which he gave the king information, and +obtained from Ker an apology. Montrose wrote to Charles declaring he +could prove Hamilton to be a traitor. The king himself spoke of him as +being "very active in his own preservation." Shortly afterwards the +plot--known as the "Incident"--to seize Argyll, Hamilton and the +latter's brother, the earl of Lanark, was discovered, and on the 12th of +October they fled from Edinburgh. Hamilton returned not long afterwards, +and notwithstanding all that had occurred still retained Charles's +favour and confidence. He returned with him to London and accompanied +him on the 5th of January 1642 when he went to the city after the +failure to secure the five members. In July Hamilton went to Scotland on +a hopeless mission to prevent the intervention of the Scots in the war, +and a breach then took place between him and Argyll. When in February +1643 proposals of mediation between Charles and the parliament came from +Scotland, Hamilton instigated the "cross petition" which demanded from +Charles the surrender of the annuities of tithes in order to embarrass +Loudoun, the chief promoter of the project, to whom they had already +been granted. This failing, he promoted a scheme for overwhelming the +influence and votes of Argyll and his party by sending to Scotland all +the Scottish peers then with the king, thereby preventing any assistance +to the parliament coming from that quarter, while Charles was to +guarantee the establishment of Presbyterianism in Scotland only. This +foolish intrigue was strongly opposed by Montrose, who was eager to +strike a sudden blow and anticipate and annihilate the plans of the +Covenanters. Hamilton, however, gained over the queen for his project, +and in September was made a duke, while Montrose was condemned to +inaction. Hamilton's scheme, however, completely failed. He had no +control over the parliament. He was unable to hinder the meeting of the +convention of the estates which assembled without the king's authority, +and his supporters found themselves in a minority. Finally, on refusing +to take the Covenant, Hamilton and Lanark were obliged to leave +Scotland. They arrived at Oxford on the 16th of December. Hamilton's +conduct had at last incurred Charles's resentment and he was sent, in +January 1644, a prisoner to Pendennis Castle, in 1645 being removed to +St Michael's Mount, where he was liberated by Fairfax's troops on the +23rd of April 1646. Subsequently he showed great activity in the futile +negotiations between the Scots and Charles at Newcastle. In 1648, in +consequence of the seizure of Charles by the army in 1647, Hamilton +obtained a temporary influence and authority in the Scottish parliament +over Argyll, and led a large force into England in support of the king +on the 8th of July. He showed complete incapacity in military command; +was kept in check for some time by Lambert; and though outnumbering the +enemy by 24,000 to about 9000 men, allowed his troops to disperse over +the country and to be defeated in detail by Cromwell during the three +days August 17th-19th at the so-called battle of Preston, being himself +taken prisoner on the 25th. He was tried on the 6th of February 1649, +condemned to death on the 6th of March and executed on the 9th. + +Hamilton, during his unfortunate career, had often been suspected of +betraying the king's cause, and, as an heir to the Scottish throne, of +intentionally playing into the hands of the Covenanters with a view of +procuring the crown for himself. The charge was brought against him as +early as 1631 when he was levying men in Scotland for the German +expedition, but Charles gave no credence to it and showed his trust in +Hamilton by causing him to share his own room. The charge, however, +always clung to him, and his intriguing character and hopeless +management of the king's affairs in Scotland gave colour to the +accusation. There seems, however, to be no real foundation for it. His +career is sufficiently explained by his thoroughly weak and egotistical +character. He took no interest whatever in the great questions at issue, +was neither loyal nor patriotic, and only desired peace and compromise +to avoid personal losses. "He was devoid of intellectual or moral +strength, and was therefore easily brought to fancy all future tasks +easy and all present obstacles insuperable."[3] A worse choice than +Hamilton could not possibly have been made in such a crisis, and his +want of principle, of firmness and resolution, brought irretrievable +ruin upon the royal cause. + +Hamilton's three sons died young, and the dukedom passed by special +remainder to his brother William, earl of Lanark. On the latter's death +in 1651 the Scottish titles reverted to the 1st duke's daughter, Anne, +whose husband, William Douglas, was created (third) duke of Hamilton. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Article in the _Dict. of Nat. Biog._ by S. R. Gardiner; + _History of England and of the Civil War_, by the same author; + _Memoirs of the Dukes of Hamilton_, by G. Burnet; _Lauderdale Papers_ + (Camden Society, 1884-1885); _The Hamilton Papers_, ed. by S. R. + Gardiner (Camden Society, 1880) and _addenda_ (Camden Miscellany, vol. + ix., 1895); _Thomason Tracts_ in the British Museum, 550 (6), 1948 + (30) (account of his supposed treachery), and 546 (21) (speech on the + scaffold). (P. C. Y.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] + + James, Lord Hamilton = Princess Mary Stuart, + (d. 1479). | daughter of James II. + | + James, Lord Hamilton and 1st earl of Arran + (d. c. 1529). + | + James, duke of Chatelherault, and 2nd earl of Arran + (d. 1575). + | + James, 3rd earl of Arran + (d. 1609). + | + John, 1st marquess of Hamilton + (d. 1604). + | + James, 2nd marquess of Hamilton + (d. 1625). + | + James, 3rd marquess and 1st duke of Hamilton. + + [2] See S. R. Gardiner in the _Dict. of Nat. Biography_. + + [3] See S. R. Gardiner in the _Dict. of Nat. Biography_. + + + + +HAMILTON, JOHN (c. 1511-1571), Scottish prelate and politician, was a +natural son of James Hamilton, 1st earl of Arran. At a very early age he +became a monk and abbot of Paisley, and after studying in Paris he +returned to Scotland, where he soon rose to a position of power and +influence under his half-brother, the regent Arran. He was made keeper +of the privy seal in 1543 and bishop of Dunkeld two years later; in 1546 +he followed David Beaton as archbishop of St Andrews, and about the same +time he became treasurer of the kingdom. He made vigorous efforts to +stay the growth of Protestantism, but with one or two exceptions +"persecution was not the policy of Archbishop Hamilton," and in the +interests of the Roman Catholic religion a catechism called _Hamilton's +Catechism_ (published with an introduction by T. G. Law in 1884) was +drawn up and printed, possibly at his instigation. Having incurred the +displeasure of the Protestants, now the dominant party in Scotland, the +archbishop was imprisoned in 1563. After his release he was an active +partisan of Mary queen of Scots; he baptized the infant James, +afterwards King James VI., and pronounced the divorce of the queen from +Bothwell. He was present at the battle of Langside, and some time later +took refuge in Dumbarton Castle. Here he was seized, and on the charge +of being concerned in the murders of Lord Darnley and the regent Murray +he was tried, and hanged on the 6th of April 1571. The archbishop had +three children by his mistress, Grizzel Sempill. + + + + +HAMILTON, PATRICK (1504-1528), Scottish divine, second son of Sir +Patrick Hamilton, well known in Scottish chivalry, and of Catherine +Stewart, daughter of Alexander, duke of Albany, second son of James II. +of Scotland, was born in the diocese of Glasgow, probably at bis +father's estate of Stanehouse in Lanarkshire. He was educated probably +at Linlithgow. In 1517 he was appointed titular abbot of Ferne, +Ross-shire; and it was probably about the same year that he went to +study at Paris, for his name is found in an ancient list of those who +graduated there in 1520. It was doubtless in Paris, where Luther's +writings were already exciting much discussion, that he received the +germs of the doctrines he was afterwards to uphold. From Alexander Ales +we learn that Hamilton subsequently went to Louvain, attracted probably +by the fame of Erasmus, who in 1521 had his headquarters there. +Returning to Scotland, the young scholar naturally selected St Andrews, +the capital of the church and of learning, as his residence. On the 9th +of June 1523 he became a member of the university of St Andrews, and on +the 3rd of October 1524 he was admitted to its faculty of arts. There +Hamilton attained such influence that he was permitted to conduct as +precentor a musical mass of his own composition in the cathedral. But +the reformed doctrines had now obtained a firm hold on the young abbot, +and he was eager to communicate them to his fellow-countrymen. Early in +1527 the attention of James Beaton, archbishop of St Andrews, was +directed to the heretical preaching of the young priest, whereupon he +ordered that Hamilton should be formally summoned and accused. Hamilton +fled to Germany, first visiting Luther at Wittenberg, and afterwards +enrolling himself as a student, under Franz Lambert of Avignon, in the +new university of Marburg, opened on the 30th of May 1527 by Philip, +landgrave of Hesse. Hermann von dem Busche, one of the contributors to +the _Epistolae obscurorum virorum_, John Frith and Tyndale were among +those whom he met there. Late in the autumn of 1527 Hamilton returned to +Scotland, bold in the conviction of the truth of his principles. He went +first to his brother's house at Kincavel, near Linlithgow, in which town +he preached frequently, and soon afterwards he married a young lady of +noble rank, whose name has not come down to us. Beaton, avoiding open +violence through fear of Hamilton's high connexions, invited him to a +conference at St Andrews. The reformer, predicting that he was going to +confirm the pious in the true doctrine by his death, resolutely accepted +the invitation, and for nearly a month was permitted to preach and +dispute, perhaps in order to provide material for accusation. At length, +however, he was summoned before a council of bishops and clergy presided +over by the archbishop; there were thirteen charges, seven of which were +based on the doctrines affirmed in the _Loci communes_. On examination +Hamilton maintained that these were undoubtedly true. The council +condemned him as a heretic on the whole thirteen charges. Hamilton was +seized, and, it is said, surrendered to the soldiery on an assurance +that he would be restored to his friends without injury. The council +convicted him, after a sham disputation with Friar Campbell, and handed +him over to the secular power. The sentence was carried out on the same +day (February 29, 1528) lest he should be rescued by his friends, and he +was burned at the stake as a heretic. His courageous bearing attracted +more attention than ever to the doctrines for which he suffered, and +greatly helped to spread the Reformation in Scotland. The "reek of +Patrick Hamilton infected all it blew on." His martyrdom is singular in +this respect, that he represented in Scotland almost alone the Lutheran +stage of the Reformation. His only book was entitled _Loci communes_, +known as "Patrick's Places." It set forth the doctrine of justification +by faith and the contrast between the gospel and the law in a series of +clear-cut propositions. It is to be found in Foxs's _Acts and +Monuments_. + + + + +HAMILTON, ROBERT (1743-1829), Scottish economist and mathematician, was +born at Pilrig, Edinburgh, on the 11th of June 1743. His grandfather, +William Hamilton, principal of Edinburgh University, had been a +professor of divinity. Having completed his education at the university +of Edinburgh, where he was distinguished in mathematics, Robert was +induced to enter a banking-house in order to acquire a practical +knowledge of business, but his ambition was really academic. In 1769 he +gave up business pursuits and accepted the rectorship of Perth academy. +In 1779 he was presented to the chair of natural philosophy at Aberdeen +University. For many years, however, by private arrangement with his +colleague Professor Copland, Hamilton taught the class of mathematics. +In 1817 he was presented to the latter chair. + + Hamilton's most important work is the _Essay on the National Debt_, + which appeared in 1813 and was undoubtedly the first to expose the + economic fallacies involved in Pitt's policy of a sinking fund. It is + still of value. A posthumous volume published in 1830, _The Progress + of Society_, is also of great ability, and is a very effective + treatment of economical principles by tracing their natural origin and + position in the development of social life. Some minor works of a + practical character (_Introduction to Merchandise_, 1777; _Essay on + War and Peace_, 1790) are now forgotten. + + + + +HAMILTON, THOMAS (1789-1842), Scottish writer, younger brother of the +philosopher, Sir William Hamilton, Bart., was born in 1789. He was +educated at Glasgow University, where he made a close friend of Michael +Scott, the author of _Tom Cringle's Log_. He entered the army in 1810, +and served throughout the Peninsular and American campaigns, but +continued to cultivate his literary tastes. On the conclusion of peace +he withdrew, with the rank of captain, from active service. He +contributed both prose and verse to _Blackwood's Magazine_, in which +appeared his vigorous and popular military novel, _Cyril Thornton_ +(1827). His _Annals of the Peninsular Campaign_, published originally in +1829, and republished in 1849 with additions by Frederick Hardman, is +written with great clearness and impartiality. His only other work, _Men +and Manners in America_, published originally in 1833, is somewhat +coloured by British prejudice, and by the author's aristocratic dislike +of a democracy. Hamilton died at Pisa on the 7th of December 1842. + + + + +HAMILTON, WILLIAM (1704-1754), Scottish poet, the author of "The Braes +of Yarrow," was born in 1704 at Bangour in Linlithgowshire, the son of +James Hamilton of Bangour, a member of the Scottish bar. As early as +1724 we find him contributing to Allan Ramsay's _Tea Table Miscellany_. +In 1745 Hamilton joined the cause of Prince Charles, and though it is +doubtful whether he actually bore arms, he celebrated the battle of +Prestonpans in verse. After the disaster of Culloden he lurked for +several months in the Highlands and escaped to France; but in 1749 the +influence of his friends procured him permission to return to Scotland, +and in the following year he obtained possession of the family estate of +Bangour. The state of his health compelled him, however, to live abroad, +and he died at Lyons on the 25th of March 1754. He was buried in the +Abbey Church of Holyroodhouse, Edinburgh. He was twice married--"into +families of distinction" says the preface of the authorized edition of +his poems. + +Hamilton left behind him a considerable number of poems, none of them +except "The Braes of Yarrow" of striking originality. The collection is +composed of odes, epitaphs, short pieces of translation, songs, and +occasional verses. The longest is "Contemplation, or the Triumph of +Love" (about 500 lines). The first edition was published without his +permission by Foulis (Glasgow, 1748), and introduced by a preface from +the pen of Adam Smith. Another edition with corrections by himself was +brought out by his friends in 1760, and to this was prefixed a portrait +engraved by Robert Strange. + + In 1850 James Paterson edited _The Poems and Songs of William + Hamilton_. This volume contains several poems till then unpublished, + and gives a life of the author. + + + + +HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM (1730-1803), British diplomatist and +archaeologist, son of Lord Archibald Hamilton, governor of Greenwich +hospital and of Jamaica, was born in Scotland on the 13th of December +1730, and served in the 3rd Regiment of Foot Guards from 1747 to 1758. +He left the army after his marriage with Miss Barlow, a Welsh heiress +from whom he inherited an estate near Swansea upon her death in 1782. +Their only child, a daughter, died in 1775. From 1761 to 1764 he was +member of parliament for Midhurst, but in the latter year he was +appointed envoy to the court of Naples, a post which he held for +thirty-six years--until his recall in 1800. During the greater part of +this time the official duties of the minister were of small importance. +It was enough that the representative of the British crown should be a +man of the world whose means enabled him to entertain on a handsome +scale. Hamilton was admirably qualified for these duties, being an +amiable and accomplished man, who took an intelligent interest in +science and art. In 1766 he became a member of the Royal Society, and +between that year and 1780 he contributed to its Philosophical +Transactions a series of observations on the action of volcanoes, which +he had made, or caused to be made, at Vesuvius and Etna. He employed a +draftsman named Fabris to make studies of the eruption of 1775 and 1776, +and a Dominican, Resina, to make observations at a later period. He +published several treatises on earthquakes and volcanoes between 1776 +and 1783. He was a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries and of the +Dilettanti, and a notable collector. Many of his treasures went to +enrich the British Museum. In 1772 he was made a knight of the Bath. The +last ten years of his life presented a curious contrast to the elegant +peace of those which had preceded them. In 1791 he married Emma Lyon +(see the separate article on Lady Hamilton). The outbreak of the French +Revolution and the rapid extension of the revolutionary movement in +Western Europe soon overwhelmed Naples. It was a misfortune for Sir +William that he was left to meet the very trying political and +diplomatic conditions which arose after 1793. His health had begun to +break down, and he suffered from bilious fevers. Sir William was in fact +in a state approaching dotage before his recall, a fact which, combined +with his senile devotion to Lady Hamilton, has to be considered in +accounting for his extraordinary complaisance in her relations with +Nelson. He died on the 6th of April 1803. + + See E. Edwards, _Lives of the Founders of the British Museum_ (London, + 1870); and the authorities given in the article on Emma, Lady + Hamilton. + + + + +HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM, Bart. (1788-1856), Scottish metaphysician, was +born in Glasgow on the 8th of March 1788. His father, Dr William +Hamilton, had in 1781, on the strong recommendation of the celebrated +William Hunter, been appointed to succeed _his_ father, Dr Thomas +Hamilton, as professor of anatomy in the university of Glasgow; and when +he died in 1790, in his thirty-second year, he had already gained a +great reputation. William Hamilton and a younger brother (afterwards +Captain Thomas Hamilton, q.v.) were thus brought up under the sole care +of their mother. William received his early education in Scotland, +except during two years which he spent in a private school near London, +and went in 1807, as a Snell exhibitioner, to Balliol College, Oxford. +He obtained a first-class _in literis humanioribus_ and took the degree +of B.A. in 1811, M.A. in 1814. He had been intended for the medical +profession, but soon after leaving Oxford he gave up this idea, and in +1813 became a member of the Scottish bar. His life, however, was mainly +that of a student; and the following years, marked by little of outward +incident, were filled by researches of all kinds, through which he daily +added to his stores of learning, while at the same time he was gradually +forming his philosophic system. Investigation enabled him to make good +his claim to represent the ancient family of Hamilton of Preston, and in +1816 he took up the baronetcy, which had been in abeyance since the +death of Sir Robert Hamilton of Preston (1650-1701), well known in his +day as a Covenanting leader. + +Two visits to Germany in 1817 and 1820 led to his taking up the study of +German and later on that of contemporary German philosophy, which was +then almost entirely neglected in the British universities. In 1820 he +was a candidate for the chair of moral philosophy in the university of +Edinburgh, which had fallen vacant on the death of Thomas Brown, +colleague of Dugald Stewart, and the latter's consequent resignation, +but was defeated on political grounds by John Wilson (1785-1854), the +"Christopher North" of _Blackwood's Magazine_. Soon afterwards (1821) he +was appointed professor of civil history, and as such delivered several +courses of lectures on the history of modern Europe and the history of +literature. The salary was £100 a year, derived from a local beer tax, +and was discontinued after a time. No pupils were compelled to attend, +the class dwindled, and Hamilton gave it up when the salary ceased. In +January 1827 he suffered a severe loss in the death of his mother, to +whom he had been a devoted son. In March 1828 he married his cousin +Janet Marshall. + +In 1829 his career of authorship began with the appearance of the +well-known essay on the "Philosophy of the Unconditioned" (a critique of +Comte's _Cours de philosophie_)--the first of a series of articles +contributed by him to the _Edinburgh Review_. He was elected in 1836 to +the Edinburgh chair of logic and metaphysics, and from this time dates +the influence which, during the next twenty years, he exerted over the +thought of the younger generation in Scotland. Much about the same time +he began the preparation of an annotated edition of Reid's works, +intending to annex to it a number of dissertations. Before, however, +this design had been carried out, he was struck (1844) with paralysis of +the right side, which seriously crippled his bodily powers, though it +left his mind wholly unimpaired. The edition of Reid appeared in 1846, +but with only seven of the intended dissertations--the last, too, +unfinished. It was his distinct purpose to complete the work, but this +purpose remained at his death unfulfilled, and all that could be done +afterwards was to print such materials for the remainder, or such notes +on the subjects to be discussed, as were found among his MSS. +Considerably before this time he had formed his theory of logic, the +leading principles of which were indicated in the prospectus of "an +essay on a new analytic of logical forms" prefixed to his edition of +Reid. But the elaboration of the scheme in its details and applications +continued during the next few years to occupy much of his leisure. Out +of this arose a sharp controversy with Augustus de Morgan. The essay did +not appear, but the results of the labour gone through are contained in +the appendices to his _Lectures on Logic_. Another occupation of these +years was the preparation of extensive materials for a publication which +he designed on the personal history, influence and opinions of Luther. +Here he advanced so far as to have planned and partly carried out the +arrangement of the work; but it did not go further, and still remains in +MS. In 1852-1853 appeared the first and second editions of his +_Discussions in Philosophy, Literature and Education_, a reprint, with +large additions, of his contributions to the _Edinburgh Review_. Soon +after, his general health began to fail. Still, however, aided now as +ever by his devoted wife, he persevered in literary labour; and during +1854-1855 he brought out nine volumes of a new edition of Stewart's +works. The only remaining volume was to have contained a memoir of +Stewart, but this he did not live to write. He taught his class for the +last time in the winter of 1855-1856. Shortly after the close of the +session he was taken ill, and on the 6th of May 1856 he died in +Edinburgh. + + Hamilton's positive contribution to the progress of thought is + comparatively slight, and his writings, even where reinforced by the + copious lecture notes taken by his pupils, cannot be said to present a + comprehensive philosophic system. None the less he did considerable + service by stimulating a spirit of criticism in his pupils, by + insisting on the great importance of psychology as opposed to the + older metaphysical method, and not least by his recognition of the + importance of German philosophy, especially that of Kant. By far his + most important work was his "Philosophy of the Unconditioned," the + development of the principle that for the human finite mind there can + be no knowledge of the Infinite. The basis of his whole argument is + the thesis, "To think is to condition." Deeply impressed with Kant's + antithesis between subject and object, the knowing and the known, + Hamilton laid down the principle that every object is known only in + virtue of its relations to other objects (see RELATIVITY OF + KNOWLEDGE). From this it follows limitless time, space, power and so + forth are humanly speaking inconceivable. The fact, however, that all + thought seems to demand the idea of the infinite or absolute provides + a sphere for faith, which is thus the specific faculty of theology. It + is a weakness characteristic of the human mind that it cannot conceive + any phenomenon without a beginning: hence the conception of the causal + relation, according to which every phenomenon has its cause in + preceding phenomena, and its effect in subsequent phenomena. The + causal concept is, therefore, only one of the ordinary necessary forms + of the cognitive consciousness limited, as we have seen, by being + confined to that which is relative or conditioned. As regards the + problem of the nature of objectivity, Hamilton simply accepts the + evidence of consciousness as to the separate existence of the object: + "the root of our nature cannot be a lie." In virtue of this assumption + Hamilton's philosophy becomes a "natural realism." In fact his whole + position is a strange compound of Kant and Reid. Its chief practical + corollary is the denial of philosophy as a method of attaining + absolute knowledge and its relegation to the academic sphere of mental + training. The transition from philosophy to theology, i.e. to the + sphere of faith, is presented by Hamilton under the analogous relation + between the mind and the body. As the mind is to the body, so is the + unconditioned Absolute or God to the world of the conditioned. + Consciousness, itself a conditioned phenomenon, must derive from or + depend on some different thing prior to or behind material phenomena. + Curiously enough, however, Hamilton does not explain how it comes + about that God, who in the terms of the analogy bears to the + conditioned mind the relation which the conditioned mind bears to its + objects, can Himself be unconditioned. He can be regarded only as + related to consciousness, and in so far is, therefore, not absolute or + unconditioned. Thus the very principles of Hamilton's philosophy are + apparently violated in his theological argument. + + Hamilton regarded logic as a purely formal science; it seemed to him + an unscientific mixing together of heterogeneous elements to treat as + parts of the same science the formal and the material conditions of + knowledge. He was quite ready to allow that on this view logic cannot + be used as a means of discovering or guaranteeing facts, even the most + general, and expressly asserted that it has to do, not with the + objective validity, but only with the mutual relations, of judgments. + He further held that induction and deduction are correlative processes + of formal logic, each resting on the necessities of thought and + deriving thence its several laws. The only logical laws which he + recognized were the three axioms of identity, non-contradiction, and + excluded middle, which he regarded as severally phases of one general + condition of the possibility of existence and, therefore, of thought. + The law of reason and consequent he considered not as different, but + merely as expressing metaphysically what these express logically. He + added as a postulate--which in his theory was of importance--"that + logic be allowed to state explicitly what is thought implicitly." + + In logic, Hamilton is known chiefly as the inventor of the doctrine of + the "quantification of the predicate," i.e. that the judgment "All A + is B" should really mean "All A is _all_ B," whereas the ordinary + universal proposition should be stated "All A is _some_ B." This view, + which was supported by Stanley Jevons, is fundamentally at fault since + it implies that the predicate is thought of in its extension; in point + of fact when a judgment is made, e.g. about men, that they are mortal + ("All men are mortal"), the intention is to _attribute a quality_ + (i.e. the predicate is used in connotation). In other words, we are + not considering the question "what kind are men among the various + things which must die?" (as is implied in the form "all men are some + mortals") but "what is the fact about men?" We are not stating a mere + identity (see further, e.g., H. W. B. Joseph, _Introduction to Logic_, + 1906, pp. 198 foll.). + + The philosopher to whom above all others Hamilton professed allegiance + was Aristotle. His works were the object of his profound and constant + study, and supplied in fact the mould in which his whole philosophy + was cast. With the commentators on the Aristotelian writings, ancient, + medieval and modern, he was also familiar; and the scholastic + philosophy he studied with care and appreciation at a time when it had + hardly yet begun to attract attention in his country. His wide reading + enabled him to trace many a doctrine to the writings of forgotten + thinkers; and nothing gave him greater pleasure than to draw forth + such from their obscurity, and to give due acknowledgment, even if it + chanced to be of the prior possession of a view or argument that he + had thought out for himself. Of modern German philosophy he was a + diligent, if not always a sympathetic, student. How profoundly his + thinking was modified by that of Kant is evident from the tenor of his + speculations; nor was this less the case because, on fundamental + points, he came to widely different conclusions. + + Any account of Hamilton would be incomplete which regarded him only as + a philosopher, for his knowledge and his interests embraced all + subjects related to that of the human mind. Physical and mathematical + science had, indeed, no attraction for him; but his study of anatomy + and physiology was minute and experimental. In literature alike + ancient and modern he was widely and deeply read; and, from his + unusual powers of memory, the stores which he had acquired were always + at command. If there was one period with the literature of which he + was more particularly familiar, it was the 16th and 17th centuries. + Here in every department he was at home. He had gathered a vast amount + of its theological lore, had a critical knowledge especially of its + Latin poetry, and was minutely acquainted with the history of the + actors in its varied scenes, not only as narrated in professed + records, but as revealed in the letters, table-talk, and casual + effusions of themselves or their contemporaries (cf. his article on + the _Epistolae obscurorum virorum_, and his pamphlet on the Disruption + of the Church of Scotland in 1843). Among his literary projects were + editions of the works of George Buchanan and Julius Caesar Scaliger. + His general scholarship found expression in his library, which, though + mainly, was far from being exclusively, a philosophical collection. It + now forms a distinct portion of the library of the university of + Glasgow. + + His chief practical interest was in education--an interest which he + manifested alike as a teacher and as a writer, and which had led him + long before he was either to a study of the subject both theoretical + and historical. He thence adopted views as to the ends and methods of + education that, when afterwards carried out or advocated by him, met + with general recognition; but he also expressed in one of his articles + an unfavourable view of the study of mathematics as a mental + gymnastic, which excited much opposition, but which he never saw + reason to alter. As a teacher, he was zealous and successful, and his + writings on university organization and reform had, at the time of + their appearance, a decisive practical effect, and contain much that + is of permanent value. + + His posthumous works are his _Lectures on Metaphysics and Logic_, 4 + vols., edited by H. L. Mansel, Oxford, and John Veitch (_Metaphysics_, + 1858; _Logic_, 1860); and _Additional Notes to Reid's Works_, from + Sir W. Hamilton's MSS., under the editorship of H. L. Mansel, D.D. + (1862). _A Memoir of Sir W. Hamilton_, by Veitch, appeared in 1869. + + + + +HAMILTON, WILLIAM GERARD (1729-1796), English statesman, popularly known +as "Single Speech Hamilton," was born in London on the 28th of January +1729, the son of a Scottish bencher of Lincoln's Inn. He was educated at +Winchester and at Oriel College, Oxford. Inheriting his father's fortune +he entered political life and became M.P. for Petersfield, Hampshire. +His maiden speech, delivered on the 13th of November 1755, during the +debate on the address, which excited Walpole's admiration, is generally +supposed to have been his only effort in the House of Commons. But the +nickname "Single Speech" is undoubtedly misleading, and Hamilton is +known to have spoken with success on other occasions, both in the House +of Commons and in the Irish parliament. In 1756 he was appointed one of +the commissioners for trade and plantations, and in 1761 he became chief +secretary to Lord Halifax, the lord-lieutenant of Ireland, as well as +Irish M. P. for Killebegs and English M. P. for Pontefract. He was +chancellor of the exchequer in Ireland in 1763, and subsequently filled +various other administrative offices. Hamilton was thought very highly +of by Dr Johnson, and it is certain that he was strongly opposed to the +British taxation of America. He died in London on the 16th of July 1796, +and was buried in the chancel vault of St Martin's-in-the-fields. + + Two of his speeches in the Irish House of Commons, and some other + miscellaneous works, were published after his death under the title + _Parliamentary Logick_. + + + + +HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM ROWAN (1805-1865), Scottish mathematician, was +born in Dublin on the 4th of August 1805. His father, Archibald +Hamilton, who was a solicitor, and his uncle, James Hamilton (curate of +Trim), migrated from Scotland in youth. A branch of the Scottish family +to which they belonged had settled in the north of Ireland in the time +of James I., and this fact seems to have given rise to the common +impression that Hamilton was an Irishman. + +His genius first displayed itself in the form of a wonderful power of +acquiring languages. At the age of seven he had already made very +considerable progress in Hebrew, and before he was thirteen he had +acquired, under the care of his uncle, who was an extraordinary +linguist, almost as many languages as he had years of age. Among these, +besides the classical and the modern European languages, were included +Persian, Arabic, Hindustani, Sanskrit and even Malay. But though to the +very end of his life he retained much of the singular learning of his +childhood and youth, often reading Persian and Arabic in the intervals +of sterner pursuits, he had long abandoned them as a study, and employed +them merely as a relaxation. + +His mathematical studies seem to have been undertaken and carried to +their full development without any assistance whatever, and the result +is that his writings belong to no particular "school," unless indeed we +consider them to form, as they are well entitled to do, a school by +themselves. As an arithmetical calculator he was not only wonderfully +expert, but he seems to have occasionally found a positive delight in +working out to an enormous number of places of decimals the result of +some irksome calculation. At the age of twelve he engaged Zerah Colburn, +the American "calculating boy," who was then being exhibited as a +curiosity in Dublin, and he had not always the worst of the encounter. +But, two years before, he had accidentally fallen in with a Latin copy +of _Euclid_, which he eagerly devoured; and at twelve he attacked +Newton's _Arithmetica universalis_. This was his introduction to modern +analysis. He soon commenced to read the _Principia_, and at sixteen he +had mastered a great part of that work, besides some more modern works +on analytical geometry and the differential calculus. + +About this period he was also engaged in preparation for entrance at +Trinity College, Dublin, and had therefore to devote a portion of his +time to classics. In the summer of 1822, in his seventeenth year, he +began a systematic study of Laplace's _Mécanique Céleste_. Nothing +could be better fitted to call forth such mathematical powers as those +of Hamilton; for Laplace's great work, rich to profusion in analytical +processes alike novel and powerful, demands from the most gifted student +careful and often laborious study. It was in the successful effort to +open this treasure-house that Hamilton's mind received its final temper, +"Dès-lors il commença à marcher seul," to use the words of the +biographer of another great mathematician. From that time he appears to +have devoted himself almost wholly to original investigation (so far at +least as regards mathematics), though he ever kept himself well +acquainted with the progress of science both in Britain and abroad. + +Having detected an important defect in one of Laplace's demonstrations, +he was induced by a friend to write out his remarks, that they might be +shown to Dr John Brinkley (1763-1835), afterwards bishop of Cloyne, but +who was then the first royal astronomer for Ireland, and an accomplished +mathematician. Brinkley seems at once to have perceived the vast talents +of young Hamilton, and to have encouraged him in the kindest manner. He +is said to have remarked in 1823 of this lad of eighteen: "This young +man, I do not say _will be_, but _is_, the first mathematician of his +age." + +Hamilton's career at College was perhaps unexampled. Amongst a number of +competitors of more than ordinary merit, he was first in every subject +and at every examination. He achieved the rare distinction of obtaining +an _optime_ for both Greek and for physics. How many more such honours +he might have attained it is impossible to say; but he was expected to +win both the gold medals at the degree examination, had his career as a +student not been cut short by an unprecedented event. This was his +appointment to the Andrews professorship of astronomy in the university +of Dublin, vacated by Dr Brinkley in 1827. The chair was not exactly +offered to him, as has been sometimes asserted, but the electors, having +met and talked over the subject, authorized one of their number, who was +Hamilton's personal friend, to urge him to become a candidate, a step +which his modesty had prevented him from taking. Thus, when barely +twenty-two, he was established at the Observatory, Dunsink, near Dublin. +He was not specially fitted for the post, for although he had a profound +acquaintance with theoretical astronomy, he had paid but little +attention to the regular work of the practical astronomer. And it must +be said that his time was better employed in original investigations +than it would have been had he spent it in observations made even with +the best of instruments,--infinitely better than if he had spent it on +those of the observatory, which, however good originally, were then +totally unfit for the delicate requirements of modern astronomy. Indeed +there can be little doubt that Hamilton was intended by the university +authorities who elected him to the professorship of astronomy to spend +his time as he best could for the advancement of science, without being +tied down to any particular branch. Had he devoted himself to practical +astronomy they would assuredly have furnished him with modern +instruments and an adequate staff of assistants. + +In 1835, being secretary to the meeting of the British Association which +was held that year in Dublin, he was knighted by the lord-lieutenant. +But far higher honours rapidly succeeded, among which we may merely +mention his election in 1837 to the president's chair in the Royal Irish +Academy, and the rare distinction of being made corresponding member of +the academy of St Petersburg. These are the few salient points (other, +of course, than the epochs of his more important discoveries and +inventions presently to be considered) in the uneventful life of this +great man. He retained his wonderful faculties unimpaired to the very +last, and steadily continued till within a day or two of his death, +which occurred on the 2nd of September 1865, the task (his _Elements of +Quaternions_) which had occupied the last six years of his life. + + The germ of his first great discovery was contained in one of those + early papers which in 1823 he communicated to Dr Brinkley, by whom, + under the title of "Caustics," it was presented in 1824 to the Royal + Irish Academy. It was referred as usual to a committee. Their report, + while acknowledging the novelty and value of its contents, and the + great mathematical skill of its author, recommended that, before being + published, it should be still further developed and simplified. During + the next three years the paper grew to an immense bulk, principally by + the additional details which had been inserted at the desire of the + committee. But it also assumed a much more intelligible form, and the + grand features of the new method were now easily to be seen. Hamilton + himself seems not till this period to have fully understood either the + nature or the importance of his discovery, for it is only now that we + find him announcing his intention of applying his method to dynamics. + The paper was finally entitled "Theory of Systems of Rays," and the + first part was printed in 1828 in the _Transactions of the Royal Irish + Academy_. It is understood that the more important contents of the + second and third parts appeared in the three voluminous supplements + (to the first part) which were published in the same _Transactions_, + and in the two papers "On a General Method in Dynamics," which + appeared in the _Philosophical Transactions_ in 1834-1835. The + principle of "Varying Action" is the great feature of these papers; + and it is strange, indeed, that the one particular result of this + theory which, perhaps more than anything else that Hamilton has done, + has rendered his name known beyond the little world of true + philosophers, should have been easily within the reach of Augustin + Fresnel and others for many years before, and in no way required + Hamilton's new conceptions or methods, although it was by them that he + was led to its discovery. This singular result is still known by the + name "conical refraction," which he proposed for it when he first + predicted its existence in the third supplement to his "Systems of + Rays," read in 1832. + + The step from optics to dynamics in the application of the method of + "Varying Action" was made in 1827, and communicated to the Royal + Society, in whose _Philosophical Transactions_ for 1834 and 1835 there + are two papers on the subject. These display, like the "Systems of + Rays," a mastery over symbols and a flow of mathematical language + almost unequalled. But they contain what is far more valuable still, + the greatest addition which dynamical science had received since the + grand strides made by Sir Isaac Newton and Joseph Louis Lagrange. C. + G. J. Jacobi and other mathematicians have developed to a great + extent, and as a question of pure mathematics only, Hamilton's + processes, and have thus made extensive additions to our knowledge of + differential equations. But there can be little doubt that we have as + yet obtained only a mere glimpse of the vast physical results of which + they contain the germ. And though this is of course by far the more + valuable aspect in which any such contribution to science can be + looked at, the other must not be despised. It is characteristic of + most of Hamilton's, as of nearly all great discoveries, that even + their indirect consequences are of high value. + + The other great contribution made by Hamilton to mathematical science, + the invention of Quaternions, is treated under that heading. The + following characteristic extract from a letter shows Hamilton's own + opinion of his mathematical work, and also gives a hint of the devices + which he employed to render written language as expressive as actual + speech. His first great work, _Lectures on Quaternions_ (Dublin, + 1852), is almost painful to read in consequence of the frequent use of + italics and capitals. + + "I hope that it may not be considered as unpardonable vanity or + presumption on my part, if, as my own taste has always led me to feel + a greater interest in _methods_ than in _results_, so it is by + METHODS, rather than by _any_ THEOREMS, which _can_ be separately + _quoted_, that I desire and hope to be remembered. Nevertheless it is + only human nature, to derive _some_ pleasure from being cited, now and + then, even about a 'Theorem'; especially where ... the quoter can + enrich the subject, by combining it with researches of _his own_." + + The discoveries, papers and treatises we have mentioned might well + have formed the whole work of a long and laborious life. But not to + speak of his enormous collection of MS. books, full to overflowing + with new and original matter, which have been handed over to Trinity + College, Dublin, the works we have already called attention to barely + form the greater portion of what he has published. His extraordinary + investigations connected with the solution of algebraic equations of + the fifth degree, and his examination of the results arrived at by N. + H. Abel, G. B. Jerrard, and others in their researches on this + subject, form another grand contribution to science. There is next his + great paper on _Fluctuating Functions_, a subject which, since the + time of J. Fourier, has been of immense and ever increasing value in + physical applications of mathematics. There is also the extremely + ingenious invention of the hodograph. Of his extensive investigations + into the solution (especially by numerical approximation) of certain + classes of differential equations which constantly occur in the + treatment of physical questions, only a few items have been published, + at intervals, in the _Philosophical Magazine_. Besides all this, + Hamilton was a voluminous correspondent. Often a single letter of his + occupied from fifty to a hundred or more closely written pages, all + devoted to the minute consideration of every feature of some + particular problem; for it was one of the peculiar characteristics of + his mind never to be satisfied with a general understanding of a + question; he pursued it until he knew it in all its details. He was + ever courteous and kind in answering applications for assistance in + the study of his works, even when his compliance must have cost him + much time. He was excessively precise and hard to please with + reference to the final polish of his own works for publication; and it + was probably for this reason that he published so little compared with + the extent of his investigations. + + Like most men of great originality, Hamilton generally matured his + ideas before putting pen to paper. "He used to carry on," says his + elder son, William Edwin Hamilton, "long trains of algebraical and + arithmetical calculations in his mind, during which he was unconscious + of the earthly necessity of eating; we used to bring in a 'snack' and + leave it in his study, but a brief nod of recognition of the intrusion + of the chop or cutlet was often the only result, and his thoughts went + on soaring upwards." + + For further details about Hamilton (his poetry and his association + with poets, for instance) the reader is referred to the _Dublin + University Magazine_ (Jan. 1842), the _Gentleman's Magazine_ (Jan. + 1866), and the _Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society_ + (Feb. 1866); and also to an article by the present writer in the + _North British Review_ (Sept. 1866), from which much of the above + sketch has been taken. His works have been collected and published by + R. P. Graves, _Life of Sir W. R. Hamilton_ (3 vols., 1882, 1885, + 1889). (P. G. T.) + + + + +HAMILTON, a town of Dundas and Normanby counties, Victoria, Australia, +on the Grange Burne Creek, 197½ m. by rail W. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) +4026. Hamilton has a number of educational institutions, chief among +which are the Hamilton and Western District College, one of the finest +buildings of its kind in Victoria, the Hamilton Academy, and the +Alexandra ladies' college, a state school, and a Catholic college. It +has a fine racecourse, and pastoral and agricultural exhibitions are +held annually, as the surrounding district is mainly devoted to +sheep-farming. Mutton is frozen and exported. Hamilton became a borough +in 1859. + + + + +HAMILTON (GRAND or ASHUANIPI), the chief river of Labrador, Canada. It +rises in the Labrador highlands at an elevation of 1700 ft., its chief +sources being Lakes Attikonak and Ashuanipi, between 65° and 66° W. and +52° and 53° N. After a precipitous course of 600 m. it empties into +Melville Lake (90 m. long and 18 wide), an extension of Hamilton inlet, +on the Atlantic. About 220 m. from its mouth occur the Grand Falls of +Labrador. Here in a distance of 12 m. the river drops 760 ft., +culminating in a final vertical fall of 316 ft. Below the falls are +violent rapids, and the river sweeps through a deep and narrow canyon. +The country through which it passes is for the most part a wilderness of +barren rock, full of lakes and lacustrine rivers, many of which are its +tributaries. In certain portions of the valley spruce and poplars grow +to a moderate size. From the head of Lake Attikonak a steep and rocky +portage of less than a mile leads to Burnt Lake, which is drained into +the St Lawrence by the Romaine river. + + + + +HAMILTON, one of the chief cities of Canada, capital of Wentworth +county, Ontario. It occupies a highly picturesque situation upon the +shore of a spacious land-locked bay at the western end of Lake Ontario. +It covers the plain stretching between the water-front and the +escarpment (called "The Mountain"), this latter being a continuation of +that over which the Falls of Niagara plunge 40 m. to the west. Founded +about 1778 by one Robert Land, the growth of Hamilton has been steady +and substantial, and, owing to its remarkable industrial development, it +has come to be called "the Birmingham of Canada." This development is +largely due to the use of electrical energy generated by water-power, in +regard to which Hamilton stands first among Canadian cities. The +electricity has not, however, been obtained from Niagara Falls, but from +De Cew Falls, 35 m. S.E. of the city. The entire electrical railway +system, the lighting of the city, and the majority of the factories are +operated by power obtained from this source. The manufacturing interests +of Hamilton are varied, and some of the establishments are of vast size, +employing many thousands of hands each, such as the International +Harvester Co. and the Canadian Westinghouse Co. In addition Hamilton is +the centre of one of the finest fruit-growing districts on the +continent, and its open-air market is a remarkable sight. The municipal +matters are managed by a mayor and board of aldermen. Six steam +railroads and three electric radial roads afford Hamilton ample +facilities for transport by land, while during the season of navigation +a number of steamboat lines supply daily services to Toronto and other +lake ports. Entrance into the broad bay is obtained through a short +canal intersecting Burlington Beach, which is crossed by two swing +bridges, whereof one--that of the Grand Trunk railway--is among the +largest of its kind in the world. Burlington Beach is lined with +cottages occupied by the city residents during the hot summer months. +Hamilton is rich in public institutions. The educational equipment +comprises a normal college, collegiate institute, model school and more +than a score of public schools, for the most part housed in handsome +stone and brick buildings. There are four hospitals, and the asylum for +the insane is the largest in Canada. There is an excellent public +library, and in the same building with it a good art school. Hamilton +boasts of a number of parks, Dundurn Castle Park, containing several +interesting relics of the war of 1812, being the finest, and, as it is +practically within the city limits, it is a great boon to the people. +Gore Park, in the centre of the city, is used for concerts, given by +various bands, one of which has gained an international reputation. +Since its incorporation in 1833 the history of Hamilton has shown +continuous growth. In 1836 the population was 2846; In 1851, 10,248; in +1861, 19,096; in 1871, 26,880; in 1881, 36,661; in 1891, 48,959; and in +1901, 52,634. The Anglican bishop of Niagara has his seat here, and also +a Roman Catholic bishop. Hamilton returns two members to the Provincial +parliament and two to the Dominion. + + + + +HAMILTON, a municipal and police burgh of Lanarkshire, Scotland. Pop. +(1891), 24,859; (1901), 32,775. It is situated about 1 m. from the +junction of the Avon with the Clyde, 10¾ m. S.E. of Glasgow by road, and +has stations on the Caledonian and North British railways. The town hall +in the Scottish Baronial style has a clock-tower 130 ft. high, and the +county buildings are in the Grecian style. Among the subjects of +antiquarian interest are Queenzie Neuk, the spot where Queen Mary rested +on her journey to Langside, the old steeple and pillory built in the +reign of Charles I., the Mote Hill, the old Runic cross, and the carved +gateway in the palace park. In the churchyard there is a monument to +four covenanters who suffered at Edinburgh, on the 7th of December 1600, +whose heads were buried here. Among the industries are manufactures of +cotton, lace and embroidered muslins, and carriage-building, and there +are also large market gardens, the district being famed especially for +its apples, and some dairy-farming; but the prosperity of the town +depends chiefly upon the coal and ironstone of the surrounding country, +which is the richest mineral field in Scotland. Hamilton originated in +the 15th century under the protecting influence of the lords of +Hamilton, and became a burgh of barony in 1456 and a royal burgh in +1548. The latter rights were afterwards surrendered and it was made the +chief burgh of the regality and dukedom of Hamilton in 1668, the third +marquess having been created duke in 1643. It unites with Airdrie, +Falkirk, Lanark and Linlithgow to form the Falkirk district of burghs, +which returns one member to parliament. + + Immediately east of the town is Hamilton palace, the seat of the duke + of Hamilton and Brandon, premier peer of Scotland. It occupies most of + the site of the original burgh of Netherton. The first mansion was + erected at the end of the 16th century and rebuilt about 1710, to be + succeeded in 1822-1829 by the present palace, a magnificent building + in the classical style. Its front is a specimen of the enriched + Corinthian architecture, with a projecting pillared portico after the + style of the temple of Jupiter Stator at Rome, 264 ft. in length and + 60 ft. in height. Each of the twelve pillars of the portico is a + single block of stone, quarried at Dalserf, midway between Hamilton + and Lanark, and required thirty horses to draw it to its site. The + interior is richly decorated and once contained the finest collection + of paintings in Scotland, but most of them, together with the Hamilton + and Beckford libraries, were sold in 1882. Within the grounds, which + comprise nearly 1500 acres, is the mausoleum erected by the 10th duke, + a structure resembling in general design that of the emperor Hadrian + at Rome, being a circular building springing from a square basement, + and enclosing a decorated octagonal chapel, the door of which is a + copy in bronze of Ghiberti's gates at Florence. At Barncluith, 1 m. + S.E. of the town, may be seen the Dutch gardens which were laid down + in terraces on the steep banks of the Avon. Their quaint shrubbery and + old-fashioned setting render them attractive. They were planned in + 1583 by John Hamilton, an ancestor of Lord Belhaven, and now belong + to Lord Ruthven. About 2 m. S.E. of Hamilton, within the western High + Park, on the summit of a precipitous rock 200 ft. in height, the foot + of which is washed by the Avon, stand the ruins of Cadzow Castle, the + subject of a spirited ballad by Sir Walter Scott. The castle had been + a royal residence for at least two centuries before Bannockburn + (1314), but immediately after the battle Robert Bruce granted it to + Sir Walter FitzGilbert Hamilton, the son of the founder of the family, + in return for the fealty. Near it is the noble chase with its ancient + oaks, the remains of the Caledonian Forest, where are still preserved + some of the aboriginal breed of wild cattle. Opposite Cadzow Castle, + in the eastern High Park, on the right bank of the Avon, is + Chatelherault, consisting of stables and offices, and imitating in + outline the palace of that name in France. + + + + +HAMILTON, a village of Madison county, New York, U.S.A., about 29 m. +S.W. of Utica. Pop. (1890), 1744; (1900), 1627; (1905) 1522; (1910) +1689. It is served by the New York, Ontario & Western railway. Hamilton +is situated in a productive agricultural region, and has a large trade +in hops; among its manufactures are canned vegetables, lumber and knit +goods. There are several valuable stone quarries in the vicinity. The +village owns and operates its water-supply and electric-lighting system. +Hamilton is the seat of Colgate University, which was founded in 1819, +under the name of the Hamilton Literary and Theological Institution, as +a training school for the Baptist ministry, was chartered as Madison +University in 1846, and was renamed in 1890 in honour of the Colgate +family, several of whom, especially William (1783-1857), the soap +manufacturer, and his sons, James Boorman (1818-1904), and Samuel +(1822-1897), were its liberal benefactors. In 1908-1909 it had a +university faculty of 33 members, 307 students in the college, 60 in the +theological department, and 134 in the preparatory department, and a +library of 54,000 volumes, including the Baptist Historical collection +(about 5000 vols.) given by Samuel Colgate. The township in which the +village is situated and which bears the same name (pop. in 1910, 3825) +was settled about 1790 and was separated from the township of Paris in +1795. The village was incorporated in 1812. + + + + +HAMILTON, a city and the county-seat of Butler county, Ohio, U.S.A., on +both sides of the Great Miami river, 25 m. N. of Cincinnati. Pop. +(1890), 17,565; (1900), 23,914, of whom 2949 were foreign-born; (1910 +census), 35,279. It is served by the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, and +the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railways, and by +interurban electric lines connecting with Cincinnati, Dayton and Toledo. +The valley in which Hamilton is situated is noted for its fertility. The +city has a fine public square and the Lane free library (1866); the +court house is its most prominent public building. A hydraulic canal +provides the city with good water power, and in 1905, in the value of +its factory products ($13,992,574, being 31.3% more than in 1900), +Hamilton ranked tenth among the cities of the state. Its most +distinctive manufactures are paper and wood pulp; more valuable are +foundry and machine shop products; other manufactures are safes, malt +liquors, flour, woollens, Corliss engines, carriages and wagons and +agricultural implements. The municipality owns and operates the +water-works, electric-lighting plant and gas plant. A stockade fort was +built here in 1791 by General Arthur Saint Clair, but it was abandoned +in 1796, two years after the place had been laid out as a town and named +Fairfield. The town was renamed, in honour of Alexander Hamilton, about +1796. In 1803 Hamilton was made the county-seat; in 1810 it was +incorporated as a village; in 1854 it annexed the town of Rossville on +the opposite side of the river; and in 1857 it was made a city. In 1908, +by the annexation of suburbs, the area and the population of Hamilton +were considerably increased. Hamilton was the early home of William Dean +Howells, whose recollections of it are to be found in his _A Boy's +Town_; his father's anti-slavery sentiments made it necessary for him to +sell his printing office, where the son had learned to set type in his +teens, and to remove to Dayton. + + + + +HAMIRPUR, a town and district of British India, in the Allahabad +division of the United Provinces. The town stands on a tongue of land +near the confluence of the Betwa and Jumna, 110 m. N.W. of Allahabad. +Pop. (1901), 6721. It was founded, according to tradition, in the 11th +century by Hamir Deo, a Karchuli Rajput expelled from Alwar by the +Mahommedans. + +The district has an area of 2289 sq. m., and encloses the native states +of Sarila, Jigni and Bihat, besides portions of Charkhari and Garrauli. +Hamirpur forms part of the great plain of Bundelkhand, which stretches +from the banks of the Jumna to the central Vindhyan plateau. The +district is in shape an irregular parallelogram, with a general slope +northward from the low hills on the southern boundary. The scenery is +rendered picturesque by the artificial lakes of Mahoba. These +magnificent reservoirs were constructed by the Chandel rajas before the +Mahommedan conquest, for purposes of irrigation and as sheets of +ornamental water. Many of them enclose craggy islets or peninsulas, +crowned by the ruins of granite temples, exquisitely carved and +decorated. From the base of this hill and lake country the general plain +of the district spreads northward in an arid and treeless level towards +the broken banks of the rivers. Of these the principal are the Betwa and +its tributary the Dhasan, both of which are unnavigable. There is little +waste land, except in the ravines by the river sides. The deep black +soil of Bundelkhand, known as _mar_, retains the moisture under a dried +and rifted surface, and renders the district fertile. The staple produce +is grain of various sorts, the most important being gram. Cotton is also +a valuable crop. Agriculture suffers much from the spread of the _kans_ +grass, a noxious weed which overruns the fields and is found to be +almost ineradicable wherever it has once obtained a footing. Droughts +and famine are unhappily common. The climate is dry and hot, owing to +the absence of shade and the bareness of soil, except in the +neighbourhood of the Mahoba lakes, which cool and moisten the +atmosphere. + +In 1901 the pop. was 458,542, showing a decrease of 11% in the decade, +due to the famine of 1895-1897. Export trade is chiefly in agricultural +produce and cotton cloth. Rath is the principal commercial centre. The +Midland branch of the Great Indian Peninsula railway passes through the +south of the district. + +From the 9th to the 12th century this district was the centre of the +Chandel kingdom, with its capital at Mahoba. The rajas adorned the town +with many splendid edifices, remains of which still exist, besides +constructing the noble artificial lakes already described. At the end of +the 12th century Mahoba fell into the hands of the Mussulmans. In 1680 +the district was conquered by Chhatar Sal, the hero of the Bundelas, who +assigned at his death one-third of his dominions to his ally the peshwa +of the Mahrattas. Until Bundelkhand became British territory in 1803 +there was constant warfare between the Bundela princes and the Mahratta +chieftains. On the outbreak of the Mutiny in 1857, Hamirpur was the +scene of a fierce rebellion, and all the principal towns were plundered +by the surrounding chiefs. After a short period of desultory guerrilla +warfare the rebels were effectually quelled and the work of +reorganization began. The district has since been subject to cycles of +varying agricultural prosperity. + + + + +HAMITIC RACES AND LANGUAGES. The questions involved in a consideration +of Hamitic races and Hamitic languages are independent of one another +and call for separate treatment. + +I. _Hamitic Races._--The term Hamitic as applied to race is not only +extremely vague but has been much abused by anthropological writers. Of +the few who have attempted a precise definition the most prominent is +Sergi,[1] and his classification may be taken as representing one point +of view with regard to this difficult question. + + Sergi considers the Hamites, using the term in the racial sense, as a + branch of his "Mediterranean Race"; and divides them as follows:-- + + 1. _Eastern Branch_-- + (a) Ancient and Modern Egyptian (excluding the Arabs). + (b) Nubians, Beja. + (c) Abyssinians. + (d) Galla, Danakil, Somali. + (e) Masai. + (f) Wahuma or Watusi. + + 2. _Northern Branch_-- + (a) Berbers of the Mediterranean, Atlantic and Sahara. + (b) Tibbu. + (c) Fula. + (d) Guanches (extinct). + + With regard to this classification the following conclusions may be + regarded as comparatively certain: that the members of groups d, e + and f of the first branch appear to be closely inter-connected by + ties of blood, and also the members of the second branch. The + Abyssinians in the south have absorbed a certain amount of Galla + blood, but the majority are Semitic or Semito-Negroid. The question of + the racial affinities of the Ancient Egyptians and the Beja are still + a matter of doubt, and the relation of the two groups to each other is + still controversial. Sergi, it is true, arguing from physical data + believes that a close connexion exists; but the data are so extremely + scanty that the finality of his conclusion may well be doubted. His + "Northern Branch" corresponds with the more satisfactory term "Libyan + Race," represented in fair purity by the Berbers, and, mixed with + Negro elements, by the Fula and Tibbu. This Libyan race is + distinctively a white race, with dark curly hair; the Eastern Hamites + are equally distinctively a brown people with frizzy hair. If, as + Sergi believes, these brown people are themselves a race, and not a + cross between white and black in varying proportions, they are found + in their greatest purity among the Somali and Galla, and mixed with + Bantu blood among the Ba-Hima (Wahuma) and Watussi. The Masai seem to + be as much Nilotic Negro as Hamite. This Galla type does not seem to + appear farther north than the southern portion of Abyssinia, and it is + not unlikely that the Beja are very early Semitic immigrants with an + aboriginal Negroid admixture. It is also possible that they and the + Ancient Egyptians may contain a common element. The Nubians appear + akin to the Egyptians but with a strong Negroid element. + + To return to Sergi's two branches, besides the differences in skin + colour and hair-texture there is also a cultural difference of great + importance. The Eastern Hamites are essentially a pastoral people and + therefore nomadic or semi-nomadic; the Berbers, who, as said above, + are the purest representatives of the Libyans, are agriculturists. The + pastoral habits of the Eastern Hamites are of importance, since they + show the utmost reluctance to abandon them. Even the Ba-Hima and + Watussi, for long settled and partly intermixed with the agricultural + Bantu, regard any pursuit but that of cattle-tending as absolutely + beneath their dignity. + + It would seem therefore that, while sufficient data have not been + collected to decide whether, on the evidence of exact anthropological + measurements, the Libyans are connected racially with the Eastern + Hamites, the testimony derived from broad "descriptive + characteristics" and general culture is against such a connexion. To + regard the Libyans as Hamites solely on the ground that the languages + spoken by the two groups show affinities would be as rash and might be + as false as to aver that the present-day Hungarians are Mongolians + because Magyar is an Asiatic tongue. Regarding the present state of + knowledge it would be safer therefore to restrict the term "Hamites" + to Sergi's first group; and call the second by the name "Libyans." The + difficult question of the origin of the ancient Egyptians is discussed + elsewhere. + + As to the question whether the Hamites in this restricted sense are a + definite race or a blend, no discussion can, in view of the paucity of + evidence, as yet lead to a satisfactory conclusion, but it might be + suggested very tentatively that further researches may possibly + connect them with the Dravidian peoples of India. It is sufficient for + present purposes that the term Hamite, using it as coextensive with + Sergi's Eastern Hamite, has a definite connotation. By the term is + meant a brown people with frizzy hair, of lean and sinewy physique, + with slender but muscular arms and legs, a thin straight or even + aquiline nose with delicate nostrils, thin lips and no trace of + prognathism. (T. A. J.) + +II. _Hamitic Languages._--The whole north of Africa was once inhabited +by tribes of the Caucasian race, speaking languages which are now +generally called, after Genesis x., Hamitic, a term introduced +principally by Friedrich Müller. The linguistic coherence of that race +has been broken up especially by the intrusion of Arabs, whose language +has exercised a powerful influence on all those nations. This splitting +up, and the immense distances over which those tribes were spread, have +made those languages diverge more widely than do the various tongues of +the Indo-European stock, but still their affinity can easily be traced +by the linguist, and is, perhaps, greater than the corresponding +anthropologic similarity between the white Libyan, red Galla and swarthy +Somali. The relationship of these languages to Semitic has long been +noticed, but was at first taken for descent from Semitic (cf. the name +"Syro-Arabian" proposed by Prichard). Now linguists are agreed that the +Proto-Semites and Proto-Hamites once formed a unity, probably in +Arabia. That original unity has been demonstrated especially by +Friedrich Müller (_Reise der österreichischen Fregatte Novara_, p. 51, +more fully, _Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft_, vol. iii. fasc. 2, p. +226); cf. also A. H. Sayce, _Science of Language_, ii. 178; R. N. Cust, +_The Modern Languages of Africa_, i. 94, &c. The comparative grammars of +Semitic (W. Wright, 1890, and especially H. Zimmern, 1898) demonstrate +this now to everybody by comparative tables of the grammatical elements. + + The classification of Hamitic languages is as follows:[2]-- + + 1. _The Libyan Dialects_ (mostly misnamed "Berber languages," after an + unfortunate, vague Arabic designation, _barabra_, "people of foreign + language"). The representatives of this large group extend from the + Senegal river (where they are called Zenaga; imperfect _Grammaire_ by + L. Faidherbe, 1877) and from Timbuktu (dialect of the Auelimmiden, + sketched by Heinrich Barth, _Travels_, vol. v., 1857) to the oases of + Aujila (Bengazi) and of Siwa on the western border of Egypt. + Consequently, these "dialects" differ more strongly from each other + than, e.g. the Semitic languages do between themselves. The purest + representative seems to be the language of the Algerian mountaineers + (Kabyles), especially that of the Zuawa (Zouaves) tribe, described by + A. Hanoteau, _Essai de grammaire kabyle_ (1858); Ben Sedira, _Cours de + langue kab._ (1887); _Dictionnaire_ by Olivier (1878). The learned + little _Manuel de langue kabyle_, by R. Basset (1887) is an + introduction to the study of the many dialects with full bibliography, + cf. also Basset's _Notes de lexicographie berbère_ (1883 foll.). (The + dictionaries by Brosselard and Venture de Paradis are imperfect.) The + best now described is Shilh(a). a Moroccan dialect (H. Stumme, + _Handbuch des Schilhischen_, 1899), but it is an inferior dialect. + That of Ghat in Tripoli underlies the _Grammar_ of F. W. Newman (1845) + and the _Grammaire Tamashek_ of Hanoteau (1860); cf. also the + _Dictionnaire_ of Cid Kaoui (1900). Neither medieval reports on the + language spoken by the Guanches of the Canary Islands (fullest in A. + Berthelot, _Antiquités canariennes_, 1879; akin to Shilha; by no means + primitive Libyan untouched by Arabic), nor the modern dialect of Siwa + (still little known; tentative grammar by Basset, 1890), have + justified hopes of finding a pure Libyan dialect. Of a few literary + attempts in Arabic letters the religious _Poème de Çabi_ (ed. Basset, + _Journ. asiatique_, vii. 476) is the most remarkable. The imperfect + native writing (named _tifinaghen_), a derivation from the Sabaean + alphabet (not, as Halévy claimed, from the Punic), still in use among + the Sahara tribes, can be traced to the 2nd century B.C. (bilingual + inscription of Tucca, &c.; cf. J. Halévy, _Essai d'épigraphie + libyque_, 1875), but hardly ever served for literary uses. + + 2. _The Cushitic or Ethiopian Family._--The nearest relative of Libyan + is not Ancient Egyptian but the language of the nomadic Bisharin or + Beja of the Nubian Desert (cf. H. Almkvist, _Die Bischari Sprache_, + 1881 [the northern dialect], and L. Reinisch, _Die Bedauye Sprache_, + 1893, _Wörterbuch_, 1895). The speech of the peoples occupying the + lowland east of Abyssinia, the Saho (Reinisch, grammar in _Zeitschrift + d. deutschen morgenländ. Gesellschaft_, 32, 1878; _Texte_, 1889; + _Wörterbuch_, 1890; cf. also Reinisch, Die Sprache der Irob Saho, + 1878), and the Afar or Danakil (Reinisch, _Die Afar Sprache_, 1887; G. + Colizza, _Lingua Afar_, 1887), merely dialects of one language, form + the connecting link with the southern Hamitic group, i.e. Somali + (Reinisch, _Somali Sprache_, 1900-1903, 3 vols.; Larajasse und de + Sampont, _Practical Grammar of the Somali Language_, 1897; imperfect + sketches by Hunter, 1880, and Schleicher, 1890), and Galla (L. + Tutscheck, _Grammar_, 1845, _Lexicon_, 1844; Massaja, _Lectiones_, + 1877; G. F. F. Praetorius, _Zur Grammatik der Gallasprache_, 1893, + &c.). All these Cushitic languages, extending from Egypt to the + equator, are separated by Reinisch as _Lower Cushitic_ from the _High + Cushitic_ group, i.e. the many dialects spoken by tribes dwelling in + the Abyssinian highlands or south of Abyssinia. Of the original + inhabitants of Abyssinia, called collectively Agâu (or Agâu) by the + Abyssinians, or Falashas (this name principally for Jewish tribes), + Reinisch considers the Bilin or Bogos tribe as preserving the most + archaic dialect (_Die Bilin Sprache_, Texts, 1883; _Grammatik_, 1882; + _Wörterbuch_, 1887); the same scholar gave sketches of the Khamir + (1884) and Quara (1885) dialects. On other dialects, struggling + against the spreading Semitic tongues (Tigré, Amharic, &c.), see Conti + Rossini, "Appunti sulla lingua Khamta," in _Giorn. soc. orient._ + (1905); Waldmeyer, _Wörtersammlung_ (1868); J. Halévy, "Essai sur la + langue Agaou" (_Actes soc. philologique_, 1873), &c. Similar dialects + are those of the Sid(d)âma tribes, south of Abyssinia, of which only + Kaf(f)a (Reinisch, _Die Kafa Sprache_, 1888) is known at all fully. Of + the various other dialects (Kullo, Tambaro, &c.), vocabularies only + are known; cf. Borelli, _Éthiopie méridionale_ (1890). (On Hausa see + below.) + + There is no question that the northernmost Hamitic languages have + preserved best the original wealth of inflections which reminds us so + strongly of the formal riches of southern Semitic. Libyan and Beja + are the best-preserved types, and the latter especially may be called + the Sanskrit of Hamitic. The other Cushitic tongues exhibit increasing + agglutinative tendencies the farther we go south, although single + archaisms are found even in Somali. The early isolated High Cushitic + tongues (originally branched off from a stock common with Galla and + Somali) diverge most strongly from the original type. Already the Agâu + dialects are full of very peculiar developments; the Hamitic character + of the Sid(d)ama languages can be traced only by lengthy comparisons. + + The simple and pretty Haus(s)a language, the commercial language of + the whole Niger region and beyond (Schoen, _Grammar_, 1862, + _Dictionary_, 1876; Charles H. Robinson, 1897, in Robinson and + Brookes's _Dictionary_) has fairly well preserved its Hamitic grammar, + though its vocabulary was much influenced by the surrounding Negro + languages. It is no relative of Libyan (though it has experienced some + Libyan influences), but comes from the (High ?) Cushitic family; its + exact place in this family remains to be determined. Various languages + of the Niger region _were_ once Hamitic like Haus(s)a, or at least + under some Hamitic influence, but have now lost that character too far + to be classified as Hamitic, e.g. the Muzuk or Musgu language (F. + Müller, 1886). The often-raised question of some (very remote) + relationship between Hamitic and the great Bantu family is still + undecided; more doubtful is that with the interesting Ful (a) language + in the western Sudan, but a relationship with the Nilotic branch of + negro languages is impossible (though a few of these, e.g. Nuba, have + borrowed some words from neighbouring Hamitic peoples). The + development of a grammatical gender, this principal characteristic of + Semito-Hamitic, in Bari and Masai, may be rather accidental than + borrowed; certainly, the same phenomenon in Hottentot does not justify + the attempt often made to classify this with Hamitic. + + 3. _Ancient Egyptian_, as we have seen, does not form the connecting + link between Libyan and Cushitic which its geographical position would + lead us to expect. It represents a third independent branch, or rather + a second one, Libyan and Cushitic forming one division of Hamitic. A + few resemblances with Libyan (M. de Rochemonteix in _Mémoires du + congrès internat. des orientalistes_, Paris, 1873; elementary) are + less due to original relationship than to the general better + preservation of the northern idioms (see above). Frequent attempts to + detach Egyptian from Hamitic and to attribute it to a Semitic + immigration later than that of the other Hamites cannot be proved. + Egyptian is, in many respects, more remote from Semitic than the + Libyan-Cushitic division, being more agglutinative than the better + types of its sister branch, having lost the most characteristic verbal + flection (the Hamito-Semitic imperfect), forming the nominal plural in + its own peculiar fashion, &c. The advantage of Egyptian, that it is + represented in texts of 3000 B.C., while the sister tongues exist only + in forms 5000 years later, allows us, e.g. to trace the Semitic + principle of triliteral roots more clearly in Egyptian; but still the + latter tongue is hardly more characteristically archaic or nearer + Semitic than Beja or Kabylic. + + All this is said principally of the grammar. Of the vocabulary it must + not be forgotten that none of the Hamitic tongues remained untouched + by Semitic influences after the separation of the Hamites and Semites, + say 4000 or 6000 B.C. Repeated Semitic immigrations and influences + have brought so many layers of loan-words that it is questionable if + any modern Hamitic language has now more than 10% of original Hamitic + words. Which Semitic resemblances are due to original affinity, which + come from pre-Christian immigrations, which from later influences, are + difficult questions not yet faced by science; e.g. the half-Arabic + numerals of Libyan have often been quoted as a proof of primitive + Hamito-Semitic kinship, but they are probably only a gift of some Arab + invasion, prehistoric for us. Arab tribes seem to have repeatedly + swept over the whole area of the Hamites, long before the time of + Mahomet, and to have left deep impressions on races and languages, but + none of these migrations stands in the full light of history (not even + that of the Gee'z tribes of Abyssinia). Egyptian exhibits constant + influences from its Canaanitish neighbours; it is crammed with such + loan-words already in 3000 B.C.; new affluxes can be traced, + especially c. 1600. (The Punic influences on Libyan are, however, very + slight, inferior to the Latin.) Hence the relations of Semitic and + Hamitic still require many investigations in detail, for which the + works of Reinisch and Basset have merely built up a basis. + (W. M. M.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] G. Sergi, _The Mediterranean Race. A Study of the Origin of + European Peoples_ (London, 1901); _idem. Africa, Antropologia della + stirpe camitica_ (Turin, 1897). + + [2] Only works of higher linguistic standing are quoted here; many + vocabularies and imperfect attempts of travellers cannot be + enumerated. + + + + +HAMLET, the hero of Shakespeare's tragedy, a striking figure in +Scandinavian romance. + +The chief authority for the legend of Hamlet is Saxo Grammaticus, who +devotes to it parts of the third and fourth books of his _Historia +Danica_, written at the beginning of the 13th century. It is supposed +that the story of Hamlet, Amleth or Amloði,[1] was contained in the lost +Skjöldunga saga, but we have no means of determining whether Saxo +derived his information in this case from oral or written sources. The +close parallels between the tale of Hamlet and the English romances of +Havelok, Horn and Bevis of Hampton make it not unlikely that Hamlet is +of British rather than of Scandinavian origin. His name does in fact +occur in the Irish _Annals of the Four Masters_ (ed. O'Donovan, 1851) in +a stanza attributed to the Irish Queen Gormflaith, who laments the death +of her husband, Niall Glundubh, at the hands of Amhlaiðe in 919 at the +battle of Ath-Cliath. The slayer of Niall Glundubh is by other +authorities stated to have been Sihtric. Now Sihtric was the father of +that Olaf or Anlaf Cuaran who was the prototype of the English Havelok, +but nowhere else does he receive the nickname of Amhlaiðe. If Amhlaiðe +may really be identified with Sihtric, who first went to Dublin in 888, +the relations between the tales of Havelok and Hamlet are readily +explicable, since nothing was more likely than that the exploits of +father and son should be confounded (see Havelok). But, whoever the +historic Hamlet may have been, it is quite certain that much was added +that was extraneous to Scandinavian tradition. Later in the 10th century +there is evidence of the existence of an Icelandic saga of Amlóði or +Amleth in a passage from the poet Snaebjorn in the second part of the +prose _Edda_.[2] According to Saxo,[3] Hamlet's history is briefly as +follows. In the days of Rorik, king of Denmark, Gervendill was governor +of Jutland, and was succeeded by his sons Horvendill and Feng. +Horvendill, on his return from a Viking expedition in which he had slain +Koll, king of Norway, married Gerutha, Rorik's daughter, who bore him a +son Amleth. But Feng, out of jealousy, murdered Horvendill, and +persuaded Gerutha to become his wife, on the plea that he had committed +the crime for no other reason than to avenge her of a husband by whom +she had been hated. Amleth, afraid of sharing his father's fate, +pretended to be imbecile, but the suspicion of Feng put him to various +tests which are related in detail. Among other things they sought to +entangle him with a young girl, his foster-sister, but his cunning saved +him. When, however, Amleth slew the eavesdropper hidden, like Polonius, +in his mother's room, and destroyed all trace of the deed, Feng was +assured that the young man's madness was feigned. Accordingly he +despatched him to England in company with two attendants, who bore a +letter enjoining the king of the country to put him to death. Amleth +surmised the purport of their instructions, and secretly altered the +message on their wooden tablets to the effect that the king should put +the attendants to death and give Amleth his daughter in marriage. After +marrying the princess Amleth returned at the end of a year to Denmark. +Of the wealth he had accumulated he took with him only certain hollow +sticks filled with gold. He arrived in time for a funeral feast, held to +celebrate his supposed death. During the feast he plied the courtiers +with wine, and executed his vengeance during their drunken sleep by +fastening down over them the woollen hangings of the hall with pegs he +had sharpened during his feigned madness, and then setting fire to the +palace. Feng he slew with his own sword. After a long harangue to the +people he was proclaimed king. Returning to England for his wife he +found that his father-in-law and Feng had been pledged each to avenge +the other's death. The English king, unwilling personally to carry out +his pledge, sent Amleth as proxy wooer for the hand of a terrible +Scottish queen Hermuthruda, who had put all former wooers to death, but +fell in love with Amleth. On his return to England his first wife, whose +love proved stronger than her resentment, told him of her father's +intended revenge. In the battle which followed Amleth won the day by +setting up the dead men of the day before with stakes, and thus +terrifying the enemy. He then returned with his two wives to Jutland, +where he had to encounter the enmity of Wiglek, Rorik's successor. He +was slain in a battle against Wiglek, and Hermuthruda, although she had +engaged to die with him, married the victor. + +The other Scandinavian versions of the tale are: the _Hrolfssaga +Kraka_,[4] where the brothers Helgi and Hroar take the place of the +hero; the tale of Harald and Halfdan, as related in the 7th book of Saxo +Grammaticus; the modern Icelandic _Ambales Saga_,[5] a romantic tale the +earliest MS. of which dates from the 17th century; and the folk-tale of +Brjám[6] which was put in writing in 1707. Helgi and Hroar, like Harald +and Halfdan, avenge their father's death on their uncle by burning him +in his palace. Harald and Halfdan escape after their father's death by +being brought up, with dogs' names, in a hollow oak, and subsequently by +feigned madness; and in the case of the other brothers there are traces +of a similar motive, since the boys are called by dogs' names. The +methods of Hamlet's madness, as related by Saxo, seem to point to +cynanthropy. In the _Ambales Saga_, which perhaps is collateral to, +rather than derived from, Saxo's version, there are, besides romantic +additions, some traits which point to an earlier version of the tale. + +Saxo Grammaticus was certainly familiar with the Latin historians, and +it is most probable that, recognizing the similarity between the +northern Hamlet legend and the classical tale of Lucius Junius Brutus as +told by Livy, by Valerius Maximus, and by Dionysius of Halicarnassus +(with which he was probably acquainted through a Latin epitome), he +deliberately added circumstances from the classical story. The incident +of the gold-filled sticks could hardly appear fortuitously in both, and +a comparison of the harangues of Amleth (Saxo, Book iv.) and of Brutus +(Dionysius iv. 77) shows marked similarities. In both tales the usurping +uncle is ultimately succeeded by the nephew who has escaped notice +during his youth by a feigned madness. But the parts played by the +personages who in Shakespeare became Ophelia and Polonius, the method of +revenge, and the whole narrative of Amleth's adventure in England, have +no parallels in the Latin story. + +Dr. O. L. Jiriczek[7] first pointed out the striking similarities +existing between the story of Amleth in Saxo and the other northern +versions, and that of Kei Chosro in the _Shahnameh_ (Book of the King) +of the Persian poet Firdausi. The comparison was carried farther by R. +Zenker (_Boeve Amlethus_, pp. 207-268, Berlin and Leipzig, 1904), who +even concluded that the northern saga rested on an earlier version of +Firdausi's story, in which indeed nearly all the individual elements of +the various northern versions are to be found. Further resemblances +exist in the _Ambales Saga_ with the tales of Bellerophon, of Heracles, +and of Servius Tullius. That Oriental tales through Byzantine and +Arabian channels did find their way to the west is well known, and there +is nothing very surprising in their being attached to a local hero. + +The tale of Hamlet's adventures in Britain forms an episode so distinct +that it was at one time referred to a separate hero. The traitorous +letter, the purport of which is changed by Hermuthruda, occurs in the +popular _Dit de l'empereur Constant_,[8] and in Arabian and Indian +tales. Hermuthruda's cruelty to her wooers is common in northern and +German mythology, and close parallels are afforded by Thrytho, the +terrible bride of Offa I., who figures in _Beowulf_, and by Brunhilda in +the _Nibelungenlied_. + +The story of Hamlet was known to the Elizabethans in François de +Belleforest's _Histoires tragiques_ (1559), and found its supreme +expression in Shakespeare's tragedy. That as early as 1587 or 1589 +Hamlet had appeared on the English stage is shown by Nash's preface to +Greene's _Menaphon_: "He will afford you whole Hamlets, I should say, +handfulls of tragical speeches." The Shakespearian Hamlet owes, however, +little but the outline of his story to Saxo. In character he is +diametrically opposed to his prototype. Amleth's madness was certainly +altogether feigned; he prepared his vengeance a year beforehand, and +carried it out deliberately and ruthlessly at every point. His riddling +speech has little more than an outward similarity to the words of +Hamlet, who resembles him, however, in his disconcerting penetration +into his enemies' plans. For a discussion of Shakespeare's play and its +immediate sources see SHAKESPEARE. + + See an appendix to Elton's trans. of Saxo Grammaticus; I. Gollancz, + _Hamlet in Iceland_ (London, 1898); H. L. Ward, _Catalogue of + Romances_, under "Havelok," vol. i. pp. 423 seq.; _English Historical + Review_, x. (1895); F. Detter, "Die Hamletsage," _Zeitschr. f. deut. + Alter._ vol. 36 (Berlin, 1892); O. L. Jiriczek, "Die Amlethsage auf + Island," in _Germanistische Abhandlungen_, vol. xii. (Breslau), and + "Hamlet in Iran," in _Zeitschr. des Vereins für Volkskunde_, x. + (Berlin, 1900); A. Olrik, _Kilderne til Sakses Oldhistorie_ + (Copenhagen, 2 vols., 1892-1894). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The word is used in modern Icelandic metaphorically of an + imbecile or weak-minded person (see Cleasby and Vigfússon, + _Icelandic-English Dictionary_, 1869). + + [2] "'Tis said that far out, off yonder ness, the Nine Maids of the + Island Mill stir amain the host--cruel skerry-quern--they who in ages + past ground Hamlet's meal. The good Chieftain furrows the hull's lair + with his ship's beaked prow." This passage may be compared with some + examples of Hamlet's cryptic sayings quoted by Saxo: "Again, as he + passed along the beach, his companions found the rudder of a ship + which had been wrecked, and said they had discovered a huge knife. + 'This,' said he, 'was the right thing to carve such a huge ham....' + Also, as they passed the sand-hills, and bade him look at the meal, + meaning the sand, he replied that it had been ground small by the + hoary tempests of the ocean." + + [3] Books iii. and iv., chaps. 86-106, Eng. trans. by O. Elton + (London, 1894). + + [4] Printed in Fornaldar Sögur Norðtrlanda (vol. i. Copenhagen, + 1829), analysed by F. Detter in _Zeitschr. für deutsches Altertum_ + (vol. 36, Berlin, 1892). + + [5] Printed with English translation and with other texts germane to + the subject by I. Gollancz (_Hamlet in Iceland_, London, 1898). + + [6] Professor I. Gollancz points out (p. lxix.) that Brjám is a + variation of the Irish Brian, that the relations between Ireland and + the Norsemen were very close, and that, curiously enough, Brian + Boroimhe was the hero of that very battle of Clontarf (1014) where + the device (which occurs in Havelok and Hamlet) of bluffing the enemy + by tying the wounded to stakes to represent active soldiers was used. + + [7] "Hamlet in Iran," in _Zeitschrift des Vereins für Volkskunde_, x. + (Berlin, 1900). + + [8] See A. B. Gough, _The Constance Saga_ (Berlin, 1902). + + + + +HAMLEY, SIR EDWARD BRUCE (1824-1893), British general and military +writer, youngest son of Vice-Admiral William Hamley, was born on the +27th of April 1824 at Bodmin, Cornwall, and entered the Royal Artillery +in 1843. He was promoted captain in 1850, and in 1851 went to Gibraltar, +where he commenced his literary career by contributing articles to +magazines. He served throughout the Crimean campaign as aide-de-camp to +Sir Richard Dacres, commanding the artillery, taking part in all the +operations with distinction, and becoming successively major and +lieutenant-colonel by brevet. He also received the C.B. and French and +Turkish orders. During the war he contributed to _Blackwood's Magazine_ +an admirable account of the progress of the campaign, which was +afterwards republished. The combination in Hamley of literary and +military ability secured for him in 1859 the professorship of military +history at the new Staff College at Sandhurst, from which in 1866 he +went to the council of military education, returning in 1870 to the +Staff College as commandant. From 1879 to 1881 he was British +commissioner successively for the delimitation of the frontiers of +Turkey and Bulgaria, Turkey in Asia and Russia, and Turkey and Greece, +and was rewarded with the K.C.M.G. Promoted colonel in 1863, he became a +lieutenant-general in 1882, when he commanded the 2nd division of the +expedition to Egypt under Lord Wolseley, and led his troops in the +battle of Tell-el-Kebir, for which he received the K.C.B., the thanks of +parliament, and 2nd class of Osmanieh. Hamley considered that his +services in Egypt had been insufficiently recognized in Lord Wolseley's +despatches, and expressed his indignation freely, but he had no +sufficient ground for supposing that there was any intention to belittle +his services. From 1885 until his death on the 12th of August 1893 he +represented Birkenhead in parliament in the Conservative interest. + + Hamley was a clever and versatile writer. His principal work, _The + Operations of War_, published in 1867, became a text-book of military + instruction. He published some pamphlets on national defence, was a + frequent contributor to magazines, and the author of several novels, + of which perhaps the best known is _Lady Lee's Widowhood_. + + + + +HAMLIN, HANNIBAL (1809-1891), vice-president of the United States +(1861-1865), was born at Paris, Maine, on the 27th of August 1809. After +studying in Hebron Academy, he conducted his father's farm for a time, +became schoolmaster, and later managed a weekly newspaper at Paris. He +then studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1833, and rapidly acquired +a reputation as an able lawyer and a good public speaker. Entering +politics as an anti-slavery Democrat, he was a member of the state +House of Representatives in 1836-1840, serving as its presiding officer +during the last four years. He was a representative in Congress from +1843 to 1847, and was a member of the United States Senate from 1848 to +1856. From the very beginning of his service in Congress he was +prominent as an opponent of the extension of slavery; he was a +conspicuous supporter of the Wilmot Proviso, spoke against the +Compromise Measures of 1850, and in 1856, chiefly because of the passage +in 1854 of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, which repealed the Missouri +Compromise, and his party's endorsement of that repeal at the Cincinnati +Convention two years later, he withdrew from the Democrats and joined +the newly organized Republican party. The Republicans of Maine nominated +him for governor in the same year, and having carried the election by a +large majority he was inaugurated in this office on the 8th of January +1857. In the latter part of February, however, he resigned the +governorship, and was again a member of the Senate from 1857 to January +1861. From 1861 to 1865, during the Civil War, he was Vice-President of +the United States. While in this office he was one of the chief advisers +of President Lincoln, and urged both the Emancipation Proclamation and +the arming of the negroes. After the war he again served in the Senate +(1869-1881), was minister to Spain (1881-1883), and then retired from +public life. He died at Bangor, Maine, on the 4th of July 1891. + + See _Life and Times of Hannibal Hamlin_ (Cambridge, Mass., 1899), by + C. E. Hamlin, his grandson. + + + + +HAMM, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, on the +Lippe, 19 m. by rail N.E. from Dortmund on the main line +Cologne-Hanover. Pop. (1905) 38,430. It is surrounded by pleasant +promenades occupying the site of the former engirdling fortifications. +The principal buildings are four Roman Catholic and three Evangelical +churches, several schools and an infirmary. The town is flourishing and +rapidly increasing, and possesses very extensive wire factories (in +connexion with which there are puddling and rolling works), machine +works, and manufactories of gloves, baskets, leather, starch, chemicals, +varnish, oil and beer. Near the town are some thermal baths. + +Hamm, which became a town about the end of the 12th century, was +originally the capital of the countship of Mark, and was fortified in +1226. It became a member of the Hanseatic League. In 1614 it was +besieged by the Dutch, and it was several times taken and retaken during +the Thirty Years' War. In 1666 it came into the possession of +Brandenburg. In 1761 and 1762 it was bombarded by the French, and in +1763 its fortifications were dismantled. + + + + +HAMMAD AR-RAWIYA [Abu-l-Qasim Hammad ibn Abi Laila Sapur (or ibn +Maisara)] (8th century A.D.), Arabic scholar, was of Dailamite descent, +but was born in Kufa. The date of his birth is given by some as 694, by +others as 714. He was reputed to be the most learned man of his time in +regard to the "days of the Arabs" (i.e. their chief battles), their +stories, poems, genealogies and dialects. He is said to have boasted +that he could recite a hundred long _qasidas_ for each letter of the +alphabet (i.e. rhyming in each letter) and these all from pre-Islamic +times, apart from shorter pieces and later verses. Hence his name +_Hammad ar-Rawiya_, "the reciter of verses from memory." The Omayyad +caliph Walid is said to have tested him, the result being that he +recited 2900 qasidas of pre-Islamic date and Walid gave him 100,000 +dirhems. He was favoured by Yazid II. and his successor Hisham, who +brought him up from Irak to Damascus. Arabian critics, however, say that +in spite of his learning he lacked a true insight into the genius of the +Arabic language, and that he made more than thirty--some say three +hundred--mistakes of pronunciation in reciting the Koran. To him is +ascribed the collecting of the _Mo'allakat_ (q.v.). No diwan of his is +extant, though he composed verse of his own and probably a good deal of +what he ascribed to earlier poets. + + Biography in McG. de Slane's trans. of Ibn Khallikan, vol. i. pp. + 470-474, and many stories are told of him in the _Kitab ul-Aghani_, + vol. v. pp. 164-175. (G. W. T.) + + + + +HAMMER, FRIEDRICH JULIUS (1810-1862), German poet, was born on the 7th +of June 1810 at Dresden. In 1831 he went to Leipzig to study law, but +devoted himself mainly to philosophy and belles lettres. Returning to +Dresden in 1834 a small comedy, _Das seltsame Frühstück_, introduced him +to the literary society of the capital, notably to Ludwig Tieck, and +from this time he devoted himself entirely to writing. In 1837 he +returned to Leipzig, and, coming again to Dresden, from 1851 to 1859 +edited the feuilleton of _Sächsische konstitutionelle Zeitung_, and took +the lead in the foundation in 1855 of the Schiller Institute in Dresden. +His marriage in 1851 had made him independent, and he bought a small +property at Pillnitz, on which, soon after his return from a residence +of several years at Nuremberg, he died, on the 23rd of August 1862. + +Hammer wrote, besides several comedies, a drama _Die Brüder_ (1856), a +number of unimportant romances, and the novel _Einkehr und Umkehr_ +(Leipzig, 1856); but his reputation rests upon his epigrammatic and +didactic poems. His _Schau' um dich, und schau' in dich_ (1851), which +made his name, has passed through more than thirty editions. It was +followed by _Zu allen guten Stunden_ (1854), _Fester Grund_ (1857), _Auf +stillen Wegen_ (1859), and _Lerne, liebe, lebe_ (1862). Besides these he +wrote a book of Turkish songs, _Unter dem Halbmond_ (Leipzig, 1860), and +rhymed versions of the psalms (1861), and compiled the popular religious +anthology _Leben und Heimat in Gott_, of which a 14th edition was +published in 1900. + + See C. G. E. Am Ende, _Julius Hammer_ (Nuremberg, 1872). + + + + +HAMMER, an implement consisting of a shaft or handle with head fixed +transversely to it. The head, usually of metal, has one flat face, the +other may be shaped to serve various purposes, e.g. with a claw, a pick, +&c. The implement is used for breaking, beating, driving nails, rivets, +&c., and the word is applied to heavy masses of metal moved by +machinery, and used for similar purposes. (See TOOL.) "Hammer" is a word +common to Teutonic languages. It appears in the same form in German and +Danish, and in Dutch as _hamer_, in Swedish as _hammare_. The ultimate +origin is unknown. It has been connected with the root seen in the Greek +[Greek: kamptein], to bend; the word would mean, therefore, something +crooked or bent. A more illuminating suggestion connects the word with +the Slavonic _kamy_, a stone, cf. Russian _kamen_, and ultimately with +Sanskrit _acman_, a pointed stone, a thunderbolt. The legend of Thor's +hammer, the thunderbolt, and the probability of the primitive hammer +being a stone, adds plausibility to this derivation. The word is applied +to many objects resembling a hammer in shape or function. Thus the +"striker" in a clock, or in a bell, when it is sounded by an independent +lever and not by the swinging of the "tongue," is called a "hammer"; +similarly, in the "action" of a pianoforte the word is used of a wooden +shank with felt-covered head attached to a key, the striking of which +throws the "hammer" against the strings. In the mechanism of a fire-arm, +the "hammer" is that part which by its impact on the cap or primer +explodes the charge. (See GUN.) The hammer, more usually known by its +French name of _martel de fer_, was a medieval hand-weapon. With a long +shaft it was used by infantry, especially when acting against mounted +troops. With a short handle and usually made altogether of metal, it was +also used by horse-soldiers. The _martel_ had one part of the head with +a blunted face, the other pointed, but occasionally both sides were +pointed. There are 16th century examples in which a hand-gun forms the +handle. The name of "hammer," in Latin _malleus_, has been frequently +applied to men, and also to books, with reference to destructive power. +Thus on the tomb of Edward I. in Westminster Abbey is inscribed his name +of _Scotorum Malleus_, the "Hammer of the Scots." The title of "Hammer +of Heretics," _Malleus Haereticorum_, has been given to St Augustine and +to Johann Faber, whose tract against Luther is also known by the name. +Thomas Cromwell was styled _Malleus Monachorum_. The famous text-book of +procedure in cases of witchcraft, published by Sprenger and Krämer in +1489, was called _Hexenhammer_ or _Malleus Maleficarum_ (see +WITCHCRAFT). + +The origin of the word "hammer-cloth," an ornamental cloth covering the +box-seat on a state-coach, has been often explained from the hammer and +other tools carried in the box-seat by the coachman for repairs, &c. The +_New English Dictionary_ points out that while the word occurs as early +as 1465, the use of a box-seat is not known before the 17th century. +Other suggestions are that it is a corruption of "hamper-cloth," or of +"hammock-cloth," which is used in this sense, probably owing to a +mistake. Neither of these supposed corruptions helps very much. Skeat +connects the word with a Dutch word _hemel_, meaning a canopy. In the +name of the bird, the yellow-hammer, the latter part should be "ammer." +This appears in the German name, _Emmerling_, and the word probably +means the "chirper," cf. the Ger. _jammern_, to wail, lament. + + + + +HAMMERBEAM ROOF, in architecture, the name given to a Gothic open timber +roof, of which the finest example is that over Westminster Hall +(1395-1399). In order to give greater height in the centre, the ordinary +tie beam is cut through, and the portions remaining, known as +hammerbeams, are supported by curved braces from the wall; in +Westminster Hall, in order to give greater strength to the framing, a +large arched piece of timber is carried across the hall, rising from the +bottom of the wall piece to the centre of the collar beam, the latter +being also supported by curved braces rising from the end of the +hammerbeam. The span of Westminster Hall is 68 ft. 4 in., and the +opening between the ends of the hammerbeams 25 ft. 6 in. The height from +the paving of the hall to the hammerbeam is 40 ft., and to the underside +of the collar beam 63 ft. 6 in., so that an additional height in the +centre of 23 ft. 6 in. has been gained. Other important examples of +hammerbeam roofs exist over the halls of Hampton Court and Eltham +palaces, and there are numerous examples of smaller dimensions in +churches throughout England and particularly in the eastern counties. +The ends of the hammerbeams are usually decorated with winged angels +holding shields; the curved braces and beams are richly moulded, and the +spandrils in the larger examples filled in with tracery, as in +Westminster Hall. Sometimes, but rarely, the collar beam is similarly +treated, or cut through and supported by additional curved braces, as in +the hall of the Middle Temple, London. + + + + +HAMMERFEST, the most northern town in Europe. Pop. (1900) 2300. It is +situated on an island (Kvalö) off the N.W. coast of Norway, in Finmarken +_amt_ (county), in 70° 40´ 11´´ N., the latitude being that of the +extreme north of Alaska. Its position affords the best illustration of +the warm climatic influence of the north-eastward Atlantic drift, the +mean annual temperature being 36° F. (January 31°, July 57°). Hammerfest +is 674 m. by sea N.E. of Trondhjem, and 78 S.W. from the North Cape. The +character of this coast differs from the southern, the islands being +fewer and larger, and of table shape. The narrow strait Strömmen +separates Kvalö from the larger Seiland, whose snow-covered hills with +several glaciers rise above 3500 ft., while an insular rampart of +mountains, Sorö, protects the strait and harbour from the open sea. The +town is timber-built and modern; and the Protestant church, town-hall, +and schools were all rebuilt after fire in 1890. There is also a Roman +Catholic church. The sun does not set at Hammerfest from the 13th of May +to the 29th of July. This is the busy season of the townsfolk. Vessels +set out to the fisheries, as far as Spitsbergen and the Kara Sea; and +trade is brisk, not only Norwegian and Danish but British, German and +particularly Russian vessels engaging in it. Cod-liver oil and salted +fish are exported with some reindeer-skins, fox-skins and eiderdown; and +coal and salt for curing are imported. In the spring the great herds of +tame reindeer are driven out to swim Strömmen and graze in the summer +pastures of Seiland; towards winter they are called home again. From the +18th of November to the 23rd of January the sun is not seen, and the +enforced quiet of winter prevails. Electric light was introduced in the +town in 1891. On the Fuglenaes or Birds' Cape, which protects the +harbour on the north, there stands a column with an inscription in Norse +and Latin, stating that Hammerfest was one of the stations of the +expedition for the measurement of the arc of the meridian in 1816-1852. +Nor is this its only association with science; for it was one of the +spots chosen by Sir Edward Sabine for his series of pendulum experiments +in 1823. The ascent of the Sadlen or the Tyven in the neighbourhood is +usually undertaken by travellers for the view of the barren, snow-clad +Arctic landscape, the bluff indented coast, and the vast expanse of the +Arctic Ocean. + + + + +HAMMER-KOP, or HAMMERHEAD, an African bird, which has been regarded as a +stork and as a heron, the _Scopus umbretta_ of ornithologists, called +the "Umbre" by T. Pennant, now placed in a separate family _Scopidae_ +between the herons and storks. It was discovered by M. Adanson, the +French traveller, in Senegal about the middle of the 19th century, and +was described by M. J. Brisson in 1760. It has since been found to +inhabit nearly the whole of Africa and Madagascar, and is the +"hammerkop" (hammerhead) of the Cape colonists. Though not larger than a +raven, it builds an enormous nest, some six feet in diameter, with a +flat-topped roof and a small hole for entrance and exit, and placed +either on a tree or a rocky ledge. The bird, of an almost uniform brown +colour, slightly glossed with purple and its tail barred with black, has +a long occipital crest, generally borne horizontally, so as to give rise +to its common name. It is somewhat sluggish by day, but displays much +activity at dusk, when it will go through a series of strange +performances. (A. N.) + + + + +HAMMER-PURGSTALL, JOSEPH, FREIHERR von (1774-1856), Austrian +orientalist, was born at Graz on the 9th of June 1774, the son of Joseph +Johann von Hammer, and received his early education mainly in Vienna. +Entering the diplomatic service in 1796, he was appointed in 1799 to a +position in the Austrian embassy in Constantinople, and in this capacity +he took part in the expedition under Admiral Sir William Sidney Smith +and General Sir John Hely Hutchinson against the French. In 1807 he +returned home from the East, after which he was made a privy councillor, +and, on inheriting in 1835 the estates of the countess Purgstall in +Styria, was given the title of "freiherr." In 1847 he was elected +president of the newly-founded academy, and he died at Vienna on the +23rd of November 1856. + +For fifty years Hammer-Purgstall wrote incessantly on the most diverse +subjects and published numerous texts and translations of Arabic, +Persian and Turkish authors. It was natural that a scholar who traversed +so large a field should lay himself open to the criticism of +specialists, and he was severely handled by Friedrich Christian Diez +(1794-1876), who, in his _Unfug und Betrug_ (1815), devoted to him +nearly 600 pages of abuse. Von Hammer-Purgstall did for Germany the same +work that Sir William Jones (q.v.) did for England and Silvestre de Sacy +for France. He was, like his younger but greater English contemporary, +Edward William Lane, with whom he came into friendly conflict on the +subject of the origin of _The Thousand and One Nights_, an assiduous +worker, and in spite of many faults did more for oriental studies than +most of his critics put together. + + Von Hammer's principal work is his _Geschichte des osmanischen + Reiches_ (10 vols., Pesth, 1827-1835). Another edition of this was + published at Pesth in 1834-1835, and it has been translated into + French by J. J. Hellert (1835-1843). Among his other works are + _Constantinopolis und der Bosporos_ (1822); _Sur les origines russes_ + (St Petersburg, 1825); _Geschichte der osmanischen Dichtkunst_ (1836); + _Geschichte der Goldenen Horde in Kiptschak_ (1840); _Geschichte der + Chane der Krim_ (1856); and an unfinished _Litteraturgeschichte der + Araber_ (1850-1856). His _Geschichte der Assassinen_ (1818) has been + translated into English by O. C. Wood (1835). Texts and + translations--_Eth-Thaalabi_, Arab. and Ger. (1829); _Ibn Wahshiyah, + History of the Mongols_, Arab. and Eng. (1806); _El-Wassaf_, Pers. and + Ger. (1856); _Esch-Schebistani's Rosenflor des Geheimnisses_, Pers. + and Ger. (1838); _Ez-Zamakhsheri, Goldene Halsbander_, Arab. and Germ. + (1835); _El-Ghazzali, Hujjet-el-Islám_, Arab. and Ger. (1838); + _El-Hamawi, Das arab. Hohe Lied der Liebe_, Arab. and Ger. (1854). + Translations of--_El-Mutanebbi's Poems; Er-Resmi's Account of his + Embassy_ (1809); _Contes inédits des 1001 nuits_ (1828). Besides these + and smaller works, von Hammer contributed numerous essays and + criticisms to the _Fundgruben des Orients_, which he edited; to the + _Journal asiatique_; and to many other learned journals; above all to + the _Transactions_ of the "Akademie der Wissenschaften" of Vienna, of + which he was mainly the founder; and he translated Evliya Effendi's + _Travels in Europe_, for the English Oriental Translation Fund. For a + fuller list of his works, which amount in all to nearly 100 volumes, + see _Comptes rendus_ of the Acad. des Inscr. et des Belles-Lettres + (1857). See also Schlottman, _Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall_ (Zurich, + 1857). + + + + +HAMMERSMITH, a western metropolitan borough of London, England, bounded +E. by Kensington and S. by Fulham and the river Thames, and extending N. +and W. to the boundary of the county of London. Pop. (1901) 112,239. The +name appears in the early forms of _Hermodewode_ and _Hamersmith_; the +derivation is probably from the Anglo-Saxon, signifying the place with a +haven (_hythe_). Hammersmith is mentioned with Fulham as a winter camp +of Danish invaders in 879, when they occupied the island of Hame, which +may be identified with Chiswick Eyot. Hammersmith consists of +residential streets of various classes. There are many good houses in +the districts of Brook Green in the south-east, and Ravenscourt Park and +Starch Green in the west. Shepherd's Bush in the east is a populous and +poorer quarter. Boat-building yards, lead-mills, oil mills, +distilleries, coach factories, motor works, and other industrial +establishments are found along the river and elsewhere in the borough. +The main thoroughfares are Uxbridge Road and Goldhawk Road, from Acton +on the west, converging at Shepherd's Bush and continuing towards +Notting Hill; King Street from Chiswick on the south-west, continued as +Hammersmith Broadway and Road to Kensington Road; Bridge Road from +Hammersmith Bridge over the Thames, and Fulham Palace Road from Fulham, +converging at the Broadway. Old Hammersmith Bridge, designed by Tierney +Clark (1824), was the earliest suspension bridge erected near London. +This bridge was found insecure and replaced in 1884-1887. Until 1834 +Hammersmith formed part of Fulham parish. Its church of St Paul was +built as a chapel of ease to Fulham, and consecrated by Laud in 1631. +The existing building dates from 1890. Among the old monuments preserved +is that of Sir Nicholas Crispe (d. 1665), a prominent royalist during +the civil wars and a benefactor of the parish. Schools and religious +houses are numerous. St Paul's school is one of the principal public +schools in England. It was founded in or about 1509 by John Colet, dean +of St Paul's, under the shadow of the cathedral church. But it appears +that Colet actually refounded and reorganized a school which had been +attached to the cathedral of St Paul from very early times; the first +mention of such a school dates from the early part of the 12th century +(see an article in _The Times_, London, July 7, 1909, on the occasion of +the celebration of the quatercentenary of Colet's foundation). The +school was moved to its present site in Hammersmith Road in 1883. The +number of foundation scholars, that is, the number for which Colet's +endowment provided, is 153, according to the number of fishes taken in +the miraculous draught. The total number of pupils is about 600. The +school governors are appointed by the Mercers' Company (by which body +the new site was acquired), and the universities of Oxford, Cambridge +and London. Close to the school is St Paul's preparatory school, and at +Brook Green is a girls' school in connexion with the main school. There +are, besides, the Edward Latymer foundation school for boys (1624), part +of the income of which is devoted to general charitable purposes; the +Godolphin school, founded in the 16th century and remodelled as a +grammar school in 1861; Nazareth House of Little Sisters of the Poor, +the Convent of the Sacred Heart, and other convents. The town hall, the +West London hospital with its post-graduate college, and Wormwood +Scrubbs prison are noteworthy buildings. Other institutions are the +Hammersmith school of art and a Roman Catholic training college. Besides +the picturesque Ravenscourt Park (31 acres) there are extensive +recreation grounds in the north of the borough at Wormwood Scrubbs (193 +acres), and others of lesser extent. An important place of entertainment +is Olympia, near Hammersmith Road and the Addison Road station on the +West London railway, which includes a vast arena under a glass roof; +while at Shepherd's Bush are the extensive grounds and buildings first +occupied by the Franco-British Exhibition of 1908, including a huge +stadium for athletic displays. In the extreme north of the borough is +the Kensal Green Roman Catholic cemetery, in which Cardinal Manning and +many other prominent members of this faith are buried. In the +neighbourhood of the Mall, bordering the river, are the house where +Thomson wrote his poem "The Seasons," and Kelmscott House, the residence +of William Morris. The parliamentary borough of Hammersmith returns one +member. The borough council consists of a mayor, 5 aldermen, and 30 +councillors. Area, 2286.3 acres. + + + + +HAMMER-THROWING, a branch of field athletics which consists of hurling +to the greatest possible distance an instrument with a heavy head and +slender handle called the hammer. Throwing the hammer is in all +probability of Keltic origin, as it has been popular in Ireland and +Scotland for many centuries. The missile was, however, not a hammer, but +the wheel of a chariot attached to a fixed axle, by which it was whirled +round the head and cast for distance. Such a sport was undoubtedly +cultivated in the old Irish games, a large stone being substituted for +the wheel at the beginning of the Christian era. In the Scottish +highlands the missile took the form of a smith's sledgehammer, and in +this form the sport became popular in England in early days. Edward II. +is said to have fostered it, and Henry VIII. is known to have been +proficient. At the beginning of the 19th century two standard hammers +were generally recognized in Scotland, the heavy hammer, weighing about +21 lb., and the light hammer, weighing about 16 lb. These were in +general use until about 1885, although the light hammer gradually +attained popularity at the expense of the heavy. Although originally an +ordinary blacksmith's sledge with a handle about 3 ft. long, the form of +the head was gradually modified until it acquired its present spherical +shape, and the stiff wooden handle gave place to one of flexible +whalebone about 3/8 in. in diameter. The Scottish style of throwing, +which also obtained in America, was to stand on a mark, swing the hammer +round the head several times and hurl it backwards over the shoulder, +the length being measured from the mark made by the falling hammer to +the nearest foot of the thrower, no run or follow being allowed. Such +men as Donald Dinnie, G. Davidson and Kenneth McRae threw the light +hammer over 110 ft., and Dinnie's record was 132 ft. 8 in., made, +however, from a raised mount. Meanwhile the English Amateur Athletic +Association had early fixed the weight of the hammer at 16 lb., but the +length of the handle and the run varied widely, the restrictions being +few. Under these conditions S. S. Brown, of Oxford, made in 1873 a throw +of 120 ft., which was considered extraordinary at the time. In 1875 the +throw was made from a 7-ft. circle without run, head and handle of the +missile weighing together exactly 16 lb. In 1887 the circle was enlarged +to 9 ft., and in 1896 a handle of flexible metal was legalized. The +throw was made after a few rapid revolutions of the body, which added an +impetus that greatly added to the distance attained. It thus happened +that the Scottish competitors at the English games, who clung to their +standing style of throwing, were, although athletes of the very first +class, repeatedly beaten; the result being that the Scottish association +was forced to introduce the English rules. This was also the case in +America, where the throw from the 7-ft. circle, any motions being +allowed within it, was adopted in 1888, and still obtains. The Americans +still further modified the handle, which now consists of steel wire with +two skeleton loops for the hands, the wire being joined to the head by +means of a ball-bearing swivel. Thus the greatest mechanical advantage, +that of having the entire weight of the missile at the end, as well as +the least friction, is obtained. In England the Amateur Athletic +Association in 1908 enacted that "the head and handle may be of any +size, shape and material, provided that the complete implement shall not +be more than 4 ft. and its weight not less than 16 lb. The competitor +may assume any position he chooses, and use either one or both hands. +All throws shall be made from a circle 7 ft. in diameter." The modern +hammer-thrower, if right-handed, begins by placing the head on the +ground at his right side. He then lifts and swings it round his head +with increasing rapidity, his whole body finally revolving with +outstretched arms twice, in some cases three times, as rapidly as +possible, the hammer being released in the desired direction. During the +"spinning," or revolving of the body, the athlete must be constantly, +"ahead of the hammer," i.e. he must be drawing it after him with +continually increased pressure up to the very moment of delivery. The +muscles chiefly called into play are those of the shoulders, back and +loins. The adoption of the hand-loops has given the thrower greater +control over the hammer and has thus rendered the sport much less +dangerous than it once was. + + With a wooden handle the longest throw made in Great Britain from a + 9-ft. circle was that of W. J. M. Barry in 1892, who won the + championship in that year with 133 ft. 3 in. With the flexible handle, + "unlimited run and follow" being permitted, the record was held in + 1909 by M. J. McGrath with 175 ft. 8 in., made in 1907; a Scottish + amateur, T. R. Nicholson, held the British record of 169 ft. 8 in. The + world's record for throw from a 7-ft. circle was 172 ft. 11 in. by J. + Flanagan in 1904 in America; the British record from 9-ft. circle + being also held by Flanagan with a throw of 163 ft. 1 in. made in + 1900. Flanagan's Olympic record (London, 1908) was 170 ft. 4¼ in. + + See _Athletics_ in the Badminton library; _Athletes' Guide_ in + Spalding's Athletic library; "Hammer-Throwing" in vol. xx. of + _Outing_. + + + + +HAMMER-TOE, a painful condition in which a toe is rigidly bent and the +salient angle on its upper aspect is constantly irritated by the boot. +It is treated surgically, not as formerly by amputation of the toe, but +the toe is made permanently to lie flat by the simple excision of the +small digital joint. Even in extremely bad cases of hammer-toe the +operation of resection of the head of the metatarsal phalanx is to be +recommended rather than amputation. + + + + +HAMMOCK, a bed or couch slung from each end. The word is said to have +been derived from the hamack tree, the bark of which was used by the +aboriginal natives of Brazil to form the nets, suspended from trees, in +which they slept. The hammock may be of matting, skin or textiles, lined +with cushions or filled with bedding. It is much used in hot climates. + + + + +HAMMOND, HENRY (1605-1660), English divine, was born at Chertsey in +Surrey on the 18th of August 1605. He was educated at Eton and at +Magdalen College, Oxford, becoming demy or scholar in 1619, and fellow +in 1625. He took orders in 1629, and in 1633 in preaching before the +court so won the approval of the earl of Leicester that he presented him +to the living of Penshurst in Kent. In 1643 he was made archdeacon of +Chichester. He was a member of the convocation of 1640, and was +nominated one of the Westminster Assembly of divines. Instead of sitting +at Westminster he took part in the unsuccessful rising at Tunbridge in +favour of King Charles I., and was obliged to flee in disguise to +Oxford, then the royal headquarters. There he spent much of his time in +writing, though he accompanied the king's commissioners to London, and +afterwards to the ineffectual convention at Uxbridge in 1645, where he +disputed with Richard Vines, one of the parliamentary envoys. In his +absence he was appointed canon of Christ Church and public orator of the +university. These dignities he relinquished for a time in order to +attend the king as chaplain during his captivity in the hands of the +parliament. When Charles was deprived of all his loyal attendants at +Christmas 1647, Hammond returned to Oxford and was made subdean of +Christ Church, only, however, to be removed from all his offices by the +parliamentary visitors, who imprisoned him for ten weeks. Afterwards he +was permitted, though still under quasi-confinement, to retire to the +house of Philip Warwick at Clapham in Bedfordshire. In 1650, having +regained his full liberty, Hammond betook himself to the friendly +mansion of Sir John Pakington, at Westwood, in Worcestershire, where he +died on the 25th of April 1660, just on the eve of his preferment to the +see of Worcester. Hammond was held in high esteem even by his opponents. +He was handsome in person and benevolent in disposition. He was an +excellent preacher; Charles I. pronounced him the most natural orator he +had ever heard. His range of reading was extensive, and he was a most +diligent scholar and writer. + + His writings, published in 4 vols. fol. (1674-1684), consist for the + most part of controversial sermons and tracts. The _Anglo-Catholic_ + _Library_ contains four volumes of his _Miscellaneous Theological + Works_ (1847-1850). The best of them are his _Practical Catechism_, + first published in 1644; his _Paraphrase and Annotations on the New + Testament_; and an incomplete work of a similar nature on the Old + Testament. His _Life_, a delightful piece of biography, written by + Bishop Fell, and prefixed to the collected _Works_, has been reprinted + in vol. iv. of Wordsworth's _Ecclesiastical Biography_. See also _Life + of Henry Hammond_, by G. G. Perry. + + + + +HAMMOND, a city of Lake county, Indiana, U.S.A., about 18 m. S.E. of the +business centre of Chicago, on the Grand Calumet river. Pop. (1890), +5428; (1900) 12,376, of whom 3156 were foreign-born; (1910, census) +20,925. It is served by no fewer than eight railways approaching Chicago +from the east, and by several belt lines. As far as its industries are +concerned, it is a part of Chicago, to which fact it owes its rapid +growth and its extensive manufacturing establishments, which include +slaughtering and packing houses, iron and steel works, chemical works, +piano, wagon and carriage factories, printing establishments, flour and +starch mills, glue works, breweries and distilleries. In 1900 Hammond +was the principal slaughtering and meat-packing centre of the state, but +subsequently a large establishment removed from the city, and Hammond's +total factory product (all industries) decreased from $25,070,551 in +1900 to $7,671,203 in 1905; after 1905 there was renewed growth in the +city's manufacturing interests. It has a good water-supply system which +is owned by the city. Hammond was first settled about 1868, was named in +honour of Abram A. Hammond (acting governor of the state in 1860-1861) +and was chartered as a city in 1883. + + + + +HAMON, JEAN LOUIS (1821-1874), French painter, was born at Plouha on the +5th of May 1821. At an early age he was intended for the priesthood, and +placed under the care of the brothers Lamennais, but his strong desire +to become a painter finally triumphed over family opposition, and in +1840 he courageously left Plouha for Paris--his sole resources being a +pension of five hundred francs, granted him for one year only by the +municipality of his native town. At Paris Hamon received valuable +counsels and encouragement from Delaroche and Gleyre, and in 1848 he +made his appearance at the Salon with "Le Tombeau du Christ" (Musée de +Marseille), and a decorative work, "Dessus de Porte." The works which he +exhibited in 1849--"Une Affiche romaine," "L'Égalité au sérail," and +"Perroquet jasant avec deux jeunes filles"--obtained no marked success. +Hamon was therefore content to accept a place in the manufactory of +Sèvres, but an enamelled casket by his hand having attracted notice at +the London International Exhibition of 1851, he received a medal, and, +reinspired by success, left his post to try his chances again at the +Salon of 1852. "La Comédie humaine," which he then exhibited, turned the +tide of his fortune, and "Ma soeur n'y est pas" (purchased by the +emperor) obtained for its author a third-class medal in 1853. At the +Paris International Exhibition of 1855, when Hamon re-exhibited the +casket of 1851, together with several vases and pictures of which +"L'Amour et son troupeau," "Ce n'est pas moi," and "Une Gardeuse +d'enfants" were the chief, he received a medal of the second class, and +the ribbon of the legion of honour. In the following year he was absent +in the East, but in 1857 he reappeared with "Boutique à quatre sous," +"Papillon enchaîné," "Cantharide esclave," "Dévideuses," &c., in all ten +pictures; "L'Amour en visite" was contributed to the Salon of 1859, and +"Vierge de Lesbos," "Tutelle," "La Volière," "L'Escamoteur" and "La +Soeur aînée" were all seen in 1861. Hamon now spent some time in Italy, +chiefly at Capri, whence in 1864 he sent to Paris "L'Aurore" and "Un +Jour de fiançailles." The influence of Italy was also evident in "Les +Muses à Pompéi," his sole contribution to the Salon of 1866, a work +which enjoyed great popularity and was re-exhibited at the International +Exhibition of 1867, together with "La Promenade" and six other pictures +of previous years. His last work, "Le Triste Rivage," appeared at the +Salon of 1873. It was painted at St Raphael, where Hamon had finally +settled in a little house on the shores of the Mediterranean, close by +Alphonse Karr's famous garden. In this house he died on the 29th of May +1874. + + + + +HAMPDEN, HENRY BOUVERIE WILLIAM BRAND, 1ST VISCOUNT[1] (1812-1892), +speaker of the House of Commons, was the second son of the 21st Baron +Dacre, and descended from John Hampden, the patriot, in the female line; +the barony of Dacre devolved on him in 1890, after he had been created +Viscount Hampden in 1884. He entered parliament as a Liberal in 1852, +and for some time was chief whip of his party. In 1872 he was elected +speaker, and retained this post till February 1884. It fell to him to +deal with the systematic obstruction of the Irish Nationalist party, and +his speakership is memorable for his action on the 2nd of February 1881 +in refusing further debate on W. E. Forster's Coercion Bill--a step +which led to the formal introduction of the closure into parliamentary +procedure. He died on the 14th of March 1892, being succeeded as 2nd +viscount by his son (b. 1841), who was governor of New South Wales, +1895-1899. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] An earlier viscountcy was bestowed in 1776 on Robert + Hampden-Trevor, 4th Baron Trevor (1706-1783), a great-grandson of the + daughter of John Hampden, the patriot; it became extinct in 1824 by + the death of the 3rd viscount. + + + + +HAMPDEN, JOHN (c. 1595-1643), English statesman, the eldest son of +William Hampden, of Great Hampden in Buckinghamshire, a descendant of a +very ancient family of that place, said to have been established there +before the Conquest, and of Elizabeth, second daughter of Sir Henry +Cromwell, and aunt of Oliver, the future protector, was born about the +year 1595. By his father's death, when he was but a child, he became the +owner of a good estate and a ward of the crown. He was educated at the +grammar school at Thame, and on the 30th of March 1610 became a commoner +of Magdalen College at Oxford. In 1613 he was admitted a student of the +Inner Temple. He first sat in parliament for the borough of Grampound in +1621, representing later Wendover in the first three parliaments of +Charles I., Buckinghamshire in the Short Parliament of 1640, and +Wendover again in the Long Parliament. In the early days of his +parliamentary career he was content to be overshadowed by Eliot, as in +its later days he was content to be overshadowed by Pym and to be +commanded by Essex. Yet it is Hampden, and not Eliot or Pym, who lives +in the popular imagination as the central figure of the English +revolution in its earlier stages. It is Hampden whose statue rather than +that of Eliot or Pym has been selected to take its place in St Stephen's +Hall as the noblest type of the parliamentary opposition, as Falkland's +has been selected as the noblest type of parliamentary royalism. + +Something of Hampden's fame no doubt is owing to the position which he +took up as the opponent of ship-money. But it is hardly possible that +even resistance to ship-money would have so distinguished him but for +the mingled massiveness and modesty of his character, his dislike of all +pretences in himself or others, his brave contempt of danger, and his +charitable readiness to shield others as far as possible from the evil +consequences of their actions. Nor was he wanting in that skill which +enabled him to influence men towards the ends at which he aimed, and +which was spoken of as subtlety by those who disliked his ends. + +During these first parliaments Hampden did not, so far as we know, open +his lips in public debate, but he was increasingly employed in committee +work, for which he seems to have had a special aptitude. In 1626 he took +an active part in the preparation of the charges against Buckingham. In +January 1627 he was bound over to answer at the council board for his +refusal to pay the forced loan. Later in the year he was committed to +the gatehouse, and then sent into confinement in Hampshire, from which +he was liberated just before the meeting of the third parliament of the +reign, in which he once more rendered useful but unobtrusive assistance +to his leaders. + +When the breach came in 1629 Hampden is found in epistolary +correspondence with the imprisoned Eliot, discussing with him the +prospects of the Massachusetts colony,[1] or rendering hospitality and +giving counsel to the patriot's sons now that they were deprived of a +father's personal care. It was not till 1637, however, that his +resistance to the payment of ship-money gained for his name the lustre +which it has never since lost. (See SHIP-MONEY.) Seven out of the twelve +judges sided against him, but the connexion between the rights of +property and the parliamentary system was firmly established in the +popular mind. The tax had been justified, says Clarendon, who expresses +his admiration at Hampden's "rare temper and modesty" at this crisis, +"upon such grounds and reasons as every stander-by was able to swear was +not law" (_Hist._ i. 150, vii. 82). + +In the Short Parliament of 1640 Hampden stood forth amongst the leaders. +He guided the House in the debate on the 4th of May in its opposition to +the grant of twelve subsidies in return for the surrender of ship-money. +Parliament was dissolved the next day, and on the 6th an unsuccessful +search was made among the papers of Hampden and of other chiefs of the +party to discover incriminating correspondence with the Scots. During +the eventful months which followed, when Strafford was striving in vain +to force England, in spite of its visible reluctance, to support the +king in his Scottish war, rumour has much to tell of Hampden's activity +in rousing opposition. It is likely enough that the rumour is in the +main true, but we are not possessed of any satisfactory evidence on the +subject. + +In the Long Parliament, though Hampden was by no means a frequent +speaker, it is possible to trace his course with sufficient +distinctness. His power consisted in his personal influence, and as a +debater rather than as an orator. "He was not a man of many words," says +Clarendon, "and rarely began the discourse or made the first entrance +upon any business that was assumed, but a very weighty speaker, and +after he had heard a full debate and observed how the House was likely +to be inclined, took up the argument and shortly and clearly and +craftily so stated it that he commonly conducted it to the conclusion he +desired; and if he found he could not do that, he never was without the +dexterity to divert the debate to another time, and to prevent the +determining anything in the negative which might prove inconvenient in +the future" (_Hist._ iii. 31). Unwearied in attendance upon committees, +he was in all things ready to second Pym, whom he plainly regarded as +his leader. Hampden was one of the eight managers of Stratford's +prosecution. Like Pym, he was in favour of the more legal and regular +procedure by impeachment rather than by attainder, which at the later +stage was supported by the majority of the Commons; and through his +influence a compromise was effected by which, while an attainder was +subsequently adopted, Strafford's counsel were heard as in the case of +an impeachment, and thus a serious breach between the two Houses, which +threatened to cause the breakdown of the whole proceedings, was averted. + +There was another point on which there was no agreement. A large +minority wished to retain Episcopacy, and to keep the common Prayer Book +unaltered, whilst the majority were at least willing to consider the +question of abolishing the one and modifying the other. On this subject +the parties which ultimately divided the House and the country itself +were fully formed as early as the 8th of February 1641. It is enough to +say that (v. under PYM) Hampden fully shared in the counsels of the +opponents of Episcopacy. It is not that he was a theoretical +Presbyterian, but the bishops had been in his days so fully engaged in +the imposition of obnoxious ceremonies that it was difficult, if not +impossible, to dissociate them from the cause in which they were +embarked. Closely connected with Hampden's distrust of the bishops was +his distrust of monarchy as it then existed. The dispute about the +church therefore soon attained the form of an attack upon monarchy, and, +when the majority of the House of Lords arrayed itself on the side of +Episcopacy and the Prayer Book, of an attack upon the House of Lords as +well. + +No serious importance therefore can be attached to the offers of +advancement made from time to time to Hampden and his friends. Charles +would gladly have given them office if they had been ready to desert +their principles. Every day Hampden's conviction grew stronger that +Charles would never abandon the position which he had taken up. In +August 1640 Hampden was one of the four commissioners who attended +Charles in Scotland, and the king's conduct there, connected with such +events as the "Incident," must have proved to a man far less sagacious +than Hampden that the time for compromise had gone by. He was therefore +a warm supporter of the Grand Remonstrance, and was marked out as one of +the five impeached members whose attempted arrest brought at last the +opposing parties into open collision (see also PYM, STRODE, HOLLES and +LENTHALL). In the angry scene which arose on the proposal to print the +Grand Remonstrance, it was Hampden's personal intervention which +prevented an actual conflict, and it was after the impeachment had been +attempted that Hampden laid down the two conditions under which +resistance to the king became the duty of a good subject. Those +conditions were an attack upon religion and an attack upon the +fundamental laws. There can be no doubt that Hampden fully believed that +both those conditions were fulfilled at the opening of 1642. + +When the Civil War began, Hampden was appointed a member of the +committee for safety, levied a regiment of Buckinghamshire men for the +parliamentary cause, and in his capacity of deputy-lieutenant carried +out the parliamentary militia ordinance in the county. In the earlier +operations of the war he bore himself gallantly and well. He took no +actual part in the battle of Edgehill. His troops in the rear, however, +arrested Rupert's charge at Kineton, and he urged Essex to renew the +attack here, and also after the disaster at Brentford. In 1643 he was +present at the siege and capture of Reading. But it is not on his skill +as a regimental officer that Hampden's fame rests. In war as in peace +his distinction lay in his power of disentangling the essential part +from the non-essential. In the previous constitutional struggle he had +seen that the one thing necessary was to establish the supremacy of the +House of Commons. In the military struggle which followed he saw, as +Cromwell saw afterwards, that the one thing necessary was to beat the +enemy. He protested at once against Essex's hesitations and compromises. +In the formation of the confederacy of the six associated counties, +which was to supply a basis for Cromwell's operations, he took an active +part. His influence was felt alike in parliament and in the field. But +he was not in supreme command, and he had none of that impatience which +often leads able men to fail in the execution of orders of which they +disapprove. His precious life was a sacrifice to his unselfish devotion +to the call of discipline and duty. On the 18th of June 1643, when he +was holding out on Chalgrove Field against the superior numbers of +Rupert till reinforcements arrived, he received two carbine balls in the +shoulder. Leaving the field he reached Thame, survived six days, and +died on the 24th. + +Hampden married (1) in 1619 Elizabeth, daughter of Edmund Symeon of +Pyrton, Oxfordshire, and (2) Letitia, daughter of Sir Francis Knollys +and widow of Sir Thomas Vachell. By his first wife he had nine children, +one of whom, Richard (1631-1695) was chancellor of the exchequer in +William III.'s reign; from two of his daughters are descended the +families of Trevor-Hampden and Hobart-Hampden, the descent in the male +line becoming apparently extinct in 1754 in the person of John Hampden. + +JOHN HAMPDEN the younger (c. 1656-1696), the second son of Richard +Hampden, returned to England after residing for about two years in +France, and joined himself to Lord William Russell and Algernon Sidney +and the party opposed to the arbitrary government of Charles II. With +Russell and Sidney he was arrested in 1683 for alleged complicity in the +Rye House Plot, but more fortunate than his colleagues his life was +spared, although as he was unable to pay the fine of £40,000 which was +imposed upon him he remained in prison. Then in 1685, after the failure +of Monmouth's rising, Hampden was again brought to trial, and on a +charge of high treason was condemned to death. But the sentence was not +carried out, and having paid £6000 he was set at liberty. In the +Convention parliament of 1689 he represented Wendover, but in the +subsequent parliaments he failed to secure a seat. He died by his own +hand on the 12th of December 1696. Hampden wrote numerous pamphlets, and +Bishop Burnet described him as "one of the learnedest gentlemen I ever +knew." + + See S. R. Gardiner's _Hist. of England_ and _of the Great Civil War_; + the article on Hampden in the _Dict. of Nat. Biography_, by C. H. + Firth, with authorities there collected; Clarendon's _Hist. of the + Rebellion_; Sir Philip Warwick's _Mems._ p. 239; Wood's _Ath. Oxon._ + iii. 59; Lord Nugent's _Memorials of John Hampden_ (1831); Macaulay's + _Essay on Hampden_ (1831). The printed pamphlet announcing his capture + of Reading in December 1642 is shown by Mr Firth to be spurious, and + the account in _Mercurius Aulicus_, January 27 and 29, 1643, of + Hampden commanding an attack at Brill, to be also false, while the + published speech supposed to be spoken by Hampden on the 4th of + January 1642, and reproduced by Forster in the _Arrest of the Five + Members_ (1660), has been proved by Gardiner to be a forgery (_Hist. + of England_, x. 135). Mr Firth has also shown in _The Academy_ for + 1889, November 2 and 9, that "the belief that we possess the words of + Hampden's last prayer must be abandoned." + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Hampden was one of the persons to whom the earl of Warwick + granted land in Connecticut, but for the anecdote which relates his + attempted emigration with Cromwell there is no foundation (v. under + JOHN PYM). + + + + +HAMPDEN, RENN DICKSON (1793-1868), English divine, was born in Barbados, +where his father was colonel of militia, in 1793, and was educated at +Oriel College, Oxford. Having taken his B.A. degree with first-class +honours in both classics and mathematics in 1813, he next year obtained +the chancellor's prize for a Latin essay, and shortly afterwards was +elected to a fellowship in his college, Keble, Newman and Arnold being +among his contemporaries. Having left the university in 1816 he held +successively a number of curacies, and in 1827 he published _Essays on +the Philosophical Evidence of Christianity_, followed by a volume of +_Parochial Sermons illustrative of the Importance of the Revelation of +God in Jesus Christ_ (1828). In 1829 he returned to Oxford and was +Bampton lecturer in 1832. Notwithstanding a charge of Arianism now +brought against him by the Tractarian party, he in 1833 passed from a +tutorship at Oriel to the principalship of St Mary's Hall. In 1834 he +was appointed professor of moral philosophy, and despite much university +opposition, Regius professor of divinity in 1836. There resulted a +widespread and violent though ephemeral controversy, after the +subsidence of which he published a _Lecture on Tradition_, which passed +through several editions, and a volume on _The Thirty-nine Articles of +the Church of England_. His nomination by Lord John Russell to the +vacant see of Hereford in December 1847 was again the signal for a +violent and organized opposition; and his consecration in March 1848 +took place in spite of a remonstrance by many of the bishops and the +resistance of Dr John Merewether, the dean of Hereford, who went so far +as to vote against the election when the _congé d'élire_ reached the +chapter. As bishop of Hereford Dr Hampden made no change in his +long-formed habits of studious seclusion, and though he showed no +special ecclesiastical activity or zeal, the diocese certainly prospered +in his charge. Among the more important of his later writings were the +articles on Aristotle, Plato and Socrates, contributed to the eighth +edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, and afterwards reprinted with +additions under the title of _The Fathers of Greek Philosophy_ +(Edinburgh, 1862). In 1866 he had a paralytic seizure, and died in +London on the 23rd of April 1868. + + His daughter, Henrietta Hampden, published _Some Memorials of R. D. + Hampden_ in 1871. + + + + +HAMPDEN-SIDNEY, a village of Prince Edward county, Virginia, U.S.A., +about 70 m. S.W. of Richmond. Pop. about 350. Daily stages connect the +village with Farmville (pop. in 1910, 2971), the county-seat, 6 m. N.E., +which is served by the Norfolk & Western and the Tidewater & Western +railways. Hampden-Sidney is the seat of Hampden-Sidney College, founded +by the presbytery of Hanover county as Hampden-Sidney Academy in 1776, +and named in honour of John Hampden and Algernon Sidney. It was +incorporated as Hampden-Sidney College in 1783. The incorporators +included James Madison, Patrick Henry (who is believed to have drafted +the college charter), Paul Carrington, William Cabell, Sen., and +Nathaniel Venable. The Union Theological School was established in +connexion with the college in 1812, but in 1898 was removed to Richmond, +Virginia. In 1907-1908 the college had 8 instructors, 125 students, and +a library of 11,000 volumes. The college has maintained a high standard +of instruction, and many of its former students have been prominent as +public men, educationalists and preachers. Among them were President +William Henry Harrison, William H. Cabell (1772-1853), president of the +Virginia Court of Appeals; George M. Bibb (1772-1859), secretary of the +treasury (1844-1845) in President Tyler's cabinet; William B. Preston +(1805-1862), secretary of the navy in 1849-1850; William Cabell Rives +and General Sterling Price (1809-1867). + + + + +HAMPSHIRE (or COUNTY OR SOUTHAMPTON, abbreviated Hants), a southern +county of England, bounded N. by Berkshire, E. by Surrey and Sussex, S. +by the English Channel, and W. by Dorsetshire and Wiltshire. The area is +1623.5 sq. m. From the coast of the mainland, which is for the most part +low and irregular, a strait, known in its western part as the Solent, +and in its eastern as Spithead, separates the Isle of Wight. This island +is included in the county. The inlet of Southampton Water opens from +this strait, penetrating inland in a north-westerly direction for 12 m. +The easterly part of the coast forms a large shallow bay containing +Hayling and Portsea Islands, which divide it into Chichester Harbour, +Langston Harbour and Portsmouth Harbour. The westerly part forms the +more regular indentations of Christchurch Bay and part of Poole Bay. In +its general aspect Hampshire presents a beautiful variety of gently +rising hills and fruitful valleys, adorned with numerous mansions and +pleasant villages, and interspersed with extensive tracts of woodland. +Low ranges of hills, included in the system to which the general name of +the Western Downs is given, reach their greatest elevation in the +northern and eastern parts of the county, where there are many +picturesque eminences, of which Beacon, Sidown and Pilot hills near +Highclere in the north-west, each exceeding 850 ft., are the highest. +The portion of the county west of Southampton Water is almost wholly +included in the New Forest, a sequestered district, one of the few +remaining examples of an ancient afforested tract. The river Avon in the +south-west rises in Wiltshire, and passing Fordingbridge and Ringwood +falls into Christchurch Bay below Christchurch, being joined close to +its mouth by the Stour. The Lymington or Boldre river rises in the New +Forest, and after collecting the waters of several brooks falls into the +Solent through Lymington Creek. The Beaulieu in the eastern part of the +forest also enters the Solent by way of a long and picturesque estuary. +The Test rises near Overton in the north, and after its junction with +the Anton at Fullerton passes Stockbridge and Romsey, and enters the +head of Southampton Water. The Itchen rises near Alresford, and flowing +by Winchester and Eastleigh falls into Southampton Water east of +Southampton. The Hamble rises near Bishops Waltham, and soon forms a +narrow estuary opening into Southampton Water. The Wey, the Loddon and +the Blackwater, rising in the north-eastern part of the county, bring +that part into the basin of the Thames. The streams from the chalk hills +run clear and swift, and the trout-fishing in the county is famous. +Salmon are taken in the Avon. + + _Geology._--Somewhat to the north of the centre of the county is a + broad expanse of hilly chalk country about 21 m. wide; the whole of it + has been bent up into a great fold so that the strata on the north dip + northward steeply in places, while those on the south dip in the + opposite direction more gently. In the north the chalk disappears + beneath Tertiary strata of the "London Basin," and some little + distance south of Winchester it runs in a similar manner beneath the + Tertiaries of the "Hampshire Basin." Scattered here and there over the + chalk are small outlying remnants which remain to show that the two + Tertiary areas were once continuous, before the agencies of denudation + had removed them from the chalk. These same agencies have exposed the + strata beneath the chalk over a small area on the eastern border. + + The oldest formation in Hampshire is the Lower Greensand in the + neighbourhood of Woolmer Forest and Petersfield; it is represented by + the Hythe beds, sandstones and limestones which form the high ridge + which runs on towards Hind Head, then by the sands and clays of the + Sandgate beds which lie in the low ground west of the ridge, and + finally by the Folkestone beds; all these dip westward beneath the + Gault. The last-named formation, a clay, worked here and there for + bricks, crops out as a narrow band from Fareham through Worldham and + Stroud common to Petersfield. Between the Gault and the chalk is the + Upper Greensand with a hard bed of calcareous sandstone, the Malm + rock, which stands up in places as a prominent escarpment. The Upper + Greensand is also exposed at Burghclere as an inlier; the rocks are + bent into a sharp anticline and the chalk, having been denuded from + its crest, the older sandy strata are brought to light. A much more + gentle anticline brings up the chalk through the Tertiary rocks in the + neighbourhood of Fareham. Besides occupying the central region already + mentioned, which includes Basingstoke, Whitchurch, Andover, Alresford + and Winchester, the chalk appears also in a small patch round + Rockbourne. The Tertiary rocks of the north (London basin) about + Farnborough, Aldershot and Kingsclere, comprise the Reading beds, + London clay and the more sandy Bagshot beds which cover the latter in + many places, giving rise to heathy commons. The southern Tertiary + rocks of the Hampshire basin include the Lower Eocene Reading + beds--used for brick-making--and the London clay which extend from the + boundary of the chalk by Romsey, Bishop's Waltham, to Havant. These + are succeeded towards the south by the Upper Eocene beds, the + Bracklesham beds and the Barton clay. The Barton clays are noted for + their abundant fossils and the Bagshot beds at Bournemouth contain + numerous remains of subtropical plants. A series of clays and sands of + Oligocene age (unknown in the London basin) are found in the vicinity + of Lymington, Brockenhurst and Beaulieu; they include the Headon beds, + with a fluvio-marine fauna, well exposed at Hordwell cliffs, and the + marine beds of Brockenhurst. Numerous small outliers of Tertiary rocks + are scattered over the chalk area, and many of the chalk and Tertiary + areas are obscured by patches of Pleistocene deposits of brick earth + and gravel. + + _Agriculture and Industries._--Nearly seven-tenths of the total area + is under cultivation (an amount below the average of English counties) + and of this area about two-fifths is in permanent pasture. The acreage + under oats is roughly equal to that under wheat and barley. Small + quantities of rye and hops are cultivated. Barley is usually sown + after turnips, and is more grown in the uplands than in the lower + levels. Beans, pease and potatoes are only grown to a small extent. On + account of the number of sheep pastured on the uplands a large acreage + of turnips is grown. Rotation grasses are grown chiefly in the + uplands, and their acreage is greater than in any other of the + southern counties of England. Sanfoin is the grass most largely grown, + as it is best adapted to land with a calcareous subsoil. In the lower + levels no sanfoin and scarcely any clover is grown, the hay being + supplied from the rich water meadows, which are managed with great + skill and attention, and give the best money return of any lands in + the county. Where a rapid stream of water can be passed over them + during the winter it seldom becomes frozen, and the grasses grow + during the cold weather so as to be fit for pasture before any traces + of vegetation appear in the surrounding fields. Hops are grown in the + eastern part of the county bordering on Surrey. Farming is generally + conducted on the best modern principles, but owing to the varieties of + soil there is perhaps no county in England in which the rotation + observed is more diversified, or the processes and methods more + varied. Most of the farms are large, and there are a number of model + farms. The waste land has been mostly brought under tillage, but a + very large acreage of the ancient forests is still occupied by wood. + In addition to the New Forest there are in the east Woolmer Forest and + Alice Holt, in the south-east the Forest of Bere and Waltham Chase, + and in the Isle of Wight Parkhurst Forest. The honey of the county is + especially celebrated. Much attention is paid to the rearing of sheep + and cattle. The original breed of sheep was white-faced with horns, + but most of the flocks are now of a Southdown variety which have + acquired certain distinct peculiarities, and are known as "short + wools" or "Hampshire downs." Cattle are of no distinctive breed, and + are kept largely for dairy purposes, especially for the supply of + milk. The breeding and rearing of horses is widely practised, and the + fattening of pigs has long been an important industry. The original + breed of pigs is crossed with Berkshire, Essex and Chinese pigs. In + the vicinity of the forest the pigs are fed on acorns and beechmast, + and the flesh of those so reared is considered the best, though the + reputation of Hampshire bacon depends chiefly on the skilful manner in + which it is cured. + + The manufactures are unimportant, except those carried on at + Portsmouth and Gosport in connexion with the royal navy. Southampton + is one of the principal ports in the kingdom. In many of the towns + there are breweries and tanneries, and paper is manufactured at + several places. Fancy pottery and terra-cotta are made at Fareham and + Bishop's Waltham; and Ringwood is celebrated for its knitted gloves. + At most of the coast towns fishing is carried on, and there are oyster + beds at Hayling Island. Cowes in the Isle of Wight is the station of + the Royal Yacht Squadron, and has building yards for yachts and large + vessels. The principal seaside resorts besides those in the Isle of + Wight are Bournemouth, Milford, Lee-on-the-Solent, Southsea and South + Hayling. Aldershot is the principal military training centre in the + British Isles. + + _Communications._--Communications are provided mainly by the lines of + the London & South-Western railway company, which also owns the docks + at Southampton. The main line serves Farnborough, Basingstoke, + Whitchurch and Andover, and a branch diverges southward from + Basingstoke for Winchester, Southampton and the New Forest and + Bournemouth. An alternative line from eastward to Winchester serves + Aldershot, Alton and Alresford. The main Portsmouth line skirts the + south-eastern border by Petersfield to Havant, where it joins the + Portsmouth line of the London, Brighton & South Coast railway. The + South-Western system also connects Portsmouth and Gosport with + Southampton, has numerous branches in the Southampton and + south-western districts, and large work shops at Eastleigh near + Southampton. The Great Western company serves Basingstoke from Reading + and Whitchurch, Winchester and Southampton from Didcot (working the + Didcot, Newbury & Southampton line); the Midland & South-Western + Junction line connects Andover with Cheltenham; and the Somerset & + Dorset (also a Midland & South-Western joint line) connects + Bournemouth with Bath--all these affording through communications + between Southampton, Bournemouth, and the midlands and north of + England. None of the rivers, except in the estuarine parts, is + navigable. + + _Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient county is + 1,039,031 acres, including the Isle of Wight. The population was + 690,097 in 1891 and 797,634 in 1901. The area of the administrative + county of Southampton is 958,742 acres, and that of the administrative + county of the Isle of Wight 94,068 acres. The county is divided for + parliamentary purposes into the following divisions: Northern or + Basingstoke, Western or Andover, Eastern or Petersfield, Southern or + Fareham, New Forest, and Isle of Wight, each returning one member. It + also includes the parliamentary boroughs of Portsmouth and + Southampton, each returning two members, and of Christchurch and + Winchester, each returning one. There are 11 municipal boroughs: + Andover (pop. 6509), Basingstoke (9793), Bournemouth (59,762), + Christchurch (4204), Lymington (4165), Portsmouth (188,133), Romsey + (4365), Southampton (104,824), Winchester (20,929), and in the Isle of + Wight, Newport (10,911) and Ryde (11,043). Bournemouth, Portsmouth and + Southampton are county boroughs. The following are urban districts: + Aldershot (30,974), Alton (5479), Eastleigh and Bishopstoke (9317), + Fareham (8246), Farnborough (11,500), Gosport and Alverstoke (28,884), + Havant (3837), Itchen (13,097), Petersfield (3265), Warblington + (3639); and in the Isle of Wight, Cowes (8652), East Cowes (3196), St + Helen's (4652), Sandown (5006), Shanklin (4533), Ventnor (5866). The + county is in the western circuit, and assizes are held at Winchester. + It has one court of quarter sessions, and is divided into 14 petty + sessional divisions. The boroughs of Andover, Basingstoke, + Bournemouth, Lymington, Newport, Portsmouth, Romsey, Ryde, Southampton + (a county in itself) and Winchester have separate commissions of the + peace, and the boroughs of Andover, Bournemouth, Portsmouth, + Southampton and Winchester have in addition separate courts of quarter + sessions. There are 394 civil parishes. Hampshire is in the diocese of + Winchester, excepting small parts in those of Oxford and Salisbury, + and contains 411 ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly or in + part. + +_History._--The earliest English settlers in the district which is now +Hampshire were a Jutish tribe who occupied the northern parts of the +Isle of Wight and the valleys of the Meon and the Hamble. Their +settlements were, however, unimportant, and soon became absorbed in the +territory of the West Saxons who in 495 landed at the mouth of the +Itchen under the leadership of Cerdic and Cynric, and in 508 slew 5000 +Britons and their king. But it was not until after another decisive +victory at Charford in 519 that the district was definitely organized as +West Saxon territory under the rule of Cerdic and Cynric, thus becoming +the nucleus of the vast later kingdom of Wessex. The Isle of Wight was +subjugated in 530 and bestowed on Stuf and Wihtgar, the nephews of +Cerdic. The Northmen made their first attack on the Hampshire coast in +835, and for the two centuries following the district was the scene of +perpetual devastations by the Danish pirates, who made their +headquarters in the Isle of Wight, from which they plundered the +opposite coast. Hampshire suffered less from the Conquest than almost +any English county, and was a favourite resort of the Norman kings. The +alleged destruction of property for the formation of the New Forest is +refuted by the Domesday record, which shows that this district had never +been under cultivation. + +In the civil war of Stephen's reign Baldwin de Redvers, lord of the Isle +of Wight, supported the empress Matilda, and Winchester Castle was +secured in her behalf by Robert of Gloucester, while the neighbouring +fortress of Wolvesey was held for Stephen by Bishop Henry de Blois. In +1216 Louis of France, having arrived in the county by invitation of the +barons, occupied Winchester Castle, and only met with resistance at +Odiham Castle, which made a brave stand against him for fifteen days. +During the Wars of the Roses Anthony Woodville, 2nd earl Rivers, +defeated the duke of Clarence at Southampton, and in 1471, after the +battle of Barnet, the countess of Warwick took sanctuary at Beaulieu +Abbey. The chief events connected with Hampshire in the Civil War of the +17th century were the gallant resistance of the cavalier garrisons at +Winchester and Basing House; a skirmish near Cheriton in 1644 notable as +the last battle fought on Hampshire soil; and the concealment of Charles +at Titchfield in 1647 before his removal to Carisbrooke. The duke of +Monmouth, whose rebellion met with considerable support in Hampshire, +was captured in 1685 near Ringwood. + +Hampshire was among the earliest shires to be created, and must have +received its name before the revival of Winchester in the latter half of +the 7th century. It is first mentioned in the Saxon chronicle in 755, at +which date the boundaries were practically those of the present day. The +Domesday Survey mentions 44 hundreds in Hampshire, but by the 14th +century the number had been reduced to 37. The hundreds of East Medina +and West Medina in the Isle of Wight are mentioned in 1316. Constables +of the hundreds were first appointed by the Statute of Winchester in +1285, and the hundred court continued to elect a high constable for +Fordingbridge until 1878. The chief court of the Isle of Wight was the +Knighten court held at Newport every three weeks. The sheriff's court +and the assizes and quarter sessions for the county were formerly held +at Winchester, but in 1831 the county was divided into 14 petty +sessional divisions; the quarter sessions for the county were held at +Andover; and Portsmouth, Southampton and Winchester had separate +jurisdiction. Southampton was made a county by itself with a separate +sheriff in 1447. + +In the middle of the 7th century Hampshire formed part of the West Saxon +bishopric of Dorchester-on-Thames. On the transference of the episcopal +seat to Winchester in 676 it was included in that diocese in which it +has remained ever since. In 1291 the archdeaconry of Winchester was +coextensive with the county and comprised the ten rural deaneries of +Alresford, Alton, Andover, Basingstoke, Drokinsford, Fordingbridge, Isle +of Wight, Sombourne, Southampton and Winchester. In 1850 the Isle of +Wight was subdivided into the deaneries of East Medina and West Medina. +In 1856 the deaneries were increased to 24. In 1871 the archdeaconry of +the Isle of Wight was constituted, and about the same time the deaneries +were reduced to 21. In 1892 the deaneries were reconstituted and made 18 +in number, and the archdeaconry of the Isle of Wight was divided into +the deaneries of East Wight and West Wight. + +After the Conquest the most powerful Hampshire baron was William +Fitz-Osbern, who in addition to the lordship of the Isle of Wight held +considerable estates on the mainland. At the time of the Domesday Survey +the chief landholders were Hugh de Port, ancestor of the Fitz-Johns; +Ralf de Mortimer; William Mauduit whose name is preserved in Hartley +Mauditt; and Waleran, called the Huntsman, ancestor of the Waleraund +family. Hursley near Winchester was the seat of Richard Cromwell; and +Gilbert White, the naturalist, was curate of Farringdon near Selborne. + +Apart from the valuable foreign and shipbuilding trade which grew up +with the development of its ports, Hampshire has always been mainly an +agricultural county, the only important manufacture being that of wool +and cloth, which prospered at Winchester in the 12th century and +survived till within recent years. Salt-making and the manufacture of +iron from native ironstone also flourished in Hampshire from pre-Norman +times until within the 19th century. In the 14th century Southampton had +a valuable trade with Venice, and from the 15th to the 18th century many +famous warships were constructed in its docks. Silk-weaving was formerly +carried on at Winchester, Andover, Odiham, Alton, Whitchurch and +Overton, the first mills being set up in 1684 at Southampton by French +refugees. The paper manufacture at Laverstoke was started by the +Portals, a family of Huguenot refugees, in 1685, and a few years later +Henri de Portal obtained the privilege of supplying the bank-note paper +to the Bank of England. + +Hampshire returned four members to parliament in 1295, when the boroughs +of New Alresford, Alton, Andover, Basingstoke, Overton, Portsmouth, +Southampton, Winchester, Yarmouth and Newport were also represented. +After this date the county was represented by two members, but most of +the boroughs ceased to make returns. Odiham and the Isle of Wight were +represented in 1300, Fareham in 1306, and Petersfield in 1307. From 1311 +to 1547 Southampton, Portsmouth, and Winchester were the only boroughs +represented. By the end of the 16th century Petersfield, Newport, +Yarmouth, and Andover had regained representation, and Stockbridge, +Christchurch, Lymington, Newtown and Whitchurch returned two members +each, giving the county with its boroughs a total representation of 26 +members. Under the Reform Act of 1832 the county returned four members +in four divisions; Christchurch and Petersfield lost one member each; +and Newtown, Yarmouth, Stockbridge and Whitchurch were disfranchised. By +the act of 1868 Andover, Lymington and Newport were deprived of one +member each. + +_Antiquities._--Hampshire is rich in monastic remains. Those considered +under separate headings include the monastery of Hyde near Winchester, +the magnificent churches at Christchurch and Romsey, the ruins of Netley +Abbey, and of Beaulieu Abbey in the New Forest, the fragments of the +priory of St Denys, Southampton, the church at Porchester and the slight +ruins at Titchfield, near Fareham, and Quarr Abbey in the Isle of Wight. +Other foundations, of which the remains are slight, were the Augustinian +priory of Southwick near Fareham, founded by William of Wykeham; that of +Breamore, founded by Baldwin de Redvers, and that of Mottisfont near +Romsey, endowed soon after the Conquest. There are many churches of +interest, apart from the cathedral church of Winchester and those in +some of the towns in the Isle of Wight, or already mentioned in +connexion with monastic foundations. Pre-Conquest work is well shown in +the churches of Corhampton and Breamore, and very early masonry is also +found in Headbourne Worthy church, where is also a brass of the 15th +century to a scholar of Winchester College in collegiate dress. The most +noteworthy Norman churches are at Chilcombe and Kingsclere and (with +Early English additions) at Brockenhurst, Upper Clatford, which has the +unusual arrangement of a double chancel arch, Hambledon, Milford and +East Meon. Principally Early English are the churches of Cheriton, +Grately, which retains some excellent contemporary stained glass from +Salisbury cathedral; Sopley, which is partly Perpendicular; and +Thruxton, which contains a brass to Sir John Lisle (d. 1407), affording +a very early example of complete plate armour. Specimens of the later +styles are generally less remarkable. The frescoes in Bramley church, +ranging in date from the 13th to the 15th century, include a +representation of the murder of Thomas à Beckett. A fine series of +Norman fonts in black marble should be mentioned; they occur in +Winchester cathedral and the churches of St Michael, Southampton, East +Meon and St Mary Bourne. + +The most notable old castles are Carisbrooke in the Isle of Wight; +Porchester, a fine Norman stronghold embodying Roman remains, on +Portsmouth Harbour; and Hurst, guarding the mouth of the Solent, where +for a short time Charles I. was imprisoned. Henry VIII. built several +forts to guard the Solent, Spithead and Southampton Water; Hurst Castle +was one, and others remaining, but adapted to various purposes, are at +Cowes, Calshot and Netley. Fine mansions are unusually numerous. That of +Stratfieldsaye or Strathfieldsaye, which belonged to the Pitt family, +was purchased by parliament for presentation to the duke of Wellington +in 1817, his descendants holding the estate from the Crown in +consideration of the annual tribute of a flag to the guard-room at +Windsor. A statue of the duke stands in the grounds, and his war-horse +"Copenhagen" is buried here. The name of Tichborne Park, near Alresford, +is well known in connexion with the famous claimant of the estates whose +case was heard in 1871. Among ancient mansions the Jacobean Bramshill is +conspicuous, lying near Stratfieldsaye in the north of the county. It is +built of stone and is highly decorated, and though the complete original +design was not carried out the house is among the finest of its type in +England. At Bishops Waltham, a small town 10 m. S.S.E. of Winchester, +Henry de Blois, bishop of Winchester, erected a palace, which received +additions from William of Wykeham, who died here in 1404, and from other +bishops. The ruins are picturesque but not extensive. + + See _Victoria County History_, "Hampshire," R. Warner, _Collections + for the History of Hampshire_; &c. (London, 1789); H. Moody, + _Hampshire in 1086_ (1862), and the same author's _Antiquarian and + Topographical Sketches_ (1846), and _Notes and Essays relating to the + Counties of Hants and Wilts_ (1851); R. Mudie, _Hampshire_, &c. (3 + vols., Winchester, 1838); B. B. Woodward, T. C. Wilks and C. Lockhart, + _General History of Hampshire_ (1861-1869); G. N. Godwin, _The Civil + War in Hampshire, 1642-1645_ (London, 1882); H. M. Gilbert and G. N. + Godwin, _Bibliotheca Hantoniensis_ (Southampton, 1891). See also + various papers in _Hampshire Notes and Queries_ (Winchester, 1883 et + seq.). + + + + +HAMPSTEAD, a north-western metropolitan borough of London, England, +bounded E. by St Pancras and S. by St Marylebone, and extending N. and +W. to the boundary of the county of London. Pop. (1901), 81,942. The +name, _Hamstede_, is synonymous with "homestead," and the manor is first +named in a charter of Edgar (957-975), and was granted to the abbey of +Westminster by Ethelred in 986. It reverted to the Crown in 1550, and +had various owners until the close of the 18th century, when it came to +Sir Thomas Spencer Wilson, whose descendants retain it. The borough +includes the sub-manor of Belsize and part of the hamlet of Kilburn. + +The surface of the ground is sharply undulating, an elevated spur +extending south-west from the neighbourhood of Highgate, and turning +south through Hampstead. It reaches a height of 443 ft. above the level +of the Thames. The Edgware Road bounds Hampstead on the west; and the +borough is intersected, parallel to this thoroughfare, by Finchley Road, +and by Haverstock Hill, which, continued under the names of Rosslyn +Hill, High Street, Heath Street, and North End, crosses the Heath for +which Hampstead is chiefly celebrated. This is a fine open space of +about 240 acres, including in its bounds the summit of Hampstead Hill. +It is a sandy tract, in parts well wooded, diversified with several +small sheets of water, and to a great extent preserves its natural +characteristics unaltered. Beautiful views, both near and distant, are +commanded from many points. Of all the public grounds within London this +is the most valuable to the populace at large; the number of visitors on +a Bank holiday in August is generally, under favourable conditions, +about 100,000; and strenuous efforts are always forthcoming from either +public or private bodies when the integrity of the Heath is in any way +menaced. As early as 1829 attempts to save it from the builder are +recorded. In 1871 its preservation as an open space was insured after +several years' dispute, when the lord of the manor gave up his rights. +An act of parliament transferred the ownership to the Metropolitan Board +of Works, to which body the London County Council succeeded. The Heath +is continued eastward in Parliament Hill (borough of St Pancras), +acquired for the public in 1890; and westward outside the county +boundary in Golders Hill, owned by Sir Spenser Wells, Bart., until 1898. +A Protection Society guards the preservation of the natural beauty and +interests of the Heath. It is not the interests of visitors alone that +must be consulted, for Hampstead, adding to its other attractions a +singularly healthy climate, has long been a favourite residential +quarter, especially for lawyers, artists and men of letters. Among +famous residents are found the first earl of Chatham, John Constable, +George Romney, George du Maurier, Joseph Butler, author of the +_Analogy_, Sir Richard Steele, John Keats, the sisters Joanna and Agnes +Baillie, Leigh Hunt and many others. The parish church of St John (1747) +has several monuments of eminent persons. Chatham's residence was at +North End, a picturesque quarter yet preserving characteristics of a +rural village; here also Wilkie Collins was born. Three old-established +inns, the Bull and Bush, the Spaniards, and Jack Straw's Castle (the +name of which has no historical significance), claim many great names +among former visitors; while the Upper Flask Inn, now a private house, +was the meeting-place of the Kit-Cat Club. Chalybeate springs were +discovered at Hampstead in the 17th century, and early in the 18th +rivalled those of Tunbridge Wells and Epsom. The name of Well Walk +recalls them, but their fame is lost. There are others at Kilburn. + +In the south-east Hampstead includes the greater part of Primrose Hill, +a public ground adjacent to the north side of Regent's Park. The borough +has in all about 350 acres of open spaces. The name of the sub-manor of +Belsize is preserved in several streets in the central part. Kilburn, +which as a district extends outside the borough, takes name from a +stream which, as the Westbourne, entered the Thames at Chelsea. Fleet +Road similarly recalls the more famous stream which washed the walls of +the City of London on the west. Hampstead has numerous charitable +institutions, amongst which are the North London consumptive hospital, +the Orphan Working School, Haverstock Hill (1758), the general hospital +and the north-western fever hospital. In Finchley Road are the New and +Hackney Colleges, both Congregational. The parliamentary borough of +Hampstead returns one member. The borough council consists of a mayor, 7 +aldermen and 42 councillors. Area, 2265 acres. + + + + +HAMPTON, WADE (1818-1902), American cavalry leader was born on the 28th +of March 1818 at Columbia, South Carolina, the son of Wade Hampton +(1791-1858), one of the wealthiest planters in the South, and the +grandson of Wade Hampton (1754-1835), a captain in the War of +Independence and a brigadier-general in the War of 1812. He graduated +(1836) at South Carolina College, and was trained for the law. He +devoted himself, however, to the management of his great plantations in +South Carolina and in Mississippi, and took part in state politics and +legislation. Though his own views were opposed to the prevailing +state-rights tone of South Carolinian opinion, he threw himself heartily +into the Southern cause in 1861, raising a mixed command known as +"Hampton's Legion," which he led at the first battle of Bull Run. During +the Civil War he served in the main with the Army of Northern Virginia +in Stuart's cavalry corps. After Stuart's death Hampton distinguished +himself greatly in opposing Sheridan in the Shenandoah Valley, and was +made lieutenant-general to command Lee's whole force of cavalry. In 1865 +he assisted Joseph Johnston in the attempt to prevent Sherman's advance +through the Carolinas. After the war his attitude was conciliatory and +he recommended a frank acceptance by the South of the war's political +consequences. He was governor of his state in 1876-1879, being installed +after a memorable contest; he served in the United States Senate in +1879-1891, and was United States commissioner of Pacific railways in +1893-1897. He died on the 11th of April 1902. + + See E. L. Wells, _Hampton and Reconstruction_ (Columbia, S. C., 1907). + + + + +HAMPTON, an urban district in the Uxbridge parliamentary division of +Middlesex, England, 15 m. S.W. of St Paul's cathedral, London, on the +river Thames, served by the London & South Western railway. Pop. (1901), +6813. Close to the river, a mile below the town, stands Hampton Court +Palace, one of the finest extant specimens of Tudor architecture, and +formerly a royal residence. It was erected by Cardinal Wolsey, who in +1515 received a lease of the old mansion and grounds for 99 years. As +the splendour of the building seemed to awaken the cupidity of Henry +VIII., Wolsey in 1526 thought it prudent to make him a present of it. It +became Henry's favourite residence, and he made several additions to the +building, including the great hall and chapel in the Gothic style. Of +the original five quadrangles only two now remain, but a third was +erected by Sir Christopher Wren for William III. In 1649 a great sale of +the effects of the palace took place by order of parliament, and later +the manor itself was sold to a private owner but immediately after came +into the hands of Cromwell; and Hampton Court continued to be one of the +principal residences of the English sovereigns until the time of George +II. It was the birthplace of Edward VI., and the meeting-place (1604) of +the conference held in the reign of James I. to settle the dispute +between the Presbyterians and the state clergy. William III., riding in +the grounds, met with the accident which resulted in his death. It is +now partly occupied by persons of rank in reduced circumstances; but the +state apartments and picture galleries are open to the public, as is +the home park. The gardens, with their ornamental waters, are +beautifully laid out in the Dutch style favoured by William III., and +contain a magnificent vine planted in 1768. In the enclosure north of +the palace, called the Wilderness, is the Maze, a favourite resort. +North again lies Bushey Park, a royal demesne exceeding 1000 acres in +extent. It is much frequented, especially in early summer, when its +triple avenue of horse-chestnut trees is in blossom. + +Among several residences in the vicinity of Hampton is Garrick Villa, +once, under the name of Hampton House, the residence of David Garrick +the actor. Sir Christopher Wren and Sir Richard Steele are among famous +former residents. Hampton Wick, on the river E. of Bushey Park, is an +urban district with a population (1901) of 2606. + + See E. Law, _History of Hampton Court Palace_ (London, 1890). + + + + +HAMPTON, a city and the county-seat of Elizabeth City county, Virginia, +U.S.A., at the mouth of the James river, on Hampton Roads, about 15 m. +N.W. of Norfolk. Pop. (1890), 2513; (1900) 2764, including 1249 negroes; +(1910) 5505. It is served by the Chesapeake & Ohio railway, and by +trolley lines to Old Point Comfort and Newport News. Hampton is an +agricultural shipping point, ships fish, oysters and canned crabs, and +manufactures fish oil and brick. In the city are St John's church, built +in 1727; a national cemetery, a national soldiers' home (between Phoebus +and Hampton), which in 1907-1908 cared for 4093 veterans and had an +average attendance of 2261; and the Hampton Normal and Agricultural +Institute (coeducational), which was opened by the American Missionary +Association in 1868 for the education of negroes. This last was +chartered and became independent of any denominational control in 1870, +and was superintended by Samuel Chapman Armstrong (q.v.) from 1868 to +1893. The school was opened in 1878 to Indians, whose presence has been +of distinct advantage to the negro, showing him, says Booker T. +Washington, the most famous graduate of the school, that the negro race +is not alone in its struggle for improvement. The National government +pays $167 a year for the support of each of the Indian students. The +underlying idea of the Institute is such industrial training as will +make the pupil a willing and a good workman, able to teach his trade to +others; and the school's graduates include the heads of other successful +negro industrial schools, the organizers of agricultural and industrial +departments in Southern public schools and teachers in graded negro +schools. The mechanism of the school includes three schemes: that of +"work students," who work during the day throughout the year and attend +night school for eight months; that of day school students, who attend +school for four or five days and do manual work for one or two days each +week; and that of trade students, who receive trade instruction in their +daily eight-hours' work and study in night school as well. Agriculture +in one or more of its branches is taught to all, including the four or +five hundred children of the Whittier school, a practice school with +kindergarten and primary classes. Graduate courses are given in +agriculture, business, domestic art and science, library methods, +"matrons'" training, and public school teaching. The girl students are +trained in every branch of housekeeping, cooking, dairying and +gardening. The institute publishes _The Southern Workman_, a monthly +magazine devoted to the interests of the Negro and the Indian and other +backward races. In 1908 the Institute had more than 100 buildings and +188 acres of land S.W. of the national cemetery and on Hampton river and +Jones Creek, and 600 acres at Shellbanks, a stock farm 6 m. away; the +enrolment was 21 in graduate classes, 372 in day school, 489 in night +school and 524 in the Whittier school. Of the total, 88 were Indians. + +Hampton was settled in 1610 on the site of an Indian village, +Kecoughtan, a name it long retained, and was represented at the first +meeting (1619) of the Virginia House of Burgesses. It was fired by the +British during the War of 1812 and by the Confederates under General J. +B. Magruder in August 1861. During the Civil War there was a large Union +hospital here, the building of the Chesapeake Female College, erected in +1857, being used for this purpose. Hampton was incorporated as a town +in 1887, and in 1908 became a city of the second class. + + + + +HAMPTON ROADS, a channel through which the waters of the James, +Nansemond and Elizabeth rivers of Virginia, U.S.A., pass (between Old +Point Comfort to the N. and Sewell's Point to the S.) into Chesapeake +Bay. It is an important highway of commerce, especially for the cities +of Norfolk, Portsmouth and Newport News, and is the chief rendezvous of +the United States navy. For a width of 500 ft. the Federal government +during 1902-1905 increased its minimum depth at low water from 25½ ft. +to 30 ft. The entrance from Chesapeake Bay is defended by Fortress +Monroe on Old Point Comfort and by Fort Wood on a small island called +the Rip Raps near the middle of the channel; and at Portsmouth, a few +miles up the Elizabeth river, is an important United States navy-yard. + +Hampton Roads is famous in history as the scene of the first engagement +between iron-clad vessels. In the spring of 1861 the Federals set fire +to several war vessels in the Gosport navy yard on the Elizabeth river +and abandoned the place. In June the Confederates set to work to raise +one of these abandoned vessels, the frigate "Merrimac" of 3500 tons and +40 guns, and to rebuild it as an iron-clad. The vessel (renamed the +"Virginia" though it is generally known in history by its original name) +was first cut down to the water-line and upon her hull was built a +rectangular casemate, constructed of heavy timber (24 in. in thickness), +covered with bar-iron 4 in. thick, and rising from the water on each +side at an angle of about 35°. The iron plating extended 2 ft. below the +water line; and beyond the casemate, toward the bow, was a cast-iron +pilot house, extending 3 ft. above the deck. The reconstruction of the +vessel was completed on the 5th of March 1862. The vessel drew 22 ft. of +water, was equipped with poor engines, so that it could not make more +than 5 knots, and was so unwieldy that it could not be turned in less +than 30 minutes. It was armed with 10 guns--2 (rifled) 7 in., 2 (rifled) +6 in., and 6 (smooth bore Dahlgren) 9 in. Her most powerful equipment, +however, was her 18 in. cast-iron ram. In October 1861 Captain John +Ericsson, an engineer, and a Troy (N.Y.) firm, as builders, began the +construction of the iron-clad "Monitor" for the Federals, at Greenpoint, +Long Island. With a view to enable this vessel to carry at good speed +the thickest possible armour compatible with buoyancy, Ericsson reduced +the exposed surface to the least possible area. Accordingly, the vessel +was built so low in the water that the waves glided easily over its deck +except at the middle, where was constructed a revolving turret[1] for +the guns, and though the vessel's iron armour had a thickness of 1 in. +on the deck, 5 in. on the side, and 8 in. on the turret, its draft was +only 10 ft. 6 in., or less than one-half that of the "Merrimac." Its +turret, 9 ft. high and 20 ft. in inside diameter, seemed small for its +length of 172 ft. and its breadth of 41 ft. 6 in., and this, with the +lowness of its freeboard, caused the vessel to be called the "Yankee +cheese-box on a raft." Forward of the turret was the iron pilot house, +square in shape, and rising about 4 ft. above the deck. The "Monitor's" +displacement was about 1200 tons and her armament was two 11 in. +Dahlgren guns; her crew numbered 58, while that of the "Merrimac" +numbered about 300. She was seaworthy in the shallow waters off the +southern coasts and steered fairly well. The "Monitor" was launched at +Greenpoint, Long Island, on the 30th of January, and was turned over to +the government on the 19th of the following month. The building of the +two vessels was practically a race between the two combatants. + +On the 8th of March about 1 P.M., the "Merrimac," commanded by Commodore +Franklin Buchanan (1795-1871), steamed down the Elizabeth accompanied by +two one-gun gun-boats, to engage the wooden fleet of the Federals, +consisting of the frigate "Congress," 50 guns, and the sloop +"Cumberland," 30 guns, both sailing vessels, anchored off Newport News, +and the steam frigates "Minnesota," and "Roanoke," the sailing frigate +"St Lawrence," and several gun-boats, anchored off Fortress Monroe. +Actual firing began about 2 o'clock, when the "Merrimac" was nearly a +mile from the "Congress" and the "Cumberland." Passing the first of +these vessels with terrific broadsides, the "Merrimac" rammed the +"Cumberland" and then turned her fire again on the "Congress," which in +an attempt to escape ran aground and was there under fire from three +other Confederate gun-boats which had meanwhile joined the "Merrimac." +About 3.30 P.M. the "Cumberland," which, while it steadily careened, had +been keeping up a heavy fire at the Confederate vessels, sank, with "her +pennant still flying from the topmast above the waves." Between 4 and +4.30 the "Congress," having been raked fore and aft for nearly an hour +by the "Merrimac," was forced to surrender. While directing a fire of +hot shot to burn the "Congress," Commodore Buchanan of the "Merrimac" +was severely wounded and was succeeded in the command by Lieutenant +Catesby ap Roger Jones. The Federal steam frigates, "Roanoke," "St +Lawrence" and "Minnesota" had all gone aground in their trip from Old +Point Comfort toward the scene of battle, and only the "Minnesota" was +near enough (about 1 m.) to take any part in the fight. She was in such +shallow water that the Confederate iron-clad ram could not get near her +at ebb tide, and about 5 o'clock the Confederates postponed her capture +until the next day and anchored off Sewell's Point. + +The "Monitor," under Lieut. John Lorimer Worden (1818-1897). had left +New York on the morning of the 6th of March; after a dangerous passage +in which she twice narrowly escaped sinking, she arrived at Hampton +Roads during the night of the 8th, and early in the morning of the 9th +anchored near the "Minnesota." When the "Merrimac" advanced to attack +the "Minnesota," the "Monitor" went out to meet her, and the battle +between the iron-clads began about 9 A.M. on the 9th. Neither vessel was +able seriously to injure the other, and not a single shot penetrated the +armour of either. The "Monitor" had the advantage of being able to +out-manoeuvre her heavier and more unwieldy adversary; but the revolving +turret made firing difficult and communications were none too good with +the pilot house, the position of which on the forward deck lessened the +range of the two turret-guns. The machinery worked so badly that the +revolution of the turret was stopped. After two hours' fighting, the +"Monitor" was drawn off, so that more ammunition could be placed in her +turret. When the battle was renewed (about 11.30) the "Merrimac" began +firing at the "Monitor's" pilot house; and a little after noon a shot +struck the sight-hole of the pilot house and blinded Lieut. Worden. The +"Monitor" withdrew in the confusion consequent upon the wounding of her +commanding officer; and the "Merrimac" after a short wait for her +adversary steamed back to Norfolk. There were virtually no casualties on +either side. After the evacuation of Norfolk by the Confederates on the +9th of May Commodore Josiah Tattnall, then in command of the "Merrimac," +being unable to take her up the James, sank her. The "Monitor" was lost +in a gale off Cape Hatteras on the 31st of December 1862. + +Though the battle between the two vessels was indecisive, its effect was +to "neutralize" the "Merrimac," which had caused great alarm in +Washington, and to prevent the breaking of the Federal blockade at +Hampton Roads; in the history of naval warfare it may be regarded as +marking the opening of a new era--the era of the armoured warship. On +the 3rd of February 1865 near Fortress Monroe on board a steamer +occurred the meeting of President Lincoln and Secretary Seward with +Confederate commissioners which is known as the Hampton Roads Conference +(see LINCOLN, ABRAHAM). At Sewell's Point, on Hampton Roads, in 1907 was +held the Jamestown Tercentennial Exposition. + + See James R. Soley, _The Blockade and the Cruisers_ (New York, 1883); + _Battles and Leaders of the Civil War_, vol. i. (New York, 1887); + chap. ii. of Frank M. Bennett's _The Monitor and the Navy under Steam_ + (Boston, 1900); and William Swinton, _Twelve Decisive Battles of the + War_ (New York, 1867). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] For the idea of the low free-board and the revolving turret + Ericsson was indebted to Theodore R. Timby (1819-1909), who in 1843 + had filed a caveat for revolving towers for offensive or defensive + warfare whether placed on land or water, and to whom the company + building the "Monitor" paid $5000 royalty for each turret. + + + + +HAMSTER, a European mammal of the order Rodentia, scientifically known +as _Cricetus frumentarius_ (or _C. cricetus_), and belonging to the +mouse tribe, _Muridae_, in which it typifies the sub-family +_Cricetinae_. The essential characteristic of the Cricetines is to be +found in the upper cheek-teeth, which (as shown in the figure of those +of _Cricetus_ in the article RODENTIA) have their cusps arranged in two +longitudinal rows separated by a groove. The hamsters, of which there +are several kinds, are short-tailed rodents, with large cheek-pouches, +of which the largest is the common _C. frumentarius_. Their geographical +distribution comprises a large portion of Europe and Asia north of the +Himalaya. All the European hamsters show more or less black on the +under-parts, but the small species from Central Asia, which constitute +distinct subgenera, are uniformly grey. The common species is specially +interesting on account of its habits. It constructs elaborate burrows +containing several chambers, one of which is employed as a granary, and +filled with corn, frequently of several kinds, for winter use. As a +rule, the males, females, and young of the first year occupy separate +burrows. During the winter these animals retire to their burrows, +sleeping the greater part of the time, but awakening about February or +March, when they feed on the garnered grain. They are very prolific, the +female producing several litters in the year, each consisting of over a +dozen blind young; and these, when not more than three weeks old, are +turned out of the parental burrow to form underground homes for +themselves. The burrow of the young hamster is only about a foot in +depth, while that of the adult descends 4 or 5 ft. beneath the surface. +On retiring for the winter the hamster closes the various entrances to +its burrow, and becomes torpid during the coldest period. Although +feeding chiefly on roots, fruits and grain, it is also to some extent +carnivorous, attacking and eating small quadrupeds, lizards and birds. +It is exceedingly fierce and pugnacious, the males especially fighting +with each other for possession of the females. The numbers of these +destructive rodents are kept in check by foxes, dogs, cats and +pole-cats, which feed upon them. The skin of the hamster is of some +value, and its flesh is used as food. Its burrows are sought after in +the countries where it abounds, both for capturing the animal and for +rifling its store. America, especially North America, is the home of by +far the great majority of _Cricetinae_, several of which are called +white-footed or deer-mice. They are divided into numerous genera and the +number of species is very large indeed. Both in size and form +considerable variability is displayed, the species of _Holochilus_ being +some of the largest, while the common white-footed mouse (_Eligmodon +leucopus_) of North America is one of the smaller forms. Some kinds, +such as _Oryzomys_ and _Peromyscus_ have long, rat-like tails, while +others, like _Acodon_, are short-tailed and more vole-like in +appearance. In habits some are partially arboreal, others wholly +terrestrial, and a few more or less aquatic. Among the latter, the most +remarkable are the fish-eating rats (_Ichthyomys_) of North-western +South America, which frequent streams and feed on small fish. The +Florida rice-rat (_Sigmodon hispidus_) is another well-known +representative of the group. In the Old World the group is represented +by the Persian _Calomyscus_, a near relative of _Peromyscus_. + (R. L.*) + + + + +HANAPER, properly a case or basket to contain a "hanap" (O. Eng. _hnæp_: +cf. Dutch _nap_), a drinking vessel, a goblet with a foot or stem; the +term which is still used by antiquaries for medieval stemmed cups. The +famous Royal Gold Cup in the British Museum is called a "hanap" in the +inventory of Charles VI. of France. The word "hanaper" (Med. Lat. +_hanaperium_) was used particularly in the English chancery of a wicker +basket in which were kept writs and other documents, and hence it became +the name of a department of the chancery, now abolished, under an +officer known as the clerk or warden of the hanaper, into which were +paid fees and other moneys for the sealing of charters, patents, writs, +&c., and from which issued certain writs under the great seal (S. R. +Scargill-Bird, _Guide to the Public Records_ (1908). In Ireland it still +survives in the office of the clerk of the crown and hanaper, from which +are issued writs for the return of members of parliament for Ireland. +From "hanaper" is derived the modern "hamper," a wicker or rush basket +used for the carriage of game, fish, wine, &c. The verb "to hamper," to +entangle, obstruct, hinder, especially used of disturbing the mechanism +of a lock or other fastening so as to prevent its proper working, is of +doubtful origin. It is probably connected with a root seen in the Icel. +_hemja_, to restrain, and Ger. _hemmen_, to clog. + + + + +HANAU, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, on +the right bank of the Main, 14 m. by rail E. from Frankfort and at the +junction of lines to Friedberg, Bebra and Aschaffenburg. Pop. (1905) +31,637. It consists of an old and a new town. The streets of the former +are narrow and irregular, but the latter, founded at the end of the 16th +century by fugitive Walloons and Netherlanders, is built in the form of +a pentagon with broad streets crossing at right angles, and possesses +several fine squares, among which may be mentioned the market-place, +adorned with handsome fountains at the four corners. Among the principal +buildings are the ancient castle, formerly the residence of the counts +of Hanau; the church of St John, dating from the 17th century, with a +handsome tower; the old church of St Mary, containing the burial vault +of the counts of Hanau; the church in the new town, built by the +Walloons in the beginning of the 17th century in the form of two +intersecting circles; the Roman Catholic church, the synagogue, the +theatre, the barracks, the arsenal and the hospital. Its educational +establishments include a classical school, and a school of industrial +art. There is a society of natural history and an historical society, +both of which possess considerable libraries and collections. Hanau is +the birthplace of the brothers Grimm, to whom a monument was erected +here in 1896. In the neighbourhood of the town are the palace of +Philippsruhe, with an extensive park and large orangeries, and the spa +of Wilhelmsbad. + +Hanau is the principal commercial and manufacturing town in the +province, and stands next to Cassel in point of population. It +manufactures ornaments of various kinds, cigars, leather, paper, playing +cards, silver and platina wares, chocolate, soap, woollen cloth, hats, +silk, gloves, stockings, ropes and matches. Diamond cutting is carried +on and the town has also foundries, breweries, and in the neighborhood +extensive powder-mills. It carries on a large trade in wood, wine and +corn, in addition to its articles of manufacture. + +From the number of urns, coins and other antiquities found near Hanau it +would appear that it owes its origin to a Roman settlement. It received +municipal rights in 1393, and in 1528 it was fortified by Count Philip +III. who rebuilt the castle. At the end of the 16th century its +prosperity received considerable impulse from the accession of the +Walloons and Netherlanders. During the Thirty Years' War it was in 1631 +taken by the Swedes, and in 1636 it was besieged by the imperial troops, +but was relieved on the 13th of June by Landgrave William V. of +Hesse-Cassel, on account of which the day is still commemorated by the +inhabitants. Napoleon on his retreat from Leipzig defeated the Germans +under Marshal Wrede at Hanau, on the 30th of October 1813; and on the +following day the allies vacated the town, when it was entered by the +French. Early in the 15th century Hanau became the capital of a +principality of the Empire, which on the death of Count Reinhard in 1451 +was partitioned between the Hanau-Münzenberg and Hanau-Lichtenberg +lines, but was reunited in 1642 when the elder line became extinct. The +younger line received princely rank in 1696, but as it became extinct in +1736 Hanau-Münzenberg was joined to Hesse-Cassel and Hanau-Lichtenberg +to Hesse-Darmstadt. In 1785 the whole province was united to +Hesse-Cassel, and in 1803 it became an independent principality. In 1815 +it again came into the possession of Hesse-Cassel, and in 1866 it was +joined to Prussia. + + See R. Wille, _Hanau im dreissigjährigen Krieg_ (Hanau, 1886); and + Junghaus, _Geschichte der Stadt und des Kreises Hanau_ (1887). + + + + +HANBURY WILLIAMS, SIR CHARLES (1708-1759), English diplomatist and +author, was a son of Major John Hanbury (1664-1734), of Pontypool, +Monmouthshire, and a scion of an ancient Worcestershire family. His +great-great-great-grand-father, Capel Hanbury, bought property at +Pontypool and began the family iron-works there in 1565. His father John +Hanbury was a wealthy iron-master and member of parliament, who +inherited another fortune from his friend Charles Williams of Caerleon, +his son's godfather, with which he bought the Coldbrook estate, +Monmouthshire. Charles accordingly took the name of Williams in 1729. He +went to Eton, and there made friends with Henry Fielding, the novelist, +and, after marrying in 1732 the heiress of Earl Coningsby, was elected +M.P. for Monmouthshire (1734-1747) and subsequently for Leominster +(1754-1759). He became known as one of the prominent gallants and wits +about town, and following Pope he wrote a great deal of satirical light +verse, including _Isabella, or the Morning_ (1740), satires on Ruth +Darlington and Pulleney (1741-1742), _The Country Girl_ (1742), _Lessons +for the Day_ (1742), _Letter to Mr Dodsley_ (1743), &c. A collection of +his poems was published in 1763 and of his _Works_ in 1822. In 1746 he +was sent on a diplomatic mission to Dresden, which led to further +employment in this capacity; and through Henry Fox's influence he was +sent as envoy to Berlin (1750), Dresden (1751), Vienna (1753), Dresden +(1754) and St Petersburg (1755-1757); in the latter case he was the +instrument for a plan for the alliance between England, Russia and +Austria, which finally broke down, to his embarrassment. He returned to +England, and committed suicide on the 2nd of November 1759, being buried +in Westminster Abbey. He had two daughters, the elder of whom married +William Capel, 4th earl of Essex, and was the mother of the 5th earl. +The Coldbrook estates went to Charles's brother, George +Hanbury-Williams, to whose heirs it descended. + + See William Coxe's _Historical Tour in Monmouthshire_ (1801), and T. + Seccombe's article in the _Dict. Nat. Biog._ with bibliography. + + + + +HANCOCK, JOHN (1737-1793), American Revolutionary statesman, was born in +that part of Braintree, Massachusetts, now known as Quincy, on the 23rd +of January 1737. After graduating from Harvard in 1754, he entered the +mercantile house of his uncle, Thomas Hancock of Boston, who had adopted +him, and on whose death, in 1764, he fell heir to a large fortune and a +prosperous business. In 1765 he became a selectman of Boston, and from +1766 to 1772 was a member of the Massachusetts general court. An event +which is thought to have greatly influenced Hancock's subsequent career +was the seizure of the sloop "Liberty" in 1768 by the customs officers +for discharging, without paying the duties, a cargo of Madeira wine +consigned to Hancock. Many suits were thereupon entered against Hancock, +which, if successful, would have caused the confiscation of his estate, +but which undoubtedly enhanced his popularity with the Whig element and +increased his resentment against the British government. He was a member +of the committee appointed in a Boston town meeting immediately after +the "Boston Massacre" in 1770 to demand the removal of British troops +from the town. In 1774 and 1775 he was president of the first and second +Provincial Congresses respectively, and he shared with Samuel Adams the +leadership of the Massachusetts Whigs in all the irregular measures +preceding the War of American Independence. The famous expedition sent +by General Thomas Gage of Massachusetts to Lexington and Concord on the +18th-19th of April 1775 had for its object, besides the destruction of +materials of war at Concord, the capture of Hancock and Adams, who were +temporarily staying at Lexington, and these two leaders were expressly +excepted in the proclamation of pardon issued on the 12th of June by +Gage, their offences, it was said, being "of too flagitious a nature to +admit of any other consideration than that of condign punishment." +Hancock was a member of the Continental Congress from 1775 to 1780, was +president of it from May 1775 to October 1777, being the first to sign +the Declaration of Independence, and was a member of the Confederation +Congress in 1785-1786. In 1778 he commanded, as major-general of +militia, the Massachusetts troops who participated in the Rhode Island +expedition. He was a member of the Massachusetts Constitutional +Convention of 1779-1780, became the first governor of the state, and +served from 1780 to 1785 and again from 1787 until his death. Although +at first unfriendly to the Federal Constitution as drafted by the +convention at Philadelphia, he was finally won over to its support, and +in 1788 he presided over the Massachusetts convention which ratified the +instrument. Hancock was not by nature a leader, but he wielded great +influence on account of his wealth and social position, and was liberal, +public-spirited, and, as his repeated election--the elections were +annual--to the governorship attests, exceedingly popular. He died at +Quincy, Mass., on the 8th of October 1793. + + See Abram E. Brown, _John Hancock, His Book_ (Boston, 1898), a work + consisting largely of extracts from Hancock's letters. + + + + +HANCOCK, WINFIELD SCOTT (1824-1886), American general, was born on the +14th of February 1824, in Montgomery county, Pa. He graduated in 1844 at +the United States Military Academy, where his career was creditable but +not distinguished. On the 1st of July 1844 he was breveted, and on the +18th of June 1846 commissioned second lieutenant. He took part in the +later movements under Winfield Scott against the city of Mexico, and was +breveted first lieutenant for "gallant and meritorious conduct." After +the Mexican war he served in the West, in Florida and elsewhere; was +married in 1850 to Miss Almira Russell of St Louis; became first +lieutenant in 1853, and assistant-quartermaster with the rank of captain +in 1855. The outbreak of the Civil War found him in California. At his +own request he was ordered east, and on the 23rd of September 1861 was +made brigadier-general of volunteers and assigned to command a brigade +in the Army of the Potomac. He took part in the Peninsula campaign, and +the handling of his troops in the engagement at Williamsburg on the 5th +of May 1862, was so brilliant that McClellan reported "Hancock was +superb," an epithet always afterwards applied to him. At the battle of +Antietam he was placed in command of the first division of the II. +corps, and in November he was made major-general of volunteers, and +about the same time was promoted major in the regular army. In the +disastrous battle of Fredericksburg (q.v.), Hancock's division was on +the right among the troops that were ordered to storm Marye's Heights. +Out of the 5006 men in his division 2013 fell. At Chancellorsville his +division received both on the 2nd and the 3rd of May the brunt of the +attack of Lee's main army. Soon after the battle he was appointed +commander of the II. corps. + +The battle of Gettysburg (q.v.) began on the 1st of July with the defeat +of the left wing of the Army of the Potomac and the death of General +Reynolds. About the middle of the afternoon Hancock arrived on the field +with orders from Meade to assume command and to decide whether to +continue the fight there or to fall back. He decided to stay, rallied +the retreating troops, and held Cemetery Hill and Ridge until the +arrival of the main body of the Federal army. During the second day's +battle he commanded the left centre of the Union army, and after General +Sickles had been wounded, the whole of the left wing. In the third day's +battle he commanded the left centre, upon which fell the full brunt of +Pickett's charge, one of the most famous incidents of the war. Hancock's +superb presence and power over men never shone more clearly than when, +as the 150 guns of the Confederate army opened the attack he calmly rode +along the front of his line to show his soldiers that he shared the +dangers of the cannonade with them. His corps lost in the battle 4350 +out of less than 10,000 fighting men. But it had captured twenty-seven +Confederate battle flags and as many prisoners as it had men when the +fighting ceased. Just as the Confederate troops reached the Union line +Hancock was struck in the groin by a bullet, but continued in command +until the repulse of the attack, and as he was at last borne off the +field earnestly recommended Meade to make a general attack on the beaten +Confederates. The wound proved a severe one, so that some six months +passed before he resumed command. + +In the battles of the year 1864 Hancock's part was as important and +striking as in those of 1863. At the Wilderness he commanded, during the +second day's fighting, half of the Union army; at Spottsylvania he had +charge of the fierce and successful attack on the "salient"; at Cold +Harbor his corps formed the left wing in the unsuccessful assault on +the Confederate lines. In August he was promoted to brigadier-general in +the regular army. In November, his old wound troubling him, he obtained +a short leave of absence, expecting to return to his corps in the near +future. He was, however, detailed to raise a new corps, and later was +placed in charge of the "Middle Division." It was expected that he would +move towards Lynchburg, as part of a combined movement against Lee's +communications. But before he could take the field Richmond had fallen +and Lee had surrendered. It thus happened that Hancock, who for three +years had been one of the most conspicuous figures in the Army of the +Potomac did not take part in its final triumph. + +After the assassination of Lincoln, Hancock was placed in charge of +Washington, and it was under his command that Booth's accomplices were +tried and executed. In July 1866 he was appointed major-general in the +regular army. A little later he was placed in command of the department +of the Missouri, and the year following assumed command of the fifth +military division, comprising Louisiana and Texas. His policy, however, +of discountenancing military trials and conciliating the conquered did +not meet with approval at Washington, and he was at his own request +transferred. Hancock had all his life been a Democrat. His splendid war +record and his personal popularity caused his name to be considered as a +candidate for the Presidency as early as 1868, and in 1880 he was +nominated for that office by the Democrats; but he was defeated by his +Republican opponent, General Garfield, though by the small popular +plurality of seven thousand votes. He died at Governor's Island, near +New York, on the 9th of February 1886. Hancock was in many respects the +ideal soldier of the Northern armies. He was quick, energetic and +resourceful, reckless of his own safety, a strict disciplinarian, a +painstaking and hard-working officer. It was on the field of battle, and +when the fighting was fiercest, that his best qualities came to the +front. He was a born commander of men, and it is doubtful if any other +officer in the Northern army could get more fighting and more marching +out of his men. Grant said of him, "Hancock stands the most conspicuous +figure of all the general officers who did not exercise a separate +command. He commanded a corps longer than any other, and his name was +never mentioned as having committed in battle a blunder for which he was +responsible." + + A biography of him has been written by General Francis A. Walker (New + York, 1894). See also _History of the Second Corps_, by the same + author (1886). (F. H. H.) + + + + +HANCOCK, a city of Houghton county, Michigan, U.S.A., on Portage Lake, +opposite Houghton. Pop. (1890) 1772; (1900) 4050, of whom 1409 were +foreign-born; (1904) 6037; (1910) 8981. Hancock is served by the Mineral +Range, the Copper Range, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, and the +Duluth, South Shore & Atlantic railways (the last two send their trains +in over the Mineral Range tracks), and by steamboats through the Portage +Lake Canal which connects with Lake Superior. Hancock is connected by a +bridge and an electric line with the village of Houghton (pop. in 1910, +5113), the county-seat of Houghton county and the seat of the Michigan +College of Mines (opened in 1886). Hancock has three parks, and a marine +and general hospital. The city is the seat of a Finnish Lutheran +Seminary--there are many Finns in and near Hancock, and a Finnish +newspaper is published here. Hancock is in the Michigan copper +region--the Quincy, Franklin and Hancock mines are in or near the +city--and the mining, working and shipping of copper are the leading +industries; among the city's manufactures are mining machinery, lumber, +bricks and beer. The municipality owns and operates the water-works. The +electric-lighting plant, the gas plant and the street railway are owned +by private corporations. Hancock was settled in 1859, was incorporated +as a village in 1875, and was chartered as a city in 1903. + + + + +HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-1851). German classical scholar, was born +at Plauen in Saxony on the 15th of February 1786. He studied at Leipzig, +in 1810 became professor at the Weimar gymnasium, and in 1817 professor +of philosophy and Greek literature in the university of Jena, where he +remained till his death on the 14th of March 1851. The work by which +Hand is chiefly known is his (unfinished) edition of the treatise of +Horatius Tursellinus (Orazio Torsellino, 1545-1599) on the Latin +particles (_Tursellinus, seu de particulis Latinis commentarii_, +1829-1845). Like his treatise on Latin style (_Lehrbuch des lateinischen +Stils_, 3rd ed. by H. L. Schmitt, 1880), it is too abstruse and +philosophical for the use of the ordinary student. Hand was also an +enthusiastic musician, and in his _Ästhetik der Tonkunst_ (1837-1841) he +was the first to introduce the subject of musical aesthetics. + + The first part of the last-named work has been translated into English + by W. E. Lawson (_Aesthetics of Musical Art_, or _The Beautiful in + Music_, 1880), and B. Sears's _Classical Studies_ (1849) contains a + "History of the Origin and Progress of the Latin Language," abridged + from Hand's work on the subject. There is a memoir of his life and + work by G. Queck (Jena, 1852). + + + + +HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. _Hand_, Goth. +_handus_), the terminal part of the human arm from below the wrist, and +consisting of the fingers and the palm. The word is also used of the +prehensile termination of the limbs in certain other animals (see +ANATOMY: _Superficial and artistic_; SKELETON: _Appendicular_, and such +articles as MUSCULAR SYSTEM and NERVOUS SYSTEM). There are many +transferred applications of "hand," both as a substantive and in various +adverbial phrases. The following may be mentioned: charge or authority, +agency, source, chiefly in such expressions as "in the hands of," "by +hand," "at first hand." From the position of the hands at the side of +the body, the word means "direction," e.g., on the right, left hand, cf. +"at hand." The hand as given in betrothal or marriage has been from +early times the symbol of marriage as it also is of oaths. Other +applications are to labourers engaged in manual occupations, the members +of the crew of a ship, to a person who has some special skill, as in the +phrase, "old parliamentary hand," and to the pointers of a clock or +watch and to the number of cards dealt to each player in a card game. As +a measure of length the term "hand" is now only used in the measurement +of horses, it is equal to 4 in. The name "hand of glory," is given to a +hand cut from the corpse of a hanged criminal, dried in smoke, and used +as a charm or talisman, for the finding of treasures, &c. The expression +is the translation of the Fr. _main de gloire_, a corruption of the O. +Fr. _mandegloire_, _mandegoire_, i.e. _mandragore_, mandragora, the +mandrake, to the root of which many magical properties are attributed. + + + + +HANDEL, GEORGE FREDERICK (1685-1759), + + + Life. + +English musical composer, German by origin, was born at Halle in Lower +Saxony, on the 23rd of February 1685. His name was Handel, but, like +most 18th-century musicians who travelled, he compromised with its +pronunciation by foreigners, and when in Italy spelt it Hendel, and in +England (where he became naturalized) accepted the version Handel, which +is therefore correct for English writers, while Händel remains the +correct version in Germany. His father was a barber-surgeon, who +disapproved of music, and wished George Frederick to become a lawyer. A +friend smuggled a clavichord into the attic, and on this instrument, +which is inaudible behind a closed door, the little boy practised +secretly. Before he was eight his father went to visit a son by a former +marriage who was a valet-de-chambre to the duke of Saxe-Weissenfels. The +little boy begged in vain to go also, and at last ran after the carriage +on foot so far that he had to be taken. He made acquaintance with the +court musicians and contrived to practise on the organ when he could be +overheard by the duke, who, immediately recognizing his talent, spoke +seriously to the father, who had to yield to his arguments. On returning +to Halle Handel became a pupil of Zachau, the cathedral organist, who +gave him a thorough training as a composer and as a performer on keyed +instruments, the oboe and the violin. Six very good trios for two oboes +and bass, which Handel wrote at the age of ten, are extant; and when he +himself was shown them by an English admirer who had discovered them, he +was much amused and remarked, "I wrote like the devil in those days, +and chiefly for the oboe, which was my favourite instrument." His master +also of course made him write an enormous amount of vocal music, and he +had to produce a motet every week. By the time he was twelve Zachau +thought he could teach him no more, and accordingly the boy was sent to +Berlin, where he made a great impression at the court. + +His father, however, thought fit to decline the proposal of the elector +of Brandenburg, afterwards King Frederick I. of Prussia, to send the boy +to Italy in order afterwards to attach him to the court at Berlin. +German court musicians, as late as the time of Mozart, had hardly enough +freedom to satisfy a man of independent character, and the elder Händel +had not yet given up hope of his son's becoming a lawyer. Young Handel, +therefore, returned to Halle and resumed his work with Zachau. In 1697 +his father died, but the boy showed great filial piety in finishing the +ordinary course of his education, both general and musical, and even +entering the university of Halle in 1702 as a law student. But in that +year he succeeded to the post of organist at the cathedral, and after +his "probation" year in that capacity he departed to Hamburg, where the +only German opera worthy of the name was flourishing under the direction +of its founder, Reinhold Keiser. Here he became friends with Matheson, a +prolific composer and writer on music. On one occasion they set out +together to go to Lübeck, where a successor was to be appointed to the +post left vacant by the great organist Buxtehude, who was retiring on +account of his extreme age. Handel and Matheson made much music on this +occasion, but did not compete, because they found that the successful +candidate was required to accept the hand of the elderly daughter of the +retiring organist. + +Another adventure might have had still more serious consequences. At a +performance of Matheson's opera _Cleopatra_ at Hamburg, Handel refused +to give up the conductor's seat to the composer when the latter returned +to his usual post at the harpsichord after singing the part of Antony on +the stage. The dispute led to a duel outside the theatre, and, but for a +large button on Handel's coat which intercepted Matheson's sword, there +would have been no _Messiah_ or _Israel in Egypt_. But the young men +remained friends, and Matheson's writings are full of the most valuable +facts for Handel's biography. He relates in his _Ehrenpforte_ that his +friend at that time used to compose "interminable cantatas" of no great +merit; but of these no traces now remain, unless we assume that a +_Passion according to St John_, the manuscript of which is in the royal +library at Berlin, is among the works alluded to. But its authenticity, +while strongly upheld by Chrysander, has recently been as strongly +assailed on internal evidence. + +On the 8th of January 1705, Handel's first opera, _Almira_, was +performed at Hamburg with great success, and was followed a few weeks +later by another work, entitled _Nero_. _Nero_ is lost, but _Almira_, +with its mixture of Italian and German language and form, remains as a +valuable example of the tendencies of the time and of Handel's eclectic +methods. It contains many themes used by Handel in well-known later +works; but the current statement that the famous aria in _Rinaldo_, +"Lascia ch'io pianga," comes from a saraband in _Almira_, is based upon +nothing more definite than the inevitable resemblance between the +simplest possible forms of saraband-rhythm. + +In 1706 Handel left Hamburg for Italy, where he remained for three +years, rapidly acquiring the smooth Italian vocal style which hereafter +always characterized his work. He had before this refused offers from +noble patrons to send him there, but had now saved enough money, not +only to support his mother at home, but to travel as his own master. He +divided his time in Italy between Florence, Rome, Naples and Venice; and +many anecdotes are preserved of his meetings with Corelli, Lotti, +Alessandro Scarlatti and Domenico Scarlatti, whose wonderful harpsichord +technique still has a direct bearing on some of the most modern features +of pianoforte style. Handel soon became famous as _Il Sassone_ ("the +Saxon"), and it is said that Domenico on first hearing him play +incognito exclaimed, "It is either the devil or the Saxon!" Then there +is a story of Corelli's coming to grief over a passage in Handel's +overture to _Il Trionfo del tempo_, in which the violins went up to A in +altissimo. Handel impatiently snatched the violin to show Corelli how +the passage ought to be played, and Corelli, who had never written or +played beyond the third position in his life (this passage being in the +seventh), said gently, "My dear Saxon, this music is in the French +style, which I do not understand." In Italy Handel produced two operas, +_Rodrigo_ and _Agrippina_, the latter a very important work, of which +the splendid overture was remodelled forty-four years afterwards as that +of his last original oratorio, _Jephtha_. He also produced two +oratorios, _La Resurrezione_, and _Il Trionfo del tempo_. This, +forty-six years afterwards, formed the basis of his last work. _The +Triumph of Time and Truth_, which contains no original matter. All +Handel's early works contain material that he used often with very +little alteration later on, and, though the famous "Lascia ch'io pianga" +does not occur in Almira, it occurs note for note in _Agrippina_ and the +two Italian oratorios. On the other hand the cantata _Aci, Galattea e +Polifemo_ has nothing in common with _Acis and Galatea_. Besides these +larger works there are several choral and solo cantatas of which the +earliest, such as the great _Dixit Dominus_, show in their extravagant +vocal difficulty how radical was the change which Handel's Italian +experience so rapidly effected in his methods. + +Handel's success in Italy established his fame and led to his receiving +at Venice in 1709 the offer of the post of Kapellmeister to the elector +of Hanover, transmitted to him by Baron Kielmansegge, his patron and +staunch friend of later years. Handel at the time contemplated a visit +to England, and he accepted this offer on condition of leave of absence +being granted to him for that purpose. To England accordingly Handel +journeyed after a short stay at Hanover, arriving in London towards the +close of 1710. He came as a composer of Italian opera, and earned his +first success at the Haymarket with _Rinaldo_, composed, to the +consternation of the hurried librettist, in a fortnight, and first +performed on the 24th of February 1711. In this opera the aria "Lascia +ch'io pianga" found its final home. The work was produced with the +utmost magnificence, and Addison's delightful reviews of it in the +_Spectator_ poked fun at it from an unmusical point of view in a way +that sometimes curiously foreshadows the criticisms that Gluck might +have made on such things at a later period. The success was so great, +especially for Walsh the publisher, that Handel proposed that Walsh +should compose the next opera, and that he should publish it. He +returned to Hanover at the close of the opera season, and composed a +good deal of vocal chamber music for the princess Caroline, the +step-daughter of the elector, besides the instrumental works known to us +as the oboe concertos. In 1712 Handel returned to London and spent a +year with Andrews, a rich musical amateur, in Barn Elms, Surrey. Three +more years were spent in Burlington, in the neighbourhood of London. He +evidently was but little inclined to return to Hanover, in spite of his +duties to the court there. Two Italian operas and the _Utrecht Te Deum_ +written by the command of Queen Anne are the principal works of this +period. It was somewhat awkward for the composer when his deserted +master came to London in 1714 as George I. of England. For some time +Handel did not venture to appear at court, and it was only at the +intercession of Baron Kielmansegge that his pardon was obtained. By his +advice Handel wrote the _Water Music_ which was performed at a royal +water party on the Thames, and it so pleased the king that he at once +received the composer into his good graces and granted him a salary of +£400 a year. Later Handel became music master to the little princesses +and was given an additional £200 by the princess Caroline. In 1716 he +followed the king to Germany, where he wrote a second German Passion to +the popular poem of Brockes, a text which, divested of its worst +features, forms the basis of several of the arias in Bach's _Passion +according to St John_. This was Handel's last work to a German text. + +On his return to England he entered the service of the duke of Chandos +as conductor of his concerts, receiving a thousand pounds for his first +oratorio _Esther_. The music which Handel wrote for performance at +"Cannons," the duke of Chandos's residence at Edgware, is comprised in +the first version of _Esther, Acis and Galatea_, and the twelve _Chandos +Anthems_, which are compositions approximately in the same form as +Bach's church cantatas but without any systematic use of chorale tunes. +The fashionable Londoner would travel 9 miles in those days to the +little chapel of Whitchurch to hear Handel's music, and all that now +remains of the magnificent scene of these visits is the church, which is +the parish church of Edgware. In 1720 Handel appeared again in a public +capacity as impresario of the Italian opera at the Haymarket theatre, +which he managed for the institution called the Royal Academy of Music. +Senesino, a famous singer, to engage whom Handel especially journeyed to +Dresden, was the mainstay of the enterprise, which opened with a highly +successful performance of Handel's opera _Radamisto_. To this time +belongs the famous rivalry between Handel and Buononcini, a melodious +Italian composer whom many thought to be the greater of the two. The +controversy has been perpetuated in John Byrom's lines: + + "Some say, compared to Buononcini + That Mynheer Handel's but a ninny; + Others aver that he to Handel + Is scarcely fit to hold a candle. + Strange all this difference should be + Twixt tweedle-dum and tweedle-dee." + +It must be remembered that at this time Handel had not yet asserted his +greatness as a choral writer; the fashionable ideas of music and +musicianship were based entirely upon success in Italian opera, and the +contest between the rival composers was waged on the basis of works +which have fallen into almost as complete an oblivion in Handel's case +as in Buononcini's. None of Handel's forty-odd Italian operas can be +said to survive, except in some two or three detached arias out of each +opera; arias which reveal their essential qualities far better in +isolation than when performed in groups of between twenty and thirty on +the stage, as interruptions to the action of a classical drama to which +nobody paid the slightest attention. But even within these limits +Handel's artistic resources were too great to leave the issue in doubt; +and when Handel wrote the third act of an opera _Muzio Scevola_, of +which Buononcini and Ariosti[1] wrote the other two, his triumph was +decisive, especially as Buononcini soon got into discredit by failing to +defend himself against the charge of producing as a prize-madrigal of +his own a composition which proved to be by Lotti. At all events +Buononcini left London, and Handel for the next ten years was without a +rival in his ventures as an operatic composer. He was not, however, +without a rival as an impresario; and the hostile competition of a rival +company which obtained the services of the great Farinelli and also +induced Senesino to desert him, led to his bankruptcy in 1737, and to an +attack of paralysis caused by anxiety and overwork. The rival company +also had to be dissolved from want of support, so that Handel's +misfortunes must not be attributed to any failure to maintain his +position in the musical world. Handel's artistic conscience was that of +the most easy-going opportunist, or he would never have continued till +1741 to work in a field that gave so little scope for his genius. But +the public seemed to want operas, and, if opera had no scope for his +genius, at all events he could supply better operas with greater +rapidity and ease than any three other living composers working +together. And this he naturally continued to do so long as it seemed to +be the best way to keep up his reputation. But with all this artistic +opportunism he was not a man of tact, and there are numerous stories of +the type of his holding the great primadonna donna Cuzzoni at +arm's-length out of a window and threatening to drop her unless she +consented to sing a song which she had declared unsuitable to her style. + +Already before his last opera, _Deidamia_, produced in 1741, Handel had +been making a growing impression with his oratorios. In these, freed +from the restrictions of the stage, he was able to give scope to his +genius for choral writing, and so to develop, or rather revive, that art +of chorus singing which is the normal outlet for English musical talent. +In 1726 Handel had become a naturalized Englishman, and in 1733 he began +his public career as a composer of English texts by producing the second +and larger version of _Esther_ at the King's theatre. This was followed +early in the same year by _Deborah_, in which the share of the chorus is +much greater. In July he produced _Athalia_ at Oxford, the first work in +which his characteristic double choruses appear. The share of the chorus +increases in _Saul_ (1738); and _Israel in Egypt_ (also 1738) is +practically entirely a choral work, the solo movements, in spite of +their fame, being as perfunctory in character as they are few in number. +It was not unnatural that the public, who still considered Italian opera +the highest, because the most modern form of musical art, obliged Handel +at subsequent performances of this gigantic work to insert more solos. + +The _Messiah_ was produced at Dublin on the 13th of April 1742. _Samson_ +(which Handel preferred to the _Messiah_) appeared at Covent Garden on +the 2nd of March 1744; _Belshazzar_ at the King's theatre, 27th of March +1745; the _Occasional Oratorio_ (chiefly a compilation of the earlier +oratorios, but with a few important new numbers), on the 14th of +February 1746 at Covent Garden, where all his later oratorios were +produced; _Judas Maccabaeus_ on the 1st of April 1747; _Joshua_ on the +9th of March 1748; _Alexander Balus_ on the 23rd of March 1748; Solomon +on the 17th of March 1749; _Susanna_, spring of 1749; _Theodora_, a +great favourite of Handel's, who was much disappointed by its cold +reception, on the 16th of March 1750; _Jephtha_ (strictly speaking, his +last work) on the 26th of February 1752, and _The Triumph of Time and +Truth_ (transcribed from _Il Trionfo del tempo_ with the addition of +many later favourite numbers), 1757. Other important works, +indistinguishable in artistic form from oratorios, but on secular +subjects, are _Alexander's Feast_, 1736; _Ode for St Cecilia's Day_ +(words by Dryden); _L'Allegro, il pensieroso ed il moderato_ (the words +of the third part by Jennens), 1740; _Semele_, 1744; _Hercules_, 1745; +and _The Choice of Hercules_, 1751. + +By degrees the enmity against Handel died away, though he had many +troubles. In 1745 he had again become bankrupt; for, although he had no +rival as a composer of choral music it was possible for his enemies to +give balls and banquets on the nights of his oratorio performances. As +with his first bankruptcy, so in his later years, he showed scrupulous +sense of honour in discharging his debts, and he continued to work hard +to the end of his life. He had not only completely recovered his +financial position by the year 1750, but he must have made a good deal +of money, for he then presented an organ to the Foundling Hospital, and +opened it with a performance of the _Messiah_ on the 15th of May. In +1751 his sight began to trouble him; and the autograph of _Jephtha_, +published in facsimile by the _Händelgesellschaft_, shows pathetic +traces of this in his handwriting,[2] and so affords a most valuable +evidence of his methods of composition, all the accompaniments, +recitatives, and less essential portions of the work being evidently +filled in long after the rest. He underwent unsuccessful operations, one +of them by the same surgeon who had operated on Bach's eyes. There is +evidence that he was able to see at intervals during his last years, but +his sight practically never returned after May 1752. He continued +superintending performances of his works and writing new arias for them, +or inserting revised old ones, and he attended a performance of the +_Messiah_ a week before his death, which took place, according to the +_Public Advertiser_ of the 16th of April, not on Good Friday, the 13th +of April, according to his own pious wish and according to common +report, but on the 14th of April 1759. He was buried in Westminster +Abbey; and his monument is by L. F. Roubilliac, the same sculptor who +modelled the marble statue erected in 1739 in Vauxhall Gardens, where +his works had been frequently performed. + + Handel was a man of high character and intelligence, and his interest + was not confined to his own art exclusively. He liked the society of + politicians and literary men, and he was also a collector of pictures + and articles of _vertu_. His power of work was enormous, and the + _Händelgesellschaft's_ edition of his complete works fills one hundred + volumes, forming a total bulk almost equal to the works of Bach and + Beethoven together. (F. H.; D. F. T.) + + + Handel as composer. + +No one has more successfully popularized the greatest artistic ideals +than Handel; no artist is more disconcerting to critics who imagine that +a great man's mental development is easy to follow. Not even Wagner +effected a greater transformation in the possibilities of dramatic music +than Handel effected in oratorio, yet we have seen that Handel was the +very opposite of a reformer. He was not even conservative, and he hardly +took the pains to ascertain what an art-form was, so long as something +externally like it would convey his idea. But he never failed to convey +his idea, and, if the hybrid forms in which he conveyed it had no +historic influence and no typical character, they were none the less +accurate in each individual case. The same aptness and the same absence +of method are conspicuous in his style. The popular idea that Handel's +style is easily recognizable comes from the fact that he overshadows all +his predecessors and contemporaries, except Bach, and so makes us regard +typical 18th-century Italian and English style as Handelian, instead of +regarding Handel's style as typical Italian 18th-century. Nothing in +music requires more minute expert knowledge than the sifting of the real +peculiarities of Handel's style from the mass of contemporary formulae +which in his inspired pages he absorbed, and which in his uninspired +pages absorbed him. + +His easy mastery was acquired, like Mozart's, in childhood. The later +sonatas for two oboes and bass which he wrote in his eleventh year are, +except in their diffuseness and an occasional slip in grammar, +indistinguishable from his later works, and they show a boyish +inventiveness worthy of Mozart's work at the same age. Such early choral +works, as the _Dixit Dominus_ (1707), show the ill-regulated power of +his choral writing before he assimilated Italian influences. Its +practical difficulties are at least as extravagant as Bach's, while they +are not accounted for by any corresponding originality and necessity of +idea; but the grandeur of the scheme and nobility of thought is already +that for which Handel so often in later years found the simplest and +easiest adequate means of expression that music has ever attained. His +eminently practical genius soon formed his vocal style, and long before +the period of his great oratorios, such works as _The Birthday Ode for +Queen Anne_ (1713) and the _Utrecht Te Deum_ show not a trace of German +extravagance. The only drawback to his practical genius was that it led +him to bury perhaps half of his finest melodies, and nearly all the +secular features of interest in his treatment of instruments and of the +aria forms, in that deplorable limbo of vanity, the 18th-century Italian +opera. It is not true, as has been alleged against him, that his operas +are in no way superior to those of his contemporaries; but neither is it +true that he stirred a finger to improve the condition of dramatic +musical art. He was no slave to singers, as is amply testified by many +anecdotes. Nor was he bound by the operatic conventions of the time. In +_Teseo_ he not only wrote an opera in five acts when custom prescribed +three, but also broke a much more plausible rule in arranging that each +character should have two arias in succession. He also showed a feeling +for expression and style which led him to write arias of types which +singers might not expect. But he never made any innovation which had the +slightest bearing upon the stage-craft of opera, for he never concerned +himself with any artistic question beyond the matter in hand; and the +matter in hand was not to make dramatic music, or to make the story +interesting or intelligible, but simply to provide a concert of between +some twenty and thirty Italian arias and duets, wherein singers could +display their abilities and spectators find distraction from the +monotony of so large a dose of the aria form (which was then the only +possibility for solo vocal music) in the gorgeousness of the dresses and +scenery. + +When the question arose how a musical entertainment of this kind could +be managed in Lent without protests from the bishop of London, Handelian +oratorio came into being as a matter of course. But though Handel was an +opportunist he was not shallow. His artistic sense seized upon the +natural possibilities which arose as soon as the music was transferred +from the stage to the concert platform; and his first English oratorio, +_Esther_ (1720), beautifully shows the transition. The subject is as +nearly secular as any that can be extracted from the Bible, and the +treatment was based on Racine's _Esther_, which was much discussed at +the time. Handel's oratorio was reproduced in an enlarged version in +1732 at the King's theatre: the princess royal wished for scenery and +action, but the bishop of London protested. And the choruses, of which +in the first version there are already no less than ten, are on the one +hand operatic and unecclesiastical in expression, until the last, where +polyphonic work on a large scale first appears; but on the other hand +they are all much too long to be sung by heart, as is necessary in +operas. In fact, the turning-point in Handel's development is the +emancipation of the chorus from theatrical limitations. This had as +great effect upon his few but important secular English works as upon +his other oratorios. _Acis and Galatea_, _Semele_ and _Hercules_, are in +fact secular oratorios; the choral music in them is not ecclesiastical, +but it is large, independent and polyphonic. + +We must remember, then, that Handel's scheme of oratorio is operatic in +its origin and has no historic connexion with such principles as might +have been generalized from the practice of the German Passion music of +the time; and it is sufficiently astonishing that the chorus should have +so readily assumed its proper place in a scheme which the public +certainly regarded as a sort of Lenten biblical opera. And, although the +chorus owes its freedom of development to the disappearance of +theatrical necessities, it becomes no less powerful as a means of +dramatic expression (as opposed to dramatic action) than as a purely +musical resource. Already in _Athalia_ the "Hallelujah" chorus at the +end of the first act is a marvel of dramatic truth. It is sung by +Israelites almost in despair beneath usurping tyranny; and accordingly +it is a severe double fugue in a minor key, expressive of devout courage +at a moment of depression. On purely musical grounds it is no less +powerful in throwing into the highest possible relief the ecstatic +solemnity of the psalm with which the second act opens. Now this sombre +"Hallelujah" chorus is a very convenient illustration of Handel's +originality, and the point in which his creative power really lies. It +was not originally written for its situation in _Athalia_, but it was +chosen for it. It was originally the last chorus of the second version +of the anthem, _As pants the Hart_, from the autograph of which it is +missing because Handel cut out the last pages in order to insert them +into the manuscript of _Athalia_. The inspiration in _Athalia_ thus lies +not in the creation of the chorus itself, but in the choice of it. + +In choral music Handel made no more innovation than he made in arias. +His sense of fitness in expression was of little use to him in opera, +because opera could not become dramatic until musical form became +capable of developing and blending emotions in all degrees of climax in +a way that may be described as pictorial and not merely decorative (see +MUSIC; SONATA-FORMS; and INSTRUMENTATION). But in oratorio there was not +the least necessity for reforming any art-forms. The ordinary choral +resources of the time had perfect expressive possibilities where there +were no actors to keep waiting, and where no dresses and scenery need +distract the attention of the listener. When lastly, ordinary decorum +dictated an attitude of reverent attention towards the subject of the +oratorio, then the man of genius could find such a scope for his real +sense of dramatic fitness as would make his work immortal. + +In estimating Handel's greatness we must think away all orthodox musical +and progressive prejudices, and learn to apply the lessons critics of +architecture and some critics of literature seem to know by nature. +Originality, in music as in other arts, lies in the whole, and in a +sense of the true meaning of every part. When Handel wrote a normal +double fugue in a minor key on the word "Hallelujah" he showed that he +at all events knew what a vigorous and dignified thing an 18th-century +double fugue could be. In putting it at the end of a melancholy psalm he +showed his sense of the value of the minor mode. When he put it in its +situation in _Athalia_ he showed as perfect a sense of dramatic and +musical fitness as could well be found in art. Now it is obvious that in +works like oratorios (which are dramatic schemes vigorously but loosely +organized by the putting together of some twenty or thirty complete +pieces of music) the proper conception of originality will be very +different from that which animates the composer of modern lyric, +operatic or symphonic music. When we add to this the characteristics of +a method like Handel's, in which musical technique has become a masterly +automatism, it becomes evident that our conception of originality must +be at least as broad as that which we would apply in the criticism of +architecture. The disadvantages of the want of such a conception have +been aggravated by the dearth of general knowledge of the structure of +musical art; a knowledge which shows that the parallel we have suggested +between music and architecture, as regards the nature of originality, is +no mere figure of speech. + +In every art there is an antithesis between form and matter, which +becomes reconciled only when the work of art is perfect in its +execution. And, whatever this perfection, the antithesis must always +remain in the mind of the artist and critic to this extent, that some +part of the material seems to be the special subject of technical rule +rather than another. In the plastic and literary arts one type of this +antithesis is more or less permanently maintained in the relation +between subject and treatment. The mere fact that these arts express +themselves by representing things that have some previous independent +existence, helps us to look for originality rather in the things that +make for perfection of treatment than in novelty of subject. But in +music we have no permanent means of deciding which of many aspects we +shall call the subject and which the treatment. In the 16th century the +a priori form existed mainly in the practice of basing almost every +melodic detail of the work on phrases of Gregorian chant or popular +song, treated for the most part in terms of very definitely regulated +polyphonic design, and on harmonic principles regulated in almost every +detail by the relation between the melodic aspects of the church modes +and the necessity for occasional alterations of the strict mode to +secure finality at the close. In modern music such a relation between +form and matter, prescribing as it does for every aspect at every moment +both of the shape and the texture of the music, would exclude the +element of invention altogether. In 16th-century music it by no means +had that effect. An inventive 16th-century composer is as clearly +distinguishable from a dull one as a good architect from a bad. The +originality of the composer resides, in 16th-century music as in all +art, in his whole work; but naturally his conception of property and +ideas will not extend to themes or isolated passages. That man is +entitled to an idea who can show what it means, or who can make it mean +what he likes. Let him wear the giant's robe if it fits him. And it is +merely a local difference in point of view which makes us think that +there is property in themes and no property in forms. Nowadays we happen +to regard the shape of a whole composition as its form, and its theme as +its matter. And, as artistic organization becomes more complex and +heterogeneous, the need of the broadest and most forcible possible +outline of design is more pressingly felt; so that in what we choose to +call form we are willing to sacrifice all conception of originality for +the sake of general intelligibility, while we insist upon complete +originality in those thematic details which we are pleased to call +matter. But, if this explains, it does not excuse our setting up a +criterion for musical originality which can be accepted by no +intelligent critics of other arts, and which is completely upset by the +study of any music earlier than the beginning of the 19th century. + +The difficulty many writers have found in explaining the subject of +Handel's "plagiarisms" is not entirely accounted for by mere lack of +these considerations; but the grossest confusion of ideas as to the +difference between cases in point prevails to this day, and many +discussions which have been raised in regard to the ethical aspect of +the question are frankly absurd.[3] It has been argued, for instance, +that great injustice was done to Buononcini over his unfortunate affair +with the prize madrigal, while his great rival was allowed the credit of +_Israel in Egypt_, which contains a considerable number of entire +choruses (besides hosts of themes) by earlier Italian and German +writers. But the very idea of Handelian oratorio is that of some three +hours of music, religious or secular, arranged, like opera, in the form +of a colossal entertainment, and with high dramatic and emotional +interest imparted to it, if not by the telling of a story, at all events +by the nature and development of the subject. It seems, moreover, to be +entirely overlooked that the age was an age of _pasticcios_. Nothing was +more common than the organization of some such solemn entertainment by +the skilful grouping of favourite pieces. Handel himself never revived +one of his oratorios without inserting in it favourite pieces from his +other works as well as several new numbers; and the story is well known +that the turning point in Gluck's career was his perception of the true +possibilities of dramatic music from the failure of a _pasticcio_ in +which he had reset some rather definitely expressive music to situations +for which it was not originally designed. The success of an oratorio was +due to the appropriateness of its contrasts, together of course with the +mastery of its detail, whether that detail were new or old; and there +are many gradations between a réchauffé of an early work like _The +Triumph of Time and Truth_, or a _pasticcio_ with a few original numbers +like the _Occasional Oratorio_, and such works as _Samson_, which was +entirely new except that the "Dead March" first written for it was +immediately replaced by the more famous one imported from _Saul_. That +the idea of the _pasticcio_ was extremely familiar to the age is shown +by the practice of announcing an oratorio as "new and original," a term +which would obviously be meaningless if it were as much a matter of +course as it is at the present day, and which, if used at all, must +obviously so apply to the whole work without forbidding the composer +from gratifying the public with the reproduction of one or two favourite +arias. But of course the question of originality becomes more serious +when the imported numbers are not the composer's own. And here it is +very noticeable that Handel derived no credit, either with his own +public or with us, from whole movements that are not of his own +designing. In _Israel in Egypt_, the choruses "Egypt was glad when they +departed," "And I will exalt Him," "Thou sentest forth Thy Wrath" and +"The Earth swallowed them," are without exception the most colourless +and unattractive pieces of severe counterpoint to be found among +Handel's works; and it is very difficult to fathom his motive in copying +them from obscure pieces by Erba and Kaspar Kerl, unless it be that he +wished to train his audiences to a better understanding of a polyphonic +style. He certainly felt that the greatest possibilities of music lay in +the higher choral polyphony, and so in _Israel in Egypt_ he designed a +work consisting almost entirely of choruses, and may have wished in +these instances for severe contrapuntal movements which he had not time +to write, though he could have done them far better himself. Be this as +it may, these choruses have certainly added nothing to the popularity +of a work of which the public from the outset complained that there was +not enough solo music; and what effect they have is merely to throw +Handel's own style into relief. To draw any parallel between the theft +of such unattractive details in the grand and intensely Handelian scheme +of _Israel in Egypt_ and Buononcini's alleged theft of a prize madrigal +is merely ridiculous. Handel himself, if he had any suspicion that +contemporaries did not take a sane architect's view of the originality +of large musical schemes,[4] probably gave himself no more trouble about +their scruples on this matter than about other forms of musical +banality. + +The _History of Music_ by Burney, the cleverest and most refined musical +critic of the age, shows in the very freshness of its musical +scholarship how completely unscholarly were the musical ideas of the +time. Burney was incapable of regarding choral music as other than a +highly improving academic exercise in which he himself was proficient; +and for him Handel is the great opera-writer whose choral music will +reward the study of the curious. If Handel had attempted to explain his +methods to the musicians of his age, he would probably have found +himself alone in his opinions as to the property of musical ideas. He +did not trouble to explain, but he made no concealment of his sources. +He left his whole musical library to his copyist, and it was from this +that the sources of his work were discovered. And when the whole series +of plagiarisms is studied, the fact forces itself upon us that nothing +except themes and forms which are common property in all 18th-century +music, has yet been discovered as the source of any work of Handel's +which is not felt as part of a larger design. Operatic arias were never +felt as parts of a whole. The opera was a concert on the stage, and it +stood or fell, not by a dramatic propriety which it notoriously +neglected to consider at all, but by the popularity of its arias. There +is no aria in Handel's operas which is traceable to another composer. +Even in the oratorios there is no solo number in which more than the +themes are pilfered, for in oratorios the solo work still appealed to +the popular criterion of novelty and individual attractiveness. And when +we leave the question of copying of whole movements and come to that of +the adaptation of passages, and still more of themes, Handel shows +himself to be simply on a line with Mozart. Jahn compares the opening of +Mozart's _Requiem_ with that of the first chorus in Handel's _Funeral +Anthem_. Mozart recreates at least as much from Handel's already perfect +framework as Handel ever idealized from the inorganic fragments of +earlier writers. The double counterpoint of the Kyrie in Mozart's +_Requiem_ is still more indisputably identical with that of the last +chorus of Handel's _Joseph_, and if the themes are common property their +combination certainly is not. But the true plagiarist is the man who +does not know the meaning of the ideas he copies, and the true creator +is he in whose hands they remain or become true ideas. The theme "He led +them forth like sheep" in the chorus "But as for his people" is one of +the most beautiful in Handel's works, and the bare statement that it +comes from a serenata by Stradella seems at first rather shocking. But, +to any one who knew Stradella's treatment of it first, Handel's would +come as a revelation actually greater than if he had never heard the +theme before. Stradella makes nothing more of it, and therefore +presumably sees nothing more in it than an agreeable and essentially +frivolous little tune which lends itself to comic dramatic purpose by a +wearisome repetition throughout eight pages of patchy aria and +instrumental ritornello at an ever-increasing pace. What Handel sees in +it is what he makes of it, one of the most solemn and poetic things in +music. Again, it may be very shocking to discover that the famous +opening of the "Hailstone chorus" comes from the patchy and facetious +overture to this same serenata, with which it is identical for ten bars +all in the tonic chord (representing, according to Stradella, someone +knocking at a door). And it is no doubt yet more shocking that the +chorus "He spake the word, and there came all manner of flies" contains +no idea of Handel's own except the realistic swarming violin-passages, +the general structure, and the vocal colouring; whereas the rhythmic and +melodic figures of the voice parts come from an equally patchy _sinfonia +concertata_ in Stradella's work. The real interest of these things ought +not to be denied either by the misstatement that the materials adapted +are mere common property, nor by the calumny that Handel was +uninventive. + +The effects of Handel's original inspiration upon foreign material are +really the best indication of the range of his style. The comic meaning +of the broken rhythm of Stradella's overture becomes indeed Handel's +inspiration in the light of the gigantic tone-picture of the "Hailstone +chorus." In the theme of "He led them forth like sheep" we have already +cited a particular case where Handel perceived great solemnity in a +theme originally intended to be frivolous. The converse process is +equally instructive. In the short Carillon choruses in Saul where the +Israelitish women welcome David after his victory over Goliath, Handel +uses a delightful instrumental tune which stands at the beginning of a +_Te Deum_ by Urio, from which he borrowed an enormous amount of material +in _Saul, L'Allegro_, the _Dettingen Te Deum_ and other works. Urio's +idea is first to make a jubilant and melodious noise from the lower +register of the strings, and then to bring out a flourish of high +trumpets as a contrast. He has no other use for his beautiful tune, +which indeed would not bear more elaborate treatment than he gives it. +The ritornello falls into statement and counterstatement, and the +counterstatement secures one repetition of the tune, after which no more +is heard of it. It has none of the solemnity of church music, and its +value as a contrast to the flourish of trumpets depends, not upon +itself, but upon its position in the orchestra. Handel did not see in it +a fine opening for a great ecclesiastical work, but he saw in it an +admirable expression of popular jubilation, and he understood how to +bring out its character with the liveliest sense of climax and dramatic +interest by taking it at its own value as a popular tune. So he uses it +as an instrumental interlude accompanied with a jingle of carillons, +while the daughters of Israel sing to a square-cut tune those praises of +David which aroused the jealousy of Saul. But now turn to the opening of +the _Dettingen Te Deum_ and see what splendid use is made of the other +side of Urio's idea, the contrast between a jubilant noise in the lowest +part of the scale and the blaze of trumpets at an extreme height. In the +fourth bar of the _Dettingen Te Deum_ we find the same florid trumpet +figures as we find in the fifth bar of Urio's, but at the first moment +they are on oboes. The first four bars beat a tattoo on the tonic and +dominant, with the whole orchestra, including trumpets and drums, in the +lowest possible position and in a stirring rhythm with a boldness and +simplicity characteristic only of a stroke of genius. Then the oboes +appear with Urio's trumpet flourishes; the momentary contrast is at +least as brilliant as Urio's; and as the oboes are immediately followed +by the same figures on the trumpets themselves the contrast gains +incalculably in subtlety and climax. Moreover, these flourishes are more +melodious than the broad and massive opening, instead of being, as in +Urio's scheme, incomparably less so. Lastly, Handel's primitive opening +rhythmic figures inevitably underlie every subsequent inner part and +bass that occurs at every half close and full close throughout the +movement, especially where the trumpets are used. And thus every detail +of his scheme is rendered alive with a rhythmic significance which the +elementary nature of the theme prevents from ever becoming obtrusive. + +No other great composer has ever so overcrowded his life with occasional +and mechanical work as Handel, and in no other artist are the qualities +that make the difference between inspired and uninspired pages more +difficult to analyse. The libretti of his oratorios are full of +absurdities, except when they are derived in every detail from +Scripture, as in the _Messiah_ and _Israel in Egypt_, or from the +classics of English literature, as in _Samson_ and _L'Allegro_. These +absurdities, and the obvious fact that in every oratorio Handel writes +many more numbers than are desirable for one performance, and that he +was continually in later performances adding, transferring and cutting +out solo numbers and often choruses as well--all this may seem at first +sight to militate seriously against the view that Handel's originality +and greatness consists in his grasp of the works as wholes, but in +reality it strengthens that view. These things militate against the +perfection of the whole, but they would have been absolutely fatal to a +work of which the whole is not (as in all true art) greater than the sum +of its parts. That they are felt as absurdities and defects already +shows that Handel created in English oratorio a true art-form on the +largest possible scale. + +There never has been a time when Handel has been overrated, except in so +far as other composers have been neglected. But no composer has suffered +so much from pious misinterpretation and the popular admiration of +misleading externals. It is not the place here to dilate upon the burial +of Handel's art beneath the "mammoth" performances of the Handel +Festivals at the Crystal Palace; nor can we give more than a passing +reference to the effects of "additional accompaniments" in the style of +an altogether later age, started most unfortunately by Mozart (whose +share in the work has been very much misinterpreted and corrupted) and +continued in the middle of the 19th century by musicians of every degree +of intelligence and refinement, until all sense of unity of style has +been lost and does not seem likely to be recovered as a general element +in the popular appreciation of Handel for some time to come. But in +spite of this, Handel will never cease to be revered and loved as one of +the greatest of composers, if we value the criteria of architectonic +power, a perfect sense of style, and the power to rise to the most +sublime height of musical climax by the simplest means. + + Handel's important works have all been mentioned above with their + dates, and a separate detailed list does not seem necessary. He was an + extremely rapid worker, and his later works are dated almost day by + day as they proceed. From this we learn that the _Messiah_ was + sketched and scored within twenty-one days, and that even _Jephtha_, + with an interruption of nearly four months besides several other + delays caused by Handel's failing sight, was begun and finished within + seven months, representing hardly five weeks' actual writing. Handel's + extant works may be roughly summarized from the edition of the + _Händelgesellschaft_ as 41 Italian operas, 2 Italian oratorios, 2 + German Passions, 18 English oratorios, 4 English secular oratorios, 4 + English secular cantatas, and a few other small works, English and + Italian, of the type of oratorio or incidental dramatic music; 3 Latin + settings of the _Te Deum_; the (English) _Dettingen Te Deum_ and + _Utrecht Te Deum and Jubilate_; 4 coronation anthems; 3 volumes of + English anthems (_Chandos Anthems_); 1 volume of Latin church music; 3 + volumes of Italian vocal chamber-music; 1 volume of clavier works; 37 + instrumental duets and trios (sonatas), and 4 volumes of orchestral + music and organ concertos (about 40 works). Precise figures are + impossible as there is no means of drawing the line between + _pasticcios_ and original works. The instrumental pieces especially + are used again and again as overtures to operas and oratorios and + anthems. + + The complete edition of the German _Händelgesellschaft_ suffers from + being the work of one man who would not recognize that his task was + beyond any single man's power. The best arrangements of the vocal + scores are undoubtedly those published by Novello that are not based + on "additional accompaniments." None is absolutely trustworthy, and + those of the editor of the German _Händelgesellschaft_ are sad proofs + of the uselessness of expert library-scholarship without a sound + musical training. Yet Chrysander's services in the restoration of + Handel are beyond praise. We need only mention his discovery of + authentic trombone parts in _Israel in Egypt_ as one among many of his + priceless contributions to musical history and aesthetics. + (D. F. T.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Chrysander says Mattei instead of Ariosti. + + [2] By a dramatic coincidence Handel's blindness interrupted him + during the writing of the chorus, "How dark, oh Lord, are Thy + decrees, ... all our joys to sorrow turning ... as the night succeeds + the day." + + [3] The "moral" question has been raised afresh in reviews of Mr + Sedley Taylor's admirable volume of analysed illustrations (_The + Indebtedness of Handel to works of other Composers_, Cambridge, + 1906). The latest argument is that Handel shows moral obliquity in + borrowing "regrettably" from sources no one could know at the time. + This reasoning makes it mysterious that a man of such moral obliquity + should ever have written a note of his own music in England when he + could have stolen the complete choral works of Bach and most of the + hundred operas of Alessandro Scarlatti with the certainty that the + sources would not be printed for a century after his death, even if + his own name did not then check curiosity among antiquarians. Of + course Handel's plagiarisms would have damaged his reputation if + contemporaries had known of them. His polyphonic scholarship was more + "antiquated" in the 18th century than it is in the 20th. + + [4] Much light would be thrown on the subject if some one + sufficiently ignorant of architecture were to make researches into + Sir Christopher Wren's indebtedness to Italian architects! + + + + +HANDFASTING (A.S. _handfæstnung_, pledging one's hand), primarily the O. +Eng. synonym for _betrothal_ (q.v.), and later a peculiar form of +temporary marriage at one time common in Scotland, the only necessary +ceremony being the verbal pledge of the couple while holding hands. The +pair thus handfasted were, in accordance with Scotch law, entitled to +live together for a year and a day. If then they so wished, the +temporary marriage could be made permanent: if not, they could go their +several ways without reproach, the child, if any, being supported by the +party who objected to further cohabitation. + + + + +HANDICAP (from the expression _hand in cap_, referring to drawing lots), +a disadvantageous condition imposed upon the superior competitor in +sports and games, or an advantage allowed the inferior, in order to +equalize the chances of both. The character of the handicap depends upon +the nature of the sport. Thus in horse-racing the better horse must +carry the heavier weight. In foot races the inferior runners are allowed +to start at certain distances in advance of the best (or "scratch") man, +according to their previous records. In distance competitions (weights, +fly-casting, jumping, &c.) the inferior contestants add certain +distances to their scores. In time contests (yachting, canoe-racing, +&c.) the weaker or smaller competitors subtract certain periods of time +from that actually made, reckoned by the mile. In stroke contests (e.g. +golf) a certain number of strokes are subtracted from or added to the +scores, according to the strength of the players. In chess and draughts +the stronger competitor may play without one or more pieces. In court +games (tennis, lawn-tennis, racquets, &c.) and in billiards certain +points, or percentage of points, are accorded the weaker players. + +Handicapping was applied to horse-racing as early as 1680, though the +word was not used in this connexion much before the middle of the 18th +century. A "Post and Handy-Cap Match" is described in _Pond's Racing +Calendar_ for 1754. A reference to something similar in Germany and +Scandinavia, called _Freimarkt_, may be found in _Germania_, vol. xix. + +Competitions in which handicaps are given are called _handicap-events_ +or _handicaps_. There are many systems which depend upon the whim of the +individual competitors. Thus a tennis player may offer to play against +his inferior with a selzer-bottle instead of a racquet; or a golfer to +play with only one club; or a chess-player to make his moves without +seeing the board. + +The name "handicap" was taken from an ancient English game, to which +Pepys, in his _Diary_ under the date of the 18th of September 1660, thus +refers: "Here some of us fell to handicap, a sport that I never knew +before, which was very good." This game, which became obsolete in the +19th century, was described as early as the 14th in _Piers the Plowman_ +under the name of "New Faire." It was originally played by three +persons, one of whom proposed to "challenge," or exchange, some piece of +property belonging to another for something of his own. The challenge +being accepted an umpire was chosen, and all three put up a sum of money +as a forfeit. The two players then placed their right hands in a cap, or +in their pockets, in which there was loose money, while the umpire +proceeded to describe the two objects of exchange, and to declare what +sum of money the owner of the inferior article should pay as a bonus to +the other. This declaration was made as rapidly as possible and ended +with the invitation, "Draw, gentlemen!" Each player then withdrew and +held out his hand, which he opened. If both hands contained money the +exchange was effected according to the conditions laid down by the +umpire, who then took the forfeit money for himself. If neither hand +contained money the exchange was declined and the umpire took the +forfeit money. If only one player signified his acceptance of the +exchange by holding money in his hand, he was entitled to the +forfeit-money, though the exchange was not made. + +Handicap was also the name of an old game at cards, now obsolete. It +resembled the game of Loo, and probably derived its name from the +ancient sport described above. + + + + +HANDSEL, the O. Eng. term for earnest money; especially in Scotland the +first money taken at a market or fair. The termination _sel_ is the +modern "sell." "Hand" indicates, not a bargain by shaking hands, but the +actual putting of the money into the hand. Handsels were also presents +or earnests of goodwill in the North; thus Handsel Monday, the first +Monday in the year, an occasion for universal tipping, is the equivalent +of the English Boxing day. + + + + +HANDSWORTH. (1) An urban district in the Handsworth parliamentary +division of Staffordshire, England, suburban to Birmingham on the +north-west. Pop. (1891), 32,756; (1901) 52,921. (See BIRMINGHAM.) (2) An +urban district in the Hallamshire parliamentary division of Yorkshire, 4 +m. S.E. of Sheffield. Pop. (1901), 13,404. In this neighbourhood are +extensive collieries and quarries. + + + + +HANDWRITING. Under PALAEOGRAPHY and WRITING, the history of handwriting +is dealt with. Questions of handwriting come before legal tribunals +mainly in connexion with the law of evidence. In Roman law, the +authenticity of documents was proved first by the attesting witnesses; +in the second place, if they were dead, by comparison of handwritings. +It was necessary, however, that the document to be used for purposes of +comparison either should have been executed with the formalities of a +public document, or should have its genuineness proved by three +attesting witnesses. The determination was apparently, in the latter +case, left to experts, who were sworn to give an impartial opinion (Code +4, 21. 20). Proof by comparison of handwritings, with a reference if +necessary to three experts as to the handwriting which is to be used for +the purposes of comparison, is provided for in the French Code of Civil +Procedure (arts. 193 et seq.); and in Quebec (Code Proc. Civ. arts. 392 +et seq.) and St Lucia (Code Civ. Proc. arts. 286 et seq.), the French +system has been adopted with modifications. Comparison by witnesses of +disputed writings with any writing proved to the satisfaction of the +judge to be genuine is accepted in England and Ireland in all legal +proceedings whether criminal or civil, including proceedings before +arbitrators (Denman Act, 28 & 29 Vict. c. 18, 55. 1, 8); and such +writings and the evidence of witnesses respecting the same may be +submitted to the court and jury as evidence of the genuineness or +otherwise of the writing in dispute. It is admitted in Scotland (where +the term _comparatio literarum_ is in use) and in most of the American +states, subject to the same conditions. In England, prior to the Common +Law Procedure Act of 1854 (now superseded by the act of 1866), documents +irrelevant to the matter in issue were not admissible for the sole +purpose of comparison, and this rule has been adopted, and is still +adhered to, in some of the states in America. In England, as in the +United States, and in most legal systems, the primary and best evidence +of handwriting is that of the writer himself. Witnesses who saw him +write the writing in question, or who are familiar with his handwriting +either from having seen him write or from having corresponded with him, +or otherwise, may be called. In cases of disputed handwriting the court +will accept the evidence of experts in handwriting, i.e. persons who +have an adequate knowledge of handwriting, whether acquired in the way +of their business or not, such as solicitors or bank cashiers (_R._ v. +_Silverlock_, 1894, 2 Q.B. 766). In such cases the witness is required +to compare the admitted handwriting of the person whose writing is in +question with the disputed document, and to state in detail the +similarities or differences as to the formation of words and letters, on +which he bases his opinion as to the genuineness or otherwise of the +disputed document. By the use of the magnifying glass, or, as in the +Parnell case, by enlarged photographs of the letters alleged to have +been written by Mr Parnell, the court and jury are much assisted to +appreciate the grounds on which the conclusions of the expert are +founded. Evidence of this kind, being based on opinion and theory, needs +to be very carefully weighed, and the dangers of implicit reliance on it +have been illustrated in many cases (e.g. the Beck case in 1904; and see +_Seaman_ v. _Netherclift_, 1876, 1 C.P.D. 540). Evidence by comparison +of handwriting comes in principally either in default, or in +corroboration, of the other modes of proof. + +Where attestation is necessary to the validity of a document, e.g. wills +and bills of sale, the execution must be proved by one or more of the +attesting witnesses, unless they are dead or cannot be produced, when it +is sufficient to prove the signature of one of them to the attesting +clause (28 & 29 Vict. c. 18, s. 7). Signatures to certain public and +official documents need not in general be proved (see e.g. Evidence Act, +1845, ss. 1, 2). + + See Taylor, _Law of Evidence_ (10th ed., London, 1906); Erskine + _Principles of the Law of Scotland_ (20th ed., Edinburgh, 1903); + Bouvier, _Law Dicty._ (Boston and London, 1897); Harris, + _Identification_ (Albany, 1892); Hagan, _Disputed Handwriting_ (New + York, 1894); also the article IDENTIFICATION. (A. W. R.) + + + + +HANG-CHOW-FU, a city of China, in the province of Cheh-Kiang, 2 m. N.W. +of the Tsien-tang-Kiang, at the southern terminus of the Grand canal, by +which it communicates with Peking. It lies about 100 m. S.W. of +Shanghai, in 30° 20´ 20´´ N., 120° 7´ 27´´ E. Towards the west is the +Si-hu or Western Lake, a beautiful sheet of water, with its banks and +islands studded with villas, monuments and gardens, and its surface +traversed by gaily-painted pleasure boats. Exclusive of extensive and +flourishing suburbs, the city has a circuit, of 12 m.; its streets are +well paved and clean; and it possesses a large number of arches, public +monuments, temples, hospitals and colleges. It has long ranked as one of +the great centres of Chinese commerce and Chinese learning. In 1869 the +silk manufactures alone were said to give employment to 60,000 persons +within its walls, and it has an extensive production of gold and silver +work and tinsel paper. On one of the islands in the lake is the great +Wên-lan-ko or pavilion of literary assemblies, and it is said that at +the examinations for the second degree, twice every three years, from +10,000 to 15,000 candidates come together. In the north-east corner of +the city is the Nestorian church which was noted by Marco Polo, the +façade being "elaborately carved and the gates covered with elegantly +wrought iron." There is a Roman Catholic mission in Hangchow, and the +Church Missionary Society, the American Presbyterians, and the Baptists +have stations. The local dialect differs from the Mandarin mainly in +pronunciation. The population, which is remarkable for gaiety of +clothing, was formerly reckoned at 2,000,000, but is now variously +estimated at 300,000, 400,000 or 800,000. Hang-chow-fu was declared open +to foreign trade in 1896, in pursuance of the Japanese treaty of +Shimonoseki. It is connected with Shanghai by inland canal, which is +navigable for boats drawing up to 4 ft. of water, and which might be +greatly improved by dredging. The cities of Shanghai, Hangchow and +Suchow form the three points of a triangle, each being connected with +the other by canal, and trade is now open by steam between all three +under the inland navigation rules. These canals pass through the richest +and most populous districts of China, and in particular lead into the +great silk-producing districts. They have for many centuries been the +highway of commerce, and afford a cheap and economical means of +transport. Hangchow lies at the head of the large estuary of that name, +which is, however, too shallow for navigation by steamers. The estuary +or bay is funnel-shaped, and its configuration produces at spring tides +a "bore" or tidal wave, which at its maximum reaches a height of 15 to +20 ft. The value of trade passing through the customs in 1899 was +£1,729,000; in 1904 these figures had risen to £2,543,831. + +Hang-chow-fu is the Kinsai of Marco Polo, who describes it as the finest +and noblest city in the world, and speaks enthusiastically of the number +and splendour of its mansions and the wealth and luxuriance of its +inhabitants. According to this authority it had a circuit of 100 m., and +no fewer than 12,000 bridges and 3000 baths. The name Kinsai, which +appears in Wassaf as Khanzai, in Ibn Batuta as Khansa, in Odoric of +Pordenone as Camsay, and elsewhere as Campsay and Cassay, is really a +corruption of the Chinese _King-sze_, capital, the same word which is +still applied to Peking. From the 10th to the 13th century (960-1272) +the city, whose real name was then Ling-nan, was the capital of southern +China and the seat of the Sung dynasty, which was dethroned by the +Mongolians shortly before Marco Polo's visit. Up to 1861, when it was +laid in ruins by the T'aip'ings, Hangchow continued to maintain its +position as one of the most flourishing cities in the empire. + + + + +HANGING, one of the modes of execution under Roman law (_ad furcam +domnatio_), and in England and some other countries the usual form of +capital punishment. It was derived by the Anglo-Saxons from their German +ancestors (Tacitus, _Germ._ 12). Under William the Conqueror this mode +of punishment is said to have been disused in favour of mutilation: but +Henry I. decreed that all thieves taken should be hanged (i.e. summarily +without trial), and by the time of Henry II. hanging was fully +established as a punishment for homicide; the "right of pit and +gallows" was ordinarily included in the royal grants of jurisdiction to +lords of manors and to ecclesiastical[1] and municipal corporations. In +the middle ages every town, abbey, and nearly all the more important +manorial lords had the right of hanging. The clergy had rights, too, in +respect to the gallows. Thus William the Conqueror invested the abbot of +Battle Abbey with authority to save the life of any criminal. From the +end of the 12th century the jurisdiction of the royal courts gradually +became exclusive; as early as 1212 the king's justices sentenced +offenders to be hanged (_Seld. Soc. Publ._ vol. i.; _Select Pleas of the +Crown_, p. 111), and in the Gloucester eyre of 1221 instances of this +sentence are numerous (Maitland, pl. 72, 101, 228). In 1241 a nobleman's +son, William Marise, was hanged for piracy. In the reign of Edward I. +the abbot of Peterborough set up a gallows at Collingham, Notts, and +hanged a thief. In 1279 two hundred and eighty Jews were hanged for +clipping coin. The mayor and the porter of the South Gate of Exeter were +hanged for their neglect in leaving the city gate open at night, thereby +aiding the escape of a murderer. Hanging in time superseded all other +forms of capital punishment for felony. It was substituted in 1790 for +burning as a punishment of female traitors and in 1814 for beheading as +a punishment for male traitors. The older and more primitive modes of +carrying out the sentence were by hanging from the bough of a tree ("the +father to the bough, the son to the plough") or from a gallows. Formerly +in the worst cases of murder it was customary after execution to hang +the criminal's body in chains near the scene of his crime. This was +known as "gibbeting," and, though by no means rare in the earliest +times, was, according to Blackstone, no part of the legal sentence. +Holinshed is the authority for the statement that sometimes culprits +were gibbeted alive, but this is doubtful. It was not until 1752 that +gibbeting was recognized by statute. The act (25 Geo. II. c. 37) +empowered the judges to direct that the dead body of a murderer should +be hung in chains, in the manner practised for the most atrocious +offences, or given over to surgeons to be dissected and anatomized, and +forbade burial except after dissection (see Foster, Crown Law, 107, Earl +Ferrers' case, 1760). The hanging in chains was usually on the spot +where the murder took place. Pirates were gibbeted on the sea shore or +river bank. The act of 1752 was repealed in 1828, but the alternatives +of dissection or hanging in chains were re-enacted and continued in use +until abolished as to dissection by the Anatomy Act in 1832, and as to +hanging in chains in 1834. The last murderer hung in chains seems to +have been James Cook, executed at Leicester on the 10th of August 1832. +The irons used on that occasion are preserved in Leicester prison. +Instead of chains, gibbet irons, a framework to hold the limbs together, +were sometimes used. At the town hall, Rye, Sussex, are preserved the +irons used in 1742 for one John Breeds who murdered the mayor. + +The earlier modes of hanging were gradually disused, and the present +system of hanging by use of the drop is said to have been inaugurated at +the execution of the fourth Earl Ferrers in 1760. The form of scaffold +now in use[2] has under the gallows a drop constructed on the principle +of the trap-doors on a theatrical stage, upon which the convict is +placed under the gallows, a white cap is placed over his head, and when +the halter has been properly adjusted the drop is withdrawn by a +mechanical contrivance worked by a lever, much like those in use on +railways for moving points and signals. The convict falls into a pit, +the length of the fall being regulated by his height and weight. Death +results not from real hanging and strangulation, but from a fracture of +the cervical vertebrae. Compression of the windpipe by the rope and the +obstruction of the circulation aid in the fatal result. Recently the +noose has had imbedded in its fibre a metal eyelet which is adjusted +tightly beneath the ear and considerably expedites death. The convict is +left hanging until life is extinct. + +It was long considered essential that executions, like trials, should be +public, and be carried out in a manner calculated to impress evil-doers. +Partly to this idea, partly to notions of revenge and temporal +punishment of sin, is probably due the rigour of the administration of +the English law. But the methods of execution were unseemly, as +delineated in Hogarth's print of the execution of the idle apprentice, +and were ineffectual in reducing the bulk of crime, which was augmented +by the inefficiency of the police and the uncertainty and severity of +the law, which rendered persons tempted to commit crime either reckless +or confident of escape. The scandals attending public executions led to +an attempt to alter the law in 1841, although many protests had been +made long before, among them those of the novelist Fielding. But perhaps +the most forcible and effectual was that of Charles Dickens in his +letters to _The Times_ written after mixing in the crowd gathered to +witness the execution of the Mannings at Horsemonger Lane gaol in 1849. +After his experiences he came to the conclusion that public executions +attracted the depraved and those affected by morbid curiosity; and that +the spectacle had neither the solemnity nor the salutary effect which +should attend the execution of public justice. His views were strongly +resisted in some quarters; and it was not until 1868 (31 & 32 Vict. c. +24) that they were accepted. The last public hanging in England was that +of Michael Barrett for murder by causing an explosion at Clerkenwell +prison with the object of releasing persons confined there for treason +and felony (Ann. Reg., 1868, p. 63). Under the act of 1868 (31 & 32 +Vict. c. 24), which was adapted from similar legislation already in +force in the Australian colonies convicted murderers are hanged within +the walls of a prison. The sentence of the court is that the convict "be +hanged by the neck until he is dead." The execution of the sentence +devolves on the sheriff of the county (Sheriffs Act 1887, s. 13). As a +general rule the sentence is carried out in England and Ireland at 8 +A.M. on a week-day (not being Monday), in the week following the third +Sunday after sentence was passed. In old times prisoners were often +hanged on the day after sentence was passed; and under the act of 1752 +this was made the rule in cases of murder. A public notice of the date +and hour of execution must be posted on the prison walls not less than +twelve hours before the execution and must remain until the inquest is +over. The persons required to be present are the sheriff, the gaoler, +chaplain and surgeon of the prison, and such other officers of the +prison as the sheriff requires; justices of the peace for the +jurisdiction to which the prison belongs, and such of the relatives, or +such other persons as the sheriff or visiting justices allow, may also +attend. It is usual to allow the attendance of some representatives of +the press. The death of the prisoner is certified by the prison surgeon, +and a declaration that judgment of death has been executed is signed by +the sheriff. An inquest is then held on the body by the coroner for the +jurisdiction and a jury from which prison officers are excluded. The +certificate and declaration, and a duplicate of the coroner's inquiry +also, are sent to the home office, or in Ireland to the lord-lieutenant, +and the body of the prisoner is interred in quicklime within the prison +walls if space is available. It is also the practice to toll the bell of +the parish or other neighbouring church, for fifteen minutes before and +fifteen minutes after the execution. The hoisting of the black flag at +the moment of execution was abolished in 1902. The regulations as to +execution are printed in the Statutory Rules and Orders, Revised ed. +1904, vol. x. (tits. Prison E. and Prison I). The act of 1868 applies +only to executions for murder; but since the passing of the act there +have been no executions for any other crime within the United Kingdom. +(See further CAPITAL PUNISHMENT.) + +In Scotland execution by hanging is carried out in the same manner as in +England and Ireland, but under the supervision of the magistrates of the +burgh in which it is decreed to take place, and in lieu of the inquest +required in England and Ireland an inquiry is held at the instance of +the procurator-fiscal before a sheriff or sheriff substitute (act of +1868, s. 13). The procedure at the execution is governed by the act of +1868 and the Scottish Prison Rules, rr. 465-469 (Stat. Rules and Orders, +Revised ed. 1904, tit. Prison S). + +_British Dominions beyond the Seas._--Throughout the King's dominions +hanging is the regular method of executing sentence of death. In India +the Penal Code superseded the modes of punishment under Mahommedan law, +and s. 368 of the Criminal Procedure Code of 1898 provides that sentence +of death is to be executed by hanging by the neck. + +In Canada the sentence is executed within a prison under conditions very +similar to those in England (Criminal Code, 1892; ss. 936-945). In +Australia the execution takes place within the prison walls, at a time +and place appointed by the governor of the state. See Queensland Code, +1899, s. 664; Western Australia Code, 1901, s. 663; in these states no +inquest is held. In Western Australia the governor may cause an +aboriginal native to be executed outside a prison. In New Zealand the +only mode of execution is by hanging within a prison (Act of 1883). + +_United States._---In all the states except New York, Massachusetts, New +Jersey, North Carolina, Mississippi, Virginia, and Ohio (see +ELECTROCUTION) persons sentenced to death are hanged. In Utah the +criminal may elect to be shot instead. + + The only countries, whose law is not of direct English origin, which + inflict capital punishment by hanging are Japan, Austria, Hungary and + Russia. (W. F. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See Pollock and Maitland vol. i. 563. The sole survival of these + grants is the jurisdiction of the justices of the Soke of + Peterborough to try for capital offences at their quarter sessions. + + [2] In most counties in Ireland the scaffold used (in 1852) to + consist in an iron balcony permanently fixed outside the gaol wall. + There was a small door in the wall commanding the balcony and opening + out upon it. The bottom of the iron balcony or cage was so + constructed that on the withdrawal of a pin or bolt which could be + managed from within the gaol, the trap-door upon which the culprit + stood dropped from under his feet. The upper end of the rope was + fastened to a strong iron bar, which projected over the trap-door. + There were usually two or three trap-doors on the same balcony, so + that, if required, two or more men could be hanged simultaneously. + (Trench, _Realities of Irish Life_ (1869), 280.) + + + + +HANGÖ, a port and sea-bathing resort situated on the promontory of +Hangöudd, to the extreme south-west of Finland. Hangö owes its +commercial importance to the fact that it is practically the only winter +ice-free port in Finland, and is thus of value both to the Finnish and +the Russian sea-borne trade. When incorporated in 1874 it had only a few +hundred inhabitants; in 1900 it had 2501 and it has now over six +thousand (5986 in 1904). It is connected by railway with Helsingfors and +Tammerfors, and is the centre of the Finnish butter export, which now +amounts to over £1,000,000 yearly. There is a considerable import of +coal, cotton, iron and breadstuffs, the chief exports being butter, +fish, timber and wood pulp. During the period of emigration, owing to +political troubles with Russia, over 12,000 Finns sailed from Hangö in a +single year (1901), mostly for the United States and Canada. Hangö now +takes front rank as a fashionable watering-place, especially for wealthy +Russians, having a dry climate and a fine strand. + + + + +HANKA, WENCESLAUS (1791-1861), Bohemian philologist, was born at +Horeniowes, a hamlet of eastern Bohemia, on the 10th of June 1791. He +was sent in 1807 to school at Königgrätz, to escape the conscription, +then to the university of Prague, where he founded a society for the +cultivation of the Czech language. At Vienna, where he afterwards +studied law, he established a Czech periodical; and in 1813 he made the +acquaintance of Joseph Dobrowsky, the eminent philologist. On the 16th +of September 1817 Hanka alleged that he had discovered some ancient +Bohemian manuscript poems (the Königinhof MS.) of the 13th and 14th +century in the church tower of the village of Kralodwor, or Königinhof. +These were published in 1818, under the title _Kralodworsky Rukopis_, +with a German translation by Swoboda. Great doubt, however, was felt as +to their genuineness, and Dobrowsky, by pronouncing _The Judgment of +Libussa_, another manuscript found by Hanka, an "obvious fraud," +confirmed the suspicion. Some years afterwards Dobrowsky saw fit to +modify his decision, but by modern Czech scholars the MS. is regarded as +a forgery. A translation into English, _The Manuscript of the Queen's +Court_, was made by Wratislaw in 1852. The originals were presented by +the discoverer to the Bohemian museum at Prague, of which he was +appointed librarian in 1818. In 1848 Hanka, who was an ardent +Panslavist, took part in the Slavonic congress and other peaceful +national demonstrations, being the founder of the political society +Slovanska Lipa. He was elected to the imperial diet at Vienna, but +declined to take his seat. In the winter of 1848 he became lecturer and +in 1849 professor of Slavonic languages in the university of Prague, +where he died on the 12th of January 1861. + + His chief works and editions are the following: _Hankowy Pjsne_ + (Prague, 1815), a volume of poems; _Starobyla Skladani_ (1817-1826), + in 5 vols.--a collection of old Bohemian poems, chiefly from + unpublished manuscripts; _A Short History of the Slavonic Peoples_ + (1818); _A Bohemian Grammar_ (1822) and _A Polish Grammar_ + (1839)--these grammars were composed on a plan suggested by Dobrowsky; + _Igor_ (1821), an ancient Russian epic, with a translation into + Bohemian; a part of the Gospels from the Reims manuscript in the + Glagolitic character (1846); the old Bohemian Chronicles of _Dalimil_ + (1848) and the _History of Charles IV._, by Procop Lupác (1848); + _Evangelium Ostromis_ (1853). + + + + +HANKOW ("Mouth of the Han"), the great commercial centre of the middle +portion of the Chinese empire, and since 1858 one of the principal +places opened to foreign trade. It is situated on the northern side of +the Yangtsze-kiang at its junction with the Han river, about 600 m. W. +of Shanghai in 30° 32´ 51´´ N., 114° 19´ 55´´ E., at a height of 150 ft. +By the Chinese it is not considered a separate city, but as a suburb of +the now decadent city of Hanyang; and it may almost be said to stand in +a similar relation to Wu-chang the capital of the province of Hupeh, +which lies immediately opposite on the southern bank of the +Yangtsze-kiang. Hankow extends for about a mile along the main river and +about two and a half along the Han. It is protected by a wall 18 ft. +high, which was erected in 1863 and has a circuit of about 4 m. Within +recent years the port has made rapid advance in wealth and importance. +The opening up of the upper waters of the Yangtsze to steam navigation +has made it a commercial _entrepôt_ second only to Shanghai. It is the +terminus of a railway between Peking and the Yangtsze, the northern half +of the trunk line from Peking to Canton. There is daily communication by +regular lines of steamers with Shanghai, and smaller steamers ply on the +upper section of the river between Hankow and Ich'ang. The principal +article of export continues to be black tea, of which staple Hankow has +always been the central market. The bulk of the leaf tea, however, now +goes to Russia by direct steamers to Odessa instead of to London as +formerly, and a large quantity goes overland via Tientsin and Siberia in +the form of brick tea. The quantity of brick tea thus exported in 1904 +was upwards of 10 million lb. The exports which come next in value are +opium, wood-oil, hides, beans, cotton yarn and raw silk. The population +of Hankow, together with the city of Wu-chang on the opposite bank, is +estimated at 800,000, and the number of foreign residents is about 500. +Large iron-works have been erected by the Chinese authorities at +Hanyang, a couple of miles higher up the river, and at Wuchang there are +two official cotton mills. The British concession, on which the business +part of the foreign settlement is built, was obtained in 1861 by a lease +in perpetuity from the Chinese authorities in favour of the crown. By +1863 a great embankment and a roadway were completed along the river, +which may rise as much as 50 ft. or more above its ordinary levels, and +not infrequently, as in 1849 and 1866, lays a large part of the town +under water. On the former occasion little was left uncovered but the +roofs of the houses. In 1864 a public assay office was established. +Sub-leases for a term of years are granted by the crown to private +individuals; local control, including the policing of the settlement, is +managed by a municipal council elected under regulations promulgated by +the British minister in China, acting by authority of the sovereign's +orders in council. Foreigners, i.e. non-British, are admitted to become +lease-holders on their submitting to be bound by the municipal +regulations. The concession, however, gives no territorial jurisdiction. +All foreigners, of whatever nationality, are justiciable only before +their own consular authorities by virtue of the extra-territorial +clauses of their treaties with China. In 1895 a concession, on similar +terms to that under which the British is held, was obtained by Germany, +and this was followed by concessions to France and Russia. These three +concessions all lie on the north bank of the river and immediately below +the British. An extension of the British concession backwards was +granted in 1898. The Roman Catholics, the London Missionary Society and +the Wesleyans have all missions in the town; and there are two +missionary hospitals. The total trade in 1904 was valued at £15,401,076 +(£9,042,190 being exports and £6,358,886 imports) as compared with a +total of £17,183,400 in 1891 and £11,628,000 in 1880. + + + + +HANLEY, a market town and parliamentary borough of Staffordshire, +England, in the Potteries district, 148 m. N.W. from London, on the +North Staffordshire railway. Pop. (1891) 54,946; (1901) 61,599. The +parliamentary borough includes the adjoining town of Burslem. The town, +which lies on high ground, has handsome municipal buildings, free +library, technical and art museum, elementary, science and art schools, +and a large park. Its manufactures include porcelain, encaustic tiles, +and earthenware, and give employment to the greater part of the +population, women and children being employed almost as largely as men. +In the neighbourhood coal and iron are obtained. Hanley is of modern +development. Its municipal constitution dates from 1857, the +parliamentary borough from 1885, and the county borough from 1888. +Shelton, Hope, Northwood and Wellington are populous ecclesiastical +parishes included within its boundaries. That of Etruria, adjoining on +the west, originated in the Ridge House pottery works of Josiah Wedgwood +and Thomas Bentley, who founded them in 1769, naming them after the +country of the Etruscans in Italy. Etruria Hall was the scene of +Wedgwood's experiments. The parliamentary borough of Hanley returns one +member. The town was governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen, and 18 councillors +until under the "Potteries federation" scheme (1908) it became part of +the borough of Stoke-on-Trent (q.v.) in 1910. + + + + +HANNA, MARCUS ALONZO (1837-1904), American politician, was born at New +Lisbon (now Lisbon) Columbiana county, Ohio, on the 24th of September +1837. In 1852 he removed with his father to Cleveland, where the latter +established himself in the wholesale grocery business, and the son +received his education in the public schools of that city, and at the +Western Reserve University. Leaving college before the completion of his +course, he became associated with his father in business, and on his +father's death (1862) became a member of the firm. In 1867 he entered +into partnership with his father-in-law, Daniel P. Rhodes, in the coal +and iron business. It was largely due to Hanna's progressive methods +that the business of the firm, which became M. A. Hanna & Company in +1877, was extended to include the ownership of a fleet of lake +steam-ships constructed in their own shipyards, and the control and +operation of valuable coal and iron mines. Subsequently he became +largely interested in street railway properties in Cleveland and +elsewhere, and in various banking institutions. In early life he had +little time for politics, but after 1880 he became prominent in the +affairs of the Republican party in Cleveland, and in 1884 and 1888 was a +delegate to the Republican National Convention, in the latter year being +associated with William McKinley in the management of the John Sherman +canvass. It was not, however, until 1896, when he personally managed the +canvass that resulted in securing the Republican presidential nomination +for William McKinley at the St Louis Convention (at which he was a +delegate), that he became known throughout the United States as a +political manager of great adroitness, tact and resourcefulness. +Subsequently he became chairman of the Republican National Committee, +and managed with consummate skill the campaign of 1896 against William +Jennings Bryan and "free-silver." In March 1897 he was appointed, by +Governor Asa S. Bushnell (1834-1904) United States senator from Ohio, to +succeed John Sherman. In the senate, to which in January 1898 he was +elected for the short term ending on the 3rd of March 1899 and for the +succeeding full term, he took little part in the debates, but was +recognized as one of the principal advisers of the McKinley +administration, and his influence was large in consequence. Apart from +politics he took a deep and active interest in the problems of capital +and labour, was one of the organizers (1901) and the first president of +the National Civic Federation, whose purpose was to solve social and +industrial problems, and in December 1901 became chairman of a permanent +board of conciliation and arbitration established by the Federation. +After President Roosevelt's policies became defined, Senator Hanna came +to be regarded as the leader of the conservative branch of the +Republican party and a possible presidential candidate in 1904. He died +at Washington on the 15th of February 1904. + + + + +HANNAY, JAMES (1827-1873), Scottish critic, novelist and publicist, was +born at Dumfries on the 17th of February 1827. He came of the Hannays of +Sorbie, an ancient Galloway family. He entered the navy in 1840 and +served till 1845, when he adopted literature as his profession. He acted +as reporter on the _Morning Chronicle_ and gradually obtained a +connexion, writing for the quarterly and monthly journals. In 1857 +Hannay contested the Dumfries burghs in the Conservative interest, but +without success. He edited the _Edinburgh Courant_ from 1860 till 1864, +when he removed to London. From 1868 till his death on the 8th of +January 1873 he was British consul at Barcelona. His letters to the +_Pall Mall Gazette_ "From an Englishman in Spain" were highly +appreciated. Hannay's best books are his two naval novels, _Singleton +Fontenoy_ (1850) and _Eustace Conyers_ (1855); _Satire and Satirists_ +(1854); and _Essays from the Quarterly Review_ (1861). _Satire_ not only +shows loving appreciation of the great satirists of the past, but is +itself instinct with wit and fine satiric power. The book sparkles with +epigrams and apposite classical allusions, and contains admirable +critical estimates of Horace (Hannay's favourite author), Juvenal, +Erasmus, Sir David Lindsay, George Buchanan, Boileau, Butler, Dryden, +Swift, Pope, Churchill, Burns, Byron and Moore. + + Among his other works are _Biscuits and Grog, Claret Cup_, and _Hearts + are Trumps_ (1848); _King Dobbs_ (1849); _Sketches in Ultramarine_ + (1853); an edition of the _Poems_ of Edgar Allan Poe, to which he + prefixed an essay on the poet's life and genius (1852); _Characters + and Criticisms_, consisting mainly of his contributions to the + _Edinburgh Courant_ (1865); _A Course of English Literature_ (1866); + _Studies on Thackeray_ (1869); and a family history entitled _Three + Hundred Years of a Norman House_ (the Gurneys) (1867). + + + + +HANNEN, JAMES HANNEN, BARON (1821-1894), English judge, son of a London +merchant, was born at Peckham in 1821. He was educated at St Paul's +school and at Heidelberg University, which was famous as a school of +law. Called to the bar at the Middle Temple in 1848, he joined the home +circuit. At this time he also wrote for the press, and supplied special +reports for the _Morning Chronicle_. Though not eloquent in speech, he +was clear, accurate and painstaking, and soon advanced in his +profession, passing many more brilliant competitors. He appeared for the +claimant in the Shrewsbury peerage case in 1858, when the 3rd Earl +Talbot was declared to be entitled to the earldom of Shrewsbury as the +descendant of the 2nd earl; was principal agent for Great Britain on the +mixed British and American commission for the settlement of outstanding +claims, 1853-1855; and assisted in the prosecution of the Fenian +prisoners at Manchester. In 1868 Hannen was appointed a judge of the +Court of Queen's Bench. In many cases he took a strong position of his +own, notably in that of _Farrar_ v. _Close_ (1869), which materially +affected the legal status of trade unions and was regarded by unionists +as a severe blow to their interests. Hannen became judge of the Probate +and Divorce Court in 1872, and in 1875 he was appointed president of the +probate and admiralty division of the High Court of Justice. Here he +showed himself a worthy successor to Cresswell and Penzance. Many +important causes came before him, but he will chiefly be remembered for +the manner in which he presided over the Parnell special commission. His +influence pervaded the whole proceedings, and it is understood that he +personally penned a large part of the voluminous report. Hannen's last +public service was in connexion with the Bering Sea inquiry at Paris, +when he acted as one of the British arbitrators. In January 1891 he was +appointed a lord of appeal in ordinary (with the dignity of a life +peerage), but in that capacity he had few opportunities for displaying +his powers, and he retired at the close of the session of 1893. He died +in London, after a prolonged illness, on the 29th of March 1894. + + + + +HANNIBAL ("mercy" or "favour of Baal"), Carthaginian general and +statesman, son of Hamilcar Barca (q.v.), was born in 249 or 247 B.C. +Destined by his father to succeed him in the work of vengeance against +Rome, he was taken to Spain, and while yet a boy gave ample evidence of +his military aptitude. Upon the death of his brother-in-law Hasdrubal +(221) he was acclaimed commander-in-chief by the soldiers and confirmed +in his appointment by the Carthaginian government. After two years spent +in completing the conquest of Spain south of the Ebro, he set himself to +begin what he felt to be his life's task, the conquest and humiliation +of Rome. Accordingly in 219 he seized some pretext for attacking the +town of Saguntum (mod. Murviedro), which stood under the special +protection of Rome, and disregarding the protests of Roman envoys, +stormed it after an eight months' siege. As the home government, in view +of Hannibal's great popularity, did not venture to repudiate this +action, the declaration of war which he desired took place at the end of +the year. + +Of the large army of Libyan and Spanish mercenaries which he had at his +disposal Hannibal selected the most trustworthy and devoted contingents, +and with these determined to execute the daring plan of carrying the war +into the heart of Italy by a rapid march through Spain and Gaul. +Starting in the spring of 218 he easily fought his way through the +northern tribes to the Pyrenees, and by conciliating the Gaulish chiefs +on his passage contrived to reach the Rhone before the Romans could take +any measures to bar his advance. After out-manoeuvring the natives, who +endeavoured to prevent his crossing, Hannibal evaded a Roman force sent +to operate against him in Gaul; he proceeded up the valley of one of the +tributaries of the Rhone (Isère or, more probably, Durance), and by +autumn arrived at the foot of the Alps. His passage over the +mountain-chain, at a point which cannot be determined with certainty, +though the balance of the available evidence inclines to the Mt Genèvre +pass, and fair cases can be made out for the Col d'Argentière and for Mt +Cenis, was one of the most memorable achievements of any military force +of ancient times. Though the opposition of the natives and the +difficulties of ground and climate cost Hannibal half his army, his +perilous march brought him directly into Roman territory and entirely +frustrated the attempts of the enemy to fight out the main issue on +foreign ground. His sudden appearance among the Gauls, moreover, enabled +him to detach most of the tribes from their new allegiance to the Romans +before the latter could take steps to check rebellion. After allowing +his soldiers a brief rest to recover from their exertions Hannibal first +secured his rear by subduing the hostile tribe of the Taurini (mod. +Turin), and moving down the Po valley forced the Romans by virtue of his +superior cavalry to evacuate the plain of Lombardy. In December of the +same year he had an opportunity of showing his superior military skill +when the Roman commander attacked him on the river Trebia (near +Placentia); after wearing down the excellent Roman infantry he cut it to +pieces by a surprise attack from an ambush in the flank. Having secured +his position in north Italy by this victory, he quartered his troops for +the winter on the Gauls, whose zeal in his cause thereupon began to +abate. Accordingly in spring 217 Hannibal decided to find a more +trustworthy base of operations farther south; he crossed the Apennines +without opposition, but in the marshy lowlands of the Arno he lost a +large part of his force through disease and himself became blind in one +eye. Advancing through the uplands of Etruria he provoked the main Roman +army to a hasty pursuit, and catching it in a defile on the shore of +Lake Trasimenus destroyed it in the waters or on the adjoining slopes +(see TRASIMENE). He had now disposed of the only field force which could +check his advance upon Rome, but realizing that without siege engines he +could not hope to take the capital, he preferred to utilize his victory +by passing into central and southern Italy and exciting a general revolt +against the sovereign power. Though closely watched by a force under +Fabius Maximus Cunctator, he was able to carry his ravages far and wide +through Italy: on one occasion he was entrapped in the lowlands of +Campania, but set himself free by a stratagem which completely deluded +his opponent. For the winter he found comfortable quarters in the +Apulian plain, into which the enemy dared not descend. In the campaign +of 217 Hannibal had failed to obtain a following among the Italians; in +the following year he had an opportunity of turning the tide in his +favour. A large Roman army advanced into Apulia in order to crush him, +and accepted battle on the site of Cannae. Thanks mainly to brilliant +cavalry tactics, Hannibal, with much inferior numbers, managed to +surround and cut to pieces the whole of this force; moreover, the moral +effect of this victory was such that all the south of Italy joined his +cause. Had Hannibal now received proper material reinforcements from his +countrymen at Carthage he might have made a direct attack upon Rome; for +the present he had to content himself with subduing the fortresses which +still held out against him, and the only other notable event of 216 was +the defection of Capua, the second largest city of Italy, which Hannibal +made his new base. + +In the next few years Hannibal was reduced to minor operations which +centred mainly round the cities of Campania. He failed to draw his +opponents into a pitched battle, and in some slighter engagements +suffered reverses. As the forces detached under his lieutenants were +generally unable to hold their own, and neither his home government nor +his new ally Philip V. of Macedon helped to make good his losses, his +position in south Italy became increasingly difficult and his chance of +ultimately conquering Rome grew ever more remote. In 212 he gained an +important success by capturing Tarentum, but in the same year he lost +his hold upon Campania, where he failed to prevent the concentration of +three Roman armies round Capua. Hannibal attacked the besieging armies +with his full force in 211, and attempted to entice them away by a +sudden march through Samnium which brought him within 3 m. of Rome, but +caused more alarm than real danger to the city. But the siege continued, +and the town fell in the same year. In 210 Hannibal again proved his +superiority in tactics by a severe defeat inflicted at Herdoniae (mod. +Ordona) in Apulia upon a proconsular army, and in 208 destroyed a Roman +force engaged in the siege of Locri Epizephyrii. But with the loss of +Tarentum in 209 and the gradual reconquest by the Romans of Samnium and +Lucania his hold on south Italy was almost lost. In 207 he succeeded in +making his way again into Apulia, where he waited to concert measures +for a combined march upon Rome with his brother Hasdrubal (q.v.). On +hearing, however, of his brother's defeat and death at the Metaurus he +retired into the mountain fastnesses of Bruttium, where he maintained +himself for the ensuing years. With the failure of his brother Mago +(q.v.) in Liguria (205-203) and of his own negotiations with Philip of +Macedon, the last hope of recovering his ascendancy in Italy was lost. +In 203, when Scipio was carrying all before him in Africa and the +Carthaginian peace-party were arranging an armistice, Hannibal was +recalled from Italy by the "patriot" party at Carthage. After leaving a +record of his expedition, engraved in Punic and Greek upon brazen +tablets, in the temple of Juno at Crotona, he sailed back to Africa. His +arrival immediately restored the predominance of the war-party, who +placed him in command of a combined force of African levies and of his +mercenaries from Italy. In 202 Hannibal, after meeting Scipio in a +fruitless peace conference, engaged him in a decisive battle at Zama. +Unable to cope with his indifferent troops against the well-trained and +confident Roman soldiers, he experienced a crushing defeat which put an +end to all resistance on the part of Carthage. + +Hannibal was still only in his forty-sixth year. He soon showed that he +could be a statesman as well as a soldier. Peace having been concluded, +he was appointed chief magistrate (_suffetes, sofet_). The office had +become rather insignificant, but Hannibal restored its power and +authority. The oligarchy, always jealous of him, had even charged him +with having betrayed the interests of his country while in Italy, and +neglected to take Rome when he might have done so. The dishonesty and +incompetence of these men had brought the finances of Carthage into +grievous disorder. So effectively did Hannibal reform abuses that the +heavy tribute imposed by Rome could be paid by instalments without +additional and extraordinary taxation. + +Seven years after the victory of Zama, the Romans, alarmed at this new +prosperity, demanded Hannibal's surrender. Hannibal thereupon went into +voluntary exile. First he journeyed to Tyre, the mother-city of +Carthage, and thence to Ephesus, where he was honourably received by +Antiochus III. of Syria, who was then preparing for war with Rome. +Hannibal soon saw that the king's army was no match for the Romans. He +advised him to equip a fleet and throw a body of troops on the south of +Italy, adding that he would himself take the command. But he could not +make much impression on Antiochus, who listened more willingly to +courtiers and flatterers, and would not entrust Hannibal with any +important charge. In 190 he was placed in command of a Phoenician fleet, +but was defeated in a battle off the river Eurymedon. + +From the court of Antiochus, who seemed prepared to surrender him to the +Romans, Hannibal fled to Crete, but he soon went back to Asia, and +sought refuge with Prusias, king of Bithynia. Once more the Romans were +determined to hunt him out, and they sent Flaminius to insist on his +surrender. Prusias agreed to give him up, but Hannibal did not choose to +fall into his enemies' hands. At Libyssa, on the eastern shore of the +Sea of Marmora, he took poison, which, it was said, he had long carried +about with him in a ring. The precise year of his death was a matter of +controversy. If, as Livy seems to imply, it was 183, he died in the same +year as Scipio Africanus. + +As to the transcendent military genius of Hannibal there cannot be two +opinions. The man who for fifteen years could hold his ground in a +hostile country against several powerful armies and a succession of able +generals must have been a commander and a tactician of supreme capacity. +In the use of stratagems and ambuscades he certainly surpassed all other +generals of antiquity. Wonderful as his achievements were, we must +marvel the more when we take into account the grudging support he +received from Carthage. As his veterans melted away, he had to organize +fresh levies on the spot. We never hear of a mutiny in his army, +composed though it was of Africans, Spaniards and Gauls. Again, all we +know of him comes for the most part from hostile sources. The Romans +feared and hated him so much that they could not do him justice. Livy +speaks of his great qualities, but he adds that his vices were equally +great, among which he singles out his "more than Punic perfidy" and "an +inhuman cruelty." For the first there would seem to be no further +justification than that he was consummately skilful in the use of +ambuscades. For the latter there is, we believe, no more ground than +that at certain crises he acted in the general spirit of ancient +warfare. Sometimes he contrasts most favourably with his enemy. No such +brutality stains his name as that perpetrated by Claudius Nero on the +vanquished Hasdrubal. Polybius merely says that he was accused of +cruelty by the Romans and of avarice by the Carthaginians. He had indeed +bitter enemies, and his life was one continuous struggle against +destiny. For steadfastness of purpose, for organizing capacity and a +mastery of military science he has perhaps never had an equal. + + AUTHORITIES.--Polybius iii.-xv., xxi.-ii., xxiv.; Livy xxi.-xxx.; + Cornelius Nepos, _Vita Hannibalis_; Appian, _Bellum Hannibalicum_; E. + Hennebert, _Histoire d'Annibal_ (Paris, 1870-1891, 3 vols.); F. A. + Dodge, _Great Captains, Hannibal_ (Boston and New York, 1891); D. + Grassi, _Annibale giudicato da Polibio e Tito Livio_ (Vicenza, 1896); + W. How, _Hannibal and the Great War between Rome and Carthage_ + (London, 1899); Te Montanari, _Annibale_, down to 217 B.C. (Rovigo, + 1901); K. Lehmann, _Die Angriffe der drei Barkiden auf Italien_ + (Leipzig, 1905), with bibliography. See also PUNIC WARS and articles + on the chief battle sites. On Hannibal's passage through Gaul and the + Alps see T. Arnold, _The Second Punic War_ (ed. W. T. Arnold, London, + 1886), Appendix B, pp. 362-373, with bibliography; D. Freshfield in + _Alpine Journal_ (1883), pp. 267-300; L. Montlahuc, _Le Vrai Chemin + d'Annibal à travers les Alpes_ (Paris, 1896); J. Fuchs, _Hannibals + Alpenübergang_ (Vienna, 1897); G. E. Marindin in _Classical Review_ + (1899), pp. 238-249; W. Osiander, _Der Hannibalweg neu untersucht_ + (Berlin, 1900); P. Azan, _Annibal dans les Alpes_ (Paris, 1902); J. L. + Colin, _Annibal en Gaule_ (Paris, 1904); E. Hesselmeyer, _Hannibals + Alpenübergang im Lichte der neueren Kriegsgeschichte_, (1906); + Kromyer, in _N. Jahrb. f. kl. Alt._ (1907). (M. O. B. C.) + + + + +HANNIBAL, a city of Marion county, Missouri, U.S.A., on the Mississippi +river, about 120 m. N.W. of Saint Louis. Pop. (1890), 12,857; (1900), +12,780, including 920 foreign-born and 1836 negroes; (1910) 18,341. It +is served by the Wabash, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the Chicago, +Burlington & Quincy, and the St Louis & Hannibal railways, and by boat +lines to Saint Louis, Saint Paul and intermediate points. The business +section is in the level bottom-lands of the river, while the residential +portion spreads up the banks, which afford fine building sites with +beautiful views. Mark Twain's boyhood was spent at Hannibal, which is +the setting of _Life on the Mississippi_, _Huckleberry Finn_ and _Tom +Sawyer_; Hannibal Cave, described in _Tom Sawyer_, extends for miles +beneath the river and its bluffs. Hannibal has a good public library +(1889; the first in Missouri); other prominent buildings are the Federal +building, the court house, a city hospital and the high school. The +river is here spanned by a long iron and steel bridge connecting with +East Hannibal, Ill. Hannibal is the trade centre of a rich agricultural +region, and has an important lumber trade, railway shops, and +manufactories of lumber, shoes, stoves, flour, cigars, lime, Portland +cement and pearl buttons (made from mussel shells); the value of the +city's factory products increased from $2,698,720 in 1900 to $4,442,099 +in 1905, or 64.6%. In the vicinity are valuable deposits of crinoid +limestone, a coarse white building stone which takes a good polish. The +electric-lighting plant is owned and operated by the municipality. +Hannibal was laid out as a town in 1819 (its origin going back to +Spanish land grants, which gave rise to much litigation) and was first +chartered as a city in 1839. The town of South Hannibal was annexed to +it in 1843. + + + + +HANNINGTON, JAMES (1847-1885), English missionary, was born at +Hurstpierpoint, in Sussex, on the 3rd of September 1847. From earliest +childhood he displayed a love of adventure and natural history. At +school he made little progress, and left at the age of fifteen for his +father's counting-house at Brighton. He had no taste for office work, +and much of his time was occupied in commanding a battery of volunteers +and in charge of a steam launch. At twenty-one he decided on a clerical +career and entered St Mary's Hall, Oxford, where he exercised a +remarkable influence over his fellow-undergraduates. He was, however, a +desultory student, and in 1870 was advised to go to the little village +of Martinhoe, in Devon, for quiet reading, but distinguished himself +more by his daring climbs after sea-gulls' eggs and his engineering +skill in cutting a pathway along precipitous cliffs to some caves. In +1872 the death of his mother made a deep impression upon him. He began +to read hard, took his B.A. degree, and in 1873 was ordained deacon and +placed in charge of the small country parish of Trentishoe in Devon. +Whilst curate in charge at Hurstpierpoint, his thoughts were turned by +the murder of two missionaries on the shores of Victoria Nyanza to +mission work. He offered himself to the Church Missionary Society and +sailed on the 17th of May 1882, at the head of a party of six, for +Zanzibar, and thence set out for Uganda; but, prostrated by fever and +dysentery, he was obliged to return to England in 1883. On his recovery +he was consecrated bishop of Eastern Equatorial Africa (June 1884), and +in January 1885 started again for the scene of his mission, and visited +Palestine on the way. On his arrival at Freretown, near Mombasa, he +visited many stations in the neighbourhood. Then, filled with the idea +of opening a new route to Uganda, he set out and reached a spot near +Victoria Nyanza in safety. His arrival, however, roused the suspicion of +the natives, and under King Mwanga's orders he was lodged in a filthy +hut swarming with rats and vermin. After eight days his men were +murdered, and on the 29th of October 1885 he himself was speared in both +sides, his last words to the soldiers appointed to kill him being, "Go, +tell Mwanga I have purchased the road to Uganda with my blood." + + His _Last Journals_ were edited in 1888. See also _Life_ by E. C. + Dawson (1887); and W. G. Berry, _Bishop Hannington_ (1908). + + + + + +HANNINGTON, a lake of British East Africa in the eastern rift-valley +just south of the equator and in the shadow of the Laikipia escarpment. +It is 7 m. long by 2 m. broad. The water is shallow and brackish. +Standing in the lake and along its shores are numbers of dead trees, the +remains of an ancient forest, which serve as eyries for storks, herons +and eagles. The banks and flats at the north end of the lake are the +resort of hundreds of thousands of flamingoes. The places where they +cluster are dazzling white with guano deposits. The lake is named after +Bishop James Hannington. + + + + +HANNO, the name of a large number of Carthaginian soldiers and +statesmen. Of the majority little is known; the most important are the +following[1]:-- + +1. HANNO, Carthaginian navigator, who probably flourished about 500 B.C. +It has been conjectured that he was the son of the Hamilcar who was +killed at Himera (480), but there is nothing to prove this. He was the +author of an account of a coasting voyage on the west coast of Africa, +undertaken for the purpose of exploration and colonization. The +original, inscribed on a tablet in the Phoenician language, was hung up +in the temple of Melkarth on his return to Carthage. What is generally +supposed to be a Greek translation of this is still extant, under the +title of _Periplus_, although its authenticity has been questioned. +Hanno appears to have advanced beyond Sierra Leone as far as Cape +Palmas. On the island which formed the terminus of his voyage the +explorer found a number of hairy women, whom the interpreters called +Gorillas ([Greek: Gorillas]). + + Valuable editions by T. Falconer (1797, with translation and defence + of its authenticity) and C. W. Müller in _Geographici Graeci minores_, + i.; see also E. H. Bunbury, _History of Ancient Geography_, i., and + treatise by C. T. Fischer (1893), with bibliography. + +2. HANNO (3rd century B.C.), called "the Great," Carthaginian statesman +and general, leader of the aristocratic party and the chief opponent of +Hamilcar and Hannibal. He appears to have gained his title from military +successes in Africa, but of these nothing is known. In 240 B.C. he drove +Hamilcar's veteran mercenaries to rebellion by withholding their pay, +and when invested with the command against them was so unsuccessful that +Carthage might have been lost but for the exertions of his enemy +Hamilcar (q.v.). Hanno subsequently remained at Carthage, exerting all +his influence against the democratic party, which, however, had now +definitely won the upper hand. During the Second Punic War he advocated +peace with Rome, and according to Livy even advised that Hannibal should +be given up to the Romans. After the battle of Zama (202) he was one of +the ambassadors sent to Scipio to sue for peace. Remarkably little is +known of him, considering the great influence he undoubtedly exercised +amongst his countrymen. + + Livy xxi. 3 ff., xxiii. 12; Polybius i. 67 ff.; Appian, _Res + Hispanicae_, 4, 5, _Res Punicae_, 34, 49, 68. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] For others of the name see CARTHAGE; HANNIBAL; PUNIC WARS. + Smith's _Classical Dictionary_ has notices of some thirty of the + name. + + + + +HANOI, capital of Tongking and of French Indo-China, on the right bank +of the Song-koi or Red river, about 80 m. from its mouth in the Gulf of +Tongking. Taking in the suburban population the inhabitants numbered in +1905 about 110,000, including 103,000 Annamese, 2289 Chinese and 2665 +French, exclusive of troops. Hanoi resembles a European city in the +possession of wide well-paved streets and promenades, systems of +electric light and drainage and a good water-supply. A crowded native +quarter built round a picturesque lake lies close to the river with the +European quarter to the south of it. The public buildings include the +palace of the governor-general, situated in a spacious botanical and +zoological garden, the large military hospital, the cathedral of St +Joseph, the Paul Bert college, and the theatre. The barracks and other +military buildings occupy the site of the old citadel, an area of over +300 acres, to the west of the native town. The so-called pagoda of the +Great Buddha is the chief native building. The river is embanked and is +crossed by the Pont Doumer, a fine railway bridge over 1 m. long. +Vessels drawing 8 or 9 ft. can reach the town. Hanoi is the seat of the +general government of Indo-China, of the resident-superior of Tongking, +and of a bishop, who is vicar-apostolic of central Tongking. It is +administered by an elective municipal council with a civil service +administrator as mayor. It has a chamber of commerce, the president of +which has a seat on the superior council of Indo-China; a chamber of the +court of appeal of Indo-China, a civil tribunal of the first order, and +is the seat of the chamber of agriculture of Tongking. Its industries +include cotton-spinning, brewing, distilling, and the manufacture of +tobacco, earthenware and matches; native industry produces carved and +inlaid furniture, bronzes and artistic metal-work, silk embroidery, &c. +Hanoi is the junction of railways to Hai-Phong, its seaport, Lao-Kay, +Vinh, and the Chinese frontier via Lang-Son. It is in frequent +communication with Hai-Phong by steamboat. + + See C. Madrolle, _Tonkin du sud: Hanoi_ (Paris, 1907). + + + + +HANOTAUX, ALBERT AUGUSTE GABRIEL (1853- ), French statesman and +historian, was born at Beaurevoir in the department of Aisne. He +received his historical training in the École des Chartes, and became +_maître de conférences_ in the École des Hautes Études. His political +career was rather that of a civil servant than of a party politician. In +1879 he entered the ministry of foreign affairs as a secretary, and rose +step by step through the diplomatic service. In 1886 he was elected +deputy for Aisne, but, defeated in 1889, he returned to his diplomatic +career, and on the 31st of May 1894 was chosen by Charles Dupuy to be +minister of foreign affairs. With one interruption (during the Ribot +ministry, from the 26th of January to the 2nd of November 1895) he held +this portfolio until the 14th of June 1898. During his ministry he +developed the _rapprochement_ of France with Russia--visiting St +Petersburg with the president, Felix Faure--and sent expeditions to +delimit the French colonies in Africa. The Fashoda incident of July 1898 +was a result of this policy, and Hanotaux's distrust of England is +frankly stated in his literary works. As an historian he published +_Origines de l'institution des intendants de provinces_ (1884), which is +the authoritative study on the intendants; _Études historiques sur les +XVI^e et XVII^e siècles en France_ (1886); _Histoire de Richelieu_ (2 +vols., 1888); and _Histoire de la Troisième République (1904, &c.), the +standard history of contemporary France._ He also edited the +_Instructions des ambassadeurs de France à Rome, depuis les traités de +Westphalie_ (1888). He was elected a member of the French Academy on the +1st of April 1897. + + + + +HANOVER (Ger. _Hannover_), formerly an independent kingdom of Germany, +but since 1866 a province of Prussia. It is bounded on the N. by the +North Sea, Holstein, Hamburg and Mecklenburg-Schwerin, E. and S.E. by +Prussian Saxony and the duchy of Brunswick, S.W. by the Prussian +provinces of Hesse-Nassau and Westphalia, and W. by Holland. These +boundaries include the grand-duchy of Oldenburg and the free state of +Bremen, the former stretching southward from the North Sea nearly to the +southern boundary of Hanover. A small portion of the province in the +south is separated from Hanover proper by the interposition of part of +Brunswick. On the 23rd of March 1873 the province was increased by the +addition of the Jade territory (purchased by Prussia from Oldenburg), +lying south-west of the Elbe and containing the great naval station and +arsenal of Wilhelmshaven. The area of the province is 14,870 sq. m. + + _Physical Features._--The greater part of Hanover is a plain with + sandhills, heath and moor. The most fertile districts lie on the banks + of the Elbe and near the North Sea, where, as in Holland, rich meadows + are preserved from encroachment of the sea by broad dikes and deep + ditches, kept in repair at great expense. The main feature of the + northern plain is the so-called _Lüneburger Heide_, a vast expanse of + moor and fen, mainly covered with low brushwood (though here and there + are oases of fine beech and oak woods) and intersected by shallow + valleys, and extending almost due north from the city of Hanover to + the southern arm of the Elbe at Harburg. The southern portion of the + province is hilly, and in the district of Klausenburg, containing the + Harz, mountainous. The higher elevations are covered by dense forests + of fir and larch, and the lower slopes with deciduous trees. The + eastern portion of the northern plain is covered with forests of fir. + The whole of Hanover dips from the Harz Mountains to the north, and + the rivers consequently flow in that direction. The three chief rivers + of the province are the Elbe in the north-east, where it mainly forms + the boundary and receives the navigable tributaries Jeetze, Ilmenau, + Seve, Este, Lühe, Schwinge and Medem; the Weser in the centre, with + its important tributary the Aller (navigable from Celle downwards); + and in the west the Ems, with its tributaries the Aa and the Leda. + Still farther West is the Vecht, which, rising in Westphalia, flows to + the Zuider Zee. Canals are numerous and connect the various river + systems. + + The principal lakes are the Steinhuder Meer, about 4 m. long and 2 m. + broad, and 20 fathoms deep, on the borders of Schaumburg-Lippe; the + Dümmersee, on the borders of Oldenburg, about 12 m. in circuit; the + lakes of Bederkesa and some others in the moorlands of the north; the + Seeburger See, near Duderstadt; and the Oderteich, in the Harz, 2100 + ft. above the level of the sea. + + _Climate._--The climate in the low-lying districts near the coast is + moist and foggy, in the plains mild, on the Harz mountains severe and + variable. In spring the prevailing winds blow from the N.E. and E., in + summer from the S.W. The mean annual temperature is about 46° Fahr.; + in the town of Hanover it is higher. The average annual rainfall is + about 23.5 in.; but this varies greatly in different districts. In the + west the Herauch, a thick fog arising from the burning of the moors, + is a plague of frequent occurrence. + + _Population; Divisions._--The province contains an area of 14,869 sq. + m., and the total population, according to the census of 1905, was + 2,759,699 (1,384,161 males and 1,375,538 females). In this connexion + it is noticeable that in Hanover, almost alone among German states and + provinces, there is a considerable proportion of male births over + female. The density of the population is 175 to the sq. m. (English), + and the proportion of urban to rural population, roughly, as 1 to 3 of + the inhabitants. The province is divided into the six + _Regierungsbezirke_ (or departments) of Hanover, Hildesheim, Lüneburg, + Stade, Osnabrück and Aurich, and these again into Kreise (circles, or + local government districts)--76 in all. The chief towns--containing + more than 10,000 inhabitants--are Hanover, Linden, Osnabrück, + Hildesheim, Geestemünde, Wilhelmshaven, Harburg, Lüneburg, Celle, + Göttingen and Emden. Religious statistics show that 84% of the + inhabitants belong to the Evangelical-Lutheran Church, 17 to the Roman + Catholic and less than 1% to the Jewish communities. The Roman + Catholics are mostly gathered around the episcopal sees of Hildesheim + and Osnabrück and close to Münster (in Westphalia) on the western + border, and the Jews in the towns. A court of appeal for the whole + province sits at Celle, and there are eight superior courts. Hanover + returns 19 members to the _Reichstag_ (imperial diet) and 36 to the + _Abgeordnetenhaus_ (lower house) of the Prussian parliament + (_Landtag_). + + _Education._--Among the educational institutions of the province the + university of Göttingen stands first, with an average yearly + attendance of 1500 students. There are, besides, a technical college + in Hanover, an academy of forestry in Münden, a mining college in + Clausthal, a military school and a veterinary college (both in + Hanover), 26 gymnasia (classical schools), 18 semi-classical, and 14 + commercial schools. There are also two naval academies, asylums for + the deaf and dumb, and numerous charitable institutions. + + _Agriculture._--Though agriculture constitutes the most important + branch of industry in the province, it is still in a very backward + state. The greater part of the soil is of inferior quality, and much + that is susceptible of cultivation is still lying waste. Of the entire + area of the country 28.6% is arable, 16.2 in meadow or pasture land, + 14% in forests, 37.2% in uncultivated moors, heaths, &c.; from 17 to + 18% is in possession of the state. The best agriculture is to be found + in the districts of Hildesheim, Calenberg, Göttingen and Grubenhagen, + on the banks of the Weser and Elbe, and in East Friesland. Rye is + generally grown for bread. Flax, for which much of the soil is + admirably adapted, is extensively cultivated, and forms an important + article of export, chiefly, however, in the form of yarn. Potatoes, + hemp, turnips, hops, tobacco and beet are also extensively grown, the + latter, in connexion with the sugar industry, showing each year a + larger return. Apples, pears, plums and cherries are the principal + kinds of fruit cultivated, while the wild red cranberries from the + Harz and the black bilberries from the Lüneburger Heide form an + important article of export. + + _Live Stock._--Hanover is renowned for its cattle and live stock + generally. Of these there were counted in 1900 1,115,022 head of + horned cattle, 824,000 sheep, 1,556,000 pigs, and 230,000 goats. The + Lüneburger Heide yields an excellent breed of sheep, the + _Heidschnucken_, which equal the Southdowns of England in delicacy of + flavour. Horses famous for their size and quality are reared in the + marshes of Aurich and Stade, in Hildesheim and Hanover; and, for + breeding purposes, in the stud farm of Celle. Bees are principally + kept on the Lüneburger Heide, and the annual yield of honey is very + considerable. Large flocks of geese are kept in the moist lowlands; + their flesh is salted for domestic consumption during the winter, and + their feathers are prepared for sale. The rivers yield trout, salmon + (in the Weser) and crayfish. The sea fisheries are important and have + their chief centre at Geestemünde. + + _Mining._--Minerals occur in great variety and abundance. The Harz + Mountains are rich in silver, lead, iron and copper; coal is found + around Osnabrück, on the Deister, at Osterwald, &c., lignite in + various places; salt-springs of great richness exist at Egestorfshall + and Neuhall near Hanover, and at Lüneburg; and petroleum may be + obtained south of Celle. In the cold regions of the northern lowlands + peat occurs in beds of immense thickness. + + _Manufactures._--Works for the manufacture of iron, copper, silver, + lead, vitriol and sulphur are carried on to a large extent. The iron + works are very important: smelting is carried on in the Harz and near + Osnabrück; there are extensive foundries and machine factories at + Hanover, Linden, Osnabrück, Hameln, Geestemünde, Harburg, Osterode, + &c., and manufactories of arms at Herzberg, and of cutlery in the + towns of the Harz and in the Sollinger Forest. The textile industries + are prosecuted chiefly in the towns. Linen yarn and cloth are largely + manufactured, especially in the south about Osnabrück and Hildesheim, + and bleaching is engaged in extensively; woollen cloths are made to a + considerable extent in the south about Einbeck, Göttingen and Hameln; + cotton-spinning and weaving have their principal seats at Hanover and + Linden. Glass houses, paper-mills, potteries, tile works and + tobacco-pipe works are numerous. Wax is bleached to a considerable + extent, and there are numerous tobacco factories, tanneries, + breweries, vinegar works and brandy distilleries. Shipbuilding is an + important industry, especially at Wilhelmshaven, Papenburg, Leer, + Stade and Harburg; and at Münden river-barges are built. + + _Commerce._--Although the carrying trade of Hanover is to a great + extent absorbed by Hamburg and Bremen, the shipping of the province + counted, in 1903, 750 sailing vessels and 86 steamers of, together, + 55,498 registered tons. The natural port is Bremen-Geestemünde and to + it is directed the river traffic down the Weser, which practically + forms the chief commercial artery of the province. + + _Communications._--The roads throughout are, on the whole, well laid, + and those connecting the principal towns macadamized. Hanover is + intersected by important trunk lines of railway; notably the lines + from Berlin to Cologne, from Hamburg to Frankfort-on-Main, from + Hamburg to Bremen and Cologne, and from Berlin to Amsterdam. + +_History._--The name Hanover (_Hohenufer_ = high bank), originally +confined to the town which became the capital of the duchy of +Lüneburg-Calenberg, came gradually into use to designate, first, the +duchy itself, and secondly, the electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg; and it +was officially recognized as the name of the state when in 1814 the +electorate was raised to the rank of a kingdom. + +The early history of Hanover is merged in that of the duchy of Brunswick +(q.v.), from which the duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg and its offshoots, +the duchies of Lüneburg-Celle and Lüneburg-Calenberg have sprung. Ernest +I. (1497-1546), duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, who introduced the reformed +doctrines into Lüneburg, obtained the whole of this duchy in 1539; and +in 1569 his two surviving sons made an arrangement which was afterwards +responsible for the birth of the kingdom of Hanover. By this agreement +the greater part of the duchy, with its capital at Celle, came to +William (1535-1592), the younger of the brothers, who gave laws to his +land and added to its area; and this duchy of Lüneburg-Celle was +subsequently ruled in turn by four of his sons: Ernest II. (1564-1611), +Christian (1566-1633), Augustus (d. 1636) and Frederick (d. 1648). In +addition to these four princes Duke William left three other sons, and +in 1610 the seven brothers entered into a compact that the duchy should +not be divided, and that only one of them should marry and continue the +family. Casting lots to determine this question, the lot fell upon the +sixth brother, George (1582-1641), who was a prominent soldier during +the period of the Thirty Years' War and saw service in almost all parts +of Europe, fighting successively for Christian IV. of Denmark, the +emperor Ferdinand II., and for the Swedes both before and after the +death of Gustavus Adolphus. In 1617 he aided his brother, Duke +Christian, to add Grubenhagen to Lüneburg, and after the extinction of +the family of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel in 1634, he obtained Calenberg for +himself, making Hanover the capital of his small dukedom. In 1648, on +Duke Frederick's death, George's eldest son, Christian Louis (d. 1665), +became duke of Lüneburg-Celle; and at this time he handed over +Calenberg, which he had ruled since his father's death, to his second +brother, George William (d. 1705). When Christian Louis died George +William succeeded him in Lüneburg-Celle; but the duchy was also claimed +by a younger brother, John Frederick, a cultured and enlightened prince +who had forsaken the Lutheran faith of his family and had become a Roman +Catholic. Soon, however, by an arrangement John Frederick received +Calenberg and Grubenhagen, which he ruled in absolute fashion, creating +a standing army and modelling his court after that of Louis XIV., and +which came on his death in 1679 to his youngest brother, Ernest Augustus +(1630-1698), the Protestant bishop of Osnabrück. During the French wars +of aggression the Lüneburg princes were eagerly courted by Louis XIV. +and by his opponents; and after some hesitation George William, +influenced by Ernest Augustus, fought among the Imperialists, while John +Frederick was ranged on the side of France. In 1689 George William was +one of the claimants for the duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg, which was left +without a ruler in that year; and after a struggle with John George +III., elector of Saxony, and other rivals, he was invested with the +duchy by the emperor Leopold I. It was, however, his more ambitious +brother, Ernest Augustus, who did most for the prestige and advancement +of the house. Having introduced the principle of primogeniture into +Calenberg in 1682, Ernest determined to secure for himself the position +of an elector, and the condition of Europe and the exigencies of the +emperor favoured his pretensions. He made skilful use of Leopold's +difficulties; and in 1692, in return for lavish promises of assistance +to the Empire and the Habsburgs, the emperor granted him the rank and +title of elector of Brunswick-Lüneburg with the office of +standard-bearer in the Holy Roman Empire. Indignant protests followed +this proceeding. A league was formed to prevent any addition to the +electoral college; France and Sweden were called upon for assistance; +and the constitution of the Empire was reduced to a state of chaos. This +agitation, however, soon died away; and in 1708 George Louis, the son +and successor of Ernest Augustus, was recognized as an elector by the +imperial diet. George Louis married his cousin Sophia Dorothea, the only +child of George William of Lüneburg-Celle; and on his uncle's death in +1705 he united this duchy, together with Saxe-Lauenburg, with his +paternal inheritance of Calenberg or Hanover. His father, Ernest +Augustus, had taken a step of great importance in the history of Hanover +when he married Sophia, daughter of the elector palatine, Frederick V., +and grand-daughter of James I. of England, for, through his mother, the +elector George Louis became, by the terms of the Act of Settlement of +1701, king of Great Britain and Ireland in 1714. + +From this time until the death of William IV. in 1837, Lüneburg or +Hanover, was ruled by the same sovereign as Great Britain, and this +personal union was not without important results for both countries. +Under George I. Hanover joined the alliance against Charles XII. of +Sweden in 1715; and by the peace of Stockholm in November 1719 the +elector received the duchies of Bremen and Verden, which formed an +important addition to the electorate. His son and successor, George II., +who founded the university of Göttingen in 1737, was on bad terms with +his brother-in-law Frederick William I. of Prussia, and his nephew +Frederick the Great; and in 1729 war between Prussia and Hanover was +only just avoided. In 1743 George took up arms on behalf of the empress +Maria Theresa; but in August 1745 the danger in England from the +Jacobites led him to sign the convention of Hanover with Frederick the +Great, although the struggle with France raged around his electorate +until the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748. Induced by political +exigencies George allied himself with Frederick the Great when the Seven +Years' War broke out in 1756; but in September 1757 his son William +Augustus, duke of Cumberland, was compelled after his defeat at +Hastenbeck to sign the convention of Klosterzeven and to abandon Hanover +to the French. English money, however, came to the rescue; in 1758 +Ferdinand, duke of Brunswick, cleared the electorate of the invader; and +Hanover suffered no loss of territory at the peace of 1763. Both George +I. and George II. preferred Hanover to England as a place of residence, +and it was a frequent and perhaps justifiable cause of complaint that +the interests of Great Britain were sacrificed to those of the smaller +country. But George III. was more British than either his grandfather or +his great-grandfather, and owing to a variety of causes the foreign +policies of the two countries began to diverge in the later years of his +reign. Two main considerations dominated the fortunes of Hanover during +the period of the Napoleonic wars, the jealousy felt by Prussia at the +increasing strength and prestige of the electorate, and its position as +a vulnerable outpost of Great Britain. From 1793 the Hanoverian troops +fought for the Allies against France, until the treaty of Basel between +France and Prussia in 1795 imposed a forced neutrality upon Hanover. At +the instigation of Bonaparte Hanover was occupied by the Prussians for a +few months in 1801, but at the settlement which followed the peace of +Lunéville the secularized bishopric of Osnabrück was added to the +electorate. Again tempting the fortune of war after the rupture of the +peace of Amiens, the Hanoverians found that the odds against them were +too great; and in June 1803 by the convention of Sulingen their +territory was occupied by the French. The formation of the third +coalition against France in 1805 induced Napoleon to purchase the +support of Prussia by allowing her troops to seize Hanover; but in 1807, +after the defeat of Prussia at Jena, he incorporated the southern part +of the electorate in the kingdom of Westphalia, adding the northern +portion to France in 1810. The French occupation was costly and +aggressive; and the Hanoverians, many of whom were found in the allied +armies, welcomed the fall of Napoleon and the return of the old order. +Represented at the congress of Vienna by Ernest, Count Münster, the +elector was granted the title of king; but the British ministers wished +to keep the interests of Great Britain distinct from those of Hanover. +The result of the congress, however, was not unfavourable to the new +kingdom, which received East Friesland, the secularized bishopric of +Hildesheim, the city of Goslar, and some smaller additions of territory, +in return for the surrender of the greater part of the duchy of +Saxe-Lauenburg to Prussia. + +Like those of the other districts of Germany, the estates of the +different provinces which formed the kingdom of Hanover had met for many +years in an irregular fashion to exercise their varying and ill-defined +authority; and, although the elector Ernest Augustus introduced a system +of administrative councils into Celle, these estates, consisting of the +three orders of prelates, nobles and towns, together with a body +somewhat resembling the English privy council, were the only +constitution which the country possessed, and the only check upon the +power of its ruler. When the elector George Louis became king of Great +Britain in 1714 he appointed a representative, or _Statthalter_, to +govern the electorate, and thus the union of the two countries was +attended with constitutional changes in Hanover as well as in Great +Britain. Responsible of course to the elector, the Statthalter, aided by +the privy council, conducted the internal affairs of the electorate, +generally in a peaceful and satisfactory fashion, until the welter of +the Napoleonic wars. On the conclusion of peace in 1814 the estates of +the several provinces of the kingdom were fused into one body, +consisting of eighty-five members, but the chief power was exercised as +before by the members of a few noble families. In 1819, however, this +feudal relic was supplanted by a new constitution. Two chambers were +established, the one formed of nobles and the other of elected +representatives; but although they were authorized to control the +finances, their power with regard to legislation was very circumscribed. +This constitution was sanctioned by the prince regent, afterwards King +George IV.; but it was out of harmony with the new and liberal ideas +which prevailed in Europe, and it hardly survived George's decease in +1830. The revolution of that year compelled George's brother and +successor, William, to dismiss Count Münster, who had been the actual +ruler of the country, and to name his own brother, Adolphus Frederick, +duke of Cambridge, a viceroy of Hanover; one of the viceroy's earliest +duties being to appoint a commission to draw up a new constitution. This +was done, and after William had insisted upon certain alterations, it +was accepted and promulgated in 1833. Representation was granted to the +peasants; the two chambers were empowered to initiate legislation; +ministers were made responsible for all acts of government; a civil list +was given to the king in return for the surrender of the crown lands; +and, in short, the new constitution was similar to that of Great +Britain. These liberal arrangements, however, did not entirely allay +the discontent. A strong and energetic party endeavoured to thwart the +working of the new order, and matters came to a climax on the death of +William IV. in 1837. + +By the law of Hanover a woman could not ascend the throne, and +accordingly Ernest Augustus, duke of Cumberland, the fifth son of George +III., and not Victoria, succeeded William as sovereign in 1837, thus +separating the crowns of Great Britain and Hanover after a union of 123 +years. Ernest, a prince with very autocratic ideas, had disapproved of +the constitution of 1833, and his first important act as king was to +declare it invalid. He appears to have been especially chagrined because +the crown lands were not his personal property, but the whole of the new +arrangements were repugnant to him. Seven Göttingen professors who +protested against this proceeding were deprived of their chairs; and +some of them, including F. C. Dahlmann and Jakob Grimm, were banished +from the country for publishing their protest. To save the constitution +an appeal was made to the German Confederation, which Hanover had joined +in 1815; but the federal diet declined to interfere, and in 1840 Ernest +altered the constitution to suit his own illiberal views. Recovering the +crown lands, he abolished the principle of ministerial responsibility, +the legislative power of the two chambers, and other reforms, virtually +restoring affairs to their condition before 1833. The inevitable crisis +was delayed until the stormy year 1848, when the king probably saved his +crown by hastily giving back the constitution of 1833. Order, however, +having been restored, in 1850 he dismissed the Liberal ministry and +attempted to evade his concessions; a bitter struggle had just broken +out when Ernest Augustus died in November 1851. During this reign the +foreign policy of Hanover both within and without Germany had been +coloured by jealousy of Prussia and by the king's autocratic ideas. +Refusing to join the Prussian _Zollverein_, Hanover had become a member +of the rival commercial union, the _Steuerverein_, three years before +Ernest's accession; but as this union was not a great success the +_Zollverein_ was joined in 1851. In 1849, after the failure of the +German parliament at Frankfort, the king had joined with the sovereigns +of Prussia and Saxony to form the "three kings' alliance"; but this +union with Prussia was unreal, and with the king of Saxony he soon +transferred his support to Austria and became a member of the "four +kings' alliance." + +George V., the new king of Hanover, who was unfortunately blind, sharing +his father's political ideas, at once appointed a ministry whose aim was +to sweep away the constitution of 1848. This project, however, was +resisted by the second chamber of the _Landtag_, or parliament; and +after several changes of government a new ministry advised the king in +1855 to appeal to the diet of the German Confederation. This was done, +and the diet declared the constitution of 1848 to be invalid. Acting on +this verdict, not only was a ministry formed to restore the constitution +of 1840, but after some trouble a body of members fully in sympathy with +this object was returned to parliament in 1857. But these members were +so far from representing the opinions of the people that popular +resentment compelled George to dismiss his advisers in 1862. But the +more liberal government which succeeded did not enjoy his complete +confidence, and in 1865 a ministry was once more formed which was more +in accord with his own ideas. This contest soon lost both interest and +importance owing to the condition of affairs in Germany. Bismarck, the +director of the policy of Prussia, was devising methods for the +realization of his schemes, and it became clear after the war over the +duchies of Schleswig and Holstein that the smaller German states would +soon be obliged to decide definitely between Austria and Prussia. After +a period of vacillation Hanover threw in her lot with Austria, the +decisive step being taken when the question of the mobilization of the +federal army was voted upon in the diet on the 14th of June 1866. At +once Prussia requested Hanover to remain unarmed and neutral during the +war, and with equal promptness King George refused to assent to these +demands. Prussian troops then crossed his frontier and took possession +of his capital. The Hanoverians, however, were victorious at the battle +of Langensalza on the 27th of June 1866, but the advance of fresh bodies +of the enemy compelled them to capitulate two days later. By the terms +of this surrender the king was not to reside in Hanover, his officers +were to take no further part in the war, and his ammunition and stores +became the property of Prussia. The decree of the 20th of September 1866 +formally annexed Hanover to Prussia, when it became a province of that +kingdom, while King George from his retreat at Hietzing appealed in vain +to the powers of Europe. Many of the Hanoverians remained loyal to their +sovereign; some of them serving in the Guelph Legion, which was +maintained largely at his expense in France, where a paper, _La +Situation_, was founded by Oskar Meding (1829-1903) and conducted in his +interests. These and other elaborate efforts, however, failed to bring +about the return of the king to Hanover, though the Guelph party +continued to agitate and to hope even after the Franco-German War had +immensely increased the power and the prestige of Prussia. George died +in June 1878. His son, Ernest Augustus, duke of Cumberland, continued to +maintain his claim to the crown of Hanover, and refused to be reconciled +with Prussia. Owing to this attitude the German imperial government +refused to allow him to take possession of the duchy of Brunswick, which +he inherited on the extinction of the elder branch of his family in +1884, and again in 1906 when the same subject came up for settlement on +the death of the regent, Prince Albert of Prussia. + +In 1867 King George had agreed to accept Prussian bonds to the value of +about £1,600,000 as compensation for the confiscation of his estates in +Hanover. In 1868, however, on account of his continued hostility to +Prussia, the Prussian government sequestrated this property; and, known +as the _Welfenfonds_, or _Reptilienfonds_, it was employed as a secret +service fund to combat the intrigues of the Guelphs in various parts of +Europe; until in 1892 it was arranged that the interest should be paid +to the duke of Cumberland. In 1885 measures were taken to incorporate +the province of Hanover more thoroughly in the kingdom of Prussia, and +there is little doubt but that the great majority of the Hanoverians +have submitted to the inevitable, and are loyal subjects of the king of +Prussia. + + AUTHORITIES.--A. Hüne, _Geschichte des Königreichs Hannover und des + Herzogtums Braunschweig_ (Hanover, 1824-1830); A. F. H. Schaumann, + _Handbuch der Geschichte der Lande Hannover und Braunschweig_ + (Hanover, 1864); G. A. Grotefend, _Geschichte der allgemeinen + landständischen Verfassung des Königreichs Hannover, 1814-1848_ + (Hanover, 1857); H. A. Oppermann, _Zur Geschichte des Königreichs + Hannover_, 1832-1860 (Berlin, 1868); E. von Meier, _Hannoversche + Verfassungs- und Verwaltungsgeschichte_ (Leipzig, 1898-1899); W. von + Hassell, _Das Kurfürstentum Hannover vom Baseler Frieden bis zur + preussischen Okkupation_ (Hanover, 1894); and _Geschichte des + Königreichs_ Hannover (Leipzig, 1898-1901); H. von Treitschke, _Der + Herzog von Cumberland und das hannoversche Staatsgrundgesetz von 1833_ + (Leipzig, 1888); M. Bär, _Übersicht über die Bestände des königlichen + Staatsarchivs zu Hannover_ (Leipzig, 1900); _Hannoversches Portfolio_ + (Stuttgart, 1839-1841); and the authorities given for the history of + Brunswick. + + + + +HANOVER, the capital of the Prussian province of the same name, situated +in a sandy but fertile plain on the Leine, which here receives the Ihme, +38 m. N.W. from Brunswick, 78 S.E. of Bremen, and at the crossing of the +main lines of railway, Berlin to Cologne and Hamburg to +Frankfort-on-Main. Pop. (1885) 139,731; (1900) 235,666; (1905) 250,032. +On the north and east the town is half encircled by the beautiful woods +and groves of the Eilenriede and the List which form the public park. +The Leine flows through the city, having the old town on its right and +the quaint Calenberger quarter between its left bank and the Ihme. The +old town is irregularly built, with narrow streets and old-fashioned +gabled houses. In its centre lies the Markt Kirche, a red-brick edifice +of the 14th century, containing interesting monuments and some fine +stained-glass windows, and with a steeple 310 ft. in height (the highest +in Hanover). Its interior was restored in 1855. Close by, on the market +square, is the red-brick medieval town-hall (Rathaus), with an +historical wine cellar beneath. It has been superseded for municipal +business by a new building, and now contains the civic archives and +museum. The new town, surrounding the old on the north and east, and +lying between it and the woods referred to, has wide streets, handsome +buildings and beautiful squares. Among the last-mentioned are the square +at the railway station--the Ernst August-Platz--with an equestrian +statue of King Ernest Augustus in bronze; the triangular Theater-Platz, +with statues of the composer Marschner and others; and the Georgs-Platz, +with a statue of Schiller. To the south of the old town, on the banks of +the Ihme, lies the Waterloo-Platz, with a column of victory, 154 ft. +high, having inscribed on it the names of 800 Hanoverians who fell at +Waterloo. In the adjacent gardens an open rotunda encloses a marble bust +of the philosopher Leibnitz, and near it is a monument to General Count +von Alten, the commander of the Hanoverian troops at Waterloo. Among the +other churches the most noticeable are the Neustädterkirche, with a +graceful shrine containing the tomb of Leibnitz, the Kreuzkirche, built +about 1300, with a curious steeple, and the Aegidienkirche among ancient +edifices, and among modern ones the Christuskirche, a gift of King +George V., the Lukaskirche, the Lutherkirche, and the Roman Catholic +church of St Mary, with a tower 300 ft. high, containing the grave of +Ludwig Windthorst, "his little excellency," for many years leader of the +Ultramontane (Centre) party in the imperial diet. Of secular buildings +the most remarkable is the royal palace--Schloss--built 1636-1640, with +a grand portal and handsome quadrangle. In its chapel are preserved the +relics of saints which Henry the Lion brought from Palestine. The new +provincial museum built in 1897-1902 contains the Cumberland Gallery and +the Guelph Museum; and the Kestner Museum also contains interesting and +valuable collections of works of art. The other principal public +buildings are the royal archives and library, containing a library of +200,000 volumes and 3500 manuscripts; the old provincial museum, which +houses a variety of collections, such as natural, historical and +ethnographical, and a collection of modern paintings; the theatre (built +1845-1852), one of the largest in Germany, the archaeological museum, +the railway station, and, in the west, close to Herrenhausen (see +below), the magnificent Welfenschloss (Guelph-palace). The last, begun +in 1859, was almost completed in 1866, but was never occupied by the +Hanoverian royal family. Since 1875 it has been occupied by the +technical high school, an academy with university privileges. Close to +it lies the famous Herrenhausen, the summer palace of the former kings +of Hanover, with fine gardens, an open-air theatre, a museum and an +orangery, and approached by a grand avenue over a mile in length. + +Hanover has a number of colleges and schools, and is the seat of several +learned societies. It is largely frequented by foreign students, +especially English, attracted by the educational facilities it offers +and by the reputed purity of the German spoken. Hanover is the +headquarters of the X. Prussian army corps, has a large garrison of +nearly all arms and a famous military riding school. It occupies a +leading position among the industrial and commercial towns of the +empire, and of recent years has made rapid progress in prosperity. It is +connected by railway with Berlin, Hamburg, Bremen, Hameln, Cologne, +Altenbeken and Cassel, and the facilities of intercourse have, under the +fostering care of the Prussian government, enormously developed its +trade and manufactures. Almost all industries are represented; chief +among them are machine-building, the manufacture of india-rubber, linen, +cloth, hardware, chemicals, tobacco, pianos, furniture and groceries. +The commerce consists principally in wine, hides, horses, coal, wood and +cereals. There are extensive printing establishments. Hanover was the +first German town that was lighted with gas. It is the birthplace of Sir +William Herschel, the astronomer, of the brothers Schlegel, of Iffland +and of the historian Pertz. The philosopher Leibnitz died there in 1716. + + Close by, on the left bank of the Leine, lies the manufacturing town + of Linden, which, though practically forming one town with Hanover, is + treated under a separate heading. + +The town of Hanover is first mentioned during the 12th century. It +belonged to the family of Welf, then to the bishops of Hildesheim, and +then, in 1369, it came again into the possession of the Welfs, now +dukes of Brunswick. It joined the Hanseatic League, and was later the +residence of the branch of the ducal house, which received the title of +elector of Hanover and ascended the British throne in the person of +George I. One or two important treaties were signed in Hanover, which +from 1810 to 1813 was part of the kingdom of Westphalia, and in 1866 was +annexed by Prussia, after having been the capital of the kingdom of +Hanover since its foundation in 1815. + + See O. Ulrich, _Bilder aus Hannovers Vergangenheit_ (1891); Hoppe, + _Geschichte der Stadt Hannover_ (1845); Hirschfeld, _Hannovers + Grossindustrie und Grosshandel_ (Leipzig, 1891); Frensdorff, _Die + Stadtverfassung Hannovers in alter und neuer Zeit_ (Leipzig, 1883); W. + Bahrdt, _Geschichte der Reformation der Stadt Hannover_ (1891); + Hartmann, _Geschichte von Hannover mit besonderer Rücksichtnahme auf + die Entwickelung der Residenzstadt Hannover_ (1886); _Hannover und + Umgegend, Entwickelung und Zustände seiner Industrie und Gewerbe_ + (1874); and the _Urkundenbuch der Stadt Hannover_ (1860, fol.). + + + + +HANOVER, a town of Jefferson county, Indiana, U.S.A., on the Ohio river, +about 5 m. below Madison. Pop. (1900) 377; (1910) 356. It is served by +boats on the Ohio river and by stages to Madison, the nearest railway +station. Along the border of the town and on a bluff rising about 500 +ft. above the river is Hanover College, an institution under +Presbyterian control, embracing a college and a preparatory department, +and offering classical and scientific courses and instruction in music; +there is no charge for tuition. In 1908-1909 there were 211 students, 75 +being in the Academy. The institution was opened in a log cabin in 1827, +was incorporated as Hanover Academy in 1828, was adopted as a synodical +school by the Presbyterian Synod of Indiana in 1829 on condition that a +Theological department be added, and in 1833 was incorporated under its +present name. In 1840, however, the theological department became a +separate institution and was removed to New Albany, whence in 1859 it +was removed to Chicago, where it was named, first, the Presbyterian +Theological Seminary of the North-west, and, in 1886, the McCormick +Theological Seminary. In the years immediately after its incorporation +in 1833 Hanover College introduced the "manual labor system" and was for +a time very prosperous, but the system was not a success, the college +ran into debt, and in 1843 the trustees attempted to surrender the +charter and to acquire the charter of a university at Madison. This +effort was opposed by a strong party, which secured a more liberal +charter for the college. In 1880 the college became coeducational. + + + + +HANOVER, a township of Grafton county, New Hampshire, U.S.A., on the +Connecticut river, 75 m. by rail N.W. of Concord. Pop. (1900) 1884; +(1910) 2075. No railway enters this township; the Ledyard Free Bridge +(the first free bridge across the Connecticut) connects it with Norwich, +Vt., which is served by the Boston & Maine railway. Ranges of rugged +hills, broken by deep narrow gorges and by the wider valley of Mink +Brook, rise near the river and culminate in the E. section in Moose +Mountain, 2326 ft. above the sea. Near the foot of Moose Mountain is the +birthplace of Laura D. Bridgman. Agriculture, dairying and lumbering are +the chief pursuits of the inhabitants. The village of Hanover, the +principal settlement of the township, occupies Hanover Plain in the S.W. +corner, and is the seat of Dartmouth College (q.v.), which has a +strikingly beautiful campus, and among its buildings several excellent +examples of the colonial style, notably Dartmouth Hall. The Mary +Hitchcock memorial hospital, a cottage hospital of 36 beds, was erected +in 1890-1893 by Hiram Hitchcock in memory of his wife. The charter of +the township was granted by Gov. Benning Wentworth on the 4th of July +1761, and the first settlement was made in May 1765. The records of the +town meetings and selectmen, 1761-1818, have been published by E. P. +Storrs (Hanover, 1905). + + See Frederick Chase, _A History of Dartmouth College and the Town of + Hanover_ (Cambridge, 1891). + + + + +HANOVER, a borough of York county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., 36 m. S. by W. +of Harrisburg, and 6 m. from the S. border of the state. Pop. (1890) +3746; (1900) 5302, (133 foreign-born); (1910) 7057. It is served by the +Northern Central and the Western Maryland railways. The borough is built +on nearly level ground in the fertile valley of the Conewago, at the +point of intersection of the turnpike roads leading to Baltimore, +Carlisle, York and Frederick, from which places the principal +streets--sections of these roads--are named. Among its manufactures are +foundry and machine-shop products, flour, silk, waggons, shoes, gloves, +furniture, wire cloth and cigars. The settlement of the place was begun +mostly by Germans during the middle of the 18th century. Hanover was +laid out in 1763 or 1764 by Col. Richard MacAllister; and in 1815 it was +incorporated. On the 30th of June 1863 there was a cavalry engagement in +and near Hanover between the forces of Generals H. J. Kilpatrick (Union) +and J. E. B. Stuart (Confederate) preliminary to the battle of +Gettysburg. This engagement is commemorated by an equestrian statue +erected in Hanover by the state. + + + + +HANRIOT, FRANÇOIS (1761-1794), French revolutionist, was born at +Nanterre (Seine) of poor parentage. Having lost his first +employment--with a _procureur_--through dishonesty, he obtained a +clerkship in the Paris octroi in 1789, but was dismissed for abandoning +his post when the Parisians burned the _octroi_ barriers on the night of +the 12th-13th of July 1789. After leading a hand-to-mouth existence for +some time, he became one of the orators of the section of the +_sans-culottes_, and commanded the armed force of that section during +the insurrection on the 10th of August 1792 and the massacres of +September. But he did not come into prominence until the night of the +30th-31st of May 1793, when he was provisionally appointed +commandant-general of the armed forces of Paris by the council general +of the Commune. On the 31st of May he was one of the delegates from the +Commune to the Convention demanding the dissolution of the Commission of +Twelve and the proscription of the Girondists (q.v.), and he was in +command of the insurrectionary forces of the Commune during the _émeute_ +of the 2nd of June (see FRENCH REVOLUTION). On the 11th of June he +resigned his command, declaring that order had been restored. On the +13th he was impeached in the Convention; but the motion was not carried, +and on the 1st of July he was elected by the Commune permanent commander +of the armed forces of Paris. This position, which gave him enormous +power, he retained until the revolution of the 9th Thermidor (July 27, +1794). His arrest was decreed; but he had the _générale_ sounded and the +tocsin rung, and tried to rescue Robespierre, who was under arrest in +the hall of the _Comité de Sûreté Générale_. Hanriot was himself +arrested, but was rescued by his adherents, and hastened to the Hôtel de +Ville. After a vain attempt to organize resistance he fled and hid in a +secluded yard, where he was discovered the next day. He was arrested, +sentenced to death, and guillotined with Robespierre and his friends on +the 10th Thermidor of the year II. (the 28th of July 1794). + + + + +HANSARD, LUKE (1752-1828), English printer, was born on the 5th of July +1752 in St Mary's parish, Norwich. He was educated at Boston grammar +school, and was apprenticed to Stephen White, a Norwich printer. As soon +as his apprenticeship had expired Hansard started for London with only a +guinea in his pocket, and became a compositor in the office of John +Hughs (1703-1771), printer to the House of Commons. In 1774 he was made +a partner, and undertook almost the entire conduct of the business, +which in 1800 came completely into his hands. On the admission of his +sons the firm became Luke Hansard & Sons. Among those whose friendship +Hansard won in the exercise of his profession were Robert Orme, Burke +and Dr Johnson; while Porson praised him as the most accurate printer of +Greek. He printed the _Journals of the House of Commons_ from 1774 till +his death. The promptitude and accuracy with which Hansard printed +parliamentary papers were often of the greatest service to +government--notably on one occasion when the proof-sheets of the report +of the Secret Committee on the French Revolution were submitted to Pitt +twenty-four hours after the draft had left his hands. On the union with +Ireland in 1801, the increase of parliamentary printing compelled +Hansard to give up all private printing except when parliament was not +sitting. He devised numerous expedients for reducing the expense of +publishing the reports; and in 1805, when his workmen struck at a time +of great pressure, he and his sons themselves set to work as +compositors. Luke Hansard died on the 29th of October 1828. + +His son, THOMAS CURSON HANSARD (1776-1833), established a press of his +own in Paternoster Row, and began in 1803 to print the _Parliamentary +Debates_, which were not at first independent reports, but were taken +from the newspapers. After 1889 the debates were published by the +Hansard Publishing Union Limited. T. C. Hansard was the author of +_Typographia, an Historical Sketch of the Origin and Progress of the Art +of Printing_ (1825). The original business remained in the hands of his +younger brothers, James and Luke Graves Hansard (1777-1851). The firm +was prosecuted in 1837 by John Joseph Stockwell for printing by order of +the House of Commons, in an official report of the inspector of prisons, +statements regarded by the plaintiff as libellous. Hansard sheltered +himself on the ground of privilege, but it was not until after much +litigation that the security of the printers of government reports was +guaranteed by statute in 1840. + + + + +HANSEATIC LEAGUE. It is impossible to assign any precise date for the +beginning of the Hanseatic League or to name any single factor which +explains the origin of that loose but effective federation of North +German towns. Associated action and partial union among these towns can +be traced back to the 13th century. In 1241 we find Lübeck and Hamburg +agreeing to safeguard the important road connecting the Baltic and the +North Sea. The first known meeting of the "maritime towns," later known +as the Wendish group and including Lübeck, Hamburg, Lüneburg, Wismar, +Rostock and Stralsund, took place in 1256. The Saxon towns, during the +following century, were joining to protect their common interests, and +indeed at this period town confederacies in Germany, both North and +South, were so considerable as to call for the declaration against them +in the Golden Bull of 1356. The decline of the imperial power and the +growing opposition between the towns and the territorial princes +justified these defensive town alliances, which in South Germany took on +a peculiarly political character. The relative weakness of territorial +power in the North, after the fall of Henry the Lion of Saxony, +diminished without however removing this motive for union, but the +comparative immunity from princely aggression on land left the towns +freer to combine in a stronger and more permanent union for the defence +of their commerce by sea and for the control of the Baltic. + +While the political element in the development of the Hanseatic League +must not be underestimated, it was not so formative as the economic. The +foundation was laid for the growth of German towns along the southern +shore of the Baltic by the great movement of German colonization of +Slavic territory east of the Elbe. This movement, extending in time from +about the middle of the 11th to the middle of the 13th century and +carrying a stream of settlers and traders from the North-west, resulted +not only in the Germanization of a wide territory but in the extension +of German influence along the sea-coast far to the east of actual +territorial settlement. The German trading towns, at the mouths of the +numerous streams which drain the North European plain, were stimulated +or created by the unifying impulse of a common and long-continued +advance of conquest and colonization. + +The impetus of this remarkable movement of expansion not only carried +German trade to the East and North within the Baltic basin, but +reanimated the older trade from the lower Rhine region to Flanders and +England in the West. Cologne and the Westphalian towns, the most +important of which were Dortmund, Soest and Münster, had long controlled +this commerce but now began to feel the competition of the active +traders of the Baltic, opening up that direct communication by sea from +the Baltic to western Europe which became the essential feature in the +history of the League. The necessity of seeking protection from the +sea-rovers and pirates who infested these waters during the whole period +of Hanseatic supremacy, the legal customs, substantially alike in the +towns of North Germany, which governed the groups of traders in the +outlying trading posts, the establishment of common factories, or +"counters" (Komtors) at these points, with aldermen to administer +justice and to secure trading privileges for the community of German +merchants--such were some of the unifying influences which preceded the +gradual formation of the League. In the century of energetic commercial +development before 1350 the German merchants abroad led the way. + +Germans were early pushing as permanent settlers into the Scandinavian +towns, and in Wisby, on the island of Gothland, the Scandinavian centre +of Baltic trade, equal rights as citizens in the town government were +possessed by the German settlers as early as the beginning of the 13th +century. There also came into existence at Wisby the first association +of German traders abroad, which united the merchants of over thirty +towns, from Cologne and Utrecht in the West to Reval in the East. We +find the Gothland association making in 1229 a treaty with a Russian +prince and securing privileges for their branch trading station at +Novgorod. According to the "Skra," the by-laws of the Novgorod branch, +the four aldermen of the community of Germans, who among other duties +held the keys of the common chest, deposited in Wisby, were to be chosen +from the merchants of the Gothland association and of the towns of +Lübeck, Soest and Dortmund. The Gothland association received in 1237 +trading rights in England, and shortly after the middle of the century +it also secured privileges in Flanders. It legislated on matters +relating to common trade interests, and, in the case of the regulation +of 1287 concerning shipwrecked goods, we find it imposing this +legislation on the towns under the penalty of exclusion from the +association. But with the extension of the East and West trade beyond +the confines of the Baltic, this association by the end of the century +was losing its position of leadership. Its inheritance passed to the +gradually forming union of towns, chiefly those known as Wendish, which +looked to Lübeck as their head. In 1293 the Saxon and Wendish merchants +at Rostock decided that all appeals from Novgorod be taken to Lübeck +instead of to Wisby, and six years later the Wendish and Westphalian +towns, meeting at Lübeck, ordered that the Gothland association should +no longer use a common seal. Though Lübeck's right as court of appeal +from the Hanseatic counter at Novgorod was not recognized by the general +assembly of the League until 1373, the long-existing practice had simply +accorded with the actual shifting of commercial power. The union of +merchants abroad was beginning to come under the control of the partial +union of towns at home. + +A similar and contemporary extension of the influence of the Baltic +traders under Lübeck's leadership may be witnessed in the West. As a +consequence of the close commercial relations early existing between +England and the Rhenish-Westphalian towns, the merchants of Cologne were +the first to possess a gild-hall in London and to form a "hansa" with +the right of admitting other German merchants on payment of a fee. The +charter of 1226, however, by which Emperor Frederick II. created Lübeck +a free imperial city, expressly declared that Lübeck citizens trading in +England should be free from the dues imposed by the merchants of Cologne +and should enjoy equal rights and privileges. In 1266 and 1267 the +merchants of Hamburg and Lübeck received from Henry III. the right to +establish their own hansas in London, like that of Cologne. The +situation thus created led by 1282 to the coalescence of the rival +associations in the "Gild-hall of the Germans," but though the Baltic +traders had secured a recognized foothold in the enlarged and unified +organization, Cologne retained the controlling interest in the London +settlement until 1476. Lübeck and Hamburg, however, dominated the German +trade in the ports of the east coast, notably in Lynn and Boston, while +they were strong in the organized trading settlements at York, Hull, +Ipswich, Norwich, Yarmouth and Bristol. The counter at London, first +called the Steelyard in a parliamentary petition of 1422, claimed +jurisdiction over the other factories in England. + +In Flanders, also, the German merchants from the West had long been +trading, but here had later to endure not only the rivalry but the +pre-eminence of those from the East. In 1252 the first treaty privileges +for German trade in Flanders show two men of Lübeck and Hamburg heading +the "Merchants of the Roman Empire," and in the later organization of +the counter at Bruges four or five of the six aldermen were chosen from +towns east of the Elbe, with Lübeck steadily predominant. The Germans +recognized the staple rights of Bruges for a number of commodities, such +as wool, wax, furs, copper and grain, and in return for this material +contribution to the growing commercial importance of the town, they +received in 1309 freedom from the compulsory brokerage which Bruges +imposed on foreign merchants. The importance and independence of the +German trading settlements abroad was exemplified in the statutes of the +"Company of German merchants at Bruges," drawn up in 1347, where for the +first time appears the grouping of towns in three sections (the +"Drittel"), the Wendish-Saxon, the Prussian-Westphalian, and those of +Gothland and Livland. Even more important than the assistance which the +concentration of the German trade at Bruges gave to that leading mart of +European commerce was the service rendered by the German counter of +Bruges to the cause of Hanseatic unity. Not merely because of its +central commercial position, but because of its width of view, its +political insight, and its constant insistence on the necessity of +union, this counter played a leading part in Hanseatic policy. It was +more Hanse than the Hanse towns. + +The last of the chief trading settlements, both in importance and in +date of organization, was that at Bergen in Norway, where in 1343 the +Hanseatics obtained special trade privileges. Scandinavia had early been +sought for its copper and iron, its forest products and its valuable +fisheries, especially of herring at Schonen, but it was backward in its +industrial development and its own commerce had seriously declined in +the 14th century. It had come to depend largely upon the Germans for the +importation of all its luxuries and of many of its necessities, as well +as for the exportation of its products, but regular trade with the three +kingdoms was confined for the most part to the Wendish towns, with +Lübeck steadily asserting an exclusive ascendancy. The fishing centre at +Schonen was important as a market, though, like Novgorod, its trade was +seasonal, but it did not acquire the position of a regularly organized +counter, reserved alone, in the North, for Bergen. The commercial +relations with the North cannot be regarded as an important element in +the union of the Hanse towns, but the geographical position of the +Scandinavian countries, especially that of Denmark, commanding the Sound +which gives access to the Baltic, compelled a close attention to +Scandinavian politics on the part of Lübeck and the League and thus by +necessitating combined political action in defence of Hanseatic +sea-power exercised a unifying influence. + +Energetic and successful though the scattered trading settlements had +been in establishing German trade connexions and in securing valuable +trade privileges, the middle of the 14th century found them powerless to +meet difficulties arising from internal dissension and still more from +the political rivalries and trade jealousies of nascent nationalities. +Flanders became a battle-field in the great struggle between France and +England, and the war of trade prohibitions led to infractions of the +German privileges in Bruges. An embargo on trade with Flanders, voted in +1358 by a general assembly, resulted by 1360 in the full restoration of +German privileges in Flanders, but reduced the counter at Bruges to an +executive organ of a united town policy. It is worth noting that in a +document connected with this action the union of towns, borrowing the +term from English usage, was first called the "German Hansa." In 1361 +representatives from Lübeck and Wisby visited Novgorod to recodify the +by-laws of the counter and to admonish it that new statutes required the +consent of Lübeck, Wisby, Riga, Dorpat and Reval. This action was +confirmed in 1366 by an assembly of the Hansa which at the same time, on +the occasion of a regulation made by the Bruges counter and of statutes +drawn up by the young Bergen counter, ordered that in future the +approval of the towns must be obtained for all new regulations. + +The counter at London was soon forced to follow the example of the other +counters at Bruges, Novgorod and Bergen. After the failure of the +Italians, the Hanseatics remained the strongest group of alien +merchants in England, and, as such, claimed the exclusive enjoyment of +the privileges granted by the _Carta Mercatoria_ of 1303. Their highly +favoured position in England, contrasting markedly with their refusal of +trade facilities to the English in some of the Baltic towns and their +evident policy of monopoly in the Baltic trade, incensed the English +mercantile classes, and doubtless influenced the increases in +customs-duties which were regarded by the Germans as contrary to their +treaty rights. Unsuccessful in obtaining redress from the English +government, the German merchants finally, in 1374, appealed for aid to +the home towns, especially to Lübeck. The result of Hanseatic +representations was the confirmation by Richard II. in 1377 of all their +privileges, which accorded them the preferential treatment they had +claimed and became the foundation of the Hanseatic position in England. + +In the meanwhile, the conquest of Wisby by Waldemar IV. of Denmark in +1361 had disclosed his ambition for the political control of the Baltic. +He was promptly opposed by an alliance of Hanse towns, led by Lübeck. +The defeat of the Germans at Helsingborg only called into being the +stronger town and territorial alliance of 1367, known as the Cologne +Confederation, and its final victory, with the peace of Stralsund in +1370, which gave for a limited period the four chief castles on the +Sound into the hands of the Hanseatic towns, greatly enhanced the +prestige of the League. + +The assertion of Hanseatic influence in the two decades, 1356 to 1377, +marks the zenith of the League's power and the completion of the long +process of unification. Under the pressure of commercial and political +necessity, authority was definitely transferred from the Hansas of +merchants abroad to the Hansa of towns at home, and the sense of unity +had become such that in 1380 a Lübeck official could declare that +"whatever touches one town touches all." But even at the time when union +was most important, this statement went further than the facts would +warrant, and in the course of the following century it became less and +less true. Dortmund held aloof from the Cologne Confederation on the +ground that it had no concern in Scandinavian politics. It became, +indeed, increasingly difficult to obtain the support of the inland towns +for a policy of sea-power in the Baltic. Cologne sent no representatives +to the regular Hanseatic assemblies until 1383, and during the 15th +century its independence was frequently manifested. It rebelled at the +authority of the counter at Bruges, and at the time of the war with +England (1469-1474) openly defied the League. In the East, the German +Order, while enjoying Hanseatic privileges, frequently opposed the +policy of the League abroad, and was only prevented by domestic troubles +and its Hinterland enemies from playing its own hand in the Baltic. +After the fall of the order in 1467, the towns of Prussia and Livland, +especially Dantzig and Riga, pursued an exclusive trade policy even +against their Hanseatic confederates. Lübeck, however, supported by the +Bruges counter, despite the disaffection and jealousy on all sides +hampering and sometimes thwarting its efforts, stood steadfastly for +union and the necessity of obedience to the decrees of the assemblies. +Its headship of the League, hitherto tacitly accepted, was definitely +recognized in 1418. + +The governing body of the Hansa was the assembly of town +representatives, the "Hansetage," held irregularly as occasion required +at the summons of Lübeck, and, with few exceptions, attended but +scantily. The delegates were bound by instructions from their towns and +had to report home the decisions of the assembly for acceptance or +rejection. In 1469 the League declared that the English use of the terms +"societas," "collegium" and "universitas" was inappropriate to so loose +an organization. It preferred to call itself a "firma confederatio" for +trade purposes only. It had no common seal, though that of Lübeck was +accepted, particularly by foreigners, in behalf of the League. Disputes +between the confederate towns were brought for adjudication before the +general assembly, but the League had no recognized federal judiciary. +Lübeck, with the counters abroad, watched over the execution of the +measures voted by the assembly, but there was no regular administrative +organization. Money for common purposes was raised from time to time, +as necessity demanded, by the imposition on Hanse merchandise of +poundage dues, introduced in 1361, while the counters relied upon a +small levy of like nature and upon fines to meet current needs. Even +this slender financial provision met with opposition. The German Order +in 1398 converted the Hanseatic poundage to a territorial tax for its +own purposes, and one of the chief causes for Cologne's disaffection a +half-century later was the extension from Flanders to other parts of the +Netherlands of the levy made by the counter at Bruges. Since the +authority of the League rested primarily on the moral support of its +members, allied in common trade interests and acquiescing in the able +leadership of Lübeck, its only means of compulsion was the "Verhansung," +or exclusion of a recalcitrant town from the benefits of the trade +privileges of the League. A conspicuous instance was the exclusion of +Cologne from 1471 until its obedience in 1476, but the penalty had been +earlier imposed, as in the case of Brunswick, on towns which overthrew +their patrician governments. It was obviously, however, a measure to be +used only in the last resort and with extreme reluctance. + +The decisive factor in determining membership in the League was the +historical right of the citizens of a town to participate in Hanseatic +privileges abroad. At first the merchant Hansas had shared these +privileges with almost any German merchant, and thus many little +villages, notably those in Westphalia, ultimately claimed membership. +Later, under the Hansa of the towns, the struggle for the maintenance of +a coveted position abroad led to a more exclusive policy. A few new +members were admitted, mainly from the westernmost sphere of Hanseatic +influence, but membership was refused to some important applicants. In +1447 it was voted that admission be granted only by unanimous consent. +No complete list of members was ever drawn up, despite frequent requests +from foreign powers. Contemporaries usually spoke of 70, 72, 73 or 77 +members, and perhaps the list is complete with Daenell's recent count of +72, but the obscurity on so vital a point is significant of the +amorphous character of the organization. + +The towns of the League, stretching from Thorn and Krakow on the East to +the towns of the Zuider Zee on the West, and from Wisby and Reval in the +North to Göttingen in the South, were arranged in groups, following in +the main the territorial divisions. Separate assemblies were held in the +groups for the discussion both of local and Hanseatic affairs, and +gradually, but not fully until the 16th century, the groups became +recognized as the lowest stage of Hanse organization. The further +grouping into "Thirds," later "Quarters," under head-towns, was also +more emphasized in that century. + +In the 15th century the League, with increasing difficulty, held a +defensive position against the competition of strong rivals and new +trade-routes. In England the inevitable conflict of interests between +the new mercantile power, growing conscious of its national strength, +and the old, standing insistant on the letter of its privileges, was +postponed by the factional discord out of which the Hansa in 1474 +dexterously snatched a renewal of its rights. Under Elizabeth, however, +the English Merchant Adventurers could finally rejoice at the withdrawal +of privileges from the Hanseatics and their concession to England, in +return for the retention of the Steelyard, of a factory in Hamburg. In +the Netherlands the Hanseatics clung to their position in Bruges until +1540, while trade was migrating to the ports of Antwerp and Amsterdam. +By the peace of Copenhagen in 1441, after the unsuccessful war of the +League with Holland, the attempted monopoly of the Baltic was broken, +and, though the Hanseatic trade regulations were maintained on paper, +the Dutch with their larger ships increased their hold on the herring +fisheries, the French salt trade, and the Baltic grain trade. For the +Russian trade new competitors were emerging in southern Germany. The +Hanseatic embargo against Bruges from 1451 to 1457, its later war and +embargo against England, the Turkish advance closing the Italian Black +Sea trade with southern Russia, all were utilized by Nuremberg and its +fellows to secure a land-trade outside the sphere of Hanseatic +influence. The fairs of Leipzig and Frankfort-on-Main rose in +importance as Novgorod, the stronghold of Hanse trade in the East, was +weakened by the attacks of Ivan III. The closing of the Novgorod counter +in 1494 was due not only to the development of the Russian state but to +the exclusive Hanseatic policy which had stimulated the opening of +competing trade routes. + +Within the League itself increasing restiveness was shown under the +restrictions of its trade policy. At the Hanseatic assembly of 1469, +Dantzig, Hamburg and Breslau opposed the maintenance of a compulsory +staple at Bruges in the face of the new conditions produced by a +widening commerce and more advantageous markets. Complaint was made of +South German competition in the Netherlands. "Those in the Hansa," +protested Breslau, "are fettered and must decline and those outside the +Hansa are free and prosper." By 1477 even Lübeck had become convinced +that a continuance of the effort to maintain the compulsory staple +against Holland was futile and should be abandoned. But while it was +found impossible to enforce the staple or to close the Sound against the +Dutch, other features of the monopolistic system of trade regulations +were still upheld. It was forbidden to admit an outsider to partnership +or to co-ownership of ships, to trade in non-Hanseatic goods, to buy or +sell on credit in a foreign mart or to enter into contracts for future +delivery. The trade of foreigners outside the gates of Hanse towns or +with others than Hanseatics was forbidden in 1417, and in the Eastern +towns the retail trade of strangers was strictly limited. The whole +system was designed to suppress the competition of outsiders, but the +divergent interests of individuals and towns, the pressure of +competition and changing commercial conditions, in part the reactionary +character of the legislation, made enforcement difficult. The measures +were those of the late-medieval town economy applied to the wide region +of the German Baltic trade, but not supported, as was the analogous +mercantilist system, by a strong central government. + +Among the factors, economic, geographic, political and social, which +combined to bring about the decline of the Hanseatic League, none was +probably more influential than the absence of a German political power +comparable in unity and energy with those of France and England, which +could quell particularism at home, and abroad maintain in its vigour the +trade which these towns had developed and defended with their imperfect +union. Nothing was to be expected from the declining Empire. Still less +was any co-operation possible between the towns and the territorial +princes. The fatal result of conflict between town autonomy and +territorial power had been taught in Flanders. The Hanseatics regarded +the princes with a growing and exaggerated fear and found some relief in +the formation in 1418 of a thrice-renewed alliance, known as the +"Tohopesate," against princely aggression. But no territorial power had +as yet arisen in North Germany capable of subjugating and utilizing the +towns, though it could detach the inland towns from the League. The last +wars of the League with the Scandinavian powers in the 16th century, +which left it shorn of many of its privileges and of any pretension to +control of the Baltic basin eliminated it as a factor in the later +struggle of the Thirty Years' War for that control. At an assembly of +1629, Lübeck, Bremen and Hamburg were entrusted with the task of +safeguarding the general welfare, and after an effort to revive the +League in the last general assembly of 1669, these three towns were left +alone to preserve the name and small inheritance of the Hansa which in +Germany's disunion had upheld the honour of her commerce. Under their +protection, the three remaining counters lingered on until their +buildings were sold at Bergen in 1775, at London in 1852 and at Antwerp +in 1863. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Hansisches Urkundenbuch_, bearbeitet von K. Höhlbaum, + K. Kunze und W. Stein (10 vols., Halle und Leipzig, 1876-1907); + _Hanserecesse_, erste Abtheilung, 1256-1430 (8 vols., Leipzig, + 1870-1897), zweite Abtheilung, 1431-1476 (7 vols., 1876-1892); dritte + Abtheilung, 1477-1530 (7 vols., 1881-1905); _Hansische + Geschichtsquellen_ (7 vols., 1875-1894; 3 vols., 1897-1906); + _Inventare hansischer Archive des sechzehnten Jahrhunderts_ (vols. 1 + and 2, 1896-1903); _Hansische Geschictsblätter_ (14 vols., 1871-1908). + All the above-mentioned chief sources have been issued by the Verein + für hansische Geschichte. Of the secondary literature, the following + histories and monographs should be named. G. F. Sartorius, _Geschichte + des hanseatischen Bundes_ (3 vols., Göttingen, 1802-1808), + _Urkundliche Geschichte des Ursprunges der deutschen Hanse_, + herausgegeben von J. M. Lappenberg (2 vols., Hamburg, 1830); F. W. + Barthold, _Geschichte der deutschen Hansa_ (3 vols., 2nd ed., Leipzig, + 1862); D. Schäfer, _Die Hansestädte und König Waldemar von Dänemark_ + (Jena, 1879); W. Stein, _Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutschen Hanse + bis um die Mitte des fünfzehnten Jahrhunderts_ (Giessen, 1900); E. + Daenell, _Die Blütezeit der deutschen Hanse. Hansische Geschichte von + der zweiten Hälfte des XIV. bis zum letzten Viertel des XV. + Jahrhunderts_ (2 vols., Berlin, 1905-1906); J. M. Lappenberg, + _Urkundliche Geschichte des hansischen Stahlhofes zu London_ (Hamburg, + 1851); F. Keutgen, _Die Beziehungen der Hanse zu England im letzten + Drittel des vierzehnten Jahrhunderts_ (Giessen, 1890); R. Ehrenberg, + _Hamburg und England im Zeitalter der Königin Elisabeth_ (Jena, 1896); + W. Stein, _Die Genossenschaft der deutschen Kaufleute zu Brügge in + Flandern_ (Berlin, 1890); H. Rogge, _Der Stapelzwang des hansischen + Kontors zu Brügge im fünfzehnten Jahrhundert_ (Kiel, 1903); A. + Winckler, _Die deutsche Hansa in Russland_ (Berlin, 1886). + (E. F. G.) + + + + +HANSEN, PETER ANDREAS (1795-1874), Danish astronomer, was born on the +8th of December 1795, at Tondern, in the duchy of Schleswig. The son of +a goldsmith, he learned the trade of a watchmaker at Flensburg, and +exercised it at Berlin and Tondern, 1818-1820. He had, however, long +been a student of science; and Dr Dircks, a physician practising at +Tondern, prevailed with his father to send him in 1820 to Copenhagen, +where he won the patronage of H. C. Schumacher, and attracted the +personal notice of King Frederick VI. The Danish survey was then in +progress, and he acted as Schumacher's assistant in work connected with +it, chiefly at the new observatory of Altona, 1821-1825. Thence he +passed on to Gotha as director of the Seeberg observatory; nor could he +be tempted to relinquish the post by successive invitations to replace +F. G. W. Struve at Dorpat in 1829, and F. W. Bessel at Königsberg in +1847. The problems of gravitational astronomy engaged the chief part of +Hansen's attention. A research into the mutual perturbations of Jupiter +and Saturn secured for him the prize of the Berlin Academy in 1830, and +a memoir on cometary disturbances was crowned by the Paris Academy in +1850. In 1838 he published a revision of the lunar theory, entitled +_Fundamenta nova investigationis_, &c., and the improved Tables of the +Moon based upon it were printed in 1857, at the expense of the British +government, their merit being further recognized by a grant of £1000, +and by their immediate adoption in the _Nautical Almanac_, and other +Ephemerides. A theoretical discussion of the disturbances embodied in +them (still familiarly known to lunar experts as the _Darlegung_) +appeared in the _Abhandlungen_ of the Saxon Academy of Sciences in +1862-1864. Hansen twice visited England and was twice (in 1842 and 1860) +the recipient of the Royal Astronomical Society's gold medal. He +communicated to that society in 1847 an able paper on a long-period +lunar inequality (_Memoirs Roy. Astr. Society_, xvi. 465), and in 1854 +one on the moon's figure, advocating the mistaken hypothesis of its +deformation by a huge elevation directed towards the earth (Ib. xxiv. +29). He was awarded the Copley medal by the Royal Society in 1850, and +his Solar Tables, compiled with the assistance of Christian Olufsen, +appeared in 1854. Hansen gave in 1854 the first intimation that the +accepted distance of the sun was too great by some millions of miles +(_Month. Notices Roy. Astr. Soc._ xv. 9), the error of J. F. Encke's +result having been rendered evident through his investigation of a lunar +inequality. He died on the 28th of March 1874, at the new observatory in +the town of Gotha, erected under his care in 1857. + + See _Vierteljahrsschrift astr. Gesellschaft_, x. 133; _Month. Notices + Roy. Astr. Society_, xxxv. 168; _Proc. Roy. Society_, xxv. p. v.; R. + Wolf, _Geschichte der Astronomie_, p. 526; _Wochenschrift für + Astronomie_, xvii. 207 (account of early years by E. Heis); + _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_ (C. Bruhns). (A. M. C.) + + + + +HANSI, a town of British India, in the Hissar district of the Punjab, on +a branch of the Western Jumna canal, with a station on the +Rewari-Ferozepore railway, 16 m. E. of Hissar. Pop. (1901) 16,523. Hansi +is one of the most ancient towns in northern India, the former capital +of the tract called Hariana. At the end of the 18th century it was the +headquarters of the famous Irish adventurer George Thomas; from 1803 to +1857 it was a British cantonment, and it became the scene of a murderous +outbreak during the Mutiny. A ruined fort overlooks the town, which is +still surrounded by a high brick wall, with bastions and loop holes. It +is a centre of local trade, with factories for ginning and pressing +cotton. + + + + +HANSOM, JOSEPH ALOYSIUS (1803-1882), English architect and inventor, was +born in York on the 26th of October 1803. Showing an aptitude for +designing and construction, he was taken from his father's joinery shop +and apprenticed to an architect in York, and, by 1831, his designs for +the Birmingham town hall were accepted and followed--to his financial +undoing, as he had become bond for the builders. In 1834 he registered +the design of a "Patent Safety Cab," and subsequently sold the patent to +a company for £10,000, which, however, owing to the company's financial +difficulties, was never paid. The hansom cab as improved by subsequent +alterations, nevertheless, took and held the fancy of the public. There +was no back seat for the driver in the original design, and there is +little beside the suspended axle and large wheels in the modern hansom +to recall the early ones. In 1834 Hansom founded the _Builder_ +newspaper, but was compelled to retire from this enterprise owing to +insufficient capital. Between 1854 and 1879 he devoted himself to +architecture, designing and erecting a great number of important +buildings, private and public, including churches, schools and convents +for the Roman Catholic church to which he belonged. Buildings from his +designs are scattered all over the United Kingdom, and were even erected +in Australia and South America. He died in London on the 29th of June +1882. + + + + +HANSON, SIR RICHARD DAVIES (1805-1876), chief justice of South +Australia, was born in London on the 6th of December 1805. Admitted a +solicitor in 1828, he practised for some time in London. In 1838 he went +with Lord Durham to Canada as assistant-commissioner of inquiry into +crown lands and immigration. In 1840, on the death of Lord Durham, whose +private secretary he had been, he settled in Wellington, New Zealand. He +there acted as crown prosecutor, but in 1846 removed to South Australia. +In 1851 he was appointed advocate-general of that colony and took an +active share in the passing of many important measures, such as the +first Education Act, the District Councils Act of 1852, and the Act of +1856 which granted constitutional government to the colony. In 1856 and +again from 1857 to 1860 he was attorney-general and leader of the +government. In 1861 he was appointed chief justice of the supreme court +of South Australia and was knighted in 1869. He died in Australia on the +4th of March 1876. + + + + +HANSTEEN, CHRISTOPHER (1784-1873), Norwegian astronomer and physicist, +was born at Christiania, on the 26th of September 1784. From the +cathedral school he went to the university at Copenhagen, where first +law and afterwards mathematics formed his main study. In 1806 he taught +mathematics in the gymnasium of Frederiksborg, Zeeland, and in the +following year he began the inquiries in terrestrial magnetism with +which his name is especially associated. He took in 1812 the prize of +the Danish Royal Academy of Sciences for his reply to a question on the +magnetic axes. Appointed lecturer in 1814, he was in 1816 raised to the +chair of astronomy and applied mathematics in the university of +Christiania. In 1819 he published a volume of researches on terrestrial +magnetism, which was translated into German by P. T. Hanson, under the +title of _Untersuchungen über den Magnetismus der Erde_, with a +supplement containing _Beobachtungen der Abweichung und Neigung der +Magnetnadel_ and an atlas. By the rules there framed for the observation +of magnetical phenomena Hansteen hoped to accumulate analyses for +determining the number and position of the magnetic poles of the earth. +In prosecution of his researches he travelled over Finland and the +greater part of his own country; and in 1828-1830 he undertook, in +company with G. A. Erman, and with the co-operation of Russia, a +government mission to Western Siberia. A narrative of the expedition +soon appeared (_Reise-Erinnerungen aus Sibirien_, 1854; _Souvenirs_ +_d'un voyage en Sibérie_, 1857); but the chief work was not issued till +1863 (_Resultate magnetischer Beobachtungen_, &c.). Shortly after the +return of the mission, an observatory was erected in the park of +Christiania (1833), and Hansteen was appointed director. On his +representation a magnetic observatory was added in 1839. In 1835-1838 he +published text-books on geometry and mechanics; and in 1842 he wrote his +_Disquisitiones de mutationibus quas patitur momentum acus magneticae_, +&c. He also contributed various papers to different scientific journals, +especially the _Magazin for Naturvidenskaberne_, of which he became +joint-editor in 1823. He superintended the trigonometrical and +topographical survey of Norway, begun in 1837. In 1861 he retired from +active work, but still pursued his studies, his _Observations de +l'inclination magnétique_ and _Sur les variations séculaires du +magnétisme_ appearing in 1865. He died at Christiania on the 11th of +April 1873. + + + + +HANTHAWADDY, a district in the Pegu division of Lower Burma, the home +district of Rangoon, from which the town was detached to make a separate +district in 1880. It has an area of 3023 sq. m., with a population in +1901 of 484,811, showing an increase of 22% in the decade. Hanthawaddy +and Henzada are the two most densely populated districts in the +province. It consists of a vast plain stretching up from the sea between +the To or China Bakir mouth of the Irrawaddy and the Pegu Yomas. Except +the tract lying between the Pegu Yomas on the east and the Hlaing river, +the country is intersected by numerous tidal creeks, many navigable by +large boats and some by steamers. The headquarters of the district are +in Rangoon, which is also the sub-divisional headquarters. The second +sub-division has its headquarters at Insein, where there are large +railway works. Cultivation is almost wholly confined to rice, but there +are many vegetable and fruit gardens. + + + + +HANUKKAH, a Jewish festival, the "Feast of Dedication" (cf. John x. 22) +or the "Feast of the Maccabees," beginning on the 25th day of the ninth +month _Kislev_ (December), of the Hebrew ecclesiastical year, and +lasting eight days. It was instituted in 165 B.C. in commemoration of, +and thanksgiving for, the purification of the temple at Jerusalem on +this day by Judas Maccabaeus after its pollution by Antiochus Epiphanes, +king of Syria, who in 168 B.C. set up a pagan altar to Zeus Olympius. +The Talmudic sources say that when the perpetual lamp of the temple was +to be relighted only one flask of holy oil sufficient for the day +remained, but this miraculously lasted for the eight days (cf. the +legend in 2 Macc. i. 18). In memory of this the Jews burn both in +synagogues and in houses on the first night of the festival one light, +on the second two, and so on to the end (so the Hillelites), or vice +versa eight lights on the first, and one less on each succeeding night +(so the Shammaites). From the prominence of the lights the festival is +also known as the "Festival of Lights" or "Illumination" (_Talmud_). It +is said that the day chosen by Judas for the setting up of the new altar +was the anniversary of that on which Antiochus had set up the pagan +altar; hence it is suggested (e.g. by Wellhausen) that the 25th of +Kislev was an old pagan festival, perhaps the day of the winter +solstice. + + For further details and illustrations of Hanukkah lamps see _Jewish + Encyc._, s.v. + + + + +HANUMAN, in Hindu mythology, a monkey-god, who forms a central figure in +the _Ramayana_. He was the child of a nymph by the god of the wind. His +exploits, as the ally of Rama (incarnation of Vishnu) in the latter's +recovery of his wife Sita from the clutches of the demon Ravana, include +the bridging of the straits between India and Ceylon with huge boulders +carried away from the Himalayas. He is the leader of a host of monkeys +who aid in these supernatural deeds. Temples in his honour are frequent +throughout India. + + + + +HANWAY, JONAS (1712-1786), English traveller and philanthropist, was +born at Portsmouth in 1712. While still a child, his father, a +victualler, died, and the family moved to London. In 1729 Jonas was +apprenticed to a merchant in Lisbon. In 1743, after he had been some +time in business for himself in London, he became a partner with Mr +Dingley, a merchant in St Petersburg, and in this way was led to travel +in Russia and Persia. Leaving St Petersburg on the 10th of September +1743, and passing south by Moscow, Tsaritsyn and Astrakhan, he embarked +on the Caspian on the 22nd of November, and arrived at Astrabad on the +18th of December. Here his goods were seized by Mohammed Hassan Beg, and +it was only after great privations that he reached the camp of Nadir +Shah, under whose protection he recovered most (85%) of his property. +His return journey was embarrassed by sickness (at Resht), by attacks +from pirates, and by six weeks' quarantine; and he only reappeared at St +Petersburg on the 1st of January 1745. He again left the Russian capital +on the 9th of July 1750 and travelled through Germany and Holland to +England (28th of October). The rest of his life was mostly spent in +London, where the narrative of his travels (published in 1753) soon made +him a man of note, and where he devoted himself to philanthropy and good +citizenship. In 1756 he founded the Marine Society, to keep up the +supply of British seamen; in 1758 he became a governor of the Foundling, +and established the Magdalen, hospital; in 1761 he procured a better +system of parochial birth-registration in London; and in 1762 he was +appointed a commissioner for victualling the navy (10th of July); this +office he held till October 1783. He died, unmarried, on the 5th of +September 1786. He was the first Londoner, it is said, to carry an +umbrella, and he lived to triumph over all the hackney coachmen who +tried to hoot and hustle him down. He attacked "vail-giving," or +tipping, with some temporary success; by his onslaught upon tea-drinking +he became involved in controversy with Johnson and Goldsmith. His last +efforts were on behalf of little chimney-sweeps. His advocacy of +solitary confinement for prisoners and opposition to Jewish +naturalization were more questionable instances of his activity in +social matters. + + Hanway left seventy-four printed works, mostly pamphlets; the only one + of literary importance is the _Historical Account of British Trade + over the Caspian Sea, with a Journal of Travels_, &c. (London, 1753). + On his life, see also Pugh, _Remarkable Occurrences in the Life of + Jonas Hanway_ (London, 1787); _Gentleman's Magazine_, vol. xxxii. p. + 342; vol. lvi. pt. ii. pp. 812-814, 1090, 1143-1144; vol. lxv. pt. ii. + pp. 721-722, 834-835; _Notes and Queries_, 1st series, i. 436, ii. 25; + 3rd series, vii. 311; 4th series, viii. 416. + + + + +HANWELL, an urban district in the Brentford parliamentary division of +Middlesex, England, 10½ m. W. of St Paul's cathedral, London, on the +river Brent and the Great Western railway. Pop. (1891) 6139; (1901) +10,438. It ranks as an outer residential suburb of London. The Hanwell +lunatic asylum of the county of London has been greatly extended since +its erection 1831, and can accommodate over 2500 inmates. The extensive +cemeteries of St Mary Abbots, Kensington, and St George, Hanover Square, +London, are here. In the churchyard of St Mary's church was buried Jonas +Hanway (d. 1786), traveller, philanthropist, and by repute, introducer +of the umbrella into England. The Roman Catholic Convalescent Home for +women and children was erected in 1865. Before the Norman period the +manor of Hanwell belonged to Westminster Abbey. + + + + +HAPARANDA (Finnish _Haaparanta_, "Aspen Shore"), a town of Sweden in the +district (_län_) of Norbotten, at the head of the Gulf of Bothnia. Pop. +(1900) 1568. It lies about 1½ m. from the mouth of the Torne river, on +the frontier with Russia (Finland), opposite the town of Torneå which +has belonged to Russia since 1809. The towns are divided by a marshy +channel, formerly the bed of the Torne, but the main stream is now east +of the Russian town. Haparanda was founded in 1812, and at first bore +the name of Karljohannstad. It received its municipal constitution in +1842. Shipbuilding is prosecuted. Sea-going vessels load and unload at +Salmio, 7 m. from Haparanda. Since 1859 the town has been the seat of an +important meteorological station. Annual mean temperature, 32.4° Fahr.; +February 10.5°; July 58.8°. Rainfall, 16.5 in. annually. Up the Torne +valley (54 m.) is the hill Avasaxa, whither pilgrimages were formerly +made in order to stand in the light of the sun at midnight on St John's +day (June 24). + + + + +HAPLODRILI (so called by Lankester), often called Archiannelida +(Hatschek), the name provisionally given to a number of interesting +lowly-organized marine worms, whose affinities are very doubtful (see +CHAETOPODA.) _Polygordius_ and _Protodrilus_ live in sand, but while +the former moves by means of the contraction of its body-wall muscles, +_Protodrilus_ can progress by the action of the bands of cilia +surrounding its segments, and of the longitudinal ciliated ventral +groove. _Saccocirrus_, which also lives in sand, and more closely +resembles the Polychaeta, has throughout the greater length of its body +on each segment a pair of small uniramous parapodia bearing a bunch of +simple setae. No other member of the group is known to have any trace of +setae or parapodia at any stage of development. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1. + + A, _Polygordius neapolitanus_. (From Fraipont.) + B, Transverse section of _Polygordius_. (From Fraipont.) + C, Trochophore of _Polygordius_. and D, later stage of the same, + showing the development of the trunk. (From Hatschek.) + E, Dorsal view of _Dinophilus taeniatus_. + F, Male apparatus of the same (From Harmer.) + a, Anus. + ap, Apical organ. + c, Coelom. + c.o, Ciliated pit. + c.t, Cuticle. + d.v, Dorsal vessel. + e, Eye. + ep, Epidermis. + g.f, Genital funnel. + h, "Head kidney," with second nephridium just below it. + i, Intestine. + l.m, Longitudinal muscles. + m, Mouth. + m.o, Muscular pharyngeal organ. + m.p, Male pore. + n, Nephridium. + o.m, Oblique muscles. + ov, Ovary. + p, Penis. + pr, Prototroch. + pt, Prostomial tentacle. + sp, Sperm-sac. + spd, Sperm-duct. + st, Stomach. + t, Testes. + tr, Trunk segment. + tt, Telotroch. + v.n, Ventral nerve cord. + v.v, Ventral vessel.] + + These three genera have the following characters in common. The body + is composed of a large number of segments; the prostomium bears a pair + of tentacles; the nervous system consists of a brain and longitudinal + ventral nerve cords closely connected with the epidermis (without + distinct ganglia), widely separated in _Saccocirrus_, closely + approximated in _Protodrilus_, fused together in _Polygordius_; the + coelom is well developed, the septa are distinct, and the dorsal and + ventral longitudinal mesenteries are complete; the nephridia are + simple, and open into the coelom. Polygordius differs from + _Protodrilus_ and _Saccocirrus_ in the absence of a distinct + suboesophageal muscular pouch, and in the absence of a peculiar closed + cavity in the head region, which is especially well developed in + _Saccocirrus_, and probably represents the specialized coelom of the + first segment. Moreover, in _Saccocirrus_ the genital organs, present + in the majority of the trunk segments, have become much complicated + (fig. 2). In the female there is in every fertile segment a pair of + spermathecae opening at the nephridiopores. In the male there are a + right and a left protrusible penis in every genital segment, into + which opens the nephridium and a sperm-sac. The wide funnels of the + nephridia of this region are possibly of coelomic origin. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Diagram of a transverse section of + _Saccocirrus_ showing on the left side the organs in a genital segment + of a male, and on the right side the organs in a genital segment of a + female. (From Goodrich.)] + + _Dinophilus_ is a free-swimming form without tentacles, and with + segmental bands of cilia (fig. 1). The parasitic _Histriodritus_ + (Histriobdella) feeds on the eggs of the lobster. It resembles + _Dinophilus_ in the possession of a ventral pharyngeal pouch (which + bears teeth in _Histriodrilus_ only), the small number of segments, + and absence of distinct septa, the absence of a vascular system, the + presence of distinct ganglia on the ventral nerve cords, and of small + nephridia which do not appear to open internally. _Histriodrilus_ + resembles _Saccocirrus_ in the possession of two posterior adhesive + processes, and to some extent in the structure of the complex genital + organs, which, however, are restricted to a single segment. In + _Dinophilus_, there is also only a single pair of genital ducts + behind; and in the male there are sperm-sacs and a median penis. In + some species of _Dinophilus_ there is pronounced sexual dimorphism + (the male being small and without gut) as in the Rotifera. The + resemblance of _Dinophilus_ to the Rotifera is, however, quite + superficial, and the general structure of this genus with distinct + traces of segmentation, especially in the embryo, points to its close + affinity, if not to _Polygordius_ in particular, at all events to the + Annelida. + + That _Polygordius_, _Protodrilus_ and _Saccocirrus_ are on the whole + primitive forms, and related to each other, there can be little doubt, + but their place amongst the Annelida is difficult to determine. The + development of _Polygordius_ alone is well known, having been studied + by Hatschek, Fraipont and others. The larva (fig. 1, C and D) is a + typical but very specialized form of trochophore, provided with a + branching nephridium bearing solenocytes. The trunk develops on the + lower surface of the disk-like larva, which undergoes a more or less + sudden metamorphosis into the young worm (fig. 1). There appears to be + little either in the development or in the structure of the Haplodrili + to warrant the view held by Hatschek and Fraipont that _Polygordius_ + and _Protodrilus_ are exceedingly primitive forms, ancestral to the + whole group of seta-bearing Annelids (Oligochaeta, Polychaeta, + Hirudinea and Echiuroidea). Whatever may be the conclusion as to the + position of _Dinophilus_ and _Histriodrilus_, it seems only reasonable + to suppose that _Polygordius_ and _Protodrilus_, so far from + representing a stage in the phylogeny of the Annelida before setae + were developed, have lost the setae, which are already in a reduced + state in _Saccocirrus_. + + AUTHORITIES.--Hatschek, "Studien z. Entw. der Anneliden," _Arb. Zool. + Inst. Wien_, vol. i., 1878; "Protodrilus," ibid. vol. iii. (1881); + Fraipont, "Le Genre Polygordius," _Fauna u. Flora d. Golfes v. + Neapel._, xiv., 1887; Weldon, "Dinophilus gigas," _Quart. Journ. Micr. + Sci._ vol. xxvii., 1886; Harmer, "Dinophilus," _Journ. Mar. Biol._ + N.S. vol. i., 1889; Schimkewitsch, "Entwickl. des _Dinophilus," Zeit. + f. wiss. Zool._ vol. lix., 1895; Korschelt, "Über Bau u. Entw. des + _Dinophilus," Zeit. f. wiss. Zool._ vol. xxxvii., 1882; Foettinger, + "Histriobdella," _Arch. Biol._ vol. v., 1884; Goodrich, "On + Saccocirrus," _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ vol. xliv., 1901. + (E. S. G.) + + + + +HAPTARA (lit. _conclusion_), the Hebrew title given to the prophetic +lessons with which the ancient Synagogue service concluded. In the time +of Christ these prophetic lessons were already in vogue, and Christ +himself read the lessons and discoursed on them in the synagogues of +Galilee. In the modern synagogue these readings from the prophets are +regularly included in the ritual of Sabbaths, festivals and some other +occasions. + + A list of the current lessons is given in the _Jewish Encyclopedia_, + vol. vi. pp. 136-137. (I. A.) + + + + +HAPUR, a town of British India in the Meerut district of the United +Provinces, 18 m. S. of Meerut. Pop. (1901) 17,796. It is said to have +been founded in the 10th century, and was granted by Sindhia to his +French general Perron at the end of the 18th century. Several fine +groves surround the town, but the wall and ditch have fallen out of +repair, and only the names of the five gates remain. Considerable trade +is carried on in sugar, grain, cotton, timber, bamboos and brass +utensils. + + + + +HARA-KIRI (Japanese _hara_, belly, and _kiri_, cutting), +self-disembowelment, primarily the method of suicide permitted to +offenders of the noble class in feudal Japan, and later the national +form of honourable suicide. Hara-kiri has been often translated as "the +happy dispatch" in confusion with a native euphemism for the act. More +usually the Japanese themselves speak of hara-kiri by its Chinese +synonym, _Seppuku_. Hara-kiri is not an aboriginal Japanese custom. It +was a growth of medieval militarism, the act probably at first being +prompted by the desire of the noble to escape the humiliation of falling +into an enemy's hands. By the end of the 14th century the custom had +become a much valued privilege, being formally established as such under +the Ashi-Kaga dynasty. Hara-kiri was of two kinds, obligatory and +voluntary. The first is the more ancient. An official or noble, who had +broken the law or been disloyal, received a message from the emperor, +couched always in sympathetic and gracious tones, courteously intimating +that he must die. The mikado usually sent a jewelled dagger with which +the deed might be done. The suicide had so many days allotted to him by +immemorial custom in which to make dignified preparations for the +ceremony, which was attended by the utmost formality. In his own +baronial hall or in a temple a daïs 3 or 4 in. from the ground was +constructed. Upon this was laid a rug of red felt. The suicide, clothed +in his ceremonial dress as an hereditary noble, and accompanied by his +second or "Kaishaku," took his place on the mat, the officials and his +friends ranging themselves in a semicircle round the daïs. After a +minute's prayer the weapon was handed to him with many obeisances by the +mikado's representative, and he then made a public confession of his +fault. He then stripped to the waist. Every movement in the grim +ceremony was governed by precedent, and he had to tuck his wide sleeves +under his knees to prevent himself falling backwards, for a Japanese +noble must die falling forward. A moment later he plunged the dagger +into his stomach below the waist on the left side, drew it across to the +right and, turning it, gave a slight cut upward. At the same moment the +Kaishaku who crouched at his friend's side, leaping up, brought his +sword down on the outstretched neck. At the conclusion of the ceremony +the bloodstained dagger was taken to the mikado as a proof of the +consummation of the heroic act. The performance of hara-kiri carried +with it certain privileges. If it was by order of the mikado half only +of a traitor's property was forfeited to the state. If the gnawings of +conscience drove the disloyal noble to voluntary suicide, his dishonour +was wiped out, and his family inherited all his fortune. + +Voluntary hara-kiri was the refuge of men rendered desperate by private +misfortunes, or was committed from loyalty to a dead superior, or as a +protest against what was deemed a false national policy. This voluntary +suicide still survives, a characteristic case being that of Lieutenant +Takeyoshi who in 1891 gave himself the "belly-cut" in front of the +graves of his ancestors at Tokyo as a protest against what he considered +the criminal lethargy of the government in not taking precautions +against possible Russian encroachments to the north of Japan. In the +Russo-Japanese War, when faced by defeat at Vladivostock, the officer in +command of the troops on the transport "Kinshu Maru" committed +hara-kiri. Hara-kiri has not been uncommon among women, but in their +case the mode is by cutting the throat. The popularity of this +self-immolation is testified to by the fact that for centuries no fewer +than 1500 hara-kiris are said to have taken place annually, at least +half being entirely voluntary. Stories of amazing heroism are told in +connexion with the performance of the act. One noble, barely out of his +teens, not content with giving himself the customary cuts, slashed +himself thrice horizontally and twice vertically. Then he stabbed +himself in the throat until the dirk protruded on the other side with +the sharp edge to the front, and with a supreme effort drove the knife +forward with both hands through his neck. Obligatory hara-kiri was +obsolete in the middle of the 19th century, and was actually abolished +in 1868. + + See A. B. Mitford, _Tales of Old Japan_; Basil Hall Chamberlain, + _Things Japanese_ (1898). + + + + +HARALD, the name of four kings of Norway. + +HARALD I. (850-933), surnamed Haarfager (of the beautiful hair), first +king over Norway, succeeded on the death or his father Halfdan the Black +in A.D. 860 to the sovereignty of several small and somewhat scattered +kingdoms, which had come into his father's hands through conquest and +inheritance and lay chiefly in south-east Norway (see NORWAY). The tale +goes that the scorn of the daughter of a neighbouring king induced +Harald to take a vow not to cut nor comb his hair until he was sole king +of Norway, and that ten years later he was justified in trimming it; +whereupon he exchanged the epithet "Shockhead" for the one by which he +is usually known. In 866 he made the first of a series of conquests over +the many petty kingdoms which then composed Norway; and in 872, after a +great victory at Hafrsfjord near Stavanger, he found himself king over +the whole country. His realm was, however, threatened by dangers from +without, as large numbers of his opponents had taken refuge, not only in +Iceland, then recently discovered, but also in the Orkneys, Shetlands, +Hebrides and Faeroes, and in Scotland itself; and from these winter +quarters sallied forth to harry Norway as well as the rest of northern +Europe. Their numbers were increased by malcontents from Norway, who +resented Harald's claim of rights of taxation over lands which the +possessors appear to have previously held in absolute ownership. At last +Harald was forced to make an expedition to the west to clear the islands +and Scottish mainland of Vikings. Numbers of them fled to Iceland, which +grew into an independent commonwealth, while the Scottish isles fell +under Norwegian rule. The latter part of Harald's reign was disturbed by +the strife of his many sons. He gave them all the royal title and +assigned lands to them which they were to govern as his representatives; +but this arrangement did not put an end to the discord, which continued +into the next reign. When he grew old he handed over the supreme power +to his favourite son Erik "Bloody Axe," whom he intended to be his +successor. Harald died in 933, in his eighty-fourth year. + +HARALD II., surnamed Graafeld, a grandson of Harald I., became, with his +brothers, ruler of the western part of Norway in 961; he was murdered in +Denmark in 969. + +HARALD III. (1015-1066), king of Norway, surnamed Haardraade, which +might be translated "ruthless," was the son of King Sigurd and +half-brother of King Olaf the Saint. At the age of fifteen he was +obliged to flee from Norway, having taken part in the battle of +Stiklestad (1030), at which King Olaf met his death. He took refuge for +a short time with Prince Yaroslav of Novgorod (a kingdom founded by +Scandinavians), and thence went to Constantinople, where he took service +under the empress Zoe, whose Varangian guard he led to frequent victory +in Italy, Sicily and North Africa, also penetrating to Jerusalem. In the +year 1042 he left Constantinople, the story says because he was refused +the hand of a princess, and on his way back to his own country he +married Ellisif or Elizabeth, daughter of Yaroslav of Novgorod. In +Sweden he allied himself with the defeated Sven of Denmark against his +nephew Magnus, now king of Norway, but soon broke faith with Sven and +accepted an offer from Magnus of half his kingdom. In return for this +gift Harald is said to have shared with Magnus the enormous treasure +which he had amassed in the East. The death of Magnus in 1047 put an end +to the growing jealousies between the two kings, and Harald turned all +his attention to the task of subjugating Denmark, which he ravaged year +after year; but he met with such stubborn resistance from Sven that in +1064 he gave up the attempt and made peace. Two years afterwards, +possibly instigated by the banished Earl Tostig of Northumbria, he +attempted the conquest of England, to the sovereignty of which his +predecessor had advanced a claim as successor of Harthacnut. In +September 1066 he landed in Yorkshire with a large army, reinforced from +Scotland, Ireland and the Orkneys; took Scarborough by casting flaming +brands into the town from the high ground above it; defeated the +Northumbrian forces at Fulford; and entered York on the 24th of +September. But the following day the English Harold arrived from the +south, and the end of the long day's fight at Stamford Bridge saw the +rout of the Norwegian forces after the fall of their king (25th of +September 1066). He was only fifty years old, but he was the first of +the six kings who had ruled Norway since the death of Harald Haarfager +to reach that age. As a king he was unpopular on account of his +harshness and want of good faith, but his many victories in the face of +great odds prove him to have been a remarkable general, of never-failing +resourcefulness and indomitable courage. + +HARALD IV. (d. 1136), king of Norway, surnamed Gylle (probably from +_Gylle Krist_, i.e. servant of Christ), was born in Ireland about 1103. +About 1127 he went to Norway and declared he was a son of King Magnus +III. (Barefoot), who had visited Ireland just before his death in 1103, +and consequently a half-brother of the reigning king, Sigurd. He appears +to have submitted successfully to the ordeal of fire, and the alleged +relationship was acknowledged by Sigurd on condition that Harald did not +claim any share in the government of the kingdom during his lifetime or +that of his son Magnus. Living on friendly terms with the king, Harald +kept this agreement until Sigurd's death in 1130. Then war broke out +between himself and Magnus, and after several battles the latter was +captured in 1134, his eyes were put out, and he was thrown into prison. +Harald now ruled the country until 1136, when he was murdered by Sigurd +Slembi-Diakn, another bastard son of Magnus Barefoot. Four of Harald's +sons, Sigurd, Ingi, Eysteinn and Magnus, were subsequently kings of +Norway. + + + + +HARBIN, or KHARBIN, town of Manchuria, on the right bank of the river +Sungari. Pop. about 20,000. Till 1896 there was only a small village +here, but in that year the town was founded in connexion with surveys +for the Chinese Eastern railway company, at a point which subsequently +became the junction of the main line of the Manchurian railway with the +branch line southward to Port Arthur. Occupying such a position, Harbin +became an important Russian military centre during the Russo-Japanese +War. The portion of the town founded in 1896 is called Old Harbin, but +the centre has shifted to New Harbin, where the chief public buildings +and offices of the railway administration are situated. The river-port +forms a third division of the town, industrially the most important; +here are railway workshops, factories and mercantile establishments. +Trade is chiefly in the hands of the Chinese. + + + + +HARBINGER, originally one who provides a shelter or lodging for an army. +The word is derived from the M. E. and O. Fr. _herbergere_, through the +Late Lat. _heribergator_, formed from the O. H. Ger. _heri_, mod. Ger. +_Heer_, an army, and _bergen_, shelter or defence, cf. "harbour." The +meaning was soon enlarged to include any place where travellers could be +lodged or entertained, and also by transference the person who provided +lodgings, and so one who goes on before a party to secure suitable +lodgings in advance. A herald sent forward to announce the coming of a +king. A Knight Harbinger was an officer in the royal household till +1846. In these senses the word is now obsolete. It is used chiefly in +poetry and literature for one who announces the immediate approach of +something, a forerunner. This is illustrated in the "harbinger of +spring," a name given to a small plant belonging to the Umbelliferae, +which has a tuberous root, and small white flowers; it is found in the +central states of North America, and blossoms in March. + + + + +HARBOUR (from M. E. _hereberge_, _here_, an army; cf. Ger. _Heer_ and +-_beorg_, protection or shelter. Other early forms in English were +_herberwe_ and _harborow_, as seen in various place names, such as +Market Harborough. The French _auberge_, an inn, derived through +_heberger_, is thus the same word), a place of refuge or shelter. It is +thus used for an asylum for criminals, and particularly for a place of +shelter for ships. + +Sheltered sites along exposed sea-coasts are essential for purposes of +trade, and very valuable as refuges for vessels from storms. In a few +places, natural shelter is found in combination with ample depth, as in +the Bay of Rio de Janeiro, New York Harbour (protected by Long Island), +Portsmouth Harbour and Southampton Water (sheltered by the Isle of +Wight), and the land-locked creeks of Milford Haven and Kiel Harbour. At +various places there are large enclosed areas which have openings into +the sea; but these lagoons for the most part are very shallow except in +the main channels and at their outlets. Access to them is generally +obstructed by a bar as at the lagoon harbour of Venice (fig. 1), and +similar harbours, like those of Poole and Wexford; and such harbours +usually require works to prevent their deterioration, and to increase +the depth near their outlet. Generally, however, harbours are formed +where shelter is provided to a certain extent by a bay, creek or +projecting headland, but requires to be rendered complete by one or more +breakwaters (see BREAKWATER), or where the approach to a river, a +ship-canal or a seaport, needs protection. A refuge harbour is +occasionally constructed where a long length of stormy coast, near the +ordinary track of vessels, is entirely devoid of natural shelter. Naval +harbours are required by maritime powers as stations for their fleets, +and dockyards for construction and repairs, and also in some cases as +places of shelter from the night attacks of torpedoes. Commercial +harbours have to be provided for the formation of ports within their +shelter on important trade routes, or for the protection of the +approaches from the sea of ports near the sea-coast, or maritime +waterways running inland, in some cases at points on the coast devoid of +all natural shelter. A greater latitude in the selection of suitable +sites is, indeed, possible for refuge and naval harbours than for +commercial harbours; but these three classes of harbours are very +similar in their general outline and the works protecting them, only +differing in size and internal arrangements according to the purpose for +which they have been constructed, the chief differences being due to the +local conditions. + +Harbours may be divided into three distinct groups, namely, lagoon +harbours, jetty harbours and sea-coast harbours, protected by +breakwaters, including refuge, naval and commercial harbours. + + _Lagoon Harbours._--A lagoon, consisting of a sort of large shallow + lake separated from the sea by a narrow belt of coast, formed of + deposit from a deltaic river or of sand dunes heaped up by on-shore + winds along a sandy shore, possesses good natural shelter; and, owing + to the large expanse which is filled and emptied at each tide, even + when the tidal range is quite small, together with the discharge from + any rivers flowing into the lagoon, one or more fairly deep outlets + are maintained through the fringe of coast, which afford navigable + access to the lagoon; whilst channels formed inside by the currents + lead to ports on its banks. Lagoons, however, are liable to be + gradually silted up, if rivers flowing into them bring down + considerable quantities of alluvium, which is readily deposited in + their fairly still waters; and their outlet channels are in danger of + becoming shallower, by the sea in storms forming additional outlets by + breaking through the narrow barrier separating them from the sea. + Moreover, the approach from the sea to these channels through the + fringe of coast is generally impeded by a bar, owing to the scour of + the issuing current through these outlet channels becoming gradually + too enfeebled, on entering the open sea, to overcome the heaping-up + action of the waves along the shore, which tends to form a continuous + beach across these openings. Rivers, accordingly, whose discharge is + very valuable in maintaining a lagoon if their waters are free from + sediment, must, if possible, be diverted from a lagoon if they bring + down large amounts of silt; whilst the narrow belt of land in front of + the lagoon must be protected from erosion by the waves, on its sea + face, by groynes or revetments. The depth over the bar in front of an + outlet can be improved by concentrating the current through the outlet + by jetties on each side, and prolonging the jetties, and consequently + the scour, out to the bar so as to lower it, and by supplementing the + scouring action, if necessary, by dredging. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Venetian Lagoon Harbour.] + + _Jetty Harbours._--Several small ports were formed on the sea-coast + long ago at points where flat marshy ground lying below the level of + high-water, and shut off from the sandy beach by dikes or sand dunes, + was connected with the sea by a small creek or river. Such ports + presented in their original condition a slight resemblance to lagoons + on a very small scale. Several examples are to be found on the sandy + shores of the English Channel and North Sea, such as Dieppe, Boulogne, + Calais, Dunkirk, Nieuport and Ostend, where the influx and efflux of + the water from these enclosed tide-covered areas, through a narrow + opening, sufficed to maintain a shallow channel to the sea across the + beach, deep enough near high-water for vessels of small draught. When + the increase in draught necessitated the provision of an improved + channel, the scour of the issuing current was concentrated and + prolonged by erecting parallel jetties across the beach, raised solid + to a little above low water of neap tides, with open timber-work above + to indicate the channel and guide the vessels. Even this low + obstruction, however, to the littoral drift of sand caused an advance + of the low water line as the jetties were carried out, so that further + extensions of the jetties had eventually to be abandoned, as occurred + at Dunkirk (see DOCK). Moreover, reclamation of the low-lying areas + was gradually effected, thus reducing the tidal scour; and sluicing + basins were excavated in part of the low ground, into which the tide + flowed through the entrance channel, and the water being shut in at + high tide by gates at the outlet of the basin, was released at low + water, producing a rapid current through the channel as a compensation + for the loss of the former natural scour. The current, however, from + the sluicing basin gradually lost its velocity in passing down the + channel, and besides, being most effective near the outlet of the + basin, could only scour the channel down to a moderate depth below low + water, on account of the increase in the volume of still water in the + channel at low tide as its deepening progressed. Lastly, about 1880, + improvements in suction dredgers (see DREDGE and DREDGING) led to the + adoption of sand-pump dredging in the outer part of the channel, and + across the foreshore in front to deep water; and at Dunkirk, docks + were formed on the site of the sluicing basin; whilst at Calais + sluicing was abandoned in favour of dredging. Ostend is the only jetty + harbour in which a large sluicing basin has been recently constructed, + but it can only provide for the maintenance of deep-water quays in its + vicinity; and dredging is relied upon to an increasing extent, both + for the maintenance and further deepening of the outer portion of the + approach channel, and for maintaining the direct channel dredged to + deep water across the Stroombank extending in front of Ostend (fig. + 2). + + Similar methods of improving the entrance channel to ports possessing + an extensive backwater have been adopted on a large scale in the + United States. For instance at Charleston, converging jetties, about + 2¾ m. long, have been extended across the bar to concentrate the scour + due to a small tidal range expanding over the enclosed backwater, 15 + sq. m. in extent, and to protect the channel from littoral drift; but + these jetties have caused an advance of the foreshore, and a + progression seawards of the bar, necessitating dredging beyond the + ends of the jetties to maintain the requisite depth. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Ostend Harbour and Jetty Channel.] + + Parallel jetties, moreover, across the beach, combined with extensive + sand-pump dredging, have been employed with success at some of the + ports situated at the outlet of rivers, enclosed bays, or lagoons, on + the sandy shores of south-east Africa, for improving the access to + them across encumbering shoals, where the littoral drift is too great + to allow of the projection of breakwaters from the shore to shelter an + approach channel. + + _Harbours Protected by Breakwaters._--The design for a harbour on the + sea-coast must depend on the configuration of the adjacent coast-line, + the extent and direction of the exposure, the amount of sheltered area + required and the depth obtainable, the prospect of the accumulation of + drift or the occurrence of scour from the proposed works, and the best + position for an entrance in respect of shelter and depth of approach. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Genoa Harbour and Extensions.] + + _Completion of Shelter of Harbours in Bays._--In the case of a deep, + fairly land-locked bay, a detached breakwater across the outlet + completes the necessary shelter, leaving an entrance between each + extremity and the shore, provided there is deep enough water near the + shore, as effected at Plymouth harbour, and also across the wider but + shallower bay forming Cherbourg harbour. A breakwater may instead be + extended across the outlet from each shore, leaving a single central + entrance between the ends of the breakwaters; and if one breakwater + placed somewhat farther out is made to overlap an inner one, a more + sheltered entrance is obtained. This arrangement has been adopted at + the existing Genoa harbour within the bay (fig. 3), and for the + harbour at the mouth of the Nervion (see RIVER ENGINEERING). The + adoption of a bay with deep water for a harbour does not merely reduce + the shelter to be provided artificially, but it also secures a site + not exposed to silting up, and where the sheltering works do not + interfere with any littoral drift along the open coast. A third method + of sheltering a deep bay is that adopted for forming a refuge harbour + at Peterhead (fig. 4), where a single breakwater is extended out from + one shore for 3250 ft. across the outlet of the bay, leaving a single + entrance between its extremity and the opposite shore and enclosing an + area of about 250 acres at low tide, half of which has a depth of over + 5 fathoms. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Peterhead Harbour of Refuge.] + + _Harbours possessing partial Natural Shelter._--The most common form + of harbour is that in which one or more breakwaters supplement a + certain amount of natural shelter. Sometimes, where the exposure is + from one direction only, approximately parallel with the coast-line at + the site, and there is more or less shelter from a projecting headland + or a curve of the coast in the opposite direction, a single breakwater + extending out at right angles to the shore, with a slight curve or + bend inwards near its outer end, suffices to afford the necessary + shelter. As examples of this form of harbour construction may be + mentioned Newhaven breakwater, protecting the approach to the port + from the west, and somewhat sheltered from the moderate easterly + storms by Beachy Head, and Table Bay breakwater, which shelters the + harbour from the north-east, and is somewhat protected on the opposite + side by the wide sweep of the coast-line known as Table Bay. + Generally, however, some partial embayment, or abrupt projection from + the coast, is utilized as providing shelter from one quarter, which is + completed by breakwaters enclosing the site, of which Dover and + Colombo (fig. 5) harbours furnish typical and somewhat similar + examples. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Colombo Harbour.] + + _Harbours formed on quite Open Seacoasts._--Occasionally harbours have + to be constructed for some special purpose where no natural shelter + exists, and where on an open, sandy shore considerable littoral drift + may occur. Breakwaters, carried out from the shore at some distance + apart, and converging to a central entrance of suitable width, provide + the requisite shelter, as for instance the harbour constructed to form + a sheltered approach to the river Wear and the Sunderland docks (fig. + 6). If there is little littoral drift from the most exposed quarter, + the amount of sand brought in during storms, which is smaller in + proportion to the depth into which the entrance is carried, can be + readily removed by dredging; whilst the scour across the projecting + ends of the breakwaters tends to keep the outlet free from deposit. + Where there is littoral drift in both directions on an open, sandy + coast, due to winds blowing alternately from opposite quarters, sand + accumulates in the sheltered angles outside the harbour between each + converging breakwater and the shore. This has happened at Ymuiden + harbour at the entrance to the Amsterdam ship-canal on the North Sea, + but there the advance of the shore appears to have reached its limit + only a short distance out from the old shore-line on each side; and + the only evidence of drift consists in the advance seawards of the + lines of soundings alongside, and in the considerable amount of sand + which enters the harbour and has to be removed by dredging. The worst + results occur where the littoral drift is almost wholly in one + direction, so that the projection of a solid breakwater out from the + shore causes a very large accretion on the side facing the exposed + quarter; whilst owing to the arrest of the travel of sand, erosion of + the beach occurs beyond the second breakwater enclosing the harbour on + its comparatively sheltered side. These effects have been produced at + Port Said harbour at the entrance to the Suez Canal from the + Mediterranean, formed by two converging breakwaters, where, owing to + the prevalent north-westerly winds, the drift is from west to east, + and is augmented by the alluvium issuing from the Nile. Accordingly, + the shore has advanced considerably against the outer face of the + western breakwater; and erosion of the beach has occurred at the shore + end of the eastern breakwater, cutting it off from the land. The + advance of the shore-line, however, has been much slower during recent + years; and though the progress seawards of the lines of soundings + close to and in front of the harbour continues, the advance is checked + by the sand and silt coming from the west passing through some + apertures purposely left in the western breakwater, and falling into + the approach channel, from which it is readily dredged and taken away. + Madras harbour, begun in 1875, consists of two breakwaters, 3000 ft. + apart, carried straight out to sea at right angles to the shore for + 3000 ft., and completed by two return arms inclined slightly + seawards, enclosing an area of 220 acres and leaving a central + entrance, 550 ft. wide, facing the Indian Ocean in a depth of about 8 + fathoms. The great drift, however, of sand along the coast from south + to north soon produced an advance of the shore against the outside of + the south breakwater, and erosion beyond the north breakwater; and the + progression of the foreshore has extended so far seawards as to + produce shoaling at the entrance. Accordingly, the closing of the + entrance, and the formation of a new entrance through the outer part + of the main north breakwater, facing north and sheltered by an arm + starting from the angle of the northern return arm and running north + parallel to the shore, round the end of which vessels would turn to + enter, have been recommended, to provide a deep entrance beyond the + influence of the advancing foreshore. + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Sunderland Harbour.] + + Proposals have been made from time to time to evade this advance of + the foreshore against a solid obstacle, by extending an open viaduct + across the zone of littoral drift, and forming a closed harbour, or a + sheltering breakwater against which vessels can lie, beyond the + influence of accretion. This principle was carried out on a large + scale at the port of call and sheltering breakwater constructed in + front of the entrance to the Bruges ship-canal, at Zeebrugge on the + sandy North Sea coast, where a solid breakwater, provided with a wide + quay furnished with sidings and sheds, and curving round so as to + overlap thoroughly the entrance to the canal and shelter a certain + water-area, is approached by an open metal viaduct extending out 1007 + ft. from low water into a depth of 20 ft. (fig. 7). It is hoped that + by thus avoiding interference with the littoral drift close to the + shore, coming mainly from the west, the accumulation of silt to the + west of the harbour, and also in the harbour itself, will be + prevented; and though it appears probable that some accretion will + occur within the area sheltered by the breakwater, it will to some + extent be disturbed by the wash of the steamers approaching and + leaving the quays, and can readily be removed under shelter by + dredging. + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Zeebrugge Harbour.] + + _Entrances to Harbours._--Though captains of vessels always wish for + wide entrances to harbours as affording greater facility of safe + access, it is important to keep the width as narrow as practicable, + consistent with easy access, to exclude waves and swell as much as + possible and secure tranquillity inside. At Madras, the width of 550 + ft. proved excessive for the great exposure of the entrance, and + moderate size of the harbour, which does not allow of the adequate + expansion of the entering swell. Where an adequately easy and safe + approach can be secured, it is advantageous to make the entrance face + a somewhat sheltered quarter by the overlapping of the end of one of + the breakwaters, as accomplished at Bilbao and Genoa harbours (fig. + 3), and at the southern entrance to Dover harbour. Occasionally, owing + to the comparative shelter afforded by a bend in the adjacent + coast-line, a very wide entrance can be left between a breakwater and + the shore; typical examples are furnished by the former open northern + entrance to Portland harbour, now closed against torpedoes, and the + wide entrances at Holyhead and Zeebrugge (fig. 7). With a large + harbour and the adoption of a detached breakwater, it is possible to + gain the advantage of two entrances facing different quarters, as + effected at Dover and Colombo, which enables vessels to select their + entrance according to the state of the wind and weather; where there + is a large tidal rise they reduce the current through the entrances, + and they may, under favourable conditions, create a circulation of the + water in the harbour, tending to check the deposit of silt. + (L. F. V.-*H.) + + + + +HARBURG, a seaport town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover, +on the left bank of the southern arm of the Elbe, 6 m. by rail S. of +Hamburg. Pop. (1885), 26,320; (1905)--the area of the town having been +increased since 1895--55,676. It is pleasantly situated at the foot of a +lofty range of hills, which here dip down to the river, at the junction +of the main lines of railway from Bremen and Hanover to Hamburg, which +are carried to the latter city over two grand bridges crossing the +southern and the northern arms of the Elbe. It possesses a Roman +Catholic and two Protestant churches, a palace, which from 1524 to 1642 +was the residence of the Harburg line of the house of Brunswick, a +high-grade modern school, a commercial school and a theatre. The leading +industries are the crushing of palm-kernels and linseed and the +manufacture of india-rubber, phosphates, starch, nitrate and jute. +Machines are manufactured here; beer is brewed, and shipbuilding is +carried on. The port is accessible to vessels drawing 18 ft. of water, +and, despite its proximity to Hamburg, its trade has of late years shown +a remarkable development. It is the chief mart in the empire for resin +and palm-oil. The Prussian government proposes establishing here a free +port, on the lines of the _Freihafen_ in Hamburg. + +Harburg belonged originally to the bishopric of Bremen, and received +municipal rights in 1297. In 1376 it was united to the principality of +Lüneburg, along with which it fell in 1705 to Hanover, and in 1806 to +Prussia. In 1813 and 1814 it suffered considerably from the French, who +then held Hamburg, and who built a bridge between the two towns, which +remained standing till 1816. + + See Ludewig, _Geschichte des Schlosses und der Stadt Harburg_ + (Harburg, 1845); and Hoffmeyer, _Harburg und die nächste Umgegend_ + (1885). + + + + +HARCOURT, a village in Normandy, now a commune in the department of +Eure, arrondissement of Bernay and canton of Brionne, which gives its +name to a noble family distinguished in French history, a branch of +which was early established in England. Of the lords of Harcourt, whose +genealogy can be traced back to the 11th century, the first to +distinguish himself was Jean II. (d. 1302) who was marshal and admiral +of France. Godefroi d'Harcourt, seigneur of Saint Sauveur le Vicomte, +surnamed "Le boiteux" (the lame), was a marshal in the English army and +was killed near Coutances in 1356. The fief of Harcourt was raised to +the rank of a countship by Philip of Valois, in favour of Jean IV., who +was killed at the battle of Creçy (1346). His son, Jean V. (d. 1355) +married Blanche, heiress of Jean II., count of Aumale, and the countship +of Harcourt passed with that of Aumale until, in 1424, Jean VIII., count +of Aumale and Mortain and lieutenant-general of Normandy, was killed at +the battle of Verneuil, and with him the elder branch became extinct in +the male line. The heiress, Marie, by her marriage with Anthony of +Lorraine, count of Vaudémont, brought the countship of Harcourt into the +house of Lorraine. The title of count of Harcourt was borne by several +princes of this house. The most famous instance was Henry of Lorraine, +count of Harcourt, Brionne, and Armagnac, and nicknamed "Cadet la perle" +(1601-1666). He distinguished himself in several campaigns against +Spain, and later played an active part in the civil wars of the Fronde. +He took the side of the princes, and fought against the government in +Alsace; but was defeated by Marshal de la Ferté, and made his submission +in 1654. + +The most distinguished among the younger branches of the family are +those of Montgomery and of Beuvron. To the former belonged Jean +d'Harcourt, bishop of Amiens and Tournai, archbishop of Narbonne and +patriarch of Antioch, who died in 1452; and Guillaume d'Harcourt, count +of Tancarville, and viscount of Melun, who was head of the +administration of the woods and forests in the royal domain (_souverain +maître et réformateur des eaux et forêts de France_) and died in 1487. + +From the branch of the marquises of Beuvron sprang Henri d'Harcourt, +marshal of France, and ambassador at the Spanish court, who was made +duke of Harcourt (1700) and a peer of France (1709); also François +Eugène Gabriel, count, and afterwards duke, of Harcourt, who was +ambassador first in Spain, and later at Rome, and died in 1865. This +branch of the family is still in existence. + + See G. A. de la Rogne, _Histoire généalogique de la maison d'Harcourt_ + (4 vols., Paris, 1662); P. Anselme, _Histoire généalogique de la + maison de France_, v. 114, &c.; and Dom le Noir, _Preuves + généalogiques et historiques de la maison de Harcourt_ (Paris, 1907). + (M. P.*) + + + + +HARCOURT, SIMON HARCOURT, 1ST VISCOUNT (c. 1661-1727), lord chancellor +of England, only son of Sir Philip Harcourt of Stanton Harcourt, +Oxfordshire, by his first wife, Anne, daughter of Sir William Waller, +was born about 1661 at Stanton Harcourt, and was educated at a school at +Shilton, Oxfordshire, and at Pembroke College, Oxford. He was called to +the bar in 1683, and soon afterwards was appointed recorder of Abingdon, +which borough he represented as a Tory in parliament from 1690 to 1705. +In 1701 he was nominated by the Commons to conduct the impeachment of +Lord Somers; and in 1702 he became solicitor-general and was knighted by +Queen Anne. He was elected member for Bossiney in 1705, and as +commissioner for arranging the union with Scotland was largely +instrumental in promoting that measure. Harcourt was appointed +attorney-general in 1707, but resigned office in the following year when +his friend Robert Harley, afterwards earl of Oxford, was dismissed. He +defended Sacheverell at the bar of the House of Lords in 1710, being +then without a seat in parliament; but in the same year was returned for +Cardigan, and in September again became attorney-general. In October he +was appointed lord keeper of the great seal, and in virtue of this +office he presided in the House of Lords for some months without a +peerage, until, on the 3rd of September 1711, he was created Baron +Harcourt of Stanton Harcourt; but it was not till April 1713 that he +received the appointment of lord chancellor. In 1710 he had purchased +the Nuneham-Courtney estate in Oxfordshire, but his usual place of +residence continued to be at Cokethorpe near Stanton Harcourt, where he +received a visit in state from Queen Anne. In the negotiations preceding +the peace of Utrecht, Harcourt took an important part. There is no +sufficient evidence for the allegations of the Whigs that Harcourt +entered into treasonable relations with the Pretender. On the accession +of George I. he was deprived of office and retired to Cokethorpe, where +he enjoyed the society of men of letters, Swift, Pope, Prior and other +famous writers being among his frequent guests. With Swift, however, he +had occasional quarrels, during one of which the great satirist bestowed +on him the sobriquet of "Trimming Harcourt." He exerted himself to +defeat the impeachment of Lord Oxford in 1717, and in 1723 he was active +in obtaining a pardon for another old political friend, Lord +Bolingbroke. In 1721 Harcourt was created a viscount and returned to the +privy councils; and on several occasions during the king's absences from +England he was on the council of regency. He died in London on the 23rd +of July 1727. Harcourt was not a great lawyer, but he enjoyed the +reputation of being a brilliant orator; Speaker Onslow going so far as +to say that Harcourt "had the greatest skill and power of speech of any +man I ever knew in a public assembly." He was a member of the famous +Saturday Club, frequented by the chief _literati_ and wits of the +period, with several of whom he corresponded. Some letters to him from +Pope are preserved in the _Harcourt Papers_. His portrait by Kneller is +at Nuneham. + +Harcourt married, first, Rebecca, daughter of Thomas Clark, his father's +chaplain, by whom he had five children; secondly, Elizabeth, daughter of +Richard Spencer; and thirdly, Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Thomas Vernon. +He left issue by his first wife only. His son, Simon (1684-1720), +married Elizabeth, sister of Sir John Evelyn of Wotton, by whom he had +one son and four daughters, one of whom married George Venables Vernon, +afterwards Lord Vernon (see HARCOURT, SIR WILLIAM--footnote). Simon +Harcourt predeceased his father, the lord chancellor, in 1720, leaving a +son SIMON HARCOURT (1714-1777), 1st Earl Harcourt, who succeeded his +grandfather in the title of viscount in 1727. He was educated at +Westminster school. In 1745, having raised a regiment, he received a +commission as a colonel in the army; and in 1749 he was created Earl +Harcourt of Stanton Harcourt. He was appointed governor to the prince of +Wales, afterwards George III., in 1751; and after the accession of the +latter to the throne he was appointed, in 1761, special ambassador to +Mecklenburg-Strelitz to negotiate a marriage between King George and the +princess Charlotte, whom he conducted to England. After holding a number +of appointments at court and in the diplomatic service, he was promoted +to the rank of general in 1772; and in October of the same year he +succeeded Lord Townsend as lord lieutenant of Ireland, an office which +he held till 1777. His proposal to impose a tax of 10% on the rents of +absentee landlords had to be abandoned owing to opposition in England; +but he succeeded in conciliating the leaders of Opposition in Ireland, +and he persuaded Henry Flood to accept office in the government. +Resigning in January 1777, he retired to Nuneham, where he died in the +following September. He married, in 1735, Rebecca, daughter and heiress +of Charles Samborne Le Bas, of Pipewell Abbey, Northamptonshire, by whom +he had two daughters and two sons, George Simon and William, who +succeeded him as 2nd and 3rd earl respectively. + + See Lord Campbell, _Lives of the Lord Chancellors_, vol. v. (London, + 1846); Edward Foss, _The Judges of England_, vol. viii. (London, + 1848); Gilbert Burnet, _Hist. of his own Time_ (with notes by earls of + Dartmouth and Hardwicke, &c., Oxford, 1833); Earl Stanhope, _Hist. of + England, comprising the reign of Queen Anne until the Peace of + Utrecht_ (London, 1870). In addition to the above-mentioned + authorities many particulars concerning the 1st Viscount Harcourt, and + also of his grandson, the 1st earl, will be found in the _Harcourt + Papers_. For the earl, see also Horace Walpole, _Memoirs of the Reign + of George II._ (3 vols., 2nd ed., London, 1847), _Memoirs of the Reign + of George III._ (4 vols., London, 1845, 1894); also, for his + vice-royalty of Ireland, see Henry Grattan, _Memoirs of the Life and + Times of the Right Hon. H. Grattan_ (5 vols., London, 1839-1846); + Francis Hardy, _Memoirs of J. Caulfield, Earl of Charlemont_ (2 vols., + London, 1812); and for his genealogy, see Sir John Bernard Burke, + _Genealogical History of Dormant and Extinct Peerages_ (London, 1883). + (R. J. M.) + + + + +HARCOURT, SIR WILLIAM GEORGE GRANVILLE VENABLES VERNON (1827-1904). +English statesman, second son of the Rev. Canon William Vernon Harcourt +(q.v.), of Nuneham Park, Oxford, was born on the 14th of October 1827. +Canon Harcourt was the fourth son and eventually heir of Edward Harcourt +(1757-1847), archbishop of York, who was the son of the 1st Lord Vernon +(d. 1780), and who took the name of Harcourt alone instead of Vernon on +succeeding to the property of his cousin, the last Earl Harcourt, in +1831.[1] The subject of this biography was therefore born a Vernon, and +by his connexion with the old families of Vernon and Harcourt was +related to many of the great English houses, a fact which gave him no +little pride. Indeed, in later life his descent from the Plantagenets[2] +was a subject of some banter on the part of his political opponents. He +was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, graduating with first-class +honours in the classical tripos in 1851. He was called to the bar in +1854, became a Q.C. in 1866, and was appointed Whewell professor of +international law, Cambridge, 1869. He quickly made his mark in London +society as a brilliant talker; he contributed largely to the _Saturday +Review_, and wrote some famous letters (1862) to _The Times_ over the +signature of "Historicus," in opposition to the recognition of the +Southern States as belligerents in the American Civil War. He entered +parliament as Liberal member for Oxford, and sat from 1868 to 1880, +when, upon seeking re-election after acceptance of office, he was +defeated by Mr Hall. A seat was, however, found for him at Derby, by the +voluntary retirement of Mr Plimsoll, and he continued to represent that +constituency until 1895, when, having been defeated at the general +election, he found a seat in West Monmouthshire. He was appointed +solicitor-general and knighted in 1873; and, although he had not shown +himself a very strenuous supporter of Mr Gladstone during that +statesman's exclusion from power, he became secretary of state for the +home department on the return of the Liberals to office in 1880. His +name was connected at that time with the passing of the Ground Game Act +(1880), the Arms (Ireland) Act (1881), and the Explosives Act (1883). As +home secretary at the time of the dynamite outrages he had to take up a +firm attitude, and the Explosives Act was passed through all its stages +in the shortest time on record. Moreover, as champion of law and order +against the attacks of the Parnellites, his vigorous speeches brought +him constantly into conflict with the Irish members. In 1884 he +introduced an abortive bill for unifying the municipal administration of +London. He was indeed at that time recognized as one of the ablest and +most effective leaders of the Liberal party; and when, after a brief +interval in 1885, Mr Gladstone returned to office in 1886, he was made +chancellor of the exchequer, an office which he again filled from 1892 +to 1895. + +Between 1880 and 1892 Sir William Harcourt acted as Mr Gladstone's loyal +and indefatigable lieutenant in political life. A first-rate party +fighter, his services were of inestimable value; but in spite of his +great success as a platform speaker, he was generally felt to be +speaking from an advocate's brief, and did not impress the country as +possessing much depth of conviction. It was he who coined the phrase +about "stewing in Parnellite juice," and, when the split came in the +Liberal party on the Irish question, even those who gave Mr Gladstone +and Mr Morley the credit of being convinced Home Rulers could not be +persuaded that Sir William had followed anything but the line of party +expediency. In 1894 he introduced and carried a memorable budget, which +equalized the death duties on real and personal property. After Mr +Gladstone's retirement in 1894 and Lord Rosebery's selection as prime +minister Sir William became the leader of the Liberal party in the House +of Commons, but it was never probable that he would work comfortably in +the new conditions. His title to be regarded as Mr Gladstone's successor +had been too lightly ignored, and from the first it was evident that +Lord Rosebery's ideas of Liberalism and of the policy of the Liberal +party were not those of Sir William Harcourt. Their differences were +patched up from time to time, but the combination could not last. At +the general election of 1895 it was clear that there were divisions as +to what issue the Liberals were fighting for, and the effect of Sir +William Harcourt's abortive Local Veto Bill on the election was seen not +only in his defeat at Derby, which gave the signal for the Liberal rout, +but in the set-back it gave to temperance legislation. Though returned +for West Monmouthshire (1895, 1900), his speeches in debate only +occasionally showed his characteristic spirit, and it was evident that +for the hard work of Opposition he no longer had the same motive as of +old. In December 1898 the crisis arrived, and with Mr John Morley he +definitely retired from the counsels of the party and resigned his +leadership of the Opposition, alleging as his reason, in letters +exchanged between Mr Morley and himself, the cross-currents of opinion +among his old supporters and former colleagues. The split excited +considerable comment, and resulted in much heart-burning and a more or +less open division between the section of the Liberal party following +Lord Rosebery (q.v.) and those who disliked that statesman's +Imperialistic views. + +Though now a private member, Sir William Harcourt still continued to +vindicate his opinions in his independent position, and his attacks on +the government were no longer restrained by even the semblance of +deference to Liberal Imperialism. He actively intervened in 1899 and +1900, strongly condemning the government's financial policy and their +attitude towards the Transvaal; and throughout the Boer War he lost no +opportunity of criticizing the South African developments in a +pessimistic vein. One of the readiest parliamentary debaters, he +savoured his speeches with humour of that broad and familiar order which +appeals particularly to political audiences. In 1898-1900 he was +conspicuous, both on the platform and in letters written to The _Times_, +in demanding active measures against the Ritualistic party in the Church +of England; but his attitude on that subject could not be dissociated +from his political advocacy of Disestablishment. In March 1904, just +after he had announced his intention not to seek election again to +parliament, he succeeded, by the death of his nephew, to the family +estates at Nuneham. But he died suddenly there on the 1st of October in +the same year. He married, first, in 1859, Thérèse (d. 1863), daughter +of Mr T. H. Lister, by whom he had one son, Lewis Vernon Harcourt (b. +1863), afterwards first commissioner of works both in Sir Henry +Campbell-Bannerman's 1905 ministry (included in the cabinet in 1907) and +in Mr Asquith's cabinet (1908); and secondly, in 1876, Elizabeth, widow +of Mr T. Ives and daughter of Mr. J. L. Motley, the historian, by whom +he had another son, Robert (b. 1878). + +Sir William Harcourt was one of the great parliamentary figures of the +Gladstonian Liberal period. He was essentially an aristocratic type of +late 19th century Whig, with a remarkable capacity for popular campaign +fighting. He had been, and remained, a brilliant journalist in the +non-professional sense. He was one of those who really made the +_Saturday Review_ in its palmy days, and in the period of his own most +ebullient vigour, while Mr Gladstone was alive, his sense of political +expediency and platform effectiveness in controversy was very acute. But +though he played the game of public life with keen zest, he never really +touched either the country or his own party with the faith which creates +a personal following, and in later years he found himself somewhat +isolated and disappointed, though he was free to express his deeper +objections to the new developments in church and state. A tall, fine +man, with the grand manner, he was, throughout a long career, a great +personality in the life of his time. (H. Ch.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] William, 3rd and last Earl Harcourt (1743-1830), who succeeded + his brother in the title, was a soldier who distinguished himself in + the American War of Independence by capturing General Charles Lee, + and commanded the British forces in Flanders in 1794, eventually + becoming a field-marshal. He was a son of Simon, 1st earl + (1714-1777), created viscount and earl in 1749, a soldier, and from + 1772 to 1777 viceroy of Ireland, who was grandson and heir of Simon, + Viscount Harcourt (1661-1727), lord chancellor--the "trimming + Harcourt" of Swift--the purchaser of the Nuneham-Courtney estates in + Oxfordshire, and son of Sir Philip Harcourt of Stanton Harcourt. The + knights of Stanton Harcourt, from the 13th century onwards, traced + their descent to the Norman de Harcourts, a branch of that family + having come over with the Conqueror; and the pedigree claims to go + back to Bernard of Saxony, who in 876 acquired the lordships of + Harcourt, Castleville and Beauficel in Normandy. Viscount Harcourt's + second son Simon, who was father of the 1st earl, was also father of + Martha, who married George Venables Vernon, of Sudbury, created 1st + Baron Vernon in 1762. The latter was a descendant of Sir Richard + Vernon (d. 1451), speaker of the Leicester parliament (1425) and + treasurer of Calais, a member of a Norman family which came over with + the Conqueror. + + [2] The Plantagenet descent (see _The Blood Royal of Britain_, by the + marquis of Ruvigny, 1903, for tables) could be traced through Lady + Anna Leveson Gower (wife of Archbishop Harcourt) to Lady Frances + Stanley, the wife of the 1st earl of Bridgewater (1579-1649), and so + to Lady Eleanor Brandon, wife of the earl of Cumberland (1517-1570), + and daughter of Mary Tudor (wife of Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk, + 1484-1545), the daughter of Henry VII. and grand-daughter of Edward + IV. + + + + +HARCOURT, WILLIAM VERNON (1789-1871), founder of the British +Association, was born at Sudbury, Derbyshire, in 1789, a younger son of +Edward Vernon [Harcourt], archbishop of York (see above). Having served +for five years in the navy he went up to Christ Church, Oxford, with a +view to taking holy orders. He began his clerical duties at +Bishopthorpe, Yorkshire, in 1811, and having developed a great interest +in science while at the university, he took an active part in the +foundation of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society, of which he was the +first president. The laws and the plan of proceedings for the British +Association for the Advancement of Science were drawn up by him; and +Harcourt was elected president in 1839. In 1824 he became canon of York +and rector of Wheldrake in Yorkshire, and in 1837 rector of Bolton +Percy. The Yorkshire school for the blind and the Castle Howard +reformatory both owe their existence to his energies. His spare time +until quite late in life was occupied with scientific experiments. +Inheriting the Harcourt estates in Oxfordshire from his brother in 1861, +he removed to Nuneham, where he died in April 1871. + + + + +HARDANGER FJORD, an inlet on the west coast of Norway, penetrating the +mainland for 70 m. apart from the deep fringe of islands off its mouth, +the total distance from the open sea to the head of the fjord being 114 +m. Its extreme depth is about 350 fathoms. The entrance at Torö is 50 m. +by water south of Bergen, 60° N., and the general direction is N.E. from +that point. The fjord is flanked by magnificent mountains, from which +many waterfalls pour into it. The main fjord is divided into parts under +different names, and there are many fine branch fjords. The fjord is +frequented by tourists, and the principal stations have hotels. The +outer fjord is called the Kvindherredsfjord, flanked by the Melderskin +(4680 ft.); then follow Sildefjord and Bonde Sund, separated by Varalds +island. Here Mauranger-fjord opens on the east; from Sundal on this +inlet the great Folgefond snowfield may be crossed, and a fine glacier +(Bondhusbrae) visited. Bakke and Vikingnaes are stations on Hisfjord, +Nordheimsund and Östensö on Ytre Samlen, which throws off a fine narrow +branch northward, the Fiksensund. There follow Indre Samlen and +Utnefjord, with the station of Utne opposite Oxen (4120 ft.), and its +northward branch, Gravenfjord, with the beautiful station of Eide at its +head, whence a road runs north-west to Vossevangen. From the Utne +terminal branches of the fjord run south and east; the Sörfjord, steeply +walled by the heights of the Folgefond, with the frequented resort of +Odde at its head; and the Eidfjord, with its branch Osefjord, +terminating beneath a tremendous rampart of mountains, through which the +sombre Simodal penetrates, the river flowing from Daemmevand, a +beautiful lake among the fields, and forming with its tributaries the +fine falls of Skykje and Rembesdal. Vik is the principal station on +Eidfjord, and Ulvik on a branch of the Ose, with a road to Vossevangen. +At Vik is the mouth of the Björeia river, which, in forming the +Vöringfos, plunges 520 ft. into a magnificent rock-bound basin. A small +stream entering Sörfjord forms in its upper course the Skjaeggedalsfos, +of equal height with the Vöringfos, and hardly less beautiful. The +natives of Hardanger have an especially picturesque local costume. + + + + +HARDEE, WILLIAM JOSEPH (1815-1873), American soldier, was born in +Savannah, Georgia, on the 10th of November 1815 and graduated from West +Point in 1838. As a subaltern of cavalry he was employed on a special +mission to Europe to study the cavalry methods in vogue (1839). He was +promoted captain in 1844 and served under Generals Taylor and Scott in +the Mexican War, winning the brevet of major for gallantry in action in +March 1847 and subsequently that of lieut.-colonel. After the war he +served as a substantive major under Colonel Sidney Johnston and +Lieut.-Colonel Robert Lee in the 2nd U.S. cavalry, and for some time +before 1856 he was engaged in compiling the official manual of infantry +drill and tactics which, familiarly called "Hardee's Tactics," +afterwards formed the text-book for the infantry arm in both the Federal +and the Confederate armies. From 1856 to 1861 he was commandant of West +Point, resigning his commission on the secession of his state in the +latter year. Entering the Confederate service as a colonel, he was +shortly promoted brigadier-general. He distinguished himself very +greatly by his tactical leadership on the field of Shiloh, and was +immediately promoted major-general. As a corps commander he fought under +General Bragg at Perryville and Stone River, and for his distinguished +services in these battles was promoted lieutenant-general. He served in +the latter part of the campaign of 1863 under Bragg and in that of 1864 +under J. E. Johnston. When the latter officer was superseded by Hood, +Hardee was relieved at his own request, and for the remainder of the war +he served in the Carolinas. When the Civil War came to an end in 1865 he +retired to his plantation near Selma, Alabama. He died at Wytheville, +Virginia, on the 6th of November 1873. + + + + +HARDENBERG, KARL AUGUST VON, PRINCE (1750-1822), Prussian statesman, was +born at Essenroda in Hanover on the 31st of May 1750. After studying at +Leipzig and Göttingen he entered the Hanoverian civil service in 1770 as +councillor of the board of domains (_Kammerrat_); but, finding his +advancement slow, he set out--on the advice of King George III.--on a +course of travels, spending some time at Wetzlar, Regensburg (where he +studied the mechanism of the Imperial government), Vienna and Berlin. He +also visited France, Holland and England, where he was kindly received +by the king. On his return he married, by his father's desire, the +countess Reventlow. In 1778 he was raised to the rank of privy +councillor and created a count. He now again went to England, in the +hope of obtaining the post of Hanoverian envoy in London; but, his wife +becoming entangled in an _amour_ with the prince of Wales, so great a +scandal was created that he was forced to leave the Hanoverian service. +In 1782 he entered that of the duke of Brunswick, and as president of +the board of domains displayed a zeal for reform, in the manner approved +by the enlightened despots of the century, that rendered him very +unpopular with the orthodox clergy and the conservative estates. In +Brunswick, too, his position was in the end made untenable by the +conduct of his wife, whom he now divorced; he himself, shortly +afterwards, marrying a divorced woman. Fortunately for him, this +coincided with the lapsing of the principalities of Ansbach and Bayreuth +to Prussia, owing to the resignation of the last margrave, Charles +Alexander, in 1791. Hardenberg, who happened to be in Berlin at the +time, was on the recommendation of Herzberg appointed administrator of +the principalities (1792). The position, owing to the singular +overlapping of territorial claims in the old Empire, was one of +considerable delicacy, and Hardenberg filled it with great skill, doing +much to reform traditional anomalies and to develop the country, and at +the same time labouring to expand the influence of Prussia in South +Germany. After the outbreak of the revolutionary wars his diplomatic +ability led to his appointment as Prussian envoy, with a roving +commission to visit the Rhenish courts and win them over to Prussia's +views; and ultimately, when the necessity for making peace with the +French Republic had been recognized, he was appointed to succeed Count +Goltz as Prussian plenipotentiary at Basel (February 28, 1795), where he +signed the treaty of peace. + +In 1797, on the accession of King Frederick William III., Hardenberg was +summoned to Berlin, where he received an important position in the +cabinet and was appointed chief of the departments of Magdeburg and +Halberstadt, for Westphalia, and for the principality of Neuchâtel. In +1793 Hardenberg had struck up a friendship with Count Haugwitz, the +influential minister for foreign affairs, and when in 1803 the latter +went away on leave (August-October) he appointed Hardenberg his _locum +tenens_. It was a critical period. Napoleon had just occupied Hanover, +and Haugwitz had urged upon the king the necessity for strong measures +and the expediency of a Russian alliance. During his absence, however, +the king's irresolution continued; he clung to the policy of neutrality +which had so far seemed to have served Prussia so well; and Hardenberg +contented himself with adapting himself to the royal will. By the time +Haugwitz returned, the unyielding attitude of Napoleon had caused the +king to make advances to Russia; but the mutual declarations of the 3rd +and 25th of May 1804 only pledged the two powers to take up arms in the +event of a French attack upon Prussia or of further aggressions in North +Germany. Finally, Haugwitz, unable to persuade the cabinet to a more +vigorous policy, resigned, and on the 14th of April 1804 Hardenberg +succeeded him as foreign minister. + +If there was to be war, Hardenberg would have preferred the French +alliance, which was the price Napoleon demanded for the cession of +Hanover to Prussia; for the Eastern powers would scarcely have +conceded, of their free will, so great an augmentation of Prussian +power. But he still hoped to gain the coveted prize by diplomacy, backed +by the veiled threat of an armed neutrality. Then occurred Napoleon's +contemptuous violation of Prussian territory by marching three French +corps through Ansbach; King Frederick William's pride overcame his +weakness, and on the 3rd of November he signed with the tsar Alexander +the terms of an ultimatum to be laid before the French emperor. Haugwitz +was despatched to Vienna with the document; but before he arrived the +battle of Austerlitz had been fought, and the Prussian plenipotentiary +had to make the best terms he could with the conqueror. Prussia, indeed, +by the treaty signed at Schönbrunn on the 15th of December 1805, +received Hanover, but in return for all her territories in South +Germany. One condition of the arrangement was the retirement of +Hardenberg, whom Napoleon disliked. He was again foreign minister for a +few months after the crisis of 1806 (April-July 1807); but Napoleon's +resentment was implacable, and one of the conditions of the terms +granted to Prussia by the treaty of Tilsit was Hardenberg's dismissal. + +After the enforced retirement of Stein in 1810 and the unsatisfactory +interlude of the feeble Altenstein ministry, Hardenberg was again +summoned to Berlin, this time as chancellor (June 6, 1810). The campaign +of Jena and its consequences had had a profound effect upon him; and in +his mind the traditions of the old diplomacy had given place to the new +sentiment of nationality characteristic of the coming age, which in him +found expression in a passionate desire to restore the position of +Prussia and crush her oppressors. During his retirement at Riga he had +worked out an elaborate plan for reconstructing the monarchy on Liberal +lines; and when he came into power, though the circumstances of the time +did not admit of his pursuing an independent foreign policy, he steadily +prepared for the struggle with France by carrying out Stein's +far-reaching schemes of social and political reorganization. The +military system was completely reformed, serfdom was abolished, +municipal institutions were fostered, the civil service was thrown open +to all classes, and great attention was devoted to the educational needs +of every section of the community. + +When at last the time came to put these reforms to the test, after the +Moscow campaign of 1812, it was Hardenberg who, supported by the +influence of the noble Queen Louise, determined Frederick William to +take advantage of General Yorck's loyal disloyalty and declare against +France. He was rightly regarded by German patriots as the statesman who +had done most to encourage the spirit of national independence; and +immediately after he had signed the first peace of Paris he was raised +to the rank of prince (June 3, 1814) in recognition of the part he had +played in the War of Liberation. + +Hardenberg now had an assured position in that close corporation of +sovereigns and statesmen by whom Europe, during the next few years, was +to be governed. He accompanied the allied sovereigns to England, and at +the congress of Vienna (1814-1815) was the chief plenipotentiary of +Prussia. But from this time the zenith of his influence, if not of his +fame, was passed. In diplomacy he was no match for Metternich, whose +influence soon overshadowed his own in the councils of Europe, of +Germany, and ultimately even of Prussia itself. At Vienna, in spite of +the powerful backing of Alexander of Russia, he failed to secure the +annexation of the whole of Saxony to Prussia; at Paris, after Waterloo, +he failed to carry through his views as to the further dismemberment of +France; he had weakly allowed Metternich to forestall him in making +terms with the states of the Confederation of the Rhine, which secured +to Austria the preponderance in the German federal diet; on the eve of +the conference of Carlsbad (1819) he signed a convention with +Metternich, by which--to quote the historian Treitschke--"like a +penitent sinner, without any formal _quid pro quo_, the monarchy of +Frederick the Great yielded to a foreign power a voice in her internal +affairs." At the congresses of Aix-la-Chapelle, Troppau, Laibach and +Verona the voice of Hardenberg was but an echo of that of Metternich. + +The cause lay partly in the difficult circumstances of the loosely-knit +Prussian monarchy, but partly in Hardenberg's character, which, never +well balanced, had deteriorated with age. He continued amiable, charming +and enlightened as ever; but the excesses which had been pardonable in a +young diplomatist were a scandal in an elderly chancellor, and could not +but weaken his influence with so pious a _Landesvater_ as Frederick +William III. To overcome the king's terror of Liberal experiments would +have needed all the powers of an adviser at once wise and in character +wholly trustworthy. Hardenberg was wise enough; he saw the necessity for +constitutional reform; but he clung with almost senile tenacity to the +sweets of office, and when the tide turned strongly against Liberalism +he allowed himself to drift with it. In the privacy of royal commissions +he continued to elaborate schemes for constitutions that never saw the +light; but Germany, disillusioned, saw only the faithful henchman of +Metternich, an accomplice in the policy of the Carlsbad Decrees and the +Troppau Protocol. He died, soon after the closing of the congress of +Verona, at Genoa, on the 26th of November 1822. + + See L. v. Ranke, _Denkwürdigkeiten des Staatskanzlers Fürsten von + Hardenberg_ (5 vols., Leipzig, 1877); J. R. Seeley, _The Life and + Times of Stein_ (3 vols., Cambridge, 1878); E. Meier, _Reform der + Verwaltungsorganisation unter Stein und Hardenberg_ (ib., 1881); Chr. + Meyer, _Hardenberg und seine Verwaltung der Fürstentümer Ansbach und + Bayreuth_ (Breslau, 1892); Koser, _Die Neuordnung des preussischen + Archivwesens durch den Staatskanzler Fürsten v. Hardenberg_ (Leipzig, + 1904). + + + + +HARDERWYK, a seaport in the province of Gelderland, Holland, on the +shores of the Zuider Zee, 17 m. by rail N.N.E. of Amersfoort. Pop. +(1900) 7425. It is a quaint old town, approached by a fine avenue of +trees, and standing in the midst of a patch of fertile ground. Harderwyk +is chiefly important as being the depot for recruits for the Dutch +colonial army. It contains a small fort and large barracks. The +principal buildings are the town hall, with some ancient furniture, a +large 15th century church with a notable square tower, a municipal +orphanage, and the Nassau-Veluwe gymnasium. Agriculture, fishing, and a +few domestic industries form the only employment of the inhabitants. As +a seaport its trade is now confined exclusively to the Zuider Zee. + + + + +HARDICANUTE [more correctly HARDACNUT] (c. 1010-1042), son of Canute, +king of England, by his wife Ælfgifu or Emma, was born about 1019. In +the contest for the English crown which followed the death of Canute in +1035 the claims of Hardicanute were supported by Emma and her ally, +Godwine, earl of the West Saxons, in opposition to those of Harold, +Canute's illegitimate son, who was backed by the Mercian earl Leofric +and the chief men of the north. At a meeting of the witan at Oxford a +compromise was ultimately arranged by which Harold was temporarily +elected regent of all England, pending the final settlement of the +question on the return of Hardicanute from Denmark. The compromise was +strongly opposed by Godwine and Emma, who for a time forcibly held +Wessex in Hardicanute's behalf. But Harold's party rapidly increased; +and early in 1037 he was definitely elected king. Emma was driven out +and took refuge at Bruges. In 1039 Hardicanute joined her, and together +they concerted an attack on England. But next year Harold died; and +Hardicanute peacefully succeeded. His short reign was marked by great +oppression and cruelty. He caused the dead body of Harold to be dug up +and thrown into a fen; he exacted so heavy a geld for the support of his +foreign fleet that great discontent was created throughout the kingdom, +and in Worcestershire a general uprising took place against those sent +to collect the tax, whereupon he burned the city of Worcester to the +ground and devastated the surrounding country; in 1041 he permitted +Edwulf, earl of Northumbria, to be treacherously murdered after having +granted him a safe-conduct. While "he stood at his drink" at the +marriage feast of one of his flegns he was suddenly seized with a fit, +from which he died a few days afterwards on the 8th of June 1042. + + + + +HARDING, CHESTER (1792-1866), American portrait painter, was born at +Conway, Massachusetts, on the 1st of September 1792. Brought up in the +wilderness of New York state, Harding, as a lad of splendid physique, +standing over 6 ft. 3 in., marched as a drummer with the militia to the +St Lawrence in 1813. He became subsequently chairmaker, peddler, +inn-keeper, and house-painter, painting signs in Pittsburg, Pa., and +eventually going on the road, self-taught, as an itinerant portrait +painter. He made enough money to take him to the schools at the +Philadelphia Academy of Design, and he soon became proficient enough to +gain a competency, so that later he went to England and set up a studio +in London. There he met with great success, painting royalty and the +nobility, and, despite the lackings of an early education and social +experience, he became a favourite in all circles. Returning to the +United States, he settled in Boston and painted portraits of many of the +prominent men and women of his time. He died on the 1st of April 1866. + + + + +HARDING, JAMES DUFFIELD (1798-1863), English landscape painter, was the +son of an artist, and took to the same vocation at an early age, +although he had originally been destined for the law. He was in the main +a water-colour painter and a lithographer, but he produced various +oil-paintings both at the beginning and towards the end of his career. +He frequently contributed to the exhibitions of the Water-Colour +Society, of which he became an associate in 1821, and a full member in +1822. He was also very largely engaged in teaching, and published +several books developing his views of art--amongst others, _The Tourist +in Italy_ (1831); _The Tourist in France_ (1834); _The Park and the +Forest_ (1841); _The Principles and the Practice of Art_ (1845); +_Elementary Art_ (1846); _Scotland Delineated in a Series of Views_ +(1847); _Lessons on Art_ (1849). He died at Barnes on the 4th of +December 1863. Harding was noted for facility, sureness of hand, nicety +of touch, and the various qualities which go to make up an elegant, +highly trained, and accomplished sketcher from nature, and composer of +picturesque landscape material; he was particularly skilful in the +treatment of foliage. + + + + +HARDINGE, HENRY HARDINGE, VISCOUNT (1785-1856), British field marshal +and governor-general of India, was born at Wrotham in Kent on the 30th +of March 1785. After being at Eton, he entered the army in 1799 as an +ensign in the Queen's Rangers, a corps then stationed in Upper Canada. +His first active service was at the battle of Vimiera, where he was +wounded; and at Corunna he was by the side of Sir John Moore when he +received his death-wound. Subsequently he received an appointment as +deputy-quartermaster-general in the Portuguese army from Marshal +Beresford, and was present at nearly all the battles of the Peninsular +War, being wounded again at Vittoria. At Albuera he saved the day for +the British by taking the responsibility at a critical moment of +strongly urging General Cole's division to advance. When peace was again +broken in 1815 by Napoleon's escape from Elba, Hardinge hastened into +active service, and was appointed to the important post of commissioner +at the Prussian headquarters. In this capacity he was present at the +battle of Ligny on the 16th of June 1815, where he lost his left hand by +a shot, and thus was not present at Waterloo, fought two days later. For +the loss of his hand he received a pension of £300; he had already been +made a K.C.B., and Wellington presented him with a sword that had +belonged to Napoleon. In 1820 and 1826 Sir Henry Hardinge was returned +to parliament as member for Durham; and in 1828 he accepted the office +of secretary at war in Wellington's ministry, a post which he also +filled in Peel's cabinet in 1841-1844. In 1830 and 1834-1835 he was +chief secretary for Ireland. In 1844 he succeeded Lord Ellenborough as +governor-general of India. During his term of office the first Sikh War +broke out; and Hardinge, waiving his right to the supreme command, +magnanimously offered to serve as second in command under Sir Hugh +Gough; but disagreeing with the latter's plan of campaign at Ferozeshah, +he temporarily reasserted his authority as governor-general (see SIKH +WARS). After the successful termination of the campaign at Sobraon he +was created Viscount Hardinge of Lahore and of King's Newton in +Derbyshire, with a pension of £3000 for three lives; while the East +India Company voted him an annuity of £5000, which he declined to +accept. Hardinge's term of office in India was marked by many social and +educational reforms. He returned to England in 1848, and in 1852 +succeeded the duke of Wellington as commander-in-chief of the British +army. While in this position he had the home management of the Crimean +War, which he endeavoured to conduct on Wellington's principles--a +system not altogether suited to the changed mode of warfare. In 1855 he +was promoted to the rank of field marshal. Viscount Hardinge resigned +his office of commander-in-chief in July 1856, owing to failing health, +and died on the 24th of September of the same year at South Park near +Tunbridge Wells. His elder son, Charles Stewart (1822-1894), who had +been his private secretary in India, was the 2nd Viscount Hardinge; and +the latter's eldest son succeeded to the title. The younger son of the +2nd Viscount, Charles Hardinge (b. 1858), became a prominent diplomatist +(see Edward VII.), and was appointed governor-general of India in 1910, +being created Baron Hardinge of Penshurst. + + See C. Hardinge, _Viscount Hardinge_ (Rulers of India series, 1891); + and R. S. Rait, _Life and Campaigns of Viscount Gough_ (1903). + + + + +HARDOI, a town and district of British India, in the Lucknow division of +the United Provinces. The town is 63 m. N.E. of Lucknow by rail. Pop. +(1901) 12,174. It has a wood-carving industry, saltpetre works, and an +export trade in grain. + +The DISTRICT OF HARDOI has an area of 2331 sq. m. It is a level district +watered by the Ganges, Ramganga, Deoha or Garra, Sukheta, Sai, Baita and +Gumti--the three rivers first named being navigable by country boats. +Towards the Ganges the land is uneven, and often rises in hillocks of +sand cultivated at the base, and their slopes covered with lofty _munj_ +grass. Several large _jhils_ or swamps are scattered throughout the +district, the largest being that of Sandi, which is 3 m. long by from 1 +to 2 m. broad. These _jhils_ are largely used for irrigation. Large +tracts of forest jungle still exist. Leopards, black buck, spotted deer, +and _nilgai_ are common; the mallard, teal, grey duck, common goose, and +all kinds of waterfowl abound. In 1901 the population of the district +was 1,092,834, showing a decrease of nearly 2% in the decade. The +district contains a larger urban population than any other in Oudh, the +largest town being Shahabad, 20,036 in 1901. It is traversed by the Oudh +and Rohilkhand railway from Lucknow to Shahjahanpur, and its branches. +The chief exports are grain, sugar, hides, tobacco and saltpetre. + +The first authentic records of Hardoi are connected with the Mussulman +colonization. Bawan was occupied by Sayyid Salar Masaud in 1028, but the +permanent Moslem occupation did not begin till 1217. Owing to the +situation of the district, Hardoi formed the scene of many sanguinary +battles between the rival Afghan and Mogul empires. Between Bilgram and +Sandi was fought the great battle between Humayun and Sher Shah, in +which the former was utterly defeated. Hardoi, along with the rest of +Oudh, became British territory under Lord Dalhousie's proclamation of +February 1856. + + + + +HARDOUIN, JEAN (1646-1729), French classical scholar, was born at +Quimper in Brittany. Having acquired a taste for literature in his +father's book-shop, he sought and obtained about his sixteenth year +admission into the order of the Jesuits. In Paris, where he went to +study theology, he ultimately became librarian of the Collège Louis le +Grand in 1683, and he died there on the 3rd of September 1729. His first +published work was an edition of Themistius (1684), which included no +fewer than thirteen new orations. On the advice of Jean Garnier +(1612-1681) he undertook to edit the _Natural History_ of Pliny for the +Delphin series, a task which he completed in five years. His attention +having been turned to numismatics as auxiliary to his great editorial +labours, he published several learned works in that department, marred, +however, as almost everything he did was marred, by a determination to +be at all hazards different from other interpreters. It is sufficient to +mention his _Nummi antiqui populorum et urbium illustrati_ (1684), +_Antirrheticus de nummis antiquis coloniarum et municipiorum_ (1689), +and _Chronologia Veteris Testamenti ad vulgatam versionem exacta et +nummis illustrata_ (1696). By the ecclesiastical authorities Hardouin +was appointed to supervise the _Conciliorum collectio regia maxima_ +(1715); but he was accused of suppressing important documents and +foisting in apocryphal matter, and by the order of the parlement of +Paris (then at war with the Jesuits) the publication of the work was +delayed. It is really a valuable collection, much cited by scholars. +Hardouin declared that all the councils supposed to have taken place +before the council of Trent were fictitious. It is, however, as the +originator of a variety of paradoxical theories that Hardouin is now +best remembered. The most remarkable, contained in his _Chronologiae ex +nummis antiquis restitutae_ (1696) and _Prolegomena ad censuram veterum +scriptorum_, was to the effect that, with the exception of the works of +Homer, Herodotus and Cicero, the _Natural History_ of Pliny, the +_Georgics_ of _Virgil_, and the _Satires and Epistles of Horace_, all +the ancient classics of Greece and Rome were spurious, having been +manufactured by monks of the 13th century, under the direction of a +certain Severus Archontius. He denied the genuineness of most ancient +works of art, coins and inscriptions, and declared that the New +Testament was originally written in Latin. + + See A. Debacker, _Bibliothèque des écrivains de la Compagnie de Jésus_ + (1853). + + + + +HARDT, HERMANN VON DER (1660-1746), German historian and orientalist, +was born at Melle, in Westphalia, on the 15th of November 1660. He +studied oriental languages in Jena and in Leipzig, and in 1690 he was +called to the chair of oriental languages at Helmstedt. He resigned his +position in 1727, but lived at Helmstedt until his death on the 28th of +February 1746. Among his numerous writings the following deserve +mention: _Autographa Lutheri aliorumque celebrium virorum, ab anno 1517 +ad annum 1546_, _Reformationis aetatem et historiam egregie +illustrantia_ (1690-1691); _Magnum oecumenicum Constantiense concilium_ +(1697-1700); _Hebraeae linguae fundamenta_ (1694); _Syriacae linguae +fundamenta_ (1694); _Elementa Chaldaica_ (1693); _Historia litteraria +reformationis_ (1717); _Enigmata prisci orbis_ (1723). Hardt left in +manuscript a history of the Reformation which is preserved in the +Helmstedt Juleum. + + See F. Lamey, _Hermann von der Hardt in seinen Briefen_ (Karlsruhe, + 1891). + + + + +HARDT, THE, a mountainous district of Germany, in the Bavarian +palatinate, forming the northern end of the Vosges range. It is, in the +main, an undulating high plateau of sandstone formation, of a mean +elevation of 1300 ft., and reaching its highest point in the Donnersberg +(2254 ft.). The eastern slope, which descends gently towards the Rhine, +is diversified by deep and well-wooded valleys, such as those of the +Lauter and the Queich, and by conical hills surmounted by the ruins of +frequent feudal castles and monasteries. Noticeable among these are the +Madenburg near Eschbach, the Trifels (long the dungeon of Richard I. of +England), and the Maxburg near Neustadt. Three-fifths of the whole area +is occupied by forests, principally oak, beech and fir. The lower +eastern slope is highly cultivated and produces excellent wine. + + + + +HARDWAR, or HURDWAR, an ancient town of British India, and Hindu place +of pilgrimage, in the Saharanpur district of the United Provinces, on +the right bank of the Ganges, 17 m. N.E. of Rurki, with a railway +station. The Ganges canal here takes off from the river. A branch +railway to Dehra was opened in 1900. Pop. (1901), 25,597. The town is of +great antiquity, and has borne many names. It was originally known as +Kapila from the sage Kapila. Hsuan Tsang, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, +in the 7th century visited a city which he calls Mo-yu-lo, the remains +of which still exist at Mayapur, a little to the south of the modern +town. Among the ruins are a fort and three temples, decorated with +broken stone sculptures. The great object of attraction at present is +the Hari-ka-charan, or bathing _ghat_, with the adjoining temple of +Gangadwara. The _charan_ or foot-mark of Vishnu, imprinted on a stone +let into the upper wall of the _ghat_, forms an object of special +reverence. A great assemblage of people takes place annually, at the +beginning of the Hindu solar year, when the sun enters Aries; and every +twelfth year a feast of peculiar sanctity occurs, known as a +_Kumbh-mela_. The ordinary number of pilgrims at the annual fair +amounts to 100,000, and at the Kumbh-mela to 300,000; in 1903 there +were 400,000 present. Since 1892 many sanitary improvements have been +made for the benefit of the annual concourse of pilgrims. In early days +riots and also outbreaks of cholera were of common occurrence. The +Hardwar meeting also possesses mercantile importance, being one of the +principal horse-fairs in Upper India. Commodities of all kinds, Indian +and European, find a ready sale, and the trade in grain and food-stuffs +forms a lucrative traffic. + + + + +HARDWICKE, PHILIP YORKE, 1ST EARL OF (1690-1764), English lord +chancellor, son of Philip Yorke, an attorney, was born at Dover, on the +1st of December 1690. Through his mother, Elizabeth, daughter and +co-heiress of Richard Gibbon of Rolvenden, Kent, he was connected with +the family of Gibbon the historian. At the age of fourteen, after a not +very thorough education at a private school at Bethnal Green, where, +however, he showed exceptional promise, he entered an attorney's office +in London. Here he gave some attention to literature and the classics as +well as to law; but in the latter he made such progress that his +employer, Salkeld, impressed by Yorke's powers, entered him at the +Middle Temple in November 1708; and soon afterwards recommended him to +Lord Chief Justice Parker (afterwards earl of Macclesfield) as law tutor +to his sons. In 1715 he was called to the bar, where his progress was, +says Lord Campbell, "more rapid than that of any other débutant in the +annals of our profession," his advancement being greatly furthered by +the patronage of Macclesfield, who became lord chancellor in 1718, when +Yorke transferred his practice from the king's bench to the court of +chancery, though he continued to go on the western circuit. In the +following year he established his reputation as an equity lawyer in a +case in which Sir Robert Walpole's family was interested, by an argument +displaying profound learning and research concerning the jurisdiction of +the chancellor, on lines which he afterwards more fully developed in a +celebrated letter to Lord Kames on the distinction between law and +equity. Through Macclesfield's influence with the duke of Newcastle +Yorke entered parliament in 1719 as member for Lewes, and was appointed +solicitor-general, with a knighthood, in 1720, although he was then a +barrister of only four years' standing. His conduct of the prosecution +of Christopher Layer in that year for treason as a Jacobite further +raised Sir Philip Yorke's reputation as a forensic orator; and in 1723, +having already become attorney-general, he passed through the House of +Commons the bill of pains and penalties against Bishop Atterbury. He was +excused, on the ground of his personal friendship, from acting for the +crown in the impeachment of Macclesfield in 1725, though he did not +exert himself to save his patron from disgrace largely brought about by +Macclesfield's partiality for Yorke himself. He soon found a new and +still more influential patron in the duke of Newcastle, to whom he +henceforth gave his political support. He rendered valuable service to +Walpole's government by his support of the bill for prohibiting loans to +foreign powers (1730), of the increase of the army (1732) and of the +excise bill (1733). In 1733 Yorke was appointed lord chief justice of +the king's bench, with the title of Lord Hardwicke, and was sworn of the +privy council; and in 1737 he succeeded Talbot as lord chancellor, thus +becoming a member of Sir Robert Walpole's cabinet. One of his first +official acts was to deprive the poet Thomson of a small office +conferred on him by Talbot. + +Hardwicke's political importance was greatly increased by his removal to +the House of Lords, where the incompetency of Newcastle threw on the +chancellor the duty of defending the measures of the government. He +resisted Carteret's motion to reduce the army in 1738, and the +resolutions hostile to Spain over the affair of Captain Jenkins's ears. +But when Walpole bent before the storm and declared war against Spain, +Hardwicke advocated energetic measures for its conduct; and he tried to +keep the peace between Newcastle and Walpole. There is no sufficient +ground for Horace Walpole's charge that the fall of Sir Robert was +brought about by Hardwicke's treachery. No one was more surprised than +himself when he retained the chancellorship in the following +administration, and he resisted the proposal to indemnify witnesses +against Walpole in one of his finest speeches in May 1742. He exercised +a leading influence in the Wilmington Cabinet; and when Wilmington died +in August 1743, it was Hardwicke who put forward Henry Pelham for the +vacant office against the claims of Pulteney. For many years from this +time he was the controlling power in the government. During the king's +absences on the continent Hardwicke was left at the head of the council +of regency; it thus fell to him to concert measures for dealing with the +Jacobite rising in 1745. He took a just view of the crisis, and his +policy for meeting it was on the whole statesmanlike. After Culloden he +presided at the trial of the Scottish Jacobite peers, his conduct of +which, though judicially impartial, was neither dignified nor generous; +and he must be held partly responsible for the unnecessary severity +meted out to the rebels, and especially for the cruel, though not +illegal, executions on obsolete attainders of Charles Radcliffe and (in +1753) of Archibald Cameron. He carried, however, a great reform in 1746, +of incalculable benefit to Scotland, which swept away the grave abuses +of feudal power surviving in that country in the form of private +heritable jurisdictions in the hands of the landed gentry. On the other +hand his legislation in 1748 for disarming the Highlanders and +prohibiting the use of the tartan in their dress was vexatious without +being effective. Hardwicke supported Chesterfield's reform of the +calendar in 1751; in 1753 his bill for legalizing the naturalization of +Jews in England had to be dropped on account of the popular clamour it +excited; but he successfully carried a salutary reform of the marriage +law, which became the basis of all subsequent legislation on the +subject. + +On the death of Pelham in 1754 Hardwicke obtained for Newcastle the post +of prime minister, and for reward was created earl of Hardwicke and +Viscount Royston; and when in November 1756 the weakness of the ministry +and the threatening aspect of foreign affairs compelled Newcastle to +resign, Hardwicke retired with him. He played an important and +disinterested part in negotiating the coalition between Newcastle and +Pitt in 1757, when he accepted a seat in Pitt's cabinet without +returning to the woolsack. After the accession of George III. Hardwicke +opposed the ministry of Lord Bute on the peace with France in 1762, and +on the cider tax in the following year. In the Wilkes case Hardwicke +condemned general warrants, and also the doctrine that seditious libels +published by members of parliament were protected by parliamentary +privilege. He died in London on the 6th of March 1764. + +Although for a lengthy period Hardwicke was an influential minister, he +was not a statesman of the first rank. On the other hand he was one of +the greatest judges who ever sat on the English bench. He did not, +indeed, by his three years' tenure of the chief-justiceship of the +king's bench leave any impress on the common law; but Lord Campbell +pronounces him "the most consummate judge who ever sat in the court of +chancery, being distinguished not only for his rapid and satisfactory +decision of the causes which came before him, but for the profound and +enlightened principles which he laid down, and for perfecting English +equity into a systematic science." He held the office of lord chancellor +longer than any of his predecessors, with a single exception; and the +same high authority quoted above asserts that as an equity judge Lord +Hardwicke's fame "has not been exceeded by that of any man in ancient or +modern times. His decisions have been, and ever will continue to be, +appealed to as fixing the limits and establishing the principles of the +great juridical system called Equity, which now not only in this country +and in our colonies, but over the whole extent of the United States of +America, regulates property and personal rights more than the ancient +common law."[1] Hardwicke had prepared himself for this great and +enduring service to English jurisprudence by study of the historical +foundations of the chancellor's equitable jurisdiction, combined with +profound insight into legal principle, and a thorough knowledge of the +Roman civil law, the principles of which he scientifically incorporated +into his administration of English equity in the absence of precedents +bearing on the causes submitted to his judgment. His decisions on +particular points in dispute were based on general principles, which +were neither so wide as to prove inapplicable to future circumstances, +nor too restricted to serve as the foundation for a coherent and +scientific system. His recorded judgments--which, as Lord Campbell +observes, "certainly do come up to every idea we can form of judicial +excellence"--combine luminous method of arrangement with elegance and +lucidity of language. + +Nor was the creation of modern English equity Lord Hardwicke's only +service to the administration of justice. Born within two years of the +death of Judge Jeffreys his influence was powerful in obliterating the +evil traditions of the judicial bench under the Stuart monarchy, and in +establishing the modern conception of the duties and demeanour of +English judges. While still at the bar Lord Chesterfield praised his +conduct of crown prosecutions as a contrast to the former "bloodhounds +of the crown"; and he described Sir Philip Yorke as "naturally humane, +moderate and decent." On the bench he had complete control over his +temper; he was always urbane and decorous and usually dignified. His +exercise of legal patronage deserves unmixed praise. As a public man he +was upright and, in comparison with most of his contemporaries, +consistent. His domestic life was happy and virtuous. His chief fault +was avarice, which perhaps makes it the more creditable that, though a +colleague of Walpole, he was never suspected of corruption. But he had a +keen and steady eye to his own advantage, and he was said to be jealous +of all who might become his rivals for power. His manners, too, were +arrogant. Lord Waldegrave said of Hardwicke that "he might have been +thought a great man had he been less avaricious, less proud, less unlike +a gentleman." Although in his youth he contributed to the _Spectator_ +over the signature "Philip Homebred," he seems early to have abandoned +all care for literature, and he has been reproached by Lord Campbell and +others with his neglect of art and letters. He married, on the 16th of +May 1719, Margaret, daughter of Charles Cocks (by his wife Mary, sister +of Lord Chancellor Somers), and widow of John Lygon, by whom he had five +sons and two daughters. His eldest daughter, Elizabeth, married Lord +Anson; and the second, Margaret, married Sir Gilbert Heathcote. Three of +his younger sons attained some distinction. Charles Yorke (q.v.), the +second son, became like his father lord chancellor; the third, Joseph, +was a diplomatist, and was created Lord Dover; while James, the fifth +son, became bishop of Ely. + +Hardwicke was succeeded in the earldom by his eldest son, PHILIP YORKE +(1720-1795), 2nd earl of Hardwicke, born on the 19th of March 1720, and +educated at Cambridge. In 1741 he became a fellow of the Royal Society. +With his brother, Charles Yorke, he was one of the chief contributors to +_Athenian Letters; or the Epistolary Correspondence of an agent of the +King of Persia residing at Athens during the Peloponnesian War_ (4 +vols., London, 1741), a work that for many years had a considerable +vogue and went through several editions. He sat in the House of Commons +as member for Reigate (1741-1747), and afterwards for Cambridgeshire; +and he kept notes of the debates which were afterwards embodied in +Cobbett's _Parliamentary History_. He was styled Viscount Royston from +1754 till 1764, when he succeeded to the earldom. In politics he +supported the Rockingham Whigs. He held the office of teller of the +exchequer, and was lord-lieutenant of Cambridgeshire and high steward of +Cambridge University. He edited a quantity of miscellaneous state papers +and correspondence, to be found in MSS. collections in the British +Museum. He died in London, on the 16th of May 1790. He married Jemima +Campbell, only daughter of John, 3rd earl of Breadalbane, and +grand-daughter and heiress of Henry de Grey, duke of Kent, who became in +her own right marchioness de Grey. + +In default of sons, the title devolved on his nephew, PHILIP YORKE +(1757-1834), 3rd earl of Hardwicke, eldest son of Charles Yorke, lord +chancellor, by his first wife, Catherine Freman, who was born on the +31st of May 1757 and was educated at Cambridge. He was M.P. for +Cambridgeshire, following the Whig traditions of his family; but after +his succession to the earldom in 1790 he supported Pitt, and took office +in 1801 as lord lieutenant of Ireland (1801-1806), where he supported +Catholic emancipation. He was created K.G. in 1803, and was a fellow of +the Royal Society. He married Elizabeth, daughter of James Lindsay, 5th +earl of Balcarres, in 1782, but left no son. + +He was succeeded in the peerage by his nephew, CHARLES PHILIP YORKE +(1799-1873), 4th earl of Hardwicke, English admiral, eldest son of +Admiral Sir Joseph Sydney Yorke (1768-1831), who was second son of +Charles Yorke, lord chancellor, by his second wife, Agneta Johnson. +Charles Philip was born at Southampton on the 2nd of April 1799 and was +educated at Harrow. He entered the royal navy in 1815, and served on the +North American station and in the Mediterranean, attaining the rank of +captain in 1825. He represented Reigate (1831) and Cambridgeshire +(1832-1834) in the House of Commons; and after succeeding to the earldom +in 1834, was appointed a lord in waiting by Sir Robert Peel in 1841. In +1858 he retired from the active list with the rank of rear-admiral, +becoming vice-admiral in the same year, and admiral in 1863. He was a +member of Lord Derby's cabinet in 1852 as postmaster-general and lord +privy seal in 1858. In 1833 he married Susan, daughter of the 1st Lord +Ravensworth, by whom he had five sons and three daughters. His eldest +son, CHARLES PHILIP YORKE (1836-1897), 5th earl of Hardwicke, was +comptroller of the household of Queen Victoria (1866-1868) and master of +the buckhounds (1874-1880). He married in 1863, Sophia Georgiana, +daughter of the 1st Earl Cowley. He was succeeded by his only son ALBERT +EDWARD PHILIP HENRY YORKE (1867-1904), 6th earl of Hardwicke, who, after +holding the posts of under-secretary of state for India (1900-1902) and +for war (1902-1903), died unmarried on the 29th of November 1904; the +title then went to his uncle, JOHN MANNERS YORKE (1840-1909), 7th earl +of Hardwicke, second son of Charles Philip, the 4th earl, who joined the +royal navy and served in the Baltic and in the Crimea (1854-1855). This +earl died on the 13th of March 1909 and was succeeded by his son Charles +Alexander (b. 1869) as 8th earl. + + The contemporary authorities for the life of Lord Chancellor Hardwicke + are voluminous, being contained in the memoirs of the period and in + numerous collections of correspondence in the British Museum. See, + especially, the _Hardwicke Papers_; the _Stowe MSS.; Hist. MSS. + Commission_ (Reports 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 11); Horace Walpole, _Letters_ + (ed. by P. Cunningham, 9 vols., London, 1857-1859); _Letters to Sir H. + Mann_ (ed. by Lord Dover, 4 vols., London, 1843-1844); _Memoirs of the + Reign of George II._ (ed. by Lord Holland, 2nd ed. revised, London, + 1847); _Memoirs of the Reign of George III._ (ed. by G. F. R. Barker, + 4 vols., London, 1894); _Catalogue of Royal and Noble Authors of + England, Scotland and Ireland_ (ed. by T. Park, 5 vols., London, + 1806). Horace Walpole was violently hostile to Hardwicke, and his + criticism, therefore, must be taken with extreme reserve. See also the + earl Waldegrave, _Memoirs 1754-1758_ (London, 1821); Lord + Chesterfield, _Letters_ (ed. by Lord Mahon, 5 vols., London, 1892); + Richard Cooksey, _Essay on John, Lord Somers, and Philip, Earl of + Hardwicke_ (Worcester, 1791); William Coxe, _Memoirs of Sir R. + Walpole_ (4 vols., London, 1816); _Memoirs of the Administration of + Henry Pelham_ (2 vols., London, 1829); Lord Campbell, _Lives of the + Lord Chancellors_, vol. v. (8 vols., London, 1845); Edward Foss, _The + Judges of England_, vols. vii. and viii. (9 vols., London, 1848-1864); + George Harris, _Life of Lord Chancellor Hardwicke; with Selections + from his Correspondence, Diaries, Speeches and Judgments_ (3 vols., + London, 1847). The last-named work may be consulted for the lives of + the 2nd and 3rd earls. For the 3rd earl see also the duke of + Buckingham, _Memoirs of the Court and Cabinets of George III._ (4 + vols., London, 1853-1855). For the 4th earl see _Charles Philip + Yorke_, by his daughter, Lady Biddulph of Ledbury (1910). + (R. J. M.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Lord Campbell, _Lives of the Lord Chancellors_, v. 43 (London, + 1846). + + + + +HARDY, ALEXANDRE (1569?-1631), French dramatist, was born in Paris. He +was one of the most fertile of all dramatic authors, and himself claimed +to have written some six hundred plays, of which, however, only +thirty-four are preserved. He seems to have been connected all his life +with a troupe of actors headed by a clever comedian named +Valleran-Lecomte, whom he provided with plays. Hardy toured the +provinces with this company, which gave some representations in Paris +in 1599 at the Hôtel de Bourgogne. Valleran-Lecomte occupied the same +theatre in 1600-1603, and again in 1607, apparently for some years. In +consequence of disputes with the Confrérie de la Passion, who owned the +privilege of the theatre, they played elsewhere in Paris and in the +provinces for some years; but in 1628, when they had long borne the +title of "royal," they were definitely established at the Hôtel de +Bourgogne. Hardy's numerous dedications never seem to have brought him +riches or patrons. His most powerful friend was Isaac de Laffemas (d. +1657), one of Richelieu's most unscrupulous agents, and he was on +friendly terms with the poet Théophile, who addressed him in some verses +placed at the head of his _Théâtre_ (1632), and Tristan l'Hermite had a +similar admiration for him. Hardy's plays were written for the stage, +not to be read; and it was in the interest of the company that they +should not be printed and thus fall into the common stock. But in 1623 +he published _Les Chastes et loyales amours de Théagène et Cariclée_, a +tragi-comedy in eight "days" or dramatic poems; and in 1624 he began a +collected edition of his works, _Le Théâtre d'Alexandre Hardy, +parisien_, of which five volumes (1624-1628) were published, one at +Rouen and the rest in Paris. These comprise eleven tragedies: _Didon se +sacrifiant_, _Scédase ou l'hospitalité violée_, _Panthée_, _Méléagre_, +_La Mort d'Achille_, _Coriolan_, _Marianne_, a trilogy on the history of +Alexander, _Alcméon, ou la vengeance féminine_; five mythological +pieces; thirteen tragi-comedies, among them _Gésippe_, drawn from +Boccaccio; _Phraarte_, taken from Giraldi's _Cent excellentes nouvelles_ +(Paris, 1584); _Cornélie_, _La Force du sang_, _Félismène_, _La Belle +Égyptienne_, taken from Spanish subjects; and five pastorals, of which +the best is _Alphée, ou la justice d'amour_. Hardy's importance in the +history of the French theatre can hardly be over-estimated. Up to the +end of the 16th century medieval farce and spectacle kept their hold on +the stage in Paris. The French classical tragedy of Étienne Jodelle and +his followers had been written for the learned, and in 1628 when Hardy's +work was nearly over and Rotrou was on the threshold of his career, very +few literary dramas by any other author are known to have been publicly +represented. Hardy educated the popular taste, and made possible the +dramatic activity of the 17th century. He had abundant practical +experience of the stage, and modified tragedy accordingly, suppressing +chorus and monologue, and providing the action and variety which was +denied to the literary drama. He was the father in France of +tragi-comedy, but cannot fairly be called a disciple of the romantic +school of England and Spain. It is impossible to know how much later +dramatists were indebted to him in detail, since only a fraction of his +work is preserved, but their general obligation is amply established. He +died in 1631 or 1632. + + The sources for Hardy's biography are extremely limited. The account + given by the brothers Parfaict in their _Hist. du théâtre français_ + (1745, &c., vol. iv. pp. 2-4) must be received with caution, and no + documents are forthcoming. Many writers have identified him with the + provincial playwright picturesquely described in chap. xi. of _Le Page + disgrâcié_ (1643), the autobiography of Tristan l'Hermite, but if the + portrait is drawn from life at all, it is more probably drawn from + Théophile. See _Le Théâtre d'Alexandre Hardy_, edited by E. Stengel + (Marburg and Paris, 1883-1884, 5 vols.); E. Lombard, "Étude sur + Alexandre Hardy," in _Zeitschr. für neufranz. Spr. u. Lit._ (Oppeln + and Leipzig, vols. i. and ii., 1880-1881); K. Nagel, _A. Hardy's + Einfluss auf Pierre Corneille_ (Marburg, 1884); and especially E. + Rigal, _Alexandre Hardy ..._ (Paris, 1889) and _Le Théâtre français + avant la période classique_ (Paris, 1901.) + + + + +HARDY, THOMAS (1840- ), English novelist, was born in Dorsetshire on +the 2nd of June 1840. His family was one of the branches of the Dorset +Hardys, formerly of influence in and near the valley of the Frome, +claiming descent from John Le Hardy of Jersey (son of Clement Le Hardy, +lieutenant-governor of that island in 1488), who settled in the west of +England. His maternal ancestors were the Swetman, Childs or Child, and +kindred families, who before and after 1635 were small landed +proprietors in Melbury Osmond, Dorset, and adjoining parishes. He was +educated at local schools, 1848-1854, and afterwards privately, and in +1856 was articled to Mr John Hicks, an ecclesiastical architect of +Dorchester. In 1859 he began writing verse and essays, but in 1861 was +compelled to apply himself more strictly to architecture, sketching and +measuring many old Dorset churches with a view to their restoration. In +1862 he went to London (which he had first visited at the age of nine) +and became assistant to the late Sir Arthur Blomfield, R.A. In 1863 he +won the medal of the Royal Institute of British Architects for an essay +on _Coloured Brick and Terra-cotta Architecture_, and in the same year +won the prize of the Architectural Association for design. In March 1865 +his first short story was published in _Chambers's Journal_, and during +the next two or three years he wrote a good deal of verse, being +somewhat uncertain whether to take to architecture or to literature as a +profession. In 1867 he left London for Weymouth, and during that and the +following year wrote a "purpose" story, which in 1869 was accepted by +Messrs Chapman and Hall. The manuscript had been read by Mr George +Meredith, who asked the writer to call on him, and advised him not to +print it, but to try another, with more plot. The manuscript was +withdrawn and re-written, but never published. In 1870 Mr Hardy took Mr +Meredith's advice too literally, and constructed a novel that was all +plot, which was published in 1871 under the title _Desperate Remedies_. +In 1872 appeared _Under the Greenwood Tree_, a "rural painting of the +Dutch school," in which Mr Hardy had already "found himself," and which +he has never surpassed in happy and delicate perfection of art. _A Pair +of Blue Eyes_, in which tragedy and irony come into his work together, +was published in 1873. In 1874 Mr Hardy married Emma Lavinia, daughter +of the late T. Attersoll Gifford of Plymouth. His first popular success +was made by _Far from the Madding Crowd_ (1874), which, on its +appearance anonymously in the _Cornhill Magazine_, was attributed by +many to George Eliot. Then came _The Hand of Ethelberta_ (1876), +described, not inaptly, as "a comedy in chapters"; _The Return of the +Native_ (1878), the most sombre and, in some ways, the most powerful and +characteristic of Mr Hardy's novels; _The Trumpet-Major_ (1880); _A +Laodicean_ (1881); _Two on a Tower_ (1882), a long excursion in +constructive irony; _The Mayor of Casterbridge_ (1886); _The +Woodlanders_ (1887); _Wessex Tales_ (1888); _A Group of Noble Dames_ +(1891); _Tess of the D'Urbervilles_ (1891), Mr Hardy's most famous +novel; _Life's Little Ironies_ (1894); _Jude the Obscure_ (1895), his +most thoughtful and least popular book; _The Well-Beloved_, a reprint, +with some revision, of a story originally published in the _Illustrated +London News_ in 1892 (1897); _Wessex Poems_, written during the previous +thirty years, with illustrations by the author (1898); and _The Dynasts_ +(2 parts, 1904-1906). In 1909 appeared _Time's Laughing-stocks and other +Verses_. In all his work Mr Hardy is concerned with one thing, seen +under two aspects; not civilization, nor manners, but the principle of +life itself, invisibly realized in humanity as sex, seen visibly in the +world as what we call nature. He is a fatalist, perhaps rather a +determinist, and he studies the workings of fate or law (ruling through +inexorable moods or humours), in the chief vivifying and disturbing +influence in life, women. His view of women is more French than English; +it is subtle, a little cruel, not as tolerant as it seems, thoroughly a +man's point of view, and not, as with Mr Meredith, man's and woman's at +once. He sees all that is irresponsible for good and evil in a woman's +character, all that is untrustworthy in her brain and will, all that is +alluring in her variability. He is her apologist, but always with a +reserve of private judgment. No one has created more attractive women of +a certain class, women whom a man would have been more likely to love or +to regret loving. In his earlier books he is somewhat careful over the +reputation of his heroines; gradually he allows them more liberty, with +a franker treatment of instinct and its consequences. _Jude the Obscure_ +is perhaps the most unbiassed consideration in English fiction of the +more complicated questions of sex. There is almost no passion in his +work, neither the author nor his characters ever seeming able to pass +beyond the state of curiosity, the most intellectually interesting of +limitations, under the influence of any emotion. In his feeling for +nature, curiosity sometimes seems to broaden into a more intimate +communion. The heath, the village with its peasants, the change of every +hour among the fields and on the roads of that English countryside which +he has made his own--the Dorsetshire and Wiltshire "Wessex"--mean more +to him, in a sense, than even the spectacle of man and woman in their +blind and painful and absorbing struggle for existence. His knowledge of +woman confirms him in a suspension of judgment; his knowledge of nature +brings him nearer to the unchanging and consoling element in the world. +All the entertainment which he gets out of life comes to him from his +contemplation of the peasant, as himself a rooted part of the earth, +translating the dumbness of the fields into humour. His peasants have +been compared with Shakespeare's; he has the Shakespearean sense of +their placid vegetation by the side of hurrying animal life, to which +they act the part of chorus, with an unconscious wisdom in their close, +narrow and undistracted view of things. The order of merit was conferred +upon Mr Hardy in July 1910. + + See Annie Macdonell, _Thomas Hardy_ (London, 1894); Lionel P. Johnson, + _The Art of Thomas Hardy_ (London, 1894). (A. Sy.) + + + + +HARDY, SIR THOMAS DUFFUS (1804-1878), English antiquary, was the third +son of Major Thomas Bartholomew Price Hardy, and belonged to a family +several members of which had distinguished themselves in the British +navy. Born at Port Royal in Jamaica on the 22nd of May 1804, he crossed +over to England and in 1819 entered the Record Office in the Tower of +London. Trained under Henry Petrie (1768-1842) he gained a sound +knowledge of palaeography, and soon began to edit selections of the +public records. From 1861 until his death on the 15th of June 1878 he +was deputy-keeper of the Record Office, which just before his +appointment had been transferred to its new London headquarters in +Chancery Lane. Hardy, who was knighted in 1873, had much to do with the +appointment of the Historical Manuscripts Commission in 1869. + + Sir T. Hardy edited the Close Rolls, _Rotuli litterarum clausarum, + 1204-1227_ (2 vols., 1833-1844), with an introduction entitled "A + Description of the Close Rolls, with an Account of the early Courts of + Law and Equity"; and the Patent Rolls, _Rotuli litterarum patentium, + 1201-1216_ (1835), with introduction, "A Description of the Patent + Rolls, to which is added an Itinerary of King John." He also edited + the _Rotuli de oblatis et finibus_ (1835), which deal also with the + time of King John; the _Rotuli Normanniae, 1200-1205_, and _1417-1418_ + (1835), containing letters and grants of the English kings concerning + the duchy of Normandy; the Charter Rolls, _Rotuli chartarum, + 1199-1216_ (1837), giving with this work an account of the structure + of charters; the Liberate Rolls, _Rotuli de liberate ac de misis et + praestitis regnante Johanne_ (1844); and the _Modus tenendi + parliamentum_, with a translation (1846). He wrote _A Catalogue of + Lords Chancellors, Keepers of the Great Seal, Masters of the Rolls and + Officers of the Court of Chancery_ (1843); the preface to Henry + Petrie's _Monumenta historica Britannica_ (1848); and _Descriptive + Catalogue of Materials relating to the History of Great Britain and + Ireland_ (3 vols., 1862-1871). He edited William of Malmesbury's _De + gestis regum anglorum_ (2 vols., 1840); he continued and corrected + John le Neve's _Fasti ecclesiae Anglicanae_ (3 vols., Oxford, 1854); + and with C. T. Martin he edited and translated _L'Estorie des Engles_ + of Geoffrey Gaimar (1888-1889). He wrote _Syllabus in English of + Documents in Rymer's Foedera_ (3 vols., 1869-1885), and gave an + account of the history of the public records from 1837 to 1851 in his + _Memoirs of the Life of Henry, Lord Langdale_ (1852), Lord Langdale + (1783-1851), master of the rolls from 1836 to 1851, being largely + responsible for the erection of the new Record Office. Hardy took part + in the controversy about the date of the Athanasian creed, writing + _The Athanasian Creed in connection with the Utrecht Psalter_ (1872); + and _Further Report on the Utrecht Psalter_ (1874). + +His younger brother, SIR WILLIAM HARDY (1807-1887), was also an +antiquary. He entered the Record Office in 1823, leaving it in 1830 to +become keeper of the records of the duchy of Lancaster. In 1868, when +these records were presented by Queen Victoria to the nation, he +returned to the Record Office as an assistant keeper, and in 1878 he +succeeded his brother Sir Thomas as deputy-keeper, resigning in 1886. He +died on the 17th of March 1887. + + Sir W. Hardy edited Jehan de Waurin's _Recueil des croniques et + anchiennes istories de la Grant Bretaigne_ (5 vols., 1864-1891); and + he translated and edited the _Charters of the Duchy of Lancaster_ + (1845). + + + + +HARDY, SIR THOMAS MASTERMAN, Bart. (1769-1839), British vice-admiral, of +the Portisham (Dorsetshire) family of Hardy, was born on the 5th of +April 1769, and in 1781 began his career as a sailor. He became +lieutenant in 1793, and in 1796, being then attached to the "Minerve" +frigate, attracted the attention of Nelson by his gallant conduct. He +continued to serve with distinction, and in 1798 was promoted to be +captain of the "Vanguard," Nelson's flagship. In the "St George" he did +valuable work before the battle of Copenhagen in 1801, and his +association with Nelson was crowned by his appointment in 1803 to the +"Victory" as flag-captain, in which capacity he was engaged at the +battle of Trafalgar in 1805, witnessed Nelson's will, and was in close +attendance on him at his death. Hardy was created a baronet in 1806. He +was then employed on the North American station, and later (1819), was +made commodore and commander-in-chief on the South American station, +where his able conduct came prominently into notice. In 1825 he became +rear-admiral, and in December 1826 escorted the expeditionary force to +Lisbon. In 1830 he was made first sea lord of the admiralty, being +created G.C.B. in 1831. In 1834 he was appointed governor of Greenwich +hospital, where thenceforward he devoted himself with conspicuous +success to the charge of the naval pensioners; in 1837 he became +vice-admiral. He died at Greenwich on the 20th of September 1839. In +1807 he had married Anne Louisa Emily, daughter of Sir George Cranfield +Berkeley, under whom he had served on the North American station, and by +her he had three daughters, the baronetcy becoming extinct. + + See Marshall, _Royal Naval Biography_, ii. and iii.; Nicolas, + _Despatches of Lord Nelson_; Broadley and Bartelot, _The Three Dorset + Captains at Trafalgar_ (1906), and _Nelson's Hardy, his Life, Letters + and Friends_ (1909). + + + + +HARDYNG or HARDING, JOHN (1378-1465), English chronicler, was born in +the north, and as a boy entered the service of Sir Henry Percy +(Hotspur), with whom he was present at the battle of Shrewsbury (1403). +He then passed into the service of Sir Robert Umfraville, under whom he +was constable of Warkworth Castle, and served in the campaign of +Agincourt in 1415 and in the sea-fight before Harfleur in 1416. In 1424 +he was on a diplomatic mission at Rome, where at the instance of +Cardinal Beaufort he consulted the chronicle of Trogus Pompeius. +Umfraville, who died in 1436, had made Hardyng constable of Kyme in +Lincolnshire, where he probably lived till his death about 1465. Hardyng +was a man of antiquarian knowledge, and under Henry V. was employed to +investigate the feudal relations of Scotland to the English crown. For +this purpose he visited Scotland, at much expense and hardship. For his +services he says that Henry V. promised him the manor of Geddington in +Northamptonshire. Many years after, in 1439, he had a grant of £10 a +year for similar services. In 1457 there is a record of the delivery of +documents relating to Scotland by Hardyng to the earl of Shrewsbury, and +his reward by a further pension of £20. It is clear that Hardyng was +well acquainted with Scotland, and James I. is said to have offered him +a bribe to surrender his papers. But the documents, which are still +preserved in the Record Office, have been shown to be forgeries, and +were probably manufactured by Hardyng himself. Hardyng spent many years +on the composition of a rhyming chronicle of England. His services under +the Percies and Umfravilles gave him opportunity to obtain much +information of value for 15th century history. As literature the +chronicle has no merit. It was written and rewritten to suit his various +patrons. The original edition ending in 1436 had a Lancastrian bias and +was dedicated to Henry VI. Afterwards he prepared a version for Richard, +duke of York (d. 1460), and the chronicle in its final form was +presented to Edward IV. after his marriage to Elizabeth Woodville in +1464. + + The version of 1436 is preserved in Lansdowne MS. 204, and the best of + the later versions in Harley MS. 661, both in the British Museum. + Richard Grafton printed two editions in January 1543, which differ + much from one another and from the now extant manuscripts. Stow, who + was acquainted with a different version, censured Grafton on this + point somewhat unjustly. Sir Henry Ellis published the longer version + of Grafton with some additions from the Harley MS. in 1812. + + See Ellis' preface to Hardyng's _Chronicle_, and Sir F. Palgrave's + _Documents illustrating the History of Scotland_ (for an account of + Hardyng's forgeries). (C. L. K.) + + + + + +HARE, AUGUSTUS JOHN CUTHBERT (1834-1903), English writer and traveller, +was born at Rome in 1834. He was educated at Harrow school and at +University College, Oxford. His name is familiar as the author of a +large number of guide-books to the principal countries and towns of +Europe, most of which were written to order for John Murray. They were +made up partly of the author's own notes of travel, partly of quotations +from others' books taken with a frankness of appropriation that disarmed +criticism. He also wrote _Memorials of a Quiet Life_--that of his aunt +by whom he had been adopted when a baby (1872), and a tediously long +autobiography in six volumes, _The Story of My Life_. He died at St +Leonards-on-Sea on the 22nd of January 1903. + + + + +HARE, SIR JOHN (1844- ), English actor and manager, was born in +Yorkshire on the 16th of May 1844, and was educated at Giggleswick +school, Yorkshire. He made his first appearance on the stage at +Liverpool in 1864, coming to London in 1865, and acting for ten years +with the Bancrofts. He soon made his mark, particularly in T. W. +Robertson's comedies, and in 1875 became manager of the Court theatre. +But it was in association with Mr and Mrs Kendal at the St James's +theatre from 1879 to 1888 that he established his popularity in London, +in important "character" and "men of the world" parts, the joint +management of Hare and Kendal making this theatre one of the chief +centres of the dramatic world for a decade. In 1889 he became lessee and +manager of the Garrick theatre, where (though he was often out of the +cast) he produced several important plays, such as Pinero's _The +Profligate_ and _The Notorious Mrs Ebbsmith_, and had a remarkable +personal success in the chief part in Sydney Grundy's _A Pair of +Spectacles_. In 1897 he took the Globe theatre, where his acting in +Pinero's _Gay Lord Quex_ was another personal triumph. He became almost +as well known in the United States as in England, his last tour in +America being in 1900 and 1901. He was knighted in 1907. + + + + +HARE, JULIUS CHARLES (1795-1855), English theological writer, was born +at Valdagno, near Vicenza, in Italy, on the 13th of September 1795. He +came to England with his parents in 1799, but in 1804-1805 spent a +winter with them at Weimar, where he met Goethe and Schiller, and +received a bias to German literature which influenced his style and +sentiments throughout his whole career. On the death of his mother in +1806, Julius was sent home to the Charterhouse in London, where he +remained till 1812, when he entered Trinity College, Cambridge. There he +became fellow in 1818, and after some time spent abroad he began to read +law in London in the following year. From 1822 to 1832 he was +assistant-tutor at Trinity College. Turning his attention from law to +divinity, Hare took priest's orders in 1826; and, on the death of his +uncle in 1832, he succeeded to the rich family living of Hurstmonceaux +in Sussex, where he accumulated a library of some 12,000 volumes, +especially rich in German literature. Before taking up residence in his +parish he once more went abroad, and made in Rome the acquaintance of +the Chevalier Bunsen, who afterwards dedicated to him part of his work, +_Hippolytus and his Age_. In 1840 Hare was appointed archdeacon of +Lewes, and in the same year preached a course of sermons at Cambridge +(_The Victory of Faith_), followed in 1846 by a second, _The Mission of +the Comforter_. Neither series when published attained any great +popularity. Archdeacon Hare married in 1844 Esther, a sister of his +friend Frederick Maurice. In 1851 he was collated to a prebend in +Chichester; and in 1853 he became one of Queen Victoria's chaplains. He +died on the 23rd of January 1855. + + Julius Hare belonged to what has been called the "Broad Church party," + though some of his opinions approach very closely to those of the + Evangelical Arminian school, while others again seem vague and + undecided. He was one of the first of his countrymen to recognize and + come under the influence of German thought and speculation, and, + amidst an exaggerated alarm of German heresy, did much to vindicate + the authority of the sounder German critics. His writings, which are + chiefly theological and controversial, are largely formed of charges + to his clergy, and sermons on different topics; but, though valuable + and full of thought, they lose some of their force by the cumbrous + German structure of the sentences, and by certain orthographical + peculiarities in which the author indulged. In 1827 _Guesses at Truth + by Two Brothers_[1] appeared. Hare assisted Thirlwall, afterwards + bishop of St David's, in the translation of the 1st and 2nd volumes of + Niebuhr's _History of Rome_ (1828 and 1832), and published a + _Vindication of Niebuhr's History_ in 1829. He wrote many similar + works, among which is a _Vindication of Luther against his recent + English Assailants_ (1854). In 1848 he edited the _Remains of John + Sterling_, who had formerly been his curate. Carlyle's _Life of John + Sterling_ was written through dissatisfaction with the "Life" prefixed + to Archdeacon Hare's book. _Memorials of a Quiet Life_, published in + 1872, contain accounts of the Hare family. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Julius Hare's co-worker in this book was his brother Augustus + William Hare (1792-1834), who, after a distinguished career at + Oxford, was appointed rector of Alton Barnes, Wiltshire. He died + prematurely at Rome in 1834. He was the author of _Sermons to a + Country Congregation_, published in 1837. + + + + +HARE, the name of the well-known English rodent now designated _Lepus +europaeus_ (although formerly termed, incorrectly, _L. timidus_). In a +wider sense the name includes all the numerous allied species which do +not come under the designation of rabbits (see RABBIT). Over the greater +part of Europe, where the ordinary species (fig. 1) does not occur, its +place is taken by the closely allied Alpine, or mountain hare (fig. 2), +the true _L. timidus_ of Linnaeus, and the type of the genus _Lepus_ and +the family _Leporidae_ (see RODENTIA). The second is a smaller animal +than the first, with a more rounded and relatively smaller head, and the +ears, hind-legs and tail shorter. In Ireland and the southern districts +of Sweden it is permanently of a light fulvous grey colour, with black +tips to the ears, but in more northerly districts the fur--except the +black ear-tips--changes to white in winter, and still farther north the +animal appears to be white at all seasons of the year. The range of the +common or brown hare, inclusive of its local races, extends from England +across southern and central Europe to the Caucasus; while that of the +blue or mountain species, likewise inclusive of local races, reaches +from Ireland, Scotland and Scandinavia through northern Europe and Asia +to Japan and Kamchatka, and thence to Alaska. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--The Hare (_Lepus europaeus_).] + +The brown hare is a night-feeding animal, remaining during the day on +its "form," as the slight depression is called which it makes in the +open field, usually among grass. This it leaves at nightfall to seek +fields of young wheat and other cereals whose tender herbage forms its +favourite food. It is also fond of gnawing the bark of young trees, and +thus often does great damage to plantations. In the morning it returns +to its form, where it finds protection in the close approach which the +colour of its fur makes to that of its surroundings; should it thus +fail, however, to elude observation it depends for safety on its +extraordinary fleetness. On the first alarm of danger it sits erect to +reconnoitre, when it either seeks concealment by clapping close to the +ground, or takes to flight. In the latter case its great speed, and the +cunning endeavours it makes to outwit its canine pursuers, form the +chief attractions of coursing. The hare takes readily to the water, +where it swims well; an instance having been recorded in which one was +observed crossing an arm of the sea about a mile in width. Hares are +remarkably prolific, pairing when scarcely a year old, and the female +bringing forth several broods in the year, each consisting of from two +to five leverets (from the Fr. _lièvre_), as the young are called. These +are born covered with hair and with the eyes open, and after being +suckled for a month are able to look after themselves. In Europe this +species has seldom bred in confinement, although an instance has +recently been recorded. It will interbreed with the blue hare. Hares +(and rabbits) have a cosmopolitan distribution with the exception of +Madagascar and Australasia; and are now divided into numerous genera and +subgenera, mentioned in the article RODENTIA. Reference may here be made +to a few species. Asia is the home of numerous species, of which the +Common Indian _L. ruficaudatus_ and the black-necked hare _L. +nigricollis_, are inhabitants of the plains of India; the latter taking +its name from a black patch on the neck. In Assam there is a small spiny +hare (_Caprolagus hispidus_), with the habits of a rabbit; and an allied +species (_Nesolagus nitscheri_) inhabits Sumatra, and a third +(_Pentalagus furnessi_) the Liu-kiu Islands. The plateau of Tibet is +very rich in species, among which _L. hypsibius_ is very common. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--The Blue or Mountain Hare (_Lepus timidus_) in +winter dress.] + +Of African species, the Egyptian Hare (_L. aegyptius_) is a small +animal, with long ears and pale fur; and in the south there are the Cape +hare (_L. capensis_), the long-eared rock-hare (_L. saxatilis_) and the +diminutive _Pronolagus crassicaudatus_, characterized by its thick red +tail. + +North America is the home of numerous hares, some of which are locally +known as "cotton-tails" and others as "jack-rabbits." The most northern +are the Polar hare (_L. arcticus_), the Greenland hare (_L. +groenlandicus_) and the Alaska hare (_L. timidus tschuktschorum_), all +allied to the blue hare. Of the others, two, namely the large +prairie-hare (_L. campestris_) and the smaller varying hare (_L. +[Poecilolagus] americanus_), turn white in winter; the former having +long ears and the whole tail white, whereas in the latter the ears are +shorter and the upper surface of the tail is dark. Of those which do not +change colour, the wood-hare, grey-rabbit or cotton-tail, _Sylvilagus +floridanus_, is a southern form, with numerous allied kinds. Distantly +allied to the prairie-hare or white-tailed jack-rabbit, are several +forms distinguished by having a more or less distinct black stripe on +the upper surface of the tail. These include a buff-bellied species +found in California, N. Mexico and S.W. Oregon (_L. [Macrotolagus] +californicus_), a large, long-legged form from S. Arizona and Sonora +(_L. M alleni_), the Texan jack-rabbit (_L. M texanus_) and the +black-eared hare (_L. M melanotis_) of the Great Plains, which differs +from the third only by its shorter ears and richer coloration. In S. +America, the small tapiti or Brazilian hare (_Sylvilagus brasiliensis_) +is nearly allied to the wood-hare, but has a yellowish brown under +surface to the tail. + + See also COURSING. (R. L.*) + + + + +HAREBELL (sometimes wrongly written HAIRBELL), known also as the +blue-bell of Scotland, and witches' thimbles, a well-known perennial +wild flower, _Campanula rotundifolia_, a member of the natural order +Campanulaceae. The harebell has a very slender slightly creeping +root-stock, and a wiry, erect stem. The radical leaves, that is, those +at the base of the stem, to which the specific name _rotundifolia_ +refers, have long stalks, and are roundish or heart-shaped with crenate +or serrate margin; the lower stem leaves are ovate or lanceolate, and +the upper ones linear, subsessile, acute and entire, rarely pubescent. +The flowers are slightly drooping, arranged in a panicle, or in small +specimens single, having a smooth calyx, with narrow pointed erect +segments, the corolla bell-shaped, with slightly recurved segments, and +the capsule nodding, and opening by pores at the base. There are two +varieties:--(a) _genuina_, with slender stem leaves, and (b) +_montana_, in which the lower stem-leaves are broader and somewhat +elliptical in shape. The plant is found on heaths and pastures +throughout Great Britain and flowers in late summer and in autumn; it is +widely spread in the north temperate zone. The harebell has ever been a +great favourite with poets, and on account of its delicate blue colour +has been considered as an emblem of purity. + +[Illustration: Harebell (_Campanula rotundifolia_).] + + + + +HAREM, less frequently HARAM or HARIM (Arab _harim_--commonly but +wrongly pronounced harem--"that which is illegal or prohibited"), the +name generally applied to that part of a house in Oriental countries +which is set apart for the women; it is also used collectively for the +women themselves. Strictly the women's quarters are the _haremlik_ +(_lik_, belonging to), as opposed to _selamlik_ the men's quarters, from +which they are in large houses separated by the _mabein_, the private +apartments of the householder. The word _harem_ is strictly applicable +to Mahommedan households only, but the system is common in greater or +less degree to all Oriental communities, especially where polygamy is +permitted. Other names for the women's quarters are Seraglio (Ital. +_serraglio_, literally an enclosure, from Lat. _sera_, a bar; wrongly +narrowed down to the sense of harem through confusion with Turkish +_serai_ or _sarai_, palace or large building, cf. _caravanserai_); +Zenana (strictly _zanana_, from Persian _zan_, woman, allied with Gr. +[Greek: gynê]), used specifically of Hindu harems; Andarun (or +Anderoon), the Persian word for the "inner part" (_sc._ of a house). The +Indian harem system is also commonly known as _pardah_ or _purdah_, +literally the name of the thick curtains or blinds which are used +instead of doors to separate the women's quarters from the rest of the +house. A male doctor attending a zenana lady would put his hand between +the _purdah_ to feel her pulse. + +The seclusion of women in the household is fundamental to the Oriental +conception of the sex relation, and its origin must, therefore, be +sought far earlier than the precepts of Islam as set forth in the Koran, +which merely regulate a practically universal Eastern custom.[1] It is +inferred from the remains of many ancient Oriental palaces (Babylonian, +Persian, &c.) that kings and wealthy nobles devoted a special part of +the palace to their womankind. Though in comparatively early times there +were not wanting men who regarded polygamy as wrong (e.g. the prophets +of Israel), nevertheless in the East generally there has never been any +real movement against the conception of woman as a chattel of her male +relatives. A man may have as many wives and concubines as he can +support, but each of these women must be his exclusive property. The +object of this insistence upon female chastity is partly the maintenance +of the purity of the family with special reference to property, and +partly to protect women from marauders, as was the case with the people +of India when the Mahommedans invaded the country and sought for women +to fill their harems. In Mahommedan countries theoretically a woman must +veil her face to all men except her father, her brother and her husband; +any violation of this rule is still regarded by strict Mahommedans as +the gravest possible offence, though among certain Moslem communities +(e.g. in parts of Albania) women of the poorer classes may appear in +public unveiled. If any other man make his way into a harem he may lose +his life; the attempted escape of a harem woman is a capital offence, +the husband having absolute power of life and death, to such an extent +that, especially in the less civilized parts of the Moslem world, no one +would think of questioning a man's right to mutilate or kill a +disobedient wife or concubine. + +_Turkish Harems._--A good deal of misapprehension, due to ignorance +combined with strong prejudice against the whole system, exists in +regard to the system in Turkey. It is often assumed, for example, that +the sultan's seraglio is typical, though on a uniquely large scale, of +all Turkish households, and as a consequence that every Turk is a +polygamist. This is far from being the case, for though the Koran +permits four wives, and etiquette allows the sultan seven, the man of +average possessions is perforce content with one, and a small number of +female servants. It is, therefore, necessary to take the imperial +seraglio separately. + +Though the sultan's household in modern times is by no means as numerous +as it used to be, it is said that the harem of Abdul Hamid contained +about 1000 women, all of whom were of slave origin. This body of women +form an elaborately organized community with a complete system of +officers, disciplinary and administrative, and strict distinctions of +status. The real ruler of this society is the sultan's mother, the +_Sultana Validé_, who exercises her authority through a female +superintendent, the _Kyahya Khatun_. She has also a large retinue of +subordinate officials (_Kalfas_) ranging downwards from the _Hasnadar +ousta_ ("Lady of the Treasury") to the "Mistress of the Sherbets" and +the "Chief Coffee Server." Each of these officials has under her a +number of pupil-slaves (_alaiks_), whom she trains to succeed her if +need be, and from whom the service is recruited. After the sultana +validé (who frequently enjoys considerable political power and is a +mistress of intrigue) ranks the mother of the heir-apparent; she is +called the _Bash Kadin Effendi_ ("Her excellency the Chief Lady"), and +also _hasseki_ or _kasseky_, and is distinguished from the other three +chief wives who only bear the title _Kadin Effendi_. Next come the +ladies who have borne the younger children of the sultan, the _Hanum +Effendis_, and after them the so-called Odalisks or Odalisques (a +perversion of _odalik_, from _odah_, chamber). These are subdivided, +according to the degree of favour in which they stand with the sultan or +padishah, into _Ikbals_ ("Favourites") and _Geuzdés_ (literally the +"Eyed" ones), those whom the sultan has favourably noticed in the course +of his visits to the apartments of his wives or his mother. All the +women are at the disposal of the sultan, though it is contrary to +etiquette for him actually to select recruits for his harem. The numbers +are kept up by his female relatives and state officials, the latter of +whom present girls annually on the evening before the 15th of Ramadan. + +Every odalisk who has been promoted to the royal couch receives a +_daïra_, consisting of an allowance of money, a suite of apartments, and +a retinue, in proportion to her status. It should be noted that, since +all the harem women are slaves, the sultans, with practically no +exceptions, have never entered into legal marriage contracts. Any slave, +in however menial a position, may be promoted to the position of a kadin +effendi. Hence all the slaves who have any pretension to beauty are +carefully trained, from the time they enter the harem, in deportment, +dancing, music and the arts of the toilette: they are instructed in the +Moslem religion and learn the daily prayers (_namaz_); a certain number +are specially trained in reading and writing for secretarial work. +Discipline is strict, and continued disobedience leads to corporal +punishment by the eunuchs. All the women of the harem are absolutely +under the control of the sultana validé (who alone of the harem of her +dead husband is not sent away to an older palace when her son succeeds), +and owe her the most profound respect, even to the point of having to +obtain permission to leave their own apartments. Her financial +secretary, the _Haznadar Ousta_, succeeds to her power if she dies. The +sultan's foster-mother also is a person of importance, and is known as +the _Taia Kadin_. + +The security of the harem is in the hands of a body of eunuchs both +black and white. The white eunuchs have charge of the outer gates of the +seraglio, but they are not allowed to approach the women's apartments, +and obtain no posts of distinction. Their chief, however, the _kapu +aghasi_ ("master of the gates") has part control over the ecclesiastical +possessions, and even the vizier cannot enter the royal apartments +without his permission. The black eunuchs have the right of entering the +gardens and chambers of the harem. Their chief, usually called the +_kislar aghasi_ ("master of the maidens"), though his true title is +_darus skadet aga_ ("chief of the abode of felicity"), is an official of +high importance. His appointment is for life. If he is deprived of his +post he receives his freedom; and if he resigns of his own accord he is +generally sent to Egypt with a pension of 100 francs a day. His +secretary keeps count of the revenues of the mosques built by the +sultans. He is usually succeeded by the second eunuch, who bears the +title of treasurer, and has charge of the jewels, &c., of the women. The +number of eunuchs is always a large one. The sultana validé and the +sultana hasseki have each fifty at their service, and others are +assigned to the kadins and the favourite odalisks. + +The ordinary middle-class household is naturally on a very different +scale. The _selamlik_ is on the ground floor with a separate entrance, +and there the master of the house receives his male guests; the rest of +the ground floor is occupied by the kitchen and perhaps the stables. The +_haremlik_ is generally (in towns at least) on the upper floor fronting +on and slightly overhanging the street; it has a separate entrance, +courtyard and garden. The windows are guarded by lattices pierced with +circular holes through which the women may watch without being seen. +Communication with the _haremlik_ is effected by a locked door, of which +the Effendi keeps the key and also by a sort of revolving cupboard +(_dutap_) for the conveyance of meals. The furniture, of the +old-fashioned harems at least, is confined to divans, rugs, carpets and +mirrors. For heating purposes the old brass tray of charcoal and wood +ash is giving way to American stoves, and there is a tendency to import +French furniture and decoration without regard to their suitability. + +The presence of a second wife is the exception, and is generally +attributable to the absence of children by the first wife. The expense +of marrying a free woman leads many Turks to prefer a slave woman who is +much more likely to be an amenable partner. If a slave woman bears a +child she is often set free and then the marriage ceremony is gone +through. + +The harem system is, of course, wholly inconsistent with any high ideal +of womanhood. Certain misapprehensions, however, should be noticed. The +depravity of the system and the vapid idleness of harem life are much +exaggerated by observers whose sympathies are wholly against the system. +In point of fact much depends on the individuals. In many households +there exists a very high degree of mutual consideration and the standard +of conduct is by no means degraded. Though a woman may not be seen in +the streets without the _yashmak_ which covers her face except for her +eyes, and does not leave her house except by her husband's permission, +none the less in ordinary households the harem ladies frequently drive +into the country and visit the shops and public baths. Their seclusion +has very considerable compensations, and legally they stand on a far +better basis in relation to their husbands than do the women of +monogamous Christian communities. From the moment when a woman, free or +slave, enters into any kind of wifely relation with a man, she has a +legally enforceable right against him both for her own and for her +children's maintenance. She has absolute control over her personal +property whether in money, slaves or goods; and, if divorce is far +easier in Islam than in Christendom, still the marriage settlement must +be of such amount as will provide suitable maintenance in that event. + +On the other hand, of course, the system is open to the gravest abuse, +and in countries like Persia, Morocco and India, the life of Moslem +women and slaves is often far different from that of middle class women +of European Turkey, where law is strict and culture advanced. The early +age at which girls are secluded, the dulness of their surroundings, and +the low moral standard which the system produces react unfavourably not +only upon their moral and intellectual growth but also upon their +capacity for motherhood and their general physique. A harem woman is +soon passée, and the lot of a woman past her youth, if she is divorced +or a widow, is monotonous and empty. This is true especially of +child-widows. + +Since the middle of the 19th century familiarity with European customs +and the direct influence of European administrators has brought about a +certain change in the attitude of Orientals to the harem system. This +movement is, however, only in its infancy, and the impression is still +strong that the time is not ripe for reform. The Oriental women are in +general so accustomed to their condition that few have any inclination +to change it, while men as a rule are emphatically opposed to any +alteration of the system. The Young Turkish party, the upper classes in +Egypt, as also the Babists in Persia, have to some extent progressed +beyond the orthodox conception of the status of women, but no radical +reform has been set on foot. + +_In India_ various attempts have been made by societies, missionary and +other, as well as by private individuals, to improve the lot of the +zenana women. Zenana schools and hospitals have been founded, and a few +women have been trained as doctors and lawyers for the special purposes +of protecting the women against their own ignorance and inertia. Thus in +1905 a Parsee Christian lady, Cornelia Sorabjee, was appointed by the +Bengal government as legal adviser to the court of wards, so that she +might give advice to the widowed mothers of minors within the harem +walls. Similarly trained medical women are introduced into zenanas and +harems by the Lady Dufferin Association for medical aid to Indian women. +Gradually native Christian churches are making provision for the +attendance of women at their services, though the sexes are rigorously +kept apart. In India, as in Turkey, the introduction of Western dress +and education has begun to create new ideas and ambitions, and not a few +Eastern women have induced English women to enter the harems as +companions, nurses and governesses. But training and environment are +extremely powerful, and in some parts of the Mahommedan world, the +supply of Asiatic, European and even American girls is so steady, that +reform has touched only the fringe of the system. + +Among the principal societies which have been formed to better the +condition of Indian and Chinese women in general with special reference +to the zenana system are the Church of England Zenana Missionary Society +and the Zenana Bible and Medical Mission. Much information as to the +medical, industrial and educational work done by these societies will be +found in their annual reports and other publications. Among these are J. +K. H. Denny's _Toward the Uprising_; Irene H. Barnes, _Behind the +Pardah_ (1897), an account of the former society's work; the general +condition of Indian women is described in Mrs Marcus B. Fuller's _Wrongs +of Indian Womanhood_ (1900), and Maud Dover's _The Englishwoman in +India_ (1909); see also article MISSIONS. + + AUTHORITIES.--The literature of the subject is very large, though a + great deal of it is naturally based on insufficient evidence, and + coloured by Western prepossessions. Among useful works are A. van + Sommer and Zwerner, _Our Moslem Sisters_ (1907), a collection of + essays by authors acquainted with various parts of the Mahommedan + world and strongly opposed to the whole harem system; Mrs W. M. + Ramsay, _Everyday Life in Turkey_ (1897), cc. iv. and v., containing + an account of a day in a harem near Afium-Kara-Hissar; cf. e.g. art. + "Harem" in Hughes, _Dictionary of Islam_; Mrs S. Harvey's _Turkish + Harems and Circassian Homes_ (1871); for Mahomet's regulations, see + R. Bosworth Smith's _Mohammed and Mohammedanism_ (1889); for Egypt, + Lane, _Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians_ (1837); and E. + Lott, _Harem Life in Egypt and Constantinople_ (1869); for the + sultan's household in the 18th century, Lady Wortley Montagu's + _Letters_, with which may be compared S. Lane-Poole, _Turkey_ (ed. + 1909); G. Dorys, _La Femme turque_ (1902); especially Lucy M. J. + Garnett (with J. S. Stuart-Glennie), _The Women of Turkey_ (London, + 1901), and _The Turkish People_ (London, 1909). For the attempts which + have been made to modify and improve the Indian zenana system, see + e.g. the reports of the Dufferin Association and other official + publications. Other information will be found in Hoffman's article in + Ersch and Gruber's _Encyclopädie_; Flandin in _Revue des deux mondes_ + (1852) on the harem of the Persian prince Malik Kasim Mirza; the count + de Beauvoir, in _Voyage round the World_ (1870), on Javanese and + Siamese harems; Häntzsche in _Zeitschrift für allgemeine Erdkunde_ + (Berlin, 1864). (J. M. M.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] In Africa also, among the non-Mahommedan negroes of the west + coast and the Bahima of the Victoria Nyanza, the seclusion of women + of the upper classes has been practised in states (e.g. Ashanti and + Buganda) possessing a considerable degree of civilization. + + + + +HARFLEUR, a port of France in the department of Seine-Inférieure, about +6 m. E. of Havre by rail. Pop. (1906) 2864. It lies in the fertile +valley of the Lézarde, at the foot of wooded hills not far from the +north bank of the estuary of the Seine. The port, which had been +rendered almost inaccessible owing to the deposits of the Lézarde, again +became available on the opening of the Tancarville canal (1887) +connecting it with the port of Havre and with the Seine. Vessels drawing +18 ft. can moor alongside the quays of the new port, which is on a +branch of the canal, has some trade in coal and timber, and carries on +fishing. The church of St Martin is the most remarkable building in the +town, and its lofty stone steeple forms a landmark for the pilots of the +river. It dates from the 15th and 16th centuries, but the great portal +is the work of the 17th, and the whole has undergone modern restoration. +Of the old castle there are only insignificant ruins, near which, in a +fine park, stands the present castle, a building of the 17th century. +The old ramparts of the town are now replaced by manufactories, and the +fosses are transformed into vegetable gardens. There is a statue of Jean +de Grouchy, lord of Montérollier, under whose leadership the English +were expelled from the town in 1435. The industries include distilling, +metal founding and the manufacture of oil and grease. + +Harfleur is identified with _Caracotinum_, the principal port of the +ancient Calates. In the middle ages, when its name, Herosfloth, +Harofluet or Hareflot, was still sufficiently uncorrupted to indicate +its Norman derivation, it was the principal seaport of north-western +France. In 1415 it was captured by Henry V. of England, but when in 1435 +the people of the district of Caux rose against the English, 104 of the +inhabitants opened the gates of the town to the insurgents, and thus got +rid of the foreign yoke. The memory of the deed was long perpetuated by +the bells of St Martin's tolling 104 strokes. Between 1445 and 1449 the +English were again in possession; but the town was recovered for the +French by Dunois. In the 16th century the port began to dwindle in +importance owing to the silting up of the Seine estuary and the rise of +Havre. In 1562 the Huguenots put Harfleur to pillage, and its registers +and charters perished in the confusion; but its privileges were restored +by Charles IX. in 1568, and it was not till 1710 that it was subjected +to the "taille." + + + + +HARIANA, a tract of country in the Punjab, India, once the seat of a +flourishing Hindu civilization. It consists of a level upland plain, +interspersed with patches of sandy soil, and largely overgrown with +brushwood. The Western Jumna canal irrigates the fields of a large +number of its villages. Since the 14th century Hissar has been the local +capital. During the troubled period which followed on the decline of the +Mogul empire, Hariana formed the battlefield where the Mahrattas, +Bhattis and Sikhs met to settle their territorial quarrels. The whole +country was devastated by the famine of 1783. In 1797-1798 Hariana was +overrun by the famous Irish adventurer George Thomas, who established +his capital at Hansi; in 1801 he was dispossessed by Sindhia's French +general Perron; in 1803 Hariana passed under British rule. On the +conquest of the Punjab Hariana was broken up into the districts of +Hissar, Rohtak and Sirsa, which last has in its turn been divided +between Hissar and Ferozepore. + + + + +HARINGTON, SIR JOHN (1561-1612), English writer, was born at Kelston, +near Bath, in 1561. His father, John Harington, acquired considerable +estates by marrying Etheldreda, a natural daughter of Henry VIII., and +after his wife's death he was attached to the service of the Princess +Elizabeth. He married Isabella Markham, one of her ladies, and on Mary's +accession he and his wife were imprisoned in the Tower with the +princess. John, the son of the second marriage, was Elizabeth's godson. +He studied at Eton and at Christ's College, Cambridge, where he took the +degree of M.A., his tutor being John Still, afterwards bishop of Bath +and Wells, formerly reputed to be the author of _Gammer Gurton's +Needle_. He came up to London about 1583 and was entered at Lincoln's +Inn, but his talents marked him out for success at court rather than for +a legal career. Tradition relates that he translated the story of +Giocondo from Ariosto and was reproved by the queen for acquainting her +ladies with so indiscreet a selection. He was to retire to his seat at +Kelston until he completed the translation of the entire work. _Orlando +Furioso_ in English heroical verse was published in 1591 and reprinted +in 1607 and 1634. Harington was high sheriff of Somerset in 1592 and +received Elizabeth at his house during her western progress of 1591. In +1596 he published in succession _The Metamorphosis of Ajax_, _An +Anatomie of the Metamorphosed Ajax_, and _Ulysses upon Ajax_, the three +forming collectively a very absurd and indecorous work of a +Pantagruelistic kind. An allusion to Leicester in this book threw the +writer into temporary disgrace, but in 1598 he received a commission to +serve in Ireland under Essex. He was knighted on the field, to the +annoyance of Elizabeth. Harington saved himself from being involved in +Essex's disgrace by writing an account of the Irish campaign which +increased Elizabeth's anger against the unfortunate earl. Among some +papers found in the chapter library at York was a _Tract on the +Succession to the Crown_ (1602), written by Harington to secure the +favour of the new king, to whom he sent the gift of a lantern +constructed to symbolize the waning glory of the late queen and James's +own splendour. This pamphlet, which contains many details of great +interest about Elizabeth and gives an unprejudiced sketch of the +religious question, was edited for the Roxburghe Club in 1880 by Sir +Clements Markham. Harington's efforts to win favour at the new court +were unsuccessful. In 1605 he even asked for the office of chancellor of +Ireland and proposed himself as archbishop. The document in which he +preferred this extraordinary request was published in 1879 with the +title of _A Short View of the State of Ireland written in 1605_. +Harington was before his time in advocating a policy of generosity and +conciliation towards that country. He eventually succeeded in obtaining +a position as one of the tutors of Prince Henry, for whom he annotated +Francis Godwin's _De praesulibus Angliae_. Harington's grandson, John +Chetwind, found in this somewhat scandalous production an argument for +the Presbyterian side, and published it in 1653, under the title of _A +Briefe View of the State of the Church, &c._ + +Harington died at Kelston on the 20th of November 1612. His _Epigrams_ +were printed in a collection entitled _Alcilia_ in 1613, and separately +in 1615. The translation of the _Orlando Furioso_ was carried out with +skill and perseverance. It is not to be supposed that Harington failed +to realize the ironic quality of his original, but he treated it as a +serious allegory to suit the temper of Queen Elizabeth's court. He was +neither a very exact scholar nor a very poetical translator, and he +cannot be named in the same breath with Fairfax. The _Orlando Furioso_ +was sumptuously illustrated, and to it was prefixed an _Apologie of +Poetrie_, justifying the subject matter of the poem, and, among other +technical matters, the author's use of disyllabic and trisyllabic +rhymes, also a life of Ariosto compiled by Harington from various +Italian sources. Harington's Rabelaisian pamphlets show that he was +almost equally endowed with wit and indelicacy, and his epigrams are +sometimes smart and always easy. His works include _The Englishman's +Doctor, Or the School of Salerne_ (1608), and _Nugae antiquae_, +miscellaneous papers collected in 1779. + +_A biographical account of Harington is prefixed to the Roxburghe Club +edition of his tract on the succession mentioned above._ + + + + +HARIRI [Abu Mahommed ul-Qasim ibn 'Ali ibn Mahommed al-Hariri,] i.e. +"the manufacturer or seller of silk"] (1054-1122), Arabian writer, was +born at Basra. He owned a large estate with 18,000 date-palms at Mashan, +a village near Basra. He is said to have occupied a government position, +but devoted his life to the study of the niceties of the Arabic +language. On this subject he wrote a grammatical poem the _Mulhat +ul-'Irab_ (French trans. _Les Récréations grammaticales_ with notes by +L. Pinto, Paris 1885-1889; extracts in S. de Sacy's _Anthologie arabe_, +pp. 145-151, Paris, 1829); a work on the faults of the educated called +_Durrat ul-Ghawwas_ (ed. H. Thorbecke, Leipzig, 1871), and some smaller +treatises such as the two letters on words containing the letters _sin_ +and _shin_ (ed. in Arnold's _Chrestomathy_, pp. 202-9). But his fame +rests chiefly on his fifty _maqamas_ (see ARABIA: _Literature_, section +"Belles Lettres"). These were written in rhymed prose like those of +Hamadhani, and are full of allusions to Arabian history, poetry and +tradition, and discussions of difficult points of Arabic grammar and +rhetoric. + + The Maqamas have been edited with Arabic commentary by S. de Sacy + (Paris, 1822, 2nd ed. with French notes by Reinaud and J. Derenbourg, + Paris, 1853); with English notes by F. Steingass (London, 1896). An + English translation with notes was made by T. Preston (London, 1850), + and another by T. Chenery and F. Steingass (London, 1867 and 1898). + Many editions have been published in the East with commentaries, + especially with that of Sharishi (d. 1222). (G. W. T.) + + + + +HARI-RUD, a river of Afghanistan. It rises in the northern slopes of the +Koh-i-Baba to the west of Kabul, and finally loses itself in the Tejend +oasis north of the Trans-Caspian railway and west of Merv. It runs a +remarkably straight course westward through a narrow trough from +Daolatyar to Obeh, amidst the bleak wind-swept uplands of the highest +central elevations in Afghanistan. From Obeh to Kuhsan 50 m. west of +Herat, it forms a valley of great fertility, densely populated and +highly cultivated; practically all its waters being drawn off for +purposes of irrigation. It is the contrast between the cultivated aspect +of the valley of Herat and the surrounding desert that has given Herat +its great reputation for fertility. Three miles to the south of Herat +the Kandahar road crosses the river by a masonry bridge of 26 arches now +in ruins. A few miles below Herat the river begins to turn north-west, +and after passing through a rich country to Kuhsan, it turns due north +and breaks through the Paropamisan hills. Below Kuhsan it receives fresh +tributaries from the west. Between Kuhsan and Zulfikar it forms the +boundary between Afghanistan and Persia, and from Zulfikar to Sarakhs +between Russia and Persia. North of Sarakhs it diminishes rapidly in +volume till it is lost in the sands of the Turkman desert. The Hari-Rud +marks the only important break existing in the continuity of the great +central water-parting of Asia. It is the ancient Arius. (T. H. H.*) + + + + +HARISCHANDRA, in Hindu mythology, the 28th king of the Solar race. He +was renowned for his piety and justice. He is the central figure of +legends in the Aitareyabrahmana, Mahabharata and the Markandeyapurana. +In the first he is represented as so desirous of a son that he vows to +Varuna that if his prayer is granted the boy shall be eventually +sacrificed to the latter. The child is born, but Harischandra, after +many delays, arranges to purchase another's son and make a vicarious +sacrifice. According to the Mahabharata he is at last promoted to +Paradise as the reward for his munificent charity. + + + + +HARITH IBN HILLIZA UL-YASHKURI, pre-Islamic Arabian poet of the tribe of +Bakr, famous as the author of one of the poems generally received among +the Mo'allakat (q.v.). Nothing is known of the details of his life. + + + + +HARIZI, JUDAH BEN SOLOMON (13th cent.), called also al-Harizi, a Spanish +Hebrew poet and traveller. He translated from the Arabic to Hebrew some +of the works of Maimonides (q.v.) and also of the Arab poet Hariri. His +own most considerable work was the _Tahkemoni_, composed between 1218 +and 1220. This is written in Hebrew in unmetrical rhymes, in what is +commonly termed "rhymed prose." It is a series of humorous episodes, +witty verses, and quaint applications of Scriptural texts. The episodes +are bound together by the presence of the hero and of the narrator, who +is also the author. Harizi not only brought to perfection the art of +applying Hebrew to secular satire, but he was also a brilliant literary +critic and his _makame_ on the Andalusian Hebrew poets is a fruitful +source of information. + + See, on the _Tahkemoni_, Kaempf, _Nicht-andalusische Poesie + andalusischer Dichter_ (Prague, 1858). In that work a considerable + section of the _Tahkemoni_ is translated into German. (I. A.) + + + + +HARKNESS, ALBERT (1822-1907), American classical scholar, was born at +Mendon, Massachusetts, on the 6th of October 1822. He graduated at Brown +University in 1842, taught in the Providence high school in 1843-1853, +studied in Berlin, Bonn (where in 1854 he was the first American to +receive the degree of Ph.D.) and Göttingen, and was professor of Greek +language and literature in Brown University from 1855 to 1892, when he +became professor emeritus. He was one of the founders in 1869 of the +American Philological Association, of which he was president in +1875-1876, and to whose _Transactions_ he made various contributions; +was a member of the Archaeological Institute's committee on founding the +American School of Classical Studies at Athens, and served as the second +director of that school in 1883-1884. He studied English and German +university methods during trips to Europe in 1870 and 1883, and +introduced a new scholarly spirit into American teaching of Latin in +secondary schools with a series of Latin text-books, which began in 1851 +with a _First Latin Book_ and continued for more than fifty years. His +_Latin Grammar_ (1864, 1881) and _Complete Latin Grammar_ (1898) are his +best-known books. He was a member of the board of fellows of Brown +University from 1904 until his death, and in 1904-1905 was president of +the Rhode Island Historical Society. He died in Providence, Rhode +Island, on the 27th of May 1907. + +His son, ALBERT GRANGER HARKNESS (1857- ), also a classical scholar, +was born in Providence, Rhode Island, on the 19th of November 1857. He +graduated at Brown University in 1879, studied in Germany in 1879-1883, +and was professor of German and Latin at Madison (now Colgate) +University from 1883 to 1889, and associate professor of Latin at Brown +from 1889 to 1893, when he was appointed to the chair of Roman +literature and history there. He was director of the American School of +Classical Studies in Rome in 1902-1903. + + + + +HARKNESS, ROBERT (1816-1878), English geologist, was born at Ormskirk, +Lancashire, on the 28th of July 1816. He was educated at the high +school, Dumfries, and afterwards (1833-1834) at the university of +Edinburgh where he acquired an interest in geology from the teachings of +Robert Jameson and J. D. Forbes. Returning to Ormskirk he worked +zealously at the local geology, especially on the Coal-measures and New +Red Sandstone, his first paper (read before the Manchester Geol. Soc. in +1843) being on _The Climate of the Coal Epoch_. In 1848 his family went +to reside in Dumfries and there he commenced to work on the Silurian +rocks of the S.W. of Scotland, and in 1849 he carried his investigations +into Cumberland. In these regions during the next few years he added +much to our knowledge of the strata and their fossils, especially +graptolites, in papers read before the Geological Society of London. He +wrote also on the New Red rocks of the north of England and Scotland. In +1853 he was appointed professor of geology in Queen's College, Cork, and +in 1856 he was elected F.R.S. During this period he wrote some articles +on the geology of parts of Ireland, and exercised much influence as a +teacher, but he returned to England during his vacations and devoted +himself assiduously to the geology of the Lake district. He was also a +constant attendant at the meetings of the British Association. In 1876 +the syllabus for the Queen's Colleges in Ireland was altered, and +Professor Harkness was required to lecture not only on geology, +palaeontology, mineralogy and physical geography, but also on zoology +and botany. The strain of the extra work proved too much, he decided to +relinquish his post, and had retired but a short time when he died, on +the 4th of October 1878. + + "Memoir," by J. G. Goodchild, in _Trans. Cumberland Assoc._ No. viii. + (with portrait). In memory of Professor Harkness his sister + established two Harkness scholarships. One scholarship (of the value + of about £35 a year, tenable for three years) for women, tenable at + either Girton or Newnham College, Cambridge, is awarded triennially to + the best candidate in an examination in geology and palaeontology, + provided that proficiency be shown; the other, for men, is vested in + the hands of the university of Cambridge, and is awarded annually, any + member of the university being eligible who has graduated as a B.A., + "provided that not more than three years have elapsed since the 19th + day of December next following his final examination for the degree of + bachelor of arts." + + + + +HARLAN, JAMES (1820-1899), American politician, was born in Clark +county, Illinois, on the 26th of August 1820. He graduated from Indiana +Asbury (now De Pauw) University in 1845, was president (1846-1847) of +the newly founded and short-lived Iowa City College, studied law, was +first superintendent of public instruction in Iowa in 1847-1848, and was +president of Iowa Wesleyan University in 1853-1855. He took a prominent +part in organizing the Republican party in Iowa, and was a member of the +United States Senate from 1855 to 1865, when he became secretary of the +interior. He had been a delegate to the peace convention in 1861, and +from 1861 to 1865 was chairman of the Senate committee on public lands. +He disapproved of President Johnson's conservative reconstruction +policy, retired from the cabinet in August 1866, and from 1867 to 1873 +was again a member of the United States Senate. In 1866 he was a +delegate to the loyalists' convention at Philadelphia. One of his +principal speeches in the Senate was that which he made in March 1871 in +reply to Sumner's and Schurz's attack on President Grant's Santo +Domingan policy. He was presiding judge of the court of commissioners of +Alabama claims (1882-1885). He died in Mount Pleasant, Iowa, on the 5th +of October 1899. + + + + +HARLAN, JOHN MARSHALL (1833- ), American jurist, was born in Boyle +county, Kentucky, on the 1st of June 1833. He graduated at Centre +College, Danville, Ky., in 1850, and at the law department of +Transylvania University, Lexington, in 1853. He was county judge of +Franklin county in 1858-1859, was an unsuccessful candidate for Congress +on the Whig ticket in 1859, and was elector on the Constitutional Union +ticket in 1860. On the outbreak of the Civil War he recruited and +organized the Tenth Kentucky United States Volunteer Infantry, and in +1861-1863 served as colonel. Retiring from the army in 1863, he was +elected by the Union party attorney-general of the state, and was +re-elected in 1865, serving from 1863 to 1867, when he removed to +Louisville to practise law. He was the Republican candidate for governor +in 1871 and in 1875, and was a member of the commission which was +appointed by President Hayes early in 1877 to accomplish the recognition +of one or other of the existing state governments of Louisiana (q.v.); +and he was a member of the Bering Sea tribunal which met in Paris in +1893. On the 29th of November 1877 he became an associate justice of the +United States Supreme Court. In this position he showed himself a +liberal constructionist. In opinions on the Civil Rights cases and in +the interpretation of the 13th, 14th and 15th Amendments to the +Constitution, he dissented from the majority of the court and advocated +increasing the power of the Federal government. He supported the +constitutionality of the income tax clause in the Wilson Tariff Bill of +1894, and he drafted the decision of the court in the Northern +Securities Company Case, which applied to railways the provisions of the +Sherman Anti-Trust Law. In 1889 he became a professor in the Law School +of the Columbian University (afterwards George Washington University) in +Washington, D.C. + + + + +HARLAND, HENRY (1861-1905), American novelist, was born in St +Petersburg, Russia, in March 1861, and was educated in New York and at +Harvard. He went to Europe as a journalist, and, after publishing +several novels, mainly of American-Jewish life (under the name of Sidney +Luska), first made his literary reputation in London as editor of the +_Yellow Book_ in 1894. His association with this clever publication, and +his own contributions to it, brought his name into prominence, but it +was not till he published _The Cardinal's Snuff-box_ (1900), followed +by _The Lady Paramount_ (1902), that his lightly humorous touch and +picturesque style as a novelist brought him any real success. His health +was always delicate, and he died at San Remo on the 20th of December +1905. + + + + +HARLAY DE CHAMPVALLON, FRANÇOIS DE (1625-1695), 5th archbishop of Paris, +was born in that city on the 14th of August 1625. Nephew of François de +Harlay, archbishop of Rouen, he was presented to the abbey of Jumièges +immediately on leaving the Collège de Navarre, and he was only +twenty-six when he succeeded his uncle in the archiepiscopal see. He was +transferred to the see of Paris in 1671, he was nominated by the king +for the cardinalate in 1690, and the domain of St Cloud was erected into +a duchy in his favour. He was commander of the order of the Saint Esprit +and a member of the French Academy. During the early part of his +political career he was a firm adherent of Mazarin, and is said to have +helped to procure his return from exile. His private life gave rise to +much scandal, but he had a great capacity for business, considerable +learning, and was an eloquent and persuasive speaker. He definitely +secured the favour of Louis XIV. by his support of the claims of the +Gallican Church formulated by the declaration made by the clergy in +assembly on the 19th of March 1682, when Bossuet accused him of +truckling to the court like a valet. One of the three witnesses of the +king's marriage with Madame de Maintenon, he was hated by her for using +his influence with the king to keep the matter secret. He had a weekly +audience of Louis XIV. in company with Père la Chaise on the affairs of +the Church in Paris, but his influence gradually declined, and +Saint-Simon, who bore him no good will for his harsh attitude to the +Jansenists, says that his friends deserted him as the royal favour +waned, until at last most of his time was spent at Conflans in company +with the duchess of Lesdiguières, who alone was faithful to him. He +urged the revocation of the edict of Nantes, and showed great severity +to the Huguenots at Dieppe, of which he was temporal and spiritual lord. +He died suddenly, without having received the sacraments, on the 6th of +August 1695. His funeral discourse was delivered by the Père Gaillard, +and Mme de Sévigné made on the occasion the severe comment that there +were only two trifles to make this a difficult matter--his life and his +death. + + See Abbé Legendre, _Vita Francisci de Harlay_ (Paris, 1720) and _Éloge + de Harlay_ (1695); Saint-Simon, _Mémoires_ (vol. ii., ed. A. de + Boislisle, 1879), and numerous references in the _Lettres_ of Mme de + Sévigné. + + + + +HARLECH (perhaps for _Hardd lech_, fair slate, or _Harleigh_, an +Anglicized variant), a town of Merionethshire, Wales, 38 m. from +Aberystwyth, and 29 from Carnarvon on the Cambrian railway. Pop. 900. +Ruins of a fortress crown the rock of Harlech, about half a mile from +the sea. Discovery of Roman coins makes it probable that it was once +occupied by the Romans. In the 3rd century Bronwen (white bosom), +daughter of Bran Fendigaid (the blessed), is said to have stayed here, +perhaps by force; and there was here a tower, called Twr Bronwen, and +replaced about A.D. 550 by the building of Maelgwyn Gwynedd, prince of +North Wales. In the early 10th century, Harlech castle was, apparently, +repaired by Colwyn, lord of Ardudwy, founder of one of the fifteen North +Wales tribes, and thence called Caer Colwyn. The present structure +dates, like many others in the principality, from Edward I., perhaps +even from the plans of the architect of Carnarvon and Conway castles, +but with the retention of old portions. It is thought to have been +square, each side measuring some 210 ft., with towers and turrets. +Glendower held it for four years. Here, in 1460, Margaret, wife of Henry +VI., defeated at Northampton, took refuge. Dafydd ap Ieuan ap Einion +held it for the Lancastrians, until famine, rather than Edward IV., made +him surrender. From this time is said to date the air "March of the men +of Harlech" (_Rhyfelgerdd gwyr Harlech_). The castle was alternately +Roundhead and Cavalier in the civil war. Edward I. made Harlech a free +borough, and it was formerly the county town. It is in the parish of +Llandanwg (pop. in 1901, 931). Though interesting from an antiquarian +point of view, the district around, especially Dyffryn Ardudwy (the +valley), is dreary and desolate, e.g. Drws (the door of) Ardudwy, +Rhinog fawr and Rhinog fach (cliffs); an exception is the verdant Cwm +bychan (little combe or hollow). The Meini gwyr Ardudwy (stones of the +men of Ardudwy) possibly mark the site of a fight. + + + + +HARLEQUIN, in modern pantomime, the posturing and acrobatic character +who gives his name to the "harlequinade," attired in mask and +parti-coloured and spangled tights, and provided with a sword like a +bat, by which, himself invisible, he works wonders. It has generally +been assumed that Harlequin was transferred to France from the +"Arlecchino" of Italian medieval and Renaissance popular comedy; but Dr +Driesen in his _Ursprung des Harlekins_ (Berlin, 1904) shows that this +is incorrect. An old French "Harlekin" (Herlekin, Hellequin and other +variants) is found in folk-literature as early as 1100; he had already +become proverbial as a ragamuffin of a demoniacal appearance and +character; in 1262 a number of harlekins appear in a play by Adam de la +Halle as the intermediaries of King Hellekin, prince of Fairyland, in +courting Morgan le Fay; and it was not till much later that the French +Harlekin was transformed into the Italian Arlecchino. In his typical +French form down to the time of Gottsched, he was a spirit of the air, +deriving thence his invisibility and his characteristically light and +aery whirlings. Subsequently he returned from the Italian to the French +stage, being imported by Marivaux into light comedy; and his various +attributes gradually became amalgamated into the latter form taken in +pantomime. + + + + +HARLESS (originally HARLES), GOTTLIEB CHRISTOPH (1738-1815), German +classical scholar and bibliographer, was born at Culmbach in Bavaria on +the 21st of June 1738. He studied at Halle, Erlangen and Jena. In 1765 +he was appointed professor of oriental languages and eloquence at the +Gymnasium Casimirianum in Coburg, in 1770 professor of poetry and +eloquence at Erlangen, and in 1776 librarian of the university. He held +his professorship for forty-five years till his death on the 2nd of +November 1815. Harless was an extremely prolific writer. His numerous +editions of classical authors, deficient in originality and critical +judgment, although valuable at the time as giving the student the +results of the labours of earlier scholars, are now entirely superseded. +But he will always be remembered for his meritorious work in connexion +with the great _Bibliotheca Graeca_ of J. A. Fabricius, of which he +published a new and revised edition (12 vols., 1790-1809, not quite +completed),--a task for which he was peculiarly qualified. He also wrote +much on the history and bibliography of Greek and Latin literature. + + His life was written by his son, Johann Christian Friedrich Harless + (1818). + + + + +HARLESS, GOTTLIEB CHRISTOPH ADOLF VON (1806-1879), German divine, was +born at Nuremberg on the 21st of November 1806, and was educated at the +universities of Erlangen and Halle. He was appointed professor of +theology at Erlangen in 1836 and at Leipzig in 1845. He was a strong +Lutheran and exercised a powerful influence in that direction as court +preacher in Dresden and as president of the Protestant consistory at +Munich. His chief works were _Theologische Encyklopädie und +Methodologie_ (1837) and _Die christliche Ethik_ (1842, Eng. trans. +1868). He died on the 5th of September 1879, having, a few years +earlier, written an autobiography under the title _Bruchstücke aus dem +Leben eines süddeutschen Theologen_. + + + + +HARLINGEN, a seaport in the province of Friesland, Holland, on the +Zuider Zee, and the terminus of the railway and canal from Leeuwarden +(15½ m. E.). It is connected by steam tramway by way of Bolswaard with +Sneek. Pop. (1900) 10,448. Harlingen has become the most considerable +seaport of Friesland since the construction of the large outer harbour +in 1870-1877, and in addition to railway and steamship connexion with +Bremen, Amsterdam, and the southern provinces there are regular sailings +to Hull and London. Powerful sluices protect the inner harbour from the +high tides. The only noteworthy buildings are the town hall (1730-1733), +the West church, which consists of a part of the former castle of +Harlingen, the Roman Catholic church, the Jewish synagogue and the +schools of navigation and of design. The chief trade of Harlingen is the +exportation of Frisian produce, namely, butter and cheese, cattle, +sheep, fish, potatoes, flax, &c. There is also a considerable import +trade in timber, coal, raw cotton, hemp and jute for the Twente +factories. The local industries are unimportant, consisting of +saw-mills, rope-yards, salt refineries, and sail-cloth and margarine +factories. + + + + +HARMATTAN, the name of a hot dry parching wind that blows during +December, January and February on the coast of Upper Guinea, bringing a +high dense haze of red dust which darkens the air. The natives smear +their bodies with oil or fat while this parching wind is blowing. + + + + +HARMODIUS, a handsome Athenian youth, and the intimate friend of +Aristogeiton. Hipparchus, the younger brother of the tyrant Hippias, +endeavoured to supplant Aristogeiton in the good graces of Harmodius, +but, failing in the attempt, revenged himself by putting a public +affront on Harmodius's sister at a solemn festival. Thereupon the two +friends conspired with a few others to murder both the tyrants during +the armed procession at the Panathenaic festival (514 B.C.), when the +people were allowed to carry arms (this licence is denied by Aristotle +in _Ath. Pol._). Seeing one of their accomplices speaking to Hippias, +and imagining that they were being betrayed, they prematurely attacked +and slew Hipparchus alone. Harmodius was cut down on the spot by the +guards, and Aristogeiton was soon captured and tortured to death. When +Hippias was expelled (510), Harmodius and Aristogeiton became the most +popular of Athenian heroes; their descendants were exempted from public +burdens, and had the right of public entertainment in the Prytaneum, and +their names were celebrated in popular songs and scolia (after-dinner +songs) as the deliverers of Athens. One of these songs, attributed to a +certain Callistratus, is preserved in Athenaeus (p. 695). Their statues +by Antenor in the agora were carried off by Xerxes and replaced by new +ones by Critius and Nesiotes. Alexander the Great afterwards sent back +the originals to Athens. It is not agreed which of these was the +original of the marble tyrannicide group in the museum at Naples, for +which see article GREEK ART, Pl. I. fig. 50. + + See Köpp in _Neue Jahrb. f. klass. Altert._ (1902), p. 609. + + + + +HARMONIA, in Greek mythology, according to one account the daughter of +Ares and Aphrodite, and wife of Cadmus. When the government of Thebes +was bestowed upon Cadmus by Athena, Zeus gave him Harmonia to wife. All +the gods honoured the wedding with their presence. Cadmus (or one of the +gods) presented the bride with a robe and necklace, the work of +Hephaestus. This necklace brought misfortune to all who possessed it. +With it Polyneices bribed Eriphyle to persuade her husband Amphiaraus to +undertake the expedition against Thebes. It led to the death of +Eriphyle, of Alcmaeon, of Phegeus and his sons. Even after it had been +deposited in the temple of Athena Pronoia at Delphi, its baleful +influence continued. Phayllus, one of the Phocian leaders in the Sacred +War (352 B.C.) carried it off and gave it to his mistress. After she had +worn it for a time, her son was seized with madness and set fire to the +house, and she perished in the flames. According to another account, +Harmonia belonged to Samothrace and was the daughter of Zeus and +Electra, her brother Iasion being the founder of the mystic rites +celebrated on the island (Diod. Sic. v. 48). Finally, Harmonia is +rationalized as closely allied to Aphrodite Pandemos, the love that +unites all people, the personification of order and civic unity, +corresponding to the Roman Concordia. + + Apollodorus iii. 4-7; Diod. Sic. iv. 65, 66; Parthenius, _Erotica_, + 25; L. Preller, _Griech. Mythol._; Crusius in Roscher's _Lexikon_. + + + + +HARMONIC. In acoustics, a harmonic is a secondary tone which accompanies +the fundamental or primary tone of a vibrating string, reed, &c.; the +more important are the 3rd, 5th, 7th, and octave (see SOUND; HARMONY). A +harmonic proportion in arithmetic and algebra is such that the +reciprocals of the proportionals are in arithmetical proportion; thus, +if a, b, c be in harmonic proportion then 1/a, 1/b, 1/c are in +arithmetical proportion; this leads to the relation 2/b = ac/(a + c). A +harmonic progression or series consists of terms whose reciprocals form +an arithmetical progression; the simplest example is: 1 + ½ + 1/3 + ¼ + +... (see ALGEBRA and ARITHMETIC). The occurrence of a similar proportion +between segments of lines is the foundation of such phrases as harmonic +section, harmonic ratio, harmonic conjugates, &c. (see GEOMETRY: II. +_Projective_). The connexion between acoustical and mathematical +harmonicals is most probably to be found in the Pythagorean discovery +that a vibrating string when stopped at ½ and 2/3 of its length yielded +the octave and 5th of the original tone, the numbers, 1-2/3, ½ being +said to be, probably first by Archytas, in harmonic proportion. The +mathematical investigation of the form of a vibrating string led to such +phrases as harmonic curve, harmonic motion, harmonic function, harmonic +analysis, &c. (see MECHANICS and SPHERICAL HARMONICS). + + + + +HARMONICA, a generic term applied to musical instruments in which sound +is produced by friction upon glass bells. The word is also used to +designate instruments of percussion of the Glockenspiel type, made of +steel and struck by hammers (Ger. _Stahlharmonika_). + +The origin of the glass-harmonica tribe is to be found in the +fashionable 18th century instrument known as musical glasses (Fr. +_verrillon_), the principle of which was known already in the 17th +century.[1] The invention of musical glasses is generally ascribed to an +Irishman, Richard Pockrich, who first played the instrument in public in +Dublin in 1743 and the next year in England, but Eisel[2] described the +_verrillon_ and gave an illustration of it in 1738. The _verrillon_ or +_Glassspiel_ consisted of 18 beer glasses arranged on a board covered +with cloth, water being poured in when necessary to alter the pitch. The +glasses were struck on both sides gently with two long wooden sticks in +the shape of a spoon, the bowl being covered with silk or cloth. Eisel +states that the instrument was used for church and other solemn music. +Gluck gave a concert at the "little theatre in the Haymarket" (London) +in April 1746, at which he performed on musical glasses a concerto of +his composition with full orchestral accompaniment. E. H. Delaval is +also credited with the invention. When Benjamin Franklin visited London +in 1757, he was so much struck by the beauty of tone elicited by Delaval +and Pockrich, and with the possibilities of the glasses as musical +instruments, that he set to work on a mechanical application of the +principle involved, the eminently successful result being the glass +harmonica finished in 1762. In this the glass bowls were mounted on a +rotating spindle, the largest to the left, and their under-edges passed +during each revolution through a water-trough. By applying the fingers +to the moistened edges, sound was produced varying in intensity with the +pressure, so that a certain amount of expression was at the command of a +good player. It is said that the timbre was extremely enervating, and, +together with the vibration caused by the friction on the finger-tips, +exercised a highly deleterious effect on the nervous system. The +instrument was for many years in great vogue, not only in England but on +the Continent of Europe, and more especially in Saxony, where it was +accorded a place in the court orchestra. Mozart, Beethoven, Naumann and +Hasse composed music for it. Marianne Davies and Marianna Kirchgessner +were celebrated virtuosi on it. The curious vogue of the instrument, as +sudden as it was ephemeral, produced emulation in a generation +unsurpassed for zeal in the invention of musical instruments. The most +notable of its offspring were Carl Leopold Röllig's improved harmonica +with a keyboard in 1786, Chladni's euphon in 1791 and clavicylinder in +1799, Ruffelsen's melodicon in 1800 and 1803, Franz Leppich's +panmelodicon in 1810, Buschmann's uranion in the same year, &c. Of most +of these nothing now remains but the name and a description in the +_Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung_, but there are numerous specimens of +the Franklin type in the museums for musical instruments of Europe. One +specimen by Emanuel Pohl, a Bohemian maker, is preserved in the Victoria +and Albert Museum, London. + + For the steel harmonica see GLOCKENSPIEL. (K. S.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See G. P. Harsdörfer, _Math. und philos. Erquickstunden_ + (Nuremberg, 1677), ii. 147. + + [2] _Musicus_ [Greek: autodidaktos] (Erfurt, 1738), p. 70. + + + + +HARMONIC ANALYSIS, in mathematics, the name given by Sir William Thomson +(Lord Kelvin) and P. G. Tait in their treatise on _Natural Philosophy_ +to a general method of investigating physical questions, the earliest +applications of which seem to have been suggested by the study of the +vibrations of strings and the analysis of these vibrations into their +fundamental tone and its harmonics or overtones. + +The motion of a uniform stretched string fixed at both ends is a +periodic motion; that is to say, after a certain interval of time, +called the fundamental period of the motion, the form of the string and +the velocity of every part of it are the same as before, provided that +the energy of the motion has not been sensibly dissipated during the +period. + + There are two distinct methods of investigating the motion of a + uniform stretched string. One of these may be called the wave method, + and the other the harmonic method. The wave method is founded on the + theorem that in a stretched string of infinite length a wave of any + form may be propagated in either direction with a certain velocity, V, + which we may define as the "velocity of propagation." If a wave of any + form travelling in the positive direction meets another travelling in + the opposite direction, the form of which is such that the lines + joining corresponding points of the two waves are all bisected in a + fixed point in the line of the string, then the point of the string + corresponding to this point will remain fixed, while the two waves + pass it in opposite directions. If we now suppose that the form of the + waves travelling in the positive direction is periodic, that is to + say, that after the wave has travelled forward a distance l, the + position of every particle of the string is the same as it was at + first, then l is called the wave-length, and the time of travelling a + wave-length is called the periodic time, which we shall denote by T, + so that l = VT. + + If we now suppose a set of waves similar to these, but reversed in + position, to be travelling in the opposite direction, there will be a + series of points, distant ½l from each other, at which there will be + no motion of the string; it will therefore make no difference to the + motion of the string if we suppose the string fastened to fixed + supports at any two of these points, and we may then suppose the parts + of the string beyond these points to be removed, as it cannot affect + the motion of the part which is between them. We have thus arrived at + the case of a uniform string stretched between two fixed supports, and + we conclude that the motion of the string may be completely + represented as the resultant of two sets of periodic waves travelling + in opposite directions, their wave-lengths being either twice the + distance between the fixed points or a submultiple of this + wave-length, and the form of these waves, subject to this condition, + being perfectly arbitrary. + + To make the problem a definite one, we may suppose the initial + displacement and velocity of every particle of the string given in + terms of its distance from one end of the string, and from these data + it is easy to calculate the form which is common to all the travelling + waves. The form of the string at any subsequent time may then be + deduced by calculating the positions of the two sets of waves at that + time, and compounding their displacements. + + Thus in the wave method the actual motion of the string is considered + as the resultant of two wave motions, neither of which is of itself, + and without the other, consistent with the condition that the ends of + the string are fixed. Each of the wave motions is periodic with a + wave-length equal to twice the distance between the fixed points, and + the one set of waves is the reverse of the other in respect of + displacement and velocity and direction of propagation; but, subject + to these conditions, the form of the wave is perfectly arbitrary. The + motion of a particle of the string, being determined by the two waves + which pass over it in opposite directions, is of an equally arbitrary + type. + + In the harmonic method, on the other hand, the motion of the string is + regarded as compounded of a series of vibratory motions (_normal + modes_ of vibration), which may be infinite in number, but each of + which is perfectly definite in type, and is in fact a particular + solution of the problem of the motion of a string with its ends fixed. + + A simple harmonic motion is thus defined by Thomson and Tait (§ + 53):--When a point Q moves uniformly in a circle, the perpendicular + QP, drawn from its position at any instant to a fixed diameter AA´ of + the circle, intersects the diameter in a point P whose position + changes by a _simple harmonic motion_. + + The amplitude of a simple harmonic motion is the range on one side or + the other of the middle point of the course. + + The period of a simple harmonic motion is the time which elapses from + any instant until the moving-point again moves in the same direction + through the same position. + + The phase of a simple harmonic motion at any instant is the fraction + of the whole period which has elapsed since the moving-point last + passed through its middle position in the positive direction. + + In the case of the stretched string, it is only in certain particular + cases that the motion of a particle of the string is a simple harmonic + motion. In these particular cases the form of the string at any + instant is that of a curve of sines having the line joining the fixed + points for its axis, and passing through these two points, and + therefore having for its wave-length either twice the length of the + string or some submultiple of this wave-length. The amplitude of the + curve of sines is a simple harmonic function of the time, the period + being either the fundamental period or some submultiple of the + fundamental period. Every one of these modes of vibration is + dynamically possible by itself, and any number of them may coexist + independently of each other. + + By a proper adjustment of the initial amplitude and phase of each of + these modes of vibration, so that their resultant shall represent the + initial state of the string, we obtain a new representation of the + whole motion of the string, in which it is seen to be the resultant of + a series of simple harmonic vibrations whose periods are the + fundamental period and its submultiples. The determination of the + amplitudes and phases of the several simple harmonic vibrations so as + to satisfy the initial conditions is an example of harmonic analysis. + + We have thus two methods of solving the partial differential equation + of the motion of a string. The first, which we have called the wave + method, exhibits the solution in the form containing an arbitrary + function, the nature of which must be determined from the initial + conditions. The second, or harmonic method, leads to a series of terms + involving sines and cosines, the coefficients of which have to be + determined. The harmonic method may be defined in a more general + manner as a method by which the solution of any actual problem may be + obtained as the sum or resultant of a number of terms, each of which + is a solution of a particular case of the problem. The nature of these + particular cases is defined by the condition that any one of them must + be conjugate to any other. + + The mathematical test of conjugacy is that the energy of the system + arising from two of the harmonics existing together is equal to the + sum of the energy arising from the two harmonics taken separately. In + other words, no part of the energy depends on the product of the + amplitudes of two different harmonics. When two modes of motion of the + same system are conjugate to each other, the existence of one of them + does not affect the other. + + The simplest case of harmonic analysis, that of which the treatment of + the vibrating string is an example, is completely investigated in what + is known as Fourier's theorem. + + Fourier's theorem asserts that any periodic function of a single + variable period p, which does not become infinite at any phase, can be + expanded in the form of a series consisting of a constant term, + together with a double series of terms, one set involving cosines and + the other sines of multiples of the phase. + + Thus if [phi]([xi]) is a periodic function of the variable [xi] having + a period p, then it may be expanded as follows: + + __[oo] 2i[pi][xi] __[oo] 2i[pi][xi] + [phi]([xi]) = A0 + \ ^i A_i cos ---------- + \ ^i B_i sin ----------. (1) + /__1 p /__1 p + + + The part of the theorem which is most frequently required, and which + also is the easiest to investigate, is the determination of the values + of the coefficients A0, A_i, B_i. These are + _ _ + 1 /p 2 /p 2i[pi][xi] + A0 = -- | [phi]([xi])d[xi]; A_i = -- | [phi]([xi]) cos ---------- d[xi]; + p _/0 p _/0 p + _ + 2 /p 2i[pi][xi] + B_i = -- | [phi]([xi]) sin ---------- d[xi]. + p _/0 p + + This part of the theorem may be verified at once by multiplying both + sides of (1) by d[xi], by cos (2i[pi][xi]/p)/d[xi] or by sin + (2i[pi][xi]/p)/d[xi], and in each case integrating from 0 to p. + + The series is evidently single-valued for any given value of [xi]. It + cannot therefore represent a function of [xi] which has more than one + value, or which becomes imaginary for any value of [xi]. It is + convergent, approaching to the true value of [phi]([xi]) for all + values of [xi] such that if [xi] varies infinitesimally the function + also varies infinitesimally. + + Lord Kelvin, availing himself of the disk, globe and cylinder + integrating machine invented by his brother, Professor James Thomson, + constructed a machine by which eight of the integrals required for the + expression of Fourier's series can be obtained simultaneously from the + recorded trace of any periodically variable quantity, such as the + height of the tide, the temperature or pressure of the atmosphere, or + the intensity of the different components of terrestrial magnetism. If + it were not on account of the waste of time, instead of having a curve + drawn by the action of the tide, and the curve afterwards acted on by + the machine, the time axis of the machine itself might be driven by a + clock, and the tide itself might work the second variable of the + machine, but this would involve the constant presence of an expensive + machine at every tidal station. (J. C. M.) + + For a discussion of the restrictions under which the expansion of a + periodic function of [xi] in the form (1) is valid, see FOURIER'S + SERIES. An account of the contrivances for mechanical calculation of + the coefficients A_i, B_i ... is given under CALCULATING MACHINES. + + A more general form of the problem of harmonic analysis presents + itself in astronomy, in the theory of the tides, and in various + magnetic and meteorological investigations. It may happen, for + instance, that a variable quantity [f](t) is known theoretically to be + of the form + + [f](t) = A0 + A1 cos n1t + B1 sin n1t + A2 cos n2t + B2 sin n2t + ... (2) + + where the periods 2[pi]/n1, 2[pi]/n2, ... of the various + simple-harmonic constituents are already known with sufficient + accuracy, although they may have no very simple relations to one + another. The problem of determining the most probable values of the + constants A0, A1, B1, A2, B2, ... by means of a series of recorded + values of the function [f](t) is then in principle a fairly simple + one, although the actual numerical work may be laborious (see TIDE). A + much more difficult and delicate question arises when, as in various + questions of meteorology and terrestrial magnetism, the periods + 2[pi]/n1, 2[pi]/n2, ... are themselves unknown to begin with, or are + at most conjectural. Thus, it may be desired to ascertain whether the + magnetic declination contains a periodic element synchronous with the + sun's rotation on its axis, whether any periodicities can be detected + in the records of the prevalence of sun-spots, and so on. From a + strictly mathematical standpoint the problem is, indeed, + indeterminate, for when all the symbols are at our disposal, the + representation of the observed values of a function, over a finite + range of time, by means of a series of the type (2), can be effected + in an infinite variety of ways. Plausible inferences can, however, be + drawn, provided the proper precautions are observed. This question has + been treated most systematically by Professor A. Schuster, who has + devised a remarkable mathematical method, in which the action of a + diffraction-grating in sorting out the various periodic constituents + of a heterogeneous beam of light is closely imitated. He has further + applied the method to the study of the variations of the magnetic + declination, and of sun-spot records. + + The question so far chiefly considered has been that of the + representation of an arbitrary function of the _time_ in terms of + functions of a special type, viz. the circular functions cos nt, sin + nt. This is important on dynamical grounds; but when we proceed to + consider the problem of expressing an arbitrary function of + _space-co-ordinates_ in terms of functions of specified types, it + appears that the preceding is only one out of an infinite variety of + modes of representation which are equally entitled to consideration. + Every problem of mathematical physics which leads to a linear + differential equation supplies an instance. For purposes of + illustration we will here take the simplest of all, viz. that of the + transversal vibrations of a tense string. The equation of motion is of + the form + + [dP]²y [dP]²y + [rho] ------ = T ------, (3) + [dP]t² [dP]x² + + where T is the tension, and [rho] the line-density. In a "normal mode" + of vibration y will vary as e^(int), so that + + [dP]²y + ------ + k²y = 0, (4) + [dP]x² + + where + + k² = n²[rho]/T. (5) + + If [rho], and therefore k, is constant, the solution of (4) subject to + the condition that y = 0 for x = 0 and x = l is + + y = B sin kx (6) + + provided + + kl = s[pi], [s = 1, 2, 3, ...]. (7) + + This determines the various _normal modes_ of free vibration, the + corresponding periods (2[pi]/n) being given by (5) and (7). By analogy + with the theory of the free vibrations of a system of _finite_ freedom + it is inferred that the most general free motions of the string can be + obtained by superposition of the various normal modes, with suitable + amplitudes and phases; and in particular that any arbitrary initial + form of the string, say y = [f](x), can be reproduced by a series of + the type + + [pi]x 2[pi]x 3[pi]x + [f](x) = B1 sin ----- + B2 sin ------ + B3 sin ------ + ... (8) + l l l + + So far, this is merely a restatement, in mathematical language, of an + argument given in the first part of this article. The series (8) may, + moreover, be arrived at otherwise, as a particular case of Fourier's + theorem. But if we no longer assume the density [rho] of the string to + be uniform, we obtain an endless variety of new expansions, + corresponding to the various laws of density which may be prescribed. + The normal modes are in any case of the type + + y = Cu(x) e^(int) (9) + + where u is a solution of the equation + + d²u n²[rho] + --- + ------- u = 0. (10) + dx² T + + The condition that u(x) is to vanish for x = 0 and x = l leads to a + transcendental equation in n (corresponding to sin kl = 0 in the + previous case). If the forms of u(x) which correspond to the various + roots of this be distinguished by suffixes, we infer, on physical + grounds alone, the possibility of the expansion of an arbitrary + initial form of the string in a series + + [f](x) = C1u1(x) + C2u2(x) + C3u3(x)+ ... (11) + + It may be shown further that if r and s are different we have the + _conjugate_ or _orthogonal_ relation + _ + /l + | [rho] u_r(x) u_s(x) dx = 0. (12) + _/0 + + This enables us to determine the coefficients, thus + _ _ + /l /l + C_r = | [rho][f](x)u_r(x) dx ÷ | [rho] {u_r(x)}² dx. (13) + _/0 _/0 + + The extension to spaces of two or three dimensions, or to cases where + there is more than one dependent variable, must be passed over. The + mathematical theories of acoustics, heat-conduction, elasticity, + induction of electric currents, and so on, furnish an indefinite + supply of examples, and have suggested in some cases methods which + have a very wide application. Thus the transverse vibrations of a + circular membrane lead to the theory of Bessel's Functions; the + oscillations of a spherical sheet of air suggest the theory of + expansions in spherical harmonics, and so forth. The physical, or + intuitional, theory of such methods has naturally always been in + advance of the mathematical. From the latter point of view only a few + isolated questions of the kind had, until quite recently, been treated + in a rigorous and satisfactory manner. A more general and + comprehensive method, which seems to derive some of its inspiration + from physical considerations, has, however, at length been + inaugurated, and has been vigorously cultivated in recent years by D. + Hilbert, H. Poincaré, I. Fredholm, E. Picard and others. + + REFERENCES.--Schuster's method for detecting hidden periodicities is + explained in _Terrestrial Magnetism_ (Chicago, 1898), 3, p. 13; _Camb. + Trans._ (1900), 18, p. 107; _Proc. Roy. Soc._ (1906), 77, p. 136. The + general question of expanding an arbitrary function in a series of + functions of special types is treated most fully from the physical + point of view in Lord Rayleigh's _Theory of Sound_ (2nd ed., London, + 1894-1896). An excellent detailed historical account of the matter + from the mathematical side is given by H. Burkhardt, _Entwicklungen + nach oscillierenden Funktionen_ (Leipzig, 1901). A sketch of the more + recent mathematical developments is given by H. Bateman, _Proc. Lond. + Math. Soc._ (2), 4, p. 90, with copious references. (H. Lb.) + + + + +HARMONICHORD, an ingenious kind of upright piano, in which the strings +were set in vibration not by the blow of the hammer but by indirectly +transmitted friction. The harmonichord, one of the many attempts to fuse +piano and violin, was invented by Johann Gottfried and Johann Friedrich +Kaufmann (father and son) in Saxony at the beginning of the 19th +century, when the craze for new and ingenious musical instruments was at +its height. The case was of the variety known as _giraffe_. The space +under the keyboard was enclosed, a knee-hold being left in which were +two pedals used to set in rotation a large wooden cylinder fixed just +behind the keyboard over the levers, and covered with a roll-top similar +to those of modern office desks. The cylinder (in some specimens covered +with chamois leather) tapered towards the treble-end. When a key was +depressed, a little tongue of wood, one end of which stopped the string, +was pressed against the revolving cylinder, and the vibrations produced +by friction were transmitted to the string and reinforced as in piano +and violin by the soundboard. The adjustment of the parts and the +velocity of the cylinder required delicacy and great nicety, for if the +little wooden tongues rested too lightly upon the cylinder or the +strings, harmonics were produced, and the note jumped to the octave or +twelfth. Sometimes when chords were played the touch became so heavy +that two performers were required, as in the early medieval organistrum, +the prototype of the harmonichord. Carl Maria von Weber must have had +some opinion of the possibilities of the harmonichord, which in tone +resembled the glass harmonica, since he composed for it a concerto with +orchestral accompaniment. (K. S.) + + + + +HARMONIUM (Fr. _harmonium_, _orgue expressif_; Ger. _Physharmonika_, +_Harmonium_), a wind keyboard instrument, a small organ without pipes, +furnished with free reeds. Both the harmonium and its later development, +the American organ, are known as free-reed instruments, the musical +tones being produced by tongues of brass, technically termed "vibrators" +(Fr. _anche libre_; Ger. _durchschlagende Zunge_; Ital. _ancia_ or +_lingua libera_). The vibrator is fixed over an oblong, rectangular +frame, through which it swings freely backwards and forwards like a +pendulum while vibrating, whereas the beating reeds (similar to those of +the clarinet family), used in church organs, cover the entire orifice, +beating against the sides at each vibration. A reed or vibrator, set in +periodic motion by impact of a current of air, produces a corresponding +succession of air puffs, the rapidity of which determines the pitch of +the musical note. There is an essential difference between the harmonium +and the American organ in the direction of this current; in the former +the wind apparatus forces the current upwards, and in the latter sucks +it downwards, whence it becomes desirable to separate in description +these varieties of free-reed instruments. + +[Illustration: By courtesy of Metzler & Co. + +FIG. 1.--Free Reed Vibrator, Alexandre Harmonium.] + + The _harmonium_ has a keyboard of five octaves compass when complete, + [musical notes], and a simple action controlling the valves, &c. The + necessary pressure of wind is generated by bellows worked by the feet + of the performer upon foot-boards or treadles. The air is thus forced + up the wind-trunks into an air-chamber called the wind-chest, the + pressure of it being equalized by a reservoir, which receives the + excess of wind through an aperture, and permits escape, when above a + certain pressure, by a discharge valve or pallet. The aperture + admitting air to the reservoir may be closed by a drawstop named + "expression." The air being thus cut off, the performer depends for + his supply entirely upon the management of the bellows worked by the + treadles, whereby he regulates the compression of the wind. The + character of the instrument is then entirely changed from a mechanical + response to the player's touch to an expressive one, rendering what + emotion may be communicated from the player by increase or diminution + of sound through the greater or less pressure of wind to which the + reeds may be submitted. The drawstops bearing the names of the + different registers in imitation of the organ, admit, when drawn, the + wind from the wind-chest to the corresponding reed compartments, + shutting them off when closed. These compartments are of about two + octaves and a half each, there being a division in the middle of the + keyboard scale dividing the stops into bass and treble. A stop being + drawn and a key pressed down, wind is admitted by a corresponding + valve to a reed or vibrator (fig. 1). Above each reed in the so-called + sound-board or pan is a channel, a small air-chamber or cavity, the + shape and capacity of which have greatly to do with the colour of tone + of the note it reinforces. The air in this resonator is highly + compressed at an even or a varying pressure as the expression-stop may + not be or may be drawn. The wind finally escapes by a small + pallet-hole opened by pressing down the corresponding key. In Mustel + and other good harmoniums, the reed compartments that form the scheme + of the instrument are eight in number, four bass and four treble, of + three different pitches of octave and double octave distance. The + front bass and treble rows are the "diapason" of the pitch known as 8 + ft., and the bourdon (double diapason), 16 ft. These may be regarded + as the foundation stops, and are technically the front organ. The back + organ has solo and combination stops, the principal of 4 ft. (octave + higher than diapason), and bassoon (bass) and oboe (treble), 8 ft. + These may be mechanically combined by a stop called full organ. The + French maker, Mustel, added other registers for much-admired effects + of tone, viz. "harpe éolienne," two bass rows of 2 ft. pitch, the one + tuned a beat too sharp, the other a beat too flat, to produce a waving + tremulous tone that has a certain charm; "musette" and "voix celeste," + 16 ft.; and "baryton," a treble stop 32 ft., or two octaves lower than + the normal note of the key. The "back organ" is usually covered by a + swell box, containing louvres or shutters similar to a Venetian blind, + and divided into fortes corresponding with the bass and treble + division of the registers. The fortes are governed by knee pedals + which act by pneumatic pressure. Tuning the reeds is effected by + scraping them at the point to sharpen them, or near the shoulder or + heel to flatten them in pitch. Air pressure affects the pitch but + slightly, being noticeable only in the larger reeds, and harmoniums + long retain their tuning, a decided advantage over the organ and the + pianoforte. Mechanical contrivances in the harmonium, of frequent or + occasional employment, besides those already referred to, are the + "percussion," a small pianoforte action of hammer and escapement + which, acting upon the reeds of the diapason rows at the moment air is + admitted to them, gives prompter response to the depression of the + key, or quicker speech; the "double expression," a pneumatic balance + of great delicacy in the wind reservoir, exactly maintaining by + gradation equal pressure of the wind; and the "double touch," by which + the back organ registers speak sooner than those of the front that are + called upon by deeper pressure of the key, thus allowing prominence or + accentuation of certain parts by an expert performer. "Prolongement" + permits selected notes to be sustained after the fingers have quitted + their keys. Dawes's "melody attachment" is to give prominence to an + air or treble part by shutting off in certain registers all notes + below it. This notion has been adapted by inversion to a "pedal + substitute" to strengthen the lowest bass notes. The "tremolo" affects + the wind in the vicinity of the reeds by means of small bellows which + increase the velocity of the pulsation according to pressure; and the + "sourdine" diminishes the supply of wind by controlling its admission + to the reeds. + + [Illustration: By courtesy of Metzler & Co. + + FIG. 2.--Free Reed Vibrator, Mason & Hamlin American Organ.] + + _The American Organ_ acts by wind exhaustion. A vacuum is practically + created in the air-chamber by the exhausting power of the footboards, + and a current of air thus drawn downwards passes through any reeds + that are left open, setting them in vibration. This instrument has + therefore exhaust instead of force bellows. Valves in the board above + the air-chamber give communication to reeds (fig. 2) made more slender + than those of the harmonium and more or less bent, while the frames in + which they are fixed are also differently shaped, being hollowed + rather in spoon fashion. The channels, the resonators above the reeds, + are not varied in size or shape as in the harmonium; they exactly + correspond with the reeds, and are collectively known as the + "tube-board." The swell "fortes" are in front of the openings of these + tubes, rails that open or close by the action of the knees upon what + may be called knee pedals. The American organ has a softer tone than + the harmonium; this is sometimes aided by the use of extra resonators, + termed pipes or qualifying tubes, as, for instance, in Clough & + Warren's (of Detroit, Michigan, U.S.). The blowing being also easier, + ladies find it much less fatiguing. The expression stop can have + little power in the American organ, and is generally absent; the + "automatic swell" in the instruments of Mason & Hamlin (of Boston, + U.S.) is a contrivance that comes the nearest to it, though far + inferior. By it a swell shutter or rail is kept in constant movement, + proportioned to the force of the air-current. Another very clever + improvement introduced by these makers, who were the originators of + the instrument itself, is the "vox humana," a smaller rail or fan, + made to revolve rapidly by wind pressure; its rotation, disturbing the + air near the reeds, causes interferences of vibration that produce a + tremulous effect, not unlike the beatings heard from combined voices, + whence the name. The arrangement of reed compartments in American + organs does not essentially differ from that of harmoniums; but there + are often two keyboards, and then the solo and combination stops are + found on the upper manual. The diapason treble register is known as + "melodia"; different makers occasionally vary the use of fancy names + for other stops. The "sub-bass," however, an octave of 16 ft. pitch + and always apart from the other reeds, is used with great advantage + for pedal effects on the manual, the compass of American organs being + usually down to F (FF, 5 octaves). In large instruments there are + sometimes foot pedals as in an organ, with their own reed boxes of 8 + and 16 ft. the lowest note being then CC. Blowing for pedal + instruments has to be done by hand, a lever being attached for that + purpose. The "celeste" stop is managed as in the harmonium, by rows of + reeds tuned not quite in unison, or by a shade valve that alters the + air-current and flattens one row of reeds thereby. + + Harmoniums and American organs are the result of many experiments in + the application of free reeds to keyboard instruments. The principle + of the free reed became widely known in Europe through the + introduction of the Chinese cheng[1] during the second half of the + 18th century, and culminated in the invention of the harmonium and + kindred instruments. The first step in the invention of the harmonium + is due to Professor Christian Gottlieb Kratzenstein of Copenhagen, who + had had the opportunity of examining a cheng sent to his native city + and of testing its merits.[2] In 1779 the Academy of Science of St + Petersburg had offered a prize for an essay on the formation of the + vowel sounds on an instrument similar to the "vox humana" in the + organ, which should be capable of reproducing these sounds faithfully. + Kratzenstein made as a demonstration of his invention a small + pneumatic organ fitted with free reeds, and presented it to the + Academy of St Petersburg.[3] His essay was crowned and was republished + with diagrams in Paris[4] in 1782. Meanwhile, in 1780, a countryman + of Kratzenstein's, an organ-builder named Kirsnick, established in St + Petersburg, adapted these reed pipes to some of his organs and to an + instrument of his invention called organochordium, an organ combined + with piano. When Abt Vogler visited St Petersburg in 1788, he was so + delighted with these reeds that in 1790 he induced Rackwitz, an + assistant of Kirsnick's, to come to him and adapt some to an organ he + was having built in Rotterdam. Three years later Abt Vogler's + orchestrion, a chamber organ containing some 900 pipes, was completed, + and, according to Rackwitz,[5] was fitted with free-reed pipes. Vogler + himself, however, does not mention the free reed when describing this + wonderful instrument and his system of "simplification" for church + organs.[6] To Abt Vogler, who travelled all over Germany, Scandinavia + and the Netherlands, exhibiting his skill on his orchestrion and + reconstructing many organs, is due the credit of making Kratzenstein's + invention known and inducing the musical world to appreciate the + capabilities of the free reed. The introduction of free-reed stops + into the organ, however, took a secondary place in his scheme for + reform.[7] Friedrich Kaufmann[8] of Dresden states that Vogler told + him he had imparted to J. N. Mälzel of Vienna particulars as to the + construction of free-reed pipes, and that the latter used them in his + panharmonicon,[9] which he exhibited during his stay in Paris from + 1805 to 1807. Kaufmann suggests that it was through him that G. J. + Grenié obtained the knowledge which led to his experiments with free + reeds in organs. It is more likely that Grenié had read Kratzenstein's + essay and had experimented independently with free reeds. In 1812 his + first _orgue expressif_ was finished. It was a small organ with one + register of free reeds--the expression stop, in fact, added to the + pipe organ and having a separate wind-chest and bellows. It would seem + from his description of the orchestrion in _Data zur Akustik_ that + Vogler knew of no such device. He used the swell shutter borrowed from + England and a threefold screen of canvas covered with a blanket + arranged _outside the instrument_, neither of which is capable of + increasing the volume of sound from the organ, or at least only after + having first damped the sound to a pianissimo. Vogler explains + minutely the apparatus used to conceal the working of the screen from + the eyes of the public.[10] The credit of discovering in the free reed + the capability of dynamic expression was undoubtedly due to Grenié, + although Abt Vogler claims to have used compression in 1796,[11] and + Kaufmann in his choraulodion in 1816. A larger _orgue expressif_ was + begun by Grenié for the Conservatoire of Paris in 1812, the + construction of which was interrupted and then continued in 1816. + Descriptions of Grenié's instrument have been published in French and + German.[12] The organ of the Conservatoire had a pedal free-reed stop + of 16 ft., with vibrators 0.240 m. long, 0.035 m. wide, and 0.003 m. + thick.[13] Two compressors, one for the treble and the other for the + bass, worked by treadles, enabled the performer to regulate the + pressure of wind on the reeds and therefore to obtain the gradations + of forte and piano which gained for his instrument the name of _orgue + expressif_. Grenié's instrument was a pipe organ, the pipes + terminating in a cone with a hemispherical cap in the top of which was + a small hole. There were eight registers including the pedal, and the + positive on the first keyboard had reed stops furnished with beating + reeds. Biot insists on the Importance of the regulating wires (Fr. + _rasettes_; Ger. _Krücken_) for determining the vibrating length of + the reed tongue and maintaining it invariable. These are clearly shown + in his diagram (see article FREE REED VIBRATOR, fig. 1); they do not + essentially differ from those used with the beating-reed stops in his + organ (fig. 76, pl. II.), or indeed from those figured by Praetorius. + + Isolated specimens of the cheng must have found their way to Europe + during the 15th and 16th centuries, for Mersenne[14] depicts part of + one showing the free reed. It would seem that still earlier in the + 17th century there was an organ in a monastery in Hesse with free + reeds for the _Posaune_ stop, for Praetorius gives a description of + the "extraordinary" reed (p. 169); there is no record of the inventor + in this case. + + During the first half of the 19th century various tentative efforts in + France and Germany, and subsequently in England, were made to produce + new keyboard instruments with free reeds, the most notable of these + being the physharmonica[15] of Anton Häckel, invented in Vienna in + 1818, which, improved and enlarged, has retained its hold on the + German people. The modern physharmonica is a harmonium without stops + or percussion action; it does not therefore speak readily or clearly. + It has a range of five to six octaves. Other instruments of similar + type are the French melophone and the English seraphine, a keyboard + harmonica with bellows but no channels for the tongues, for which a + patent was granted to Myers and Storer in 1839; the aeoline or + aelodicon[16] of Eschenbach; the melodicon[17] of Dietz; the + melodica[18] of Rieffelson; the apollonicon;[19] the new cheng[20] of + Reichstein; the terpodion[21] of Buschmann, &c. None of these has + survived to the present day. + + The inventor of the harmonium was indubitably Alexandre Debain, who + took out a patent for it in Paris in 1840. He produced varied timbre + registers by modifying reed channels, and brought these registers on + to one keyboard. Unfortunately he patented too much, for he secured + even the name _harmonium_, obliging contemporary and future + experimenters to shelter their improvements under other names, and the + venerable name of organ becoming impressed into connexion with an + inferior instrument, we have now to distinguish between reed and pipe + organs. The compromise of reed organ for the harmonium class of + instruments must therefore be accepted. Debain's harmonium was at + first quite mechanical; it gained expression by the expression-stop + already described. The Alexandres, well-known French makers, by the + ingenuity of one of their workmen, P. A. Martin, added the percussion + and the prolongement. The melody attachment was the invention of an + English engineer; the introduction of the double touch, now used in + the harmoniums of Mustel, Bauer and others--also in American + organs--was due to Tamplin, an English professor. + + The principle of the American organ originated with the Alexandres, + whose earliest experiments are said to have been made with the view of + constructing an instrument to exhaust air. The realization of the idea + proving to be more in consonance with the genius of the American + people, to whom what we may call the devotional tone of the instrument + appealed, the introduction of it by Messrs Mason and Hamlin in 1861 + was followed by remarkable success. They made it generally known in + Europe by exhibiting it at Paris in 1867, and from that time + instruments have been exported in large numbers by different makers. + (A. J. H.; K. S.) + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See _Allg. musik. Ztg._ (Leipzig, 1821), Bd. xxiii. pp. 369-374. + The cheng was made known in France by Père Amiot, who published a + careful description of the instrument in _Mémoire sur la musique des + Chinois_, p. 80 seq., with excellent diagrams. + + [2] Ib., Bd. xxv. p. 152. + + [3] The essay was published in _Acta Acad. Petrop._ (1780). + + [4] "Essai sur la naissance et sur la formation des voyelles" in + Rozier's _Observations sur la physique_ (Paris, 1782), _Supplément_, + xxi. 358 seq.,, with two plates. The description of the instrument + begins on p. 374, § xxii. + + [5] See "Über die Erfindung der Rohrwerke mit durchschlagenden + Zungen," by Wilke, in _Allg. musik. Ztg._ (Leipzig, 1823), Bd. xxv. + pp. 152-153 and Bd. xxvii. p. 263; also Thos. Ant. Kunz, + "Orchestrion," id., Bd. i. p. 88 and Bd. ii. pp. 514, 542; and Dr + Karl Emil von Schafhäutl, _Abt Georg Joseph Vogler_ (Augsburg, 1888), + p. 37. + + [6] _Data zur Akustik, eine Abhandlung vorgelesen bey der Sitzung der + naturforschenden Freunde in Berlin, den 15ten Dezember 1800_ + (Offenbach, 1801); also published in _Allg. musik. Ztg._ (1801), Bd. + iii. pp. 517, 533, 565. See also an excellent article by the Rev. J. + H. Mee on Vogler in Grove's _Dictionary of Music and Musicians_. + + [7] See _Data zur Akustik_, and a pamphlet by Vogler, "Über die + Umschaffung der St Marien Orgel in Berlin nach dem Voglerschen + Simplifikations-System, eine Nachahmung des Orchestrion" (Berlin); + also "Kurze Beschreibung der in der Stadtpfarrkirche zu St Peter zu + München nach dem Voglerschen Simplifikations-System neuerbauten + Orgel" (Munich, 1809). + + [8] See _Allg. musik. Ztg._ (1823), Bd. xxv. pp. 153 and 154 note, + and 117-118 note. + + [9] A description of Mälzel's panharmonicon before the addition of + the clarinet and oboe stops with free reeds is to be found in the + _Allg. musik. Ztg._ (1800), Bd. ii. pp. 414-415. + + [10] In the article in Grove's _Dictionary_ the screen is said to + have been in the wind-trunk. + + [11] See _Allg. musik. Ztg._ Bd. iii. p. 523. + + [12] See J. B. Biot, _Précis élémentaire de physique expérimentale_ + (Paris, 1817), tome i. p. 386, and his _Traité de physique_ (Paris, + 1816), tome ii. p. 172 et seq., pl. ii.; "Über die Crescendo und + Diminuendo Züge an Orgeln," by Wilke and Kaufmann, _Allg. musik. + Ztg._ (1823), Bd. xxv. pp. 113-122; and _Allg. musik. Ztg._ Bd. + xxiii. pp. 133-139 and 149-154, with diagrams on p. 167 which are not + absolutely correct in small details. + + [13] J. B. Biot, _Traité_, tome ii. p. 174. + + [14] _Harmonie universelle_ (Paris, 1636), livre v., prop. xxxv. + + [15] _Wien. musik. Ztg._ Bd. v. Nos. 39 and 87. + + [16] _Allg. musik. Ztg._ Bd. xxii. p. 505, and Bd. xxxv. p. 354. + + [17] Id. Bd. viii. pp. 526 and 715. + + [18] Id. Bd. xi. p. 625. + + [19] _Allg. musik. Ztg._ Bd. ii. p. 767, and _Wien. musik. Ztg._ Bd. + i. No. 501. + + [20] Id. Bd. xxxi. p. 489. + + [21] Id. Bd. xxxiv. pp. 856 and 858; and _Cäcilia_, Bd. xiv. p. 259. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 12, Slice 8, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + +***** This file should be named 38454-8.txt or 38454-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/8/4/5/38454/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 12, Slice 8 + "Haller, Albrecht" to "Harmonium" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: December 31, 2011 [EBook #38454] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber’s note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME XII SLICE VIII<br /><br /> +Haller, Albrecht to Harmonium</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">HALLER, ALBRECHT VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">HANDICAP</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">HALLER, BERTHOLD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">HANDSEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">HALLEY, EDMUND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">HANDSWORTH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">HALLGRÍMSSON, JÓNAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">HANDWRITING</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">HALLIDAY, ANDREW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">HANG-CHOW-FU</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">HALLIWELL-PHILLIPPS, JAMES ORCHARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">HANGING</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">HALLOWE’EN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">HANGÖ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">HALLSTATT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">HANKA, WENCESLAUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">HALLUCINATION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">HANLEY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">HALLUIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">HANNA, MARCUS ALONZO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">HALM, CARL FELIX</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">HANNAY, JAMES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">HALMA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">HANNEN, JAMES HANNEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">HALMAHERA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">HANNIBAL</a> (Carthaginian statesman)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">HALMSTAD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">HANNIBAL</a> (Missouri, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">HALO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">HANNINGTON, JAMES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">HALOGENS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">HANNINGTON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">HALS, FRANS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">HANNO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">HALSBURY, HARDINGE STANLEY GIFFARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">HANOI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">HALSTEAD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">HANOTAUX, ALBERT AUGUSTE GABRIEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">HALT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">HANOVER</a> (province of Prussia)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">HALUNTIUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">HANOVER</a> (city of Prussia)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">HALYBURTON, JAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">HANOVER</a> (Indiana, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">HALYBURTON, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">HANOVER</a> (New Hampshire, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">HAM</a> (son of Noah)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">HANOVER</a> (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">HAM</a> (town of France)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">HANRIOT, FRANÇOIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">HAMADĀN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">HANSARD, LUKE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">HAMADHĀNĪ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">HANSEATIC LEAGUE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">HAMAH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">HANSEN, PETER ANDREAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">HAMANN, JOHANN GEORG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">HANSI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">HAMAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">HANSOM, JOSEPH ALOYSIUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">ḤAMĀSA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">HANSON, SIR RICHARD DAVIES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">HAMBURG</a> (German state)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">HANSTEEN, CHRISTOPHER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">HAMBURG</a> (German seaport)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">HANTHAWADDY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">HAMDĀNĪ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">HANUKKAH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">HAMELIN, FRANÇOIS ALPHONSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">HANUMAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">HAMELN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">HANWAY, JONAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">HAMERLING, ROBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">HANWELL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">HAMERTON, PHILIP GILBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">HAPARANDA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">HAMI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">HAPLODRILI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">HAMILCAR BARCA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">HAPTARA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">HAMILTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">HAPUR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">HAMILTON, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">HARA-KIRI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">HAMILTON, ALEXANDER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">HARALD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">HAMILTON, ANTHONY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">HARBIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">HAMILTON, ELIZABETH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">HARBINGER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">HAMILTON, EMMA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">HARBOUR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">HAMILTON, JAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">HARBURG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">HAMILTON, JAMES HAMILTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">HARCOURT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">HAMILTON, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">HARCOURT, SIMON HARCOURT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">HAMILTON, PATRICK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">HARCOURT, SIR WILLIAM GEORGE GRANVILLE VENABLES VERNON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">HAMILTON, ROBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">HARCOURT, WILLIAM VERNON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">HAMILTON, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">HARDANGER FJORD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">HAMILTON, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">HARDEE, WILLIAM JOSEPH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM (1730-1803)</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">HARDENBERG, KARL AUGUST VON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM (1788-1856)</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">HARDERWYK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">HAMILTON, WILLIAM GERARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">HARDICANUTE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM ROWAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">HARDING, CHESTER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">HAMILTON</a> (town of Australia)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">HARDING, JAMES DUFFIELD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">HAMILTON</a> (river of Canada)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">HARDINGE, HENRY HARDINGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">HAMILTON</a> (city of Canada)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">HARDOI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">HAMILTON</a> (burgh of Scotland)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">HARDOUIN, JEAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">HAMILTON</a> (New York, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">HARDT, HERMANN VON DER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">HAMILTON</a> (Ohio, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">HARDT, THE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">HAMIRPUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">HARDWAR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">HAMITIC RACES AND LANGUAGES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">HARDWICKE, PHILIP YORKE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">HAMLET</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">HARDY, ALEXANDRE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">HAMLEY, SIR EDWARD BRUCE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">HARDY, THOMAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">HAMLIN, HANNIBAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">HARDY, SIR THOMAS DUFFUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">HAMM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">HARDY, SIR THOMAS MASTERMAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">HAMMĀD AR-RĀWIYA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">HARDYNG, JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">HAMMER, FRIEDRICH JULIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">HARE, AUGUSTUS JOHN CUTHBERT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">HAMMER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">HARE, SIR JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">HAMMERBEAM ROOF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">HARE, JULIUS CHARLES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">HAMMERFEST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">HARE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">HAMMER-KOP</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">HAREBELL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">HAMMER-PURGSTALL, JOSEPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">HAREM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">HAMMERSMITH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">HARFLEUR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">HAMMER-THROWING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">HARIANA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">HAMMER-TOE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">HARINGTON, SIR JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">HAMMOCK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">ḤARĪRĪ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">HAMMOND, HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">HARI-RUD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">HAMMOND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">HARISCHANDRA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">HAMON, JEAN LOUIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">ḤĀRITH IBN ḤILLIZA UL-YASHKURĪ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">HAMPDEN, HENRY BOUVERIE WILLIAM BRAND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">ḤARIZI, JUDAH BEN SOLOMON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">HAMPDEN, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">HARKNESS, ALBERT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">HAMPDEN, RENN DICKSON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">HARKNESS, ROBERT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">HAMPDEN-SIDNEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">HARLAN, JAMES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">HAMPSHIRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">HARLAN, JOHN MARSHALL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">HAMPSTEAD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">HARLAND, HENRY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">HAMPTON, WADE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">HARLAY DE CHAMPVALLON, FRANÇOIS DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">HAMPTON</a> (Middlesex, England)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar195">HARLECH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">HAMPTON</a> (Virginia, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar196">HARLEQUIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">HAMPTON ROADS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar197">HARLESS, GOTTLIEB CHRISTOPH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">HAMSTER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar198">HARLESS, GOTTLIEB CHRISTOPH ADOLF VON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">HANAPER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar199">HARLINGEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">HANAU</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar200">HARMATTAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">HANBURY WILLIAMS, SIR CHARLES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar201">HARMODIUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">HANCOCK, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar202">HARMONIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">HANCOCK, WINFIELD SCOTT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar203">HARMONIC</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">HANCOCK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar204">HARMONICA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar205">HARMONIC ANALYSIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">HAND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar206">HARMONICHORD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">HANDEL, GEORGE FREDERICK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar207">HARMONIUM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">HANDFASTING</a></td> <td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page855" id="page855"></a>855</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">HALLER, ALBRECHT VON<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (1708-1777), Swiss anatomist +and physiologist, was born of an old Swiss family at Bern, on the +16th of October 1708. Prevented by long-continued ill-health +from taking part in boyish sports, he had the more opportunity +for the development of his precocious mind. At the age of four, +it is said, he used to read and expound the Bible to his father’s +servants; before he was ten he had sketched a Chaldee grammar, +prepared a Greek and a Hebrew vocabulary, compiled a collection +of two thousand biographies of famous men and women on the +model of the great works of Bayle and Moreri, and written in +Latin verse a satire on his tutor, who had warned him against +a too great excursiveness. When still hardly fifteen he was +already the author of numerous metrical translations from Ovid, +Horace and Virgil, as well as of original lyrics, dramas, and an +epic of four thousand lines on the origin of the Swiss confederations, +writings which he is said on one occasion to have rescued +from a fire at the risk of his life, only, however, to burn them a +little later (1729) with his own hand. Haller’s attention had +been directed to the profession of medicine while he was residing +in the house of a physician at Biel after his father’s death in +1721; and, following the choice then made, he while still a +sickly and excessively shy youth went in his sixteenth year to +the university of Tübingen (December 1723), where he studied +under Camerarius and Duvernoy. Dissatisfied with his progress, +he in 1725 exchanged Tübingen for Leiden, where Boerhaave +was in the zenith of his fame, and where Albinus had already +begun to lecture in anatomy. At that university he graduated +in May 1727, undertaking successfully in his thesis to prove that +the so-called salivary duct, claimed as a recent discovery by +Coschwitz, was nothing more than a blood-vessel. Haller then +visited London, making the acquaintance of Sir Hans Sloane, +Cheselden, Pringle, Douglas and other scientific men; next, +after a short stay in Oxford, he visited Paris, where he studied +under Ledran and Winslöw; and in 1728 he proceeded to Basel, +where he devoted himself to the study of the higher mathematics +under John Bernoulli. It was during his stay there also that +his first great interest in botany was awakened; and, in the +course of a tour (July-August, 1828), through Savoy, Baden +and several of the Swiss cantons, he began a collection of plants +which was afterwards the basis of his great work on the flora +of Switzerland. From a literary point of view the main result +of this, the first of his many journeys through the Alps, was his +<span class="correction" title="amended from peom">poem</span> entitled <i>Die Alpen</i>, which was finished in March 1729, +and appeared in the first edition (1732) of his <i>Gedichte</i>. This +poem of 490 hexameters is historically important as one of the +earliest signs of the awakening appreciation of the mountains +(hitherto generally regarded as horrible monstrosities), though +it is chiefly designed to contrast the simple and idyllic life of the +inhabitants of the Alps with the corrupt and decadent existence +of the dwellers in the plains.</p> + +<p>In 1729 he returned to Bern and began to practise as a +physician; his best energies, however, were devoted to the +botanical and anatomical researches which rapidly gave him a +European reputation, and procured for him from George II. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page856" id="page856"></a>856</span> +in 1736 a call to the chair of medicine, anatomy, botany and +surgery in the newly founded university of Göttingen. He became +F.R.S. in 1743, and was ennobled in 1749. The quantity of +work achieved by Haller in the seventeen years during which +he occupied his Göttingen professorship was immense. Apart +from the ordinary work of his classes, which entailed upon him +the task of newly organizing a botanical garden, an anatomical +theatre and museum, an obstetrical school, and similar institutions, +he carried on without interruption those original investigations +in botany and physiology, the results of which are preserved +in the numerous works associated with his name; he continued +also to persevere in his youthful habit of poetical composition, +while at the same time he conducted a monthly journal (the +<i>Göttingische gelehrte Anzeigen</i>), to which he is said to have +contributed twelve thousand articles relating to almost every +branch of human knowledge. He also warmly interested himself +in most of the religious questions, both ephemeral and +permanent, of his day; and the erection of the Reformed church +in Göttingen was mainly due to his unwearied energy. Notwithstanding +all this variety of absorbing interests he never +felt at home in Göttingen; his untravelled heart kept ever +turning towards his native Bern (where he had been elected a +member of the great council in 1745), and in 1753 he resolved to +resign his chair and return to Switzerland.</p> + +<p>The twenty-one years of his life which followed were largely +occupied in the discharge of his duties in the minor political post +of a <i>Rathhausammann</i> which he had obtained by lot, and in the +preparation of his <i>Bibliotheca medica</i>, the botanical, surgical +and anatomical parts of which he lived to complete; but he +also found time to write the three philosophical romances—<i>Usong</i> +(1771), <i>Alfred</i> (1773) and <i>Fabius and Cato</i> (1774),—in +which his views as to the respective merits of despotism, of +limited monarchy and of aristocratic republican government are +fully set forth. About 1773 the state of his health rendered +necessary his entire withdrawal from public business; for some +time he supported his failing strength by means of opium, on the +use of which he communicated a paper to the <i>Proceedings</i> of +the Göttingen Royal Society in 1776; the excessive use of the +drug is believed, however, to have hastened his death, which +occurred on the 17th of December 1777. Haller, who had been +three times married, left eight children, the eldest of whom, +Gottlieb Emanuel, attained to some distinction as a botanist +and as a writer on Swiss historical bibliography (1785-1788, +7 vols.).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Subjoined is a classified but by no means an exhaustive list of his +very numerous works in various branches of science and literature +(a complete list, up to 1775, numbering 576 items, including various +editions, was published by Haller himself, in 1775, at the end of +vol. 6 of the correspondence addressed to him by various learned +friends):—(1) Anatomical:—<i>Icones anatomicae</i> (1743-1754); <i>Disputationes +anatomicae selectiores</i> (1746-1752); and <i>Opera acad. +minora anatomici argumenti</i> (1762-1768). (2) Physiological:—<i>De +respiratione experimenta anatomica</i> (1747); <i>Primae lineae physiologiae</i> +(1747); and <i>Elementa physiologiae corporis humani</i> (1757-1760). +(3) Pathological and surgical:—<i>Opuscula pathologica</i> (1754); <i>Disputationum +chirurg. collectio</i> (1777); also careful editions of Boerhaave’s +<i>Praelectiones academicae in suas institutiones rei medicae</i> +(1739), and of the <i>Artis medicae principia</i> of the same author (1769-1774). +(4) Botanical:—<i>Enumeratio methodica stirpium Helveticarum</i> +(1742); <i>Opuscula botanica</i> (1749); <i>Bibliotheca botanica</i> (1771). (5) +Theological:—<i>Briefe über die wichtigsten Wahrheiten der Offenbarung</i> +(1772); and <i>Briefe zur Vertheidigung der Offenbarung</i> (1775-1777). +(6) Poetical:—<i>Gedichte</i> (1732, 12th ed., 1777). His three romances +have been already mentioned. Several volumes of lectures and +“Tagebücher” or journals were published posthumously.</p> + +<p>See J. G. Zimmermann, <i>Das Leben des Herrn von Haller</i> (1755), +and the articles by Förster and Seiler in Ersch and Gruber’s <i>Encyklopädie</i>, +and particularly the detailed biography (over 500 pages) by +L. Hirzel, printed at the head of his elaborate edition (Frauenfeld, +1882) of Haller’s <i>Gedichte</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALLER, BERTHOLD<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> (1492-1536), Swiss reformer, was born +at Aldingen in Württemberg, and after studying at Pforzheim, +where he met Melanchthon, and at Cologne, taught in the +gymnasium at Bern. He was appointed assistant preacher at +the church of St Vincent in 1515 and people’s priest in 1520. +Even before his acquaintance with Zwingli in 1521 he had begun +to preach the Reformation, his sympathetic character and his +eloquence making him a great force. In 1526 he was at the +abortive conference of Baden, and in January 1528 drafted and +defended the ten theses for the conference of Bern which +established the new religion in that city. He left no writings +except a few letters which are preserved in Zwingli’s works. +He died on the 25th of February 1536.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Life by Pestalozzi (Elberfeld, 1861).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALLEY, EDMUND<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (1656-1742), English astronomer, was +born at Haggerston, London, on the 29th of October 1656. +His father, a wealthy soapboiler, placed him at St Paul’s school, +where he was equally distinguished for classical and mathematical +ability. Before leaving it for Queen’s College, Oxford, +in 1673, he had observed the change in the variation of the +compass, and at the age of nineteen, he supplied a new and +improved method of determining the elements of the planetary +orbits (<i>Phil. Trans.</i> xi. 683). His detection of considerable +errors in the tables then in use led him to the conclusion that a +more accurate ascertainment of the places of the fixed stars was +indispensable to the progress of astronomy; and, finding that +Flamsteed and Hevelius had already undertaken to catalogue +those visible in northern latitudes, he assumed to himself the +task of making observations in the southern hemisphere. A +recommendation from Charles II. to the East India Company +procured for him an apparently suitable, though, as it proved, +ill-chosen station, and in November 1676 he embarked for St +Helena. On the voyage he noticed the retardation of the pendulum +in approaching the equator; and during his stay on the +island he observed, on the 7th of November 1677, a transit of +Mercury, which suggested to him the important idea of employing +similar phenomena for determining the sun’s distance. He +returned to England in November 1678, having by the registration +of 341 stars won the title of the “Southern Tycho,” and +by the translation to the heavens of the “Royal Oak,” earned +a degree of master of arts, conferred at Oxford by the king’s +command on the 3rd of December 1678, almost simultaneously +with his election as fellow of the Royal Society. Six months +later, the indefatigable astronomer started for Danzig to set +at rest a dispute of long standing between Hooke and Hevelius +as to the respective merits of plain or telescopic sights; and +towards the end of 1680 he proceeded on a continental tour. +In Paris he observed, with G. D. Cassini, the great comet of 1680 +after its perihelion passage; and having returned to England, +he married in 1682 Mary, daughter of Mr Tooke, auditor of the +exchequer, with whom he lived harmoniously for fifty-five years. +He now fixed his residence at Islington, engaged chiefly upon +lunar observations, with a view to the great desideratum of a +method of finding the longitude at sea. His mind, however, +was also busy with the momentous problem of gravity. Having +reached so far as to perceive that the central force of the solar +system must decrease inversely as the square of the distance, +and applied vainly to Wren and Hooke for further elucidation, +he made in August 1684 that journey to Cambridge for the +purpose of consulting Newton, which resulted in the publication +of the <i>Principia</i>. The labour and expense of passing this great +work through the press devolved upon Halley, who also wrote +the prefixed hexameters ending with the well-known line—</p> + +<p class="center f90">Nec fas est propius mortali attingere divos.</p> + +<p>In 1696 he was, although a zealous Tory, appointed deputy +comptroller of the mint at Chester, and (August 19, 1698) he +received a commission as captain of the “Paramour Pink” +for the purpose of making extensive observations on the conditions +of terrestrial magnetism. This task he accomplished in +a voyage which lasted two years, and extended to the 52nd +degree of S. latitude. The results were published in a <i>General +Chart of the Variation of the Compass</i> in 1701; and immediately +afterwards he executed by royal command a careful survey of +the tides and coasts of the British Channel, an elaborate map +of which he produced in 1702. On his return from a journey +to Dalmatia, for the purpose of selecting and fortifying the port +of Trieste, he was nominated, November 1703, Savilian professor +of geometry at Oxford, and received an honorary degree of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page857" id="page857"></a>857</span> +doctor of laws in 1710. Between 1713 and 1721 he acted as +secretary to the Royal Society, and early in 1720 he succeeded +Flamsteed as astronomer-royal. Although in his sixty-fourth +year, he undertook to observe the moon through an entire +revolution of her nodes (eighteen years), and actually carried +out his purpose. He died on the 14th of January 1742. His +tomb is in the old graveyard of St Margaret’s church, Lee, Kent.</p> + +<p>Halley’s most notable scientific achievements were—his +detection of the “long inequality” of Jupiter and Saturn, and +of the acceleration of the moon’s mean motion (1693), his discovery +of the proper motions of the fixed stars (1718), his theory +of variation (1683), including the hypothesis of four magnetic +poles, revived by C. Hansteen in 1819, and his suggestion of the +magnetic origin of the aurora borealis; his calculation of the +orbit of the 1682 comet (the first ever attempted), coupled with +a prediction of its return, strikingly verified in 1759; and his +indication (first in 1679, and again in 1716, Phil. Trans., No. 348) +of a method extensively used in the 18th and 19th centuries for +determining the solar parallax by means of the transits of Venus.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His principal works are <i>Catalogus stellarum australium</i> (London, +1679), the substance of which was embodied in vol. iii. of Flamsteed’s +<i>Historia coelestis</i> (1725); <i>Synopsis astronomiae cometicae</i> (Oxford, +1705); <i>Astronomical Tables</i> (London, 1752); also eighty-one miscellaneous +papers of considerable interest, scattered through the +<i>Philosophical Transactions</i>. To these should be added his version +from the Arabic (which language he acquired for the purpose) of the +treatise of Apollonius <i>De sectione rationis</i>, with a restoration of his +two lost books <i>De sectione spatii</i>, both published at Oxford in 1706; +also his fine edition of the <i>Conics</i> of Apollonius, with the treatise +by Serenus <i>De sectione cylindri et coni</i> (Oxford, 1710, folio). His +edition of the <i>Spherics</i> of Menelaus was published by his friend Dr +Costard in 1758. See also <i>Biographia Britannica</i>, vol. iv. (1757); +<i>Gent. Mag.</i> xvii. 455, 503; A. Wood, <i>Athenae Oxon.</i> (Bliss), iv. 536; +J. Aubrey, <i>Lives</i>, ii. 365; F. Baily, <i>Account of Flamsteed</i>; Sir D. +Brewster, <i>Life of Newton</i>; R. Grant, <i>History of Astronomy</i>, p. 477 +and <i>passim</i>; A. J. Rudolph, <i>Bulletin of Bibliography</i>, No. 14 (Boston, +1904); E. F. McPike, “Bibliography of Halley’s Comet,” <i>Smithsonian +Misc. Collections</i>, vol. xlviii. pt. i. (1905); <i>Notes and Queries</i>, +9th series, vols. x. xi. xii., 10th series, vol. ii. (E. F. McPike). A +collection of manuscripts regarding Halley is preserved among the +Rigaud papers in the Bodleian library, Oxford; and many of his +unpublished letters exist at the Record Office and in the library of +the Royal Society.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. M. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALLGRÍMSSON, JÓNAS<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (1807-1844), the chief lyrical poet +of Iceland, was born in 1807 at Steinsstaðir in Eyjafjarðarsýsla +in the north of that island, and educated at the famous school +of Bessastaðr. In 1832 he went to the university of Copenhagen, +and shortly afterwards turned his attention to the natural +sciences, especially geology. Having obtained pecuniary assistance +from the Danish government, he travelled through all +Iceland for scientific purposes in the years 1837-1842, and made +many interesting geological observations. Most of his writings +on geology are in Danish. His renown was, however, not +acquired by his writings in that language, but by his Icelandic +poems and short stories. He was well read in German literature, +Heine and Schiller being his favourites, and the study of the +German masters and the old classical writers of Iceland opened +his eyes to the corrupt state of Icelandic poetry and showed him +the way to make it better. The misuse of the Eddic metaphors +made the lyrical and epical poetry of the day hardly intelligible, +and, to make matters worse, the language of the poets was mixed +up with words of German and Danish origin. The great Danish +philologist and friend of Iceland, Rasmus Rask, and the poet +Bjarni Thórarensen had done much to purify the language, +but Jónas Hallgrímsson completed their work by his poems and +tales, in a purer language than ever had been written in Iceland +since the days of Snorri Sturlason. The excesses of Icelandic +poetry were specially seen in the so-called <i>rímur</i>, ballads of +heroes, &c., which were fiercely attacked by Jónas Hallgrímsson, +who at last succeeded in converting the educated to his view. +Most of the principal poems, tales and essays of Jónas Hallgrímsson +appeared in the periodical <i>Fjölnir</i>, which he began +publishing at Copenhagen in 1835, together with Konráð Gíslason, +a well-known philologist, and the patriotic Thómas Saemundsson. +<i>Fjölnir</i> had in the beginning a hard struggle against old +prejudices, but as the years went by its influence became +enormous; and when it at last ceased, its programme and spirit +still lived in <i>Ný Félagsrit</i> and other patriotic periodicals which +took its place. Jónas Hallgrímsson, who died in 1844, is the +father of a separate school in Icelandic lyric poetry. He introduced +foreign thoughts and metres, but at the same time revived +the metres of the Icelandic classical poets. Although his poetical +works are all comprised in one small volume, he strikes every +string of the old harp of Iceland.</p> +<div class="author">(S. Bl.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALLIDAY, ANDREW<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Andrew Halliday Duff</span>] (1830-1877), +British journalist and dramatist, was born at Marnoch, +Banffshire, in 1830. He was educated at Marischal College, +Aberdeen, and in 1849 he came to London, and discarding the +name of Duff, devoted himself to literature. His first engagement +was with the daily papers, and his work having attracted the +notice of Thackeray, he was invited to write for the <i>Cornhill +Magazine</i>. From 1861 he contributed largely to <i>All the Year +Round</i>, and many of his articles were republished in collected +form. He was also the author, alone and with others, of a great +number of farces, burlesques and melodramas and a peculiarly +successful adapter of popular novels for the stage. Of these +<i>Little Em’ly</i> (1869), his adaptation of <i>David Copperfield</i>, was +warmly approved by Dickens himself, and enjoyed a long run +at Drury Lane. Halliday died in London on the 10th of April +1877.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALLIWELL-PHILLIPPS, JAMES ORCHARD<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> (1820-1889), +English Shakespearian scholar, son of Thomas Halliwell, was +born in London, on the 21st of June 1820. He was educated +privately and at Jesus College, Cambridge. He devoted himself +to antiquarian research, particularly in early English literature. +In 1839 he edited Sir John Mandeville’s <i>Travels</i>; in 1842 published +an <i>Account of the European MSS. in the Chetham Library</i>, +besides a newly discovered metrical romance of the 15th century +(<i>Torrent of Portugal</i>). He became best known, however, as a +Shakespearian editor and collector. In 1848 he brought out his +<i>Life of Shakespeare</i>, which passed through several editions; +in 1853-1865 a sumptuous edition, limited to 150 copies, of +Shakespeare in folio, with full critical notes; in 1863 a <i>Calendar +of the Records at Stratford-on-Avon</i>; in 1864 a <i>History of New +Place</i>. After 1870 he entirely gave up textual criticism, and +devoted his attention to elucidating the particulars of Shakespeare’s +life. He collated all the available facts and documents +in relation to it, and exhausted the information to be found in +local records in his <i>Outlines of the Life of Shakespeare</i>. He was +mainly instrumental in the purchase of New Place for the +corporation of Stratford-on-Avon, and in the formation there +of the Shakespeare museum. His publications in all numbered +more than sixty volumes. He assumed the name of Phillipps +in 1872, under the will of the grandfather of his first wife, a +daughter of Sir Thomas Phillipps the antiquary. He took an +active interest in the Camden Society, the Percy Society and the +Shakespeare Society, for which he edited many early English +and Elizabethan works. From 1845 Halliwell was excluded +from the library of the British Museum on account of the +suspicion attaching to his possession of some manuscripts which +had been removed from the library of Trinity College, Cambridge. +He published privately an explanation of the matter in 1845. +His house, Hollingbury Copse, near Brighton, was full of rare +and curious works, and he generously gave many of them to the +Chetham library, Manchester, to the town library of Penzance, +to the Smithsonian Institute, Washington, and to the library of +Edinburgh university. He died on the 3rd of January 1889.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALLOWE’EN,<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> or <span class="sc">All Hallows Eve</span>, the name given to the +31st of October as the vigil of Hallowmas or All Saints’ Day. +Though now known as little else but the eve of the Christian +festival, Hallowe’en and its formerly attendant ceremonies +long antedate Christianity. The two chief characteristics of +ancient Hallowe’en were the lighting of bonfires and the belief +that of all nights in the year this is the one during which ghosts +and witches are most likely to wander abroad. Now on or about +the 1st of November the Druids held their great autumn festival +and lighted fires in honour of the Sun-god in thanksgiving for +the harvest. Further, it was a Druidic belief that on the eve of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page858" id="page858"></a>858</span> +this festival Saman, lord of death, called together the wicked +souls that within the past twelve months had been condemned to +inhabit the bodies of animals. Thus it is clear that the main +celebrations of Hallowe’en were purely Druidical, and this is +further proved by the fact that in parts of Ireland the 31st of +October was, and even still is, known as <i>Oidhche Shamhna</i>, +“Vigil of Saman.” On the Druidic ceremonies were grafted some +of the characteristics of the Roman festival in honour of Pomona +held about the 1st of November, in which nuts and apples, as +representing the winter store of fruits, played an important +part. Thus the roasting of nuts and the sport known as “apple-ducking”—attempting +to seize with the teeth an apple floating +in a tub of water,—were once the universal occupation of the +young folk in medieval England on the 31st of October. The +custom of lighting Hallowe’en fires survived until recent years +in the highlands of Scotland and Wales. In the dying embers +it was usual to place as many small stones as there were persons +around, and next morning a search was made. If any of the +pebbles were displaced it was regarded as certain that the person +represented would die within the twelve months.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For details of the Hallowe’en games and bonfires see Brand’s +<i>Antiquities of Great Britain</i>; Chambers’s <i>Book of Days</i>; Grimm’s +<i>Deutsche Mythologie</i>, ch. xx. (<i>Elemente</i>) and ch. xxxiv. (<i>Aberglaube</i>); +and J. G. Frazer’s <i>Golden Bough</i>, vol. iii. Compare also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Beltane</a></span> +and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bonfire</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALLSTATT,<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> a market-place of Austria, in Upper Austria, +67 m. S.S.W. of Linz by rail. Pop. (1900) 737. It is situated +on the shore of the Hallstatter-see and at the foot of the Hallstatter +Salzberg, and is built in amphitheatre with its houses +clinging to the mountain side. The salt mine of Hallstatt, +which is one of the oldest in existence, was rediscovered in the +14th century. In the neighbourhood is the celebrated Celtic +burial ground, where a great number of very interesting antiquities +have been found. Most of these have been removed to +the museums at Vienna and Linz, but some are kept in the local +museum.</p> + +<p>The excavations (1847-1864) revealed a form of culture +hitherto unknown, and accordingly the name Hallstatt has +been applied to objects of like form and decoration since found +in Styria, Carniola, Bosnia (at Glasinatz and Jezerin), Epirus, +north Italy, France, Spain and Britain (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Celt</a></span>). Everywhere +else the change from iron weapons to bronze is immediate, but +at Hallstatt iron is seen gradually superseding bronze, first for +ornament, then for edging cutting instruments, then replacing +fully the old bronze types, and finally taking new forms of its +own. There can be no doubt that the use of iron first developed +in the Hallstatt area, and that thence it spread southwards into +Italy, Greece, the Aegean, Egypt and Asia, and northwards +and westwards in Europe. At Noreia, which gave its name to +Noricum (<i>q.v.</i>) less than 40 m. from Hallstatt, were the most +famous iron mines of antiquity, which produced the Noric iron +and Noric swords so prized and dreaded by the Romans (Pliny, +<i>Hist. Nat.</i> xxxiv. 145; Horace, <i>Epod.</i> 17. 71). This iron needed +no tempering, and the Celts had probably found it ready smelted +by nature, just as the Eskimo had learned of themselves to use +telluric iron embedded in basalt. The graves at Hallstatt were +partly inhumation partly cremation; they contained swords, +daggers, spears, javelins, axes, helmets, bosses and plates of +shields and hauberks, brooches, various forms of jewelry, amber +and glass beads, many of the objects being decorated with animals +and geometrical designs. Silver was practically unknown. +The weapons and axes are mostly iron, a few being bronze. The +swords are leaf-shaped, with blunt points intended for cutting, +not for thrusting; the hilts differ essentially from those of the +Bronze Age, being shaped like a crescent to grasp the blade, +with large pommels, or sometimes with antennae (the latter +found also in Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden, Switzerland, the +Pyrenees, Spain, north Italy): only six arrowheads (bronze) +were found. Both flanged and socketed celts occurred, the iron +being much more numerous than the bronze. The flat axes are +distinguished by the side stops and in some cases the transition +from palstave to socketed axe can be seen. The shields were +round as in the early Iron Age of north Italy (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Villanova</a></span>). +Greaves were found at Glasinatz and Jezerin, though not at +Hallstatt; two helmets were found at Hallstatt and others in +Bosnia; broad bronze belts were numerous, adorned in <i>repoussé</i> +with beast and geometric ornament. Brooches are found in +great numbers, both those derived from the primitive safety-pin +(“Peschiera” type) and the “spectacle” or “Hallstatt” type +found all down the Balkans and in Greece. The latter are formed +of two spirals of wire, sometimes four such spirals being used, +whilst there were also brooches in animal forms, one of the latter +being found with a bronze sword. The Hallstatt culture is that +of the Homeric Achaeans (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Achaeans</a></span>), but as the brooch +(along with iron, cremation of the dead, the round shield and +the geometric ornament) passed down into Greece from central +Europe, and as brooches are found in the lower town at Mycenae, +1350 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, they must have been invented long before that date +in central Europe. But as they are found in the late Bronze +Age and early Iron Age, the early iron culture of Hallstatt must +have originated long before 1350 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, a conclusion in accord +with the absence of silver at Hallstatt itself.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Baron von Sacken, <i>Das Grabfeld von Hallstatt</i>; Bertrand and +S. Reinach, <i>Les Celtes dans les vallées du Pô et du Danube</i>; W. Ridgeway, +<i>Early Age of Greece</i>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Archaeology</a></span> (plate).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. Ri.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALLUCINATION<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>alucinari</i> or <i>allucinari</i>, to +wander in mind, Gr. <span class="grk" title="alyssein">ἀλύσσειν</span> or <span class="grk" title="alyein">ἀλύειν</span>, from <span class="grk" title="alê">ἄλη</span>, wandering), +a psychological term which has been the subject of much controversy, +and to which, although there is now fair agreement as +to its denotation, it is still impossible to give a precise and +entirely satisfactory definition. Hallucinations constitute one +of the two great classes of all false sense-perceptions, the other +class consisting of the “illusions,” and the difficulty of definition +is clearly to mark the boundary between the two classes. <i>Illusion</i> +may be defined as the misinterpretation of sense-impression, +while <i>hallucination</i>, in its typical instances, is the experiencing +of a sensory presentation, <i>i.e.</i> a presentation having the sensory +vividness that distinguishes perceptions from representative +imagery, at a time when no stimulus is acting on the corresponding +sense-organ. There is, however, good reason to think that +in many cases, possibly in all cases, some stimulation of the +sense-organ, coming either from without or from within the +body, plays a part in the genesis of the hallucination. This +being so, we must be content to leave the boundary between +illusions and hallucinations ill-defined, and to regard as illusions +<i>those false perceptions in which impressions made on the sense-organ +play a leading part in determining the character of the percept</i>, +and as hallucinations <i>those in which any such impression is +lacking, or plays but a subsidiary part and bears no obvious relation +to the character of the false percept</i>.</p> + +<p>As in the case of illusion, hallucination may or may not +involve delusion, or belief in the reality of the object falsely +perceived. Among the sane the hallucinatory object is frequently +recognized at once as unreal or at least as but quasi-real; +and it is only the insane, or persons in abnormal states, such +as hypnosis, who, when an hallucination persists or recurs, fail +to recognize that it corresponds to no physical impression from, +or object in, the outer world. Hallucinations of all the senses +occur, but the most commonly reported are the auditory and +the visual, while those of the other senses seem to be comparatively +rare. This apparent difference of frequency is no doubt largely +due to the more striking character of visual and auditory hallucinations, +and to the relative difficulty of ascertaining, in the +case of perceptions of the lower senses, <i>e.g.</i> of taste and smell, +that no impression adequate to the genesis of the percept has +been made upon the sense-organ; but, in so far as it is real, it is +probably due in part to the more constant use of the higher +senses and the greater strain consequently thrown upon them, +in part also to their more intimate connexion with the life of +ideas.</p> + +<p>The hallucinatory perception may involve two or more senses, +<i>e.g.</i>, the subject may seem to see a human being, to hear his voice +and to feel the touch of his hand. This is rarely the case in +spontaneous hallucination, but in hypnotic hallucination the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page859" id="page859"></a>859</span> +subject is apt to develop the object suggested to him, as present +to one of his senses, and to perceive it also through other senses.</p> + +<p>Among visual hallucinations the human figure, and among +auditory hallucinations human voices, are the objects most +commonly perceived. The figure seen always appears localized +more or less definitely in the outer world. In many cases it +appears related to the objects truly seen in just the same way +as a real object; <i>e.g.</i> it is no longer seen if the eyes are closed +or turned away, it does not move with the movements of the +eyes, and it may hide objects lying behind it, or be hidden by +objects coming between the place that it appears to occupy and +the eye of the percipient. Visual hallucinations are most often +experienced when the eyes are open and the surrounding space +is well or even brightly illuminated. Less frequently the visual +hallucination takes the form of a self-luminous figure in a dark +place or appears in a luminous globe or mist which shuts out +from view the real objects of the part of the field of view in +which it appears.</p> + +<p>Auditory hallucinations, especially voices, seem to fall into +two distinct classes—(1) those which are heard as coming from +without, and are more or less definitely localized in outer space, +(2) those which seem to be within the head or, in some cases, +within the chest, and to have less definite auditory quality. +It seems probable that the latter are hallucinations involving +principally kinaesthetic sensations, sensations of movement of +the organs of speech.</p> + +<p>Hallucinations occur under a great variety of bodily and +mental conditions, which may conveniently be classified as +follows.</p> + +<p class="center pt1">I. <i>Conditions which imply normal waking Consciousness and no +distinct Departure from bodily and mental Sanity.</i></p> + +<p><i>a.</i> It would seem that a considerable number of perfectly +healthy persons occasionally experience, while in a fully waking +state, hallucinations for which no cause can be assigned. The +census of hallucinations conducted by the Society for Psychical +Research showed that about 10% of all sane persons can +remember having experienced at least one hallucination while +they believed themselves to be fully awake and in normal health. +These sporadic hallucinations of waking healthy persons are far +more frequently visual than auditory, and they usually take +the form of some familiar person in ordinary attire. The figure +in many cases is seen, on turning the gaze in some new direction, +fully developed and lifelike, and its hallucinatory character may +be revealed only by its noiseless movements, or by its fading away +<i>in situ</i>. A special interest attaches to hallucinations of this +type, owing to the occasional coincidence of the death of the +person with his hallucinatory appearance. The question raised +by these coincidences will be discussed in a separate paragraph +below.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> A few persons, otherwise normal in mind and body, seem +to experience repeatedly some particular kind of hallucination. +The voice (<span class="grk" title="daimonion">δαιμόνιον</span>) so frequently heard by Socrates, +warning or advising him, is the most celebrated example of +this type.</p> + +<p class="center pt1">II. <i>Conditions more or less unusual or abnormal but not implying +distinct Departure from Health.</i></p> + +<p><i>a.</i> A kind of hallucination to which perhaps every normal +person is liable is that known technically as “recurrent sensation.” +This kind is experienced only when some sense-organ +has been continuously or repeatedly subjected to some one kind +of impression or stimulation for a considerable period; <i>e.g.</i> +the microscopist, after examining for some hours one particular +kind of object or structure, may suddenly perceive the object +faithfully reproduced in form and colour, and lying, as it were, +upon any surface to which his gaze is directed. Perhaps the +commonest experience of this type is the recurrence of the +sensations of movement at intervals in the period following a sea +voyage or long railway journey.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> A considerable proportion of healthy sane persons can +induce hallucinations of vision by gazing fixedly at a polished +surface or into some dark translucent mass; or of hearing, by +applying a large shell or similar object to the ear. These methods +of inducing hallucinations, especially the former, have long been +practised in many countries as modes of divination, various +objects being used, <i>e.g.</i> a drop of ink in the palm of the hand, or +a polished finger-nail. The object now most commonly used is a +polished sphere of clear glass or crystal (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crystal-Gazing</a></span>). +Hence such hallucinations go by the name of <i>crystal visions</i>. +The crystal vision often appears as a picture of some distant or +unknown scene lying, as it were, in the crystal; and in the picture +figures may come and go, and move to and fro, in a perfectly +natural manner. In other cases, written or printed words or +sentences appear. The percipient, seer or scryer, commonly +seems to be in a fully waking state as he observes the objects +thus presented. He is usually able to describe and discuss the +appearances, successively discriminating details by attentive +observation, just as when observing an objective scene; and +he usually has no power of controlling them, and no sense of +having produced them by his own activity. In some cases these +visions have brought back to the mind of the scryer facts or +incidents which he could not voluntarily recollect. In other +cases they are asserted by credible witnesses to have given to +the scryer information, about events distant in time or place, +that had not come to his knowledge by normal means. These +cases have been claimed as evidence of telepathic communication +or even of clairvoyance. But at present the number of well-attested +cases of this sort is too small to justify acceptance of +this conclusion by those who have only secondhand knowledge +of them.</p> + +<p><i>c.</i> Prolonged deprivation of food predisposes to hallucinations, +and it would seem that, under this condition, a large +proportion of otherwise healthy persons become liable to them, +especially to auditory hallucinations.</p> + +<p><i>d.</i> Certain drugs, notably opium, Indian hemp, and mescal +predispose to hallucinations, each tending to produce a peculiar +type. Thus Indian hemp and mescal, especially the latter, +produce in many cases visual hallucinations in the form of a +brilliant play of colours, sometimes a mere succession of patches +of brilliant colour, sometimes in architectural or other definite +spatial arrangement.</p> + +<p><i>e.</i> The states of transition from sleep to waking, and from +waking to sleep, seem to be peculiarly favourable to the appearance +of hallucinations. The recurrent sensations mentioned +above are especially prone to appear at such times, and a considerable +proportion of the sporadic hallucinations of persons +in good health are reported to have been experienced under these +conditions. The name “hypnagogic” hallucinations, first +applied by Alfred Maury, is commonly given to those experienced +in these transition states.</p> + +<p><i>f.</i> The presentations, predominantly visual, that constitute +the principal content of most dreams, are generally described as +hallucinatory, but the propriety of so classing them is very +questionable. The present writer is confident that his own +dream-presentations lack the sensory vividness which is the +essential mark of the percept, whether normal or hallucinatory, +and which is the principal, though not the only, character in +which it differs from the representation or memory-image. It is +true that the dream-presentation, like the percept, differs from +the representative imagery of waking life in that it is relatively +independent of volition; but that seems to be merely because +the will is in abeyance or very ineffective during sleep. The wide +currency of the doctrine that classes dream-images with hallucinations +seems to be due to this independence of volitional +control, and to the fact that during sleep the representative +imagery appears without that rich setting of undiscriminated +or marginal sensation which always accompanies waking imagery, +and which by contrast accentuates for introspective reflection +the lack of sensory vividness of such imagery.</p> + +<p><i>g.</i> Many of the subjects who pass into the deeper stages of +hypnosis (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hypnotism</a></span>) show themselves, while in that +condition, extremely liable to hallucination, perceiving whatever +object is suggested to them as present, and failing to perceive +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page860" id="page860"></a>860</span> +any object of which it is asserted by the operator that it is no +longer present. The reality of these positive and negative +hallucinations of the hypnotized subject has been recently +questioned, it being maintained that the subject merely gives +verbal assent to the suggestions of the operator. But that the +hypnotized subject does really experience hallucinations seems +to be proved by the cases in which it is possible to make the +hallucination, positive or negative, persist for some time after the +termination of hypnosis, and by the fact that in some of these cases +the subject, who in the post-hypnotic state seems in every other +respect normal and wide awake, may find it difficult to distinguish +between the hallucinatory and real objects. Further proof is +afforded by experiments such as those by which Alfred Binet +showed that a visual hallucination may behave for its percipient +in many respects like a real object, <i>e.g.</i> that it may appear +reflected in a mirror, displaced by a prism and coloured when +a coloured glass is placed before the patient’s eyes. It was by +means of experiments of this kind that Binet showed that +hypnotic hallucinations may approximate to the type of the +illusion, <i>i.e.</i> that some real object affecting the sense-organ (in +the case of a visual hallucination some detail of the surface +upon which it is projected) may provide a nucleus of peripherally +excited sensation around which the false percept is built up. +An object playing a part of this sort in the genesis of an hallucination +is known as a “<i>point de repère</i>.” It has been maintained +that all hallucinations involve some such <i>point de repère</i> +or objective nucleus; but there are good reasons for rejecting +this view.</p> + +<p><i>h.</i> In states of ecstasy, or intense emotional concentration +of attention upon some one ideal object, the object contemplated +seems at times to take on sensory vividness, and so to acquire +the character of an hallucination. In these cases the state of +mind of the subject is probably similar in many respects to that +of the deeply hypnotized subject, and these two classes of +hallucination may be regarded as very closely allied.</p> + +<p class="center pt1">III. <i>Hallucinations which occur as symptoms of both bodily and +mental diseases.</i></p> + +<p><i>a.</i> Dr H. Head has the credit of having shown for the first +time, in the year 1901, that many patients, suffering from more +or less painful visceral diseases, disorders of heart, lungs, +abdominal viscera, &c., are liable to experience hallucinations +of a peculiar kind. These “visceral” hallucinations, which +are constantly accompanied by headache of the reflected visceral +type, are most commonly visual, more rarely auditory. In all +Dr Head’s cases the visual hallucination took the form of a +shrouded human figure, colourless and vague, often incomplete, +generally seen by the patient standing by his bed when he +wakes in a dimly lit room. The auditory “visceral” hallucination +was in no instance vocal, but took such forms as sounds of +tapping, scratching or rumbling, and were heard only in the +absence of objective noises. In a few cases the “visceral” +hallucination was bisensory, <i>i.e.</i> both auditory and visual.</p> + +<p>In all these respects the “visceral” hallucination differs +markedly from the commoner types of the sporadic hallucination +of healthy persons.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> Hallucinations are constant symptoms of certain general +disorders in which the nervous system is involved, notably +of the <i>delirium tremens</i>, which results from chronic alcohol +poisoning, and of the delirium of the acute specific fevers. The +hallucinations of these states are generally of a distressing or +even terrifying character. Especially is this the rule with those +of <i>delirium tremens</i>, and in the hallucinations of this disease +certain kinds of objects, <i>e.g.</i> rats and snakes, occur with curious +frequency.</p> + +<p><i>c.</i> Hallucinations occasionally occur as symptoms of certain +nervous diseases that are not usually classed with the insanities, +notably in cases of epilepsy and severe forms of hysteria. In +the former disorder, the sensory aura that so often precedes +the epileptic convulsion may take the form of an hallucinatory +object, which in some cases is very constant in character. +Unilateral hallucinations, an especially interesting class, occur +in severe cases of hysteria, and are usually accompanied by +hemi-anaesthesia of the body on the side on which the hallucinatory +object is perceived.</p> + +<p><i>d.</i> Hallucinations occur in a large, but not accurately definable, +proportion of all cases of mental disease proper. Two classes +are recognized: (1) those that are intimately connected with +the dominant emotional state or with some dominant delusion; +(2) those that occur sporadically and have no such obvious +relation to the other symptoms of disease. Hallucinations of +the former class tend to accentuate, and in turn to be confirmed +by, the congruent emotional or delusional state; but whether +these are to be regarded as primary symptoms and as the cause +of the hallucinations, or <i>vice versa</i>, it is generally impossible to say. +Patients who suffer delusions of persecution are very apt to +develop later in the course of their disease hallucinations of the +voices of their persecutors; while in other cases hallucinatory +voices, which are at first recognized as such, come to be regarded +as real and in these cases seem to be factors of primary importance +in the genesis of further delusions. Hallucinations occur in +almost every variety of mental disease, but are commonest in +the forms characterized by a cloudy dream-like condition of +consciousness, and in extreme cases of this sort the patient (as +in the delirium of chronic alcohol-poisoning) seems to move +waking through a world consisting largely of the images of his +own creation, set upon a background of real objects.</p> + +<p>In some cases hallucinations are frequently experienced for +long periods in the absence of any other symptom of mental +disorder, but these no doubt usually imply some morbid condition +of the brain.</p> + +<p><i>Physiology of Hallucination.</i>—There has been much discussion +as to the nature of the neural process in hallucination. It +is generally and rightly assumed that the hallucinatory perception +of any object has for its immediate neural correlate a state of +excitement which, as regards its characters and its distribution +in the elements of the brain, is entirely similar to the neural +correlate of the normal perception of the same object. The +hallucination is a perception, though a false perception. In +the perception of an object and in the representation of it, +introspective analysis discovers a number of presentative +elements. In the case of the representation these elements are +memory images only (except perhaps in so far as actual kinaesthetic +sensations enter into its composition); whereas, in +the case of the percept, some of these elements are sensations, +sensations which differ from images in having the attribute of +sensory vividness; and the sensory vividness of these elements +lends to the whole complex the sensory vividness or reality, +the possession of which character by the percept constitutes its +principal difference from the representation. Normally, sensory +vividness attaches only to those presentative elements which +are excited through stimulations of the sense-organs. The +normal percept, then, owes its character of sensory reality to +the fact that a certain number of its presentative elements are +sensations peripherally excited by impressions made upon a +sense-organ. The problem is, then, to account for the fact that +the hallucination contains presentative elements that have +sensory vividness, that are sensations, although they are not +excited by impressions from the external world falling upon a +sense-organ. Most of the discussions of this subject suffer from +the neglect of this preliminary definition of the problem. Many +authors, notably W. Wundt and his disciples, have been content +to assume that the sensation differs from the memory-image +only in having a higher degree of intensity; from which they +infer that its neural correlate in the brain cortex also differs +from that of the image only in having a higher degree of intensity. +For them an hallucination is therefore merely a representation +whose neural correlate involves an intensity of excitement of +certain brain-elements such as is normally produced only by +peripheral stimulation of sensory nerves in the sense-organs. +But this view, so attractively simple, ignores an insuperable +objection. Sensory vividness is not to be identified with superior +intensity; for while the least intense sensation has it, the +memory image of the most intense sensation lacks it completely. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page861" id="page861"></a>861</span> +And, since intensity of sensation is a function of the intensity +of the underlying neural excitement, we may not assume that +sensory vividness is also the expression in consciousness of that +intensity of excitement. If Wundt’s view were true a progressive +diminution of the intensity of a sensory stimulus should bring +the sensation to a point in the scale of diminishing intensity at +which it ceases to be sensation, ceases to have sensory vividness +and becomes an image merely. But this is not the case; with +diminishing intensity of stimulation, the sensation declines to +a minimal intensity and then disappears from consciousness. +This objection applies not only to Wundt’s view of hallucinations, +but also to H. Taine’s explanation of them by the aid of his +doctrine of “reductives,” for this too identifies sensory vividness +with intensity. (H. Taine, <i>De l’intelligence</i>, tome i. p. 108.)</p> + +<p>Another widely current explanation is based on the view that +the representation and the percept have their anatomical bases +in different element-groups or “centres” of the brain, the +“centre” of the representation being assigned to a higher level +of the brain than that of the percept (the latter being sometimes +assigned to the basal ganglia of the brain, the former to the +cortex). It is then assumed that while the lower perceptual +centre is normally excited only through the sense-organ, it may +occasionally be excited by impulses playing down upon it from +the corresponding centre of representation, when hallucination +results.</p> + +<p>This view also is far from satisfactory, because the great +additions recently made to our knowledge of the brain tend +very strongly to show that both sensations and memory-images +have their anatomical bases in the same sensory areas +of the cerebral cortex; and many considerations converge +to show that their anatomical bases must be, in part at least, +identical.</p> + +<p>The views based on the assumptions of complete identity, and +of complete separateness, of the anatomical bases of the percept +and of the representation are then alike untenable; and the +alternative—that their anatomical bases are in part identical, +in part different, which is indicated by this conclusion—renders +possible a far more satisfactory doctrine. We have good reason +to believe that the neural correlate of sensation is the transmission +of the nervous impulse through a sensori-motor arc of +the cortex, made up of a chain of neurones; and the view suggests +itself that the neural correlate of the corresponding memory-image +is the transmission of the impulse through a part only of +this chain of cortical elements, either the efferent motor part of +this chain or the afferent sensory part of it. Professor W. +James’s theory of hallucinations is based on the latter assumption. +He suggests that the sensory vividness of sensation and +of the percept is due to the discharge of the excitement of the +chain of elements in the forward or motor direction; and that, +in the case of the image and of the representation, the discharge +takes place, not in this direction through the efferent channel of +the centre, but laterally into other centres of the cortex. Hallucination +may then be conceived as caused by obstruction, or +abnormally increased resistance, of the paths connecting such a +cortical centre with others, so that, when it becomes excited +in any way, the tension or potential of its charge rises, until +discharge takes place in the motor direction through the +efferent limbs of the sensori-motor arcs which constitute the +centre.</p> + +<p>It is a serious objection to this view that, as James himself, +in common with most modern authors, maintains, every idea +has its motor tendency which commonly, perhaps always, finds +expression in some change of tension of muscles, and in many +cases issues in actual movements. Now if we accept James’s +theory of hallucination, we should expect to find that whenever +a representation issues in bodily action it should assume the +sensory vividness of an hallucination; and this, of course, is +not the case.</p> + +<p>The alternative form of the view that assumes partial identity +of the anatomical bases of the percept and the representation +of an object, would regard the neural correlate of the sensation +as the transmission of the nervous impulse throughout the length +of the sensori-motor arc of the cortex, from sensory inlet to +motor outlet; and that of the image as its transmission through +the efferent part of this arc only; that is to say, in the case +of the image, it would regard the excitement of the arc as being +initiated at some point between its afferent inlet and its motor +outlet, and as spreading, in accordance with the law of forward +conduction, towards the motor outlet only, so that only the part +of the arc distal or efferent to this point becomes excited.</p> + +<p>This view of the neural basis of sensory vividness, which +correlates the difference between the sensation and the image +with the only known difference between their physiological +conditions, namely the peripheral initiation of the one and the +central initiation of the other, enables us to formulate a satisfactory +theory of the physiology of hallucinations.</p> + +<p>The anatomical basis of the perception and of the representation +of any object is a functional system of nervous elements, +comprising a number of sensori-motor arcs, whose excitement by +impulses ascending to them by the sensory paths from the sense-organs +determines sensations, and whose excitement in their +efferent parts only determines the corresponding images. In +the case of perception, some of these arcs are excited by impulses +ascending from the sense-organs, others only by the spread of +the excitement through the system from these peripherally +excited arcs; while, in the case of the representation, all alike +are excited by impulses that reach the system from other parts +of the cortex and spread throughout its efferent parts only to its +motor outlets.</p> + +<p>If then impulses enter this system by any of the afferent limbs +of its sensori-motor arcs, the presentation that accompanies +its excitement will have sensory vividness and will be a true +perception, an illusion, or an hallucination, according as these +impulses have followed the normal course from the sense-organ, +or have been diverted, to a lesser or greater degree, from their +normal paths. If any such neural system becomes abnormally +excitable, or becomes excited in any way with abnormal intensity, +it is thereby rendered a path of exceptionally low-resistance +capable of diverting to itself, from their normal path, any +streams of impulses ascending from the sense-organ; which +ascending impulses, entering the system by its afferent inlets, +excite sensations that impart to the presentation the character +of sensory vividness; the presentation thus acquires the +character of a percept in spite of the absence of the appropriate +impression on the sense-organ, and we call it an hallucination.</p> + +<p>This view renders intelligible the <i>modus operandi</i> of many of +the predisposing causes of hallucination; <i>e.g.</i> the pre-occupation +with certain representations of the ecstatic, or of the sufferer +from delusions of persecution; the intense expectation of a +particular sense impression, the generally increased excitability +of the cortex in states of delirium; in all these conditions the +abnormally intense excitement of the cortical systems may be +supposed to give them an undue directive and attractive influence +upon the streams of impulses ascending from the sense-organs, +so that sensory impulses may be diverted from their normal paths. +Again, it renders intelligible the part played by chronic irritation +of a sense-organ, as when chronic irritation of the internal ear +leads on to hallucinations of hearing; perhaps also the chronic +irritation of sensory nerves that must accompany the states of +visceral disease, shown by Head to be so frequently accompanied +by a liability to hallucinations; for any such chronic irritation +supplies a stream of disorderly impulses rising constantly from +the sense-organ, for the reception of which the brain has no +appropriate system, and which, therefore, readily enters any +organized cortical system that at any moment constitutes a +path of low-resistance. A similar explanation applies to the +influence of fixed gazing upon a crystal, or the placing of a shell +over the ear, in inducing visual and auditory hallucinations. +The “recurrent sensations” experienced after prolonged +occupation with some one kind of sensory object may be regarded +as due to an abnormal excitability of the cortical system concerned, +resulting from its unduly prolonged exercise. The +hypothesis renders intelligible also the liability to hallucination +of persons in the hysterical and hypnotic states, in whose brains +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page862" id="page862"></a>862</span> +the cortical neural systems are in a state of partial dissociation, +which renders possible an unduly intense and prolonged excitement +of some one system at the expense of all other systems +(cf. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hypnotism</a></span>).</p> + +<p><i>Coincidental Hallucinations.</i>—It would seem that, in well-nigh +all countries and in all ages, apparitions of persons known +to be in distant places have been occasionally observed. Such +appearances have usually been regarded as due to the presence, +before the bodily eye of the seer, of the ghost, wraith, double +or soul of the person who thus appears; and, since the soul +has been very commonly supposed to leave the body, permanently +at death and temporarily during sleep, trance or any period of +unconsciousness, however induced, it was natural to regard +such an appearance as evidence that the person whose wraith +was thus seen was in some such condition. Such apparitions +have probably played a part, second only to that of dreams, +in generating the almost universal belief in the separability of +soul and body.</p> + +<p>In many parts of the world traditional belief has connected +such apparitions more especially with the death of the person +so appearing, the apparition being regarded as an indication +that the person so appearing has recently died, is dying or is +about to die. Since death is so much less common an event than +sleep, trance, or other form of temporary unconsciousness, the +wide extension of this belief suggests that such apparitions may +coincide in time with death, with disproportionate frequency. +The belief in the significance of such apparitions still survives +in civilized communities, and stories of apparitions coinciding +with the death of the person appearing are occasionally reported +in the newspapers, or related as having recently occurred. The +Society for Psychical Research has sought to find grounds for +an answer to the question “Is there any sufficient justification +for the belief in a causal relation between the apparition of a +person at a place distant from his body and his death or other +exceptional and momentous event in his experience?” The +problem was attacked in a thoroughly scientific spirit, an +extensive inquiry was made, and the results were presented and +fully discussed in two large volumes, <i>Phantasms of the Living</i>, +published in the year 1886, bearing on the title-page the names +of Edmund Gurney, F. W. H. Myers and F. Podmore. Of +the three collaborators Gurney took the largest share in the +planning of the work, in the collection of evidence, and in the +elaboration and discussion of it.</p> + +<p>Gurney set out with the presumption that apparitions, whether +coincidental or not, are hallucinations in the sense defined above; +that <i>they are false perceptions</i> and are not excited by any object +or process of the external world acting upon the sense-organs +of the percipient in normal fashion; that they do not imply the +presence, in the place apparently occupied by them, of any wraith +or any form of existence emanating from, or specially connected +with, the person whose phantasm appears. This initial assumption +was abundantly justified by an examination of a large +number of cases for it, which showed that, in all important +respects, most of these apparitions of persons at a distance, +whether coincidental or not, were similar to other forms of +hallucination.</p> + +<p>The acceptance of this conclusion does not, however, imply +a negative answer to the question formulated above. The +Society for Psychical Research had accumulated an impressive +and, to almost all those who had first-hand acquaintance with +it, a convincing mass of experimental evidence of the reality +of telepathy (<i>q.v.</i>), the influence of mind on mind otherwise +than through the recognized channels of sense. The successful +experiments had for the most part been made between persons +in close proximity, in the same room or in adjoining rooms; +but they seemed to show that the state of consciousness of one +person may induce directly (<i>i.e.</i> without the mediation of the +organs of expression and sense-perception) a similar state of +consciousness in another person, especially if the former, +usually called the “agent,” strongly desired or “willed” +that this effect should be produced on the other person, the +“percipient.”</p> + +<p>The question formulated above thus resolved itself for Gurney +into the more definite form, “Can we find any good reason for +believing that coincidental hallucinations are sometimes veridical, +that the state of mind of a person at some great crisis of his +experience may telepathically induce in the mind of some +distant relative or friend an hallucinatory perception of himself?” +It was at once obvious that, if coincidental apparitions can be +proved to occur, this question can only be answered by a +statistical inquiry; for each such coincidental hallucination, +considered alone, may always be regarded as most educated +persons of the present time have regarded them, namely, as +merely accidental coincidences. That the coincidences are not +merely accidental can only be proved by showing that they +occur more frequently than the doctrine of chances would justify +us in expecting. Now, the death of any person is a unique event, +and the probability of its occurrence upon any particular day +may be very simply calculated from the mortality statistics, +if we assume that nothing is known of the individual’s vitality. +On the other hand, hallucinatory perceptions of persons, occurring +to sane and healthy individuals in the fully waking state, are +comparatively rare occurrences, whose frequency we may hope +to determine by a statistical inquiry. If, then, we can obtain +figures expressing the frequency of such hallucinations, we can +deduce, by the help of the laws of chance, the proportion of such +hallucinations that may be expected to coincide with (or, for +the purposes of the inquiry, to fall within twelve hours of) the +death of the person whose apparition appears, if no causal +relation obtains between the coinciding events. If, then, it +appears that the proportion of such coincidental hallucinations +is greater than the laws of probability will account for, a certain +presumption of a causal relation between the coinciding events +is thereby established; and the greater the excess of such +coincidences, the stronger does this presumption become. +Gurney attempted a census of hallucinations in order to obtain +data for this statistical treatment, and the results of it, embodied +in <i>Phantasms of the Living</i>, were considered by the authors of +that work to justify the belief that some coincidental hallucinations +are veridical. In the year 1889 the Society for Psychical +Research appointed a committee, under the chairmanship of the +late Henry Sidgwick, to make a second census of hallucinations +on a more extensive and systematic plan than the first, in order +that the important conclusion reached by the authors of <i>Phantasms +of the Living</i> might be put to the severer test rendered +possible by a larger and more carefully collected mass of data. +Seventeen thousand adults returned answers to the question, +“Have you ever, when believing yourself to be completely awake, +had a vivid impression of seeing or being touched by a living +being or inanimate object, or of hearing a voice; which impression, +so far as you could discover, was not due to any external +physical cause?” Rather more than two thousand persons +answered affirmatively, and to each of these were addressed +careful inquiries concerning their hallucinatory experiences. +In this way it was found that of the total number, 381 apparitions +of persons living at the moment (or not more than twelve hours +dead) had been recognized by the percipients, and that, of these, +80 were alleged to have been experienced within twelve hours +of the death of the person whose apparition had appeared. A +careful review of all the facts, conditions and probabilities, +led the committee to estimate that the former number should be +enlarged to 1300 in order to make ample allowance for forgetfulness +and for all other causes that might have tended to prevent +the registration of apparitions of this class. On the other hand, +a severe criticism of the alleged death-coincidences led them to +reduce the number, admitted by them for the purposes of their +calculation, to 30. The making of these adjustments gives us +about 1 in 43 as the proportion of coincidental death-apparitions +to the total number of recognized apparitions among the 17,000 +persons reached by the census. Now the death-rate being just +over 19 per thousand, the probability that any person taken at +random will die on a given day is about 1 in 19,000; or, more +strictly speaking, the average probability that any person will +die within any given period of twenty-four hours duration +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page863" id="page863"></a>863</span> +is about 1 in 19,000. Hence the probability that any other +particular event, having no causal relation to his death, but +occurring during his lifetime (or not later than twelve hours +after his death) will fall within the same twenty-four hours as his +death is 1 in 19,000; <i>i.e.</i> if an apparition of any individual is +seen and recognized by any other person, the probability of its +being experienced within twelve hours of that individual’s death +is 1 in 19,000, if no causal relation obtains between the two +events. Therefore, of all recognized apparitions of living persons, +1 only in 19,000 may be expected to be a death-coincidence of +this sort. But the census shows that of 1300 recognized apparitions +of living persons 30 are death-coincidences and that is +equivalent to 440 in 19,000. Hence, of recognized hallucinations, +those coinciding with death are 440 times more numerous than +we should expect, if no causal relation obtained; therefore, if +neither the data nor the reasoning can be destructively criticized, +we are compelled to believe that some causal relation obtains; +and, since good evidence of telepathic communication has been +experimentally obtained, the least improbable explanation of +these death-apparitions is that the dying person exerts upon his +distant friend some telepathic influence which generates an +hallucinatory perception of himself.</p> + +<p>These death-coincidences constitute the main feature of the +argument in favour of telepathic communication between +distant persons, but the census of hallucinations afforded other +data from which a variety of arguments, tending to support this +conclusion, were drawn by the committee; of these the most +important are the cases in which the hallucinatory percept +embodied details that were connected with the person perceived +and which could not have become known to the percipient by +any normal means. The committee could not find in the results +of the census any evidence sufficient to justify a belief that +hallucinations may be due to telepathic influence exerted by +personalities surviving the death of the body.</p> + +<p>The critical handling of the cases by the committee seems to +be above reproach. Those who do not accept their conclusion +based on the death-coincidences must direct their criticism to +the question of the reliability of the reports of these cases. It +is to be noted that, although only those cases are reckoned in +which the percipient had no cause to expect the death of the +person whose apparition he experienced, and although, in nearly +all the accepted cases, some record or communication of the +hallucination was made before hearing of the death, yet in very +few cases was any contemporary written record of the event +forthcoming for the inspection of the committee.</p> +<div class="author">(W. McD.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALLUIN,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> a frontier town of northern France, in the department +of Nord, near the right bank of the Lys, 14 m. N. by E. +of Lille by rail. Pop. (1906) town, 11,670; commune, 16,158. +Its church is of Gothic architecture. The manufactures comprise +linen and cotton goods, chairs and rubber goods, and brewing +and tanning are carried on; there is a board of trade arbitration. +The family of Halluin is mentioned as early as the 13th century. +In 1587 the title of duke and peer of the realm was granted to it, +but in the succeeding century it became extinct.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALM, CARL FELIX<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (1809-1882), German classical scholar +and critic, was born at Munich on the 5th of April 1809. In +1849, after having held appointments at Spires and Hadamar, +he became rector of the newly founded Maximiliansgymnasium +at Munich, and in 1856 director of the royal library and professor +in the university. These posts he held till his death on the 5th +of October 1882. It is chiefly as the editor of Cicero and other +Latin prose authors that Halm is known, although in early years +he also devoted considerable attention to Greek. After the +death of J. C. Orelli, he joined J. G. Baiter in the preparation +of a revised critical edition of the rhetorical and philosophical +writings of Cicero (1854-1862). His school editions of some of +the speeches of Cicero in the Haupt and Sauppe series, with +notes and introductions, were very successful. He also edited +a number of classical texts for the Teubner series, the most +important of which are Tacitus (4th ed., 1883); <i>Rhetores Latini +minores</i> (1863); Quintilian (1868); Sulpicius Severus (1866); +Minucius Felix together with Firmicus Maternus <i>De errore</i> +(1867); Salvianus (1877) and Victor Vitensis’s <i>Historia persecutionis +Africanae provinciae</i> (1878). He was also an +enthusiastic collector of autographs.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See articles by W. Christ and G. Laubmann in <i>Allgemeine deutsche +Biographie</i> and by C. Bursian in <i>Biographisches Jahrbuch</i>; and +J. E. Sandys, <i>Hist. of Classical Scholarship</i>, iii. 195 (1908).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALMA<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (Greek for “jump”), a table game, a form of which +was known to the ancient Greeks, played on a board divided +into 256 squares with wooden <i>men</i>, resembling chess pawns. +In the two-handed game 19 men are employed on each side, +coloured respectively black and white; in the four-handed +each player has 13, the men being coloured white, black, red +and green. At the beginning of the game the men are drawn up +in triangular formation in the enclosures, or <i>yards</i>, diagonally +opposite each other in the corners of the board. The object of +each player is to get all his men into his enemy’s yard, the player +winning who first accomplishes this. The moves are made +alternately, the mode of progression being by a <i>step</i>, from one +square to another immediately adjacent, or by a jump (whence +the name), which is the jumping of a man from a square in front +of it into an empty square on the other side of it. This corresponds +to jumping in draughts, except that, in halma, the +hop may be in any direction, over friendly as well as hostile +men, and the men jumped over are not taken but remain on +the board.</p> + +<p>In the four-handed game either each player plays for himself, +or two adjacent players play against the other two.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Card and Table Games</i>, by Professor Hoffmann (London, 1903).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALMAHERA<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> [“great land”; also Jilolo or Gilolo], an +island of the Dutch East Indies, belonging to the residency +of Ternate, lying under the equator and about 128° E. Its +shape is extremely irregular, resembling that of the island +of Celebes. It consists of four peninsulas so arranged as to +enclose three great bays (Kayu, Bicholi, Weda), all opening +towards the east, the northern peninsula being connected with +the others by an isthmus only 5 m. wide. On the western side +of the isthmus lies another bay, that of Dodinga, in the mouth +of which are situated the two islands Ternate and Tidore, whose +political importance exceeds that of the larger island (see these +articles). Of the four peninsulas of Halmahera the northern +and the southern are reckoned to the sultanate of Ternate, the +north-eastern and south-eastern to that of Tidore; the former +having eleven, the latter three districts. The distance between +the extremities of the northern and southern peninsulas, measured +along the curve of the west coast, is about 240 m.; and the total +area of the island is 6700 sq. m. Knowledge of the island is very +incomplete. It appears that the four peninsulas are traversed +in the direction of their longitudinal axis by mountain chains +3000 to 4000 ft. high, covered with forest, without a central +chain at the nucleus of the island whence the peninsulas diverge. +The mountain chains are frequently interrupted by plains, such +as those of Weda and Kobi. The northern part of the mountain +chain of the northern peninsula is volcanic, its volcanoes continuing +the line of those of Makian, Ternate and Tidore. Coral +formations on heights in the interior would indicate oscillations +of the land in several periods, but a detailed geology of the +island is wanting. To the north-east of the northern peninsula +is the considerable island of Morotai (635 sq. m.), and to the west +of the southern peninsula the more important island of Bachian +(<i>q.v.</i>) among others. Galela is a considerable settlement, situated +on a bay of the same name on the north-east coast, in a well +cultivated plain which extends southward and inland. Vegetation +is prolific. Rice is grown by the natives, but the sago tree +is of far greater importance to them. Dammar and coco-nuts +are also grown. The sea yields trepang and pearl shells. A +little trade is carried on by the Chinese and Macassars of Ternate, +who, crossing the narrow isthmus of Dodinga, enter the bay of +Kayu on the east coast. The total population is estimated at +100,000.</p> + +<p>The inhabitants are mostly of immigrant Malayan stock. +In the northern peninsula are found people of Papuan type, +probably representing the aborigines, and a tribe around Galela, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page864" id="page864"></a>864</span> +who are Polynesian in physique, possibly remnants, much mixed +by subsequent crossings with the Papuan indigenes, of the +Caucasian hordes emigrating in prehistoric times across the +Pacific. M. Achille Raffray gives a description of them in <i>Tour +du monde</i> (1879) where photographs will be found. “They are +as unlike the Malays as we are, excelling them in tallness of +stature and elegance of shape, and being perfectly distinguished +by their oval face, with a fairly high and open brow, their aquiline +nose and their horizontally placed eyes. Their beards are +sometimes thick; their limbs are muscular; the colour of their +skins is cinnamon brown. Spears of iron-wood, abundantly +barbed, and small bows and bamboo arrows free from poison +are their principal weapons.” They are further described as +having temples (<i>sabuas</i>) in which they suspend images of +serpents and other monsters as well as the trophies procured by +war. They believe in a better life hereafter, but have no idea +of a hell or a devil, their evil spirits only tormenting them in +the present state.</p> + +<p>The Portuguese and Spaniards were better acquainted with +Halmahera than with many other parts of the archipelago; +they called it sometimes Batu China and sometimes Moro. It +was circumnavigated by one of their vessels in 1525, and the +general outline of the coasts is correctly given in their maps at +a time when separate portions of Celebes, such as Macassar and +Menado, are represented as distinct islands. The name (Jilolo) +was really that of a native state, the sultan of which had the +chief rank among the princes of the Moluccas before he was +supplanted by the sultan of Ternate about 1380. His capital, +Jilolo, lay on the west coast on the first bay to the north of that +of Dodinga. In 1876 Danu Hassan, a descendant of the sultans +of Jilolo, raised an insurrection in the island for the purpose +of throwing off the authority of the sultans of Tidore and Ternate; +and his efforts would probably have been successful but for the +intervention of the Dutch. In 1878 a Dutch expedition was +directed against the pirates of Tobalai, and they were virtually +extirpated. Slavery remains in the interior. Missionary work, +carried on in the northern peninsula of Halmahera since 1866, +has been fairly successful among the heathen natives, but less so +among the Mahommedans, who have often incited the others +against the missionaries and their converts.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALMSTAD,<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> a seaport of Sweden, chief town of the district +(<i>län</i>) of Halland, on the E. shore of the Cattegat, 76 m. S.S.E. +of Gothenburg by the railway to Helsingborg. Pop. (1900), +15,362. It lies at the mouth of the river Nissa, having an inner +harbour (15 ft. depth), an outer harbour, and roads giving +anchorage (24 to 36 ft.) exposed to S. and N.W. winds. In the +neighbourhood there are quarries of granite, which is exported +chiefly to Germany. Other industries are engineering, shipbuilding +and brewing, and there are cloth, jute, hat, wood-pulp +and paper factories. The principal exports are granite, timber +and hats; and butter through Helsingborg and Gothenburg. +The imports are coal, machinery and grain. Potatoes are +largely grown in the district, and the salmon fisheries are valuable. +The castle is the residence of the governor of the province. There +are both mineral and sea-water baths in the neighbourhood.</p> + +<p>Mention of the church of Halmstad occurs as early as 1462, +and the fortifications are mentioned first in 1225. The latter +were demolished in 1734. There were formerly Dominican and +Franciscan monasteries in the town. The oldest town-privileges +date from 1307. During the revolt of the miner Engelbrekt, +it twice fell into the hands of the rebels—in 1434 and 1436. +The town appears to have been frequently chosen as the meeting-place +of the rulers and delegates of the three northern kingdoms; +and under the union of Kalmar it was appointed to be the place +for the election of a new Scandinavian monarch whenever +necessary. The <i>län</i> of Halland formed part of the territory of +Denmark in Sweden, and accordingly, in 1534, during his war +with the Danes, Gustavus Vasa assaulted and took its chief town. +In 1660, by the treaty of Copenhagen, the whole district was +ceded to Sweden. In 1676 Charles XII. defeated near Halmstad +a Danish army which was attempting to retake the district, and +since that time Halland has formed part of Sweden.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALO,<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> a word derived from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="halôs">ἄλως</span>, a threshing-floor, +and afterwards applied to denote the disk of the sun or moon, +probably on account of the circular path traced out by the oxen +threshing the corn. It was thence applied to denote any luminous +ring, such as that viewed around the sun or moon, or portrayed +about the heads of saints.</p> + +<p>In physical science, a halo is a luminous circle, surrounding +the sun or moon, with various auxiliary phenomena, and formed +by the reflection and refraction of light by ice-crystals suspended +in the atmosphere. The optical phenomena produced by +atmospheric water and ice may be divided into two classes, +according to the relative position of the luminous ring and the +source of light. In the first class we have <i>halos</i>, and <i>coronae</i>, +or “glories,” which encircle the luminary; the second class +includes <i>rainbows</i>, <i>fog-bows</i>, <i>mist-halos</i>, <i>anthelia</i> and <i>mountain-spectres</i>, +whose centres are at the anti-solar point. Here it is +only necessary to distinguish halos from coronae. Halos are +at definite distances (22° and 46°) from the sun, and are coloured +red on the <i>inside</i>, being due to refraction; coronae closely +surround the sun at variable distances, and are coloured red +on the <i>outside</i>, being due to diffraction.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:525px; height:261px" src="images/img864.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span></td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>The phenomenon of a solar (or lunar) halo as seen from the +earth is represented in fig. 1; fig. 2 is a diagrammatic sketch +showing the appearance as viewed from the zenith; but it is +only in exceptional circumstances that all the parts are seen. +Encircling the sun or moon (S), there are two circles, known as +the inner halo I, and the outer halo O, having radii of about 22° +and 46°, and exhibiting the colours of the spectrum in a confused +manner, the only decided tint being the red on the inside. +Passing through the luminary and parallel to the horizon, there +is a white luminous circle, the <i>parhelic circle</i> (P), on which a +number of images of the luminary appear. The most brilliant +are situated at the intersections of the inner halo and the parhelic +circle; these are known as <i>parhelia</i> (denoted by the letter <i>p</i> in +the figures) (from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="para">παρά</span>, beside, and <span class="grk" title="hêlios">ἥλιος</span>, the sun) +or “mock-suns,” in the case of the sun, and as <i>paraselenae</i> +(from <span class="grk" title="para">παρά</span> and <span class="grk" title="selênê">σελήνη</span>, the moon) or “mock-moons,” in the +case of the moon. Less brilliant are the parhelia of the outer +halo. The parhelia are most brilliant when the sun is near the +horizon. As the sun rises, they pass a little beyond the halo +and exhibit flaming tails. The other images on the parhelic +circle are the <i>paranthelia</i> (<i>q</i>) and the <i>anthelion</i> (<i>a</i>) (from the +Greek <span class="grk" title="anti">ἀντί</span>, opposite, and <span class="grk" title="hêlios">ἥλιος</span>, the sun). The former are +situated at from 90° to 140° from the sun; the latter is a white +patch of light situated at the anti-solar point and often exceeding +in size the apparent diameter of the luminary. A vertical circle +passing through the sun may also be seen. From the parhelia +of the inner halo two oblique curves (L) proceed. These are +known as the “arcs of Lowitz,” having been first described in +1794 by Johann Tobias Lowitz (1757-1804). Luminous arcs +(T), tangential to the upper and lower parts of each halo, also +occur, and in the case of the inner halo, the arcs may be prolonged +to form a quasi-elliptic halo.</p> + +<p>The physical explanation of halos originated with René +Descartes, who ascribed their formation to the presence of ice-crystals +in the atmosphere. This theory was adopted by Edmé +Mariotte, Sir Isaac Newton and Thomas Young; and, although +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page865" id="page865"></a>865</span> +certain of their assumptions were somewhat arbitrary, yet the +general validity of the theory has been demonstrated by the +researches of J. G. Galle and A. Bravais. The memoir of the +last-named, published in the <i>Journal de l’École royale polytechnique</i> +for 1847 (xviii., 1-270), ranks as a classic on the +subject; it is replete with examples and illustrations, and discusses +the various phenomena in minute detail.</p> + +<p>The usual form of ice-crystals in clouds is a right hexagonal +prism, which may be elongated as a needle or foreshortened +like a thin plate. There are three refracting angles possible, +one of 120° between two adjacent prism faces, one of 60° between +two alternate prism faces, and one of 90° between a prism face +and the base. If innumerable numbers of such crystals fall in +any manner between the observer and the sun, light falling +upon these crystals will be refracted, and the refracted rays will +be crowded together in the position of minimum deviation (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Refraction of Light</a></span>). Mariotte explained the inner halo as +being due to refraction through a pair of alternate faces, since the +minimum deviation of an ice-prism whose refracting angle is 60° +is about 22°. Since the minimum deviation is least for the least +refrangible rays, it follows that the red rays will be the least +refracted, and the violet the more refracted, and therefore the +halo will be coloured red on the inside. Similarly, as explained +by Henry Cavendish, the halo of 46° is due to refraction by faces +inclined at 90°. The impurity of the colours (due partly to the +sun’s diameter, but still more to oblique refraction) is more +marked in halos than in rainbows; in fact, only the red is at +all pure, and as a rule, only a mere trace of green or blue is seen, +the external portion of each halo being nearly white.</p> + +<p>The two halos are the only phenomena which admit of +explanation without assigning any particular distribution to the +ice-crystals. But it is obvious that certain distributions will +predominate, for the crystals will tend to fall so as to offer the +least resistance to their motion; a needle-shaped crystal tending +to keep its axis vertical, a plate-shaped crystal to keep its axis +horizontal. Thomas Young explained the parhelic circle (P) +as due to reflection from the vertical faces of the long prisms +and the bases of the short ones. If these vertical faces become +very numerous, the eye will perceive a colourless horizontal +circle. Reflection from an excess of horizontal prisms gives +rise to a vertical circle passing through the sun.</p> + +<p>The parhelia (<i>p</i>) were explained by Mariotte as due to refraction +through a pair of alternate faces of a vertical prism. When +the sun is near the horizon the rays fall upon the principal section +of the prisms; the minimum deviation for such rays is 22°, and +consequently the parhelia are not only on the inner halo, but +also on the parhelic circle. As the sun rises, the rays enter the +prisms more and more obliquely, and the angle of minimum +deviation increases; but since the emergent ray makes the same +angle with the refracting edge as the incident ray, it follows that +the parhelia will remain on the parhelic circle, while receding +from the inner halo. The different values of the angle of +minimum deviation for rays of different refrangibilities give rise +to spectral colours, the red being nearest the sun, while farther +away the overlapping of the spectra forms a flaming colourless +tail sometimes extending over as much as 10° to 20°. The +“arcs of Lowitz” (L) are probably due to small oscillations of +the vertical prisms.</p> + +<p>The “tangential arcs” (T) were explained by Young as being +caused by the thin plates with their axes horizontal, refraction +taking place through alternate faces. The axes will take up any +position, and consequently give rise to a continuous series of +parhelia which touch externally the inner halo, both above and +below, and under certain conditions (such as the requisite +altitude of the sun) form two closed elliptical curves; generally, +however, only the upper and lower portions are seen. Similarly, +the tangential arcs to the halo of 46° are due to refraction through +faces inclined at 90°.</p> + +<p>The paranthelia (<i>q</i>) may be due to two internal or two external +reflections. A pair of triangular prisms having a common face, +or a stellate crystal formed by the symmetrical interpenetration +of two triangular prisms admits of two internal reflections by +faces inclined at 120°, and so give rise to two colourless images +each at an angular distance of 120° from the sun. Double +internal reflection by a triangular prism would form a single +coloured image on the parhelic circle at about 98° from the sun. +These angular distances are attained only when the sun is on +the horizon, and they increase as it rises.</p> + +<p>The anthelion (<i>a</i>) may be explained as caused by two internal +reflections of the solar rays by a hexagonal lamellar crystal, +having its axis horizontal and one of the diagonals of its base +vertical. The emerging rays are parallel to their original direction +and form a colourless image on the parhelic circle opposite +the sun.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">References.</span>—Auguste Bravais’s celebrated memoir, “Sur les +halos et les phénomènes optiques qui les accompagnent” (<i>Journ. +École poly.</i> vol. xviii., 1847), contains a full account of the geometrical +theory. See also E. Mascart, <i>Traité d’optique</i>; J. Pernter, <i>Meteorologische +Optik</i> (1902-1905); and R. S. Heath, <i>Geometrical Optics</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALOGENS.<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> The word halogen is derived from the Greek +<span class="grk" title="hals">ἅλς</span> (sea-salt) and <span class="grk" title="gennan">γεννᾶν</span> (to produce), and consequently +means the sea-salt producer. The term is applied to the four +elements fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine, on account of +the great similarity of their sodium salts to ordinary sea-salt. +These four elements show a great resemblance to one another +in their general chemical behaviour, and in that of their compounds, +whilst their physical properties show a gradual transition. +Thus, as the atomic weight increases, the state of aggregation +changes from that of a gas in the case of fluorine and chlorine, +to that of a liquid (bromine) and finally to that of the solid +(iodine); at the same time the melting and boiling points rise +with increasing atomic weights. The halogen of lower atomic +weight can displace one of higher atomic weight from its hydrogen +compound, or from the salt derived from such hydrogen compound, +while, on the other hand, the halogen of higher atomic +weight can displace that of lower atomic weight, from the +halogen oxy-acids and their salts; thus iodine will liberate +chlorine from potassium chlorate and also from perchloric acid. +All four of the halogens unite with hydrogen, but the affinity +for hydrogen decreases as the atomic weight increases, hydrogen +and fluorine uniting explosively at very low temperatures and +in the dark, whilst hydrogen and iodine unite only at high +temperatures, and even then the resulting compound is very +readily decomposed by heat. The hydrides of the halogens are +all colourless, strongly fuming gases, readily soluble in water and +possessing a strong acid reaction; they react readily with basic +oxides, forming in most cases well defined crystalline salts which +resemble one another very strongly. On the other hand the +stability of the known oxygen compounds increases with the +atomic weight, thus iodine pentoxide is, at ordinary temperatures, +a well-defined crystalline solid, which is only decomposed on +heating strongly, whilst chlorine monoxide, chlorine peroxide, +and chlorine heptoxide are very unstable, even at ordinary +temperatures, decomposing at the slightest shock. Compounds +of fluorine and oxygen, and of bromine and oxygen, have not +yet been isolated. In some respects there is a very marked +difference between fluorine and the other members of the group, +for, whilst sodium chloride, bromide and iodide are readily +soluble in water, sodium fluoride is much less soluble; again, +silver chloride, bromide and iodide are practically insoluble +in water, whilst, on the other hand, silver fluoride is appreciably +soluble in water. Again, fluorine shows a great tendency to form +double salts, which have no counterpart among the compounds +formed by the other members of the family.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALS, FRANS<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (1580?-1666), Dutch painter, was born at +Antwerp according to the most recent authorities in 1580 or +1581, and died at Haarlem in 1666. As a portrait painter second +only to Rembrandt in Holland, he displayed extraordinary +talent and quickness in the exercise of his art coupled with +improvidence in the use of the means which that art secured to +him. At a time when the Dutch nation fought for independence +and won it, Hals appears in the ranks of its military gilds. He +was also a member of the Chamber of Rhetoric, and (1644) chairman +of the Painters’ Corporation at Haarlem. But as a man he +had failings. He so ill-treated his first wife, Anneke Hermansz, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page866" id="page866"></a>866</span> +that she died prematurely in 1616; and he barely saved the +character of his second, Lysbeth Reyniers, by marrying her in +1617. Another defect was partiality to drink, which led him +into low company. Still he brought up and supported a family +of ten children with success till 1652, when the forced sale of his +pictures and furniture, at the suit of a baker to whom he was +indebted for bread and money, brought him to absolute penury. +The inventory of the property seized on this occasion only +mentions three mattresses and bolsters, an armoire, a table and +five pictures. This humble list represents all his worldly possessions +at the time of his bankruptcy. Subsequently to this he +was reduced to still greater straits, and his rent and firing were +paid by the municipality, which afterwards gave him (1664) +an annuity of 200 florins. We may admire the spirit which +enabled him to produce some of his most striking works in his +unhappy circumstances: we find his widow seeking outdoor +relief from the guardians of the poor, and dying obscurely in a +hospital.</p> + +<p>Hals’s pictures illustrate the various strata of society into +which his misfortunes led him. His banquets or meetings of +officers, of sharpshooters, and gildsmen are the most interesting +of his works. But they are not more characteristic than his +low-life pictures of itinerant players and singers. His portraits +of gentlefolk are true and noble, but hardly so expressive as +those of fishwives and tavern heroes.</p> + +<p>His first master at Antwerp was probably van Noort, as has +been suggested by M. G. S. Davies, but on his removal to Haarlem +Frans Hals entered the atelier of van Mander, the painter and +historian, of whom he possessed some pictures which went to +pay the debt of the baker already alluded to. But he soon +improved upon the practice of the time, illustrated by J. van +Schoreel and Antonio Moro, and, emancipating himself gradually +from tradition, produced pictures remarkable for truth and +dexterity of hand. We prize in Rembrandt the golden glow of +effects based upon artificial contrasts of low light in immeasurable +gloom. Hals was fond of daylight of silvery sheen. Both men +were painters of touch, but of touch on different keys—Rembrandt +was the bass, Hals the treble. The latter is perhaps +more expressive than the former. He seizes with rare intuition +a moment in the life of his sitters. What nature displays in +that moment he reproduces thoroughly in a very delicate scale +of colour, and with a perfect mastery over every form of expression. +He becomes so clever at last that exact tone, light and +shade, and modelling are all obtained with a few marked and +fluid strokes of the brush.</p> + +<p>In every form of his art we can distinguish his earlier style +from that of later years. It is curious that we have no record +of any work produced by him in the first decade of his +independent activity, save an engraving by Jan van de Velde +after a lost portrait of “The Minister Johannes Bogardus,” +who died in 1614. The earliest works by Frans Hals that have +come down to us, “Two Boys Playing and Singing” in the +gallery of Cassel, and a “Banquet of the officers of the ‘St +Joris Doele’” or Arquebusiers of St George (1616) in the museum +of Haarlem, exhibit him as a careful draughtsman capable of +great finish, yet spirited withal. His flesh, less clear than it +afterwards becomes, is pastose and burnished. Later he becomes +more effective, displays more freedom of hand, and a greater +command of effect. At this period we note the beautiful full-length +of “Madame van Beresteyn” at the Louvre in Paris, +and a splendid full-length portrait of “Willem van Heythuysen” +leaning on a sword in the Liechtenstein collection at Vienna. +Both these pictures are equalled by the other “Banquet of the +officers, of the Arquebusiers of St George” (with different +portraits) and the “Banquet of the officers of the ‘Cloveniers +Doelen’” or Arquebusiers of St Andrew of 1627 and an +“Assembly of the officers of the Arquebusiers of St Andrew” +of 1633 in the Haarlem Museum. A picture of the same kind +in the town hall of Amsterdam, with the date of 1637, suggests +some study of the masterpieces of Rembrandt, and a similar +influence is apparent in a picture of 1641 at Haarlem, representing +the “Regents of the Company of St Elizabeth” and in the +portrait of “Maria Voogt” at Amsterdam. But Rembrandt’s +example did not create a lasting impression on Hals. He gradually +dropped more and more into grey and silvery harmonies +of tone; and two of his canvases, executed in 1664, “The +Regents and Regentesses of the Oudemannenhuis” at Haarlem, +are masterpieces of colour, though in substance all but monochromes. +In fact, ever since 1641 Hals had shown a tendency +to restrict the gamut of his palette, and to suggest colour rather +than express it. This is particularly noticeable in his flesh tints +which from year to year became more grey, until finally the +shadows were painted in almost absolute black, as in the +“Tymane Oosdorp,” of the Berlin Gallery. As this tendency +coincides with the period of his poverty, it has been suggested +that one of the reasons, if not the only reason, of his predilection +for black and white pigment was the cheapness of these colours +as compared with the costly lakes and carmines.</p> + +<p>As a portrait painter Frans Hals had scarcely the psychological +insight of a Rembrandt or Velazquez, though in a few works, +like the “Admiral de Ruyter,” in Earl Spencer’s collection, +the “Jacob Olycan” at the Hague Gallery, and the “Albert +van der Meer” at Haarlem town hall, he reveals a searching +analysis of character which has little in common with the +instantaneous expression of his so-called “character” portraits. +In these he generally sets upon the canvas the fleeting aspect +of the various stages of merriment, from the subtle, half ironic +smile that quivers round the lips of the curiously misnamed +“Laughing Cavalier” in the Wallace Collection to the imbecile +grin of the “Hille Bobbe” in the Berlin Museum. To this +group of pictures belong Baron Gustav Rothschild’s “Jester,” +the “<i>Bohémienne</i>” at the Louvre, and the “Fisher Boy” at +Antwerp, whilst the “Portrait of the Artist with his second +Wife” at the Ryks Museum in Amsterdam, and the somewhat +confused group of the “Beresteyn Family” at the Louvre +show a similar tendency. Far less scattered in arrangement +than this Beresteyn group, and in every respect one of the most +masterly of Frans Hals’s achievements is the group called “The +Painter and his Family” in the possession of Colonel Warde, +which was almost unknown until it appeared at the winter +exhibition at the Royal Academy in 1906.</p> + +<p>Though a visit to Haarlem town hall, which contains the +five enormous Doelen groups and the two Regenten pictures, +is as necessary for the student of Hals’s art as a visit to the +Prado in Madrid is for the student of Velazquez, good examples +of the Dutch master have found their way into most of the +leading public and private collections. In the British Isles, +besides the works already mentioned, portraits from his brush +are to be found at the National Gallery, the Edinburgh Gallery, +the Glasgow Corporation Gallery, Hampton Court, Buckingham +Palace, Devonshire House, and the collections of Lord Northbrooke, +Lord Ellesmere, Lord Iveagh and Lord Spencer.</p> + +<p>At Amsterdam is the celebrated “Flute Player,” once in the +Dupper collection at Dort; at Brussels, the patrician “Heythuysen”; +at the Louvre, “Descartes”; at Dresden, the +painter “Van der Vinne.” Hals’s sitters were taken from +every class of society—admirals, generals and burgomasters +pairing with merchants, lawyers, clerks. To register all that +we find in public galleries would involve much space. There +are eight portraits at Berlin, six at Cassel, five at St Petersburg, +six at the Louvre, two at Brussels, five at Dresden, two at Gotha. +In private collections, chiefly in Paris, Haarlem and Vienna, +we find an equally important number. Amongst the painter’s +most successful representations of fishwives and termagants +we should distinguish the “Hille Bobbe” of the Berlin Museum, +and the “Hille Bobbe with her Son” in the Dresden Gallery. +Itinerant players are best illustrated in the Neville-Goldsmith +collection at the Hague, and the Six collection at Amsterdam. +Boys and girls singing, playing or laughing, or men drinking, +are to be found in the gallery of Schwerin, in the Arenberg +collection, and in the royal palace at Brussels.</p> + +<p>For two centuries after his death Frans Hals was held in such +poor esteem that some of his paintings, which are now among +the proudest possessions of public galleries, were sold at auction +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page867" id="page867"></a>867</span> +for a few pounds or even shillings. The portrait of “Johannes +Acronius,” now at the Berlin Museum, realized five shillings +at the Enschede sale in 1786. The splendid portrait of the man +with the sword at the Liechtenstein gallery was sold in 1800 for +£4, 5s. With his rehabilitation in public esteem came the +enormous rise in values, and, at the Secretan sale in 1889, the +portrait of “Pieter van de Broecke d’Anvers” was bid up to +£4420, while in 1908 the National Gallery paid £25,000 for the +large group from the collection of Lord Talbot de Malahide.</p> + +<p>Of the master’s numerous family none has left a name except +<span class="sc">Frans Hals the Younger</span>, born about 1622, who died in 1669. +His pictures represent cottages and poultry; and the “Vanitas” +at Berlin, a table laden with gold and silver dishes, cups, glasses +and books, is one of his finest works and deserving of a passing +glance.</p> + +<p>Quite in another form, and with much of the freedom of the +elder <span class="sc">Hals, Dirk Hals</span>, his brother (born at Haarlem, died 1656), +is a painter of festivals and ball-rooms. But Dirk had too much +of the freedom and too little of the skill in drawing which characterized +his brother. He remains second on his own ground to +Palamedes. A fair specimen of his art is a “Lady playing a +Harpsichord to a Young Girl and her Lover” in the van der +Hoop collection at Amsterdam, now in the Ryks Museum. +More characteristic, but not better, is a large company of +gentle-folk rising from dinner, in the Academy at Vienna.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>—See W. Bode, <i>Frans Hals und seine Schule</i> (Leipzig, +1871); W. Unger and W. Vosmaer, <i>Etchings after Frans Hals</i> +(Leyden, 1873); Percy Rendell Head, <i>Sir Anthony Van Dyck and +Frans Hals</i> (London, 1879); D. Knackfuss, <i>Frans Hals</i> (Leipzig, +1896); G. S. Davies, <i>Frans Hals</i> (London, 1902).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(P. G. K.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALSBURY, HARDINGE STANLEY GIFFARD,<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Earl of</span> +(1825-  ), English lord chancellor, son of Stanley Lees +Giffard, LL.D., was born in London on the 3rd of September +1825. He was educated at Merton College, Oxford, and was +called to the bar at the Inner Temple in 1850, joining the North +Wales and Chester circuit. Afterwards he had a large practice +at the central criminal court and the Middlesex sessions, and he +was for several years junior prosecuting counsel to the treasury. +He was engaged in most of the celebrated trials of his time, +including the Overend and Gurney and the Tichborne cases. +He became queen’s counsel in 1865, and a bencher of the Inner +Temple. Mr Giffard twice contested Cardiff in the Conservative +interest, in 1868 and 1874, but he was still without a seat in the +House of Commons when he was appointed solicitor-general by +Disraeli in 1875 and received the honour of knighthood. In 1877 +he succeeded in obtaining a seat, when he was returned for +Launceston, which borough he continued to represent until his +elevation to the peerage in 1885. He was then created Baron +Halsbury and appointed lord chancellor, thus forming a remarkable +exception to the rule that no criminal lawyer ever reaches +the woolsack. Lord Halsbury resumed the position in 1886 +and held it until 1892 and again from 1895 to 1905, his tenure +of the office, broken only by the brief Liberal ministries of 1886 +and 1892-1895, being longer than that of any lord chancellor +since Lord Eldon. In 1898 he was created earl of Halsbury and +Viscount Tiverton. Among Conservative lord chancellors Lord +Halsbury must always hold a high place, his grasp of legal +principles and mastery in applying them being pre-eminent +among the judges of his day.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALSTEAD,<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> a market-town in the Maldon parliamentary +division of Essex, England, on the Colne, 17 m. N.N.E. from +Chelmsford; served by the Colne Valley railway from Chappel +Junction on the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district +(1901), 6073. It lies on a hill in a pleasant wooded district. +The church of St Andrew is mainly Perpendicular. It contains +a monument supposed to commemorate Sir Robert Bourchier +(d. 1349), lord chancellor to Edward III. The Lady Mary +Ramsay grammar school dates from 1594. There are large silk +and crape works. Two miles N. of Halstead is Little Maplestead, +where the church is the latest in date of the four churches with +round naves extant in England, being perhaps of 12th-century +foundation, but showing early Decorated work in the main. +The chancel, which is without aisles, terminates in an apse. +Three miles N.W. from Halstead are the large villages of Sible +Hedingham (pop. 1701) and Castle Hedingham (pop. 1097). At +the second is the Norman keep of the de Veres, of whom Aubrey +de Vere held the lordship from William I. The keep dates from +the end of the 11th century, and exhibits much fine Norman +work. The church of St Nicholas, Castle Hedingham, has fine +Norman, Transitional and Early English details, and there is a +black marble tomb of John de Vere, 15th earl of Oxford (d. 1540), +with his countess.</p> + +<p>There are signs of settlement at Halstead (Halsteda, Halgusted, +Halsted) in the Bronze Age; but there is no evidence of the +causes of its growth in historic times. Probably its situation +on the river Colne made it to some extent a local centre. +Throughout the middle ages Halstead was unimportant, and +never rose to the rank of a borough.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALT.<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (1) An adjective common to Teutonic languages and +still appearing in Swedish and Danish, meaning lame, crippled. +It is also used as a verb, meaning to limp, and as a substantive, +especially in the term “string-halt” or “spring-halt,” a nervous +disorder affecting the muscles of the hind legs of horses. (2) A +pause or stoppage made on a march or a journey. The word +came into English in the form “to make alto” or “alt,” and +was taken from the French <i>faire alte</i> or Italian <i>far alto</i>. The +origin is a German military term, <i>Halt machen</i>, <i>Halt</i> meaning +“hold.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALUNTIUM<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Alontion">Ἀλόντιον</span>, mod. S. Marco d’Alunzio), an +ancient city of Sicily, 6 m. from the north coast and 25 m. E.N.E. +of Halaesa. It was probably of Sicel origin, though its foundation +was ascribed to some of the companions of Aeneas. It appears +first in Roman times as a place of some importance, and suffered +considerably at the hands of Verres. The abandoned church of +S. Mark, just outside the modern town, is built into the cella +of an ancient Greek temple, which measures 62 ft. by 18. A +number of ancient inscriptions have been found there.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALYBURTON, JAMES<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> (1518-1589), Scottish reformer, was +born in 1518, and was educated at St Andrews, where he graduated +M.A. in 1538. From 1553 to 1586 he was provost of St Andrews +and a prominent figure in the national life. He was chosen as +one of the lords of the congregation in 1557, and commanded +the contingents sent by Forfar and Fife against the queen regent +in 1559. He took part in the defence of Edinburgh, and in the +battles of Langside (1568) and Restalrig (1571). He had stoutly +opposed the marriage of Mary with Darnley, and when, after +Restalrig, he was captured by the queen’s troops, he narrowly +escaped execution. He represented Morton at the conference +of 1578, and was one of the royal commissioners to the General +Assembly in 1582 and again in 1588. He died in February 1589.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALYBURTON, THOMAS<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (1674-1712), Scottish divine, was +born at Dupplin, near Perth, on the 25th of December 1674. +His father, one of the ejected ministers, having died in 1682, +he was taken by his mother in 1685 to Rotterdam to escape +persecution, where he for some time attended the school founded +by Erasmus. On his return to his native country in 1687 he +completed his elementary education at Perth and Edinburgh, +and in 1696 graduated at the university of St Andrews. In +1700 he was ordained minister of the parish of Ceres, and in 1710 +he was recommended by the synod of Fife for the chair of +theology in St Leonard’s College, St Andrews, to which accordingly +he was appointed by Queen Anne. After a brief term of +active professorial life he died from the effects of overwork in +1712.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The works by which he continues to be known were all of them +published after his death. Wesley and Whitefield were accustomed +to commend them to their followers. They were published as +follows: <i>Natural Religion Insufficient, and Revealed Religion +Necessary, to Man’s Happiness in his Present State</i> (1714), an able +statement of the orthodox Calvinistic criticism of the deism of Lord +Herbert of Cherbury and Charles Blount; <i>Memoirs of the Life of +Mr Thomas Halyburton</i> (1715), three parts by his own hand, the +fourth from his diary by another hand; <i>The Great Concern of +Salvation</i> (1721), with a word of commendation by I. Watts; <i>Ten +Sermons Preached Before and After the Lord’s Supper</i> (1722); <i>The +Unpardonable Sin Against the Holy Ghost</i> (1784). See Halyburton’s +<i>Memoirs</i> (1714).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page868" id="page868"></a>868</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAM,<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> in the Bible. (1) <span title="Ham">חם</span>, <i>Ḥām</i>, in Gen. v. 32, vi. 10, vii. 13, +ix. 18, x. 5, 1 Chron. i. 4, the <i>second</i> son of Noah; in Gen. ix. 24, +the <i>youngest</i> son (but cf. below); and in Gen. x. 6, 1 Chron. i. 8, +the father of Cush (Ethiopia), Mizraim (Egypt), Phut and +Canaan. Genesis x. exhibits in the form of genealogies the +political, racial and geographical relations of the peoples known +to Israel; as it was compiled from various sources and has been +more than once edited, it does not exactly represent the situation +at any given date,<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> but Ham seems to stand roughly for the +south-western division of the world as known to Israel, which +division was regarded as the natural sphere of influence of Egypt. +Ham is held to be the Egyptian word <i>Khem</i> (black) which was +the native name of Egypt; thus in Pss. lxxviii. 51, cv. 23, 27, +cvi. 22, Ham = Egypt. In Gen. ix. 20-26 Canaan was originally +the third son of Noah and the villain of the story. Ham is a +later addition to harmonize with other passages.</p> + +<p>(2) <span title="Ham">חם</span>, <i>Ḥām</i>, 1 Chron. iv. 40, apparently the name of a place +or tribe. It can hardly be identical with (1); nothing else is +known of this second Ham, which may be a scribe’s error; +the Syriac version rejects the name.</p> + +<p>(3) <span title="Ham">חם</span>, <i>Ḥam</i>, Gen. xiv. 5; the place where Chedorlaomer +defeated the Zuzim, apparently in eastern Palestine. The place +is unknown, and the name may be a scribe’s error, perhaps for +Ammon.</p> +<div class="author">(W. H. Be.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> A. Jeremias, <i>Das A.T. im Lichte des alten Orients</i>, p. 145, holds +that it represents the situation in the 8th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAM,<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> a small town of northern France, in the department of +Somme, 36 m. E.S.E. of Amiens on the Northern railway between +that city and Laon. Pop. (1906), 2957. It stands on the Somme +in a marshy district where market-gardening is carried on. From +the 9th century onwards it appears as the seat of a lordship +which, after the extinction of its hereditary line, passed in +succession to the houses of Coucy, Enghien, Luxembourg, Rohan, +Vendôme and Navarre, and was finally united to the French +crown on the accession of Henry IV. Notre-Dame, the church +of an abbey of canons regular of St Augustin, dates from the +12th and 13th centuries, but in 1760 all the inflammable portions +of the building were destroyed by a conflagration caused by +lightning, and a process of restoration was subsequently carried +out. Of special note are the bas-reliefs of the nave and choir, +executed in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the crypt of the +12th century, which contains the sepulchral effigies of Odo IV. +of Ham and his wife Isabella of Béthencourt. The castle, +founded before the 10th century, was rebuilt early in the 13th, +and extended in the 14th; its present appearance is mainly +due to the constable Louis of Luxembourg, count of St Pol, +who between 1436 and 1470 not only furnished it with outworks, +but gave such a thickness to the towers and curtains, and more +especially to the great tower or donjon which still bears his +motto <i>Mon Myeulx</i>, that the great engineer and architect +Viollet-le-Duc considered them, even in the 19th century, +capable of resisting artillery. It forms a rectangle 395 ft. long +by 263 ft. broad, with a round tower at each angle and two +square towers protecting the curtains. The eastern and western +sides are each defended by a demi-lune. The Constable’s Tower, +for so the great tower is usually called in memory of St Pol, +has a height of about 100 ft., and the thickness of the walls is +36 ft.; the interior is occupied by three large hexagonal chambers +in as many stories. The castle of Ham, which now serves as +barracks, has frequently been used as a state prison both in +ancient and modern times, and the list of those who have +sojourned there is an interesting one, including as it does Joan +of Arc, Louis of Bourbon, the ministers of Charles X., Louis +Napoleon, and Generals Cavaignac and Lamoricière. Louis +Napoleon was there for six years, and at last effected his escape +in the disguise of a workman. During 1870-1871 Ham was +several times captured and recaptured by the belligerents. A +statue commemorates the birth in the town of General Foy +(1775-1825).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. G. Cappot, <i>Le Château de Ham</i> (Paris, 1842); and Ch. +Gomart, <i>Ham, son château et ses prisonniers</i> (Ham, 1864).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMADĀN,<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> a province and town of Persia. The province is +bounded N. by Gerrūs and Khamseh, W. by Kermanshah, +S. by Malāyir and Irāk, E. by Savah and Kazvin. It has many +well-watered, fertile plains and more than four hundred flourishing +villages producing much grain, and its population, estimated +at 350,000—more than half being Turks of the Karaguzlu +(black-eyed) and Shāmlu (Syrian) tribes—supplies several +battalions of infantry to the army, and pays, besides, a yearly +revenue of about £18,000.</p> + +<p>Hamadān, the capital of the province, is situated 188 m. +W.S.W. of Teheran, at an elevation of 5930 ft., near the foot of +Mount Elvend (old Persian <i>Arvand</i>, Gr. <i>Orontes</i>), whose granite +peak rises W. of it to an altitude of 11,900 ft. It is a busy trade +centre with about 40,000 inhabitants (comprising 4000 Jews +and 300 Armenians), has extensive and well-stocked bazaars and +fourteen large and many small caravanserais. The principal +industries are tanning leather and the manufacture of saddles, +harnesses, trunks, and other leather goods, felts and copper +utensils. The leather of Hamadān is much esteemed throughout +the country and exported to other provinces in great quantities. +The streets are narrow, and by a system called Kūcheh-bandi +(street-closing) established long ago for impeding the circulation +of crowds and increasing general security, every quarter of the +town, or block of buildings, is shut off from its neighbours by +gates which are closed during local disorders and regularly at +night. Hamadān has post and telegraph offices and two +churches, one Armenian, the other Protestant (of the American +Presbyterian Mission).</p> + +<p>Among objects of interest are the alleged tombs of Esther +and Mordecai in an insignificant domed building in the centre +of the town. There are two wooden sarcophagi carved all over +with Hebrew inscriptions. That ascribed to Mordecai has the +verses Isaiah lix. 8; Esther ii. 5; Ps. xvi. 9, 10, 11, and the +date of its erection A.M. 4318 (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 557). The inscriptions on +the other sarcophagus consist of the verses Esther ix. 29, 32, +x. 1; and the statement that it was placed there A.M. 4602 +(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 841) by “the pious and righteous woman Gemal Setan.” +A tablet let into the wall states that the building was repaired +A.M. 4474 (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 713). Hamadān also has the grave of the celebrated +physician and philosopher Abu Ali ibn Sina, better known +as Avicenna (d. 1036). It is now generally admitted that +Hamadān is the Hagmatana (of the inscriptions), Agbatana or +Ecbatana (<i>q.v.</i>, of the Greek writers), the “treasure city” of the +Achaemenian kings which was taken and plundered by Alexander +the Great, but very few ancient remains have been discovered. +A rudely carved stone lion, which lies on the roadside close to +the southern extremity of the city, and by some is supposed to +have formed part of a building of the ancient city, is locally +regarded as a talisman against famine, plague, cold, &c., placed +there by Pliny, who is popularly known as the sorcerer Balinās +(a corruption of Plinius).</p> + +<p>Five miles S.W. from the city in a mountain gorge of Mount +Elvend is the so-called Ganjnāma (treasure-deed), which consists +of two tablets with trilingual cuneiform inscriptions cut into +the rock and relating the names and titles of Darius I. (521-485 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and his son Xerxes I. (485-465 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).</p> +<div class="author">(A. H. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMADHĀNĪ,<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> in full <span class="sc">Abū-l Faḍl Aḥmad ibn ul-Ḥusain +ul-Hamadhānī</span> (967-1007), Arabian writer, known as Badi‘ +uz-Zamān (the wonder of the age), was born and educated at +Hamadbān. In 990 be went to Jorjān, where he remained two +years; then passing to Nīshapūr, where he rivalled and surpassed +the learned Khwārizmī. After journeying through Khorasan +and Sijistān, he finally settled in Herāt under the protection of +the vizir of Mahmūd, the Ghaznevid sultan. There he died at the +age of forty. He was renowned for a remarkable memory and +for fluency of speech, as well as for the purity of his language. +He was one of the first to renew the use of rhymed prose both in +letters and <i>maqāmas</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arabia</a></span>: <i>Literature</i>, section “Belles +Lettres”).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His letters were published at Constantinople (1881), and with +commentary at Beirut (1890); his <i>maqāmas</i> at Constantinople +(1881), and with commentary at Beirut (1889). A good idea of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page869" id="page869"></a>869</span> +latter may be obtained from S. de Sacy’s edition of six of the <i>maqāmas</i> +with French translation and notes in his <i>Chrestomathie arabe</i>, vol. iii. +(2nd ed., Paris, 1827). A specimen of the letters is translated into +German in A. von Kremer’s <i>Culturgeschichte des Orients</i>, ii. 470 sqq. +(Vienna, 1877).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. W. T.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMAH,<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> the Hamath of the Bible, a Hittite royal city, +situated in the narrow valley of the Orontes, 110 English miles N. +(by E.) of Damascus. It finds a place in the northern boundaries +of Israel under David, Solomon and Jeroboam II. (2 Sam. viii. 9; +1 Kings viii. 65; 2 Kings xiv. 25). The Orontes flows winding +past the city and is spanned by four bridges. On the south-east +the houses rise 150 ft. above the river, and there are four other +hills, that of the <i>Kalah</i> or castle being to the north 100 ft. high. +Twenty-four minarets rise from the various mosques. The +houses are principally of mud, and the town stands amid poplar +gardens with a fertile plain to the west. The castle is ruined, +the streets are narrow and dirty, but the bazaars are good, and +the trade with the Bedouins considerable. The numerous water-wheels +(<i>naūrah</i>,) of enormous dimension, raising water from the +Orontes are the most remarkable features of the view. Silk, +woollen and cotton goods are manufactured. The population +is about 40,000.</p> + +<p>In the year 854 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Hamath was taken by Shalmaneser II., +king of Assyria, who defeated a large army of allied Hamathites, +Syrians and Israelites at Karkor and slew 14,000 of them. In +738 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Tiglath Pileser III. reduced the city to tribute, and +another rebellion was crushed by Sargon in 720 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The downfall +of so ancient a state made a great impression at Jerusalem +(Isa. x. 9). According to 2 Kings xvii. 24, 30, some of its people +were transported to the land of N. Israel, where they made +images of Ashima or Eshmun (probably Ishtar). After the +Macedonian conquest of Syria Hamath was called Epiphania +by the Greeks in honour of Antiochus IV., Epiphanes, and in +the early Byzantine period it was known by both its Hebrew +and its Greek name. In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 639 the town surrendered to Abu +’Obeida, one of Omar’s generals, and the church was turned +into a mosque. In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1108 Tancred captured the city and +massacred the Ism’aileh defenders. In 1115 it was retaken by +the Moslems, and in 1178 was occupied by Saladin. Abulfeda, +prince of Hamah in the early part of the 14th century, is well +known as an authority on Arab geography.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMANN, JOHANN GEORG<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> (1730-1788), German writer on +philosophical and theological subjects, was born at Königsberg +in Prussia on the 27th of August 1730. His parents were of +humble rank and small means. The education he received was +comprehensive but unsystematic, and the want of definiteness +in this early training doubtless tended to aggravate the peculiar +instability of character which troubled Hamann’s after life. +In 1746 be began theological studies, but speedily deserted +them and turned his attention to law. That too was taken up +in a desultory fashion and quickly relinquished. Hamann seems +at this time to have thought that any strenuous devotion to +“bread-and-butter” studies was lowering, and accordingly +gave himself entirely to reading, criticism and philological +inquiries. Such studies, however, were pursued without any +definite aim or systematic arrangement, and consequently were +productive of nothing. In 1752, constrained to secure some +position in the world, he accepted a tutorship in a family resident +in Livonia, but only retained it a few months. A similar situation +in Courland he also resigned after about a year. In both cases +apparently the rupture might be traced to the curious and +unsatisfactory character of Hamann himself. After leaving his +second post he was received into the house of a merchant at +Riga named Johann Christoph Behrens, who contracted a great +friendship for him and selected him as his companion for a tour +through Danzig, Berlin, Hamburg, Amsterdam and London. +Hamann, however, was quite unfitted for business, and when +left in London, gave himself up entirely to his fancies, and was +quickly reduced to a state of extreme poverty and want. It was +at this period of his life, when his inner troubles of spirit harmonized +with the unhappy external conditions of his lot, that +he began an earnest and prolonged study of the Bible; and from +this time dates the tone of extreme pietism which is characteristic +of his writings, and which undoubtedly alienated many of his +friends. He returned to Riga, and was well received by the +Behrens family, in whose house he resided for some time. A +quarrel, the precise nature of which is not very clear though the +occasion is evident, led to an entire separation from these friends. +In 1759 Hamann returned to Königsberg, and lived for several +years with his father, filling occasional posts in Königsberg and +Mitau. In 1767 he obtained a situation as translator in the +excise office, and ten years later a post as storekeeper in a +mercantile house. During this period of comparative rest +Hamann was able to indulge in the long correspondence with +learned friends which seems to have been his greatest pleasure. +In 1784 the failure of some commercial speculations greatly +reduced his means, and about the same time he was dismissed +with a small pension from his situation. The kindness of friends, +however, supplied provision for his children, and enabled him +to carry out the long-cherished wish of visiting some of his +philosophical allies. He spent some time with Jacobi at Pempelfort +and with Buchholz at Walbergen. At the latter place he was +seized with illness, and died on the 21st of June 1788.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Hamann’s works resemble his life and character. They are entirely +unsystematic so far as matter is concerned, chaotic and disjointed +in style. To a reader not acquainted with the peculiar +nature of the man, which led him to regard what commended +itself to him as therefore objectively true, they must be, moreover, +entirely unintelligible and, from their peculiar, pietistic tone and +scriptural jargon, probably offensive. A place in the history of +philosophy can be yielded to Hamann only because he expresses in +uncouth, barbarous fashion an idea to which other writers have +given more effective shape. The fundamental thought is with him +the unsatisfactoriness of abstraction or one-sidedness. The <i>Aufklärung</i>, +with its rational theology, was to him the type of abstraction. +Even Epicureanism, which might appear concrete, was by him +rightly designated abstract. Quite naturally, then, Hamann is led +to object strongly to much of the Kantian philosophy. The separation +of sense and understanding is for him unjustifiable, and only +paralleled by the extraordinary blunder of severing matter and +form. Concreteness, therefore, is the one demand which Hamann +expresses, and as representing his own thought he used to refer to +Giordano Bruno’s conception (previously held by Nicolaus Curanus) +of the identity of contraries. The demand, however, remains but a +demand. Nothing that Hamann has given can be regarded as in the +slightest degree a response to it. His hatred of system, incapacity for +abstract thinking, and intense personality rendered it impossible +for him to do more than utter the disjointed, oracular, obscure dicta +which gained for him among his friends the name of “Magus of the +North.” Two results only appear throughout his writings—first, the +accentuation of belief; and secondly, the transference of many +philosophical difficulties to language. Belief is, according to Hamann, +the groundwork of knowledge, and he accepts in all sincerity Hume’s +analysis of experience as being most helpful in constructing a theological +view. In language, which he appears to regard as somehow +acquired, he finds a solution for the problems of reason which +Kant had discussed in the <i>Kritik der reinen Vernunft</i>. On the +application of these thoughts to the Christian theology one need +not enter.</p> + +<p>None of Hamann’s writings is of great bulk; most are mere +pamphlets of some thirty or forty pages. A complete collection +has been published by F. Roth (<i>Schriften</i>, 8vo, 1821-1842), and by +C. H. Gildemeister (<i>Leben und Schriften</i>, 6 vols., 1851-1873). See +also M. Petri, <i>Hamanns Schriften u. Briefe</i>, (4 vols., 1872-1873); +J. Poel, <i>Hamann, der Magus im Norden, sein Leben u. Mitteilungen +aus seinen Schriften</i> (2 vols., 1874-1876); J. Claassen, <i>Hamanns +Leben und Werke</i> (1885). Also H. Weber, <i>Neue Hamanniana</i> (1905). +A very comprehensive essay on Hamann is to be found in Hegel’s +<i>Vermischte Schriften</i>, ii. (Werke, Bd. xvii.). On Hamann’s influence +on German literature, see J. Minor, <i>J. G. Hamann in seiner Bedeutung +für die Sturm- und Drang-Periode</i> (1881).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMAR,<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Storehammer</span> (<span class="sc">Great Hamar</span>), a town of Norway +in Hedemarken <i>amt</i> (county), 78 m. by rail N. of Christiania. +Pop. (1900), 6003. It is pleasantly situated between two bays +of the great Lake Mjösen, and is the junction of the railways to +Trondhjem (N.) and to Otta in Gudbrandsdal (N.W.). The +existing town was laid out in 1849, and made a bishop’s see in +1864. Near the same site there stood an older town, which, +together with a bishop’s see, was founded in 1152 by the Englishman +Nicholas Breakspeare (afterwards Pope Adrian IV.); but +both town and cathedral were destroyed by the Swedes in 1567. +Remains of the latter include a nave-arcade with rounded arches. +The town is a centre for the local agricultural and timber +trade.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page870" id="page870"></a>870</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ḤAMĀSA<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Ḥamāsah</span>), the name of a famous Arabian anthology +compiled by Ḥabīb ibn Aus aṭ-Ṭā’ī, surnamed Abū Tammām +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Abū Tammām</a></span>). The collection is so called from the title of +its first book, containing poems descriptive of constancy and +valour in battle, patient endurance of calamity, steadfastness in +seeking vengeance, manfulness under reproach and temptation, +all which qualities make up the attribute called by the Arabs +<i>ḥamāsah</i> (briefly paraphrased by at-Tibrīzī as <i>ash-shiddah +fi-l-amr</i>). It consists of ten books or parts, containing in all +884 poems or fragments of poems, and named respectively—(1) +<i>al-Ḥamāsa</i>, 261 pieces; (2) <i>al-Marāthī</i>, “Dirges,” 169 +pieces; (3) <i>al-Adab</i>, “Manners,” 54 pieces; (4) <i>an-Nasīb</i>, +“The Beauty and Love of Women,” 139 pieces; (5) <i>al-Hijā</i>, +“Satires,” 80 pieces; (6) <i>al-Aḍyāf wa-l-Madīḥ</i>, “Hospitality +and Panegyric,” 143 pieces; (7) <i>aṣ-Ṣifāt</i>, “Miscellaneous +Descriptions,” 3 pieces; (8) <i>as-Sair wa-n-Nu’ās</i>, “Journeying +and Drowsiness,” 9 pieces; (9) <i>al-Mulaḥ</i>, “Pleasantries,” 38 +pieces; and (10) <i>Madhammat-an-nisā</i>, “Dispraise of Women,” +18 pieces. Of these books the first is by far the longest, both +in the number and extent of its poems, and the first two together +make up more than half the bulk of the work. The poems are +for the most part fragments selected from longer compositions, +though a considerable number are probably entire. They are +taken from the works of Arab poets of all periods down to that +of Abū Tammām himself (the latest ascertainable date being +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 832), but chiefly of the poets of the Ante-Islamic time +(<i>Jāhiliyyūn</i>), those of the early days of Al-Islām (<i>Mukhaḍrimūn</i>), +and those who flourished during the reigns of the +Omayyad caliphs, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 660-749 (<i>Islāmiyyūn</i>). Perhaps the +oldest in the collection are those relating to the war of Basūs, +a famous legendary strife which arose out of the murder of +Kulaib, chief of the combined clans of Bakr and Taghlib, and +lasted for forty years, ending with the peace of Dhu-l-Majāz, +about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 534. Of the period of the Abbasid caliphs, under +whom Abū Tammām himself lived, there are probably not more +than sixteen fragments.</p> + +<p>Most of the poems belong to the class of extempore or +occasional utterances, as distinguished from <i>qaṣīdas</i>, or elaborately +finished odes. While the latter abound with comparisons +and long descriptions, in which the skill of the poet is exhibited +with much art and ingenuity, the poems of the <i>Ḥamāsa</i> are short, +direct and for the most part free from comparisons; the transitions +are easy, the metaphors simple, and the purpose of the +poem clearly indicated. It is due probably to the fact that this +style of composition was chiefly sought by Abū Tammām in +compiling his collection that he has chosen hardly anything from +the works of the most famous poets of antiquity. Not a single +piece from Imra ’al-Qais (Amru-ul-Qais) occurs in the <i>Ḥamāsa</i>, +nor are there any from ‘Alqama, Zuhair or A‘shā; Nābigha +is represented only by two pieces (pp. 408 and 742 of Freytag’s +edition) of four and three verses respectively; ‘Antara by two +pieces of four verses each (<i>id.</i> pp. 206, 209); Ṭarafa by one piece +of five verses (<i>id.</i> p. 632); Labīd by one piece of three verses +(<i>id.</i> p. 468); and ‘Amr ibn Kulthūm by one piece of four verses +(<i>id.</i> p. 236). The compilation is thus essentially an anthology +of minor poets, and exhibits (so far at least as the more ancient +poems are concerned) the general average of poetic utterance +at a time when to speak in verse was the daily habit of every +warrior of the desert.</p> + +<p>To this description, however, there is an important exception +in the book entitled <i>an-Nasīb</i>, containing verses relating to +women and love. In the classical age of Arab poetry it was the +established rule that all <i>qaṣīdas</i>, or finished odes, whatever +their purpose, must begin with the mention of women and their +charms (<i>tashbīb</i>), in order, as the old critics said, that the hearts +of the hearers might be softened and inclined to regard kindly +the theme which the poet proposed to unfold. The fragments +included in this part of the work are therefore generally taken +from the opening verses of <i>qaṣīdas</i>; where this is not the case, +they are chiefly compositions of the early Islamic period, when +the school of exclusively erotic poetry (of which the greatest +representative was ‘Omar ibn Abī Rabi‘a) arose.</p> + +<p>The compiler was himself a distinguished poet in the style +of his day, and wandered through many provinces of the Moslem +empire earning money and fame by his skill in panegyric. About +220 <span class="scs">A.H.</span> he betook himself to Khorasan, then ruled by ‘Abdallah +ibn Ṭāhir, whom he praised and by whom he was rewarded; +on his journey home to ‘Irāk he passed through Hamadhān, and +was there detained for many months a guest of Abu-l-Wafā, son +of Salama, the road onward being blocked by heavy falls of +snow. During his residence at Hamadhān, Abū Tammām is +said to have compiled or composed, from the materials which +he found in Abu-l-Wafā’s library, five poetical works, of which +one was the <i>Ḥamāsa</i>. This collection remained as a precious +heirloom in the family of Abu-l-Wafā until their fortunes decayed, +when it fell into the hands of a man of Dīnawar named Abu-l-‘Awādhil, +who carried it to Iṣfahān and made it known to the +learned of that city.</p> + +<p>The worth of the <i>Ḥamāsa</i> as a store-house of ancient legend, +of faithful detail regarding the usages of the pagan time and +early simplicity of the Arab race, can hardly be exaggerated. +The high level of excellence which is found in its selections, both +as to form and matter, is remarkable, and caused it to be said that +Abū Tammām displayed higher qualities as a poet in his choice +of extracts from the ancients than in his own compositions. +What strikes us chiefly in the class of poetry of which the <i>Ḥamāsa</i> +is a specimen, is its exceeding truth and reality, its freedom +from artificiality and hearsay, the evident first-hand experience +which the singers possessed of all of which they sang. For +historical purposes the value of the collection is not small; +but most of all there shines forth from it a complete portraiture +of the hardy and manful nature, the strenuous life of passion +and battle, the lofty contempt of cowardice, niggardliness and +servility, which marked the valiant stock who bore Islām +abroad in a flood of new life over the outworn civilizations of +Persia, Egypt and Byzantium. It has the true stamp of the +heroic time, of its cruelty and wantonness as of its strength and +beauty.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>No fewer than twenty commentaries are enumerated by Ḥājjī +Khalīfa. Of these the earliest was by Abū Riyāsh (otherwise ar-Riyāshī), +who died in 257 <span class="scs">A.H.</span>; excerpts from it, chiefly in elucidation +of the circumstances in which the poems were composed, are +frequently given by at-Tibrīzī (Tabrīzī). He was followed by the +famous grammarian Abu-l-Fatḥ ibn al-Jinnī (d. 392 <span class="scs">A.H.</span>), and later +by Shihāb ad-Din Aḥmad al-Marzūqī of Iṣfahān (d. 421 <span class="scs">A.H.</span>). Upon +al-Marzūqī’s commentary is chiefly founded that of Abu Zakarīyā +Yaḥyā at-Tibrīzī (b. 421 <span class="scs">A.H.</span>, d. 502), which has been published by +the late Professor G. W. Freytag of Bonn, together with a Latin +translation and notes (1828-1851). This monumental work, the +labour of a life, is a treasure of information regarding the classical +age of Arab literature which has not perhaps its equal for extent, +accuracy, and minuteness of detail in Europe. No other complete +edition of the <i>Ḥamāsa</i> has been printed in the West; but in 1856 +one appeared at Calcutta under the names of Maulavī Ghulām +Rabbānī and Kabīru-d-dīn Aḥmad. Though no acknowledgment +of the fact is contained in this edition, it is a simple reprint of Professor +Freytag’s text (without at-Tibrīzī’s commentary), and follows +its original even in the misprints (corrected by Freytag at the end +of the second volume, which being in Latin the Calcutta editors do +not seem to have consulted). It contains in an appendix of 12 pages +a collection of verses (and some entire fragments) not found in +at-Tibrīzī’s recension, but stated to exist in some copies consulted +by the editors; these are, however, very carelessly edited and +printed, and in many places unintelligible. Freytag’s text, with +at-Tibrīzī’s commentary, has been reprinted at Būlāq (1870). In +1882 an edition of the text, with a marginal commentary by Munshi +‘Abdul-Qādir ibn Shaikh Luqmān, was published at Bombay.</p> + +<p>The <i>Ḥamāsa</i> has been rendered with remarkable skill and spirit +into German verse by the illustrious Friedrich Rückert (Stuttgart, +1846), who has not only given translations of almost all the poems +proper to the work, but has added numerous fragments drawn from +other sources, especially those occurring in the <i>scholia</i> of at-Tibrīzī, +as well as the Mu‘allaqas of Zuhair and ‘Antara, the <i>Lāmiyya</i> of +Ash-Shanfarà, and the Bānat Su‘ād of Ka‘b, son of Zuhair. A small +collection of translations, chiefly in metres imitating those of the +original, was published in London by Sir Charles Lyall in 1885.</p> + +<p>When the <i>Ḥamāsa</i> is spoken of, that of Abū Tammām, as the first +and most famous of the name, is meant; but several collections of +a similar kind, also called <i>Ḥamāsa</i>, exist. The best-known and +earliest of these is the <i>Ḥamāsa</i> of Buhturi (d. 284 <span class="scs">A.H.</span>), of which the +unique MS. now in the Leiden University Library, has been reproduced +by photo-lithography (1909); a critical edition has been +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page871" id="page871"></a>871</span> +prepared by Professor Chlikho at Beyreuth. Four other works of the +same name, formed on the model of Abū Tammām’s compilation, +are mentioned by Hājjī Khalīfa. Besides these, a work entitled +<i>Ḥamasat ar-Rāh</i> (“the Ḥamāsa of wine”) was composed of +Abu-l-‘Alāal-Ma‘arrī (d. 429 <span class="scs">A.H.</span>).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. J. L.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMBURG,<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> a state of the German empire, on the lower Elbe, +bounded by the Prussian provinces of Schleswig-Holstein and +Hanover. The whole territory has an area of 160 sq. m., and +consists of the city of Hamburg with its incorporated suburbs +and the surrounding district, including several islands in the +Elbe, five small enclaves in Holstein; the communes of Moorburg +in the Lüneburg district of the Prussian province of Hanover +and Cuxhaven-Ritzebüttel at the mouth of the Elbe, the island +of Neuwerk about 5 m. from the coast, and the bailiwick (<i>amt</i>) +of Bergedorf, which down to 1867 was held in common by +Lübeck and Hamburg. Administratively the state is divided +into the city, or metropolitan district, and four rural domains +(or <i>Landherrenschaften</i>), each under a senator as <i>praeses</i>, viz. +the domain of the Geestlande, of the Marschlande, of Bergedorf +and of Ritzebüttel with Cuxhaven. Cuxhaven-Ritzebüttel and +Bergedorf are the only towns besides the capital. The Geestlande +comprise the suburban districts encircling the city on the +north and west; the Marschlande includes various islands in +the Elbe and the fertile tract of land lying between the northern +and southern arms of the Elbe, and with its pastures and market +gardens supplying Hamburg with large quantities of country +produce. In the Bergedorf district lies the Vierlande, or Four +Districts (Neuengamme, Kirchwärder, Altengamme and Curslack), +celebrated for its fruit gardens and the picturesque dress +of the inhabitants. Ritzebüttel with Cuxhaven, also a watering-place, +have mostly a seafaring population. Two rivers, the +Alster and the Bille, flow through the city of Hamburg into the +Elbe, the mouth of which, at Cuxhaven, is 75 m. below the +city.</p> + +<p><i>Government.</i>—As a state of the empire, Hamburg is represented +in the federal council (<i>Bundesrat</i>) by one plenipotentiary, +and in the imperial diet (<i>Reichstag</i>) by three deputies. Its +present constitution came into force on the 1st of January 1861, +and was revised in 1879 and again in 1906. According to this +Hamburg is a republic, the government (<i>Staatsgewalt</i>) residing +in two chambers, the Senate and the House of Burgesses. The +Senate, which exercises the greater part of the executive power, +is composed of eighteen members, one half of whom must have +studied law or finance, while at least seven of the remainder +must belong to the class of merchants. The members of the +Senate are elected for life by the House of Burgesses; but a +senator is free to retire from office at the expiry of six years. +A chief (<i>ober-</i>) and second (<i>zweiter-</i>) burgomaster, the first of +whom bears the title of “Magnificence,” chosen annually in +secret ballot, preside over the meetings of the Senate, and are +usually jurists. No burgomaster can be in office for longer than +two years consecutively, and no member of the Senate may hold +any other public office. The House of Burgesses consists of +160 members, of whom 80 are elected in secret ballot by the +direct suffrages of all tax-paying citizens, 40 by the owners of +house-property within the city (also by ballot), and the remaining +40, by ballot also, by the so-called “notables,” <i>i.e.</i> active and +former members of the law courts and administrative boards. +They are elected for a period of six years, but as half of each +class retire at the end of three years, new elections for one half +the number take place at the end of that time. The House of +Burgesses is represented by a <i>Bürgerausschuss</i> (committee of the +house) of twenty deputies whose duty it is to watch over the +proceedings of the Senate and the constitution generally. The +Senate can interpose a veto in all matters of legislation, saving +taxation, and where there is a collision between the two bodies, +provision is made for reference to a court of arbitration, consisting +of members of both houses in equal numbers, and also to the +supreme court of the empire (<i>Reichsgericht</i>) sitting at Leipzig. +The law administered is that of the civil and penal codes of the +German empire, and the court of appeal for all three Hanse towns +is the common <i>Oberlandesgericht</i>, which has its seat in Hamburg. +There is also a special court of arbitration in commercial disputes +and another for such as arise under accident insurance.</p> + +<p><i>Religion.</i>—The church in Hamburg is completely separated +from the state and manages its affairs independently. The +ecclesiastical arrangements of Hamburg have undergone great +modifications since the general constitution of 1860. From +the Reformation to the French occupation in the beginning of +the 19th century, Hamburg was a purely Lutheran state; +according to the “Recess” of 1529, re-enacted in 1603, non-Lutherans +were subject to legal punishment and expulsion from +the country. Exceptions were gradually made in favour of +foreign residents; but it was not till 1785 that regular inhabitants +were allowed to exercise the religious rites of other denominations, +and it was not till after the war of freedom that they were +allowed to have buildings in the style of churches. In 1860 full +religious liberty was guaranteed, and the identification of church +and state abolished. By the new constitution of the Lutheran +Church, published at first in 1870 for the city only, but in 1876 +extended to the rest of the Hamburg territory, the parishes or +communes are divided into three church-districts, and the general +affairs of the whole community are entrusted to a synod of +53 members and to an ecclesiastical council of 9 members which +acts as an executive. Since 1887 a church rate has been levied +on the Evangelical-Lutheran communities, and since 1904 upon +the Roman Catholics also. The German Reformed Church, +the French Reformed, the English Episcopal, the English +Reformed, the Roman Catholic, and the Baptist are all recognized +by the state. Civil marriages have been permissible in Hamburg +since 1866, and since the introduction of the imperial law in +January 1876 the number of such marriages has greatly +increased.</p> + +<p><i>Finance.</i>—The jurisdiction of the Free Port was on the 1st of +January 1882 restricted to the city and port by the extension +of the Zollverein to the lower Elbe, and in 1888 the whole of the +state of Hamburg, with the exception of the so-called “Free +Harbour” (which comprises the port proper and some large +warehouses, set apart for goods in bond), was taken into the +Zollverein.</p> + +<p><i>Population.</i>—The population increased from 453,000 in 1880 +to 622,530 in 1890, and in 1905 amounted to 874,878. The +population of the country districts (exclusive of the city of +Hamburg) was 72,085 in 1905. The crops raised in the country +districts are principally vegetables and fruit, potatoes, hay, oats, +rye and wheat. For manufactures and trade statistics see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hamburg</a></span> (city).</p> + +<p>The military organization of Hamburg was arranged by +convention with Prussia. The state furnishes three battalions +of the 2nd Hanseatic regiment, under Prussian officers. The +soldiers swear the oath of allegiance to the senate.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMBURG,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> a seaport of Germany, capital of the free state +of Hamburg, on the right bank of the northern arm of the Elbe, +75 m. from its mouth at Cuxhaven and 178 m. N.W. from Berlin +by rail. It is the largest and most important seaport on the +continent of Europe and (after London and New York) the +third largest in the world. Were it not for political and municipal +boundaries Hamburg might be considered as forming with Altona +and Ottensen (which lie within Prussian territory) one town. The +view of the three from the south, presenting a continuous river +frontage of six miles, the river crowded with shipping and the +densely packed houses surmounted by church towers—of which +three are higher than the dome of St Paul’s in London—is one +of great magnificence.</p> + +<p>The city proper lies on both sides of the little river Alster, +which, dammed up a short distance from its mouth, forms a +lake, of which the southern portion within the line of the former +fortifications bears the name of the Inner Alster (<i>Binnen Alster</i>), +and the other and larger portion (2500 yards long and 1300 yards +at the widest) that of the Outer Alster (<i>Aussen Alster</i>). The +fortifications as such were removed in 1815, but they have left +their trace in a fine girdle of green round the city, though too +many inroads on its completeness have been made by railways +and roadways. The oldest portion of the city is that which lies +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page872" id="page872"></a>872</span> +to the east of the Alster; but, though it still retains the name of +Altstadt, nearly all trace of its antiquity has disappeared, as it +was rebuilt after the great fire of 1842. To the west lies the +new town (Neustadt), incorporated in 1678; beyond this and +contiguous to Altona is the former suburb of St Pauli, incorporated +in 1876, and towards the north-east that of St Georg, +which arose in the 13th century but was not incorporated till +1868.</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:920px; height:790px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img872.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="pt2">The old town lies low, and it is traversed by a great number +of narrow canals or “fleets” (<i>Fleeten</i>)—for the same word which +has left its trace in London nomenclature is used in the Low +German city—which add considerably to the picturesqueness +of the meaner quarters, and serve as convenient channels for +the transport of goods. They generally form what may be called +the back streets, and they are bordered by warehouses, cellars +and the lower class of dwelling-houses. As they are subject to +the ebb and flow of the Elbe, at certain times they run almost +dry. As soon as the telegram at Cuxhaven announces high tide +three shots are fired from the harbour to warn the inhabitants +of the “fleets”; and if the progress of the tide up the river gives +indication of danger, <span class="correction" title="amended from other">another</span> three shots follow. The “fleets” +with their quaint medieval warehouses, which come sheer down +to the water, and are navigated by barges, have gained for +Hamburg the name of “Northern Venice.” They are, however, +though antique and interesting, somewhat dismal and unsavoury. +In fine contrast to them is the bright appearance of the Binnen +Alster, which is enclosed on three sides by handsome rows of +buildings, the Alsterdamm in the east, the Alter Jungfernstieg +in the south, and the Neuer Jungfernstieg in the west, while +it is separated from the Aussen Alster by part of the rampart +gardens traversed by the railway uniting Hamburg with Altona +and crossing the lakes by a beautiful bridge—the Lombards-Brücke. +Around the outer lake are grouped the suburbs +Harvestehude and Pösseldorf on the western shore, and Uhlenhorst +on the eastern, with park-like promenades and villas +surrounded by well-kept gardens. Along the southern end of +the Binnen Alster runs the Jungfernstieg with fine shops, hotels +and restaurants facing the water. A fleet of shallow-draught +screw steamers provides a favourite means of communication +between the business centre of the city and the outlying colonies +of villas.</p> + +<p>The streets enclosing the Binnen Alster are fashionable +promenades, and leading directly from this quarter are the main +business thoroughfares, the Neuer-Wall, the Grosse Bleichen +and the Hermannstrasse. The largest of the public squares in +Hamburg is the Hopfenmarkt, which contains the church of +St Nicholas (Nikolaikirche) and is the principal market for +vegetables and fruit. Others of importance are the Gänsemarkt, +the Zeughausmarkt and the Grossneumarkt. Of the thirty-five +churches existing in Hamburg (the old cathedral had to be taken +down in 1805), the St Petrikirche, Nikolaikirche, St Katharinenkirche, +St Jakobikirche and St Michaeliskirche are those that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page873" id="page873"></a>873</span> +give their names to the five old city parishes. The Nikolaikirche +is especially remarkable for its spire, which is 473 ft. high and +ranks, after those of Ulm and Cologne, as the third highest +ecclesiastical edifice in the world. The old church was destroyed +in the great fire of 1842, and the new building, designed by Sir +George Gilbert Scott in 13th century Gothic, was erected 1845-1874. +The exterior and interior are elaborately adorned with +sculptures. Sandstone from Osterwald near Hildesheim was +used for the outside, and for the inner work a softer variety from +Postelwitz near Dresden. The Michaeliskirche, which is built +on the highest point in the city and has a tower 428 ft. high, +was erected (1750-1762) by Ernst G. Sonnin on the site of the +older building of the 17th century destroyed by lightning; the +interior, which can contain 3000 people, is remarkable for its +bold construction, there being no pillars. The St Petrikirche, +originally consecrated in the 12th century and rebuilt in the +14th, was the oldest church in Hamburg; it was burnt in 1842 and +rebuilt in its old form in 1844-1849. It has a graceful tapering +spire 402 ft. in height (completed 1878); the granite columns +from the old cathedral, the stained glass windows by Kellner +of Nuremberg, and H. Schubert’s fine relief of the entombment +of Christ are worthy of notice. The St Katharinenkirche and +the St Jakobikirche are the only surviving medieval churches, +but neither is of special interest. Of the numerous other churches, +Evangelical, Roman Catholic and Anglican, none are of special +interest. The new synagogue was built by Rosengarten between +1857 and 1859, and to the same architect is due the sepulchral +chapel built for the Hamburg merchant prince Johann Heinrich, +Freiherr von Schröder (1784-1883), in the churchyard of the +Petrikirche. The beautiful chapel of St Gertrude was unfortunately +destroyed in 1842.</p> + +<p>Hamburg has comparatively few secular buildings of great +architectural interest, but first among them is the new Rathaus, +a huge German Renaissance building, constructed of sandstone +in 1886-1897, richly adorned with sculptures and with a spire +330 ft. in height. It is the place of meeting of the municipal +council and of the senate and contains the city archives. +Immediately adjoining it and connected with it by two wings is +the exchange. It was erected in 1836-1841 on the site of the +convent of St Mary Magdalen and escaped the conflagration of +1842. It was restored and enlarged in 1904, and shelters the +commercial library of nearly 100,000 vols. During the business +hours (1-3 <span class="scs">P.M.</span>) the exchange is crowded by some 5000 merchants +and brokers. In the same neighbourhood is the Johanneum, +erected in 1834 and in which are preserved the town library of +about 600,000 printed books and 5000 MSS. and the collection +of Hamburg antiquities. In the courtyard is a statue (1885) +of the reformer Johann Bugenhagen. In the Fischmarkt, +immediately south of the Johanneum, a handsome fountain +was erected in 1890. Directly west of the town hall is the new +Stadthaus, the chief police station of the town, in front of which +is a bronze statue of the burgomaster Karl Friedrich Petersen +(1809-1892), erected in 1897. A little farther away are the +headquarters of the Patriotic Society (<i>Patriotische Gesellschaft</i>), +founded in 1765, with fine rooms for the meetings of artistic +and learned societies. Several new public buildings have been +erected along the circuit of the former walls. Near the west +extremity, abutting upon the Elbe, the moat was filled in in +1894-1897, and some good streets were built along the site, +while the Kersten Miles-Brücke, adorned with statues of four +Hamburg heroes, was thrown across the Helgoländer Allee. +Farther north, along the line of the former town wall, are the +criminal law courts (1879-1882, enlarged 1893) and the civil +law courts (finished in 1901). Close to the latter stand the new +supreme court, the old age and accident state insurance offices, +the chief custom house, and the concert hall, founded by Karl +Laeisz, a former Hamburg wharfinger. Farther on are the +chemical and the physical laboratories and the Hygienic Institute. +Facing the botanical gardens a new central post-office, +in the Renaissance style, was built in 1887. At the west end of +the Lombards-Brücke there is a monument by Schilling, commemorating +the war of 1870-71. A few streets south of that is +a monument to Lessing (1881); while occupying a commanding +site on the promenades towards Altona is the gigantic statue of +Bismarck which was unveiled in June 1906. The Kunst-Halle +(the picture gallery), containing some good works by modern +masters, faces the east end of Lombards-Brücke. The new +Natural History Museum, completed in 1891, stands a little +distance farther south. To the east of it comes the Museum +for Art and Industry, founded in 1878, now one of the most +important institutions of the kind in Germany, with which +is connected a trades school. Close by is the Hansa-fountain +(65 ft. high), erected in 1878. On the north-east side of the +suburb of St Georg a botanical museum and laboratory have +been established. There is a new general hospital at Eppendorf, +outside the town on the north, built on the pavilion principle, +and one of the finest structures of the kind in Europe; and at +Ohlsdorf, in the same direction, a crematorium was built in 1891 +in conjunction with the town cemeteries (370 acres). There +must also be mentioned the fine public zoological gardens, +Hagenbeck’s private zoological gardens in the vicinity, the +schools of music and navigation, and the school of commerce. +In 1900 a high school for shipbuilding was founded, and in 1901 +an institute for seamen’s and tropical diseases, with a laboratory +for their physiological study, was opened, and also the first +public free library in the city. The river is spanned just above +the Frei Hafen by a triple-arched railway bridge, 1339 ft. long, +erected in 1868-1873 and doubled in width in 1894. Some 270 +yds. higher up is a magnificent iron bridge (1888) for vehicles +and foot passengers. The southern arm of the Elbe, on the +south side of the island of Wilhelmsburg, is crossed by another +railway bridge of four arches and 2050 ft. in length.</p> + +<p><i>Railways.</i>—The through railway traffic of Hamburg is practically +confined to that proceeding northwards—to Kiel and Jutland—and +for the accommodation of such trains the central (terminus) +station at Altona is the chief gathering point. The Hamburg +stations, connected with the other by the Verbindungs-Bahn +(or metropolitan railway) crossing the Lombards-Brücke, are +those of the Venloer (or Hanoverian, as it is often called) +Bahnhof on the south-east, in close proximity to the harbour, +into which converge the lines from Cologne and Bremen, Hanover +and Frankfort-on-Main, and from Berlin, via Nelzen; the +Klostertor-Bahnhof (on the metropolitan line) which temporarily +superseded the old Berlin station, and the Lübeck station a little +to the north-east, during the erection of the new central station, +which occupies a site between the Klostertor-Bahnhof and the +Lombards-Brücke. Between this central station and Altona +terminus runs the metropolitan railway, which has been raised +several feet so as to bridge over the streets, and on which lie +the important stations Dammtor and Sternschanze. An excellent +service of electric trams interconnect the towns of Hamburg, +Altona and the adjacent suburbs, and steamboats provide +communication on the Elbe with the riparian towns and villages; +and so with Blankenese and Harburg, with Stade, Glückstadt +and Cuxhaven.</p> + +<p><i>Trade and Shipping.</i>—Probably there is no place which during +the last thirty years of the 19th century grew faster commercially +than Hamburg. Its commerce is, however, almost entirely of +the nature of transit trade, for it is not only the chief distributing +centre for the middle of Europe of the products of all other parts +of the world, but is also the chief outlet for German, Austrian, +and even to some extent Russian (Polish) raw products and +manufactures. Its principal imports are coffee (of which it is +the greatest continental market), tea, sugar, spices, rice, wine +(especially from Bordeaux), lard (from Chicago), cereals, sago, +dried fruits, herrings, wax (from Morocco and Mozambique), +tobacco, hemp, cotton (which of late years shows a large increase), +wool, skins, leather, oils, dyewoods, indigo, nitrates, phosphates +and coal. Of the total importations of all kinds of coal to Hamburg, +that of British coal, particularly from Northumberland +and Durham, occupies the first place, and despite some falling off +in late years, owing to the competition made by Westphalian +coal, amounts to more than half the total import. The increase +of the trade of Hamburg is most strikingly shown by that of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page874" id="page874"></a>874</span> +the shipping belonging to the port. Between 1876 and 1880 +there were 475 sailing vessels with a tonnage of 230,691, and +110 steam-ships with a tonnage of 87,050. In 1907 there were +(exclusive of fishing vessels) 470 sailing ships with a tonnage of +271,661, and 610 steamers with a tonnage of 1,256,449. In +1870 the crews numbered 6900 men, in 1907 they numbered +29,536.</p> + +<p><i>Industries.</i>—The development of manufacturing industries +at Hamburg and its immediate vicinity since 1880, though not so +rapid as that of its trade and shipping, has been very remarkable, +and more especially has this been the case since the year 1888, +when Hamburg joined the German customs union, and the +barriers which prevented goods manufactured at Hamburg from +entering into other parts of Germany were removed. Among +the chief industries are those for the production of articles of +food and drink. The import trade of various cereals by sea to +Hamburg is very large, and a considerable portion of this corn +is converted into flour at Hamburg itself. There are also, in +this connexion, numerous bakeries for biscuit, rice-peeling mills +and spice mills. Besides the foregoing there are cocoa, chocolate, +confectionery and baking-powder factories, coffee-roasting and +ham-curing and smoking establishments, lard refineries, margarine +manufactories and fish-curing, preserving and packing +factories. There are numerous breweries, producing annually +about 24,000,000 gallons of beer, spirit distilleries and factories +of artificial waters. Yarns, textile goods and weaving industries +generally have not attained any great dimensions, but there are +large jute-spinning mills and factories for cotton-wool and +cotton driving-belts. Among other important articles of +domestic industry are tobacco and cigars (manufactured mainly +in bond, within the free harbour precincts), hydraulic machinery, +electro-technical machinery, chemical products (including +artificial manures), oils, soaps, india-rubber, ivory and celluloid +articles and the manufacture of leather.</p> + +<p>Shipbuilding has made very important progress, and there +are at present in Hamburg eleven large shipbuilding yards, +employing nearly 10,000 hands. Of these, however, only three +are of any great extent, and one, where the largest class of +ocean-going steamers and of war vessels for the German navy +are built, employs about 5000 persons. There are also two yards +for the building of pleasure yachts and rowing-boats (in both +which branches of sport Hamburg takes a leading place in +Germany). Art industries, particularly those which appeal to +the luxurious taste of the inhabitants in fitting their houses, +such as wall-papers and furniture, and those which are included +in the equipment of ocean-going steamers, have of late years +made rapid strides and are among the best productions of this +character of any German city.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Harbour.</i>—It was the accession of Hamburg to the customs union +in 1888 which gave such a vigorous impulse to her more recent commercial +development. At the same time a portion of the port was +set apart as a free harbour, altogether an area of 750 acres of water +and 1750 acres of dry land. In anticipation of this event a gigantic +system of docks, basins and quays was constructed, at a total cost +of some £7,000,000 (of which the imperial treasury contributed +£2,000,000), between the confluence of the Alster and the railway +bridge (1868-1873), an entire quarter of the town inhabited by some +24,000 people being cleared away to make room for these accessories +of a great port. On the north side of the Elbe there are the Sandtor +basin (3380 ft. long, 295 to 427 ft. wide), in which British and Dutch +steamboats and steamboats of the Sloman (Mediterranean) line +anchor. South of this lies the Grasbrook basin (quayage of 2100 ft. +and 1693 ft. alongside), which is used by French, Swedish and transatlantic +steamers. At the quay point between these two basins there +are vast state granaries. On the outer (<i>i.e.</i> river) side of the Grasbrook +dock is the quay at which the emigrants for South America +embark, and from which the mail boats for East Africa, the boats of +the Woermann (West Africa) line, and the Norwegian tourist boats +depart. To the east of these two is the small Magdeburg basin, +penetrating north, and the Baaken basin, penetrating east, <i>i.e.</i> +parallel to the river. The latter affords accommodation to the transatlantic +steamers, including the emigrant ships of the Hamburg-America +line, though their “ocean mail boats” generally load and +unload at Cuxhaven. On the south bank of the stream there follow +in succession, going from east to west, the Moldau dock for river craft, +the sailing vessel dock (Segelschiff Hafen, 3937 ft. long, 459 to 886 +ft. wide, 26¼ ft. deep), the Hansa dock, India dock, petroleum dock, +several swimming and dry docks; and in the west of the free port +area three other large docks, one of 77 acres for river craft, the others +each 56 acres in extent, and one 23¾ ft. deep, the other 26¼ ft. deep, +at low water, constructed in 1900-1901. In 1897 Hamburg was +provided with a huge floating dock, 558 ft. long and 84 ft. in maximum +breadth, capable of holding a vessel of 17,500 tons and draught +not exceeding 29 ft., so constructed and equipped that in time of +need (war) it could be floated down to Cuxhaven. During the last +25 years of the 19th century the channel of the Elbe was greatly +improved and deepened, and during the last two years of the 19th +century some £360,000 was spent by Hamburg alone in regulating +and correcting this lower course of the river. The new Kuhwärder-basin, +on the left bank of the river, as well as two other large dock +basins (now leased to the Hamburg-American Company), raise the +number of basins to twelve in all.</p> + +<p><i>Emigration.</i>—Hamburg is one of the principal continental ports +for the embarkation of emigrants. In 1881-1890, on an average +they numbered 90,000 a year (of whom 60,000 proceeded to the +United States). In 1900 the number was 87,153 (and to the United +States 64,137). The number of emigrant Germans has enormously +decreased of late years, Russia and Austria-Hungary now being +most largely represented. For the accommodation of such passengers +large and convenient emigrant shelters have been recently erected +close to the wharf of embarkation.</p> + +<p><i>Health and Population.</i>—The health of the city of Hamburg and +the adjoining district may be described as generally good, no +epidemic diseases having recently appeared to any serious degree. +The malady causing the greatest number of deaths is that of pulmonary +consumption; but better housing accommodation has of +late years reduced the mortality from this disease very considerably. +The results of the census of 1905 showed the population of the city +(not including the rural districts belonging to the state of Hamburg) +to be 802,793.</p> + +<p>Hamburg is well supplied with places of amusement, especially +of the more popular kind. Its Stadt-Theater, rebuilt in 1874, has +room for 1750 spectators and is particularly devoted to operatic +performances; the Thalia-Theater dates from 1841, and holds +1700 to 1800 people, and the Schauspielhaus (for drama) from 1900 +people, and there are some seven or eight minor establishments. +Theatrical performances were introduced into the city in the 17th +century, and 1678 is the date of the first opera, which was played +in a house in the Gänsemarkt. Under Schröder and Lessing the +Hamburg stage rose into importance. Though contributing few +names of the highest rank to German literature, the city has been +intimately associated with the literary movement. The historian +Lappenberg and Friedrich von Hagedorn were born in Hamburg; +and not only Lessing, but Heine and Klopstock lived there for some +time.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>History.</i>—Hamburg probably had its origin in a fortress +erected in 808 by Charlemagne, on an elevation between the +Elbe and Alster, as a defence against the Slavs, and called +Hammaburg because of the surrounding forest (<i>Hamme</i>). In +811 Charlemagne founded a church here, perhaps on the site of +a Saxon place of sacrifice, and this became a great centre for +the evangelization of the north of Europe, missionaries from +Hamburg introducing Christianity into Jutland and the Danish +islands and even into Sweden and Norway. In 834 Hamburg +became an archbishopric, St Ansgar, a monk of Corbie and +known as the apostle of the North, being the first metropolitan. +In 845 church, monastery and town were burnt down by the +Norsemen, and two years later the see of Hamburg was united +with that of Bremen and its seat transferred to the latter city. +The town, rebuilt after this disaster, was again more than once +devastated by invading Danes and Slavs. Archbishop Unwan +of Hamburg-Bremen (1013-1029) substituted a chapter of +canons for the monastery, and in 1037 Archbishop Bezelin (or +Alebrand) built a stone cathedral and a palace on the Elbe. +In 1110 Hamburg, with Holstein, passed into the hands of +Adolph I., count of Schauenburg, and it is with the building +of the Neustadt (the present parish of St Nicholas) by his grandson, +Adolph III. of Holstein, that the history of the commercial +city actually begins. In return for a contribution to the costs +of a crusade, he obtained from the emperor Frederick I. in 1189 +a charter granting Hamburg considerable franchises, including +exemption from tolls, a separate court and jurisdiction, and the +rights of fishery on the Elbe from the city to the sea. The city +council (<i>Rath</i>), first mentioned in 1190, had jurisdiction over +both the episcopal and the new town. Craft gilds were already +in existence, but these had no share in the government; for, +though the Lübeck rule excluding craftsmen from the <i>Rath</i> +did not obtain, they were excluded in practice. The counts, of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page875" id="page875"></a>875</span> +course, as over-lords, had their <i>Vogt</i> (<i>advocatus</i>) in the town, +but this official, as the city grew in power, became subordinate +to the <i>Rath</i>, as at Lübeck.</p> + +<p>The wealth of the town was increased in 1189 by the destruction +of the flourishing trading centre of Bardowieck by Henry the +Lion; from this time it began to be much frequented by Flemish +merchants. In 1201 the city submitted to Valdemar of Schleswig, +after his victory over the count of Holstein, but in 1225, owing +to the capture of King Valdemar II. of Denmark by Henry of +Schwerin, it once more exchanged the Danish over-lordship for +that of the counts of Schauenburg, who established themselves +here and in 1231 built a strong castle to hold it in check. The +defensive alliance of the city with Lübeck in 1241, extended +for other purpose by the treaty of 1255, practically laid the +foundations of the Hanseatic League (<i>q.v.</i>), of which Hamburg +continued to be one of the principal members. The internal +organization of the city, too, was rendered more stable by the +new constitution of 1270, and the recognition in 1292 of the +complete internal autonomy of the city by the count of Schauenburg. +The exclusion of the handicraftsmen from the <i>Rath</i> led, +early in the 15th century, to a rising of the craft gilds against +the patrician merchants, and in 1410 they forced the latter to +recognize the authority of a committee of 48 burghers, which +concluded with the senate the so-called First Recess; there +were, however, fresh outbursts in 1458 and 1483, which were +settled by further compromises. In 1461 Hamburg did homage +to Christian I. of Denmark, as heir of the Schauenburg counts; +but the suzerainty of Denmark was merely nominal and soon +repudiated altogether; in 1510 Hamburg was made a free +imperial city by the emperor Maximilian I.</p> + +<p>In 1529 the Reformation was definitively established in +Hamburg by the Great Recess of the 19th of February, which +at the same time vested the government of the city in the <i>Rath</i>, +together with the three colleges of the <i>Oberalten</i>, the Forty-eight +(increased to 60 in 1685) and the Hundred and Forty-four +(increased to 180). The ordinary burgesses consisted of the +freeholders and the master-workmen of the gilds. In 1536 +Hamburg joined the league of Schmalkalden, for which error +it had to pay a heavy fine in 1547 when the league had been +defeated. During the same period the Lutheran zeal of the +citizens led to the expulsion of the Mennonites and other Protestant +sects, who founded Altona. The loss this brought to +the city was, however, compensated for by the immigration of +Protestant refugees from the Low Countries and Jews from +Spain and Portugal. In 1549, too, the English merchant +adventurers removed their staple from Antwerp to Hamburg.</p> + +<p>The 17th century saw notable developments. Hamburg had +established, so early as the 16th century, a regular postal service +with certain cities in the interior of Germany, <i>e.g.</i> Leipzig and +Breslau; in 1615 it was included in the postal system of Turn +and Taxis. In 1603 Hamburg received a code of laws regulating +exchange, and in 1619 the bank was established. In 1615 the +Neustadt was included within the city walls. During the Thirty +Years’ War the city received no direct harm; but the ruin of +Germany reacted upon its prosperity, and the misery of the lower +orders led to an agitation against the <i>Rath</i>. In 1685, at the +invitation of the popular leaders, the Danes appeared before +Hamburg demanding the traditional homage; they were +repulsed, but the internal troubles continued, culminating in +1708 in the victory of the democratic factions. The imperial +government, however, intervened, and in 1712 the “Great +Recess” established durable good relations between the <i>Rath</i> +and the commonalty. Frederick IV. of Denmark, who had seized +the opportunity to threaten the city (1712), was bought off with +a ransom of 246,000 <i>Reichsthaler</i>. Denmark, however, only +finally renounced her claims by the treaty of Gottorp in 1768, +and in 1770 Hamburg was admitted for the first time to a representation +in the diet of the empire.</p> + +<p>The trade of Hamburg received its first great impulse in 1783, +when the United States, by the treaty of Paris, became an independent +power. From this time dates its first direct maritime +communication with America. Its commerce was further +extended and developed by the French occupation of Holland +in 1795, when the Dutch trade was largely directed to its port. +The French Revolution and the insecurity of the political +situation, however, exercised a depressing and retarding effect. +The wars which ensued, the closing of continental ports against +English trade, the occupation of the city after the disastrous +battle of Jena, and pestilence within its walls brought about a +severe commercial crisis and caused a serious decline in its +prosperity. Moreover, the great contributions levied by +Napoleon on the city, the plundering of its bank by Davoust, and +the burning of its prosperous suburbs inflicted wounds from +which the city but slowly recovered. Under the long peace +which followed the close of the Napoleonic wars, its trade gradually +revived, fostered by the declaration of independence of +South and Central America, with both of which it energetically +opened close commercial relations, and by the introduction of +steam navigation. The first steamboat was seen on the Elbe on +the 17th of June 1816; in 1826 a regular steam communication +was opened with London; and in 1856 the first direct steamship +line linked the port with the United States. The great fire of +1842 (5th-8th of May) laid in waste the greatest part of the +business quarter of the city and caused a temporary interruption +of its commerce. The city, however, soon rose from its ashes, +the churches were rebuilt and new streets laid out on a scale of +considerable magnificence. In 1866 Hamburg joined the North +German Confederation, and in 1871, while remaining outside +the Zollverein, became a constituent state of the German empire. +In 1883-1888 the works for the Free Harbour were completed, +and on the 18th of October 1888 Hamburg joined the Customs +Union (Zollverein). In 1892 the cholera raged within its walls, +carried off 8500 of its inhabitants, and caused considerable losses +to its commerce and industry; but the visitation was not without +its salutary fruits, for an improved drainage system, better +hospital accommodation, and a purer water-supply have since +combined to make it one of the healthiest commercial cities of +Europe.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Further details about Hamburg will be found in the following +works: O. C. Gaedechens, <i>Historische Topographie der Freien und +Hansestadt Hamburg</i> (1880); E. H. Wichmann, <i>Heimatskunde von +Hamburg</i> (1863); W. Melhop, <i>Historische Topographie der Freien +und Hansestadt Hamburg von 1880-1895</i> (1896); Wulff, <i>Hamburgische +Gesetze und Verordnungen</i> (1889-1896); and W. von Melle, <i>Das hamburgische +Staatsrecht</i> (1891). There are many valuable official +publications which may be consulted, among these being: <i>Statistik +des hamburgischen Staates</i> (1867-1904); <i>Hamburgs Handel und +Schiffahrt</i> (1847-1903); the yearly <i>Hamburgischer Staatskalender</i>; +and <i>Jahrbuch der Hamburger wissenschaftlichen Anstalten</i>. See also +<i>Hamburg und seine Bauten</i> (1890); H. Benrath, <i>Lokalführer durch +Hamburg und Umgebungen</i> (1904); and the consular reports by +Sir William Ward, H.B.M.’s consul-general at Hamburg, to whom +the author is indebted for great assistance in compiling this article.</p> + +<p>For the history of Hamburg see the <i>Zeitschrift des Vereins für +hamburgische Geschichte</i> (1841, fol.); G. Dehio, <i>Geschichte des Erzbistums +Hamburg-Bremen</i> (Berlin, 1877); the <i>Hamburgisches +Urkundenbuch</i> (1842), the <i>Hamburgische Chroniken</i> (1852-1861), +and the <i>Chronica der Stadt Hamburg bis 1557</i> of Adam Tratziger +(1865), all three edited by J. M. Lappenberg; the <i>Briefsammlung +des hamburgischen Superintendenten Joachim Westphal 1530-1575</i>, +edited by C. H. W. Sillem (1903); Gallois, <i>Geschichte der Stadt +Hamburg</i> (1853-1856); K. Koppmann, <i>Aus Hamburgs Vergangenheit</i> +(1885), and <i>Kammereirechnungen der Stadt Hamburg</i> (1869-1894); +H. W. C. Hubbe, <i>Beiträge zur Geschichte der Stadt Hamburg</i> (1897); +C. Mönckeberg, <i>Geschichte der Freien und Hansestadt Hamburg</i> +(1885); E. H. Wichmann, <i>Hamburgische Geschichte in Darstellungen +aus alter und neuer Zeit</i> (1889); and R. Bollheimer, <i>Zeittafeln der +hamburgischen Geschichte</i> (1895).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMDĀNĪ,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> in full <span class="sc">Abū Maḥommed ul-Ḥasan ibn Aḥmad +ibn Ya‘qūb ul-Hamdānī</span> (d. 945), Arabian geographer, also +known as Ibn ul-Ḥā‘ik. Little is known of him except that +he belonged to a family of Yemen, was held in repute as a +grammarian in his own country, wrote much poetry, compiled +astronomical tables, devoted most of his life to the study of the +ancient history and geography of Arabia, and died in prison at +San‘a in 945. His <i>Geography of the Arabian Peninsula</i> (<i>Kitāb +Jazīrat ul-‘Arab</i>) is by far the most important work on the +subject. After being used in manuscript by A. Sprenger in his +<i>Post- und Reiserouten des Orients</i> (Leipzig, 1864) and further +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page876" id="page876"></a>876</span> +in his <i>Alte Geographie Arabiens</i> (Bern, 1875), it was edited by +D. H. Müller (Leiden, 1884; cf. A. Sprenger’s criticism in +<i>Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft</i>, vol. 45, +pp. 361-394). Much has also been written on this work by E. +Glaser in his various publications on ancient Arabia. The other +great work of Hamdānī is the <i>Iklīl</i> (Crown) concerning the +genealogies of the Himyarites and the wars of their kings in ten +volumes. Of this, part 8, on the citadels and castles of south +Arabia, has been edited and annotated by D. H. Müller in <i>Die +Burgen und Schlösser Südarabiens</i> (Vienna, 1879-1881).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For other works said to have been written by Hamdānī cf. G. +Flügel’s <i>Die grammatischen Schulen der Araber</i> (Leipzig, 1862), +pp. 220-221.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. W. T.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMELIN, FRANÇOIS ALPHONSE<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> (1796-1864), French +admiral, was born at Pont l’Évêque on the 2nd of September +1796. He went to sea with his uncle, J. F. E. Hamelin, in the +“Vénus” frigate in 1806 as cabin boy. The “Vénus” was +part of the French squadron in the Indian Ocean, and young +Hamelin had an opportunity of seeing much active service. +She, in company with another and a smaller vessel, captured +the English frigate “Ceylon” in 1810, but was immediately +afterwards captured herself by the “Boadicéa,” under Commodore +Rowley (1765-1842). Young Hamelin was a prisoner of +war for a short time. He returned to France in 1811. On the +fall of the Empire he had better fortune than most of the +Napoleonic officers who were turned ashore. In 1821 he became +lieutenant, and in 1823 took part in the French expedition under +the duke of Angoulême into Spain. In 1828 he was appointed +captain of the “Actéon,” and was engaged till 1831 on the coast +of Algiers and in the conquest of the town and country. His +first command as flag officer was in the Pacific, where he showed +much tact during the dispute over the Marquesas Islands with +England in 1844. He was promoted vice-admiral in 1848. +During the Crimean War he commanded in the Black Sea, and +co-operated with Admiral Dundas in the bombardment of +Sevastopol 17th of October 1854. His relations with his English +colleague were not very cordial. On the 7th of December 1854 +he was promoted admiral. Shortly afterwards he was recalled +to France, and was named minister of marine. His administration +lasted till 1860, and was remarkable for the expeditions +to Italy and China organized under his directions; but it was +even more notable for the energy shown in adopting and +developing the use of armour. The launch of the “Gloire” +in 1859 set the example of constructing sea-going iron-clads. +The first English iron-clad, the “Warrior,” was designed as +an answer to the “Gloire.” When Napoleon III. made his first +concession to Liberal opposition, Admiral Hamelin was one of +the ministers sacrificed. He held no further command, and died +on the 10th of January 1864.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMELN,<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of +Hanover, at the confluence of the Weser and Hamel, 33 m. S.W. +of Hanover, on the line to Altenbeken, which here effects a +junction with railways to Löhne and Brunswick. Pop. (1905) +20,736. It has a venerable appearance and has many interesting +and picturesque houses. The chief public buildings of interest +are the minster, dedicated to St Boniface and restored in 1870-1875; +the town hall; the so-called Rattenfängerhaus (rat-catcher’s +house) with mural frescoes illustrating the legend (see +below); and the Hochzeitshaus (wedding house) with beautiful +gables. There are classical, modern and commercial schools. +The principal industries are the manufacture of paper, leather, +chemicals and tobacco, sugar refining, shipbuilding and salmon +fishing. By the steamboats on the Weser there is communication +with Karlshafen and Minden. In order to avoid the dangerous +part of the river near the town a channel was cut in 1734, the +repairing and deepening of which, begun in 1868, was completed +in 1873. The Weser is here crossed by an iron suspension bridge +830 ft. in length, supported by a pier erected on an island in the +middle of the river.</p> + +<p>The older name of Hameln was Hameloa or Hamelowe, and +the town owes its origin to an abbey. It existed as a town as +early as the 11th century, and in 1259 it was sold by the abbot +of Fulda to the bishop of Minden, afterwards passing under the +protection of the dukes of Brunswick. About 1540 the Reformation +gained an entrance into the town, which was taken by both +parties during the Thirty Years’ War. In 1757 it capitulated +to the French, who, however, vacated it in the following year. +Its fortifications were strengthened in 1766 by the erection of +Fort George, on an eminence to the west of the town, across the +river. On the capitulation of the Hanoverian army in 1803 +Hameln fell into the hands of the French; it was retaken by +the Prussians in 1806, but, after the battle of Jena, again passed +to the French, who dismantled the fortifications and incorporated +the town in the kingdom of Westphalia. In 1814 it again became +Hanoverian, but in 1866 fell with that kingdom to Prussia.</p> + +<p><i>Legend of the Pied Piper.</i>—Hameln is famed as the scene of +the myth of the piper of Hameln. According to the legend, +the town in the year 1284 was infested by a terrible plague of +rats. One day there appeared upon the scene a piper clad in +a fantastic suit, who offered for a certain sum of money to charm +all the vermin into the Weser. His conditions were agreed to, +but after he had fulfilled his promise the inhabitants, on the +ground that he was a sorcerer, declined to fulfil their part of the +bargain, whereupon on the 26th of June he reappeared in the +streets of the town, and putting his pipe to his lips began a soft +and curious strain. This drew all the children after him and +he led them out of the town to the Koppelberg hill, in the side +of which a door suddenly opened, by which he entered and the +children after him, all but one who was lame and could not +follow fast enough to reach the door before it shut again. Some +trace the origin of the legend to the Children’s Crusade of 1211; +others to an abduction of children; and others to a dancing +mania which seized upon some of the young people of Hameln +who left the town on a mad pilgrimage from which they never +returned. For a considerable time the town dated its public +documents from the event. The story is the subject of a poem +by Robert Browning, and also of one by Julius Wolff. Curious +evidence that the story rests on a basis of truth is given by the +fact that the Koppelberg is not one of the imposing hills by which +Hameln is surrounded, but no more than a slight elevation of +the ground, barely high enough to hide the children from view +as they left the town.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C. Langlotz, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Hameln</i> (Hameln, 1888 fol.); +Sprenger, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Hameln</i> (1861); O. Meinardus, <i>Der +historische Kern der Rattenfängersage</i> (Hameln, 1882); Jostes, <i>Der +Rattenfänger von Hameln</i> (Bonn, 1885); and S. Baring-Gould, +<i>Curious Myths of the Middle Ages</i> (1868).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMERLING, ROBERT<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (1830-1889), Austrian poet, was born +at Kirchenberg-am-Walde in Lower Austria, on the 24th of +March 1830, of humble parentage. He early displayed a genius +for poetry and his youthful attempts at drama excited the +interest and admiration of some influential persons. Owing to +their assistance young Hamerling was enabled to attend the +gymnasium in Vienna and subsequently the university. In +1848 he joined the student’s legion, which played so conspicuous +a part in the revolutions of the capital, and in 1849 shared in the +defence of Vienna against the imperialist troops of Prince +Windischgrätz, and after the collapse of the revolutionary +movement he was obliged to hide for a long time to escape +arrest. For the next few years he diligently pursued his studies +in natural science and philosophy, and in 1855 was appointed +master at the gymnasium at Trieste. For many years he battled +with ill-health, and in 1866 retired on a pension, which in acknowledgment +of his literary labours was increased by the government +to a sum sufficient to enable him to live without care until his +death at his villa in Stiftingstal near Graz, on the 13th of July +1889. Hamerling was one of the most remarkable of the poets +of the modern Austrian school; his imagination was rich and +his poems are full of life and colour. His most popular poem, +<i>Ahasver in Rom</i> (1866), of which the emperor Nero is the central +figure, shows at its best the author’s brilliant talent for description. +Among his other works may be mentioned <i>Venus im +Exil</i> (1858); <i>Der König von Sion</i> (1869), which is generally +regarded as his masterpiece; <i>Die sieben Todsünden</i> (1872); +<i>Blätter im Winde</i> (1887); <i>Homunculus</i> (1888); <i>Amor und</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page877" id="page877"></a>877</span> +<i>Psyche</i> (1882). His novel, <i>Aspasia</i> (1876) gives a finely-drawn +description of the Periclean age, but like his tragedy <i>Danton +und Robespierre</i> (1870), is somewhat stilted, showing that +Hamerling’s genius, though rich in imagination, was ill-suited +for the realistic presentation of character.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A popular edition of Hamerling’s works in four volumes was +published by M. M. Rabenlechner (Hamburg, 1900). For the poet’s +life, see his autobiographical writings, <i>Stationen meiner Lebenspilgerschaft</i> +(1889) and <i>Lehrjahre der Liebe</i> (1890); also M. M. Rabenlechner, +<i>Hamerling, sein Leben und seine Werke</i>, i. (Hamburg, 1896); +a short biography by the same (Dresden, 1901); R. H. Kleinert, +<i>R. Hamerling, ein Dichter der Schönheit</i> (Hamburg, 1889); A. Polzer, +<i>Hamerling, sein Wesen und Wirken</i> (Hamburg, 1890).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMERTON, PHILIP GILBERT<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (1834-1894), English artist +and author, was born at Laneside, near Shaw, close to Oldham, +on the 10th of September 1834. His mother died at his birth, +and having lost his father ten years afterwards, he was educated +privately under the direction of his guardians. His first literary +attempt, a volume of poems, proving unsuccessful, he devoted +himself for a time entirely to landscape painting, encamping +out of doors in the Highlands, where he eventually rented the +island of Innistrynych, upon which he settled with his wife, a +French lady, in 1858. Discovering after a time that his qualifications +were rather those of an art critic than of a painter he +removed to the neighbourhood of his wife’s relatives in France, +where he produced his <i>Painter’s Camp in the Highlands</i> (1863), +which obtained a great success and prepared the way for his +standard work on <i>Etching and Etchers</i> (1866). In the following +year he published a book, entitled <i>Contemporary French Painters</i>, +and in 1868 a continuation, <i>Painting in France after the Decline +of Classicism</i>. He had meanwhile become art critic to the +<i>Saturday Review</i>, a position which, from the burden it laid upon +him of frequent visits to England, he did not long retain. He +proceeded (1870) to establish an art journal of his own, <i>The +Portfolio</i>, a monthly periodical, each number of which consisted +of a monograph upon some artist or group of artists, frequently +written and always edited by him. The discontinuance of his +active work as a painter gave him time for more general literary +composition, and he successively produced <i>The Intellectual Life</i> +(1873), perhaps the best known and most valuable of his writings; +<i>Round my House</i> (1876), notes on French society by a resident; +and <i>Modern Frenchmen</i> (1879), admirable short biographies. +He also wrote two novels, <i>Wenderholme</i> (1870) and <i>Marmorne</i> +(1878). In 1884 <i>Human Intercourse</i>, another valuable volume +of essays, was published, and shortly afterwards Hamerton +began to write his autobiography, which he brought down to +1858. In 1882 he issued a finely illustrated work on the technique +of the great masters of various arts, under the title of The +<i>Graphic Arts</i>, and three years later another splendidly illustrated +volume, <i>Landscape</i>, which traces the influence of landscape upon +the mind of man. His last books were: <i>Portfolio Papers</i> (1889) +and <i>French and English</i> (1889). In 1891 he removed to the +neighbourhood of Paris, and died suddenly on the 4th of +November 1894, occupied to the last with his labours on <i>The +Portfolio</i> and other writings on art.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In 1896 was published <i>Philip Gilbert Hamerton: an Autobiography</i>, +1834-1858; and a <i>Memoir by his Wife</i>, 1858-1894.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMI,<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> a town in Chinese Turkestan, otherwise called <span class="sc">Kamil</span>, +<span class="sc">Komul</span> or <span class="sc">Kamul</span>, situated on the southern slopes of the Tian-Shan +mountains, and on the northern verge of the Great Gobi +desert, in 42° 48′ N., 93° 28′ E., at a height above sea-level of +3150 ft. The town is first mentioned in Chinese history in the +1st century, under the name I-wu-lu, and said to be situated +1000 lis north of the fortress Yü-men-kuan, and to be the key +to the western countries. This evidently referred to its advantageous +position, lying as it did in a fertile tract, at the point +of convergence of two main routes running north and south of +the Tian-Shan and connecting China with the west. It was +taken by the Chinese in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 73 from the Hiungnu (the ancient +inhabitants of Mongolia), and made a military station. It next +fell into the bands of the Uighurs or Eastern Turks, who made +it one of their chief towns and held it for several centuries, and +whose descendants are said to live there now. From the 7th +to the 11th century I-wu-lu is said to have borne the name of +Igu or I-chu, under the former of which names it is spoken of by +the Chinese pilgrim, Hsüan tsang, who passed through it in the +7th century. The name Hami is first met in the Chinese <i>Yüan-shi</i> +or “History of the Mongol Dynasty,” but the name more +generally used there is Homi-li or Komi-li. Marco Polo, describing +it apparently from hearsay, calls it Camul, and speaks of it +as a fruitful place inhabited by a Buddhist people of idolatrous +and wanton habits. It was visited in 1341 by Giovanni de +Marignolli, who baptized a number of both sexes there, and by +the envoys of Shah Rukh (1420), who found a magnificent +mosque and a convent of dervishes, in juxtaposition with a fine +Buddhist temple. Hadji Mahommed (Ramusio’s friend) speaks +of Kamul as being in his time (<i>c.</i> 1550) the first Mahommedan +city met with in travelling from China. When Benedict Goes +travelled through the country at the beginning of the 17th +century, the power of the king Mahommed Khan of Kashgar +extended over nearly the whole country at the base of the Tian-Shan +to the Chinese frontier, including Kamil. It fell under the +sway of the Chinese in 1720, was lost to them in 1865 during the +great Mahommedan rebellion, and the trade route through it +was consequently closed, but was regained in 1873. Owing to +its commanding position on the principal route to the west, and +its exceptional fertility, it has very frequently changed hands +in the wars between China and her western neighbours. Hami +is now a small town of about 6000 inhabitants, and is a busy +trading centre. The Mahommedan population consists of +immigrants from Kashgaria, Bokhara and Samarkand, and of +descendants of the Uighurs.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMILCAR BARCA,<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Barcas</span> (Heb. <i>barak</i> “lightning”), +Carthaginian general and statesman, father of Hannibal, was +born soon after 270 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He distinguished himself during the +First Punic War in 247, when he took over the chief command in +Sicily, which at this time was almost entirely in the hands of +the Romans. Landing suddenly on the north-west of the island +with a small mercenary force he seized a strong position on Mt. +Ercte (Monte Pellegrino, near Palermo), and not only maintained +himself against all attacks, but carried his raids as far as the +coast of south Italy. In 244 he transferred his army to a similar +position on the slopes of Mt. Eryx (Monte San Giuliano), from +which he was able to lend support to the besieged garrison in +the neighbouring town of Drepanum (Trapani). By a provision +of the peace of 241 Hamilcar’s unbeaten force was allowed to +depart from Sicily without any token of submission. On returning +to Africa his troops, which had been kept together only by +his personal authority and by the promise of good pay, broke +out into open mutiny when their rewards were withheld by +Hamilcar’s opponents among the governing aristocracy. The +serious danger into which Carthage was brought by the failure +of the aristocratic generals was averted by Hamilcar, whom +the government in this crisis could not but reinstate. By the +power of his personal influence among the mercenaries and the +surrounding African peoples, and by superior strategy, he speedily +crushed the revolt (237). After this success Hamilcar enjoyed +such influence among the popular and patriotic party that his +opponents could not prevent him being raised to a virtual +dictatorship. After recruiting and training a new army in +some Numidian forays he led on his own responsibility an +expedition into Spain, where he hoped to gain a new empire to +compensate Carthage for the loss of Sicily and Sardinia, and to +serve as a basis for a campaign of vengeance against the Romans +(236). In eight years by force of arms and diplomacy he secured +an extensive territory in Spain, but his premature death in battle +(228) prevented him from completing the conquest. Hamilcar +stood out far above the Carthaginians of his age in military and +diplomatic skill and in strength of patriotism; in these qualities +he was surpassed only by his son Hannibal, whom he had +imbued with his own deep hatred of Rome and trained to be +his successor in the conflict.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>This Hamilcar has been confused with another general who +succeeded to the command of the Carthaginians in the First Punic +War, and after successes at Therma and Drepanum was defeated at +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page878" id="page878"></a>878</span> +Ecnomus (256 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). Subsequently, apart from unskilful operations +against Regulus, nothing is certainly known of him. For others +of the name see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Carthage, Sicily</a></span>, Smith’s <i>Classical Dictionary</i>. +So far as the name itself is concerned, <i>Milcar</i> is perhaps the same as +<i>Melkarth</i>, the Tyrian god.</p> + +<p>See Polybius i.-iii.; Cornelius Nepos, <i>Vita Hamilcaris</i>; Appian, +<i>Res Hispanicae</i>, chs. 4, 5, Diodorus, <i>Excerpta</i>, xxiv., xxv.; O. +Meitzer, <i>Geschichte der Karthager</i> (Berlin, 1877), ii. also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Punic +Wars</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(M. O. B. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMILTON,<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> the name of a famous Scottish family. Chief +among the legends still clinging to this important family is that +which gives a descent from the house of Beaumont, a branch +of which is stated to have held the manor of Hamilton in +Leicestershire; and it is argued that the three cinquefoils of +the Hamilton shield bear some resemblance to the single cinquefoil +of the Beaumonts. In face of this it has been recently shown +that the single cinquefoil was also borne by the Umfravilles of +Northumberland, who appear to have owned a place called +Hamilton in that county. It may be pointed out that Simon +de Montfort, the great earl of Leicester, in whose veins flowed +the blood of the Beaumonts, obtained about 1245 the wardship +of Gilbert de Umfraville, second earl of Angus, and it is conceivable +that this name Gilbert may somehow be responsible +for the legend of the Beaumont descent, seeing that the first +authentic ancestor of the Hamiltons is one Walter FitzGilbert. +He first appears in 1294-1295 as one of the witnesses to a charter +by James, the high steward of Scotland, to the monks of Paisley; +and in 1296 his name appears in the Homage Roll as Walter +FitzGilbert of “Hameldone.” Who this Gilbert of “Hameldone” +may have been is uncertain, “but the fact must be faced,” +Mr John Anderson points out (<i>Scots Peerage</i>, iv. 340) “that in +a charter of the 12th of December 1272 by Thomas of Cragyn +or Craigie to the monks of Paisley of his church of Craigie in +Kyle, there appears as witness a certain ‘Gilbert de Hameldun +<i>clericus</i>,’ whose name occurs along with the local clergy of +Inverkip, Blackhall, Paisley and Dunoon. He was therefore +probably also a cleric of the same neighbourhood, and it is +significant that ‘Walter FitzGilbert’ appears first in that +district in 1294 and in 1296 is described as son of Gilbert de +Hameldone....” Walter FitzGilbert took some part in the +affairs of his time. At first he joined the English party but after +Bannockburn went over to Bruce, was knighted and subsequently +received the barony of Cadzow. His younger son John +was father of Alexander Hamilton who acquired the lands of +Innerwick by marriage, and from him descended a certain +Thomas Hamilton, who acquired the lands of Priestfield early +in the 16th century. Another Thomas, grandson of this last, +who had with others of his house followed Queen Mary and +with them had been restored to royal favour, became a lord of +session as Lord Priestfield. Two of his younger sons enjoyed +also this legal distinction, while the eldest, Thomas, was made +an ordinary lord of session as early as 1592 and was eventually +created earl of Haddington (<i>q.v.</i>). It is interesting to note that +the 5th earl of Haddington by his marriage with Lady Margaret +Leslie brought for a time the earldom of Rothes to the Hamiltons +to be added to their already numerous titles.</p> + +<p>Sir “David FitzWalter FitzGilbert,” who carried on the +main line of the Hamiltons, was taken prisoner at the battle of +Neville’s Cross (1346) and treated as of great importance, being +ransomed, it is stated, for a large sum of money; in 1371 and +1373 he was one of the barons in the parliament. Of the four +sons attributed to him David succeeded in the representation +of the family, Sir John Hamilton of Fingaltoun was ancestor +of the Hamiltons of Preston, and Walter is stated to have been +progenitor of the Hamiltons of Cambuskeith and Sanquhar in +Ayrshire.</p> + +<p>David Hamilton, the first apparently to describe himself as +lord of Cadzow, died before 1392, leaving four or five sons, from +whom descended the Hamiltons of Bathgate and of Bardowie, +and perhaps also of Udstown, to which last belong the lords +Belhaven.</p> + +<p>Sir John Hamilton of Cadzow, the eldest son, was twice a +prisoner in England, but beyond this little is known of him; +even the date of his death is uncertain. His two younger sons +are stated to have been founders of the houses of Dalserf and +Raploch. His eldest son, James Hamilton of Cadzow, like his +father and great-grandfather, visited England as a prisoner, +being one of the hostages for the king’s ransom. From him the +Hamiltons of Silvertonhill and the lords Hamilton of Dalzell +claim descent, among the more distinguished members of the +former branch being General Sir Ian Hamilton, K.C.B. James +Hamilton was succeeded by his eldest son Sir James Hamilton +of Cadzow, who was created in 1445 an hereditary lord of parliament, +and was thereafter known as Lord Hamilton. He had +allied himself some years before with the great house of Douglas +by marriage with Euphemia, widow of the 5th earl of Douglas, +and was at first one of its most powerful supporters in the +struggle with James II. Later, however, he obtained the royal +favour and married about 1474 Mary, sister of James III. and +widow of Thomas Boyd, earl of Arran. Of this marriage was +born James, second Lord Hamilton, who as a near relative took +an active part in the arrangements at the marriage of James IV. +with Margaret Tudor; being rewarded on the same day (the +8th of August 1503) with the earldom of Arran. A champion +in the lists he was scarcely so successful as a leader of men, his +struggle with the Douglases being destitute of any great martial +achievement. Of his many illegitimate children Sir James +Hamilton of Finnart, beheaded in 1540, was ancestor of the +Hamiltons of Gilkerscleugh; and John, archbishop of St Andrews, +hanged by his Protestant enemies, was ancestor of the Hamiltons +of Blair, and is said also to have been ancestor of Hamilton of +London, baronet. James, second earl of Arran, son of the first +earl by his second wife Janet Beaton, was chosen governor to +the little Queen Mary, being nearest of kin to the throne through +his grandmother, though the question of the validity of his +mother’s marriage was by no means settled. He held the +governorship till 1554, having in 1549 been granted the duchy +of Châtellerault in France. In his policy he was vacillating +and eventually he retired to France, being absent during the +three momentous years prior to the deposition of Mary. On his +return he headed the queen’s party, his property suffering in +consequence. He was succeeded in the title in 1579 by his eldest +son James, whose qualities were such that he was even proposed +as a husband for Queen Elizabeth, but unfortunately he soon after +became insane, his brother John, afterwards first marquess of +Hamilton, administering the estates. From the third son, Claud, +descends the duke of Abercorn, heir male of the house of +Hamilton.</p> + +<p>The first marquess of Hamilton had a natural son, Sir John +Hamilton of Lettrick, who was legitimated in 1600 and was +ancestor of the lords Bargany. His two legitimate sons were +James, 3rd marquess and first duke of Hamilton, and William, +who succeeded his brother as 2nd duke and was in turn +succeeded under the special remainder contained in the patent of +dukedom, by his niece Anne, duchess of Hamilton, who was +married in 1656 to William Douglas, earl of Selkirk. The history +of the descendants of this marriage belongs to the great house +of Douglas, the 7th duke of Hamilton becoming the male representative +and chief of the house of Douglas, earls of Angus.</p> + +<p>The above mentioned Claud Hamilton, who with his brother, +the first marquess, had taken so large a part in the cause of +Queen Mary, was created a lord of parliament as Lord Paisley +in 1587. He had five sons, of whom three settled in Ireland, +Sir Claud being ancestor of the Hamiltons of Beltrim and Sir +Frederick, distinguished in early life in the Swedish wars, being +ancestor of the viscounts Boyne.</p> + +<p>James, the eldest son of Lord Paisley, found favour with +James VI. and was created in 1603 Lord of Abercorn, and three +years later was advanced in the peerage as earl of Abercorn +and lord of Paisley, Hamilton, Mountcastell and Kilpatrick. His +eldest son James, 2nd earl of Abercorn, eventually heir male of +the house of Hamilton and successor to the dukedom of Châtellerault, +was created in his father’s lifetime lord of Strabane in +Ireland, but he resigned this title in 1633 in favour of his brother +Claud, whose grandson, Claud, 5th Lord Strabane, succeeded +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page879" id="page879"></a>879</span> +eventually as 4th earl of Abercorn. This earl, taking the side +of James II., was with him in Ireland, his estate and title being +afterwards forfeited, while his kinsman Gustavus Hamilton, +afterwards first Lord Boyne, raised several regiments for William +III., and greatly distinguished himself in the service of that +monarch. His brother Charles, 5th earl of Abercorn, who +obtained a reversal of the attainder, died without issue surviving +in 1701 when the titles passed to his kinsman James Hamilton, +grandson of Sir George Hamilton of Donalong in Ireland and +great-grandson of the first earl. This branch, most faithful +to the house of Stuart, counted among its many members +distinguished in military annals Count Anthony Hamilton, +author of the <i>Mémoires du comte de Gramont</i> and brother of “la +belle Hamilton.” James, 6th earl of Abercorn (whose brother +William was ancestor of Hamilton of the Mount, baronet), was a +partizan of William III., and obtained in 1701 the additional +Irish titles of lord of Mountcastle and viscount of Strabane.</p> + +<p>The 8th earl of Abercorn, who was summoned to the Irish +house of peers in his father’s lifetime as Lord Mountcastle, was +created a peer of Great Britain in 1786 as Viscount Hamilton +of Hamilton in Leicestershire, and renewed the family’s connexion +with Scotland by repurchasing the barony of Duddingston +and later the lordship of Paisley. His nephew and successor +was created marquess of Abercorn in 1790, and was father of +James, 1st duke of Abercorn.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the article Hamilton and other articles on the different +branches of the family (<i>e.g.</i> Haddington and Belhaven) in Sir J. B. +Paul’s edition of Sir R. Douglas’s <i>Peerage of Scotland</i>; and also +G. Marshall, <i>Guide to Heraldry and Genealogy</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMILTON, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OF.<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> The holders +of these titles descended from Sir James Hamilton of Cadzow, +who was made an hereditary lord of parliament in 1445, his lands +and baronies at the same time being erected into the “lordship” +of Hamilton. His first wife Euphemia, widow of the 5th earl +of Douglas, died in 1468, and probably early in 1474 he married +Mary, daughter of King James II. and widow of Thomas Boyd, +earl of Arran; the consequent nearness of the Hamiltons to +the Scottish crown gave them very great weight in Scottish +affairs. The first Lord Hamilton has been frequently confused +with his father, James Hamilton of Cadzow, who was one of the +hostages in England for the payment of James I.’s ransom, +and is sometimes represented as surviving until 1451 or even +1479, whereas he certainly died, according to evidence brought +forward by J. Anderson in <i>The Scots Peerage</i>, before May 1441. +James, 2nd Lord Hamilton, son of the 1st lord and Princess +Mary, was created earl of Arran in 1503; and his son James, +who was regent of Scotland from 1542 to 1554, received in +February 1549 a grant of the duchy of Châtellerault in +Poitou.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">John</span>, 1st marquess of Hamilton (<i>c.</i> 1542-1604), third son +of James Hamilton, 2nd earl of Arran (<i>q.v.</i>) and duke of Châtellerault, +was given the abbey of Arbroath in 1551. In politics +he was largely under the influence of his energetic and unscrupulous +younger brother Claud, afterwards Baron Paisley +(<i>c.</i> 1543-1622), ancestor of the dukes of Abercorn. The brothers +were the real heads of the house of Hamilton, their elder brother +Arran being insane. At first hostile to Mary, they later became +her devoted partisans. Their uncle, John Hamilton, archbishop +of St Andrews, natural son of the 1st earl of Arran, was restored +to his consistorial jurisdiction by Mary in 1566, and in May of +the next year he divorced Bothwell from his wife. Lord Claud +met Mary on her escape from Lochleven and escorted her to +Hamilton palace. John appears to have been in France in +1568 when the battle of Langside was fought, and it was probably +Claud who commanded Mary’s vanguard in the battle. With +others of the queen’s party they were forfeited by the parliament +and sought their revenge on the regent Murray. Although +the Hamiltons disavowed all connexion with Murray’s murderer, +James Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh, he had been provided with +horse and weapons by the abbot of Arbroath, and it was at Hamilton +that he sought refuge after the deed. Archbishop Hamilton +was hanged at Stirling in 1571 for alleged complicity in the +murder of Darnley, and is said to have admitted that he was a +party to the murder of Murray. At the pacification of Perth +in 1573 the Hamiltons abandoned Mary’s cause, and a reconciliation +with the Douglases was sealed by Lord John’s marriage +with Margaret, daughter of the 7th Lord Glamis, a cousin of +the regent Morton. Sir William Douglas of Lochleven, however, +persistently sought his life in revenge for the murder of Murray +until, on his refusal to keep the peace, he was imprisoned. On +the uncertain evidence extracted from the assassin by torture, +the Hamiltons had been credited with a share in the murder of +the regent Lennox in 1571. In 1579 proceedings against them +for these two crimes were resumed, and when they escaped to +England their lands and titles were seized by their political +enemies, James Stewart becoming earl of Arran. John Hamilton +presently dissociated himself from the policy of his brother +Claud, who continued to plot for Spanish intervention on behalf +of Mary; and Catholic plotters are even said to have suggested +his murder to procure the succession of his brother. Hamilton +had at one time been credited with the hope of marrying +Mary; his desires now centred on the peaceful enjoyment of his +estates. With other Scottish exiles he crossed the border in +1585 and marched on Stirling; he was admitted on the 4th of +November and formally reconciled with James VI., with whom +he was thenceforward on the friendliest terms. Claud returned +to Scotland in 1586, and the abbey of Paisley was erected into a +temporal barony in his favour in 1587. Much of his later years +was spent in strict retirement, his son being authorized to act +for him in 1598. John was created marquess of Hamilton and +Lord Evan in 1599, and died on the 6th of April 1604.</p> + +<p>His eldest surviving son <span class="sc">James</span>, 2nd marquess of Hamilton +(<i>c.</i> 1589-1625), was created baron of Innerdale and earl of +Cambridge in the peerage of England in 1619, and these honours +descended to his son James, who in 1643 was created duke of +Hamilton (<i>q.v.</i>). William, 2nd duke of Hamilton (1616-1651), +succeeded to the dukedom on his brother’s execution in 1649. +He was created earl of Lanark in 1639, and in the next year +became secretary of state in Scotland. Arrested at Oxford by +the king’s orders in 1643 for “concurrence” with Hamilton, +he effected his escape and was temporarily reconciled with the +Presbyterian party. He was sent by the Scottish committee +of estates to treat with Charles I. at Newcastle in 1646, when +he sought in vain to persuade the king to consent to the +establishment of Presbyterianism in England. On the 26th of +September 1647 he signed on behalf of the Scots the treaty with +Charles known as the “Engagement” at Carisbrooke Castle, +and helped to organize the second Civil War. In 1648 he fled +to Holland, his succession in the next year to his brother’s +dukedom making him an important personage among the +Royalist exiles. He returned to Scotland with Prince Charles +in 1650, but, finding a reconciliation with Argyll impossible, +he refused to prejudice Charles’s cause by pushing his claims, +and lived in retirement chiefly until the Scottish invasion of +England, when he acted as colonel of a body of his dependants. +He died on the 12th of September 1651 from the effects of +wounds received at Worcester. He left no male heirs, and the +title devolved on the 1st duke’s eldest surviving daughter Anne, +duchess of Hamilton in her own right.</p> + +<p>Anne married in 1656 William Douglas, earl of Selkirk (1635-1694), +who was created duke of Hamilton in 1660 on his wife’s +petition, receiving also several of the other Hamilton peerages, +but for his life only. The Hamilton estates had been declared +forfeit by Cromwell, and he himself had been fined £1000. He +supported Lauderdale in the early stages of his Scottish policy, +in which he adopted a moderate attitude towards the Presbyterians, +but the two were soon alienated, through the influence +of the countess of Dysart, according to Gilbert Burnet, who +spent much time at Hamilton Palace in arranging the Hamilton +papers. With other Scottish noblemen who resisted Lauderdale’s +measures Hamilton was twice summoned to London to present +his case at court, but without obtaining any result. He was +dismissed from the privy council in 1676, and on a subsequent +visit to London Charles refused to receive him. On the accession +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page880" id="page880"></a>880</span> +of James II. he received numerous honours, but he was one of +the first to enter into communication with the prince of Orange. +He presided over the convention of Edinburgh, summoned at +his request, which offered the Scottish crown to William and +Mary in March 1689. His death took place at Holyrood on +the 18th of April 1694. His wife survived until 1716.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">James Douglas</span>, 4th duke of Hamilton (1658-1712), eldest +son of the preceding and of Duchess Anne, succeeded his mother, +who resigned the dukedom to him in 1698, and at the accession +of Queen Anne he was regarded as leader of the Scottish national +party. He was an opponent of the union with England, but +his lack of decision rendered his political conduct ineffective. +He was created duke of Brandon in the peerage of Great Britain +in 1711; and on the 15th of November in the following year +he fought the celebrated duel with Charles Lord Mohun, narrated +in Thackeray’s <i>Esmond</i>, in which both the principals were killed. +His son, James (1703-1743), became 5th duke, and his grandson +James, 6th duke of Hamilton and Brandon (1724-1758), married +the famous beauty, Elizabeth Gunning, afterwards duchess of +Argyll. James George, 7th duke (1755-1769), became head of +the house of Douglas on the death in 1761 of Archibald, duke +of Douglas, whose titles but not his estates then devolved on +the duke of Hamilton as heir-male. Archibald’s brother Douglas +(1756-1799) was the 8th duke, and when he died childless +the titles passed to his uncle Archibald (1740-1819). His son +Alexander, 10th duke (1767-1852), who as marquess of Douglas +was a great collector and connoisseur of books and pictures (his +collections realized £397,562 in 1882), was ambassador at St +Petersburg in 1806-1807. His sister, Lady Anne Hamilton, +was lady-in-waiting and a faithful friend to Queen Caroline, +wife of George IV.; she did not write the <i>Secret History of the +Court of England ...</i> (1832) to which her name was attached. +William Alexander, 11th duke of Hamilton (1811-1863), married +Princess Marie Amélie, daughter of Charles, grand-duke of Baden, +and, on her mother’s side, a cousin of Napoleon III. The title +of duke of Châtellerault, granted to his remote ancestor in 1548, +and claimed at different times by various branches of the +Hamilton family, was conferred on the 11th duke’s son, William +Alexander, 12th duke of Hamilton (1845-1895), by the emperor +of the French in 1864. His sister, Lady Mary Douglas-Hamilton, +married in 1869 Albert, prince of Monaco, but their marriage +was declared invalid in 1880. She subsequently married Count +Tassilo Festetics, a Hungarian noble. The 12th duke left no +male issue and was succeeded in 1895 by his kinsman, Alfred +Douglas, a descendant of the 4th duke. Claud Hamilton, 1st +Baron Paisley, brother of the 1st marquess of Hamilton, was, +as mentioned above, ancestor of the Abercorn branch of the +Hamiltons. His son, who became earl of Abercorn in 1606, +received among a number of other titles that of Lord Hamilton. +This title, and also that of Viscount Hamilton, in the peerage +of Great Britain, conferred on the 8th earl of Abercorn in 1786, +are borne by the dukes of Abercorn, whose eldest son is usually +styled by courtesy marquess of Hamilton, a title which was +added to the other family honours when the 2nd marquess of +Abercorn was raised to the dukedom in 1868.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See John Anderson, <i>The House of Hamilton</i> (1825); <i>Hamilton +Papers</i>, ed. J. Bain (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1890-1892); Gilbert Burnet, +<i>Lives of James and William, dukes of Hamilton</i> (1677); <i>The Hamilton +Papers relative to 1638-1650</i>, ed. S. R. Gardiner for the Camden +Society (1880); G. E. C[okayne], <i>Complete Peerage</i> (1887-1898); +an article by the Rev. J. Anderson in Sir J. B. Paul’s edition of the +<i>Scots Peerage</i>, vol. iv. (1907).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMILTON, ALEXANDER<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (1757-1804), American statesman +and economist, was born, as a British subject, on the island of +Nevis in the West Indies on the 11th of January 1757. He +came of good family on both sides. His father, James Hamilton, +a Scottish merchant of St Christopher, was a younger son of +Alexander Hamilton of Grange, Lanarkshire, by Elizabeth, +daughter of Sir R. Pollock. His mother, Rachael Fawcett +(Faucette), of French Huguenot descent, married when very +young a Danish proprietor of St Croix, John Michael Levine, +with whom she lived unhappily and whom she soon left, subsequently +living with James Hamilton; her husband procured +a divorce in 1759, but the court forbade her remarriage.<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Such +unions as hers with James Hamilton were long not uncommon +in the West Indies. By her James Hamilton had two sons, +Alexander and James. Business misfortunes having caused +his father’s bankruptcy, and his mother dying in 1768, young +Hamilton was thrown upon the care of maternal relatives at +St Croix, where, in his twelfth year, he entered the counting-house +of Nicholas Cruger. Shortly afterward Mr Cruger, going +abroad, left the boy in charge of the business. The extraordinary +specimens we possess of his mercantile correspondence +and friendly letters, written at this time, attest an astonishing +poise and maturity of mind, and self-conscious ambition. His +opportunities for regular schooling must have been very scant; +but he had cultivated friends who discerned his talents and encouraged +their development, and he early formed the habits of +wide reading and industrious study that were to persist through +his life. An accomplishment later of great service to Hamilton, +common enough in the Antilles, but very rare in the English +continental colonies, was a familiar command of French. In +1772 some friends, impressed by a description by him of the +terrible West Indian hurricane in that year, made it possible +for him to go to New York to complete his education. Arriving +in the autumn of 1772, he prepared for college at Elizabethtown, +N.J., and in 1774 entered King’s College (now Columbia University) +in New York City. His studies, however, were interrupted +by the War of American Independence.</p> + +<p>A visit to Boston seems to have thoroughly confirmed the +conclusion, to which reason had already led him, that he should +cast in his fortunes with the colonists. Into their cause he threw +himself with ardour. In 1774-1775 he wrote two influential +anonymous pamphlets, which were attributed to John Jay; +they show remarkable maturity and controversial ability, and +rank high among the political arguments of the time.<a name="fa2b" id="fa2b" href="#ft2b"><span class="sp">2</span></a> He +organized an artillery company, was awarded its captaincy +on examination, won the interest of Nathanael Greene and +Washington by the proficiency and bravery he displayed in the +campaign of 1776 around New York City, joined Washington’s +staff in March 1777 with the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and +during four years served as his private secretary and confidential +aide. The important duties with which he was entrusted attest +Washington’s entire confidence in his abilities and character; +then and afterwards, indeed, reciprocal confidence and respect +took the place, in their relations, of personal attachment.<a name="fa3b" id="fa3b" href="#ft3b"><span class="sp">3</span></a> +But Hamilton was ambitious for military glory—it was an +ambition he never lost; he became impatient of detention in +what he regarded as a position of unpleasant dependence, and +(Feb. 1781) he seized a slight reprimand administered by Washington +as an excuse for abandoning his staff position.<a name="fa4b" id="fa4b" href="#ft4b"><span class="sp">4</span></a> Later +he secured a field command, through Washington, and won +laurels at Yorktown, where he led the American column in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page881" id="page881"></a>881</span> +final assault on the British works. In 1780 he married Elizabeth, +daughter of General Philip Schuyler, and thus became allied +with one of the most distinguished families in New York.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, he had begun the political efforts upon which +his fame principally rests. In letters of 1779-1780<a name="fa5b" id="fa5b" href="#ft5b"><span class="sp">5</span></a> he correctly +diagnoses the ills of the Confederation, and suggests with +admirable prescience the necessity of centralization in its +governmental powers; he was, indeed, one of the first, if not +to conceive, at least to suggest adequate checks on the anarchic +tendencies of the time. After a year’s service in Congress in +1782-1783, in which he experienced the futility of endeavouring +to attain through that decrepit body the ends he sought, he +settled down to legal practice in New York.<a name="fa6b" id="fa6b" href="#ft6b"><span class="sp">6</span></a> The call for the +Annapolis Convention (1786) was Hamilton’s opportunity. +A delegate from New York, he supported Madison in inducing +the Convention to exceed its delegated powers and summon +the Federal Convention of 1787 at Philadelphia (himself drafting +the call); he secured a place on the New York delegation; and, +when his anti-Federal colleagues withdrew from the Convention, +he signed the Constitution for his state. So long as his colleagues +were present his own vote was useless, and he absented himself +for some time from the debates after making one remarkable +speech (June 18th, 1787). In this he held up the British government +as the best model in the world.<a name="fa7b" id="fa7b" href="#ft7b"><span class="sp">7</span></a> Though fully conscious +that monarchy in America was impossible, he wished to obtain +the next best solution in an aristocratic, strongly centralized, +coercive, but representative union, with devices to give weight +to the influence of class and property.<a name="fa8b" id="fa8b" href="#ft8b"><span class="sp">8</span></a> His plan had no chance +of success; but though unable to obtain what he wished, he +used his great talents to secure the adoption of the Constitution.</p> + +<p>To this struggle was due the greatest of his writings, and the +greatest individual contribution to the adoption of the new +government, <i>The Federalist</i>, which remains a classic commentary +on American constitutional law and the principles of government, +and of which Guizot said that “in the application of elementary +principles of government to practical administration” it was +the greatest work known to him. Its inception, and much more +than half its contents were Hamilton’s (the rest Madison’s and +Jay’s).<a name="fa9b" id="fa9b" href="#ft9b"><span class="sp">9</span></a> Sheer will and reasoning could hardly be more brilliantly +and effectively exhibited than they were by Hamilton +in the New York convention of 1788, whose vote he won, against +the greatest odds, for the ratification of the Constitution. It +was the judgment of Chancellor James Kent, the justice of +which can hardly be disputed, that “all the documentary proof +and the current observation of the time lead us to the conclusion +that he surpassed all his contemporaries in his exertions to create, +recommend, adopt and defend the Constitution of the United +States.”</p> + +<p>When the new government was inaugurated, Hamilton became +secretary of the treasury in Washington’s cabinet.<a name="fa10b" id="fa10b" href="#ft10b"><span class="sp">10</span></a> Congress +immediately referred to him a press of queries and problems, +and there came from his pen a succession of papers that have +left the strongest imprint on the administrative organization +of the national government—two reports on public credit, +upholding an ideal of national honour higher than the prevalent +popular principles; a report on manufactures, advocating their +encouragement (<i>e.g.</i> by bounties paid from surplus revenues +amassed by tariff duties)—a famous report that has served ever +since as a storehouse of arguments for a national protective +policy;<a name="fa11b" id="fa11b" href="#ft11b"><span class="sp">11</span></a> a report favouring the establishment of a national +bank, the argument being based on the doctrine of “implied +powers” in the Constitution, and on the application that Congress +may do anything that can be made, through the medium +of money, to subserve the “general welfare” of the United +States—doctrines that, through judicial interpretation, have +revolutionized the Constitution; and, finally, a vast mass of +detailed work by which order and efficiency were given to the +national finances. In 1793 he put to confusion his opponents +who had brought about a congressional investigation of his +official accounts. The success of his financial measures was immediate +and remarkable. They did not, as is often but loosely +said, create economic prosperity; but they did prop it, in +an all-important field, with order, hope and confidence. His +ultimate purpose was always the strengthening of the union; +but before particularizing his political theories, and the political +import of his financial measures, the remaining events of his +life may be traced.</p> + +<p>His activity in the cabinet was by no means confined to +the finances. He regarded himself, apparently, as premier, and +sometimes overstepped the limits of his office in interfering +with other departments. The heterogeneous character of the +duties placed upon his department by Congress seemed in fact +to reflect the English idea of its primacy. Hamilton’s influence +was in fact predominant with Washington (so far as any man +could have predominant influence). Thus it happens that in +foreign affairs, whatever credit properly belongs to the Federalists +as a party (see also the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Federalist Party</a></span>) for the +adoption of that principle of neutrality which became the +traditional policy of the United States must be regarded as +largely due to Hamilton. But allowance must be made for the +mere advantage of initiative which belonged to any party that +organized the government—the differences between Hamilton +and Jefferson, in this question of neutrality, being almost purely +factitious.<a name="fa12b" id="fa12b" href="#ft12b"><span class="sp">12</span></a> On domestic policy their differences were vital, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page882" id="page882"></a>882</span> +and in their conflicts over Hamilton’s financial measures they +organized, on the basis of varying tenets and ideals which +have never ceased to conflict in American politics, the two +great parties of Federalists and Democrats (or Democratic-Republicans). +On the 31st of January 1795 Hamilton resigned +his position as secretary of the treasury and returned to the +practice of law in New York, leaving it for public service only +in 1798-1800, when he was the active head, under Washington +(who insisted that Hamilton should be second only to himself), +of the army organized for war against France. But though in +private life he remained the continual and chief adviser of +Washington—notably in the serious crisis of the Jay Treaty, +of which Hamilton approved. Washington’s <i>Farewell Address</i> +(1796) was written for him by Hamilton.</p> + +<p>After Washington’s death the Federalist leadership was +divided (and disputed) between John Adams, who had the +prestige of a varied and great career, and greater strength than +any other Federalist with the people, and Hamilton, who controlled +practically all the leaders of lesser rank, including much +the greater part of the most distinguished men of the country, +so that it has been very justly said that “the roll of his followers +is enough of itself to establish his position in American history” +(Lodge). But Hamilton was not essentially a popular leader. +When his passions were not involved, or when they were repressed +by a crisis, he was far-sighted, and his judgment of men was +excellent.<a name="fa13b" id="fa13b" href="#ft13b"><span class="sp">13</span></a> But as Hamilton himself once said, his heart was +ever the master of his judgment. He was, indeed, not above +intrigue,<a name="fa14b" id="fa14b" href="#ft14b"><span class="sp">14</span></a> but he was unsuccessful in it. He was a fighter through +and through, and his courage was superb; but he was indiscreet +in utterance, impolitic in management, opinionated, self-confident, +and uncompromising in nature and methods. His faults +are nowhere better shown than in his quarrel with John Adams. +Three times, in order to accomplish ends deemed by him, personally, +to be desirable, Hamilton used the political fortunes of +John Adams, in presidential elections, as a mere hazard in his +manœuvres; moreover, after Adams became president, and +so the official head of the party, Hamilton constantly advised +the members of the president’s cabinet, and through them +endeavoured to control Adams’s policy; and finally, on the eve +of the crucial election of 1800, he wrote a bitter personal attack +on the president (containing much confidential cabinet information), +which was intended for private circulation, but which +was secured and published by Aaron Burr, his legal and political +rival.</p> + +<p>The mention of Burr leads us to the fatal end of another great +political antipathy of Hamilton’s life. He read Burr’s character +correctly from the beginning; deemed it a patriotic duty to +thwart him in his ambitions; defeated his hopes successively +of a foreign mission, the presidency, and the governorship of +New York; and in his conversations and letters repeatedly +and unsparingly denounced him. If these denunciations were +known to Burr they were ignored by him until his last defeat. +After that he forced a quarrel on a trivial bit of hearsay (that +Hamilton had said he had a “despicable” opinion of Burr); +and Hamilton, believing as he explained in a letter he left before +going to his death—that a compliance with the duelling prejudices +of the time was inseparable from the ability to be in future +useful in public affairs, accepted a challenge from him. The duel +was fought at Weehawken on the Jersey shore of the Hudson +opposite the City of New York. At the first fire Hamilton fell, +mortally wounded, and he died on the following day, the 12th +of July 1804. Hamilton himself did not intend to fire, but his +pistol went off as he fell. The tragic close of his career appeased +for the moment the fierce hatred of politics, and his death was +very generally deplored as a national calamity.<a name="fa15b" id="fa15b" href="#ft15b"><span class="sp">15</span></a></p> + +<p>No emphasis, however strong, upon the mere consecutive +personal successes of Hamilton’s life is sufficient to show the +measure of his importance in American history. That importance +lies, to a large extent, in the political ideas for which he +stood. His mind was eminently “legal.” He was the unrivalled +controversialist of the time. His writings, which are distinguished +by clarity, vigour and rigid reasoning, rather than by +any show of scholarship—in the extent of which, however solid +in character Hamilton’s might have been, he was surpassed by +several of his contemporaries—are in general strikingly empirical +in basis. He drew his theories from his experiences of the +Revolutionary period, and he modified them hardly at all through +life. In his earliest pamphlets (1774-1775) he started out with +the ordinary pre-Revolutionary Whig doctrines of natural +rights and liberty; but the first experience of semi-anarchic +states’-rights and individualism ended his fervour for ideas +so essentially alien to his practical, logical mind, and they have +no place in his later writings. The feeble inadequacy of conception, +infirmity of power, factional jealousy, disintegrating +particularism, and vicious finance of the Confederation were +realized by many others; but none other saw so clearly the +concrete nationalistic remedies for these concrete ills, or +pursued remedial ends so constantly, so ably, and so consistently. +An immigrant, Hamilton had no particularistic +ties; he was by instinct a “continentalist” or federalist. +He wanted a strong union and energetic government that +should “rest as much as possible on the shoulders of the +people and as little as possible on those of the state +legislatures”; that should have the support of wealth and +class; and that should curb the states to such an “entire +subordination” as nowise to be hindered by those bodies. At +these ends he aimed with extraordinary skill in all his financial +measures. As early as 1776 he urged the direct collection of +federal taxes by federal agents. From 1779 onward we trace the +idea of supporting government by the interest of the propertied +classes; from 1781 onward the idea that a not-excessive public +debt would be a blessing<a name="fa16b" id="fa16b" href="#ft16b"><span class="sp">16</span></a> in giving cohesiveness to the union: +hence his device by which the federal government, assuming +the war debts of the states, secured greater resources, based +itself on a high ideal of nationalism, strengthened its hold on the +individual citizen, and gained the support of property. In his +report on manufactures his chief avowed motive was to strengthen +the union. To the same end he conceived the constitutional +doctrines of liberal construction, “implied powers,” and the +“general welfare,” which were later embodied in the decisions +of John Marshall. The idea of nationalism pervaded and +quickened all his life and works. With one great exception, the +dictum of Guizot is hardly an exaggeration, that “there is not in +the Constitution of the United States an element of order, of +force, of duration, which he did not powerfully contribute to +introduce into it and to cause to predominate.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page883" id="page883"></a>883</span></p> + +<p>The exception, as American history showed, was American +democracy. The loose and barren rule of the Confederation +seemed to conservative minds such as Hamilton’s to presage, +in its strengthening of individualism, a fatal looseness of social +restraints, and led him on to a dread of democracy that he never +overcame. Liberty, he reminded his fellows, in the New York +Convention of 1788, seemed to be alone considered in government, +but there was another thing equally important: “a +principle of strength and stability in the organization ... and +of vigour in its operation.” But Hamilton’s governmental +system was in fact repressive.<a name="fa17b" id="fa17b" href="#ft17b"><span class="sp">17</span></a> He wanted a system strong +enough, he would have said, to overcome the anarchic tendencies +loosed by war, and represented by those notions of natural +rights which he had himself once championed; strong enough +to overbear all local, state and sectional prejudices, powers or +influence, and to control—not, as Jefferson would have it, to +be controlled by—the people. Confidence in the integrity, the +self-control, and the good judgment of the people, which was +the content of Jefferson’s political faith, had almost no place +in Hamilton’s theories. “Men,” said he, “are reasoning rather +than reasonable animals.” The charge that he laboured to +introduce monarchy by intrigue is an under-estimate of his good +sense.<a name="fa18b" id="fa18b" href="#ft18b"><span class="sp">18</span></a> Hamilton’s thinking, however, did carry him foul of +current democratic philosophy; as he said, he presented his +plan in 1787 “not as attainable, but as a model to which we +ought to approach as far as possible”; moreover, he held through +life his belief in its principles, and in its superiority over the +government actually created; and though its inconsistency +with American tendencies was yearly more apparent, he never +ceased to avow on all occasions his aristocratic-monarchical +partialities. Moreover, his preferences for at least an aristocratic +republic were shared by many other men of talent. When it is +added that Jefferson’s assertions, alike as regards Hamilton’s +talk<a name="fa19b" id="fa19b" href="#ft19b"><span class="sp">19</span></a> and the intent and tendency of his political measures, +were, to the extent of the underlying basic fact—but discounting +Jefferson’s somewhat intemperate interpretations—unquestionably +true,<a name="fa20b" id="fa20b" href="#ft20b"><span class="sp">20</span></a> it cannot be accounted strange that Hamilton’s +Democratic opponents mistook his theoretic predilections for +positive designs. Nor would it be a strained inference from +much that be said, to believe that he hoped and expected that +in the “crisis” he foresaw, when democracy should have caused +the ruin of the country, a new government might be formed +that should approximate to his own ideals.<a name="fa21b" id="fa21b" href="#ft21b"><span class="sp">21</span></a> From the beginning +of the excesses of the French Revolution he was possessed by +the persuasion that American democracy, likewise, might at +any moment crush the restraints of the Constitution to enter +on a career of licence and anarchy. To this obsession he sacrificed +his life.<a name="fa22b" id="fa22b" href="#ft22b"><span class="sp">22</span></a> After the Democratic victory of 1800, his letters, +full of retrospective judgments and interesting outlooks, are +but rarely relieved in their sombre pessimism by flashes of hope +and courage. His last letter on politics, written two days +before his death, illustrates the two sides of his thinking already +emphasized: in this letter he warns his New England friends +against dismemberment of the union as “a clear sacrifice of +great positive advantages, without any counterbalancing good; +administering no relief to our real disease, which is democracy, +the poison of which, by a subdivision, will only be more concentrated +in each part, and consequently the more virulent.” +To the end he never lost his fear of the states, nor gained faith +in the future of the country. He laboured still, in mingled hope +and apprehension, “to prop the frail and worthless fabric,”<a name="fa23b" id="fa23b" href="#ft23b"><span class="sp">23</span></a> +but for its spiritual content of democracy he had no understanding, +and even in its nationalism he had little hope. Yet +probably to no one man, except perhaps to Washington, does +American nationalism owe so much as to Hamilton.</p> + +<p>In the development of the United States the influence of +Hamiltonian nationalism and Jeffersonian democracy has been +a reactive union; but changed conditions since Hamilton’s +time, and particularly since the Civil War, are likely to create +misconceptions as to Hamilton’s position in his own day. Great +constructive statesman as he was, he was also, from the American +point of view, essentially a reactionary. He was the leader of +reactionary forces—constructive forces, as it happened—in +the critical period after the War of American Independence, +and in the period of Federalist supremacy. He was in sympathy +with the dominant forces of public life only while they took, +during the war, the predominant impress of an imperfect nationalism.<a name="fa24b" id="fa24b" href="#ft24b"><span class="sp">24</span></a> +Jeffersonian democracy came into power in 1800 in +direct line with colonial development; Hamiltonian Federalism +was a break in that development; and this alone can explain +how Jefferson could organize the Democratic Party in face of +the brilliant success of the Federalists in constructing the government. +Hamilton stigmatized his great opponent as a political +fanatic; but actualist as he claimed to be,<a name="fa25b" id="fa25b" href="#ft25b"><span class="sp">25</span></a> Hamilton could not +see, or would not concede, the predominating forces in American +life, and would uncompromisingly have minimized the two +great political conquests of the colonial period—local +self-government +and democracy.</p> + +<p>Few Americans have received higher tributes from foreign +authorities. Talleyrand, personally impressed when in America +with Hamilton’s brilliant qualities, declared that he had the +power of divining without reasoning, and compared him to Fox +and Napoleon because he had “deviné l’Europe.” Of the +judgments rendered by his countrymen, Washington’s confidence +in his ability and integrity is perhaps the most significant. +Chancellor James Kent, and others only less competent, paid +remarkable testimony to his legal abilities. Chief-justice +Marshall ranked him second to Washington alone. No judgment +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page884" id="page884"></a>884</span> +is more justly measured than Madison’s (in 1831): “That he +possessed intellectual powers of the first order, and the moral +qualities of integrity and honour in a captivating degree, has +been awarded him by a suffrage now universal. If his theory +of government deviated from the republican standard he had +the candour to avow it, and the greater merit of co-operating +faithfully in maturing and supporting a system which was not +his choice.”</p> + +<p>In person Hamilton was rather short and slender; in carriage, +erect, dignified and graceful. Deep-set, changeable, dark eyes +vivified his mobile features, and set off his light hair and fair, +ruddy complexion. His head in the famous Trumbull portrait +is boldly poised and very striking. The captivating charm of +his manners and conversation is attested by all who knew him, +and in familiar life he was artlessly simple. Friends he won +readily, and he held them in devoted attachment by the solid +worth of a frank, ardent, generous, warm-hearted and high-minded +character. Versatile as were his intellectual powers, his +nature seems comparatively simple. A firm will, tireless +energy, aggressive courage and bold self-confidence were its +leading qualities; the word “intensity” perhaps best sums up +his character. His Scotch and Gallic strains of ancestry are +evident; his countenance was decidedly Scotch; his nervous +speech and bearing and vehement temperament rather French; +in his mind, agility, clarity and penetration were matched with +logical solidity. The remarkable quality of his mind lay in the +rare combination of acute analysis and grasp of detail with great +comprehensiveness of thought. So far as his writings show, he +was almost wholly lacking in humour, and in imagination little +less so. He certainly had wit, but it is hard to believe he could +have had any touch of fancy. In public speaking he often +combined a rhetorical effectiveness and emotional intensity +that might take the place of imagination, and enabled him, +on the coldest theme, to move deeply the feelings of his +auditors.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Hamilton’s <i>Works</i> have been edited by H. C. +Lodge (New York, 9 vols., 1885-1886, and 12 vols., 1904); all +references above are first to the latter edition, secondly (in brackets) +to the former. There are various additional editions of <i>The Federalist</i>, +notably those of H. B. Dawson (1863), H. C. Lodge (1888), and—the +most scholarly—P. L. Ford (1898); cf. <i>American Historical +Review</i>, ii. 413, 675. See also James Bryce, “Predictions of Hamilton +and de Tocqueville,” in <i>Johns Hopkins University Studies</i>, +vol. 5 (Baltimore, 1887); and the capital essay of Anson D. Morse +in the <i>Political Science Quarterly</i>, v. (1890), pp. 1-23. For a bibliography +of the period see the <i>Cambridge Modern History</i>, vol. vii. +pp. 780-810. The unfinished <i>Life of Alexander Hamilton, by his +Son</i>, J. C. Hamilton, going only to 1787 (New York, 2 vols., 1834-1840), +was superseded by the same author’s valuable, but partisan +and uncritical <i>History of the Republic ... as traced in the Writings +of Alexander Hamilton</i> (New York, 7 vols., 1857-1864; 4th ed., +Boston, 1879). Professor W. G. Sumner’s <i>Alexander Hamilton</i> +(Makers of America series, New York, 1890) is appreciative, and +important for its criticism from the point of view of an American +free-trader; see also, on Hamilton’s finance and economic views, +Prof. C. F. Dunbar, <i>Quarterly Journal of Economics</i>, iii. (1889), p. 32; +E. G. Bourne in ibid. x. (1894), p. 328; E. C. Lunt in <i>Journal of +Political Economy</i>, iii. (1895), p. 289. Among modern studies must +also be mentioned J. T. Morse’s able <i>Life</i> (1876); H. C. Lodge’s +(in the American Statesmen series, 1882); and G. Shea’s two +books, his <i>Historical Study</i> (1877) and <i>Life and Epoch</i> (1879). C. J. +Riethmüller’s <i>Hamilton and his Contemporaries</i> (1864), written +during the Civil War, is sympathetic, but rather speculative. The +most vivid account of Hamilton is in Mrs Gertrude Atherton’s +historical romance, <i>The Conqueror</i> (New York, 1902), for the writing +of which the author made new investigations into the biographical +details, and elucidated some points previously obscure; see also +her <i>A Few of Hamilton’s Letters</i> (1903). F. S. Oliver’s brilliant +<i>Alexander Hamilton: An Essay on American Union</i> (London, 1906), +which uses its subject to illustrate the necessity of British imperial +federation, is strongly anti-Jeffersonian, but no other work by +a non-American author brings out so well the wider issues involved +in Hamilton’s economic policy.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. S. P.; H. Ch.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> These facts were first definitely determined by Mrs Gertrude +Atherton from the Danish Archives in Denmark and the West +Indies; see article in <i>North American Review</i>, Aug. 1902, vol. 175, +p. 229; and preface to her <i>A Few of Hamilton’s Letters</i> (New York, +1903).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2b" id="ft2b" href="#fa2b"><span class="fn">2</span></a> These were written in answer to the widely read pamphlets +published over the <i>nom de plume</i> of “A Westchester Farmer,” +and now known to have been written by Samuel Seabury (<i>q.v.</i>). +Hamilton’s pamphlets were entitled “A Full Vindication of the +Measures of the Congress from the Calumnies of their Enemies,” +and “The Farmer Refuted.” Concerning them George Ticknor +Curtis (<i>Constitutional History of the United States</i>, i. 274) has said, +“There are displayed in these papers a power of reasoning and +sarcasm, a knowledge of the principles of government and of the +English constitution, and a grasp of the merits of the whole controversy, +that would have done honour to any man at any age. To +say that they evince precocity of intellect gives no idea of their main +characteristics. They show great maturity—a more remarkable +maturity than has ever been exhibited by any other person, at so early +an age, in the same department of thought.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft3b" id="ft3b" href="#fa3b"><span class="fn">3</span></a> George Bancroft was the first to point out that there is small +evidence that Hamilton ever really appreciated Washington’s great +qualities; but on the score of personal and Federalist indebtedness +he left explicit recognition.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4b" id="ft4b" href="#fa4b"><span class="fn">4</span></a> For Hamilton’s letter to General Schuyler on this episode—one +of the most important letters, in some ways, that he ever wrote—see +the <i>Works</i>, ix. 232 (8: 35).</p> + +<p><a name="ft5b" id="ft5b" href="#fa5b"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Especially the letter of September 1780 to James Duane, <i>Works</i>, +i. 213 (1: 203); also the “Continentalist” papers of 1781.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6b" id="ft6b" href="#fa6b"><span class="fn">6</span></a> His most famous case at this time (<i>Rutgers</i> v. <i>Waddington</i>) was +one that well illustrated his moral courage. Under a “Trespass +Law” of New York, Elizabeth Rutgers, a widow, brought suit +against one Joshua Waddington, a Loyalist, who during the war of +American Independence, while New York was occupied by the +British, had made use of some of her property. In face of popular +clamour, Hamilton, who advocated a conciliatory treatment of the +Loyalists, represented Waddington, who won the case, decided in +1784.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7b" id="ft7b" href="#fa7b"><span class="fn">7</span></a> As Mr Oliver points out (<i>Alexander Hamilton</i>, p. 156), Hamilton’s +idea of the British constitution was not a correct picture of the +British constitution in 1787, and still less of that of the 20th century. +“What he had in mind was the British constitution as George III. +had tried to make it.” Hamilton’s ideal was an elective monarchy, +and his guiding principle a proper balance of authority.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8b" id="ft8b" href="#fa8b"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Briefly, he proposed a governor and two chambers—an Assembly +elected by the people for three years, and a Senate—the governor +and senate holding office for life or during good behaviour, and +chosen, through electors, by voters qualified by property; the +governor to have an unqualified veto on federal legislation; state +governors to have a similar veto on state legislation, and to be +appointed by the federal government; the federal government to +control all militia. See <i>Works</i>, i. 347 (1: 331); and cf. his correspondence, +which is scanty, <i>passim</i> in later years, notably x. 446, +431, 329 (8: 606, 596, 517), and references below.</p> + +<p><a name="ft9b" id="ft9b" href="#fa9b"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Nearly all the papers in <i>The Federalist</i> first appeared (between +October 1787 and April 1788) in New York journals, over the signature +“Publius.” Jay wrote only five. The authorship of twelve +of them is uncertain, and has been the subject of much controversy +between partisans of Hamilton and Madison. Concerning <i>The +Federalist</i> Chancellor James Kent (<i>Commentaries</i>, i. 241) said: +“There is no work on the subject of the Constitution, and on republican +and federal government generally, that deserves to be more +thoroughly studied. I know not indeed of any work on the principles +of free government that is to be compared, in instruction and intrinsic +value, to this small and unpretending volume.... It is equally +admirable in the depth of its wisdom, the comprehensiveness of its +views, the sagacity of its reflections, and the fearlessness, patriotism, +candour, simplicity, and elegance, with which its truths are uttered +and recommended.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft10b" id="ft10b" href="#fa10b"><span class="fn">10</span></a> The position was offered first to Robert Morris, who declined +it, expressing the opinion that Hamilton was the man best fitted to +meet its problems.</p> + +<p><a name="ft11b" id="ft11b" href="#fa11b"><span class="fn">11</span></a> Hamilton’s <i>Report on Manufactures</i> (1791) by itself entitles him +to the place of an epoch-maker in economics. It was the first great +revolt from Adam Smith, on whose <i>Wealth of Nations</i> (1776) he is +said to have already written a commentary which is lost. In his +criticism on Adam Smith, and his arguments for a system of +moderate protective duties associated with the deliberate policy of +promoting national interests, his work was the inspiration of Friedrich +List, and so the foundation of the economic system of Germany +in a later day, and again, still later, of the policy of Tariff Reform +and Colonial Preference in England, as advocated by Mr Chamberlain +and his supporters. See the detailed account given in the +article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Protection</a></span>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft12b" id="ft12b" href="#fa12b"><span class="fn">12</span></a> That is, while Jefferson hated British aristocracy and sympathized +with French democracy, Hamilton hated French democracy +and sympathized with British aristocracy and order; but +neither wanted war; and indeed Jefferson, throughout life, was the +more peaceful of the two. Neutrality was in the line of commonplace +American thinking of that time, as may be seen in the writings +of all the leading men of the day. The cry of “British Hamilton” +had no good excuse whatever.</p> + +<p><a name="ft13b" id="ft13b" href="#fa13b"><span class="fn">13</span></a> <i>e.g.</i> his prediction in 1789 of the course of the French Revolution; +his judgments of Burr from 1792 onward, and of Burr and +Jefferson in 1800.</p> + +<p><a name="ft14b" id="ft14b" href="#fa14b"><span class="fn">14</span></a> After the Democrats won New York in 1799, Hamilton proposed +to Governor John Jay to call together the out-going Federalist +legislature, in order to choose Federalist presidential electors, a +suggestion which Jay simply endorsed: “Proposing a measure for +party purposes which it would not become me to adopt.”—<i>Works</i>, x. +371 (8: 549). Compare also with later developments of ward +politics in New York City, Hamilton’s curious suggestions as to +Federalist charities, &c., in connexion with the Christian Constitutional +Society proposed by him in 1802 to combat irreligion and +democracy (<i>Works</i>, x. 432 (8 : 596).</p> + +<p><a name="ft15b" id="ft15b" href="#fa15b"><span class="fn">15</span></a> Hamilton’s widow, who survived him for half a century, dying +at the age of ninety-seven, was left with four sons and four +daughters. He had been an affectionate husband and father, +though his devotion to his wife had been consistent with occasional +lapses from strict marital fidelity. One intrigue into which he +drifted in 1791, with a Mrs Reynolds, led to the blackmailing of +Hamilton by her husband; and when this rascal, shortly afterwards, +got into trouble for fraud, his relations with Hamilton were unscrupulously +misrepresented for political purposes by some of +Hamilton’s opponents. But Hamilton faced the necessity of revealing +the true state of things with conspicuous courage, and the scandal +only reacted on his accusers. One of them was Monroe, whose reputation +comes very badly out of this unsavoury affair.</p> + +<p><a name="ft16b" id="ft16b" href="#fa16b"><span class="fn">16</span></a> In later years he said no debt should be incurred without providing +simultaneously for its payment.</p> + +<p><a name="ft17b" id="ft17b" href="#fa17b"><span class="fn">17</span></a> He warmly supported the Alien and Sedition Laws of 1798 (in +their final form).</p> + +<p><a name="ft18b" id="ft18b" href="#fa18b"><span class="fn">18</span></a> The idea, he wrote to Washington, was “one of those visionary +things none but madmen could undertake, and that no wise man +will believe” (1792). And see his comments on Burr’s ambitions, +<i>Works</i>, x. 417, 450 (8: 585, 610). We may accept as just, and +applicable to his entire career, the statement made by himself in +1803 of his principles in 1787: “(1) That the political powers of the +people of this continent would endure nothing but a representative +form of government. (2) That, in the actual situation of the country, +it was itself right and proper that the representative system should +have a full and fair trial. (3) That to such a trial it was essential +that the government should be so constructed as to give it all the +energy and the stability reconcilable with the principles of that +theory.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft19b" id="ft19b" href="#fa19b"><span class="fn">19</span></a> Cf. Gouverneur Morris, <i>Diary and Letters</i>, ii. 455, 526, 531.</p> + +<p><a name="ft20b" id="ft20b" href="#fa20b"><span class="fn">20</span></a> Cf. even Mr Lodge’s judgments, pp. 90-92, 115-116, 122, 130, 140. +When he says (p. 140) that “In Hamilton’s successful policy there +were certainly germs of an aristocratic republic, there were certainly +limitations and possibly dangers to pure democracy,” this is practically +Jefferson’s assertion (1792) that “His system flowed from +principles adverse to liberty”; but Jefferson goes on to add: +“and was calculated to undermine and demolish the republic.” As +to the intent of Hamilton to secure through his financial measures +the political support of property, his own words are honest and clear; +and in fact he succeeded. Jefferson merely had exaggerated fears +of a moneyed political engine, and seeing that Hamilton’s measures +of funding and assumption did make the national debt politically +useful to the Federalists in the beginning he concluded that they +would seek to fasten the debt on the country for ever.</p> + +<p><a name="ft21b" id="ft21b" href="#fa21b"><span class="fn">21</span></a> Cf. Gouv. Morris, <i>op. cit.</i> ii. 474.</p> + +<p><a name="ft22b" id="ft22b" href="#fa22b"><span class="fn">22</span></a> He dreamed of saving the country with an army in this crisis +of blood and iron, and wished to preserve unweakened the public +confidence in his personal bravery.</p> + +<p><a name="ft23b" id="ft23b" href="#fa23b"><span class="fn">23</span></a> His own words in 1802. In justification of the above statements +see the correspondence of 1800-1804 <i>passim</i>—<i>Works</i>, vol. ix.-x. +(or 7-8); especially x. 363, 425, 434, 440, 445 (or 8: 543, 591, 596, +602, 605).</p> + +<p><a name="ft24b" id="ft24b" href="#fa24b"><span class="fn">24</span></a> Cf. Anson D. Morse, article cited below, pp. 4, 18-21.</p> + +<p><a name="ft25b" id="ft25b" href="#fa25b"><span class="fn">25</span></a> Chancellor Kent tells us (<i>Memoirs and Letters</i>, p. 32) that in +1804 Hamilton was planning a co-operative Federalist work on the +history and science of government on an inductive basis. Kent +always speaks of Hamilton’s legal thinking as deductive, however +(ibid. p. 290, 329), and such seems to have been in fact all his political +reasoning: <i>i.e.</i> underlying them were such maxims as that of Hume, +that in erecting a stable government every citizen must be assumed +a knave, and be bound by self-interest to co-operation for the public +good. Hamilton always seems to be reasoning deductively from +such principles. He went too far and fast for even such a Federalist +disbeliever in democracy as Gouverneur Morris; who, to Hamilton’s +assertion that democracy must be cast out to save the country, +replied that “such necessity cannot be shown by a political ratiocination. +Luckily, or, to speak with a reverence proper to the +occasion, providentially, mankind are not disposed to embark the +blessings they enjoy on a voyage of syllogistic adventure to obtain +something more beautiful in exchange. They must feel before they +will act” (<i>op. cit.</i> ii. 531).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMILTON, ANTHONY,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Antoine</span> (1646-1720), French +classical author, was born about 1646. He is especially noteworthy +from the fact that, though by birth he was a foreigner, +his literary characteristics are more decidedly French than those +of many of the most indubitable Frenchmen. His father was +George Hamilton, younger brother of James, 2nd earl of +Abercorn, and head of the family of Hamilton in the peerage +of Scotland, and 6th duke of Châtellerault in the peerage of +France; and his mother was Mary Butler, sister of the 1st +duke of Ormonde. According to some authorities he was born +at Drogheda, but according to the London edition of his works +in 1811 his birthplace was Roscrea, Tipperary. From the age +of four till he was fourteen the boy was brought up in France, +whither his family had removed after the execution of Charles I. +The fact that, like his father, he was a Roman Catholic, prevented +his receiving the political promotion he might otherwise have +expected on the Restoration, but he became a distinguished +member of that brilliant band of courtiers whose chronicler +he was to become. He took service in the French army, and +the marriage of his sister Elizabeth, “la belle Hamilton,” to +Philibert, comte de Gramont (<i>q.v.</i>) rendered his connexion with +France more intimate, if possible, than before. On the accession +of James II. he obtained an infantry regiment in Ireland, and +was appointed governor of Limerick and a member of the privy +council. But the battle of the Boyne, at which he was present, +brought disaster on all who were attached to the cause of the +Stuarts, and before long he was again in France—an exile, but +at home. The rest of his life was spent for the most part at the +court of St Germain and in the <i>châteaux</i> of his friends. With +Ludovise, duchesse du Maine, he became an especial favourite, +and it was at her seat at Sceaux that he wrote the <i>Mémoires</i> +that made him famous. He died at St Germain-en-Laye on the +21st of April 1720.</p> + +<p>It is mainly by the <i>Mémoires ducomte de Gramont</i> that Hamilton +takes rank with the most classical writers of France. It was +said to have been written at Gramont’s dictation, but it is very +evident that Hamilton’s share is the most considerable. The +work was first published anonymously in 1713 under the rubric of +Cologne, but it was really printed in Holland, at that time the +great patroness of all questionable authors. An English translation +by Boyer appeared in 1714. Upwards of thirty editions +have since appeared, the best of the French being Renouard’s +(1812), forming part of a collected edition of Hamilton’s works, +and Gustave Brunet’s (1859), and the best of the English, +Edwards’s (1793), with 78 engravings from portraits in the royal +collections at Windsor and elsewhere, A. F. Bertrand de Moleville’s +(2 vols., 1811), with 64 portraits by E. Scriven and others, +and Gordon Goodwin’s (2 vols., 1903). The original edition +was reprinted by Benjamin Pifteau in 1876. In imitation and +satiric parody of the romantic tales which Antoine Galland’s +translation of <i>The Thousand and One Nights</i> had brought into +favour in France, Hamilton wrote, partly for the amusement of +Henrietta Bulkley, sister of the duchess of Berwick, to whom +he was much attached, four ironical and extravagant <i>contes</i>, +<i>Le Bélier</i>, <i>Fleur d’épine</i>, <i>Zénéyde</i> and <i>Les Quatre Facardins</i>. +The saying in <i>Le Bélier</i>’ “Bélier, mon ami, tu me ferais plaisir +si tu voulais commencer par le commencement,” has passed +into a proverb. These tales were circulated privately during +Hamilton’s lifetime, and the first three appeared in Paris in +1730, ten years after the death of the author; a collection of his +<i>Œuvres diverses</i> in 1731 contained the unfinished <i>Zénéyde</i>. +Hamilton was also the author of some songs as exquisite in their +way as his prose, and interchanged amusing verses with the duke +of Berwick. In the name of his niece, the countess of Stafford, +Hamilton maintained a witty correspondence with Lady Mary +Wortley Montagu.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See notices of Hamilton in Lescure’s edition (1873) of the <i>Contes</i>, +Sainte-Beuve’s <i>Causeries du lundi</i>, tome i., Sayou’s <i>Histoire de la +littérature française à l’étranger</i> (1853), and by L. S. Auger in the +<i>Œuvres complètes</i> (1804).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMILTON, ELIZABETH<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (1758-1816), British author, was +born at Belfast, of Scottish extraction, on the 21st of July 1758. +Her father’s death in 1759 left his wife so embarrassed that +Elizabeth was adopted in 1762 by her paternal aunt, Mrs +Marshall, who lived in Scotland, near Stirling. In 1788 Miss +Hamilton went to live with her brother Captain Charles Hamilton +(1753-1792), who was engaged on his translation of the <i>Hedaya</i>. +Prompted by her brother’s associations, she produced her +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page885" id="page885"></a>885</span> +<i>Letters of a Hindoo Rajah</i> in 1796. Soon after, with her sister +Mrs Blake, she settled at Bath, where she published in 1800 the +<i>Memoirs of Modern Philosophers</i>, a satire on the admirers of +the French Revolution. In 1801-1802 appeared her <i>Letters +on Education</i>. After travelling through Wales and Scotland for +nearly two years, the sisters took up their abode in 1803 at +Edinburgh. In 1804 Mrs Hamilton, as she then preferred to be +called, published her <i>Life of Agrippina, wife of Germanicus</i>; +and in the same year she received a pension from government. +<i>The Cottagers of Glenburnie</i> (1808), which is her best-known work, +was described by Sir Walter Scott as “a picture of the rural +habits of Scotland, of striking and impressive fidelity.” She +also published <i>Popular Essays on the Elementary Principles +of the Human Mind</i> (1812), and <i>Hints addressed to the Patrons +and Directors of Public Schools</i> (1815). She died at Harrogate +on the 23rd of July 1816.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Memoirs of Mrs Elizabeth Hamilton</i>, by Miss Benger, were published +in 1818.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMILTON, EMMA,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> <span class="sc">Lady</span> (<i>c.</i> 1765-1815), wife of Sir William +Hamilton (<i>q.v.</i>), the British envoy at Naples, and famous as +the mistress of Nelson, was the daughter of Henry Lyon, a +blacksmith of Great Neston in Cheshire. The date of her birth +cannot be fixed with certainty, but she was baptized at Great +Neston on the 12th of May 1765, and it is not improbable that +she was born in that year. Her baptismal name was Emily. +As her father died soon after her birth, the mother, who was +dependent on parish relief, had to remove to her native village, +Hawarden in Flintshire. Emma’s early life is very obscure. She +was certainly illiterate, and it appears that she had a child in +1780, a fact which has led some of her biographers to place her +birth before 1765. It has been said that she was first the mistress +of Captain Willet Payne, an officer in the navy, and that she +was employed in some doubtful capacity by a notorious quack +of the time, Dr Graham. In 1781 she was the mistress of a +country gentleman, Sir Harry Featherstonhaugh, who turned +her out in December of that year. She was then pregnant, and +in her distress she applied to the Hon. Charles Greville, to whom +she was already known. At this time she called herself Emily +Hart. Greville, a gentleman of artistic tastes and well known +in society, entertained her as his mistress, her mother, known +as Mrs Cadogan, acting as housekeeper and partly as servant. +Under the protection of Greville, whose means were narrowed +by debt, she acquired some education, and was taught to sing, +dance and act with professional skill. In 1782 he introduced +her to his friend Romney the portrait painter, who had been +established for several years in London, and who admired her +beauty with enthusiasm. The numerous famous portraits of +her from his brush may have somewhat idealised her apparently +robust and brilliantly coloured beauty, but her vivacity and +powers of fascination cannot be doubted. She had the temperament +of an artist, and seems to have been sincerely attached to +Greville. In 1784 she was seen by his uncle, Sir William +Hamilton, who admired her greatly. Two years later she was +sent on a visit to him at Naples, as the result of an understanding +between Hamilton and Greville—the uncle paying his nephew’s +debts and the nephew ceding his mistress. Emma at first +resented, but then submitted to the arrangement. Her beauty, +her artistic capacity, and her high spirits soon made her a great +favourite in the easy-going society of Naples, and Queen Maria +Carolina became closely attached to her. She became famous +for her “attitudes,” a series of <i>poses plastiques</i> in which she +represented classical and other figures. On the 6th of September +1791, during a visit to England, she was married to Sir W. +Hamilton. The ceremony was required in order to justify her +public reception at the court of Naples, where Lady Hamilton +played an important part as the agent through whom the queen +communicated with the British minister—sometimes in opposition +to the will and the policy of the king. The revolutionary +wars and disturbances which began after 1792 made the services +of Lady Hamilton always useful and sometimes necessary to +the British government. It was claimed by her, and on her +behalf, that she secured valuable information in 1796, and was +of essential service to the British fleet in 1798 during the Nile +campaign, by enabling it to obtain stores and water in Sicily. +These claims have been denied on the rather irrelevant ground +that they are wanting in official confirmation, which was only +to be expected since they were <i>ex hypothesi</i> unofficial and secret, +but it is not improbable that they were considerably exaggerated, +and it is certain that her stories cannot always be reconciled +with one another or with the accepted facts. When Nelson +returned from the Nile in September 1798 Lady Hamilton made +him her hero, and he became entirely devoted to her. Her +influence over him indeed became notorious, and brought him +much official displeasure. Lady Hamilton undoubtedly used +her influence to draw Nelson into a most unhappy participation +in the domestic troubles of Naples, and when Sir W. Hamilton +was recalled in 1800 she travelled with him and Nelson ostentatiously +across Europe. In England Lady Hamilton insisted on +making a parade of her hold over Nelson. Their child, Horatia +Nelson Thompson, was born on the 30th of January 1801. The +profuse habits which Emma Hamilton had contracted in Naples, +together with a passion for gambling which grew on her, led her +into debt, and also into extravagant ways of living, against which +her husband feebly protested. On his death in 1803 she received +by his will a life rent of £800, and the furniture of his house in +Piccadilly. She then lived openly with Nelson at his house at +Merton. Nelson tried repeatedly to secure her a pension for +the services rendered at Naples, but did not succeed. On his +death she received Merton, and an annuity of £500, as well as +the control of the interest of the £4000 he left to his daughter. +But gambling and extravagance kept her poor. In 1808 her +friends endeavoured to arrange her affairs, but in 1813 she was +put in prison for debt and remained there for a year. A certain +Alderman Smith having aided her to get out, she went over to +Calais for refuge from her creditors, and she died there in distress +if not in want on the 15th of January 1815.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—<i>The Memoirs of Lady Hamilton</i> (London, 1815) +were the work of an ill-disposed but well-informed and shrewd +observer whose name is not given. <i>Lady Hamilton and Lord Nelson</i>, +by J. C. Jefferson (London, 1888) is based on authentic papers. +It is corrected in some particulars by the detailed recent life written +by Walter Sichel, <i>Emma, Lady Hamilton</i> (London, 1905). See also +the authorities given in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nelson</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(D. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMILTON, JAMES<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (1769-1831), English educationist, and +author of the Hamiltonian system of teaching languages, was +born in 1769. The first part of his life was spent in mercantile +pursuits. Having settled in Hamburg and become free of the +city, he was anxious to become acquainted with German and +accepted the tuition of a French emigré, General d’Angelis. +In twelve lessons he found himself able to read an easy German +book, his master having discarded the use of a grammar and +translated to him short stories word for word into French. As +a citizen of Hamburg Hamilton started a business in Paris, and +during the peace of Amiens maintained a lucrative trade with +England; but at the rupture of the treaty he was made a prisoner +of war, and though the protection of Hamburg was enough to get +the words <i>effacé de la liste des prisonniers de guerre</i> inscribed upon +his passport, he was detained in custody till the close of hostilities. +His business being thus ruined, he went in 1814 to America, +intending to become a farmer and manufacturer of potash; +but, changing his plan before he reached his “location,” he +started as a teacher in New York. Adopting his old tutor’s +method, he attained remarkable success in New York, Baltimore, +Washington, Boston, Montreal and Quebec. Returning to +England in July 1823, he was equally fortunate in Manchester +and elsewhere. The two master principles of his method were +that the language should be presented to the scholar as a living +organism, and that its laws should be learned from observation +and not by rules. His system attracted general attention, and +was vigorously attacked and defended. In 1826 Sydney Smith +devoted an article to its elucidation in the <i>Edinburgh Review</i>. +As text-books for his pupils Hamilton printed interlinear translations +of the Gospel of John, of an <i>Epitome historiae sacrae</i>, of +Aesop’s <i>Fables</i>, Eutropius, Aurelius Victor, Phaedrus, &c., and +many books were issued as Hamiltonian with which he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page886" id="page886"></a>886</span> +had nothing personally to do. He died on the 31st of October +1831.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Hamilton’s own account, <i>The History, Principles, Practice +and Results of the Hamiltonian System</i> (Manchester, 1829; new ed., +1831); Alberte, <i>Über die Hamilton’sche Methode</i>; C. F. Wurm, +<i>Hamilton und Jacotot</i> (1831).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMILTON, JAMES HAMILTON,<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Duke of</span> (1606-1649), +Scottish nobleman, son of James, 2nd marquess of Hamilton, +and of the Lady Anne Cunningham, daughter of the earl of +Glencairn, was born on the 19th of June 1606. As the descendant +and representative of James Hamilton, 1st earl of Arran, he +was the heir to the throne of Scotland after the descendants of +James VI.<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> He married in his fourteenth year May Feilding, +aged seven, daughter of Lord Feilding, afterwards 1st earl of +Denbigh, and was educated at Exeter College, Oxford, where +he matriculated on the 14th of December 1621. He succeeded +to his father’s titles on the latter’s death in 1625. In 1628 he +was made master of the horse and was also appointed gentleman +of the bedchamber and a privy councillor. In 1631 Hamilton +took over a force of 6000 men to assist Gustavus Adolphus in +Germany. He guarded the fortresses on the Oder while Gustavus +fought Tilly at Breitenfeld, and afterwards occupied Magdeburg, +but his army was destroyed by disease and starvation, and after +the complete failure of the expedition Hamilton returned to +England in September 1634. He now became Charles I.’s +chief adviser in Scottish affairs. In May 1638, after the outbreak +of the revolt against the English Prayer-Book, he was appointed +commissioner for Scotland to appease the discontents. He +described the Scots as being “possessed by the devil,” and instead +of doing his utmost to support the king’s interests was easily +intimidated by the covenanting leaders and persuaded of the +impossibility of resisting their demands, finally returning to +Charles to urge him to give way. It is said that he so far forgot +his trust as to encourage the Scottish leaders in their resistance +in order to gain their favour.<a name="fa2c" id="fa2c" href="#ft2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a> On the 27th of July Charles sent +him back with new proposals for the election of an assembly +and a parliament, episcopacy being safeguarded but bishops +being made responsible to future assemblies. After a wrangle +concerning the mode of election he again returned to Charles. +Having been sent back to Edinburgh on the 17th of September, +he brought with him a revocation of the prayer-book and canons +and another covenant to be substituted for the national covenant. +On the 21st of November Hamilton presided over the first meeting +of the assembly in Glasgow cathedral, but dissolved it on the +28th on its declaring the bishops responsible to its authority. +The assembly, however, continued to sit notwithstanding, and +Hamilton returned to England to give an account of his failure, +leaving the enemy triumphant and in possession. War was now +decided upon, and Hamilton was chosen to command an expedition +to the Forth to menace the rear of the Scots. On arrival +on the 1st of May 1639 he found the plan impossible, despaired of +success, and was recalled in June. On the 8th of July, after a +hostile reception at Edinburgh, he resigned his commissionership. +He supported Strafford’s proposal to call the Short Parliament, +but otherwise opposed him as strongly as he could, as the chief +adversary of the Scots; and he aided the elder Vane, it was +believed, in accomplishing Strafford’s destruction by sending +for him to the Long Parliament. Hamilton now supported the +parliamentary party, desired an alliance with his nation, and +persuaded Charles in February 1641 to admit some of their +leaders into the council. On the death of Strafford Hamilton +was confronted by a new antagonist in Montrose, who detested +both his character and policy and repudiated his supremacy +in Scotland. On the 10th of August 1641 he accompanied +Charles on his last visit to Scotland. His aim now was to effect +an alliance between the king and Argyll, the former accepting +Presbyterianism and receiving the help of the Scots against the +English parliament, and when this failed he abandoned Charles +and adhered to Argyll. In consequence he received a challenge +from Lord Ker, of which he gave the king information, and +obtained from Ker an apology. Montrose wrote to Charles +declaring he could prove Hamilton to be a traitor. The king +himself spoke of him as being “very active in his own preservation.” +Shortly afterwards the plot—known as the +“Incident”—to seize Argyll, Hamilton and the latter’s brother, +the earl of Lanark, was discovered, and on the 12th of October +they fled from Edinburgh. Hamilton returned not long afterwards, +and notwithstanding all that had occurred still retained +Charles’s favour and confidence. He returned with him to +London and accompanied him on the 5th of January 1642 when +he went to the city after the failure to secure the five members. +In July Hamilton went to Scotland on a hopeless mission to +prevent the intervention of the Scots in the war, and a breach +then took place between him and Argyll. When in February +1643 proposals of mediation between Charles and the parliament +came from Scotland, Hamilton instigated the “cross petition” +which demanded from Charles the surrender of the annuities +of tithes in order to embarrass Loudoun, the chief promoter of +the project, to whom they had already been granted. This +failing, he promoted a scheme for overwhelming the influence +and votes of Argyll and his party by sending to Scotland all the +Scottish peers then with the king, thereby preventing any +assistance to the parliament coming from that quarter, while +Charles was to guarantee the establishment of Presbyterianism +in Scotland only. This foolish intrigue was strongly opposed +by Montrose, who was eager to strike a sudden blow and anticipate +and annihilate the plans of the Covenanters. Hamilton, +however, gained over the queen for his project, and in September +was made a duke, while Montrose was condemned to inaction. +Hamilton’s scheme, however, completely failed. He had no +control over the parliament. He was unable to hinder the +meeting of the convention of the estates which assembled without +the king’s authority, and his supporters found themselves in a +minority. Finally, on refusing to take the Covenant, Hamilton +and Lanark were obliged to leave Scotland. They arrived at +Oxford on the 16th of December. Hamilton’s conduct had at +last incurred Charles’s resentment and he was sent, in January +1644, a prisoner to Pendennis Castle, in 1645 being removed to +St Michael’s Mount, where he was liberated by Fairfax’s troops +on the 23rd of April 1646. Subsequently he showed great +activity in the futile negotiations between the Scots and Charles +at Newcastle. In 1648, in consequence of the seizure of Charles +by the army in 1647, Hamilton obtained a temporary influence +and authority in the Scottish parliament over Argyll, and led +a large force into England in support of the king on the 8th of +July. He showed complete incapacity in military command; +was kept in check for some time by Lambert; and though outnumbering +the enemy by 24,000 to about 9000 men, allowed his +troops to disperse over the country and to be defeated in detail +by Cromwell during the three days August 17th-19th at the +so-called battle of Preston, being himself taken prisoner on the +25th. He was tried on the 6th of February 1649, condemned +to death on the 6th of March and executed on the 9th.</p> + +<p>Hamilton, during his unfortunate career, had often been +suspected of betraying the king’s cause, and, as an heir to the +Scottish throne, of intentionally playing into the hands of the +Covenanters with a view of procuring the crown for himself. +The charge was brought against him as early as 1631 when he was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page887" id="page887"></a>887</span> +levying men in Scotland for the German expedition, but Charles +gave no credence to it and showed his trust in Hamilton by +causing him to share his own room. The charge, however, always +clung to him, and his intriguing character and hopeless management +of the king’s affairs in Scotland gave colour to the accusation. +There seems, however, to be no real foundation for it. +His career is sufficiently explained by his thoroughly weak and +egotistical character. He took no interest whatever in the great +questions at issue, was neither loyal nor patriotic, and only +desired peace and compromise to avoid personal losses. “He +was devoid of intellectual or moral strength, and was therefore +easily brought to fancy all future tasks easy and all present +obstacles insuperable.”<a name="fa3c" id="fa3c" href="#ft3c"><span class="sp">3</span></a> A worse choice than Hamilton could +not possibly have been made in such a crisis, and his want of +principle, of firmness and resolution, brought irretrievable ruin +upon the royal cause.</p> + +<p>Hamilton’s three sons died young, and the dukedom passed +by special remainder to his brother William, earl of Lanark. +On the latter’s death in 1651 the Scottish titles reverted to the +1st duke’s daughter, Anne, whose husband, William Douglas, +was created (third) duke of Hamilton.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Article in the <i>Dict. of Nat. Biog.</i> by S. R. +Gardiner; <i>History of England and of the Civil War</i>, by the same +author; <i>Memoirs of the Dukes of Hamilton</i>, by G. Burnet; <i>Lauderdale +Papers</i> (Camden Society, 1884-1885); <i>The Hamilton Papers</i>, +ed. by S. R. Gardiner (Camden Society, 1880) and <i>addenda</i> (Camden +Miscellany, vol. ix., 1895); <i>Thomason Tracts</i> in the British Museum, +550 (6), 1948 (30) (account of his supposed treachery), and 546 (21) +(speech on the scaffold).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(P. C. Y.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a></p> + +<p class="center"> + James, Lord Hamilton = Princess Mary Stuart,<br /> + (d. 1479).       daughter of James II.<br /> + |<br /> + James, Lord Hamilton and 1st earl of Arran<br /> + (d. <i>c.</i> 1529).<br /> + |<br /> +James, duke of Chatelherault, and 2nd earl of Arran<br /> + (d. 1575).<br /> + |<br /> + James, 3rd earl of Arran<br /> + (d. 1609).<br /> + |<br /> + John, 1st marquess of Hamilton<br /> + (d. 1604).<br /> + |<br /> + James, 2nd marquess of Hamilton<br /> + (d. 1625).<br /> + |<br /> + James, 3rd marquess and 1st duke of Hamilton.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2c" id="ft2c" href="#fa2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See S. R. Gardiner in the <i>Dict. of Nat. Biography</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3c" id="ft3c" href="#fa3c"><span class="fn">3</span></a> See S. R. Gardiner in the <i>Dict. of Nat. Biography</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMILTON, JOHN<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1511-1571), Scottish prelate and +politician, was a natural son of James Hamilton, 1st earl of +Arran. At a very early age he became a monk and abbot of +Paisley, and after studying in Paris he returned to Scotland, +where he soon rose to a position of power and influence under +his half-brother, the regent Arran. He was made keeper of the +privy seal in 1543 and bishop of Dunkeld two years later; in +1546 he followed David Beaton as archbishop of St Andrews, and +about the same time he became treasurer of the kingdom. He +made vigorous efforts to stay the growth of Protestantism, but +with one or two exceptions “persecution was not the policy of +Archbishop Hamilton,” and in the interests of the Roman +Catholic religion a catechism called <i>Hamilton’s Catechism</i> +(published with an introduction by T. G. Law in 1884) was +drawn up and printed, possibly at his instigation. Having +incurred the displeasure of the Protestants, now the dominant +party in Scotland, the archbishop was imprisoned in 1563. After +his release he was an active partisan of Mary queen of Scots; +he baptized the infant James, afterwards King James VI., and +pronounced the divorce of the queen from Bothwell. He was +present at the battle of Langside, and some time later took +refuge in Dumbarton Castle. Here he was seized, and on the +charge of being concerned in the murders of Lord Darnley and +the regent Murray he was tried, and hanged on the 6th of April +1571. The archbishop had three children by his mistress, +Grizzel Sempill.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMILTON, PATRICK<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> (1504-1528), Scottish divine, second +son of Sir Patrick Hamilton, well known in Scottish chivalry, +and of Catherine Stewart, daughter of Alexander, duke of Albany, +second son of James II. of Scotland, was born in the diocese +of Glasgow, probably at bis father’s estate of Stanehouse in +Lanarkshire. He was educated probably at Linlithgow. In 1517 +he was appointed titular abbot of Ferne, Ross-shire; and it +was probably about the same year that he went to study at +Paris, for his name is found in an ancient list of those who +graduated there in 1520. It was doubtless in Paris, where +Luther’s writings were already exciting much discussion, that +he received the germs of the doctrines he was afterwards to +uphold. From Alexander Ales we learn that Hamilton subsequently +went to Louvain, attracted probably by the fame of +Erasmus, who in 1521 had his headquarters there. Returning +to Scotland, the young scholar naturally selected St Andrews, +the capital of the church and of learning, as his residence. On +the 9th of June 1523 he became a member of the university of +St Andrews, and on the 3rd of October 1524 he was admitted +to its faculty of arts. There Hamilton attained such influence +that he was permitted to conduct as precentor a musical mass +of his own composition in the cathedral. But the reformed +doctrines had now obtained a firm hold on the young abbot, +and he was eager to communicate them to his fellow-countrymen. +Early in 1527 the attention of James Beaton, archbishop +of St Andrews, was directed to the heretical preaching of the +young priest, whereupon he ordered that Hamilton should be +formally summoned and accused. Hamilton fled to Germany, +first visiting Luther at Wittenberg, and afterwards enrolling +himself as a student, under Franz Lambert of Avignon, in the +new university of Marburg, opened on the 30th of May 1527 by +Philip, landgrave of Hesse. Hermann von dem Busche, one of +the contributors to the <i>Epistolae obscurorum virorum</i>, John +Frith and Tyndale were among those whom he met there. Late +in the autumn of 1527 Hamilton returned to Scotland, bold in +the conviction of the truth of his principles. He went first to +his brother’s house at Kincavel, near Linlithgow, in which town +he preached frequently, and soon afterwards he married a young +lady of noble rank, whose name has not come down to us. +Beaton, avoiding open violence through fear of Hamilton’s high +connexions, invited him to a conference at St Andrews. The +reformer, predicting that he was going to confirm the pious +in the true doctrine by his death, resolutely accepted the invitation, +and for nearly a month was permitted to preach and dispute, +perhaps in order to provide material for accusation. At length, +however, he was summoned before a council of bishops and +clergy presided over by the archbishop; there were thirteen +charges, seven of which were based on the doctrines affirmed +in the <i>Loci communes</i>. On examination Hamilton maintained +that these were undoubtedly true. The council condemned +him as a heretic on the whole thirteen charges. Hamilton was +seized, and, it is said, surrendered to the soldiery on an assurance +that he would be restored to his friends without injury. The +council convicted him, after a sham disputation with Friar +Campbell, and handed him over to the secular power. The +sentence was carried out on the same day (February 29, 1528) +lest he should be rescued by his friends, and he was burned at +the stake as a heretic. His courageous bearing attracted more +attention than ever to the doctrines for which he suffered, and +greatly helped to spread the Reformation in Scotland. The +“reek of Patrick Hamilton infected all it blew on.” His +martyrdom is singular in this respect, that he represented in +Scotland almost alone the Lutheran stage of the Reformation. +His only book was entitled <i>Loci communes</i>, known as “Patrick’s +Places.” It set forth the doctrine of justification by faith and +the contrast between the gospel and the law in a series of clear-cut +propositions. It is to be found in Foxs’s <i>Acts and Monuments</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMILTON, ROBERT<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (1743-1829), Scottish economist and +mathematician, was born at Pilrig, Edinburgh, on the 11th of +June 1743. His grandfather, William Hamilton, principal of +Edinburgh University, had been a professor of divinity. Having +completed his education at the university of Edinburgh, where +he was distinguished in mathematics, Robert was induced to +enter a banking-house in order to acquire a practical knowledge +of business, but his ambition was really academic. In 1769 he +gave up business pursuits and accepted the rectorship of Perth +academy. In 1779 he was presented to the chair of natural +philosophy at Aberdeen University. For many years, however, +by private arrangement with his colleague Professor Copland, +Hamilton taught the class of mathematics. In 1817 he was +presented to the latter chair.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Hamilton’s most important work is the <i>Essay on the National +Debt</i>, which appeared in 1813 and was undoubtedly the first to +expose the economic fallacies involved in Pitt’s policy of a sinking +fund. It is still of value. A posthumous volume published in +1830, <i>The Progress of Society</i>, is also of great ability, and is a very +effective treatment of economical principles by tracing their natural +origin and position in the development of social life. Some minor +works of a practical character (<i>Introduction to Merchandise</i>, 1777; +<i>Essay on War and Peace</i>, 1790) are now forgotten.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page888" id="page888"></a>888</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMILTON, THOMAS<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (1789-1842), Scottish writer, younger +brother of the philosopher, Sir William Hamilton, Bart., was +born in 1789. He was educated at Glasgow University, where +he made a close friend of Michael Scott, the author of <i>Tom +Cringle’s Log</i>. He entered the army in 1810, and served throughout +the Peninsular and American campaigns, but continued to +cultivate his literary tastes. On the conclusion of peace he +withdrew, with the rank of captain, from active service. He +contributed both prose and verse to <i>Blackwood’s Magazine</i>, +in which appeared his vigorous and popular military novel, +<i>Cyril Thornton</i> (1827). His <i>Annals of the Peninsular Campaign</i>, +published originally in 1829, and republished in 1849 with +additions by Frederick Hardman, is written with great clearness +and impartiality. His only other work, <i>Men and Manners in +America</i>, published originally in 1833, is somewhat coloured by +British prejudice, and by the author’s aristocratic dislike of a +democracy. Hamilton died at Pisa on the 7th of December +1842.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMILTON, WILLIAM<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> (1704-1754), Scottish poet, the author +of “The Braes of Yarrow,” was born in 1704 at Bangour in Linlithgowshire, +the son of James Hamilton of Bangour, a member +of the Scottish bar. As early as 1724 we find him contributing +to Allan Ramsay’s <i>Tea Table Miscellany</i>. In 1745 Hamilton +joined the cause of Prince Charles, and though it is doubtful +whether he actually bore arms, he celebrated the battle of +Prestonpans in verse. After the disaster of Culloden he lurked +for several months in the Highlands and escaped to France; +but in 1749 the influence of his friends procured him permission +to return to Scotland, and in the following year he obtained +possession of the family estate of Bangour. The state of his +health compelled him, however, to live abroad, and he died at +Lyons on the 25th of March 1754. He was buried in the Abbey +Church of Holyroodhouse, Edinburgh. He was twice married—“into +families of distinction” says the preface of the authorized +edition of his poems.</p> + +<p>Hamilton left behind him a considerable number of poems, +none of them except “The Braes of Yarrow” of striking originality. +The collection is composed of odes, epitaphs, short pieces +of translation, songs, and occasional verses. The longest is +“Contemplation, or the Triumph of Love” (about 500 lines). +The first edition was published without his permission by Foulis +(Glasgow, 1748), and introduced by a preface from the pen of +Adam Smith. Another edition with corrections by himself was +brought out by his friends in 1760, and to this was prefixed a +portrait engraved by Robert Strange.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In 1850 James Paterson edited <i>The Poems and Songs of William +Hamilton</i>. This volume contains several poems till then unpublished, +and gives a life of the author.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (1730-1803), British diplomatist +and archaeologist, son of Lord Archibald Hamilton, governor +of Greenwich hospital and of Jamaica, was born in Scotland on +the 13th of December 1730, and served in the 3rd Regiment of +Foot Guards from 1747 to 1758. He left the army after his +marriage with Miss Barlow, a Welsh heiress from whom he +inherited an estate near Swansea upon her death in 1782. Their +only child, a daughter, died in 1775. From 1761 to 1764 he +was member of parliament for Midhurst, but in the latter year +he was appointed envoy to the court of Naples, a post which he +held for thirty-six years—until his recall in 1800. During the +greater part of this time the official duties of the minister were +of small importance. It was enough that the representative +of the British crown should be a man of the world whose means +enabled him to entertain on a handsome scale. Hamilton was +admirably qualified for these duties, being an amiable and +accomplished man, who took an intelligent interest in science +and art. In 1766 he became a member of the Royal Society, +and between that year and 1780 he contributed to its Philosophical +Transactions a series of observations on the action of +volcanoes, which he had made, or caused to be made, at Vesuvius +and Etna. He employed a draftsman named Fabris to make +studies of the eruption of 1775 and 1776, and a Dominican, +Resina, to make observations at a later period. He published +several treatises on earthquakes and volcanoes between 1776 +and 1783. He was a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries and +of the Dilettanti, and a notable collector. Many of his treasures +went to enrich the British Museum. In 1772 he was made a +knight of the Bath. The last ten years of his life presented a +curious contrast to the elegant peace of those which had preceded +them. In 1791 he married Emma Lyon (see the separate article +on Lady Hamilton). The outbreak of the French Revolution +and the rapid extension of the revolutionary movement in +Western Europe soon overwhelmed Naples. It was a misfortune +for Sir William that he was left to meet the very trying political +and diplomatic conditions which arose after 1793. His health +had begun to break down, and he suffered from bilious fevers. +Sir William was in fact in a state approaching dotage before +his recall, a fact which, combined with his senile devotion to +Lady Hamilton, has to be considered in accounting for his +extraordinary complaisance in her relations with Nelson. He +died on the 6th of April 1803.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See E. Edwards, <i>Lives of the Founders of the British Museum</i> +(London, 1870); and the authorities given in the article on Emma, +Lady Hamilton.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM,<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> Bart. (1788-1856), Scottish metaphysician, +was born in Glasgow on the 8th of March 1788. His +father, Dr William Hamilton, had in 1781, on the strong recommendation +of the celebrated William Hunter, been appointed +to succeed <i>his</i> father, Dr Thomas Hamilton, as professor of +anatomy in the university of Glasgow; and when he died in +1790, in his thirty-second year, he had already gained a great +reputation. William Hamilton and a younger brother (afterwards +Captain Thomas Hamilton, <i>q.v.</i>) were thus brought up +under the sole care of their mother. William received his early +education in Scotland, except during two years which he spent +in a private school near London, and went in 1807, as a Snell +exhibitioner, to Balliol College, Oxford. He obtained a first-class +<i>in literis humanioribus</i> and took the degree of B.A. in 1811, +M.A. in 1814. He had been intended for the medical profession, +but soon after leaving Oxford he gave up this idea, and in 1813 +became a member of the Scottish bar. His life, however, was +mainly that of a student; and the following years, marked by +little of outward incident, were filled by researches of all kinds, +through which he daily added to his stores of learning, while +at the same time he was gradually forming his philosophic +system. Investigation enabled him to make good his claim to +represent the ancient family of Hamilton of Preston, and in 1816 +he took up the baronetcy, which had been in abeyance since the +death of Sir Robert Hamilton of Preston (1650-1701), well known +in his day as a Covenanting leader.</p> + +<p>Two visits to Germany in 1817 and 1820 led to his taking up +the study of German and later on that of contemporary German +philosophy, which was then almost entirely neglected in the +British universities. In 1820 he was a candidate for the chair of +moral philosophy in the university of Edinburgh, which had +fallen vacant on the death of Thomas Brown, colleague of +Dugald Stewart, and the latter’s consequent resignation, but +was defeated on political grounds by John Wilson (1785-1854), +the “Christopher North” of <i>Blackwood’s Magazine</i>. Soon +afterwards (1821) he was appointed professor of civil history, +and as such delivered several courses of lectures on the history +of modern Europe and the history of literature. The salary +was £100 a year, derived from a local beer tax, and was discontinued +after a time. No pupils were compelled to attend, +the class dwindled, and Hamilton gave it up when the salary +ceased. In January 1827 he suffered a severe loss in the death +of his mother, to whom he had been a devoted son. In March +1828 he married his cousin Janet Marshall.</p> + +<p>In 1829 his career of authorship began with the appearance of +the well-known essay on the “Philosophy of the Unconditioned” +(a critique of Comte’s <i>Cours de philosophie</i>)—the first of a series +of articles contributed by him to the <i>Edinburgh Review</i>. He was +elected in 1836 to the Edinburgh chair of logic and metaphysics, +and from this time dates the influence which, during the next +twenty years, he exerted over the thought of the younger +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page889" id="page889"></a>889</span> +generation in Scotland. Much about the same time he began +the preparation of an annotated edition of Reid’s works, intending +to annex to it a number of dissertations. Before, however, this +design had been carried out, he was struck (1844) with paralysis +of the right side, which seriously crippled his bodily powers, +though it left his mind wholly unimpaired. The edition of Reid +appeared in 1846, but with only seven of the intended +dissertations—the last, too, unfinished. It was his distinct purpose to +complete the work, but this purpose remained at his death +unfulfilled, and all that could be done afterwards was to print +such materials for the remainder, or such notes on the subjects +to be discussed, as were found among his MSS. Considerably +before this time he had formed his theory of logic, the leading +principles of which were indicated in the prospectus of “an essay +on a new analytic of logical forms” prefixed to his edition of +Reid. But the elaboration of the scheme in its details and +applications continued during the next few years to occupy +much of his leisure. Out of this arose a sharp controversy with +Augustus de Morgan. The essay did not appear, but the results +of the labour gone through are contained in the appendices to +his <i>Lectures on Logic</i>. Another occupation of these years was +the preparation of extensive materials for a publication which he +designed on the personal history, influence and opinions of +Luther. Here he advanced so far as to have planned and partly +carried out the arrangement of the work; but it did not go +further, and still remains in MS. In 1852-1853 appeared the +first and second editions of his <i>Discussions in Philosophy, +Literature and Education</i>, a reprint, with large additions, of his +contributions to the <i>Edinburgh Review</i>. Soon after, his general +health began to fail. Still, however, aided now as ever by his +devoted wife, he persevered in literary labour; and during 1854-1855 +he brought out nine volumes of a new edition of Stewart’s +works. The only remaining volume was to have contained a +memoir of Stewart, but this he did not live to write. He taught +his class for the last time in the winter of 1855-1856. Shortly +after the close of the session he was taken ill, and on the 6th of +May 1856 he died in Edinburgh.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Hamilton’s positive contribution to the progress of thought is +comparatively slight, and his writings, even where reinforced by the +copious lecture notes taken by his pupils, cannot be said to present +a comprehensive philosophic system. None the less he did considerable +service by stimulating a spirit of criticism in his pupils, by insisting +on the great importance of psychology as opposed to the older +metaphysical method, and not least by his recognition of the importance +of German philosophy, especially that of Kant. By far his most +important work was his “Philosophy of the Unconditioned,” the +development of the principle that for the human finite mind there +can be no knowledge of the Infinite. The basis of his whole argument +is the thesis, “To think is to condition.” Deeply impressed +with Kant’s antithesis between subject and object, the knowing and +the known, Hamilton laid down the principle that every object is +known only in virtue of its relations to other objects (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Relativity +of Knowledge</a></span>). From this it follows limitless time, space, power +and so forth are humanly speaking inconceivable. The fact, however, +that all thought seems to demand the idea of the infinite or +absolute provides a sphere for faith, which is thus the specific faculty +of theology. It is a weakness characteristic of the human mind that +it cannot conceive any phenomenon without a beginning: hence +the conception of the causal relation, according to which every +phenomenon has its cause in preceding phenomena, and its effect in +subsequent phenomena. The causal concept is, therefore, only one +of the ordinary necessary forms of the cognitive consciousness +limited, as we have seen, by being confined to that which is relative +or conditioned. As regards the problem of the nature of objectivity, +Hamilton simply accepts the evidence of consciousness as to the +separate existence of the object: “the root of our nature cannot +be a lie.” In virtue of this assumption Hamilton’s philosophy +becomes a “natural realism.” In fact his whole position is a strange +compound of Kant and Reid. Its chief practical corollary is the +denial of philosophy as a method of attaining absolute knowledge +and its relegation to the academic sphere of mental training. The +transition from philosophy to theology, <i>i.e.</i> to the sphere of faith, +is presented by Hamilton under the analogous relation between the +mind and the body. As the mind is to the body, so is the unconditioned +Absolute or God to the world of the conditioned. Consciousness, +itself a conditioned phenomenon, must derive from or depend +on some different thing prior to or behind material phenomena. +Curiously enough, however, Hamilton does not explain how it comes +about that God, who in the terms of the analogy bears to the conditioned +mind the relation which the conditioned mind bears to its +objects, can Himself be unconditioned. He can be regarded only +as related to consciousness, and in so far is, therefore, not absolute +or unconditioned. Thus the very principles of Hamilton’s philosophy +are apparently violated in his theological argument.</p> + +<p>Hamilton regarded logic as a purely formal science; it seemed +to him an unscientific mixing together of heterogeneous elements +to treat as parts of the same science the formal and the material +conditions of knowledge. He was quite ready to allow that on this +view logic cannot be used as a means of discovering or guaranteeing +facts, even the most general, and expressly asserted that it has to do, +not with the objective validity, but only with the mutual relations, +of judgments. He further held that induction and deduction are +correlative processes of formal logic, each resting on the necessities +of thought and deriving thence its several laws. The only logical +laws which he recognized were the three axioms of identity, non-contradiction, +and excluded middle, which he regarded as severally +phases of one general condition of the possibility of existence and, +therefore, of thought. The law of reason and consequent he considered +not as different, but merely as expressing metaphysically +what these express logically. He added as a postulate—which in +his theory was of importance—“that logic be allowed to state +explicitly what is thought implicitly.”</p> + +<p>In logic, Hamilton is known chiefly as the inventor of the doctrine +of the “quantification of the predicate,” <i>i.e.</i> that the judgment +“All A is B” should really mean “All A is <i>all</i> B,” whereas the +ordinary universal proposition should be stated “All A is <i>some</i> B.” +This view, which was supported by Stanley Jevons, is fundamentally +at fault since it implies that the predicate is thought of in its extension; +in point of fact when a judgment is made, <i>e.g.</i> about men, +that they are mortal (“All men are mortal”), the intention is to +<i>attribute a quality</i> (<i>i.e.</i> the predicate is used in connotation). In other +words, we are not considering the question “what kind are men +among the various things which must die?” (as is implied in the +form “all men are some mortals”) but “what is the fact about +men?” We are not stating a mere identity (see further, <i>e.g.</i>, +H. W. B. Joseph, <i>Introduction to Logic</i>, 1906, pp. 198 foll.).</p> + +<p>The philosopher to whom above all others Hamilton professed +allegiance was Aristotle. His works were the object of his profound +and constant study, and supplied in fact the mould in which his +whole philosophy was cast. With the commentators on the Aristotelian +writings, ancient, medieval and modern, he was also +familiar; and the scholastic philosophy he studied with care and +appreciation at a time when it had hardly yet begun to attract +attention in his country. His wide reading enabled him to trace +many a doctrine to the writings of forgotten thinkers; and nothing +gave him greater pleasure than to draw forth such from their obscurity, +and to give due acknowledgment, even if it chanced to be +of the prior possession of a view or argument that he had thought +out for himself. Of modern German philosophy he was a diligent, +if not always a sympathetic, student. How profoundly his thinking +was modified by that of Kant is evident from the tenor of his speculations; +nor was this less the case because, on fundamental points, +he came to widely different conclusions.</p> + +<p>Any account of Hamilton would be incomplete which regarded +him only as a philosopher, for his knowledge and his interests embraced +all subjects related to that of the human mind. Physical +and mathematical science had, indeed, no attraction for him; but +his study of anatomy and physiology was minute and experimental. +In literature alike ancient and modern he was widely and deeply +read; and, from his unusual powers of memory, the stores which he +had acquired were always at command. If there was one period +with the literature of which he was more particularly familiar, it +was the 16th and 17th centuries. Here in every department he was +at home. He had gathered a vast amount of its theological lore, had +a critical knowledge especially of its Latin poetry, and was minutely +acquainted with the history of the actors in its varied scenes, not +only as narrated in professed records, but as revealed in the letters, +table-talk, and casual effusions of themselves or their contemporaries +(cf. his article on the <i>Epistolae obscurorum virorum</i>, and his pamphlet +on the Disruption of the Church of Scotland in 1843). Among +his literary projects were editions of the works of George Buchanan +and Julius Caesar Scaliger. His general scholarship found expression +in his library, which, though mainly, was far from being exclusively, +a philosophical collection. It now forms a distinct portion of the +library of the university of Glasgow.</p> + +<p>His chief practical interest was in education—an interest which he +manifested alike as a teacher and as a writer, and which had led him +long before he was either to a study of the subject both theoretical +and historical. He thence adopted views as to the ends and methods +of education that, when afterwards carried out or advocated by him, +met with general recognition; but he also expressed in one of his +articles an unfavourable view of the study of mathematics as a +mental gymnastic, which excited much opposition, but which he +never saw reason to alter. As a teacher, he was zealous and +successful, and his writings on university organization and reform +had, at the time of their appearance, a decisive practical effect, and +contain much that is of permanent value.</p> + +<p>His posthumous works are his <i>Lectures on Metaphysics and Logic</i>, 4 +vols., edited by H. L. Mansel, Oxford, and John Veitch (<i>Metaphysics</i>, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page890" id="page890"></a>890</span> +1858; <i>Logic</i>, 1860); and <i>Additional Notes to Reid’s Works</i>, from Sir +W. Hamilton’s MSS., under the editorship of H. L. Mansel, D.D. +(1862). <i>A Memoir of Sir W. Hamilton</i>, by Veitch, appeared in +1869.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMILTON, WILLIAM GERARD<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (1729-1796), English +statesman, popularly known as “Single Speech Hamilton,” was +born in London on the 28th of January 1729, the son of a Scottish +bencher of Lincoln’s Inn. He was educated at Winchester and +at Oriel College, Oxford. Inheriting his father’s fortune he +entered political life and became M.P. for Petersfield, Hampshire. +His maiden speech, delivered on the 13th of November 1755, +during the debate on the address, which excited Walpole’s +admiration, is generally supposed to have been his only effort +in the House of Commons. But the nickname “Single Speech” +is undoubtedly misleading, and Hamilton is known to have +spoken with success on other occasions, both in the House of +Commons and in the Irish parliament. In 1756 he was appointed +one of the commissioners for trade and plantations, and in 1761 +he became chief secretary to Lord Halifax, the lord-lieutenant +of Ireland, as well as Irish M. P. for Killebegs and English M. P. +for Pontefract. He was chancellor of the exchequer in Ireland +in 1763, and subsequently filled various other administrative +offices. Hamilton was thought very highly of by Dr Johnson, +and it is certain that he was strongly opposed to the British +taxation of America. He died in London on the 16th of July +1796, and was buried in the chancel vault of St +Martin’s-in-the-fields.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Two of his speeches in the Irish House of Commons, and some other +miscellaneous works, were published after his death under the title +<i>Parliamentary Logick</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM ROWAN<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (1805-1865), Scottish +mathematician, was born in Dublin on the 4th of August 1805. +His father, Archibald Hamilton, who was a solicitor, and his +uncle, James Hamilton (curate of Trim), migrated from Scotland +in youth. A branch of the Scottish family to which they belonged +had settled in the north of Ireland in the time of James I., and +this fact seems to have given rise to the common impression that +Hamilton was an Irishman.</p> + +<p>His genius first displayed itself in the form of a wonderful +power of acquiring languages. At the age of seven he had +already made very considerable progress in Hebrew, and before +he was thirteen he had acquired, under the care of his uncle, +who was an extraordinary linguist, almost as many languages +as he had years of age. Among these, besides the classical and +the modern European languages, were included Persian, Arabic, +Hindustani, Sanskrit and even Malay. But though to the very +end of his life he retained much of the singular learning of his +childhood and youth, often reading Persian and Arabic in the +intervals of sterner pursuits, he had long abandoned them as a +study, and employed them merely as a relaxation.</p> + +<p>His mathematical studies seem to have been undertaken and +carried to their full development without any assistance whatever, +and the result is that his writings belong to no particular +“school,” unless indeed we consider them to form, as they are +well entitled to do, a school by themselves. As an arithmetical +calculator he was not only wonderfully expert, but he seems to +have occasionally found a positive delight in working out to an +enormous number of places of decimals the result of some irksome +calculation. At the age of twelve he engaged Zerah Colburn, +the American “calculating boy,” who was then being exhibited +as a curiosity in Dublin, and he had not always the worst of the +encounter. But, two years before, he had accidentally fallen +in with a Latin copy of <i>Euclid</i>, which he eagerly devoured; +and at twelve he attacked Newton’s <i>Arithmetica universalis</i>. +This was his introduction to modern analysis. He soon commenced +to read the <i>Principia</i>, and at sixteen he had mastered +a great part of that work, besides some more modern works on +analytical geometry and the differential calculus.</p> + +<p>About this period he was also engaged in preparation for +entrance at Trinity College, Dublin, and had therefore to devote +a portion of his time to classics. In the summer of 1822, in his +seventeenth year, he began a systematic study of Laplace’s +<i>Mécanique Céleste</i>. Nothing could be better fitted to call forth +such mathematical powers as those of Hamilton; for Laplace’s +great work, rich to profusion in analytical processes alike novel +and powerful, demands from the most gifted student careful +and often laborious study. It was in the successful effort to +open this treasure-house that Hamilton’s mind received its +final temper, “Dès-lors il commença à marcher seul,” to use +the words of the biographer of another great mathematician. +From that time he appears to have devoted himself almost +wholly to original investigation (so far at least as regards mathematics), +though he ever kept himself well acquainted with the +progress of science both in Britain and abroad.</p> + +<p>Having detected an important defect in one of Laplace’s +demonstrations, he was induced by a friend to write out his +remarks, that they might be shown to Dr John Brinkley (1763-1835), +afterwards bishop of Cloyne, but who was then the first +royal astronomer for Ireland, and an accomplished mathematician. +Brinkley seems at once to have perceived the vast +talents of young Hamilton, and to have encouraged him in the +kindest manner. He is said to have remarked in 1823 of this lad +of eighteen: “This young man, I do not say <i>will be</i>, but <i>is</i>, the +first mathematician of his age.”</p> + +<p>Hamilton’s career at College was perhaps unexampled. +Amongst a number of competitors of more than ordinary merit, +he was first in every subject and at every examination. He +achieved the rare distinction of obtaining an <i>optime</i> for both +Greek and for physics. How many more such honours he might +have attained it is impossible to say; but he was expected to +win both the gold medals at the degree examination, had his +career as a student not been cut short by an unprecedented +event. This was his appointment to the Andrews professorship +of astronomy in the university of Dublin, vacated by Dr Brinkley +in 1827. The chair was not exactly offered to him, as has been +sometimes asserted, but the electors, having met and talked over +the subject, authorized one of their number, who was Hamilton’s +personal friend, to urge him to become a candidate, a step which +his modesty had prevented him from taking. Thus, when barely +twenty-two, he was established at the Observatory, Dunsink, +near Dublin. He was not specially fitted for the post, for +although he had a profound acquaintance with theoretical +astronomy, he had paid but little attention to the regular work +of the practical astronomer. And it must be said that his time +was better employed in original investigations than it would +have been had he spent it in observations made even with the +best of instruments,—infinitely better than if he had spent it on +those of the observatory, which, however good originally, were +then totally unfit for the delicate requirements of modern +astronomy. Indeed there can be little doubt that Hamilton +was intended by the university authorities who elected +him to the professorship of astronomy to spend his time +as he best could for the advancement of science, without being +tied down to any particular branch. Had he devoted himself +to practical astronomy they would assuredly have furnished him +with modern instruments and an adequate staff of assistants.</p> + +<p>In 1835, being secretary to the meeting of the British Association +which was held that year in Dublin, he was knighted by the +lord-lieutenant. But far higher honours rapidly succeeded, +among which we may merely mention his election in 1837 to +the president’s chair in the Royal Irish Academy, and the rare +distinction of being made corresponding member of the academy +of St Petersburg. These are the few salient points (other, of +course, than the epochs of his more important discoveries and +inventions presently to be considered) in the uneventful life of +this great man. He retained his wonderful faculties unimpaired +to the very last, and steadily continued till within a day or two of +his death, which occurred on the 2nd of September 1865, the +task (his <i>Elements of Quaternions</i>) which had occupied the last +six years of his life.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The germ of his first great discovery was contained in one of those +early papers which in 1823 he communicated to Dr Brinkley, by +whom, under the title of “Caustics,” it was presented in 1824 to the +Royal Irish Academy. It was referred as usual to a committee. +Their report, while acknowledging the novelty and value of its +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page891" id="page891"></a>891</span> +contents, and the great mathematical skill of its author, recommended +that, before being published, it should be still further developed and +simplified. During the next three years the paper grew to an +immense bulk, principally by the additional details which had been +inserted at the desire of the committee. But it also assumed a much +more intelligible form, and the grand features of the new method +were now easily to be seen. Hamilton himself seems not till this +period to have fully understood either the nature or the importance +of his discovery, for it is only now that we find him announcing his +intention of applying his method to dynamics. The paper was +finally entitled “Theory of Systems of Rays,” and the first part was +printed in 1828 in the <i>Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy</i>. +It is understood that the more important contents of the second +and third parts appeared in the three voluminous supplements (to +the first part) which were published in the same <i>Transactions</i>, and in +the two papers “On a General Method in Dynamics,” which appeared +in the <i>Philosophical Transactions</i> in 1834-1835. The principle +of “Varying Action” is the great feature of these papers; and it is +strange, indeed, that the one particular result of this theory which, +perhaps more than anything else that Hamilton has done, has +rendered his name known beyond the little world of true philosophers, +should have been easily within the reach of Augustin Fresnel and +others for many years before, and in no way required Hamilton’s +new conceptions or methods, although it was by them that he was +led to its discovery. This singular result is still known by the name +“conical refraction,” which he proposed for it when he first predicted +its existence in the third supplement to his “Systems of +Rays,” read in 1832.</p> + +<p>The step from optics to dynamics in the application of the method +of “Varying Action” was made in 1827, and communicated to +the Royal Society, in whose <i>Philosophical Transactions</i> for 1834 +and 1835 there are two papers on the subject. These display, like +the “Systems of Rays,” a mastery over symbols and a flow of mathematical +language almost unequalled. But they contain what is far +more valuable still, the greatest addition which dynamical science +had received since the grand strides made by Sir Isaac Newton and +Joseph Louis Lagrange. C. G. J. Jacobi and other mathematicians +have developed to a great extent, and as a question of pure mathematics +only, Hamilton’s processes, and have thus made extensive +additions to our knowledge of differential equations. But there can +be little doubt that we have as yet obtained only a mere glimpse +of the vast physical results of which they contain the germ. And +though this is of course by far the more valuable aspect in which +any such contribution to science can be looked at, the other must +not be despised. It is characteristic of most of Hamilton’s, as of +nearly all great discoveries, that even their indirect consequences are +of high value.</p> + +<p>The other great contribution made by Hamilton to mathematical +science, the invention of Quaternions, is treated under that heading. +The following characteristic extract from a letter shows Hamilton’s +own opinion of his mathematical work, and also gives a hint of the +devices which he employed to render written language as expressive +as actual speech. His first great work, <i>Lectures on Quaternions</i> +(Dublin, 1852), is almost painful to read in consequence of the +frequent use of italics and capitals.</p> + +<p>“I hope that it may not be considered as unpardonable vanity +or presumption on my part, if, as my own taste has always led me +to feel a greater interest in <i>methods</i> than in <i>results</i>, so it is by +<span class="sc">methods</span>, rather than by <i>any</i> <span class="sc">theorems</span>, which <i>can</i> be separately +<i>quoted</i>, that I desire and hope to be remembered. Nevertheless it +is only human nature, to derive <i>some</i> pleasure from being cited, now +and then, even about a ‘Theorem’; especially where ... the +quoter can enrich the subject, by combining it with researches of +<i>his own</i>.”</p> + +<p>The discoveries, papers and treatises we have mentioned might +well have formed the whole work of a long and laborious life. But +not to speak of his enormous collection of MS. books, full to overflowing +with new and original matter, which have been handed over +to Trinity College, Dublin, the works we have already called attention +to barely form the greater portion of what he has published. +His extraordinary investigations connected with the solution of +algebraic equations of the fifth degree, and his examination of the +results arrived at by N. H. Abel, G. B. Jerrard, and others in their +researches on this subject, form another grand contribution to +science. There is next his great paper on <i>Fluctuating Functions</i>, +a subject which, since the time of J. Fourier, has been of immense +and ever increasing value in physical applications of mathematics. +There is also the extremely ingenious invention of the hodograph. +Of his extensive investigations into the solution (especially by +numerical approximation) of certain classes of differential equations +which constantly occur in the treatment of physical questions, only +a few items have been published, at intervals, in the <i>Philosophical +Magazine</i>. Besides all this, Hamilton was a voluminous correspondent. +Often a single letter of his occupied from fifty to a +hundred or more closely written pages, all devoted to the minute +consideration of every feature of some particular problem; for it +was one of the peculiar characteristics of his mind never to be +satisfied with a general understanding of a question; he pursued it +until he knew it in all its details. He was ever courteous and kind +in answering applications for assistance in the study of his works, +even when his compliance must have cost him much time. He +was excessively precise and hard to please with reference to the +final polish of his own works for publication; and it was probably +for this reason that he published so little compared with the extent +of his investigations.</p> + +<p>Like most men of great originality, Hamilton generally matured +his ideas before putting pen to paper. “He used to carry on,” says +his elder son, William Edwin Hamilton, “long trains of algebraical +and arithmetical calculations in his mind, during which he was +unconscious of the earthly necessity of eating; we used to bring in a +’snack’ and leave it in his study, but a brief nod of recognition of +the intrusion of the chop or cutlet was often the only result, and +his thoughts went on soaring upwards.”</p> + +<p>For further details about Hamilton (his poetry and his association +with poets, for instance) the reader is referred to the <i>Dublin University +Magazine</i> (Jan. 1842), the <i>Gentleman’s Magazine</i> (Jan. 1866), +and the <i>Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society</i> (Feb. 1866); +and also to an article by the present writer in the <i>North British +Review</i> (Sept. 1866), from which much of the above sketch has been +taken. His works have been collected and published by R. P. +Graves, <i>Life of Sir W. R. Hamilton</i> (3 vols., 1882, 1885, 1889).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(P. G. T.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMILTON,<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> a town of Dundas and Normanby counties, +Victoria, Australia, on the Grange Burne Creek, 197½ m. by +rail W. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 4026. Hamilton has a +number of educational institutions, chief among which are the +Hamilton and Western District College, one of the finest buildings +of its kind in Victoria, the Hamilton Academy, and the Alexandra +ladies’ college, a state school, and a Catholic college. It has +a fine racecourse, and pastoral and agricultural exhibitions are +held annually, as the surrounding district is mainly devoted to +sheep-farming. Mutton is frozen and exported. Hamilton +became a borough in 1859.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMILTON<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Grand</span> or <span class="sc">Ashuanipi</span>), the chief river of +Labrador, Canada. It rises in the Labrador highlands at an +elevation of 1700 ft., its chief sources being Lakes Attikonak and +Ashuanipi, between 65° and 66° W. and 52° and 53° N. After +a precipitous course of 600 m. it empties into Melville Lake +(90 m. long and 18 wide), an extension of Hamilton inlet, on the +Atlantic. About 220 m. from its mouth occur the Grand Falls +of Labrador. Here in a distance of 12 m. the river drops 760 ft., +culminating in a final vertical fall of 316 ft. Below the falls are +violent rapids, and the river sweeps through a deep and narrow +canyon. The country through which it passes is for the most +part a wilderness of barren rock, full of lakes and lacustrine +rivers, many of which are its tributaries. In certain portions of +the valley spruce and poplars grow to a moderate size. From +the head of Lake Attikonak a steep and rocky portage of less +than a mile leads to Burnt Lake, which is drained into the +St Lawrence by the Romaine river.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMILTON,<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> one of the chief cities of Canada, capital of +Wentworth county, Ontario. It occupies a highly picturesque +situation upon the shore of a spacious land-locked bay at the +western end of Lake Ontario. It covers the plain stretching +between the water-front and the escarpment (called “The +Mountain”), this latter being a continuation of that over which +the Falls of Niagara plunge 40 m. to the west. Founded about +1778 by one Robert Land, the growth of Hamilton has been +steady and substantial, and, owing to its remarkable industrial +development, it has come to be called “the Birmingham of +Canada.” This development is largely due to the use of electrical +energy generated by water-power, in regard to which Hamilton +stands first among Canadian cities. The electricity has not, +however, been obtained from Niagara Falls, but from De Cew +Falls, 35 m. S.E. of the city. The entire electrical railway system, +the lighting of the city, and the majority of the factories are +operated by power obtained from this source. The manufacturing +interests of Hamilton are varied, and some of the establishments +are of vast size, employing many thousands of hands each, +such as the International Harvester Co. and the Canadian +Westinghouse Co. In addition Hamilton is the centre of one of +the finest fruit-growing districts on the continent, and its open-air +market is a remarkable sight. The municipal matters are +managed by a mayor and board of aldermen. Six steam railroads +and three electric radial roads afford Hamilton ample facilities +for transport by land, while during the season of navigation +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page892" id="page892"></a>892</span> +a number of steamboat lines supply daily services to Toronto +and other lake ports. Entrance into the broad bay is obtained +through a short canal intersecting Burlington Beach, which is +crossed by two swing bridges, whereof one—that of the Grand +Trunk railway—is among the largest of its kind in the world. +Burlington Beach is lined with cottages occupied by the city +residents during the hot summer months. Hamilton is rich in +public institutions. The educational equipment comprises a +normal college, collegiate institute, model school and more than +a score of public schools, for the most part housed in handsome +stone and brick buildings. There are four hospitals, and the +asylum for the insane is the largest in Canada. There is an +excellent public library, and in the same building with it a good +art school. Hamilton boasts of a number of parks, Dundurn +Castle Park, containing several interesting relics of the war of +1812, being the finest, and, as it is practically within the city +limits, it is a great boon to the people. Gore Park, in the centre +of the city, is used for concerts, given by various bands, one of +which has gained an international reputation. Since its incorporation +in 1833 the history of Hamilton has shown continuous +growth. In 1836 the population was 2846; In 1851, 10,248; +in 1861, 19,096; in 1871, 26,880; in 1881, 36,661; in 1891, +48,959; and in 1901, 52,634. The Anglican bishop of Niagara +has his seat here, and also a Roman Catholic bishop. Hamilton +returns two members to the Provincial parliament and two to +the Dominion.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMILTON,<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> a municipal and police burgh of Lanarkshire, +Scotland. Pop. (1891), 24,859; (1901), 32,775. It is situated +about 1 m. from the junction of the Avon with the Clyde, 10¾ m. +S.E. of Glasgow by road, and has stations on the Caledonian and +North British railways. The town hall in the Scottish Baronial +style has a clock-tower 130 ft. high, and the county buildings +are in the Grecian style. Among the subjects of antiquarian +interest are Queenzie Neuk, the spot where Queen Mary rested +on her journey to Langside, the old steeple and pillory built +in the reign of Charles I., the Mote Hill, the old Runic cross, +and the carved gateway in the palace park. In the churchyard +there is a monument to four covenanters who suffered at Edinburgh, +on the 7th of December 1600, whose heads were buried +here. Among the industries are manufactures of cotton, lace +and embroidered muslins, and carriage-building, and there are +also large market gardens, the district being famed especially +for its apples, and some dairy-farming; but the prosperity of +the town depends chiefly upon the coal and ironstone of the +surrounding country, which is the richest mineral field in Scotland. +Hamilton originated in the 15th century under the +protecting influence of the lords of Hamilton, and became a +burgh of barony in 1456 and a royal burgh in 1548. The latter +rights were afterwards surrendered and it was made the chief +burgh of the regality and dukedom of Hamilton in 1668, the third +marquess having been created duke in 1643. It unites with +Airdrie, Falkirk, Lanark and Linlithgow to form the Falkirk +district of burghs, which returns one member to parliament.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Immediately east of the town is Hamilton palace, the seat of the +duke of Hamilton and Brandon, premier peer of Scotland. It +occupies most of the site of the original burgh of Netherton. The +first mansion was erected at the end of the 16th century and rebuilt +about 1710, to be succeeded in 1822-1829 by the present palace, +a magnificent building in the classical style. Its front is a specimen +of the enriched Corinthian architecture, with a projecting pillared +portico after the style of the temple of Jupiter Stator at Rome, +264 ft. in length and 60 ft. in height. Each of the twelve pillars of +the portico is a single block of stone, quarried at Dalserf, midway +between Hamilton and Lanark, and required thirty horses to draw +it to its site. The interior is richly decorated and once contained +the finest collection of paintings in Scotland, but most of them, +together with the Hamilton and Beckford libraries, were sold in +1882. Within the grounds, which comprise nearly 1500 acres, is the +mausoleum erected by the 10th duke, a structure resembling in +general design that of the emperor Hadrian at Rome, being a circular +building springing from a square basement, and enclosing a decorated +octagonal chapel, the door of which is a copy in bronze of Ghiberti’s +gates at Florence. At Barncluith, 1 m. S.E. of the town, may be +seen the Dutch gardens which were laid down in terraces on the +steep banks of the Avon. Their quaint shrubbery and old-fashioned +setting render them attractive. They were planned in 1583 by +John Hamilton, an ancestor of Lord Belhaven, and now belong to +Lord Ruthven. About 2 m. S.E. of Hamilton, within the western +High Park, on the summit of a precipitous rock 200 ft. in height, +the foot of which is washed by the Avon, stand the ruins of Cadzow +Castle, the subject of a spirited ballad by Sir Walter Scott. The +castle had been a royal residence for at least two centuries before +Bannockburn (1314), but immediately after the battle Robert Bruce +granted it to Sir Walter FitzGilbert Hamilton, the son of the founder +of the family, in return for the fealty. Near it is the noble chase +with its ancient oaks, the remains of the Caledonian Forest, where +are still preserved some of the aboriginal breed of wild cattle. +Opposite Cadzow Castle, in the eastern High Park, on the right bank +of the Avon, is Chatelherault, consisting of stables and offices, and +imitating in outline the palace of that name in France.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMILTON,<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> a village of Madison county, New York, U.S.A., +about 29 m. S.W. of Utica. Pop. (1890), 1744; (1900), 1627; +(1905) 1522; (1910) 1689. It is served by the New York, Ontario +& Western railway. Hamilton is situated in a productive +agricultural region, and has a large trade in hops; among its +manufactures are canned vegetables, lumber and knit goods. +There are several valuable stone quarries in the vicinity. The +village owns and operates its water-supply and electric-lighting +system. Hamilton is the seat of Colgate University, which was +founded in 1819, under the name of the Hamilton Literary and +Theological Institution, as a training school for the Baptist +ministry, was chartered as Madison University in 1846, and +was renamed in 1890 in honour of the Colgate family, several +of whom, especially William (1783-1857), the soap manufacturer, +and his sons, James Boorman (1818-1904), and Samuel +(1822-1897), were its liberal benefactors. In 1908-1909 it had +a university faculty of 33 members, 307 students in the college, +60 in the theological department, and 134 in the preparatory +department, and a library of 54,000 volumes, including the +Baptist Historical collection (about 5000 vols.) given by Samuel +Colgate. The township in which the village is situated and +which bears the same name (pop. in 1910, 3825) was settled +about 1790 and was separated from the township of Paris in +1795. The village was incorporated in 1812.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMILTON,<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Butler county, +Ohio, U.S.A., on both sides of the Great Miami river, 25 m. N. +of Cincinnati. Pop. (1890), 17,565; (1900), 23,914, of whom +2949 were foreign-born; (1910 census), 35,279. It is served +by the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, and the Pittsburg, +Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railways, and by interurban +electric lines connecting with Cincinnati, Dayton and Toledo. +The valley in which Hamilton is situated is noted for its fertility. +The city has a fine public square and the Lane free library (1866); +the court house is its most prominent public building. A +hydraulic canal provides the city with good water power, and +in 1905, in the value of its factory products ($13,992,574, +being 31.3% more than in 1900), Hamilton ranked tenth among +the cities of the state. Its most distinctive manufactures are +paper and wood pulp; more valuable are foundry and machine +shop products; other manufactures are safes, malt liquors, +flour, woollens, Corliss engines, carriages and wagons and +agricultural implements. The municipality owns and operates +the water-works, electric-lighting plant and gas plant. A +stockade fort was built here in 1791 by General Arthur Saint +Clair, but it was abandoned in 1796, two years after the place +had been laid out as a town and named Fairfield. The town +was renamed, in honour of Alexander Hamilton, about 1796. +In 1803 Hamilton was made the county-seat; in 1810 it was +incorporated as a village; in 1854 it annexed the town of +Rossville on the opposite side of the river; and in 1857 it was +made a city. In 1908, by the annexation of suburbs, the area +and the population of Hamilton were considerably increased. +Hamilton was the early home of William Dean Howells, whose +recollections of it are to be found in his <i>A Boy’s Town</i>; his +father’s anti-slavery sentiments made it necessary for him to +sell his printing office, where the son had learned to set type in +his teens, and to remove to Dayton.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMIRPUR,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> a town and district of British India, in the +Allahabad division of the United Provinces. The town stands +on a tongue of land near the confluence of the Betwa and Jumna, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page893" id="page893"></a>893</span> +110 m. N.W. of Allahabad. Pop. (1901), 6721. It was founded, +according to tradition, in the 11th century by Hamir Deo, a +Karchuli Rajput expelled from Alwar by the Mahommedans.</p> + +<p>The district has an area of 2289 sq. m., and encloses the native +states of Sarila, Jigni and Bihat, besides portions of Charkhari +and Garrauli. Hamirpur forms part of the great plain of Bundelkhand, +which stretches from the banks of the Jumna to the +central Vindhyan plateau. The district is in shape an irregular +parallelogram, with a general slope northward from the low hills +on the southern boundary. The scenery is rendered picturesque +by the artificial lakes of Mahoba. These magnificent reservoirs +were constructed by the Chandel rajas before the Mahommedan +conquest, for purposes of irrigation and as sheets of ornamental +water. Many of them enclose craggy islets or peninsulas, +crowned by the ruins of granite temples, exquisitely carved and +decorated. From the base of this hill and lake country the +general plain of the district spreads northward in an arid and +treeless level towards the broken banks of the rivers. Of these +the principal are the Betwa and its tributary the Dhasan, both +of which are unnavigable. There is little waste land, except +in the ravines by the river sides. The deep black soil of Bundelkhand, +known as <i>mār</i>, retains the moisture under a dried and +rifted surface, and renders the district fertile. The staple produce +is grain of various sorts, the most important being gram. +Cotton is also a valuable crop. Agriculture suffers much from +the spread of the <i>kāns</i> grass, a noxious weed which overruns +the fields and is found to be almost ineradicable wherever it +has once obtained a footing. Droughts and famine are unhappily +common. The climate is dry and hot, owing to the absence of +shade and the bareness of soil, except in the neighbourhood +of the Mahoba lakes, which cool and moisten the atmosphere.</p> + +<p>In 1901 the pop. was 458,542, showing a decrease of 11% in +the decade, due to the famine of 1895-1897. Export trade is +chiefly in agricultural produce and cotton cloth. Rath is the +principal commercial centre. The Midland branch of the Great +Indian Peninsula railway passes through the south of the district.</p> + +<p>From the 9th to the 12th century this district was the centre +of the Chandel kingdom, with its capital at Mahoba. The rajas +adorned the town with many splendid edifices, remains of which +still exist, besides constructing the noble artificial lakes already +described. At the end of the 12th century Mahoba fell into the +hands of the Mussulmans. In 1680 the district was conquered +by Chhatar Sal, the hero of the Bundelas, who assigned at his +death one-third of his dominions to his ally the peshwa of +the Mahrattas. Until Bundelkhand became British territory in +1803 there was constant warfare between the Bundela princes +and the Mahratta chieftains. On the outbreak of the Mutiny +in 1857, Hamirpur was the scene of a fierce rebellion, and all the +principal towns were plundered by the surrounding chiefs. +After a short period of desultory guerrilla warfare the rebels +were effectually quelled and the work of reorganization began. +The district has since been subject to cycles of varying agricultural +prosperity.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMITIC RACES AND LANGUAGES.<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> The questions involved +in a consideration of Hamitic races and Hamitic languages +are independent of one another and call for separate treatment.</p> + +<p>I. <i>Hamitic Races.</i>—The term Hamitic as applied to race is +not only extremely vague but has been much abused by anthropological +writers. Of the few who have attempted a precise +definition the most prominent is Sergi,<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and his classification +may be taken as representing one point of view with regard to +this difficult question.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Sergi considers the Hamites, using the term in the racial sense, as +a branch of his “Mediterranean Race”; and divides them as +follows:—</p> + +<p>1. <i>Eastern Branch</i>—</p> +<div class="list"> + <p>(<i>a</i>) Ancient and Modern Egyptian (excluding the Arabs).</p> + <p>(<i>b</i>) Nubians, Beja.</p> + <p>(<i>c</i>) Abyssinians.</p> + <p>(<i>d</i>) Galla, Danakil, Somali.</p> + <p>(<i>e</i>) Masai.</p> + <p>(<i>f</i>) Wahuma or Watusi.</p></div> + +<p>2. <i>Northern Branch</i>—</p> +<div class="list"> + <p>(<i>a</i>) Berbers of the Mediterranean, Atlantic and Sahara.</p> + <p>(<i>b</i>) Tibbu.</p> + <p>(<i>c</i>) Fula.</p> + <p>(<i>d</i>) Guanches (extinct).</p></div> + +<p class="noind">With regard to this classification the following conclusions may +be regarded as comparatively certain: that the members of groups +<i>d</i>, <i>e</i> and <i>f</i> of the first branch appear to be closely inter-connected +by ties of blood, and also the members of the second branch. The +Abyssinians in the south have absorbed a certain amount of Galla +blood, but the majority are Semitic or Semito-Negroid. The +question of the racial affinities of the Ancient Egyptians and the +Beja are still a matter of doubt, and the relation of the two groups +to each other is still controversial. Sergi, it is true, arguing from +physical data believes that a close connexion exists; but the data +are so extremely scanty that the finality of his conclusion may well +be doubted. His “Northern Branch” corresponds with the more +satisfactory term “Libyan Race,” represented in fair purity by the +Berbers, and, mixed with Negro elements, by the Fula and Tibbu. +This Libyan race is distinctively a white race, with dark curly hair; +the Eastern Hamites are equally distinctively a brown people with +frizzy hair. If, as Sergi believes, these brown people are themselves +a race, and not a cross between white and black in varying proportions, +they are found in their greatest purity among the Somali and +Galla, and mixed with Bantu blood among the Ba-Hima (Wahuma) +and Watussi. The Masai seem to be as much Nilotic Negro as +Hamite. This Galla type does not seem to appear farther north +than the southern portion of Abyssinia, and it is not unlikely that +the Beja are very early Semitic immigrants with an aboriginal +Negroid admixture. It is also possible that they and the Ancient +Egyptians may contain a common element. The Nubians appear +akin to the Egyptians but with a strong Negroid element.</p> + +<p>To return to Sergi’s two branches, besides the differences in skin +colour and hair-texture there is also a cultural difference of great +importance. The Eastern Hamites are essentially a pastoral people +and therefore nomadic or semi-nomadic; the Berbers, who, as said +above, are the purest representatives of the Libyans, are agriculturists. +The pastoral habits of the Eastern Hamites are of +importance, since they show the utmost reluctance to abandon +them. Even the Ba-Hima and Watussi, for long settled and partly +intermixed with the agricultural Bantu, regard any pursuit but that +of cattle-tending as absolutely beneath their dignity.</p> + +<p>It would seem therefore that, while sufficient data have not been +collected to decide whether, on the evidence of exact anthropological +measurements, the Libyans are connected racially with the Eastern +Hamites, the testimony derived from broad “descriptive characteristics” +and general culture is against such a connexion. To regard +the Libyans as Hamites solely on the ground that the languages +spoken by the two groups show affinities would be as rash and might +be as false as to aver that the present-day Hungarians are Mongolians +because Magyar is an Asiatic tongue. Regarding the present +state of knowledge it would be safer therefore to restrict the term +“Hamites” to Sergi’s first group; and call the second by the name +“Libyans.” The difficult question of the origin of the ancient +Egyptians is discussed elsewhere.</p> + +<p>As to the question whether the Hamites in this restricted sense +are a definite race or a blend, no discussion can, in view of the paucity +of evidence, as yet lead to a satisfactory conclusion, but it might +be suggested very tentatively that further researches may possibly +connect them with the Dravidian peoples of India. It is sufficient +for present purposes that the term Hamite, using it as coextensive +with Sergi’s Eastern Hamite, has a definite connotation. By the +term is meant a brown people with frizzy hair, of lean and sinewy +physique, with slender but muscular arms and legs, a thin straight +or even aquiline nose with delicate nostrils, thin lips and no trace +of prognathism.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. A. J.)</div> + +<p>II. <i>Hamitic Languages.</i>—The whole north of Africa was once +inhabited by tribes of the Caucasian race, speaking languages +which are now generally called, after Genesis x., Hamitic, a +term introduced principally by Friedrich Müller. The linguistic +coherence of that race has been broken up especially by the +intrusion of Arabs, whose language has exercised a powerful +influence on all those nations. This splitting up, and the immense +distances over which those tribes were spread, have made those +languages diverge more widely than do the various tongues of +the Indo-European stock, but still their affinity can easily be +traced by the linguist, and is, perhaps, greater than the corresponding +anthropologic similarity between the white Libyan, +red Galla and swarthy Somali. The relationship of these +languages to Semitic has long been noticed, but was at first +taken for descent from Semitic (cf. the name “Syro-Arabian” +proposed by Prichard). Now linguists are agreed that the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page894" id="page894"></a>894</span> +Proto-Semites and Proto-Hamites once formed a unity, probably +in Arabia. That original unity has been demonstrated especially +by Friedrich Müller (<i>Reise der österreichischen Fregatte Novara</i>, +p. 51, more fully, <i>Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft</i>, vol. iii. +fasc. 2, p. 226); cf. also A. H. Sayce, <i>Science of Language</i>, ii. +178; R. N. Cust, <i>The Modern Languages of Africa</i>, i. 94, &c. +The comparative grammars of Semitic (W. Wright, 1890, and +especially H. Zimmern, 1898) demonstrate this now to everybody +by comparative tables of the grammatical elements.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The classification of Hamitic languages is as follows:<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a>—</p> + +<p>1. <i>The Libyan Dialects</i> (mostly misnamed “Berber languages,” +after an unfortunate, vague Arabic designation, <i>barābra</i>, “people +of foreign language”). The representatives of this large group +extend from the Senegal river (where they are called Zenaga; imperfect +<i>Grammaire</i> by L. Faidherbe, 1877) and from Timbuktu +(dialect of the Auelimmiden, sketched by Heinrich Barth, <i>Travels</i>, +vol. v., 1857) to the oases of Aujila (Bengazi) and of Siwa on the +western border of Egypt. Consequently, these “dialects” differ +more strongly from each other than, <i>e.g.</i> the Semitic languages do +between themselves. The purest representative seems to be the +language of the Algerian mountaineers (Kabyles), especially that of +the Zuawa (Zouaves) tribe, described by A. Hanoteau, <i>Essai de +grammaire kabyle</i> (1858); Ben Sedira, <i>Cours de langue kab.</i> (1887); +<i>Dictionnaire</i> by Olivier (1878). The learned little <i>Manuel de langue +kabyle</i>, by R. Basset (1887) is an introduction to the study of the +many dialects with full bibliography, cf. also Basset’s <i>Notes de +lexicographie berbère</i> (1883 foll.). (The dictionaries by Brosselard and +Venture de Paradis are imperfect.) The best now described is +Shilḥ(<i>a</i>). a Moroccan dialect (H. Stumme, <i>Handbuch des Schilhischen</i>, +1899), but it is an inferior dialect. That of Ghat in Tripoli underlies +the <i>Grammar</i> of F. W. Newman (1845) and the <i>Grammaire +Tamashek</i> of Hanoteau (1860); cf. also the <i>Dictionnaire</i> of Cid +Kaoui (1900). Neither medieval reports on the language spoken +by the Guanches of the Canary Islands (fullest in A. Berthelot, +<i>Antiquités canariennes</i>, 1879; akin to Shilha; by no means primitive +Libyan untouched by Arabic), nor the modern dialect of Siwa (still +little known; tentative grammar by Basset, 1890), have justified +hopes of finding a pure Libyan dialect. Of a few literary attempts +in Arabic letters the religious <i>Poème de Çabi</i> (ed. Basset, <i>Journ. +asiatique</i>, vii. 476) is the most remarkable. The imperfect native +writing (named <i>tifinaghen</i>), a derivation from the Sabaean alphabet +(not, as Halévy claimed, from the Punic), still in use among the +Sahara tribes, can be traced to the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (bilingual inscription +of Tucca, &c.; cf. J. Halévy, <i>Essai d’épigraphie libyque</i>, +1875), but hardly ever served for literary uses.</p> + +<p>2. <i>The Cushitic or Ethiopian Family.</i>—The nearest relative of +Libyan is not Ancient Egyptian but the language of the nomadic +Bisharin or Beja of the Nubian Desert (cf. H. Almkvist, <i>Die Bischari +Sprache</i>, 1881 [the northern dialect], and L. Reinisch, <i>Die Bedauye +Sprache</i>, 1893, <i>Wörterbuch</i>, 1895). The speech of the peoples occupying +the lowland east of Abyssinia, the Saho (Reinisch, grammar in +<i>Zeitschrift d. deutschen morgenländ. Gesellschaft</i>, 32, 1878; <i>Texte</i>, +1889; <i>Wörterbuch</i>, 1890; cf. also Reinisch, Die Sprache der Irob +Saho, 1878), and the Afar or Danakil (Reinisch, <i>Die Afar Sprache</i>, +1887; G. Colizza, <i>Lingua Afar</i>, 1887), merely dialects of one language, +form the connecting link with the southern Hamitic group, <i>i.e.</i> +Somali (Reinisch, <i>Somali Sprache</i>, 1900-1903, 3 vols.; Larajasse +und de Sampont, <i>Practical Grammar of the Somali Language</i>, 1897; +imperfect sketches by Hunter, 1880, and Schleicher, 1890), and Galla +(L. Tutscheck, <i>Grammar</i>, 1845, <i>Lexicon</i>, 1844; Massaja, <i>Lectiones</i>, +1877; G. F. F. Praetorius, <i>Zur Grammatik der Gallasprache</i>, 1893, +&c.). All these Cushitic languages, extending from Egypt to the +equator, are separated by Reinisch as <i>Lower Cushitic</i> from the <i>High +Cushitic</i> group, <i>i.e.</i> the many dialects spoken by tribes dwelling +in the Abyssinian highlands or south of Abyssinia. Of the original +inhabitants of Abyssinia, called collectively Ag<span class="ov">â</span>u (or Agâu) by the +Abyssinians, or Falashas (this name principally for Jewish tribes), +Reinisch considers the Bilin or Bogos tribe as preserving the most +archaic dialect (<i>Die Bilin Sprache</i>, Texts, 1883; <i>Grammatik</i>, 1882; +<i>Wörterbuch</i>, 1887); the same scholar gave sketches of the Khamir +(1884) and Quara (1885) dialects. On other dialects, struggling +against the spreading Semitic tongues (Tigré, Amharic, &c.), see +Conti Rossini, “Appunti sulla lingua Khamta,” in <i>Giorn. soc. orient.</i> +(1905); Waldmeyer, <i>Wörtersammlung</i> (1868); J. Halévy, “Essai +sur la langue Agaou” (<i>Actes soc. philologique</i>, 1873), &c. Similar +dialects are those of the Sid(d)âma tribes, south of Abyssinia, of +which only Kaf(f)a (Reinisch, <i>Die Kafa Sprache</i>, 1888) is known at +all fully. Of the various other dialects (Kullo, Tambaro, &c.), +vocabularies only are known; cf. Borelli, <i>Éthiopie méridionale</i> +(1890). (On Hausa see below.)</p> + +<p>There is no question that the northernmost Hamitic languages +have preserved best the original wealth of inflections which reminds +us so strongly of the formal riches of southern Semitic. Libyan +and Beja are the best-preserved types, and the latter especially +may be called the Sanskrit of Hamitic. The other Cushitic tongues +exhibit increasing agglutinative tendencies the farther we go south, +although single archaisms are found even in Somali. The early +isolated High Cushitic tongues (originally branched off from a stock +common with Galla and Somali) diverge most strongly from the +original type. Already the Agâu dialects are full of very peculiar +developments; the Hamitic character of the Sid(d)ama languages +can be traced only by lengthy comparisons.</p> + +<p>The simple and pretty Haus(s)a language, the commercial language +of the whole Niger region and beyond (Schoen, <i>Grammar</i>, 1862, +<i>Dictionary</i>, 1876; Charles H. Robinson, 1897, in Robinson and +Brookes’s <i>Dictionary</i>) has fairly well preserved its Hamitic grammar, +though its vocabulary was much influenced by the surrounding Negro +languages. It is no relative of Libyan (though it has experienced +some Libyan influences), but comes from the (High ?) Cushitic +family; its exact place in this family remains to be determined. +Various languages of the Niger region <i>were</i> once Hamitic like +Haus(s)a, or at least under some Hamitic influence, but have now +lost that character too far to be classified as Hamitic, <i>e.g.</i> the Muzuk +or Musgu language (F. Müller, 1886). The often-raised question +of some (very remote) relationship between Hamitic and the great +Bantu family is still undecided; more doubtful is that with the interesting +Ful (a) language in the western Sudan, but a relationship with +the Nilotic branch of negro languages is impossible (though a few +of these, <i>e.g.</i> Nuba, have borrowed some words from neighbouring +Hamitic peoples). The development of a grammatical gender, this +principal characteristic of Semito-Hamitic, in Bari and Masai, may +be rather accidental than borrowed; certainly, the same phenomenon +in Hottentot does not justify the attempt often made to +classify this with Hamitic.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Ancient Egyptian</i>, as we have seen, does not form the connecting +link between Libyan and Cushitic which its geographical position +would lead us to expect. It represents a third independent +branch, or rather a second one, Libyan and Cushitic forming one +division of Hamitic. A few resemblances with Libyan (M. de +Rochemonteix in <i>Mémoires du congrès internat. des orientalistes</i>, +Paris, 1873; elementary) are less due to original relationship than +to the general better preservation of the northern idioms (see above). +Frequent attempts to detach Egyptian from Hamitic and to attribute +it to a Semitic immigration later than that of the other Hamites +cannot be proved. Egyptian is, in many respects, more remote +from Semitic than the Libyan-Cushitic division, being more agglutinative +than the better types of its sister branch, having lost the +most characteristic verbal flection (the Hamito-Semitic imperfect), +forming the nominal plural in its own peculiar fashion, &c. The +advantage of Egyptian, that it is represented in texts of 3000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +while the sister tongues exist only in forms 5000 years later, allows +us, <i>e.g.</i> to trace the Semitic principle of triliteral roots more clearly +in Egyptian; but still the latter tongue is hardly more characteristically +archaic or nearer Semitic than Beja or Kabylic.</p> + +<p>All this is said principally of the grammar. Of the vocabulary +it must not be forgotten that none of the Hamitic tongues remained +untouched by Semitic influences after the separation of the Hamites +and Semites, say 4000 or 6000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Repeated Semitic immigrations +and influences have brought so many layers of loan-words that it is +questionable if any modern Hamitic language has now more than +10% of original Hamitic words. Which Semitic resemblances are +due to original affinity, which come from pre-Christian immigrations, +which from later influences, are difficult questions not yet faced by +science; <i>e.g.</i> the half-Arabic numerals of Libyan have often been +quoted as a proof of primitive Hamito-Semitic kinship, but they +are probably only a gift of some Arab invasion, prehistoric for us. +Arab tribes seem to have repeatedly swept over the whole area of +the Hamites, long before the time of Mahomet, and to have left deep +impressions on races and languages, but none of these migrations +stands in the full light of history (not even that of the Gee’z tribes of +Abyssinia). Egyptian exhibits constant influences from its Canaanitish +neighbours; it is crammed with such loan-words already in +3000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; new affluxes can be traced, especially <i>c.</i> 1600. (The Punic +influences on Libyan are, however, very slight, inferior to the Latin.) +Hence the relations of Semitic and Hamitic still require many investigations +in detail, for which the works of Reinisch and Basset have +merely built up a basis.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. M. M.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> G. Sergi, <i>The Mediterranean Race. A Study of the Origin of +European Peoples</i> (London, 1901); <i>idem. Africa, Antropologia +della stirpe camitica</i> (Turin, 1897).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Only works of higher linguistic standing are quoted here; +many vocabularies and imperfect attempts of travellers cannot be +enumerated.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMLET,<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> the hero of Shakespeare’s tragedy, a striking figure +in Scandinavian romance.</p> + +<p>The chief authority for the legend of Hamlet is Saxo Grammaticus, +who devotes to it parts of the third and fourth books of +his <i>Historia Danica</i>, written at the beginning of the 13th century. +It is supposed that the story of Hamlet, Amleth or Amloði,<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +was contained in the lost Skjöldunga saga, but we have no means +of determining whether Saxo derived his information in this +case from oral or written sources. The close parallels between the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page895" id="page895"></a>895</span> +tale of Hamlet and the English romances of Havelok, Horn and +Bevis of Hampton make it not unlikely that Hamlet is of British +rather than of Scandinavian origin. His name does in fact occur +in the Irish <i>Annals of the Four Masters</i> (ed. O’Donovan, 1851) +in a stanza attributed to the Irish Queen Gormflaith, who laments +the death of her husband, Niall Glundubh, at the hands of +Amhlaiðe in 919 at the battle of Ath-Cliath. The slayer of Niall +Glundubh is by other authorities stated to have been Sihtric. +Now Sihtric was the father of that Olaf or Anlaf Cuaran who was +the prototype of the English Havelok, but nowhere else does he +receive the nickname of Amhlaiðe. If Amhlaiðe may really be +identified with Sihtric, who first went to Dublin in 888, the +relations between the tales of Havelok and Hamlet are readily +explicable, since nothing was more likely than that the exploits +of father and son should be confounded (see Havelok). But, +whoever the historic Hamlet may have been, it is quite certain +that much was added that was extraneous to Scandinavian +tradition. Later in the 10th century there is evidence of the +existence of an Icelandic saga of Amlóði or Amleth in a passage +from the poet Snaebjorn in the second part of the prose <i>Edda</i>.<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a> +According to Saxo,<a name="fa3e" id="fa3e" href="#ft3e"><span class="sp">3</span></a> Hamlet’s history is briefly as follows. In +the days of Rorik, king of Denmark, Gervendill was governor +of Jutland, and was succeeded by his sons Horvendill and Feng. +Horvendill, on his return from a Viking expedition in which +he had slain Koll, king of Norway, married Gerutha, Rorik’s +daughter, who bore him a son Amleth. But Feng, out of jealousy, +murdered Horvendill, and persuaded Gerutha to become his +wife, on the plea that he had committed the crime for no other +reason than to avenge her of a husband by whom she had been +hated. Amleth, afraid of sharing his father’s fate, pretended to +be imbecile, but the suspicion of Feng put him to various tests +which are related in detail. Among other things they sought +to entangle him with a young girl, his foster-sister, but his +cunning saved him. When, however, Amleth slew the eavesdropper +hidden, like Polonius, in his mother’s room, and destroyed +all trace of the deed, Feng was assured that the young man’s +madness was feigned. Accordingly he despatched him to England +in company with two attendants, who bore a letter enjoining +the king of the country to put him to death. Amleth surmised +the purport of their instructions, and secretly altered the message +on their wooden tablets to the effect that the king should put +the attendants to death and give Amleth his daughter in marriage. +After marrying the princess Amleth returned at the end of a year +to Denmark. Of the wealth he had accumulated he took with +him only certain hollow sticks filled with gold. He arrived in +time for a funeral feast, held to celebrate his supposed death. +During the feast he plied the courtiers with wine, and executed +his vengeance during their drunken sleep by fastening down over +them the woollen hangings of the hall with pegs he had sharpened +during his feigned madness, and then setting fire to the palace. +Feng he slew with his own sword. After a long harangue to the +people he was proclaimed king. Returning to England for his +wife he found that his father-in-law and Feng had been pledged +each to avenge the other’s death. The English king, unwilling +personally to carry out his pledge, sent Amleth as proxy wooer +for the hand of a terrible Scottish queen Hermuthruda, who had +put all former wooers to death, but fell in love with Amleth. +On his return to England his first wife, whose love proved stronger +than her resentment, told him of her father’s intended revenge. +In the battle which followed Amleth won the day by setting up +the dead men of the day before with stakes, and thus terrifying +the enemy. He then returned with his two wives to Jutland, +where he had to encounter the enmity of Wiglek, Rorik’s successor. +He was slain in a battle against Wiglek, and Hermuthruda, +although she had engaged to die with him, married the +victor.</p> + +<p>The other Scandinavian versions of the tale are: the <i>Hrolfssaga +Kraka</i>,<a name="fa4e" id="fa4e" href="#ft4e"><span class="sp">4</span></a> where the brothers Helgi and Hroar take the place of the +hero; the tale of Harald and Halfdan, as related in the 7th book +of Saxo Grammaticus; the modern Icelandic <i>Ambales Saga</i>,<a name="fa5e" id="fa5e" href="#ft5e"><span class="sp">5</span></a> +a romantic tale the earliest MS. of which dates from the 17th +century; and the folk-tale of Brjám<a name="fa6e" id="fa6e" href="#ft6e"><span class="sp">6</span></a> which was put in writing +in 1707. Helgi and Hroar, like Harald and Halfdan, avenge their +father’s death on their uncle by burning him in his palace. +Harald and Halfdan escape after their father’s death by being +brought up, with dogs’ names, in a hollow oak, and subsequently +by feigned madness; and in the case of the other brothers there +are traces of a similar motive, since the boys are called by dogs’ +names. The methods of Hamlet’s madness, as related by Saxo, +seem to point to cynanthropy. In the <i>Ambales Saga</i>, which +perhaps is collateral to, rather than derived from, Saxo’s version, +there are, besides romantic additions, some traits which point +to an earlier version of the tale.</p> + +<p>Saxo Grammaticus was certainly familiar with the Latin +historians, and it is most probable that, recognizing the similarity +between the northern Hamlet legend and the classical tale of +Lucius Junius Brutus as told by Livy, by Valerius Maximus, +and by Dionysius of Halicarnassus (with which he was probably +acquainted through a Latin epitome), he deliberately added +circumstances from the classical story. The incident of the gold-filled +sticks could hardly appear fortuitously in both, and a +comparison of the harangues of Amleth (Saxo, Book iv.) and of +Brutus (Dionysius iv. 77) shows marked similarities. In both +tales the usurping uncle is ultimately succeeded by the nephew +who has escaped notice during his youth by a feigned madness. +But the parts played by the personages who in Shakespeare +became Ophelia and Polonius, the method of revenge, and the +whole narrative of Amleth’s adventure in England, have no +parallels in the Latin story.</p> + +<p>Dr. O. L. Jiriczek<a name="fa7e" id="fa7e" href="#ft7e"><span class="sp">7</span></a> first pointed out the striking similarities +existing between the story of Amleth in Saxo and the other +northern versions, and that of Kei Chosro in the <i>Shahnameh</i> +(Book of the King) of the Persian poet Firdausi. The comparison +was carried farther by R. Zenker (<i>Boeve Amlethus</i>, pp. 207-268, +Berlin and Leipzig, 1904), who even concluded that the northern +saga rested on an earlier version of Firdausi’s story, in which +indeed nearly all the individual elements of the various northern +versions are to be found. Further resemblances exist in the +<i>Ambales Saga</i> with the tales of Bellerophon, of Heracles, and of +Servius Tullius. That Oriental tales through Byzantine and +Arabian channels did find their way to the west is well known, +and there is nothing very surprising in their being attached to a +local hero.</p> + +<p>The tale of Hamlet’s adventures in Britain forms an episode +so distinct that it was at one time referred to a separate hero. +The traitorous letter, the purport of which is changed by Hermuthruda, +occurs in the popular <i>Dit de l’empereur Constant</i>,<a name="fa8e" id="fa8e" href="#ft8e"><span class="sp">8</span></a> +and in Arabian and Indian tales. Hermuthruda’s cruelty to her +wooers is common in northern and German mythology, and close +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page896" id="page896"></a>896</span> +parallels are afforded by Thrytho, the terrible bride of Offa I., +who figures in <i>Beowulf</i>, and by Brunhilda in the <i>Nibelungenlied</i>.</p> + +<p>The story of Hamlet was known to the Elizabethans in +François de Belleforest’s <i>Histoires tragiques</i> (1559), and found +its supreme expression in Shakespeare’s tragedy. That as early +as 1587 or 1589 Hamlet had appeared on the English stage is +shown by Nash’s preface to Greene’s <i>Menaphon</i>: “He will +afford you whole Hamlets, I should say, handfulls of tragical +speeches.” The Shakespearian Hamlet owes, however, little +but the outline of his story to Saxo. In character he is diametrically +opposed to his prototype. Amleth’s madness was +certainly altogether feigned; he prepared his vengeance a year +beforehand, and carried it out deliberately and ruthlessly at +every point. His riddling speech has little more than an outward +similarity to the words of Hamlet, who resembles him, however, +in his disconcerting penetration into his enemies’ plans. For +a discussion of Shakespeare’s play and its immediate sources +see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Shakespeare</a></span>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See an appendix to Elton’s trans. of Saxo Grammaticus; I. +Gollancz, <i>Hamlet in Iceland</i> (London, 1898); H. L. Ward, <i>Catalogue +of Romances</i>, under “Havelok,” vol. i. pp. 423 seq.; <i>English Historical +Review</i>, x. (1895); F. Detter, “Die Hamletsage,” <i>Zeitschr. +f. deut. Alter.</i> vol. 36 (Berlin, 1892); O. L. Jiriczek, “Die Amlethsage +auf Island,” in <i>Germanistische Abhandlungen</i>, vol. xii. (Breslau), +and “Hamlet in Iran,” in <i>Zeitschr. des Vereins für Volkskunde</i>, x. +(Berlin, 1900); A. Olrik, <i>Kilderne til Sakses Oldhistorie</i> (Copenhagen, +2 vols., 1892-1894).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The word is used in modern Icelandic metaphorically of an +imbecile or weak-minded person (see Cleasby and Vigfússon, <i>Icelandic-English +Dictionary</i>, 1869).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> “’Tis said that far out, off yonder ness, the Nine Maids of the +Island Mill stir amain the host—cruel skerry-quern—they who in +ages past ground Hamlet’s meal. The good Chieftain furrows the +hull’s lair with his ship’s beaked prow.” This passage may be compared +with some examples of Hamlet’s cryptic sayings quoted by +Saxo: “Again, as he passed along the beach, his companions +found the rudder of a ship which had been wrecked, and said +they had discovered a huge knife. ‘This,’ said he, ‘was the +right thing to carve such a huge ham....’ Also, as they passed +the sand-hills, and bade him look at the meal, meaning the sand, +he replied that it had been ground small by the hoary tempests of +the ocean.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft3e" id="ft3e" href="#fa3e"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Books iii. and iv., chaps. 86-106, Eng. trans. by O. Elton (London, +1894).</p> + +<p><a name="ft4e" id="ft4e" href="#fa4e"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Printed in Fornaldar Sögur Norðtrlanda (vol. i. Copenhagen, +1829), analysed by F. Detter in <i>Zeitschr. für deutsches Altertum</i> +(vol. 36, Berlin, 1892).</p> + +<p><a name="ft5e" id="ft5e" href="#fa5e"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Printed with English translation and with other texts germane +to the subject by I. Gollancz (<i>Hamlet in Iceland</i>, London, 1898).</p> + +<p><a name="ft6e" id="ft6e" href="#fa6e"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Professor I. Gollancz points out (p. lxix.) that Brjám is a variation +of the Irish Brian, that the relations between Ireland and the +Norsemen were very close, and that, curiously enough, Brian +Boroimhe was the hero of that very battle of Clontarf (1014) where +the device (which occurs in Havelok and Hamlet) of bluffing the +enemy by tying the wounded to stakes to represent active soldiers +was used.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7e" id="ft7e" href="#fa7e"><span class="fn">7</span></a> “Hamlet in Iran,” in <i>Zeitschrift des Vereins für Volkskunde</i>, x. +(Berlin, 1900).</p> + +<p><a name="ft8e" id="ft8e" href="#fa8e"><span class="fn">8</span></a> See A. B. Gough, <i>The Constance Saga</i> (Berlin, 1902).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMLEY, SIR EDWARD BRUCE<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (1824-1893), British +general and military writer, youngest son of Vice-Admiral William +Hamley, was born on the 27th of April 1824 at Bodmin, Cornwall, +and entered the Royal Artillery in 1843. He was promoted +captain in 1850, and in 1851 went to Gibraltar, where he commenced +his literary career by contributing articles to magazines. +He served throughout the Crimean campaign as aide-de-camp +to Sir Richard Dacres, commanding the artillery, taking part +in all the operations with distinction, and becoming successively +major and lieutenant-colonel by brevet. He also received the +C.B. and French and Turkish orders. During the war he contributed +to <i>Blackwood’s Magazine</i> an admirable account of the +progress of the campaign, which was afterwards republished. +The combination in Hamley of literary and military ability +secured for him in 1859 the professorship of military history at +the new Staff College at Sandhurst, from which in 1866 he went +to the council of military education, returning in 1870 to the +Staff College as commandant. From 1879 to 1881 he was British +commissioner successively for the delimitation of the frontiers +of Turkey and Bulgaria, Turkey in Asia and Russia, and Turkey +and Greece, and was rewarded with the K.C.M.G. Promoted +colonel in 1863, he became a lieutenant-general in 1882, when he +commanded the 2nd division of the expedition to Egypt under +Lord Wolseley, and led his troops in the battle of Tell-el-Kebir, +for which he received the K.C.B., the thanks of parliament, and +2nd class of Osmanieh. Hamley considered that his services +in Egypt had been insufficiently recognized in Lord Wolseley’s +despatches, and expressed his indignation freely, but he had no +sufficient ground for supposing that there was any intention to +belittle his services. From 1885 until his death on the 12th of +August 1893 he represented Birkenhead in parliament in the +Conservative interest.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Hamley was a clever and versatile writer. His principal work, +<i>The Operations of War</i>, published in 1867, became a text-book of +military instruction. He published some pamphlets on national +defence, was a frequent contributor to magazines, and the author of +several novels, of which perhaps the best known is <i>Lady Lee’s +Widowhood</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMLIN, HANNIBAL<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (1809-1891), vice-president of the +United States (1861-1865), was born at Paris, Maine, on the +27th of August 1809. After studying in Hebron Academy, he +conducted his father’s farm for a time, became schoolmaster, +and later managed a weekly newspaper at Paris. He then +studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1833, and rapidly acquired +a reputation as an able lawyer and a good public speaker. +Entering politics as an anti-slavery Democrat, he was a member +of the state House of Representatives in 1836-1840, serving as +its presiding officer during the last four years. He was a +representative in Congress from 1843 to 1847, and was a member +of the United States Senate from 1848 to 1856. From the very +beginning of his service in Congress he was prominent as an +opponent of the extension of slavery; he was a conspicuous +supporter of the Wilmot Proviso, spoke against the Compromise +Measures of 1850, and in 1856, chiefly because of the passage +in 1854 of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, which repealed the Missouri +Compromise, and his party’s endorsement of that repeal at the +Cincinnati Convention two years later, he withdrew from the +Democrats and joined the newly organized Republican party. +The Republicans of Maine nominated him for governor in the +same year, and having carried the election by a large majority +he was inaugurated in this office on the 8th of January 1857. +In the latter part of February, however, he resigned the governorship, +and was again a member of the Senate from 1857 to January +1861. From 1861 to 1865, during the Civil War, he was Vice-President +of the United States. While in this office he was one +of the chief advisers of President Lincoln, and urged both the +Emancipation Proclamation and the arming of the negroes. +After the war he again served in the Senate (1869-1881), was +minister to Spain (1881-1883), and then retired from public life. +He died at Bangor, Maine, on the 4th of July 1891.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Life and Times of Hannibal Hamlin</i> (Cambridge, Mass., 1899), +by C. E. Hamlin, his grandson.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMM,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of +Westphalia, on the Lippe, 19 m. by rail N.E. from Dortmund +on the main line Cologne-Hanover. Pop. (1905) 38,430. It +is surrounded by pleasant promenades occupying the site of the +former engirdling fortifications. The principal buildings are +four Roman Catholic and three Evangelical churches, several +schools and an infirmary. The town is flourishing and rapidly +increasing, and possesses very extensive wire factories (in +connexion with which there are puddling and rolling works), +machine works, and manufactories of gloves, baskets, leather, +starch, chemicals, varnish, oil and beer. Near the town are +some thermal baths.</p> + +<p>Hamm, which became a town about the end of the 12th +century, was originally the capital of the countship of Mark, and +was fortified in 1226. It became a member of the Hanseatic +League. In 1614 it was besieged by the Dutch, and it was +several times taken and retaken during the Thirty Years’ War. +In 1666 it came into the possession of Brandenburg. In 1761 +and 1762 it was bombarded by the French, and in 1763 its +fortifications were dismantled.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMMĀD AR-RĀWIYA<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> [Abū-l-Qāsim Ḥammād ibn Abī +Laila Sāpūr (or ibn Maisara)] (8th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>), Arabic scholar, +was of Dailamite descent, but was born in Kufa. The date of +his birth is given by some as 694, by others as 714. He was +reputed to be the most learned man of his time in regard to the +“days of the Arabs” (<i>i.e.</i> their chief battles), their stories, +poems, genealogies and dialects. He is said to have boasted +that he could recite a hundred long <i>qasīdas</i> for each letter of +the alphabet (<i>i.e.</i> rhyming in each letter) and these all from +pre-Islamic times, apart from shorter pieces and later verses. +Hence his name <i>Hammad ar-Rawiya</i>, “the reciter of verses from +memory.” The Omayyad caliph Walīd is said to have tested +him, the result being that he recited 2900 qasīdas of pre-Islamic +date and Walīd gave him 100,000 dirhems. He was +favoured by Yazīd II. and his successor Hishām, who brought +him up from Irak to Damascus. Arabian critics, however, say +that in spite of his learning he lacked a true insight into the +genius of the Arabic language, and that he made more than +thirty—some say three hundred—mistakes of pronunciation in +reciting the Koran. To him is ascribed the collecting of the +<i>Mo‘allakāt</i> (<i>q.v.</i>). No diwan of his is extant, though he composed +verse of his own and probably a good deal of what he ascribed +to earlier poets.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Biography in McG. de Slane’s trans. of Ibn Khallikān, vol. i. +pp. 470-474, and many stories are told of him in the <i>Kitāb ul-Aghāni</i>, +vol. v. pp. 164-175.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. W. T.)</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page897" id="page897"></a>897</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMMER, FRIEDRICH JULIUS<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (1810-1862), German poet, +was born on the 7th of June 1810 at Dresden. In 1831 he went +to Leipzig to study law, but devoted himself mainly to philosophy +and belles lettres. Returning to Dresden in 1834 a small comedy, +<i>Das seltsame Frühstück</i>, introduced him to the literary society +of the capital, notably to Ludwig Tieck, and from this time he +devoted himself entirely to writing. In 1837 he returned to +Leipzig, and, coming again to Dresden, from 1851 to 1859 edited +the feuilleton of <i>Sächsische konstitutionelle Zeitung</i>, and took +the lead in the foundation in 1855 of the Schiller Institute in +Dresden. His marriage in 1851 had made him independent, and +he bought a small property at Pillnitz, on which, soon after his +return from a residence of several years at Nuremberg, he died, +on the 23rd of August 1862.</p> + +<p>Hammer wrote, besides several comedies, a drama <i>Die Brüder</i> +(1856), a number of unimportant romances, and the novel +<i>Einkehr und Umkehr</i> (Leipzig, 1856); but his reputation rests +upon his epigrammatic and didactic poems. His <i>Schau’ um +dich, und schau’ in dich</i> (1851), which made his name, has passed +through more than thirty editions. It was followed by <i>Zu allen +guten Stunden</i> (1854), <i>Fester Grund</i> (1857), <i>Auf stillen Wegen</i> +(1859), and <i>Lerne, liebe, lebe</i> (1862). Besides these he wrote a +book of Turkish songs, <i>Unter dem Halbmond</i> (Leipzig, 1860), +and rhymed versions of the psalms (1861), and compiled the +popular religious anthology <i>Leben und Heimat in Gott</i>, of which a +14th edition was published in 1900.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C. G. E. Am Ende, <i>Julius Hammer</i> (Nuremberg, 1872).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMMER,<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> an implement consisting of a shaft or handle with +head fixed transversely to it. The head, usually of metal, has +one flat face, the other may be shaped to serve various purposes, +<i>e.g.</i> with a claw, a pick, &c. The implement is used for breaking, +beating, driving nails, rivets, &c., and the word is applied to +heavy masses of metal moved by machinery, and used for similar +purposes. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tool</a></span>.) “Hammer” is a word common to +Teutonic languages. It appears in the same form in German +and Danish, and in Dutch as <i>hamer</i>, in Swedish as <i>hammare</i>. +The ultimate origin is unknown. It has been connected with +the root seen in the Greek <span class="grk" title="kamptein">κάμπτειν</span>, to bend; the word would +mean, therefore, something crooked or bent. A more illuminating +suggestion connects the word with the Slavonic <i>kamy</i>, a stone, +cf. Russian <i>kamen</i>, and ultimately with Sanskrit <i>acman</i>, a +pointed stone, a thunderbolt. The legend of Thor’s hammer, +the thunderbolt, and the probability of the primitive hammer +being a stone, adds plausibility to this derivation. The word +is applied to many objects resembling a hammer in shape or +function. Thus the “striker” in a clock, or in a bell, when it +is sounded by an independent lever and not by the swinging of +the “tongue,” is called a “hammer”; similarly, in the “action” +of a pianoforte the word is used of a wooden shank with felt-covered +head attached to a key, the striking of which throws +the “hammer” against the strings. In the mechanism of a +fire-arm, the “hammer” is that part which by its impact on +the cap or primer explodes the charge. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gun</a></span>.) The hammer, +more usually known by its French name of <i>martel de fer</i>, was a +medieval hand-weapon. With a long shaft it was used by +infantry, especially when acting against mounted troops. With +a short handle and usually made altogether of metal, it was +also used by horse-soldiers. The <i>martel</i> had one part of the head +with a blunted face, the other pointed, but occasionally both +sides were pointed. There are 16th century examples in which +a hand-gun forms the handle. The name of “hammer,” in +Latin <i>malleus</i>, has been frequently applied to men, and also to +books, with reference to destructive power. Thus on the tomb +of Edward I. in Westminster Abbey is inscribed his name of +<i>Scotorum Malleus</i>, the “Hammer of the Scots.” The title of +“Hammer of Heretics,” <i>Malleus Haereticorum</i>, has been given +to St Augustine and to Johann Faber, whose tract against +Luther is also known by the name. Thomas Cromwell was styled +<i>Malleus Monachorum</i>. The famous text-book of procedure in +cases of witchcraft, published by Sprenger and Krämer in 1489, +was called <i>Hexenhammer</i> or <i>Malleus Maleficarum</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Witchcraft</a></span>).</p> + +<p>The origin of the word “hammer-cloth,” an ornamental cloth +covering the box-seat on a state-coach, has been often explained +from the hammer and other tools carried in the box-seat by the +coachman for repairs, &c. The <i>New English Dictionary</i> points +out that while the word occurs as early as 1465, the use of a box-seat +is not known before the 17th century. Other suggestions +are that it is a corruption of “hamper-cloth,” or of “hammock-cloth,” +which is used in this sense, probably owing to a mistake. +Neither of these supposed corruptions helps very much. Skeat +connects the word with a Dutch word <i>hemel</i>, meaning a canopy. +In the name of the bird, the yellow-hammer, the latter part +should be “ammer.” This appears in the German name, +<i>Emmerling</i>, and the word probably means the “chirper,” cf. +the Ger. <i>jammern</i>, to wail, lament.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMMERBEAM ROOF,<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> in architecture, the name given to a +Gothic open timber roof, of which the finest example is that over +Westminster Hall (1395-1399). In order to give greater height +in the centre, the ordinary tie beam is cut through, and the +portions remaining, known as hammerbeams, are supported by +curved braces from the wall; in Westminster Hall, in order to +give greater strength to the framing, a large arched piece of +timber is carried across the hall, rising from the bottom of the +wall piece to the centre of the collar beam, the latter being also +supported by curved braces rising from the end of the hammerbeam. +The span of Westminster Hall is 68 ft. 4 in., and the +opening between the ends of the hammerbeams 25 ft. 6 in. The +height from the paving of the hall to the hammerbeam is 40 ft., +and to the underside of the collar beam 63 ft. 6 in., so that an +additional height in the centre of 23 ft. 6 in. has been gained. +Other important examples of hammerbeam roofs exist over the +halls of Hampton Court and Eltham palaces, and there are +numerous examples of smaller dimensions in churches throughout +England and particularly in the eastern counties. The ends +of the hammerbeams are usually decorated with winged angels +holding shields; the curved braces and beams are richly moulded, +and the spandrils in the larger examples filled in with tracery, +as in Westminster Hall. Sometimes, but rarely, the collar +beam is similarly treated, or cut through and supported by +additional curved braces, as in the hall of the Middle Temple, +London.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMMERFEST,<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> the most northern town in Europe. Pop. +(1900) 2300. It is situated on an island (Kvalö) off the N.W. +coast of Norway, in Finmarken <i>amt</i> (county), in 70° 40′ 11″ N., +the latitude being that of the extreme north of Alaska. Its +position affords the best illustration of the warm climatic +influence of the north-eastward Atlantic drift, the mean annual +temperature being 36° F. (January 31°, July 57°). Hammerfest +is 674 m. by sea N.E. of Trondhjem, and 78 S.W. from the North +Cape. The character of this coast differs from the southern, +the islands being fewer and larger, and of table shape. The +narrow strait Strömmen separates Kvalö from the larger Seiland, +whose snow-covered hills with several glaciers rise above 3500 ft., +while an insular rampart of mountains, Sorö, protects the strait +and harbour from the open sea. The town is timber-built and +modern; and the Protestant church, town-hall, and schools +were all rebuilt after fire in 1890. There is also a Roman Catholic +church. The sun does not set at Hammerfest from the 13th of +May to the 29th of July. This is the busy season of the townsfolk. +Vessels set out to the fisheries, as far as Spitsbergen and +the Kara Sea; and trade is brisk, not only Norwegian and +Danish but British, German and particularly Russian vessels +engaging in it. Cod-liver oil and salted fish are exported with +some reindeer-skins, fox-skins and eiderdown; and coal and salt +for curing are imported. In the spring the great herds of tame +reindeer are driven out to swim Strömmen and graze in the +summer pastures of Seiland; towards winter they are called +home again. From the 18th of November to the 23rd of January +the sun is not seen, and the enforced quiet of winter prevails. +Electric light was introduced in the town in 1891. On the +Fuglenaes or Birds’ Cape, which protects the harbour on the +north, there stands a column with an inscription in Norse and +Latin, stating that Hammerfest was one of the stations of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page898" id="page898"></a>898</span> +expedition for the measurement of the arc of the meridian in +1816-1852. Nor is this its only association with science; for +it was one of the spots chosen by Sir Edward Sabine for his +series of pendulum experiments in 1823. The ascent of the +Sadlen or the Tyven in the neighbourhood is usually undertaken +by travellers for the view of the barren, snow-clad Arctic landscape, +the bluff indented coast, and the vast expanse of the +Arctic Ocean.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMMER-KOP,<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Hammerhead</span>, an African bird, which has +been regarded as a stork and as a heron, the <i>Scopus umbretta</i> of +ornithologists, called the “Umbre” by T. Pennant, now placed +in a separate family <i>Scopidae</i> between the herons and storks. +It was discovered by M. Adanson, the French traveller, in Senegal +about the middle of the 19th century, and was described by +M. J. Brisson in 1760. It has since been found to inhabit nearly +the whole of Africa and Madagascar, and is the “hammerkop” +(hammerhead) of the Cape colonists. Though not larger than +a raven, it builds an enormous nest, some six feet in diameter, +with a flat-topped roof and a small hole for entrance and exit, +and placed either on a tree or a rocky ledge. The bird, of an +almost uniform brown colour, slightly glossed with purple and its +tail barred with black, has a long occipital crest, generally borne +horizontally, so as to give rise to its common name. It is somewhat +sluggish by day, but displays much activity at dusk, when +it will go through a series of strange performances.</p> +<div class="author">(A. N.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMMER-PURGSTALL, JOSEPH,<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> <span class="sc">Freiherr</span> von (1774-1856), +Austrian orientalist, was born at Graz on the 9th of June +1774, the son of Joseph Johann von Hammer, and received his +early education mainly in Vienna. Entering the diplomatic +service in 1796, he was appointed in 1799 to a position in the +Austrian embassy in Constantinople, and in this capacity he +took part in the expedition under Admiral Sir William Sidney +Smith and General Sir John Hely Hutchinson against the +French. In 1807 he returned home from the East, after which +he was made a privy councillor, and, on inheriting in 1835 the +estates of the countess Purgstall in Styria, was given the title +of “freiherr.” In 1847 he was elected president of the newly-founded +academy, and he died at Vienna on the 23rd of November +1856.</p> + +<p>For fifty years Hammer-Purgstall wrote incessantly on the +most diverse subjects and published numerous texts and translations +of Arabic, Persian and Turkish authors. It was natural +that a scholar who traversed so large a field should lay himself +open to the criticism of specialists, and he was severely handled +by Friedrich Christian Diez (1794-1876), who, in his <i>Unfug +und Betrug</i> (1815), devoted to him nearly 600 pages of abuse. +Von Hammer-Purgstall did for Germany the same work that +Sir William Jones (<i>q.v.</i>) did for England and Silvestre de Sacy +for France. He was, like his younger but greater English contemporary, +Edward William Lane, with whom he came into +friendly conflict on the subject of the origin of <i>The Thousand +and One Nights</i>, an assiduous worker, and in spite of many faults +did more for oriental studies than most of his critics put together.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Von Hammer’s principal work is his <i>Geschichte des osmanischen +Reiches</i> (10 vols., Pesth, 1827-1835). Another edition of this was +published at Pesth in 1834-1835, and it has been translated into +French by J. J. Hellert (1835-1843). Among his other works are +<i>Constantinopolis und der Bosporos</i> (1822); <i>Sur les origines russes</i> +(St Petersburg, 1825); <i>Geschichte der osmanischen Dichtkunst</i> +(1836); <i>Geschichte der Goldenen Horde in Kiptschak</i> (1840); <i>Geschichte +der Chane der Krim</i> (1856); and an unfinished <i>Litteraturgeschichte +der Araber</i> (1850-1856). His <i>Geschichte der Assassinen</i> +(1818) has been translated into English by O. C. Wood (1835). +Texts and translations—<i>Eth-Thaālabi</i>, Arab. and Ger. (1829); +<i>Ibn Wahshiyah, History of the Mongols</i>, Arab. and Eng. (1806); +<i>El-Wassāf</i>, Pers. and Ger. (1856); <i>Esch-Schebistani’s Rosenflor +des Geheimnisses</i>, Pers. and Ger. (1838); <i>Ez-Zamakhsheri, Goldene +Halsbānder</i>, Arab. and Germ. (1835); <i>El-Ghazzālī, Hujjet-el-Islám</i>, +Arab. and Ger. (1838); <i>El-Hamawi, Das arab. Hohe Lied der Liebe</i>, +Arab. and Ger. (1854). Translations of—<i>El-Mutanebbi’s Poems; +Er-Resmi’s Account of his Embassy</i> (1809); <i>Contes inédits des 1001 +nuits</i> (1828). Besides these and smaller works, von Hammer +contributed numerous essays and criticisms to the <i>Fundgruben des +Orients</i>, which he edited; to the <i>Journal asiatique</i>; and to many +other learned journals; above all to the <i>Transactions</i> of the “Akademie +der Wissenschaften” of Vienna, of which he was mainly the +founder; and he translated Evliya Effendi’s <i>Travels in Europe</i>, for +the English Oriental Translation Fund. For a fuller list of his works, +which amount in all to nearly 100 volumes, see <i>Comptes rendus</i> of +the Acad. des Inscr. et des Belles-Lettres (1857). See also Schlottman, +<i>Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall</i> (Zurich, 1857).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMMERSMITH,<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> a western metropolitan borough of London, +England, bounded E. by Kensington and S. by Fulham and the +river Thames, and extending N. and W. to the boundary of +the county of London. Pop. (1901) 112,239. The name appears +in the early forms of <i>Hermodewode</i> and <i>Hamersmith</i>; the derivation +is probably from the Anglo-Saxon, signifying the place +with a haven (<i>hythe</i>). Hammersmith is mentioned with Fulham +as a winter camp of Danish invaders in 879, when they occupied +the island of Hame, which may be identified with Chiswick +Eyot. Hammersmith consists of residential streets of various +classes. There are many good houses in the districts of Brook +Green in the south-east, and Ravenscourt Park and Starch Green +in the west. Shepherd’s Bush in the east is a populous and poorer +quarter. Boat-building yards, lead-mills, oil mills, distilleries, +coach factories, motor works, and other industrial establishments +are found along the river and elsewhere in the borough. +The main thoroughfares are Uxbridge Road and Goldhawk +Road, from Acton on the west, converging at Shepherd’s Bush +and continuing towards Notting Hill; King Street from Chiswick +on the south-west, continued as Hammersmith Broadway and +Road to Kensington Road; Bridge Road from Hammersmith +Bridge over the Thames, and Fulham Palace Road from Fulham, +converging at the Broadway. Old Hammersmith Bridge, +designed by Tierney Clark (1824), was the earliest suspension +bridge erected near London. This bridge was found insecure +and replaced in 1884-1887. Until 1834 Hammersmith formed +part of Fulham parish. Its church of St Paul was built as a +chapel of ease to Fulham, and consecrated by Laud in 1631. +The existing building dates from 1890. Among the old monuments +preserved is that of Sir Nicholas Crispe (d. 1665), a +prominent royalist during the civil wars and a benefactor of the +parish. Schools and religious houses are numerous. St Paul’s +school is one of the principal public schools in England. It +was founded in or about 1509 by John Colet, dean of St Paul’s, +under the shadow of the cathedral church. But it appears that +Colet actually refounded and reorganized a school which had +been attached to the cathedral of St Paul from very early times; +the first mention of such a school dates from the early part of +the 12th century (see an article in <i>The Times</i>, London, July 7, +1909, on the occasion of the celebration of the quatercentenary +of Colet’s foundation). The school was moved to its present site +in Hammersmith Road in 1883. The number of foundation +scholars, that is, the number for which Colet’s endowment +provided, is 153, according to the number of fishes taken in +the miraculous draught. The total number of pupils is about +600. The school governors are appointed by the Mercers’ +Company (by which body the new site was acquired), and the +universities of Oxford, Cambridge and London. Close to the +school is St Paul’s preparatory school, and at Brook Green is a +girls’ school in connexion with the main school. There are, +besides, the Edward Latymer foundation school for boys (1624), +part of the income of which is devoted to general charitable +purposes; the Godolphin school, founded in the 16th century +and remodelled as a grammar school in 1861; Nazareth House +of Little Sisters of the Poor, the Convent of the Sacred Heart, +and other convents. The town hall, the West London hospital +with its post-graduate college, and Wormwood Scrubbs prison +are noteworthy buildings. Other institutions are the Hammersmith +school of art and a Roman Catholic training college. +Besides the picturesque Ravenscourt Park (31 acres) there are +extensive recreation grounds in the north of the borough at +Wormwood Scrubbs (193 acres), and others of lesser extent. +An important place of entertainment is Olympia, near Hammersmith +Road and the Addison Road station on the West London +railway, which includes a vast arena under a glass roof; while +at Shepherd’s Bush are the extensive grounds and buildings +first occupied by the Franco-British Exhibition of 1908, including +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page899" id="page899"></a>899</span> +a huge stadium for athletic displays. In the extreme north of +the borough is the Kensal Green Roman Catholic cemetery, +in which Cardinal Manning and many other prominent members +of this faith are buried. In the neighbourhood of the Mall, +bordering the river, are the house where Thomson wrote his +poem “The Seasons,” and Kelmscott House, the residence of +William Morris. The parliamentary borough of Hammersmith +returns one member. The borough council consists of a mayor, +5 aldermen, and 30 councillors. Area, 2286.3 acres.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMMER-THROWING,<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> a branch of field athletics which +consists of hurling to the greatest possible distance an instrument +with a heavy head and slender handle called the hammer. +Throwing the hammer is in all probability of Keltic origin, as +it has been popular in Ireland and Scotland for many centuries. +The missile was, however, not a hammer, but the wheel of a +chariot attached to a fixed axle, by which it was whirled round +the head and cast for distance. Such a sport was undoubtedly +cultivated in the old Irish games, a large stone being substituted +for the wheel at the beginning of the Christian era. In the +Scottish highlands the missile took the form of a smith’s sledgehammer, +and in this form the sport became popular in England +in early days. Edward II. is said to have fostered it, and Henry +VIII. is known to have been proficient. At the beginning of +the 19th century two standard hammers were generally recognized +in Scotland, the heavy hammer, weighing about 21 ℔, and the +light hammer, weighing about 16 ℔. These were in general +use until about 1885, although the light hammer gradually +attained popularity at the expense of the heavy. Although +originally an ordinary blacksmith’s sledge with a handle about +3 ft. long, the form of the head was gradually modified until it +acquired its present spherical shape, and the stiff wooden handle +gave place to one of flexible whalebone about <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> in. in diameter. +The Scottish style of throwing, which also obtained in America, +was to stand on a mark, swing the hammer round the head +several times and hurl it backwards over the shoulder, the +length being measured from the mark made by the falling hammer +to the nearest foot of the thrower, no run or follow being allowed. +Such men as Donald Dinnie, G. Davidson and Kenneth McRae +threw the light hammer over 110 ft., and Dinnie’s record was +132 ft. 8 in., made, however, from a raised mount. Meanwhile +the English Amateur Athletic Association had early fixed the +weight of the hammer at 16 ℔, but the length of the handle +and the run varied widely, the restrictions being few. Under +these conditions S. S. Brown, of Oxford, made in 1873 a throw +of 120 ft., which was considered extraordinary at the time. +In 1875 the throw was made from a 7-ft. circle without run, head +and handle of the missile weighing together exactly 16 ℔. In +1887 the circle was enlarged to 9 ft., and in 1896 a handle of +flexible metal was legalized. The throw was made after a few +rapid revolutions of the body, which added an impetus that +greatly added to the distance attained. It thus happened that +the Scottish competitors at the English games, who clung to +their standing style of throwing, were, although athletes of +the very first class, repeatedly beaten; the result being that +the Scottish association was forced to introduce the English +rules. This was also the case in America, where the throw +from the 7-ft. circle, any motions being allowed within it, was +adopted in 1888, and still obtains. The Americans still further +modified the handle, which now consists of steel wire with two +skeleton loops for the hands, the wire being joined to the head by +means of a ball-bearing swivel. Thus the greatest mechanical +advantage, that of having the entire weight of the missile at the +end, as well as the least friction, is obtained. In England the +Amateur Athletic Association in 1908 enacted that “the head +and handle may be of any size, shape and material, provided +that the complete implement shall not be more than 4 ft. and its +weight not less than 16 ℔. The competitor may assume any +position he chooses, and use either one or both hands. All +throws shall be made from a circle 7 ft. in diameter.” The +modern hammer-thrower, if right-handed, begins by placing +the head on the ground at his right side. He then lifts and +swings it round his head with increasing rapidity, his whole +body finally revolving with outstretched arms twice, in some +cases three times, as rapidly as possible, the hammer being +released in the desired direction. During the “spinning,” or +revolving of the body, the athlete must be constantly, “ahead of +the hammer,” <i>i.e.</i> he must be drawing it after him with continually +increased pressure up to the very moment of delivery. The +muscles chiefly called into play are those of the shoulders, back +and loins. The adoption of the hand-loops has given the thrower +greater control over the hammer and has thus rendered the +sport much less dangerous than it once was.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>With a wooden handle the longest throw made in Great Britain +from a 9-ft. circle was that of W. J. M. Barry in 1892, who won the +championship in that year with 133 ft. 3 in. With the flexible +handle, “unlimited run and follow” being permitted, the record +was held in 1909 by M. J. McGrath with 175 ft. 8 in., made in 1907; +a Scottish amateur, T. R. Nicholson, held the British record of 169 ft. +8 in. The world’s record for throw from a 7-ft. circle was 172 ft. 11 in. +by J. Flanagan in 1904 in America; the British record from 9-ft. circle +being also held by Flanagan with a throw of 163 ft. 1 in. made in 1900. +Flanagan’s Olympic record (London, 1908) was 170 ft. 4¼ in.</p> + +<p>See <i>Athletics</i> in the Badminton library; <i>Athletes’ Guide</i> in Spalding’s +Athletic library; “Hammer-Throwing” in vol. xx. of <i>Outing</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMMER-TOE,<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> a painful condition in which a toe is rigidly +bent and the salient angle on its upper aspect is constantly +irritated by the boot. It is treated surgically, not as formerly +by amputation of the toe, but the toe is made permanently to +lie flat by the simple excision of the small digital joint. Even +in extremely bad cases of hammer-toe the operation of resection +of the head of the metatarsal phalanx is to be recommended +rather than amputation.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMMOCK,<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> a bed or couch slung from each end. The word +is said to have been derived from the hamack tree, the bark of +which was used by the aboriginal natives of Brazil to form the +nets, suspended from trees, in which they slept. The hammock +may be of matting, skin or textiles, lined with cushions or filled +with bedding. It is much used in hot climates.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMMOND, HENRY<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> (1605-1660), English divine, was born at +Chertsey in Surrey on the 18th of August 1605. He was educated +at Eton and at Magdalen College, Oxford, becoming demy +or scholar in 1619, and fellow in 1625. He took orders in 1629, +and in 1633 in preaching before the court so won the approval +of the earl of Leicester that he presented him to the living of +Penshurst in Kent. In 1643 he was made archdeacon of Chichester. +He was a member of the convocation of 1640, and +was nominated one of the Westminster Assembly of divines. +Instead of sitting at Westminster he took part in the unsuccessful +rising at Tunbridge in favour of King Charles I., and was obliged +to flee in disguise to Oxford, then the royal headquarters. +There he spent much of his time in writing, though he accompanied +the king’s commissioners to London, and afterwards +to the ineffectual convention at Uxbridge in 1645, where he +disputed with Richard Vines, one of the parliamentary envoys. +In his absence he was appointed canon of Christ Church and +public orator of the university. These dignities he relinquished +for a time in order to attend the king as chaplain during his +captivity in the hands of the parliament. When Charles was +deprived of all his loyal attendants at Christmas 1647, Hammond +returned to Oxford and was made subdean of Christ Church, +only, however, to be removed from all his offices by the parliamentary +visitors, who imprisoned him for ten weeks. Afterwards +he was permitted, though still under quasi-confinement, +to retire to the house of Philip Warwick at Clapham in Bedfordshire. +In 1650, having regained his full liberty, Hammond +betook himself to the friendly mansion of Sir John Pakington, +at Westwood, in Worcestershire, where he died on the 25th of +April 1660, just on the eve of his preferment to the see of +Worcester. Hammond was held in high esteem even by his +opponents. He was handsome in person and benevolent in +disposition. He was an excellent preacher; Charles I. pronounced +him the most natural orator he had ever heard. His +range of reading was extensive, and he was a most diligent +scholar and writer.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His writings, published in 4 vols. fol. (1674-1684), consist for the +most part of controversial sermons and tracts. The <i>Anglo-Catholic</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page900" id="page900"></a>900</span> +<i>Library</i> contains four volumes of his <i>Miscellaneous Theological +Works</i> (1847-1850). The best of them are his <i>Practical Catechism</i>, +first published in 1644; his <i>Paraphrase and Annotations on the +New Testament</i>; and an incomplete work of a similar nature on the +Old Testament. His <i>Life</i>, a delightful piece of biography, written +by Bishop Fell, and prefixed to the collected <i>Works</i>, has been reprinted +in vol. iv. of Wordsworth’s <i>Ecclesiastical Biography</i>. See +also <i>Life of Henry Hammond</i>, by G. G. Perry.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMMOND,<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> a city of Lake county, Indiana, U.S.A., about +18 m. S.E. of the business centre of Chicago, on the Grand +Calumet river. Pop. (1890), 5428; (1900) 12,376, of whom 3156 +were foreign-born; (1910, census) 20,925. It is served by no +fewer than eight railways approaching Chicago from the east, +and by several belt lines. As far as its industries are concerned, +it is a part of Chicago, to which fact it owes its rapid growth +and its extensive manufacturing establishments, which include +slaughtering and packing houses, iron and steel works, chemical +works, piano, wagon and carriage factories, printing establishments, +flour and starch mills, glue works, breweries and distilleries. +In 1900 Hammond was the principal slaughtering and +meat-packing centre of the state, but subsequently a large +establishment removed from the city, and Hammond’s total +factory product (all industries) decreased from $25,070,551 in +1900 to $7,671,203 in 1905; after 1905 there was renewed +growth in the city’s manufacturing interests. It has a good +water-supply system which is owned by the city. Hammond +was first settled about 1868, was named in honour of Abram +A. Hammond (acting governor of the state in 1860-1861) and +was chartered as a city in 1883.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMON, JEAN LOUIS<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (1821-1874), French painter, was +born at Plouha on the 5th of May 1821. At an early age he was +intended for the priesthood, and placed under the care of the +brothers Lamennais, but his strong desire to become a painter +finally triumphed over family opposition, and in 1840 he courageously +left Plouha for Paris—his sole resources being a pension +of five hundred francs, granted him for one year only by the +municipality of his native town. At Paris Hamon received valuable +counsels and encouragement from Delaroche and Gleyre, +and in 1848 he made his appearance at the Salon with “Le +Tombeau du Christ” (Musée de Marseille), and a decorative work, +“Dessus de Porte.” The works which he exhibited in 1849—“Une +Affiche romaine,” “L’Égalité au sérail,” and “Perroquet +jasant avec deux jeunes filles”—obtained no marked success. +Hamon was therefore content to accept a place in the manufactory +of Sèvres, but an enamelled casket by his hand having +attracted notice at the London International Exhibition of 1851, +he received a medal, and, reinspired by success, left his post to +try his chances again at the Salon of 1852. “La Comédie +humaine,” which he then exhibited, turned the tide of his +fortune, and “Ma sœur n’y est pas” (purchased by the emperor) +obtained for its author a third-class medal in 1853. At the Paris +International Exhibition of 1855, when Hamon re-exhibited +the casket of 1851, together with several vases and pictures of +which “L’Amour et son troupeau,” “Ce n’est pas moi,” and +“Une Gardeuse d’enfants” were the chief, he received a medal +of the second class, and the ribbon of the legion of honour. In +the following year he was absent in the East, but in 1857 he +reappeared with “Boutique à quatre sous,” “Papillon enchaîné,” +“Cantharide esclave,” “Dévideuses,” &c., in all ten +pictures; “L’Amour en visite” was contributed to the Salon +of 1859, and “Vierge de Lesbos,” “Tutelle,” “La Volière,” +“L’Escamoteur” and “La Sœur aînée” were all seen in 1861. +Hamon now spent some time in Italy, chiefly at Capri, whence +in 1864 he sent to Paris “L’Aurore” and “Un Jour de fiançailles.” +The influence of Italy was also evident in “Les Muses à Pompéi,” +his sole contribution to the Salon of 1866, a work which enjoyed +great popularity and was re-exhibited at the International +Exhibition of 1867, together with “La Promenade” and six +other pictures of previous years. His last work, “Le Triste +Rivage,” appeared at the Salon of 1873. It was painted at +St Raphael, where Hamon had finally settled in a little house +on the shores of the Mediterranean, close by Alphonse Karr’s +famous garden. In this house he died on the 29th of May 1874.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMPDEN, HENRY BOUVERIE WILLIAM BRAND,<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st +Viscount</span><a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (1812-1892), speaker of the House of Commons, +was the second son of the 21st Baron Dacre, and descended from +John Hampden, the patriot, in the female line; the barony +of Dacre devolved on him in 1890, after he had been created +Viscount Hampden in 1884. He entered parliament as a Liberal +in 1852, and for some time was chief whip of his party. In 1872 +he was elected speaker, and retained this post till February +1884. It fell to him to deal with the systematic obstruction of +the Irish Nationalist party, and his speakership is memorable +for his action on the 2nd of February 1881 in refusing further +debate on W. E. Forster’s Coercion Bill—a step which led to the +formal introduction of the closure into parliamentary procedure. +He died on the 14th of March 1892, being succeeded as 2nd +viscount by his son (<i>b.</i> 1841), who was governor of New South +Wales, 1895-1899.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> An earlier viscountcy was bestowed in 1776 on Robert Hampden-Trevor, +4th Baron Trevor (1706-1783), a great-grandson of the +daughter of John Hampden, the patriot; it became extinct in 1824 +by the death of the 3rd viscount.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMPDEN, JOHN<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1595-1643), English statesman, the +eldest son of William Hampden, of Great Hampden in Buckinghamshire, +a descendant of a very ancient family of that place, +said to have been established there before the Conquest, and of +Elizabeth, second daughter of Sir Henry Cromwell, and aunt +of Oliver, the future protector, was born about the year 1595. +By his father’s death, when he was but a child, he became the +owner of a good estate and a ward of the crown. He was +educated at the grammar school at Thame, and on the 30th of +March 1610 became a commoner of Magdalen College at Oxford. +In 1613 he was admitted a student of the Inner Temple. He first +sat in parliament for the borough of Grampound in 1621, representing +later Wendover in the first three parliaments of Charles I., +Buckinghamshire in the Short Parliament of 1640, and Wendover +again in the Long Parliament. In the early days of his parliamentary +career he was content to be overshadowed by Eliot, +as in its later days he was content to be overshadowed by Pym +and to be commanded by Essex. Yet it is Hampden, and not +Eliot or Pym, who lives in the popular imagination as the central +figure of the English revolution in its earlier stages. It is +Hampden whose statue rather than that of Eliot or Pym has +been selected to take its place in St Stephen’s Hall as the noblest +type of the parliamentary opposition, as Falkland’s has been +selected as the noblest type of parliamentary royalism.</p> + +<p>Something of Hampden’s fame no doubt is owing to the +position which he took up as the opponent of ship-money. But +it is hardly possible that even resistance to ship-money would +have so distinguished him but for the mingled massiveness and +modesty of his character, his dislike of all pretences in himself +or others, his brave contempt of danger, and his charitable +readiness to shield others as far as possible from the evil +consequences of their actions. Nor was he wanting in that skill +which enabled him to influence men towards the ends at which +he aimed, and which was spoken of as subtlety by those who +disliked his ends.</p> + +<p>During these first parliaments Hampden did not, so far as +we know, open his lips in public debate, but he was increasingly +employed in committee work, for which he seems to have had +a special aptitude. In 1626 he took an active part in the preparation +of the charges against Buckingham. In January 1627 he was +bound over to answer at the council board for his refusal to pay +the forced loan. Later in the year he was committed to the gatehouse, +and then sent into confinement in Hampshire, from which +he was liberated just before the meeting of the third parliament +of the reign, in which he once more rendered useful but unobtrusive +assistance to his leaders.</p> + +<p>When the breach came in 1629 Hampden is found in epistolary +correspondence with the imprisoned Eliot, discussing with +him the prospects of the Massachusetts colony,<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> or rendering +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page901" id="page901"></a>901</span> +hospitality and giving counsel to the patriot’s sons now that they +were deprived of a father’s personal care. It was not till 1637, +however, that his resistance to the payment of ship-money +gained for his name the lustre which it has never since lost. +(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ship-Money</a></span>.) Seven out of the twelve judges sided against +him, but the connexion between the rights of property and the +parliamentary system was firmly established in the popular +mind. The tax had been justified, says Clarendon, who expresses +his admiration at Hampden’s “rare temper and modesty” +at this crisis, “upon such grounds and reasons as every stander-by +was able to swear was not law” (<i>Hist.</i> i. 150, vii. 82).</p> + +<p>In the Short Parliament of 1640 Hampden stood forth amongst +the leaders. He guided the House in the debate on the 4th of +May in its opposition to the grant of twelve subsidies in return +for the surrender of ship-money. Parliament was dissolved the +next day, and on the 6th an unsuccessful search was made among +the papers of Hampden and of other chiefs of the party to +discover incriminating correspondence with the Scots. During +the eventful months which followed, when Strafford was striving +in vain to force England, in spite of its visible reluctance, +to support the king in his Scottish war, rumour has much to tell +of Hampden’s activity in rousing opposition. It is likely enough +that the rumour is in the main true, but we are not possessed +of any satisfactory evidence on the subject.</p> + +<p>In the Long Parliament, though Hampden was by no means +a frequent speaker, it is possible to trace his course with sufficient +distinctness. His power consisted in his personal influence, +and as a debater rather than as an orator. “He was not a man +of many words,” says Clarendon, “and rarely began the discourse +or made the first entrance upon any business that was assumed, +but a very weighty speaker, and after he had heard a full debate +and observed how the House was likely to be inclined, took up +the argument and shortly and clearly and craftily so stated it +that he commonly conducted it to the conclusion he desired; +and if he found he could not do that, he never was without the +dexterity to divert the debate to another time, and to prevent the +determining anything in the negative which might prove inconvenient +in the future” (<i>Hist.</i> iii. 31). Unwearied in attendance +upon committees, he was in all things ready to second Pym, +whom he plainly regarded as his leader. Hampden was one of +the eight managers of Stratford’s prosecution. Like Pym, he +was in favour of the more legal and regular procedure by impeachment +rather than by attainder, which at the later stage +was supported by the majority of the Commons; and through +his influence a compromise was effected by which, while an +attainder was subsequently adopted, Strafford’s counsel were +heard as in the case of an impeachment, and thus a serious breach +between the two Houses, which threatened to cause the breakdown +of the whole proceedings, was averted.</p> + +<p>There was another point on which there was no agreement. +A large minority wished to retain Episcopacy, and to keep the +common Prayer Book unaltered, whilst the majority were at +least willing to consider the question of abolishing the one and +modifying the other. On this subject the parties which ultimately +divided the House and the country itself were fully +formed as early as the 8th of February 1641. It is enough to +say that (<i>v.</i> under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pym</a></span>) Hampden fully shared in the counsels of +the opponents of Episcopacy. It is not that he was a theoretical +Presbyterian, but the bishops had been in his days so fully +engaged in the imposition of obnoxious ceremonies that it was +difficult, if not impossible, to dissociate them from the cause in +which they were embarked. Closely connected with Hampden’s +distrust of the bishops was his distrust of monarchy as it then +existed. The dispute about the church therefore soon attained +the form of an attack upon monarchy, and, when the majority +of the House of Lords arrayed itself on the side of Episcopacy +and the Prayer Book, of an attack upon the House of Lords as +well.</p> + +<p>No serious importance therefore can be attached to the offers +of advancement made from time to time to Hampden and his +friends. Charles would gladly have given them office if they had +been ready to desert their principles. Every day Hampden’s +conviction grew stronger that Charles would never abandon the +position which he had taken up. In August 1640 Hampden +was one of the four commissioners who attended Charles in +Scotland, and the king’s conduct there, connected with such +events as the “Incident,” must have proved to a man far less +sagacious than Hampden that the time for compromise had gone +by. He was therefore a warm supporter of the Grand Remonstrance, +and was marked out as one of the five impeached +members whose attempted arrest brought at last the opposing +parties into open collision (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pym</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Strode</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Holles</a></span> and +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lenthall</a></span>). In the angry scene which arose on the proposal +to print the Grand Remonstrance, it was Hampden’s personal +intervention which prevented an actual conflict, and it was after +the impeachment had been attempted that Hampden laid down +the two conditions under which resistance to the king became +the duty of a good subject. Those conditions were an attack +upon religion and an attack upon the fundamental laws. There +can be no doubt that Hampden fully believed that both those +conditions were fulfilled at the opening of 1642.</p> + +<p>When the Civil War began, Hampden was appointed a member +of the committee for safety, levied a regiment of Buckinghamshire +men for the parliamentary cause, and in his capacity of +deputy-lieutenant carried out the parliamentary militia ordinance +in the county. In the earlier operations of the war he bore himself +gallantly and well. He took no actual part in the battle of +Edgehill. His troops in the rear, however, arrested Rupert’s +charge at Kineton, and he urged Essex to renew the attack here, +and also after the disaster at Brentford. In 1643 he was present +at the siege and capture of Reading. But it is not on his skill +as a regimental officer that Hampden’s fame rests. In war as +in peace his distinction lay in his power of disentangling the +essential part from the non-essential. In the previous constitutional +struggle he had seen that the one thing necessary was +to establish the supremacy of the House of Commons. In the +military struggle which followed he saw, as Cromwell saw +afterwards, that the one thing necessary was to beat the enemy. +He protested at once against Essex’s hesitations and compromises. +In the formation of the confederacy of the six +associated counties, which was to supply a basis for Cromwell’s +operations, he took an active part. His influence was felt alike +in parliament and in the field. But he was not in supreme +command, and he had none of that impatience which often +leads able men to fail in the execution of orders of which they +disapprove. His precious life was a sacrifice to his unselfish +devotion to the call of discipline and duty. On the 18th of June +1643, when he was holding out on Chalgrove Field against the +superior numbers of Rupert till reinforcements arrived, he +received two carbine balls in the shoulder. Leaving the field +he reached Thame, survived six days, and died on the 24th.</p> + +<p>Hampden married (1) in 1619 Elizabeth, daughter of Edmund +Symeon of Pyrton, Oxfordshire, and (2) Letitia, daughter of +Sir Francis Knollys and widow of Sir Thomas Vachell. By his +first wife he had nine children, one of whom, Richard (1631-1695) +was chancellor of the exchequer in William III.’s reign; from +two of his daughters are descended the families of Trevor-Hampden +and Hobart-Hampden, the descent in the male line +becoming apparently extinct in 1754 in the person of John +Hampden.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">John Hampden</span> the younger (<i>c.</i> 1656-1696), the second son +of Richard Hampden, returned to England after residing for +about two years in France, and joined himself to Lord William +Russell and Algernon Sidney and the party opposed to the +arbitrary government of Charles II. With Russell and Sidney +he was arrested in 1683 for alleged complicity in the Rye House +Plot, but more fortunate than his colleagues his life was spared, +although as he was unable to pay the fine of £40,000 which was +imposed upon him he remained in prison. Then in 1685, after +the failure of Monmouth’s rising, Hampden was again brought +to trial, and on a charge of high treason was condemned to death. +But the sentence was not carried out, and having paid £6000 +he was set at liberty. In the Convention parliament of 1689 he +represented Wendover, but in the subsequent parliaments he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page902" id="page902"></a>902</span> +failed to secure a seat. He died by his own hand on the 12th +of December 1696. Hampden wrote numerous pamphlets, and +Bishop Burnet described him as “one of the learnedest gentlemen +I ever knew.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See S. R. Gardiner’s <i>Hist. of England</i> and <i>of the Great Civil War</i>; +the article on Hampden in the <i>Dict. of Nat. Biography</i>, by C. H. +Firth, with authorities there collected; Clarendon’s <i>Hist. of the +Rebellion</i>; Sir Philip Warwick’s <i>Mems.</i> p. 239; Wood’s <i>Ath. +Oxon.</i> iii. 59; Lord Nugent’s <i>Memorials of John Hampden</i> (1831); +Macaulay’s <i>Essay on Hampden</i> (1831). The printed pamphlet +announcing his capture of Reading in December 1642 is shown by +Mr Firth to be spurious, and the account in <i>Mercurius Aulicus</i>, +January 27 and 29, 1643, of Hampden commanding an attack at +Brill, to be also false, while the published speech supposed to be +spoken by Hampden on the 4th of January 1642, and reproduced +by Forster in the <i>Arrest of the Five Members</i> (1660), has been proved +by Gardiner to be a forgery (<i>Hist. of England</i>, x. 135). Mr Firth +has also shown in <i>The Academy</i> for 1889, November 2 and 9, that +“the belief that we possess the words of Hampden’s last prayer +must be abandoned.”</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Hampden was one of the persons to whom the earl of Warwick +granted land in Connecticut, but for the anecdote which relates his +attempted emigration with Cromwell there is no foundation (<i>v.</i> under +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">John Pym</a></span>).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMPDEN, RENN DICKSON<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (1793-1868), English divine, +was born in Barbados, where his father was colonel of militia, +in 1793, and was educated at Oriel College, Oxford. Having +taken his B.A. degree with first-class honours in both classics +and mathematics in 1813, he next year obtained the chancellor’s +prize for a Latin essay, and shortly afterwards was elected to +a fellowship in his college, Keble, Newman and Arnold being +among his contemporaries. Having left the university in 1816 +he held successively a number of curacies, and in 1827 he published +<i>Essays on the Philosophical Evidence of Christianity</i>, +followed by a volume of <i>Parochial Sermons illustrative of the +Importance of the Revelation of God in Jesus Christ</i> (1828). In +1829 he returned to Oxford and was Bampton lecturer in 1832. +Notwithstanding a charge of Arianism now brought against him +by the Tractarian party, he in 1833 passed from a tutorship +at Oriel to the principalship of St Mary’s Hall. In 1834 he was +appointed professor of moral philosophy, and despite much +university opposition, Regius professor of divinity in 1836. +There resulted a widespread and violent though ephemeral +controversy, after the subsidence of which he published a <i>Lecture +on Tradition</i>, which passed through several editions, and a volume +on <i>The Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England</i>. His +nomination by Lord John Russell to the vacant see of Hereford +in December 1847 was again the signal for a violent and organized +opposition; and his consecration in March 1848 took place in +spite of a remonstrance by many of the bishops and the resistance +of Dr John Merewether, the dean of Hereford, who went so far +as to vote against the election when the <i>congé d’élire</i> reached +the chapter. As bishop of Hereford Dr Hampden made no +change in his long-formed habits of studious seclusion, and +though he showed no special ecclesiastical activity or zeal, the +diocese certainly prospered in his charge. Among the more +important of his later writings were the articles on Aristotle, +Plato and Socrates, contributed to the eighth edition of the +<i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>, and afterwards reprinted with +additions under the title of <i>The Fathers of Greek Philosophy</i> +(Edinburgh, 1862). In 1866 he had a paralytic seizure, and +died in London on the 23rd of April 1868.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His daughter, Henrietta Hampden, published <i>Some Memorials of +R. D. Hampden</i> in 1871.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMPDEN-SIDNEY,<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> a village of Prince Edward county, +Virginia, U.S.A., about 70 m. S.W. of Richmond. Pop. about +350. Daily stages connect the village with Farmville (pop. in +1910, 2971), the county-seat, 6 m. N.E., which is served by the +Norfolk & Western and the Tidewater & Western railways. +Hampden-Sidney is the seat of Hampden-Sidney College, +founded by the presbytery of Hanover county as Hampden-Sidney +Academy in 1776, and named in honour of John Hampden +and Algernon Sidney. It was incorporated as Hampden-Sidney +College in 1783. The incorporators included James Madison, +Patrick Henry (who is believed to have drafted the college +charter), Paul Carrington, William Cabell, Sen., and Nathaniel +Venable. The Union Theological School was established in +connexion with the college in 1812, but in 1898 was removed +to Richmond, Virginia. In 1907-1908 the college had 8 instructors, +125 students, and a library of 11,000 volumes. The +college has maintained a high standard of instruction, and many +of its former students have been prominent as public men, +educationalists and preachers. Among them were President +William Henry Harrison, William H. Cabell (1772-1853), +president of the Virginia Court of Appeals; George M. Bibb +(1772-1859), secretary of the treasury (1844-1845) in President +Tyler’s cabinet; William B. Preston (1805-1862), secretary of +the navy in 1849-1850; William Cabell Rives and General +Sterling Price (1809-1867).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMPSHIRE<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">County or Southampton</span>, abbreviated +Hants), a southern county of England, bounded N. by Berkshire, +E. by Surrey and Sussex, S. by the English Channel, and W. +by Dorsetshire and Wiltshire. The area is 1623.5 sq. m. From +the coast of the mainland, which is for the most part low and +irregular, a strait, known in its western part as the Solent, and +in its eastern as Spithead, separates the Isle of Wight. This +island is included in the county. The inlet of Southampton +Water opens from this strait, penetrating inland in a north-westerly +direction for 12 m. The easterly part of the coast forms +a large shallow bay containing Hayling and Portsea Islands, +which divide it into Chichester Harbour, Langston Harbour +and Portsmouth Harbour. The westerly part forms the more +regular indentations of Christchurch Bay and part of Poole Bay. +In its general aspect Hampshire presents a beautiful variety of +gently rising hills and fruitful valleys, adorned with numerous +mansions and pleasant villages, and interspersed with extensive +tracts of woodland. Low ranges of hills, included in the system +to which the general name of the Western Downs is given, reach +their greatest elevation in the northern and eastern parts of the +county, where there are many picturesque eminences, of which +Beacon, Sidown and Pilot hills near Highclere in the north-west, +each exceeding 850 ft., are the highest. The portion of the county +west of Southampton Water is almost wholly included in the +New Forest, a sequestered district, one of the few remaining +examples of an ancient afforested tract. The river Avon in the +south-west rises in Wiltshire, and passing Fordingbridge and +Ringwood falls into Christchurch Bay below Christchurch, +being joined close to its mouth by the Stour. The Lymington +or Boldre river rises in the New Forest, and after collecting the +waters of several brooks falls into the Solent through Lymington +Creek. The Beaulieu in the eastern part of the forest also enters +the Solent by way of a long and picturesque estuary. The +Test rises near Overton in the north, and after its junction with +the Anton at Fullerton passes Stockbridge and Romsey, and +enters the head of Southampton Water. The Itchen rises near +Alresford, and flowing by Winchester and Eastleigh falls into +Southampton Water east of Southampton. The Hamble rises +near Bishops Waltham, and soon forms a narrow estuary opening +into Southampton Water. The Wey, the Loddon and the Blackwater, +rising in the north-eastern part of the county, bring that +part into the basin of the Thames. The streams from the chalk +hills run clear and swift, and the trout-fishing in the county is +famous. Salmon are taken in the Avon.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Geology.</i>—Somewhat to the north of the centre of the county is +a broad expanse of hilly chalk country about 21 m. wide; the whole +of it has been bent up into a great fold so that the strata on the north +dip northward steeply in places, while those on the south dip in the +opposite direction more gently. In the north the chalk disappears +beneath Tertiary strata of the “London Basin,” and some little +distance south of Winchester it runs in a similar manner beneath +the Tertiaries of the “Hampshire Basin.” Scattered here and there +over the chalk are small outlying remnants which remain to show +that the two Tertiary areas were once continuous, before the agencies +of denudation had removed them from the chalk. These same +agencies have exposed the strata beneath the chalk over a small +area on the eastern border.</p> + +<p>The oldest formation in Hampshire is the Lower Greensand in the +neighbourhood of Woolmer Forest and Petersfield; it is represented +by the Hythe beds, sandstones and limestones which form the +high ridge which runs on towards Hind Head, then by the sands +and clays of the Sandgate beds which lie in the low ground west +of the ridge, and finally by the Folkestone beds; all these dip +westward beneath the Gault. The last-named formation, a clay, +worked here and there for bricks, crops out as a narrow band from +Fareham through Worldham and Stroud common to Petersfield. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page903" id="page903"></a>903</span> +Between the Gault and the chalk is the Upper Greensand with a +hard bed of calcareous sandstone, the Malm rock, which stands +up in places as a prominent escarpment. The Upper Greensand is +also exposed at Burghclere as an inlier; the rocks are bent into +a sharp anticline and the chalk, having been denuded from its crest, +the older sandy strata are brought to light. A much more gentle +anticline brings up the chalk through the Tertiary rocks in the neighbourhood +of Fareham. Besides occupying the central region already +mentioned, which includes Basingstoke, Whitchurch, Andover, +Alresford and Winchester, the chalk appears also in a small patch +round Rockbourne. The Tertiary rocks of the north (London basin) +about Farnborough, Aldershot and Kingsclere, comprise the Reading +beds, London clay and the more sandy Bagshot beds which cover +the latter in many places, giving rise to heathy commons. The +southern Tertiary rocks of the Hampshire basin include the Lower +Eocene Reading beds—used for brick-making—and the London +clay which extend from the boundary of the chalk by Romsey, +Bishop’s Waltham, to Havant. These are succeeded towards the +south by the Upper Eocene beds, the Bracklesham beds and the +Barton clay. The Barton clays are noted for their abundant +fossils and the Bagshot beds at Bournemouth contain numerous +remains of subtropical plants. A series of clays and sands of +Oligocene age (unknown in the London basin) are found in the +vicinity of Lymington, Brockenhurst and Beaulieu; they include +the Headon beds, with a fluvio-marine fauna, well exposed at Hordwell +cliffs, and the marine beds of Brockenhurst. Numerous small +outliers of Tertiary rocks are scattered over the chalk area, and +many of the chalk and Tertiary areas are obscured by patches of +Pleistocene deposits of brick earth and gravel.</p> + +<p><i>Agriculture and Industries.</i>—Nearly seven-tenths of the total area +is under cultivation (an amount below the average of English counties) +and of this area about two-fifths is in permanent pasture. The acreage +under oats is roughly equal to that under wheat and barley. Small +quantities of rye and hops are cultivated. Barley is usually sown +after turnips, and is more grown in the uplands than in the lower +levels. Beans, pease and potatoes are only grown to a small extent. +On account of the number of sheep pastured on the uplands a large +acreage of turnips is grown. Rotation grasses are grown chiefly +in the uplands, and their acreage is greater than in any other of +the southern counties of England. Sanfoin is the grass most largely +grown, as it is best adapted to land with a calcareous subsoil. In +the lower levels no sanfoin and scarcely any clover is grown, the hay +being supplied from the rich water meadows, which are managed +with great skill and attention, and give the best money return of any +lands in the county. Where a rapid stream of water can be passed +over them during the winter it seldom becomes frozen, and the grasses +grow during the cold weather so as to be fit for pasture before any +traces of vegetation appear in the surrounding fields. Hops are +grown in the eastern part of the county bordering on Surrey. Farming +is generally conducted on the best modern principles, but owing +to the varieties of soil there is perhaps no county in England in which +the rotation observed is more diversified, or the processes and +methods more varied. Most of the farms are large, and there are a +number of model farms. The waste land has been mostly brought +under tillage, but a very large acreage of the ancient forests is still +occupied by wood. In addition to the New Forest there are in the +east Woolmer Forest and Alice Holt, in the south-east the Forest of +Bere and Waltham Chase, and in the Isle of Wight Parkhurst Forest. +The honey of the county is especially celebrated. Much attention +is paid to the rearing of sheep and cattle. The original breed of +sheep was white-faced with horns, but most of the flocks are now of +a Southdown variety which have acquired certain distinct peculiarities, +and are known as “short wools” or “Hampshire downs.” +Cattle are of no distinctive breed, and are kept largely for dairy +purposes, especially for the supply of milk. The breeding and rearing +of horses is widely practised, and the fattening of pigs has long +been an important industry. The original breed of pigs is crossed +with Berkshire, Essex and Chinese pigs. In the vicinity of the forest +the pigs are fed on acorns and beechmast, and the flesh of those so +reared is considered the best, though the reputation of Hampshire +bacon depends chiefly on the skilful manner in which it is cured.</p> + +<p>The manufactures are unimportant, except those carried on at +Portsmouth and Gosport in connexion with the royal navy. Southampton +is one of the principal ports in the kingdom. In many of the +towns there are breweries and tanneries, and paper is manufactured +at several places. Fancy pottery and terra-cotta are made at +Fareham and Bishop’s Waltham; and Ringwood is celebrated for its +knitted gloves. At most of the coast towns fishing is carried on, +and there are oyster beds at Hayling Island. Cowes in the Isle of +Wight is the station of the Royal Yacht Squadron, and has building +yards for yachts and large vessels. The principal seaside resorts +besides those in the Isle of Wight are Bournemouth, Milford, Lee-on-the-Solent, +Southsea and South Hayling. Aldershot is the principal +military training centre in the British Isles.</p> + +<p><i>Communications.</i>—Communications are provided mainly by the +lines of the London & South-Western railway company, which also +owns the docks at Southampton. The main line serves Farnborough, +Basingstoke, Whitchurch and Andover, and a branch diverges +southward from Basingstoke for Winchester, Southampton and the +New Forest and Bournemouth. An alternative line from eastward +to Winchester serves Aldershot, Alton and Alresford. The main +Portsmouth line skirts the south-eastern border by Petersfield to +Havant, where it joins the Portsmouth line of the London, Brighton +& South Coast railway. The South-Western system also connects +Portsmouth and Gosport with Southampton, has numerous branches +in the Southampton and south-western districts, and large work +shops at Eastleigh near Southampton. The Great Western company +serves Basingstoke from Reading and Whitchurch, Winchester and +Southampton from Didcot (working the Didcot, Newbury & Southampton +line); the Midland & South-Western Junction line connects +Andover with Cheltenham; and the Somerset & Dorset (also a +Midland & South-Western joint line) connects Bournemouth with +Bath—all these affording through communications between Southampton, +Bournemouth, and the midlands and north of England. +None of the rivers, except in the estuarine parts, is navigable.</p> + +<p><i>Population and Administration.</i>—The area of the ancient county +is 1,039,031 acres, including the Isle of Wight. The population +was 690,097 in 1891 and 797,634 in 1901. The area of the administrative +county of Southampton is 958,742 acres, and that of the administrative +county of the Isle of Wight 94,068 acres. The county +is divided for parliamentary purposes into the following divisions: +Northern or Basingstoke, Western or Andover, Eastern or Petersfield, +Southern or Fareham, New Forest, and Isle of Wight, each returning +one member. It also includes the parliamentary boroughs of +Portsmouth and Southampton, each returning two members, and +of Christchurch and Winchester, each returning one. There are 11 +municipal boroughs: Andover (pop. 6509), Basingstoke (9793), +Bournemouth (59,762), Christchurch (4204), Lymington (4165), +Portsmouth (188,133), Romsey (4365), Southampton (104,824), +Winchester (20,929), and in the Isle of Wight, Newport (10,911) +and Ryde (11,043). Bournemouth, Portsmouth and Southampton +are county boroughs. The following are urban districts: Aldershot +(30,974), Alton (5479), Eastleigh and Bishopstoke (9317), Fareham +(8246), Farnborough (11,500), Gosport and Alverstoke (28,884), +Havant (3837), Itchen (13,097), Petersfield (3265), Warblington +(3639); and in the Isle of Wight, Cowes (8652), East Cowes +(3196), St Helen’s (4652), Sandown (5006), Shanklin (4533), Ventnor +(5866). The county is in the western circuit, and assizes are held +at Winchester. It has one court of quarter sessions, and is divided +into 14 petty sessional divisions. The boroughs of Andover, Basingstoke, +Bournemouth, Lymington, Newport, Portsmouth, Romsey, +Ryde, Southampton (a county in itself) and Winchester have +separate commissions of the peace, and the boroughs of Andover, +Bournemouth, Portsmouth, Southampton and Winchester have +in addition separate courts of quarter sessions. There are 394 civil +parishes. Hampshire is in the diocese of Winchester, excepting +small parts in those of Oxford and Salisbury, and contains 411 +ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly or in part.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The earliest English settlers in the district which +is now Hampshire were a Jutish tribe who occupied the northern +parts of the Isle of Wight and the valleys of the Meon and the +Hamble. Their settlements were, however, unimportant, and +soon became absorbed in the territory of the West Saxons who +in 495 landed at the mouth of the Itchen under the leadership +of Cerdic and Cynric, and in 508 slew 5000 Britons and their +king. But it was not until after another decisive victory at +Charford in 519 that the district was definitely organized as +West Saxon territory under the rule of Cerdic and Cynric, thus +becoming the nucleus of the vast later kingdom of Wessex. The +Isle of Wight was subjugated in 530 and bestowed on Stuf and +Wihtgar, the nephews of Cerdic. The Northmen made their first +attack on the Hampshire coast in 835, and for the two centuries +following the district was the scene of perpetual devastations +by the Danish pirates, who made their headquarters in the Isle +of Wight, from which they plundered the opposite coast. Hampshire +suffered less from the Conquest than almost any English +county, and was a favourite resort of the Norman kings. The +alleged destruction of property for the formation of the New +Forest is refuted by the Domesday record, which shows that +this district had never been under cultivation.</p> + +<p>In the civil war of Stephen’s reign Baldwin de Redvers, lord +of the Isle of Wight, supported the empress Matilda, and Winchester +Castle was secured in her behalf by Robert of Gloucester, +while the neighbouring fortress of Wolvesey was held for Stephen +by Bishop Henry de Blois. In 1216 Louis of France, having +arrived in the county by invitation of the barons, occupied +Winchester Castle, and only met with resistance at Odiham +Castle, which made a brave stand against him for fifteen days. +During the Wars of the Roses Anthony Woodville, 2nd earl +Rivers, defeated the duke of Clarence at Southampton, and in +1471, after the battle of Barnet, the countess of Warwick took +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page904" id="page904"></a>904</span> +sanctuary at Beaulieu Abbey. The chief events connected +with Hampshire in the Civil War of the 17th century were the +gallant resistance of the cavalier garrisons at Winchester and +Basing House; a skirmish near Cheriton in 1644 notable as the +last battle fought on Hampshire soil; and the concealment of +Charles at Titchfield in 1647 before his removal to Carisbrooke. +The duke of Monmouth, whose rebellion met with considerable +support in Hampshire, was captured in 1685 near Ringwood.</p> + +<p>Hampshire was among the earliest shires to be created, and +must have received its name before the revival of Winchester +in the latter half of the 7th century. It is first mentioned in the +Saxon chronicle in 755, at which date the boundaries were +practically those of the present day. The Domesday Survey +mentions 44 hundreds in Hampshire, but by the 14th century +the number had been reduced to 37. The hundreds of East +Medina and West Medina in the Isle of Wight are mentioned in +1316. Constables of the hundreds were first appointed by the +Statute of Winchester in 1285, and the hundred court continued +to elect a high constable for Fordingbridge until 1878. The +chief court of the Isle of Wight was the Knighten court held at +Newport every three weeks. The sheriff’s court and the assizes +and quarter sessions for the county were formerly held at +Winchester, but in 1831 the county was divided into 14 petty +sessional divisions; the quarter sessions for the county were +held at Andover; and Portsmouth, Southampton and Winchester +had separate jurisdiction. Southampton was made a +county by itself with a separate sheriff in 1447.</p> + +<p>In the middle of the 7th century Hampshire formed part of +the West Saxon bishopric of Dorchester-on-Thames. On the +transference of the episcopal seat to Winchester in 676 it was +included in that diocese in which it has remained ever since. +In 1291 the archdeaconry of Winchester was coextensive with +the county and comprised the ten rural deaneries of Alresford, +Alton, Andover, Basingstoke, Drokinsford, Fordingbridge, Isle +of Wight, Sombourne, Southampton and Winchester. In 1850 +the Isle of Wight was subdivided into the deaneries of East +Medina and West Medina. In 1856 the deaneries were increased +to 24. In 1871 the archdeaconry of the Isle of Wight was +constituted, and about the same time the deaneries were reduced +to 21. In 1892 the deaneries were reconstituted and made 18 in +number, and the archdeaconry of the Isle of Wight was divided +into the deaneries of East Wight and West Wight.</p> + +<p>After the Conquest the most powerful Hampshire baron was +William Fitz-Osbern, who in addition to the lordship of the +Isle of Wight held considerable estates on the mainland. At the +time of the Domesday Survey the chief landholders were Hugh +de Port, ancestor of the Fitz-Johns; Ralf de Mortimer; William +Mauduit whose name is preserved in Hartley Mauditt; and +Waleran, called the Huntsman, ancestor of the Waleraund +family. Hursley near Winchester was the seat of Richard +Cromwell; and Gilbert White, the naturalist, was curate of +Farringdon near Selborne.</p> + +<p>Apart from the valuable foreign and shipbuilding trade which +grew up with the development of its ports, Hampshire has +always been mainly an agricultural county, the only important +manufacture being that of wool and cloth, which prospered at +Winchester in the 12th century and survived till within recent +years. Salt-making and the manufacture of iron from native +ironstone also flourished in Hampshire from pre-Norman times +until within the 19th century. In the 14th century Southampton +had a valuable trade with Venice, and from the 15th to the 18th +century many famous warships were constructed in its docks. +Silk-weaving was formerly carried on at Winchester, Andover, +Odiham, Alton, Whitchurch and Overton, the first mills being +set up in 1684 at Southampton by French refugees. The paper +manufacture at Laverstoke was started by the Portals, a family +of Huguenot refugees, in 1685, and a few years later Henri de +Portal obtained the privilege of supplying the bank-note paper +to the Bank of England.</p> + +<p>Hampshire returned four members to parliament in 1295, when +the boroughs of New Alresford, Alton, Andover, Basingstoke, +Overton, Portsmouth, Southampton, Winchester, Yarmouth +and Newport were also represented. After this date the +county was represented by two members, but most of the +boroughs ceased to make returns. Odiham and the Isle of +Wight were represented in 1300, Fareham in 1306, and Petersfield +in 1307. From 1311 to 1547 Southampton, Portsmouth, +and Winchester were the only boroughs represented. By the +end of the 16th century Petersfield, Newport, Yarmouth, +and Andover had regained representation, and Stockbridge, +Christchurch, Lymington, Newtown and Whitchurch returned +two members each, giving the county with its boroughs a total +representation of 26 members. Under the Reform Act of 1832 +the county returned four members in four divisions; Christchurch +and Petersfield lost one member each; and Newtown, Yarmouth, +Stockbridge and Whitchurch were disfranchised. By the act +of 1868 Andover, Lymington and Newport were deprived of +one member each.</p> + +<p><i>Antiquities.</i>—Hampshire is rich in monastic remains. Those +considered under separate headings include the monastery of +Hyde near Winchester, the magnificent churches at Christchurch +and Romsey, the ruins of Netley Abbey, and of Beaulieu Abbey +in the New Forest, the fragments of the priory of St Denys, +Southampton, the church at Porchester and the slight ruins at +Titchfield, near Fareham, and Quarr Abbey in the Isle of Wight. +Other foundations, of which the remains are slight, were the +Augustinian priory of Southwick near Fareham, founded by +William of Wykeham; that of Breamore, founded by Baldwin +de Redvers, and that of Mottisfont near Romsey, endowed soon +after the Conquest. There are many churches of interest, apart +from the cathedral church of Winchester and those in some +of the towns in the Isle of Wight, or already mentioned in connexion +with monastic foundations. Pre-Conquest work is well +shown in the churches of Corhampton and Breamore, and very +early masonry is also found in Headbourne Worthy church, +where is also a brass of the 15th century to a scholar of Winchester +College in collegiate dress. The most noteworthy Norman +churches are at Chilcombe and Kingsclere and (with Early +English additions) at Brockenhurst, Upper Clatford, which has +the unusual arrangement of a double chancel arch, Hambledon, +Milford and East Meon. Principally Early English are the +churches of Cheriton, Grately, which retains some excellent +contemporary stained glass from Salisbury cathedral; Sopley, +which is partly Perpendicular; and Thruxton, which contains a +brass to Sir John Lisle (d. 1407), affording a very early example +of complete plate armour. Specimens of the later styles are +generally less remarkable. The frescoes in Bramley church, +ranging in date from the 13th to the 15th century, include a +representation of the murder of Thomas à Beckett. A fine +series of Norman fonts in black marble should be mentioned; +they occur in Winchester cathedral and the churches of St +Michael, Southampton, East Meon and St Mary Bourne.</p> + +<p>The most notable old castles are Carisbrooke in the Isle of +Wight; Porchester, a fine Norman stronghold embodying +Roman remains, on Portsmouth Harbour; and Hurst, guarding +the mouth of the Solent, where for a short time Charles I. was +imprisoned. Henry VIII. built several forts to guard the Solent, +Spithead and Southampton Water; Hurst Castle was one, +and others remaining, but adapted to various purposes, are at +Cowes, Calshot and Netley. Fine mansions are unusually +numerous. That of Stratfieldsaye or Strathfieldsaye, which +belonged to the Pitt family, was purchased by parliament for +presentation to the duke of Wellington in 1817, his descendants +holding the estate from the Crown in consideration of the annual +tribute of a flag to the guard-room at Windsor. A statue of the +duke stands in the grounds, and his war-horse “Copenhagen” +is buried here. The name of Tichborne Park, near Alresford, +is well known in connexion with the famous claimant of the +estates whose case was heard in 1871. Among ancient mansions +the Jacobean Bramshill is conspicuous, lying near Stratfieldsaye +in the north of the county. It is built of stone and is highly +decorated, and though the complete original design was not +carried out the house is among the finest of its type in England. +At Bishops Waltham, a small town 10 m. S.S.E. of Winchester, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page905" id="page905"></a>905</span> +Henry de Blois, bishop of Winchester, erected a palace, which +received additions from William of Wykeham, who died here +in 1404, and from other bishops. The ruins are picturesque +but not extensive.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Victoria County History</i>, “Hampshire,” R. Warner, <i>Collections +for the History of Hampshire</i>; &c. (London, 1789); H. Moody, +<i>Hampshire in 1086</i> (1862), and the same author’s <i>Antiquarian and +Topographical Sketches</i> (1846), and <i>Notes and Essays relating to the +Counties of Hants and Wilts</i> (1851); R. Mudie, <i>Hampshire</i>, &c. +(3 vols., Winchester, 1838); B. B. Woodward, T. C. Wilks and C. +Lockhart, <i>General History of Hampshire</i> (1861-1869); G. N. Godwin, +<i>The Civil War in Hampshire, 1642-1645</i> (London, 1882); H. M. +Gilbert and G. N. Godwin, <i>Bibliotheca Hantoniensis</i> (Southampton, +1891). See also various papers in <i>Hampshire Notes and Queries</i> +(Winchester, 1883 et seq.).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMPSTEAD,<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> a north-western metropolitan borough of +London, England, bounded E. by St Pancras and S. by St +Marylebone, and extending N. and W. to the boundary of the +county of London. Pop. (1901), 81,942. The name, <i>Hamstede</i>, +is synonymous with “homestead,” and the manor is first named +in a charter of Edgar (957-975), and was granted to the abbey +of Westminster by Ethelred in 986. It reverted to the Crown in +1550, and had various owners until the close of the 18th century, +when it came to Sir Thomas Spencer Wilson, whose descendants +retain it. The borough includes the sub-manor of Belsize and +part of the hamlet of Kilburn.</p> + +<p>The surface of the ground is sharply undulating, an elevated +spur extending south-west from the neighbourhood of Highgate, +and turning south through Hampstead. It reaches a height +of 443 ft. above the level of the Thames. The Edgware Road +bounds Hampstead on the west; and the borough is intersected, +parallel to this thoroughfare, by Finchley Road, and by Haverstock +Hill, which, continued under the names of Rosslyn Hill, +High Street, Heath Street, and North End, crosses the Heath +for which Hampstead is chiefly celebrated. This is a fine open +space of about 240 acres, including in its bounds the summit of +Hampstead Hill. It is a sandy tract, in parts well wooded, +diversified with several small sheets of water, and to a great +extent preserves its natural characteristics unaltered. Beautiful +views, both near and distant, are commanded from many points. +Of all the public grounds within London this is the most valuable +to the populace at large; the number of visitors on a Bank +holiday in August is generally, under favourable conditions, +about 100,000; and strenuous efforts are always forthcoming +from either public or private bodies when the integrity of the +Heath is in any way menaced. As early as 1829 attempts to +save it from the builder are recorded. In 1871 its preservation +as an open space was insured after several years’ dispute, when +the lord of the manor gave up his rights. An act of parliament +transferred the ownership to the Metropolitan Board of Works, +to which body the London County Council succeeded. The +Heath is continued eastward in Parliament Hill (borough of +St Pancras), acquired for the public in 1890; and westward +outside the county boundary in Golders Hill, owned by Sir +Spenser Wells, Bart., until 1898. A Protection Society guards +the preservation of the natural beauty and interests of the Heath. +It is not the interests of visitors alone that must be consulted, +for Hampstead, adding to its other attractions a singularly +healthy climate, has long been a favourite residential quarter, +especially for lawyers, artists and men of letters. Among +famous residents are found the first earl of Chatham, John +Constable, George Romney, George du Maurier, Joseph Butler, +author of the <i>Analogy</i>, Sir Richard Steele, John Keats, the sisters +Joanna and Agnes Baillie, Leigh Hunt and many others. The +parish church of St John (1747) has several monuments of +eminent persons. Chatham’s residence was at North End, a +picturesque quarter yet preserving characteristics of a rural +village; here also Wilkie Collins was born. Three old-established +inns, the Bull and Bush, the Spaniards, and Jack Straw’s +Castle (the name of which has no historical significance), claim +many great names among former visitors; while the Upper +Flask Inn, now a private house, was the meeting-place of the +Kit-Cat Club. Chalybeate springs were discovered at Hampstead +in the 17th century, and early in the 18th rivalled those of +Tunbridge Wells and Epsom. The name of Well Walk recalls +them, but their fame is lost. There are others at Kilburn.</p> + +<p>In the south-east Hampstead includes the greater part of +Primrose Hill, a public ground adjacent to the north side of +Regent’s Park. The borough has in all about 350 acres of open +spaces. The name of the sub-manor of Belsize is preserved in +several streets in the central part. Kilburn, which as a district +extends outside the borough, takes name from a stream which, +as the Westbourne, entered the Thames at Chelsea. Fleet Road +similarly recalls the more famous stream which washed the walls +of the City of London on the west. Hampstead has numerous +charitable institutions, amongst which are the North London +consumptive hospital, the Orphan Working School, Haverstock +Hill (1758), the general hospital and the north-western fever +hospital. In Finchley Road are the New and Hackney Colleges, +both Congregational. The parliamentary borough of Hampstead +returns one member. The borough council consists of a mayor, +7 aldermen and 42 councillors. Area, 2265 acres.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMPTON, WADE<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> (1818-1902), American cavalry leader +was born on the 28th of March 1818 at Columbia, South Carolina, +the son of Wade Hampton (1791-1858), one of the wealthiest +planters in the South, and the grandson of Wade Hampton +(1754-1835), a captain in the War of Independence and a +brigadier-general in the War of 1812. He graduated (1836) at +South Carolina College, and was trained for the law. He devoted +himself, however, to the management of his great plantations in +South Carolina and in Mississippi, and took part in state politics +and legislation. Though his own views were opposed to the +prevailing state-rights tone of South Carolinian opinion, he threw +himself heartily into the Southern cause in 1861, raising a mixed +command known as “Hampton’s Legion,” which he led at the +first battle of Bull Run. During the Civil War he served in the +main with the Army of Northern Virginia in Stuart’s cavalry +corps. After Stuart’s death Hampton distinguished himself +greatly in opposing Sheridan in the Shenandoah Valley, and was +made lieutenant-general to command Lee’s whole force of +cavalry. In 1865 he assisted Joseph Johnston in the attempt +to prevent Sherman’s advance through the Carolinas. After the +war his attitude was conciliatory and he recommended a frank +acceptance by the South of the war’s political consequences. +He was governor of his state in 1876-1879, being installed after +a memorable contest; he served in the United States Senate +in 1879-1891, and was United States commissioner of Pacific +railways in 1893-1897. He died on the 11th of April 1902.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See E. L. Wells, <i>Hampton and Reconstruction</i> (Columbia, S. C., +1907).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMPTON,<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> an urban district in the Uxbridge parliamentary +division of Middlesex, England, 15 m. S.W. of St Paul’s cathedral, +London, on the river Thames, served by the London & South +Western railway. Pop. (1901), 6813. Close to the river, a mile +below the town, stands Hampton Court Palace, one of the finest +extant specimens of Tudor architecture, and formerly a royal +residence. It was erected by Cardinal Wolsey, who in 1515 +received a lease of the old mansion and grounds for 99 years. +As the splendour of the building seemed to awaken the cupidity +of Henry VIII., Wolsey in 1526 thought it prudent to make him +a present of it. It became Henry’s favourite residence, and +he made several additions to the building, including the great +hall and chapel in the Gothic style. Of the original five quadrangles +only two now remain, but a third was erected by Sir +Christopher Wren for William III. In 1649 a great sale of +the effects of the palace took place by order of parliament, and +later the manor itself was sold to a private owner but immediately +after came into the hands of Cromwell; and Hampton +Court continued to be one of the principal residences of the +English sovereigns until the time of George II. It was the +birthplace of Edward VI., and the meeting-place (1604) of the +conference held in the reign of James I. to settle the dispute +between the Presbyterians and the state clergy. William III., +riding in the grounds, met with the accident which resulted in +his death. It is now partly occupied by persons of rank in +reduced circumstances; but the state apartments and picture +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page906" id="page906"></a>906</span> +galleries are open to the public, as is the home park. The +gardens, with their ornamental waters, are beautifully laid out +in the Dutch style favoured by William III., and contain a +magnificent vine planted in 1768. In the enclosure north of the +palace, called the Wilderness, is the Maze, a favourite resort. +North again lies Bushey Park, a royal demesne exceeding 1000 +acres in extent. It is much frequented, especially in early +summer, when its triple avenue of horse-chestnut trees is in +blossom.</p> + +<p>Among several residences in the vicinity of Hampton is +Garrick Villa, once, under the name of Hampton House, the +residence of David Garrick the actor. Sir Christopher Wren +and Sir Richard Steele are among famous former residents. +Hampton Wick, on the river E. of Bushey Park, is an urban +district with a population (1901) of 2606.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See E. Law, <i>History of Hampton Court Palace</i> (London, 1890).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMPTON,<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Elizabeth City +county, Virginia, U.S.A., at the mouth of the James river, on +Hampton Roads, about 15 m. N.W. of Norfolk. Pop. (1890), +2513; (1900) 2764, including 1249 negroes; (1910) 5505. It is +served by the Chesapeake & Ohio railway, and by trolley lines +to Old Point Comfort and Newport News. Hampton is an +agricultural shipping point, ships fish, oysters and canned crabs, +and manufactures fish oil and brick. In the city are St John’s +church, built in 1727; a national cemetery, a national soldiers’ +home (between Phoebus and Hampton), which in 1907-1908 +cared for 4093 veterans and had an average attendance of 2261; +and the Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute (coeducational), +which was opened by the American Missionary +Association in 1868 for the education of negroes. This last was +chartered and became independent of any denominational +control in 1870, and was superintended by Samuel Chapman +Armstrong (<i>q.v.</i>) from 1868 to 1893. The school was opened +in 1878 to Indians, whose presence has been of distinct advantage +to the negro, showing him, says Booker T. Washington, the most +famous graduate of the school, that the negro race is not alone +in its struggle for improvement. The National government +pays $167 a year for the support of each of the Indian students. +The underlying idea of the Institute is such industrial training +as will make the pupil a willing and a good workman, able to +teach his trade to others; and the school’s graduates include the +heads of other successful negro industrial schools, the organizers +of agricultural and industrial departments in Southern public +schools and teachers in graded negro schools. The mechanism +of the school includes three schemes: that of “work students,” +who work during the day throughout the year and attend night +school for eight months; that of day school students, who attend +school for four or five days and do manual work for one or two +days each week; and that of trade students, who receive trade +instruction in their daily eight-hours’ work and study in night +school as well. Agriculture in one or more of its branches is +taught to all, including the four or five hundred children of the +Whittier school, a practice school with kindergarten and primary +classes. Graduate courses are given in agriculture, business, +domestic art and science, library methods, “matrons’” training, +and public school teaching. The girl students are trained in +every branch of housekeeping, cooking, dairying and gardening. +The institute publishes <i>The Southern Workman</i>, a monthly +magazine devoted to the interests of the Negro and the Indian +and other backward races. In 1908 the Institute had more +than 100 buildings and 188 acres of land S.W. of the national +cemetery and on Hampton river and Jones Creek, and 600 acres +at Shellbanks, a stock farm 6 m. away; the enrolment was +21 in graduate classes, 372 in day school, 489 in night school +and 524 in the Whittier school. Of the total, 88 were Indians.</p> + +<p>Hampton was settled in 1610 on the site of an Indian village, +Kecoughtan, a name it long retained, and was represented at +the first meeting (1619) of the Virginia House of Burgesses. +It was fired by the British during the War of 1812 and by the +Confederates under General J. B. Magruder in August 1861. +During the Civil War there was a large Union hospital here, +the building of the Chesapeake Female College, erected in 1857, +being used for this purpose. Hampton was incorporated as +a town in 1887, and in 1908 became a city of the second class.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMPTON ROADS,<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> a channel through which the waters of +the James, Nansemond and Elizabeth rivers of Virginia, U.S.A., +pass (between Old Point Comfort to the N. and Sewell’s Point +to the S.) into Chesapeake Bay. It is an important highway of +commerce, especially for the cities of Norfolk, Portsmouth and +Newport News, and is the chief rendezvous of the United +States navy. For a width of 500 ft. the Federal government +during 1902-1905 increased its minimum depth at low water +from 25½ ft. to 30 ft. The entrance from Chesapeake Bay is +defended by Fortress Monroe on Old Point Comfort and by +Fort Wood on a small island called the Rip Raps near the middle +of the channel; and at Portsmouth, a few miles up the Elizabeth +river, is an important United States navy-yard.</p> + +<p>Hampton Roads is famous in history as the scene of the first +engagement between iron-clad vessels. In the spring of 1861 +the Federals set fire to several war vessels in the Gosport navy +yard on the Elizabeth river and abandoned the place. In +June the Confederates set to work to raise one of these abandoned +vessels, the frigate “Merrimac” of 3500 tons and 40 guns, and +to rebuild it as an iron-clad. The vessel (renamed the “Virginia” +though it is generally known in history by its original name) +was first cut down to the water-line and upon her hull was built +a rectangular casemate, constructed of heavy timber (24 in. in +thickness), covered with bar-iron 4 in. thick, and rising from the +water on each side at an angle of about 35°. The iron plating +extended 2 ft. below the water line; and beyond the casemate, +toward the bow, was a cast-iron pilot house, extending 3 ft. +above the deck. The reconstruction of the vessel was completed +on the 5th of March 1862. The vessel drew 22 ft. of water, was +equipped with poor engines, so that it could not make more +than 5 knots, and was so unwieldy that it could not be turned +in less than 30 minutes. It was armed with 10 guns—2 (rifled) +7 in., 2 (rifled) 6 in., and 6 (smooth bore Dahlgren) 9 in. Her +most powerful equipment, however, was her 18 in. cast-iron ram. +In October 1861 Captain John Ericsson, an engineer, and a Troy +(N.Y.) firm, as builders, began the construction of the iron-clad +“Monitor” for the Federals, at Greenpoint, Long Island. With +a view to enable this vessel to carry at good speed the thickest +possible armour compatible with buoyancy, Ericsson reduced +the exposed surface to the least possible area. Accordingly, +the vessel was built so low in the water that the waves glided +easily over its deck except at the middle, where was constructed +a revolving turret<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> for the guns, and though the vessel’s iron +armour had a thickness of 1 in. on the deck, 5 in. on the side, +and 8 in. on the turret, its draft was only 10 ft. 6 in., or less +than one-half that of the “Merrimac.” Its turret, 9 ft. high +and 20 ft. in inside diameter, seemed small for its length of +172 ft. and its breadth of 41 ft. 6 in., and this, with the lowness of +its freeboard, caused the vessel to be called the “Yankee cheese-box +on a raft.” Forward of the turret was the iron pilot house, +square in shape, and rising about 4 ft. above the deck. The +“Monitor’s” displacement was about 1200 tons and her armament +was two 11 in. Dahlgren guns; her crew numbered 58, while +that of the “Merrimac” numbered about 300. She was seaworthy +in the shallow waters off the southern coasts and steered fairly +well. The “Monitor” was launched at Greenpoint, Long Island, +on the 30th of January, and was turned over to the government +on the 19th of the following month. The building of the two +vessels was practically a race between the two combatants.</p> + +<p>On the 8th of March about 1 <span class="scs">P.M.</span>, the “Merrimac,” commanded +by Commodore Franklin Buchanan (1795-1871), +steamed down the Elizabeth accompanied by two one-gun +gun-boats, to engage the wooden fleet of the Federals, consisting +of the frigate “Congress,” 50 guns, and the sloop “Cumberland,” +30 guns, both sailing vessels, anchored off Newport News, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page907" id="page907"></a>907</span> +the steam frigates “Minnesota,” and “Roanoke,” the sailing +frigate “St Lawrence,” and several gun-boats, anchored off +Fortress Monroe. Actual firing began about 2 o’clock, when the +“Merrimac” was nearly a mile from the “Congress” and the +“Cumberland.” Passing the first of these vessels with terrific +broadsides, the “Merrimac” rammed the “Cumberland” +and then turned her fire again on the “Congress,” which in an +attempt to escape ran aground and was there under fire from +three other Confederate gun-boats which had meanwhile joined +the “Merrimac.” About 3.30 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> the “Cumberland,” which, +while it steadily careened, had been keeping up a heavy fire at +the Confederate vessels, sank, with “her pennant still flying +from the topmast above the waves.” Between 4 and 4.30 the +“Congress,” having been raked fore and aft for nearly an hour +by the “Merrimac,” was forced to surrender. While directing +a fire of hot shot to burn the “Congress,” Commodore Buchanan +of the “Merrimac” was severely wounded and was succeeded +in the command by Lieutenant Catesby ap Roger Jones. The +Federal steam frigates, “Roanoke,” “St Lawrence” and +“Minnesota” had all gone aground in their trip from Old Point +Comfort toward the scene of battle, and only the “Minnesota” +was near enough (about 1 m.) to take any part in the fight. +She was in such shallow water that the Confederate iron-clad +ram could not get near her at ebb tide, and about 5 o’clock the +Confederates postponed her capture until the next day and +anchored off Sewell’s Point.</p> + +<p>The “Monitor,” under Lieut. John Lorimer Worden (1818-1897). +had left New York on the morning of the 6th of March; +after a dangerous passage in which she twice narrowly escaped +sinking, she arrived at Hampton Roads during the night of the +8th, and early in the morning of the 9th anchored near the +“Minnesota.” When the “Merrimac” advanced to attack the +“Minnesota,” the “Monitor” went out to meet her, and the +battle between the iron-clads began about 9 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> on the 9th. +Neither vessel was able seriously to injure the other, and not +a single shot penetrated the armour of either. The “Monitor” +had the advantage of being able to out-manœuvre her heavier +and more unwieldy adversary; but the revolving turret made +firing difficult and communications were none too good with the +pilot house, the position of which on the forward deck lessened +the range of the two turret-guns. The machinery worked so +badly that the revolution of the turret was stopped. After two +hours’ fighting, the “Monitor” was drawn off, so that more +ammunition could be placed in her turret. When the battle +was renewed (about 11.30) the “Merrimac” began firing at +the “Monitor’s” pilot house; and a little after noon a shot +struck the sight-hole of the pilot house and blinded Lieut. +Worden. The “Monitor” withdrew in the confusion consequent +upon the wounding of her commanding officer; and the +“Merrimac” after a short wait for her adversary steamed back +to Norfolk. There were virtually no casualties on either side. +After the evacuation of Norfolk by the Confederates on the +9th of May Commodore Josiah Tattnall, then in command of +the “Merrimac,” being unable to take her up the James, sank +her. The “Monitor” was lost in a gale off Cape Hatteras on +the 31st of December 1862.</p> + +<p>Though the battle between the two vessels was indecisive, +its effect was to “neutralize” the “Merrimac,” which had +caused great alarm in Washington, and to prevent the breaking +of the Federal blockade at Hampton Roads; in the history of +naval warfare it may be regarded as marking the opening of a +new era—the era of the armoured warship. On the 3rd of +February 1865 near Fortress Monroe on board a steamer occurred +the meeting of President Lincoln and Secretary Seward with +Confederate commissioners which is known as the Hampton +Roads Conference (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lincoln, Abraham</a></span>). At Sewell’s Point, +on Hampton Roads, in 1907 was held the Jamestown Tercentennial +Exposition.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See James R. Soley, <i>The Blockade and the Cruisers</i> (New York, +1883); <i>Battles and Leaders of the Civil War</i>, vol. i. (New York, +1887); chap. ii. of Frank M. Bennett’s <i>The Monitor and the Navy +under Steam</i> (Boston, 1900); and William Swinton, <i>Twelve Decisive +Battles of the War</i> (New York, 1867).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For the idea of the low free-board and the revolving turret +Ericsson was indebted to Theodore R. Timby (1819-1909), who in +1843 had filed a caveat for revolving towers for offensive or +defensive warfare whether placed on land or water, and to whom +the company building the “Monitor” paid $5000 royalty for each +turret.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAMSTER,<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> a European mammal of the order Rodentia, +scientifically known as <i>Cricetus frumentarius</i> (or <i>C. cricetus</i>), +and belonging to the mouse tribe, <i>Muridae</i>, in which it typifies +the sub-family <i>Cricetinae</i>. The essential characteristic of the +Cricetines is to be found in the upper cheek-teeth, which (as +shown in the figure of those of <i>Cricetus</i> in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rodentia</a></span>) +have their cusps arranged in two longitudinal rows separated +by a groove. The hamsters, of which there are several kinds, +are short-tailed rodents, with large cheek-pouches, of which +the largest is the common <i>C. frumentarius</i>. Their geographical +distribution comprises a large portion of Europe and Asia north +of the Himalaya. All the European hamsters show more or less +black on the under-parts, but the small species from Central +Asia, which constitute distinct subgenera, are uniformly grey. +The common species is specially interesting on account of its +habits. It constructs elaborate burrows containing several +chambers, one of which is employed as a granary, and filled with +corn, frequently of several kinds, for winter use. As a rule, the +males, females, and young of the first year occupy separate +burrows. During the winter these animals retire to their burrows, +sleeping the greater part of the time, but awakening about +February or March, when they feed on the garnered grain. They +are very prolific, the female producing several litters in the year, +each consisting of over a dozen blind young; and these, when +not more than three weeks old, are turned out of the parental +burrow to form underground homes for themselves. The burrow +of the young hamster is only about a foot in depth, while that +of the adult descends 4 or 5 ft. beneath the surface. On retiring +for the winter the hamster closes the various entrances to its +burrow, and becomes torpid during the coldest period. Although +feeding chiefly on roots, fruits and grain, it is also to some extent +carnivorous, attacking and eating small quadrupeds, lizards and +birds. It is exceedingly fierce and pugnacious, the males especially +fighting with each other for possession of the females. +The numbers of these destructive rodents are kept in check by +foxes, dogs, cats and pole-cats, which feed upon them. The +skin of the hamster is of some value, and its flesh is used as food. +Its burrows are sought after in the countries where it abounds, +both for capturing the animal and for rifling its store. America, +especially North America, is the home of by far the great majority +of <i>Cricetinae</i>, several of which are called white-footed or deer-mice. +They are divided into numerous genera and the number +of species is very large indeed. Both in size and form considerable +variability is displayed, the species of <i>Holochilus</i> being some +of the largest, while the common white-footed mouse (<i>Eligmodon +leucopus</i>) of North America is one of the smaller forms. Some +kinds, such as <i>Oryzomys</i> and <i>Peromyscus</i> have long, rat-like +tails, while others, like <i>Acodon</i>, are short-tailed and more vole-like +in appearance. In habits some are partially arboreal, others +wholly terrestrial, and a few more or less aquatic. Among the +latter, the most remarkable are the fish-eating rats (<i>Ichthyomys</i>) +of North-western South America, which frequent streams and +feed on small fish. The Florida rice-rat (<i>Sigmodon hispidus</i>) +is another well-known representative of the group. In the Old +World the group is represented by the Persian <i>Calomyscus</i>, a +near relative of <i>Peromyscus</i>.</p> +<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HANAPER,<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> properly a case or basket to contain a “hanap” +(O. Eng. <i>hnæp</i>: cf. Dutch <i>nap</i>), a drinking vessel, a goblet with +a foot or stem; the term which is still used by antiquaries +for medieval stemmed cups. The famous Royal Gold Cup in +the British Museum is called a “hanap” in the inventory of +Charles VI. of France. The word “hanaper” (Med. Lat. +<i>hanaperium</i>) was used particularly in the English chancery of a +wicker basket in which were kept writs and other documents, +and hence it became the name of a department of the chancery, +now abolished, under an officer known as the clerk or warden of +the hanaper, into which were paid fees and other moneys for +the sealing of charters, patents, writs, &c., and from which issued +certain writs under the great seal (S. R. Scargill-Bird, <i>Guide +to the Public Records</i> (1908). In Ireland it still survives in the +office of the clerk of the crown and hanaper, from which are +issued writs for the return of members of parliament for Ireland. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page908" id="page908"></a>908</span> +From “hanaper” is derived the modern “hamper,” a wicker +or rush basket used for the carriage of game, fish, wine, &c. The +verb “to hamper,” to entangle, obstruct, hinder, especially +used of disturbing the mechanism of a lock or other fastening +so as to prevent its proper working, is of doubtful origin. It is +probably connected with a root seen in the Icel. <i>hemja</i>, to +restrain, and Ger. <i>hemmen</i>, to clog.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HANAU,<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of +Hesse-Nassau, on the right bank of the Main, 14 m. by rail E. +from Frankfort and at the junction of lines to Friedberg, Bebra +and Aschaffenburg. Pop. (1905) 31,637. It consists of an old +and a new town. The streets of the former are narrow and +irregular, but the latter, founded at the end of the 16th century +by fugitive Walloons and Netherlanders, is built in the form of a +pentagon with broad streets crossing at right angles, and possesses +several fine squares, among which may be mentioned the market-place, +adorned with handsome fountains at the four corners. +Among the principal buildings are the ancient castle, formerly +the residence of the counts of Hanau; the church of St John, +dating from the 17th century, with a handsome tower; the old +church of St Mary, containing the burial vault of the counts of +Hanau; the church in the new town, built by the Walloons in +the beginning of the 17th century in the form of two intersecting +circles; the Roman Catholic church, the synagogue, the theatre, +the barracks, the arsenal and the hospital. Its educational +establishments include a classical school, and a school of industrial +art. There is a society of natural history and an historical +society, both of which possess considerable libraries and collections. +Hanau is the birthplace of the brothers Grimm, to whom +a monument was erected here in 1896. In the neighbourhood +of the town are the palace of Philippsruhe, with an extensive +park and large orangeries, and the spa of Wilhelmsbad.</p> + +<p>Hanau is the principal commercial and manufacturing town +in the province, and stands next to Cassel in point of population. +It manufactures ornaments of various kinds, cigars, leather, +paper, playing cards, silver and platina wares, chocolate, soap, +woollen cloth, hats, silk, gloves, stockings, ropes and matches. +Diamond cutting is carried on and the town has also foundries, +breweries, and in the neighborhood extensive powder-mills. +It carries on a large trade in wood, wine and corn, in addition to +its articles of manufacture.</p> + +<p>From the number of urns, coins and other antiquities found +near Hanau it would appear that it owes its origin to a Roman +settlement. It received municipal rights in 1393, and in 1528 +it was fortified by Count Philip III. who rebuilt the castle. At +the end of the 16th century its prosperity received considerable +impulse from the accession of the Walloons and Netherlanders. +During the Thirty Years’ War it was in 1631 taken by the +Swedes, and in 1636 it was besieged by the imperial troops, +but was relieved on the 13th of June by Landgrave William V. +of Hesse-Cassel, on account of which the day is still commemorated +by the inhabitants. Napoleon on his retreat from Leipzig +defeated the Germans under Marshal Wrede at Hanau, on the +30th of October 1813; and on the following day the allies +vacated the town, when it was entered by the French. Early +in the 15th century Hanau became the capital of a principality +of the Empire, which on the death of Count Reinhard in 1451 +was partitioned between the Hanau-Münzenberg and Hanau-Lichtenberg +lines, but was reunited in 1642 when the elder line +became extinct. The younger line received princely rank in +1696, but as it became extinct in 1736 Hanau-Münzenberg was +joined to Hesse-Cassel and Hanau-Lichtenberg to Hesse-Darmstadt. +In 1785 the whole province was united to Hesse-Cassel, +and in 1803 it became an independent principality. In 1815 +it again came into the possession of Hesse-Cassel, and in 1866 +it was joined to Prussia.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See R. Wille, <i>Hanau im dreissigjährigen Krieg</i> (Hanau, 1886); +and Junghaus, <i>Geschichte der Stadt und des Kreises Hanau</i> (1887).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HANBURY WILLIAMS, SIR CHARLES<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (1708-1759), English +diplomatist and author, was a son of Major John Hanbury +(1664-1734), of Pontypool, Monmouthshire, and a scion of an +ancient Worcestershire family. His great-great-great-grand-father, +Capel Hanbury, bought property at Pontypool and began +the family iron-works there in 1565. His father John Hanbury +was a wealthy iron-master and member of parliament, who +inherited another fortune from his friend Charles Williams of +Caerleon, his son’s godfather, with which he bought the Coldbrook +estate, Monmouthshire. Charles accordingly took the +name of Williams in 1729. He went to Eton, and there made +friends with Henry Fielding, the novelist, and, after marrying +in 1732 the heiress of Earl Coningsby, was elected M.P. for +Monmouthshire (1734-1747) and subsequently for Leominster +(1754-1759). He became known as one of the prominent +gallants and wits about town, and following Pope he wrote a +great deal of satirical light verse, including <i>Isabella, or the +Morning</i> (1740), satires on Ruth Darlington and Pulleney +(1741-1742), <i>The Country Girl</i> (1742), <i>Lessons for the Day</i> (1742), +<i>Letter to Mr Dodsley</i> (1743), &c. A collection of his poems was +published in 1763 and of his <i>Works</i> in 1822. In 1746 he was +sent on a diplomatic mission to Dresden, which led to further +employment in this capacity; and through Henry Fox’s influence +he was sent as envoy to Berlin (1750), Dresden (1751), Vienna +(1753), Dresden (1754) and St Petersburg (1755-1757); in the +latter case he was the instrument for a plan for the alliance +between England, Russia and Austria, which finally broke down, +to his embarrassment. He returned to England, and committed +suicide on the 2nd of November 1759, being buried in Westminster +Abbey. He had two daughters, the elder of whom +married William Capel, 4th earl of Essex, and was the mother of +the 5th earl. The Coldbrook estates went to Charles’s brother, +George Hanbury-Williams, to whose heirs it descended.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See William Coxe’s <i>Historical Tour in Monmouthshire</i> (1801), and +T. Seccombe’s article in the <i>Dict. Nat. Biog.</i> with bibliography.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HANCOCK, JOHN<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (1737-1793), American Revolutionary +statesman, was born in that part of Braintree, Massachusetts, +now known as Quincy, on the 23rd of January 1737. After +graduating from Harvard in 1754, he entered the mercantile +house of his uncle, Thomas Hancock of Boston, who had adopted +him, and on whose death, in 1764, he fell heir to a large fortune +and a prosperous business. In 1765 he became a selectman of +Boston, and from 1766 to 1772 was a member of the Massachusetts +general court. An event which is thought to have +greatly influenced Hancock’s subsequent career was the seizure +of the sloop “Liberty” in 1768 by the customs officers for discharging, +without paying the duties, a cargo of Madeira wine +consigned to Hancock. Many suits were thereupon entered +against Hancock, which, if successful, would have caused the +confiscation of his estate, but which undoubtedly enhanced his +popularity with the Whig element and increased his resentment +against the British government. He was a member of the +committee appointed in a Boston town meeting immediately +after the “Boston Massacre” in 1770 to demand the removal +of British troops from the town. In 1774 and 1775 he was +president of the first and second Provincial Congresses respectively, +and he shared with Samuel Adams the leadership of the +Massachusetts Whigs in all the irregular measures preceding +the War of American Independence. The famous expedition +sent by General Thomas Gage of Massachusetts to Lexington +and Concord on the 18th-19th of April 1775 had for its object, +besides the destruction of materials of war at Concord, the +capture of Hancock and Adams, who were temporarily staying +at Lexington, and these two leaders were expressly excepted +in the proclamation of pardon issued on the 12th of June by +Gage, their offences, it was said, being “of too flagitious a nature +to admit of any other consideration than that of condign punishment.” +Hancock was a member of the Continental Congress +from 1775 to 1780, was president of it from May 1775 to October +1777, being the first to sign the Declaration of Independence, +and was a member of the Confederation Congress in 1785-1786. +In 1778 he commanded, as major-general of militia, the Massachusetts +troops who participated in the Rhode Island expedition. +He was a member of the Massachusetts Constitutional Convention +of 1779-1780, became the first governor of the state, and served +from 1780 to 1785 and again from 1787 until his death. Although +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page909" id="page909"></a>909</span> +at first unfriendly to the Federal Constitution as drafted by the +convention at Philadelphia, he was finally won over to its support, +and in 1788 he presided over the Massachusetts convention which +ratified the instrument. Hancock was not by nature a leader, +but he wielded great influence on account of his wealth and +social position, and was liberal, public-spirited, and, as his +repeated election—the elections were annual—to the governorship +attests, exceedingly popular. He died at Quincy, Mass., +on the 8th of October 1793.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Abram E. Brown, <i>John Hancock, His Book</i> (Boston, 1898), a +work consisting largely of extracts from Hancock’s letters.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HANCOCK, WINFIELD SCOTT<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> (1824-1886), American general, +was born on the 14th of February 1824, in Montgomery county, +Pa. He graduated in 1844 at the United States Military +Academy, where his career was creditable but not distinguished. +On the 1st of July 1844 he was breveted, and on the 18th of +June 1846 commissioned second lieutenant. He took part +in the later movements under Winfield Scott against the city +of Mexico, and was breveted first lieutenant for “gallant +and meritorious conduct.” After the Mexican war he served +in the West, in Florida and elsewhere; was married in 1850 +to Miss Almira Russell of St Louis; became first lieutenant +in 1853, and assistant-quartermaster with the rank of captain +in 1855. The outbreak of the Civil War found him in California. +At his own request he was ordered east, and on the 23rd of +September 1861 was made brigadier-general of volunteers and +assigned to command a brigade in the Army of the Potomac. +He took part in the Peninsula campaign, and the handling of +his troops in the engagement at Williamsburg on the 5th of +May 1862, was so brilliant that McClellan reported “Hancock +was superb,” an epithet always afterwards applied to him. At +the battle of Antietam he was placed in command of the first +division of the II. corps, and in November he was made major-general +of volunteers, and about the same time was promoted +major in the regular army. In the disastrous battle of Fredericksburg +(<i>q.v.</i>), Hancock’s division was on the right among the troops +that were ordered to storm Marye’s Heights. Out of the 5006 +men in his division 2013 fell. At Chancellorsville his division +received both on the 2nd and the 3rd of May the brunt of the +attack of Lee’s main army. Soon after the battle he was +appointed commander of the II. corps.</p> + +<p>The battle of Gettysburg (<i>q.v.</i>) began on the 1st of July with +the defeat of the left wing of the Army of the Potomac and the +death of General Reynolds. About the middle of the afternoon +Hancock arrived on the field with orders from Meade to assume +command and to decide whether to continue the fight there or +to fall back. He decided to stay, rallied the retreating troops, +and held Cemetery Hill and Ridge until the arrival of the main +body of the Federal army. During the second day’s battle he +commanded the left centre of the Union army, and after General +Sickles had been wounded, the whole of the left wing. In the +third day’s battle he commanded the left centre, upon which +fell the full brunt of Pickett’s charge, one of the most famous +incidents of the war. Hancock’s superb presence and power +over men never shone more clearly than when, as the 150 guns +of the Confederate army opened the attack he calmly rode along +the front of his line to show his soldiers that he shared the +dangers of the cannonade with them. His corps lost in the +battle 4350 out of less than 10,000 fighting men. But it had +captured twenty-seven Confederate battle flags and as many +prisoners as it had men when the fighting ceased. Just as the +Confederate troops reached the Union line Hancock was struck +in the groin by a bullet, but continued in command until the +repulse of the attack, and as he was at last borne off the field +earnestly recommended Meade to make a general attack on the +beaten Confederates. The wound proved a severe one, so that +some six months passed before he resumed command.</p> + +<p>In the battles of the year 1864 Hancock’s part was as important +and striking as in those of 1863. At the Wilderness he commanded, +during the second day’s fighting, half of the Union +army; at Spottsylvania he had charge of the fierce and successful +attack on the “salient”; at Cold Harbor his corps formed the +left wing in the unsuccessful assault on the Confederate lines. +In August he was promoted to brigadier-general in the regular +army. In November, his old wound troubling him, he obtained +a short leave of absence, expecting to return to his corps in the +near future. He was, however, detailed to raise a new corps, +and later was placed in charge of the “Middle Division.” It was +expected that he would move towards Lynchburg, as part of a +combined movement against Lee’s communications. But before +he could take the field Richmond had fallen and Lee had surrendered. +It thus happened that Hancock, who for three years +had been one of the most conspicuous figures in the Army of the +Potomac did not take part in its final triumph.</p> + +<p>After the assassination of Lincoln, Hancock was placed in +charge of Washington, and it was under his command that +Booth’s accomplices were tried and executed. In July 1866 +he was appointed major-general in the regular army. A little +later he was placed in command of the department of the +Missouri, and the year following assumed command of the fifth +military division, comprising Louisiana and Texas. His policy, +however, of discountenancing military trials and conciliating +the conquered did not meet with approval at Washington, and +he was at his own request transferred. Hancock had all his life +been a Democrat. His splendid war record and his personal +popularity caused his name to be considered as a candidate for +the Presidency as early as 1868, and in 1880 he was nominated +for that office by the Democrats; but he was defeated by +his Republican opponent, General Garfield, though by the +small popular plurality of seven thousand votes. He died +at Governor’s Island, near New York, on the 9th of February +1886. Hancock was in many respects the ideal soldier of the +Northern armies. He was quick, energetic and resourceful, +reckless of his own safety, a strict disciplinarian, a painstaking +and hard-working officer. It was on the field of battle, and +when the fighting was fiercest, that his best qualities came to +the front. He was a born commander of men, and it is doubtful +if any other officer in the Northern army could get more fighting +and more marching out of his men. Grant said of him, “Hancock +stands the most conspicuous figure of all the general officers +who did not exercise a separate command. He commanded +a corps longer than any other, and his name was never mentioned +as having committed in battle a blunder for which he was +responsible.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A biography of him has been written by General Francis A. +Walker (New York, 1894). See also <i>History of the Second Corps</i>, by +the same author (1886).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. H. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HANCOCK,<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> a city of Houghton county, Michigan, U.S.A., +on Portage Lake, opposite Houghton. Pop. (1890) 1772; (1900) +4050, of whom 1409 were foreign-born; (1904) 6037; (1910) +8981. Hancock is served by the Mineral Range, the Copper +Range, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, and the Duluth, +South Shore & Atlantic railways (the last two send their trains +in over the Mineral Range tracks), and by steamboats through +the Portage Lake Canal which connects with Lake Superior. +Hancock is connected by a bridge and an electric line +with the village of Houghton (pop. in 1910, 5113), the +county-seat of Houghton county and the seat of the Michigan +College of Mines (opened in 1886). Hancock has three +parks, and a marine and general hospital. The city is the +seat of a Finnish Lutheran Seminary—there are many Finns in +and near Hancock, and a Finnish newspaper is published here. +Hancock is in the Michigan copper region—the Quincy, Franklin +and Hancock mines are in or near the city—and the mining, +working and shipping of copper are the leading industries; +among the city’s manufactures are mining machinery, lumber, +bricks and beer. The municipality owns and operates the water-works. +The electric-lighting plant, the gas plant and the street +railway are owned by private corporations. Hancock was +settled in 1859, was incorporated as a village in 1875, and was +chartered as a city in 1903.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (1786-1851). German +classical scholar, was born at Plauen in Saxony on the 15th of +February 1786. He studied at Leipzig, in 1810 became professor +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page910" id="page910"></a>910</span> +at the Weimar gymnasium, and in 1817 professor of philosophy +and Greek literature in the university of Jena, where he remained +till his death on the 14th of March 1851. The work by which +Hand is chiefly known is his (unfinished) edition of the treatise +of Horatius Tursellinus (Orazio Torsellino, 1545-1599) on the +Latin particles (<i>Tursellinus, seu de particulis Latinis commentarii</i>, +1829-1845). Like his treatise on Latin style (<i>Lehrbuch +des lateinischen Stils</i>, 3rd ed. by H. L. Schmitt, 1880), it is too +abstruse and philosophical for the use of the ordinary student. +Hand was also an enthusiastic musician, and in his <i>Ästhetik der +Tonkunst</i> (1837-1841) he was the first to introduce the subject +of musical aesthetics.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The first part of the last-named work has been translated into +English by W. E. Lawson (<i>Aesthetics of Musical Art</i>, or <i>The Beautiful +in Music</i>, 1880), and B. Sears’s <i>Classical Studies</i> (1849) contains a +“History of the Origin and Progress of the Latin Language,” +abridged from Hand’s work on the subject. There is a memoir of +his life and work by G. Queck (Jena, 1852).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAND<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. +<i>Hand</i>, Goth. <i>handus</i>), the terminal part of the human arm from +below the wrist, and consisting of the fingers and the palm. The +word is also used of the prehensile termination of the limbs in +certain other animals (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Anatomy</a></span>: <i>Superficial and artistic</i>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Skeleton</a></span>: <i>Appendicular</i>, and such articles as <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Muscular +System</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nervous System</a></span>). There are many transferred +applications of “hand,” both as a substantive and in various +adverbial phrases. The following may be mentioned: charge +or authority, agency, source, chiefly in such expressions as “in +the hands of,” “by hand,” “at first hand.” From the position +of the hands at the side of the body, the word means “direction,” +<i>e.g.</i>, on the right, left hand, cf. “at hand.” The hand as given +in betrothal or marriage has been from early times the symbol +of marriage as it also is of oaths. Other applications are to +labourers engaged in manual occupations, the members of the +crew of a ship, to a person who has some special skill, as in the +phrase, “old parliamentary hand,” and to the pointers of a clock +or watch and to the number of cards dealt to each player in a +card game. As a measure of length the term “hand” is now +only used in the measurement of horses, it is equal to 4 in. +The name “hand of glory,” is given to a hand cut from the +corpse of a hanged criminal, dried in smoke, and used as a +charm or talisman, for the finding of treasures, &c. The expression +is the translation of the Fr. <i>main de gloire</i>, a corruption of +the O. Fr. <i>mandegloire</i>, <i>mandegoire</i>, <i>i.e.</i> <i>mandragore</i>, mandragora, +the mandrake, to the root of which many magical properties are +attributed.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HANDEL, GEORGE FREDERICK<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> (1685-1759), English +musical composer, German by origin, was born at Halle in Lower +Saxony, on the 23rd of February 1685. His name +was Handel, but, like most 18th-century musicians +<span class="sidenote">Life.</span> +who travelled, he compromised with its pronunciation by +foreigners, and when in Italy spelt it Hendel, and in England +(where he became naturalized) accepted the version Handel, +which is therefore correct for English writers, while Händel +remains the correct version in Germany. His father was a +barber-surgeon, who disapproved of music, and wished George +Frederick to become a lawyer. A friend smuggled a clavichord +into the attic, and on this instrument, which is inaudible behind +a closed door, the little boy practised secretly. Before he was +eight his father went to visit a son by a former marriage who +was a valet-de-chambre to the duke of Saxe-Weissenfels. The +little boy begged in vain to go also, and at last ran after the +carriage on foot so far that he had to be taken. He made +acquaintance with the court musicians and contrived to practise +on the organ when he could be overheard by the duke, who, +immediately recognizing his talent, spoke seriously to the father, +who had to yield to his arguments. On returning to Halle +Handel became a pupil of Zachau, the cathedral organist, who +gave him a thorough training as a composer and as a performer +on keyed instruments, the oboe and the violin. Six very good +trios for two oboes and bass, which Handel wrote at the age of +ten, are extant; and when he himself was shown them by an +English admirer who had discovered them, he was much amused +and remarked, “I wrote like the devil in those days, and chiefly +for the oboe, which was my favourite instrument.” His master +also of course made him write an enormous amount of vocal +music, and he had to produce a motet every week. By the time +he was twelve Zachau thought he could teach him no more, and +accordingly the boy was sent to Berlin, where he made a great +impression at the court.</p> + +<p>His father, however, thought fit to decline the proposal of +the elector of Brandenburg, afterwards King Frederick I. of +Prussia, to send the boy to Italy in order afterwards to attach +him to the court at Berlin. German court musicians, as late as +the time of Mozart, had hardly enough freedom to satisfy a +man of independent character, and the elder Händel had not +yet given up hope of his son’s becoming a lawyer. Young +Handel, therefore, returned to Halle and resumed his work with +Zachau. In 1697 his father died, but the boy showed great +filial piety in finishing the ordinary course of his education, both +general and musical, and even entering the university of Halle +in 1702 as a law student. But in that year he succeeded to the +post of organist at the cathedral, and after his “probation” +year in that capacity he departed to Hamburg, where the only +German opera worthy of the name was flourishing under the +direction of its founder, Reinhold Keiser. Here he became +friends with Matheson, a prolific composer and writer on music. +On one occasion they set out together to go to Lübeck, where a +successor was to be appointed to the post left vacant by the +great organist Buxtehude, who was retiring on account of his +extreme age. Handel and Matheson made much music on this +occasion, but did not compete, because they found that the +successful candidate was required to accept the hand of the +elderly daughter of the retiring organist.</p> + +<p>Another adventure might have had still more serious consequences. +At a performance of Matheson’s opera <i>Cleopatra</i> +at Hamburg, Handel refused to give up the conductor’s seat +to the composer when the latter returned to his usual post at +the harpsichord after singing the part of Antony on the stage. +The dispute led to a duel outside the theatre, and, but for a +large button on Handel’s coat which intercepted Matheson’s +sword, there would have been no <i>Messiah</i> or <i>Israel in Egypt</i>. +But the young men remained friends, and Matheson’s writings +are full of the most valuable facts for Handel’s biography. He +relates in his <i>Ehrenpforte</i> that his friend at that time used to +compose “interminable cantatas” of no great merit; but of +these no traces now remain, unless we assume that a <i>Passion +according to St John</i>, the manuscript of which is in the royal +library at Berlin, is among the works alluded to. But its authenticity, +while strongly upheld by Chrysander, has recently been +as strongly assailed on internal evidence.</p> + +<p>On the 8th of January 1705, Handel’s first opera, <i>Almira</i>, +was performed at Hamburg with great success, and was followed +a few weeks later by another work, entitled <i>Nero</i>. <i>Nero</i> is lost, +but <i>Almira</i>, with its mixture of Italian and German language +and form, remains as a valuable example of the tendencies of +the time and of Handel’s eclectic methods. It contains many +themes used by Handel in well-known later works; but the +current statement that the famous aria in <i>Rinaldo</i>, “Lascia +ch’io pianga,” comes from a saraband in <i>Almira</i>, is based upon +nothing more definite than the inevitable resemblance between +the simplest possible forms of saraband-rhythm.</p> + +<p>In 1706 Handel left Hamburg for Italy, where he remained +for three years, rapidly acquiring the smooth Italian vocal +style which hereafter always characterized his work. He +had before this refused offers from noble patrons to send him +there, but had now saved enough money, not only to support his +mother at home, but to travel as his own master. He divided +his time in Italy between Florence, Rome, Naples and Venice; +and many anecdotes are preserved of his meetings with Corelli, +Lotti, Alessandro Scarlatti and Domenico Scarlatti, whose +wonderful harpsichord technique still has a direct bearing on +some of the most modern features of pianoforte style. Handel +soon became famous as <i>Il Sassone</i> (“the Saxon”), and it is +said that Domenico on first hearing him play incognito exclaimed, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page911" id="page911"></a>911</span> +“It is either the devil or the Saxon!” Then there is a story +of Corelli’s coming to grief over a passage in Handel’s overture +to <i>Il Trionfo del tempo</i>, in which the violins went up to A in +altissimo. Handel impatiently snatched the violin to show +Corelli how the passage ought to be played, and Corelli, who +had never written or played beyond the third position in his +life (this passage being in the seventh), said gently, “My dear +Saxon, this music is in the French style, which I do not understand.” +In Italy Handel produced two operas, <i>Rodrigo</i> and +<i>Agrippina</i>, the latter a very important work, of which the +splendid overture was remodelled forty-four years afterwards +as that of his last original oratorio, <i>Jephtha</i>. He also produced +two oratorios, <i>La Resurrezione</i>, and <i>Il Trionfo del tempo</i>. This, +forty-six years afterwards, formed the basis of his last work. +<i>The Triumph of Time and Truth</i>, which contains no original +matter. All Handel’s early works contain material that he +used often with very little alteration later on, and, though the +famous “Lascia ch’io pianga” does not occur in Almira, it +occurs note for note in <i>Agrippina</i> and the two Italian oratorios. +On the other hand the cantata <i>Aci, Galattea e Polifemo</i> has +nothing in common with <i>Acis and Galatea</i>. Besides these larger +works there are several choral and solo cantatas of which the +earliest, such as the great <i>Dixit Dominus</i>, show in their extravagant +vocal difficulty how radical was the change which Handel’s +Italian experience so rapidly effected in his methods.</p> + +<p>Handel’s success in Italy established his fame and led to his +receiving at Venice in 1709 the offer of the post of Kapellmeister +to the elector of Hanover, transmitted to him by Baron Kielmansegge, +his patron and staunch friend of later years. Handel +at the time contemplated a visit to England, and he accepted +this offer on condition of leave of absence being granted to him +for that purpose. To England accordingly Handel journeyed +after a short stay at Hanover, arriving in London towards the +close of 1710. He came as a composer of Italian opera, and +earned his first success at the Haymarket with <i>Rinaldo</i>, composed, +to the consternation of the hurried librettist, in a fortnight, +and first performed on the 24th of February 1711. In this opera +the aria “Lascia ch’io pianga” found its final home. The work +was produced with the utmost magnificence, and Addison’s +delightful reviews of it in the <i>Spectator</i> poked fun at it from an +unmusical point of view in a way that sometimes curiously +foreshadows the criticisms that Gluck might have made on such +things at a later period. The success was so great, especially +for Walsh the publisher, that Handel proposed that Walsh should +compose the next opera, and that he should publish it. He +returned to Hanover at the close of the opera season, and composed +a good deal of vocal chamber music for the princess +Caroline, the step-daughter of the elector, besides the instrumental +works known to us as the oboe concertos. In 1712 +Handel returned to London and spent a year with Andrews, +a rich musical amateur, in Barn Elms, Surrey. Three more +years were spent in Burlington, in the neighbourhood of London. +He evidently was but little inclined to return to Hanover, in +spite of his duties to the court there. Two Italian operas and +the <i>Utrecht Te Deum</i> written by the command of Queen Anne +are the principal works of this period. It was somewhat awkward +for the composer when his deserted master came to London +in 1714 as George I. of England. For some time Handel did not +venture to appear at court, and it was only at the intercession +of Baron Kielmansegge that his pardon was obtained. By his +advice Handel wrote the <i>Water Music</i> which was performed at a +royal water party on the Thames, and it so pleased the king +that he at once received the composer into his good graces and +granted him a salary of £400 a year. Later Handel became +music master to the little princesses and was given an additional +£200 by the princess Caroline. In 1716 he followed the king +to Germany, where he wrote a second German Passion to the +popular poem of Brockes, a text which, divested of its worst +features, forms the basis of several of the arias in Bach’s <i>Passion +according to St John</i>. This was Handel’s last work to a German +text.</p> + +<p>On his return to England he entered the service of the duke +of Chandos as conductor of his concerts, receiving a thousand +pounds for his first oratorio <i>Esther</i>. The music which Handel +wrote for performance at “Cannons,” the duke of Chandos’s +residence at Edgware, is comprised in the first version of <i>Esther, +Acis and Galatea</i>, and the twelve <i>Chandos Anthems</i>, which are +compositions approximately in the same form as Bach’s church +cantatas but without any systematic use of chorale tunes. The +fashionable Londoner would travel 9 miles in those days to +the little chapel of Whitchurch to hear Handel’s music, and all +that now remains of the magnificent scene of these visits is the +church, which is the parish church of Edgware. In 1720 Handel +appeared again in a public capacity as impresario of the Italian +opera at the Haymarket theatre, which he managed for the +institution called the Royal Academy of Music. Senesino, a +famous singer, to engage whom Handel especially journeyed to +Dresden, was the mainstay of the enterprise, which opened with +a highly successful performance of Handel’s opera <i>Radamisto</i>. +To this time belongs the famous rivalry between Handel and +Buononcini, a melodious Italian composer whom many thought +to be the greater of the two. The controversy has been perpetuated +in John Byrom’s lines:</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Some say, compared to Buononcini</p> +<p class="i05">That Mynheer Handel’s but a ninny;</p> +<p class="i05">Others aver that he to Handel</p> +<p class="i05">Is scarcely fit to hold a candle.</p> +<p class="i05">Strange all this difference should be</p> +<p class="i05">Twixt tweedle-dum and tweedle-dee.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p>It must be remembered that at this time Handel had not yet +asserted his greatness as a choral writer; the fashionable ideas +of music and musicianship were based entirely upon success in +Italian opera, and the contest between the rival composers was +waged on the basis of works which have fallen into almost as +complete an oblivion in Handel’s case as in Buononcini’s. None +of Handel’s forty-odd Italian operas can be said to survive, +except in some two or three detached arias out of each opera; +arias which reveal their essential qualities far better in isolation +than when performed in groups of between twenty and thirty +on the stage, as interruptions to the action of a classical drama +to which nobody paid the slightest attention. But even within +these limits Handel’s artistic resources were too great to leave +the issue in doubt; and when Handel wrote the third act of +an opera <i>Muzio Scevola</i>, of which Buononcini and Ariosti<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +wrote the other two, his triumph was decisive, especially as +Buononcini soon got into discredit by failing to defend himself +against the charge of producing as a prize-madrigal of his own +a composition which proved to be by Lotti. At all events +Buononcini left London, and Handel for the next ten years was +without a rival in his ventures as an operatic composer. He +was not, however, without a rival as an impresario; and the +hostile competition of a rival company which obtained the +services of the great Farinelli and also induced Senesino to +desert him, led to his bankruptcy in 1737, and to an attack of +paralysis caused by anxiety and overwork. The rival company +also had to be dissolved from want of support, so that Handel’s +misfortunes must not be attributed to any failure to maintain +his position in the musical world. Handel’s artistic conscience +was that of the most easy-going opportunist, or he would never +have continued till 1741 to work in a field that gave so little +scope for his genius. But the public seemed to want operas, +and, if opera had no scope for his genius, at all events he could +supply better operas with greater rapidity and ease than any +three other living composers working together. And this he +naturally continued to do so long as it seemed to be the best +way to keep up his reputation. But with all this artistic +opportunism he was not a man of tact, and there are +numerous stories of the type of his holding the great primadonna +donna Cuzzoni at arm’s-length out of a window and threatening +to drop her unless she consented to sing a song which she had +declared unsuitable to her style.</p> + +<p>Already before his last opera, <i>Deidamia</i>, produced in 1741, +Handel had been making a growing impression with his oratorios. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page912" id="page912"></a>912</span> +In these, freed from the restrictions of the stage, he was able +to give scope to his genius for choral writing, and so to develop, +or rather revive, that art of chorus singing which is the normal +outlet for English musical talent. In 1726 Handel had become +a naturalized Englishman, and in 1733 he began his public +career as a composer of English texts by producing the second +and larger version of <i>Esther</i> at the King’s theatre. This was +followed early in the same year by <i>Deborah</i>, in which the share +of the chorus is much greater. In July he produced <i>Athalia</i> +at Oxford, the first work in which his characteristic double +choruses appear. The share of the chorus increases in <i>Saul</i> +(1738); and <i>Israel in Egypt</i> (also 1738) is practically entirely +a choral work, the solo movements, in spite of their fame, being +as perfunctory in character as they are few in number. It was +not unnatural that the public, who still considered Italian opera +the highest, because the most modern form of musical art, +obliged Handel at subsequent performances of this gigantic +work to insert more solos.</p> + +<p>The <i>Messiah</i> was produced at Dublin on the 13th of April +1742. <i>Samson</i> (which Handel preferred to the <i>Messiah</i>) appeared +at Covent Garden on the 2nd of March 1744; <i>Belshazzar</i> at +the King’s theatre, 27th of March 1745; the <i>Occasional Oratorio</i> +(chiefly a compilation of the earlier oratorios, but with a few +important new numbers), on the 14th of February 1746 at +Covent Garden, where all his later oratorios were produced; +<i>Judas Maccabaeus</i> on the 1st of April 1747; <i>Joshua</i> on the 9th +of March 1748; <i>Alexander Balus</i> on the 23rd of March 1748; +Solomon on the 17th of March 1749; <i>Susanna</i>, spring of 1749; +<i>Theodora</i>, a great favourite of Handel’s, who was much disappointed +by its cold reception, on the 16th of March 1750; +<i>Jephtha</i> (strictly speaking, his last work) on the 26th of February +1752, and <i>The Triumph of Time and Truth</i> (transcribed from +<i>Il Trionfo del tempo</i> with the addition of many later favourite +numbers), 1757. Other important works, indistinguishable in +artistic form from oratorios, but on secular subjects, are <i>Alexander’s +Feast</i>, 1736; <i>Ode for St Cecilia’s Day</i> (words by Dryden); +<i>L’Allegro, il pensieroso ed il moderato</i> (the words of the third part +by Jennens), 1740; <i>Semele</i>, 1744; <i>Hercules</i>, 1745; and <i>The +Choice of Hercules</i>, 1751.</p> + +<p>By degrees the enmity against Handel died away, though he +had many troubles. In 1745 he had again become bankrupt; +for, although he had no rival as a composer of choral music it +was possible for his enemies to give balls and banquets on the +nights of his oratorio performances. As with his first bankruptcy, +so in his later years, he showed scrupulous sense of honour +in discharging his debts, and he continued to work hard to the +end of his life. He had not only completely recovered his +financial position by the year 1750, but he must have made a +good deal of money, for he then presented an organ to the +Foundling Hospital, and opened it with a performance of the +<i>Messiah</i> on the 15th of May. In 1751 his sight began to trouble +him; and the autograph of <i>Jephtha</i>, published in facsimile +by the <i>Händelgesellschaft</i>, shows pathetic traces of this in his +handwriting,<a name="fa2i" id="fa2i" href="#ft2i"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and so affords a most valuable evidence of his +methods of composition, all the accompaniments, recitatives, +and less essential portions of the work being evidently filled +in long after the rest. He underwent unsuccessful operations, +one of them by the same surgeon who had operated on Bach’s +eyes. There is evidence that he was able to see at intervals +during his last years, but his sight practically never returned +after May 1752. He continued superintending performances +of his works and writing new arias for them, or inserting revised +old ones, and he attended a performance of the <i>Messiah</i> a week +before his death, which took place, according to the <i>Public +Advertiser</i> of the 16th of April, not on Good Friday, the 13th +of April, according to his own pious wish and according to +common report, but on the 14th of April 1759. He was buried +in Westminster Abbey; and his monument is by L. F. Roubilliac, +the same sculptor who modelled the marble statue erected in +1739 in Vauxhall Gardens, where his works had been frequently +performed.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Handel was a man of high character and intelligence, and his +interest was not confined to his own art exclusively. He liked the +society of politicians and literary men, and he was also a collector +of pictures and articles of <i>vertu</i>. His power of work was enormous, +and the <i>Händelgesellschaft’s</i> edition of his complete works fills one +hundred volumes, forming a total bulk almost equal to the works of +Bach and Beethoven together.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. H.; D. F. T.)</div> + +<p>No one has more successfully popularized the greatest artistic +ideals than Handel; no artist is more disconcerting to critics +who imagine that a great man’s mental development +is easy to follow. Not even Wagner effected a greater +<span class="sidenote">Handel as composer.</span> +transformation in the possibilities of dramatic music +than Handel effected in oratorio, yet we have seen that Handel +was the very opposite of a reformer. He was not even conservative, +and he hardly took the pains to ascertain what an art-form +was, so long as something externally like it would convey +his idea. But he never failed to convey his idea, and, if the +hybrid forms in which he conveyed it had no historic influence +and no typical character, they were none the less accurate in +each individual case. The same aptness and the same absence +of method are conspicuous in his style. The popular idea that +Handel’s style is easily recognizable comes from the fact that +he overshadows all his predecessors and contemporaries, except +Bach, and so makes us regard typical 18th-century Italian and +English style as Handelian, instead of regarding Handel’s style +as typical Italian 18th-century. Nothing in music requires +more minute expert knowledge than the sifting of the real +peculiarities of Handel’s style from the mass of contemporary +formulae which in his inspired pages he absorbed, and which in +his uninspired pages absorbed him.</p> + +<p>His easy mastery was acquired, like Mozart’s, in childhood. +The later sonatas for two oboes and bass which he wrote in his +eleventh year are, except in their diffuseness and an occasional +slip in grammar, indistinguishable from his later works, and +they show a boyish inventiveness worthy of Mozart’s work at +the same age. Such early choral works, as the <i>Dixit Dominus</i> +(1707), show the ill-regulated power of his choral writing +before he assimilated Italian influences. Its practical difficulties +are at least as extravagant as Bach’s, while they are not +accounted for by any corresponding originality and necessity +of idea; but the grandeur of the scheme and nobility of thought +is already that for which Handel so often in later years found +the simplest and easiest adequate means of expression that +music has ever attained. His eminently practical genius soon +formed his vocal style, and long before the period of his great +oratorios, such works as <i>The Birthday Ode for Queen Anne</i> (1713) +and the <i>Utrecht Te Deum</i> show not a trace of German extravagance. +The only drawback to his practical genius was that +it led him to bury perhaps half of his finest melodies, and nearly +all the secular features of interest in his treatment of instruments +and of the aria forms, in that deplorable limbo of vanity, the +18th-century Italian opera. It is not true, as has been alleged +against him, that his operas are in no way superior to those of +his contemporaries; but neither is it true that he stirred a finger +to improve the condition of dramatic musical art. He was no +slave to singers, as is amply testified by many anecdotes. Nor +was he bound by the operatic conventions of the time. In <i>Teseo</i> +he not only wrote an opera in five acts when custom prescribed +three, but also broke a much more plausible rule in arranging +that each character should have two arias in succession. He +also showed a feeling for expression and style which led him to +write arias of types which singers might not expect. But he +never made any innovation which had the slightest bearing upon +the stage-craft of opera, for he never concerned himself with any +artistic question beyond the matter in hand; and the matter +in hand was not to make dramatic music, or to make the story +interesting or intelligible, but simply to provide a concert of +between some twenty and thirty Italian arias and duets, wherein +singers could display their abilities and spectators find distraction +from the monotony of so large a dose of the aria form (which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page913" id="page913"></a>913</span> +was then the only possibility for solo vocal music) in the gorgeousness +of the dresses and scenery.</p> + +<p>When the question arose how a musical entertainment of +this kind could be managed in Lent without protests from the +bishop of London, Handelian oratorio came into being as a +matter of course. But though Handel was an opportunist +he was not shallow. His artistic sense seized upon the natural +possibilities which arose as soon as the music was transferred +from the stage to the concert platform; and his first English +oratorio, <i>Esther</i> (1720), beautifully shows the transition. The +subject is as nearly secular as any that can be extracted from +the Bible, and the treatment was based on Racine’s <i>Esther</i>, +which was much discussed at the time. Handel’s oratorio +was reproduced in an enlarged version in 1732 at the King’s +theatre: the princess royal wished for scenery and action, but +the bishop of London protested. And the choruses, of which +in the first version there are already no less than ten, are on the +one hand operatic and unecclesiastical in expression, until the +last, where polyphonic work on a large scale first appears; but +on the other hand they are all much too long to be sung by heart, +as is necessary in operas. In fact, the turning-point in Handel’s +development is the emancipation of the chorus from theatrical +limitations. This had as great effect upon his few but important +secular English works as upon his other oratorios. <i>Acis and +Galatea</i>, <i>Semele</i> and <i>Hercules</i>, are in fact secular oratorios; +the choral music in them is not ecclesiastical, but it is large, +independent and polyphonic.</p> + +<p>We must remember, then, that Handel’s scheme of oratorio +is operatic in its origin and has no historic connexion with +such principles as might have been generalized from the practice +of the German Passion music of the time; and it is sufficiently +astonishing that the chorus should have so readily assumed its +proper place in a scheme which the public certainly regarded +as a sort of Lenten biblical opera. And, although the chorus +owes its freedom of development to the disappearance of +theatrical necessities, it becomes no less powerful as a means of +dramatic expression (as opposed to dramatic action) than as a +purely musical resource. Already in <i>Athalia</i> the “Hallelujah” +chorus at the end of the first act is a marvel of dramatic truth. +It is sung by Israelites almost in despair beneath usurping +tyranny; and accordingly it is a severe double fugue in a minor +key, expressive of devout courage at a moment of depression. +On purely musical grounds it is no less powerful in throwing +into the highest possible relief the ecstatic solemnity of the psalm +with which the second act opens. Now this sombre “Hallelujah” +chorus is a very convenient illustration of Handel’s originality, +and the point in which his creative power really lies. It was not +originally written for its situation in <i>Athalia</i>, but it was chosen +for it. It was originally the last chorus of the second version +of the anthem, <i>As pants the Hart</i>, from the autograph of which +it is missing because Handel cut out the last pages in order to +insert them into the manuscript of <i>Athalia</i>. The inspiration +in <i>Athalia</i> thus lies not in the creation of the chorus itself, but +in the choice of it.</p> + +<p>In choral music Handel made no more innovation than he +made in arias. His sense of fitness in expression was of little +use to him in opera, because opera could not become dramatic +until musical form became capable of developing and blending +emotions in all degrees of climax in a way that may be described +as pictorial and not merely decorative (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Music</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sonata-Forms</a></span>; +and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Instrumentation</a></span>). But in oratorio there was +not the least necessity for reforming any art-forms. The ordinary +choral resources of the time had perfect expressive possibilities +where there were no actors to keep waiting, and where no dresses +and scenery need distract the attention of the listener. When +lastly, ordinary decorum dictated an attitude of reverent +attention towards the subject of the oratorio, then the man of +genius could find such a scope for his real sense of dramatic +fitness as would make his work immortal.</p> + +<p>In estimating Handel’s greatness we must think away all +orthodox musical and progressive prejudices, and learn to apply +the lessons critics of architecture and some critics of literature +seem to know by nature. Originality, in music as in other arts, +lies in the whole, and in a sense of the true meaning of every +part. When Handel wrote a normal double fugue in a minor +key on the word “Hallelujah” he showed that he at all events +knew what a vigorous and dignified thing an 18th-century double +fugue could be. In putting it at the end of a melancholy psalm +he showed his sense of the value of the minor mode. When he +put it in its situation in <i>Athalia</i> he showed as perfect a sense of +dramatic and musical fitness as could well be found in art. Now +it is obvious that in works like oratorios (which are dramatic +schemes vigorously but loosely organized by the putting together +of some twenty or thirty complete pieces of music) the proper +conception of originality will be very different from that which +animates the composer of modern lyric, operatic or symphonic +music. When we add to this the characteristics of a method +like Handel’s, in which musical technique has become a masterly +automatism, it becomes evident that our conception of originality +must be at least as broad as that which we would apply in the +criticism of architecture. The disadvantages of the want of +such a conception have been aggravated by the dearth of general +knowledge of the structure of musical art; a knowledge which +shows that the parallel we have suggested between music and +architecture, as regards the nature of originality, is no mere +figure of speech.</p> + +<p>In every art there is an antithesis between form and matter, +which becomes reconciled only when the work of art is perfect +in its execution. And, whatever this perfection, the antithesis +must always remain in the mind of the artist and critic to this +extent, that some part of the material seems to be the special +subject of technical rule rather than another. In the plastic and +literary arts one type of this antithesis is more or less permanently +maintained in the relation between subject and treatment. The +mere fact that these arts express themselves by representing +things that have some previous independent existence, helps +us to look for originality rather in the things that make for +perfection of treatment than in novelty of subject. But in music +we have no permanent means of deciding which of many aspects +we shall call the subject and which the treatment. In the 16th +century the a priori form existed mainly in the practice of basing +almost every melodic detail of the work on phrases of Gregorian +chant or popular song, treated for the most part in terms of +very definitely regulated polyphonic design, and on harmonic +principles regulated in almost every detail by the relation between +the melodic aspects of the church modes and the necessity for +occasional alterations of the strict mode to secure finality at +the close. In modern music such a relation between form and +matter, prescribing as it does for every aspect at every moment +both of the shape and the texture of the music, would exclude +the element of invention altogether. In 16th-century music it +by no means had that effect. An inventive 16th-century composer +is as clearly distinguishable from a dull one as a good +architect from a bad. The originality of the composer resides, +in 16th-century music as in all art, in his whole work; but +naturally his conception of property and ideas will not extend +to themes or isolated passages. That man is entitled to an idea +who can show what it means, or who can make it mean what +he likes. Let him wear the giant’s robe if it fits him. And it +is merely a local difference in point of view which makes us think +that there is property in themes and no property in forms. +Nowadays we happen to regard the shape of a whole composition +as its form, and its theme as its matter. And, as artistic +organization becomes more complex and heterogeneous, the +need of the broadest and most forcible possible outline of design +is more pressingly felt; so that in what we choose to call form +we are willing to sacrifice all conception of originality for the +sake of general intelligibility, while we insist upon complete +originality in those thematic details which we are pleased to +call matter. But, if this explains, it does not excuse our setting +up a criterion for musical originality which can be accepted by +no intelligent critics of other arts, and which is completely upset +by the study of any music earlier than the beginning of the +19th century.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page914" id="page914"></a>914</span></p> + +<p>The difficulty many writers have found in explaining the +subject of Handel’s “plagiarisms” is not entirely accounted +for by mere lack of these considerations; but the grossest confusion +of ideas as to the difference between cases in point prevails +to this day, and many discussions which have been raised in +regard to the ethical aspect of the question are frankly absurd.<a name="fa3i" id="fa3i" href="#ft3i"><span class="sp">3</span></a> +It has been argued, for instance, that great injustice was done +to Buononcini over his unfortunate affair with the prize madrigal, +while his great rival was allowed the credit of <i>Israel in Egypt</i>, +which contains a considerable number of entire choruses (besides +hosts of themes) by earlier Italian and German writers. But +the very idea of Handelian oratorio is that of some three hours +of music, religious or secular, arranged, like opera, in the form of +a colossal entertainment, and with high dramatic and emotional +interest imparted to it, if not by the telling of a story, at all +events by the nature and development of the subject. It seems, +moreover, to be entirely overlooked that the age was an age of +<i>pasticcios</i>. Nothing was more common than the organization +of some such solemn entertainment by the skilful grouping of +favourite pieces. Handel himself never revived one of his +oratorios without inserting in it favourite pieces from his other +works as well as several new numbers; and the story is well +known that the turning point in Gluck’s career was his perception +of the true possibilities of dramatic music from the failure of a +<i>pasticcio</i> in which he had reset some rather definitely expressive +music to situations for which it was not originally designed. +The success of an oratorio was due to the appropriateness of its +contrasts, together of course with the mastery of its detail, +whether that detail were new or old; and there are many +gradations between a réchauffé of an early work like <i>The Triumph +of Time and Truth</i>, or a <i>pasticcio</i> with a few original numbers +like the <i>Occasional Oratorio</i>, and such works as <i>Samson</i>, which +was entirely new except that the “Dead March” first written +for it was immediately replaced by the more famous one imported +from <i>Saul</i>. That the idea of the <i>pasticcio</i> was extremely familiar +to the age is shown by the practice of announcing an oratorio +as “new and original,” a term which would obviously be meaningless +if it were as much a matter of course as it is at the present +day, and which, if used at all, must obviously so apply to the +whole work without forbidding the composer from gratifying +the public with the reproduction of one or two favourite arias. +But of course the question of originality becomes more serious +when the imported numbers are not the composer’s own. And +here it is very noticeable that Handel derived no credit, either +with his own public or with us, from whole movements that are +not of his own designing. In <i>Israel in Egypt</i>, the choruses +“Egypt was glad when they departed,” “And I will exalt Him,” +“Thou sentest forth Thy Wrath” and “The Earth swallowed +them,” are without exception the most colourless and +unattractive pieces of severe counterpoint to be found among +Handel’s works; and it is very difficult to fathom his motive in +copying them from obscure pieces by Erba and Kaspar Kerl, +unless it be that he wished to train his audiences to a better +understanding of a polyphonic style. He certainly felt that +the greatest possibilities of music lay in the higher choral polyphony, +and so in <i>Israel in Egypt</i> he designed a work consisting +almost entirely of choruses, and may have wished in these +instances for severe contrapuntal movements which he had not +time to write, though he could have done them far better himself. +Be this as it may, these choruses have certainly added nothing +to the popularity of a work of which the public from the outset +complained that there was not enough solo music; and what +effect they have is merely to throw Handel’s own style into +relief. To draw any parallel between the theft of such unattractive +details in the grand and intensely Handelian scheme +of <i>Israel in Egypt</i> and Buononcini’s alleged theft of a prize +madrigal is merely ridiculous. Handel himself, if he had any +suspicion that contemporaries did not take a sane architect’s +view of the originality of large musical schemes,<a name="fa4i" id="fa4i" href="#ft4i"><span class="sp">4</span></a> probably gave +himself no more trouble about their scruples on this matter than +about other forms of musical banality.</p> + +<p>The <i>History of Music</i> by Burney, the cleverest and most +refined musical critic of the age, shows in the very freshness of +its musical scholarship how completely unscholarly were the +musical ideas of the time. Burney was incapable of regarding +choral music as other than a highly improving academic exercise +in which he himself was proficient; and for him Handel is the +great opera-writer whose choral music will reward the study +of the curious. If Handel had attempted to explain his +methods to the musicians of his age, he would probably have +found himself alone in his opinions as to the property of +musical ideas. He did not trouble to explain, but he made no +concealment of his sources. He left his whole musical library +to his copyist, and it was from this that the sources of +his work were discovered. And when the whole series of +plagiarisms is studied, the fact forces itself upon us that nothing +except themes and forms which are common property in all +18th-century music, has yet been discovered as the source of any +work of Handel’s which is not felt as part of a larger design. +Operatic arias were never felt as parts of a whole. The opera +was a concert on the stage, and it stood or fell, not by a dramatic +propriety which it notoriously neglected to consider at all, +but by the popularity of its arias. There is no aria in Handel’s +operas which is traceable to another composer. Even in the +oratorios there is no solo number in which more than the themes +are pilfered, for in oratorios the solo work still appealed to +the popular criterion of novelty and individual attractiveness. +And when we leave the question of copying of whole movements +and come to that of the adaptation of passages, and still more +of themes, Handel shows himself to be simply on a line with +Mozart. Jahn compares the opening of Mozart’s <i>Requiem</i> with +that of the first chorus in Handel’s <i>Funeral Anthem</i>. Mozart +recreates at least as much from Handel’s already perfect framework +as Handel ever idealized from the inorganic fragments +of earlier writers. The double counterpoint of the Kyrie in +Mozart’s <i>Requiem</i> is still more indisputably identical with that +of the last chorus of Handel’s <i>Joseph</i>, and if the themes are +common property their combination certainly is not. But the +true plagiarist is the man who does not know the meaning of +the ideas he copies, and the true creator is he in whose hands they +remain or become true ideas. The theme “He led them forth +like sheep” in the chorus “But as for his people” is one of the +most beautiful in Handel’s works, and the bare statement that it +comes from a serenata by Stradella seems at first rather shocking. +But, to any one who knew Stradella’s treatment of it first, +Handel’s would come as a revelation actually greater than if he +had never heard the theme before. Stradella makes nothing +more of it, and therefore presumably sees nothing more in it +than an agreeable and essentially frivolous little tune which +lends itself to comic dramatic purpose by a wearisome repetition +throughout eight pages of patchy aria and instrumental ritornello +at an ever-increasing pace. What Handel sees in it is what he +makes of it, one of the most solemn and poetic things in music. +Again, it may be very shocking to discover that the famous +opening of the “Hailstone chorus” comes from the patchy and +facetious overture to this same serenata, with which it is identical +for ten bars all in the tonic chord (representing, according +to Stradella, someone knocking at a door). And it is no doubt +yet more shocking that the chorus “He spake the word, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page915" id="page915"></a>915</span> +there came all manner of flies” contains no idea of Handel’s +own except the realistic swarming violin-passages, the general +structure, and the vocal colouring; whereas the rhythmic and +melodic figures of the voice parts come from an equally patchy +<i>sinfonia concertata</i> in Stradella’s work. The real interest of +these things ought not to be denied either by the misstatement +that the materials adapted are mere common property, nor by +the calumny that Handel was uninventive.</p> + +<p>The effects of Handel’s original inspiration upon foreign +material are really the best indication of the range of his style. +The comic meaning of the broken rhythm of Stradella’s overture +becomes indeed Handel’s inspiration in the light of the gigantic +tone-picture of the “Hailstone chorus.” In the theme of “He +led them forth like sheep” we have already cited a particular +case where Handel perceived great solemnity in a theme +originally intended to be frivolous. The converse process is +equally instructive. In the short Carillon choruses in Saul +where the Israelitish women welcome David after his victory +over Goliath, Handel uses a delightful instrumental tune which +stands at the beginning of a <i>Te Deum</i> by Urio, from which he +borrowed an enormous amount of material in <i>Saul, L’Allegro</i>, +the <i>Dettingen Te Deum</i> and other works. Urio’s idea is first to +make a jubilant and melodious noise from the lower register of +the strings, and then to bring out a flourish of high trumpets as +a contrast. He has no other use for his beautiful tune, which +indeed would not bear more elaborate treatment than he gives it. +The ritornello falls into statement and counterstatement, and +the counterstatement secures one repetition of the tune, after +which no more is heard of it. It has none of the solemnity of +church music, and its value as a contrast to the flourish of +trumpets depends, not upon itself, but upon its position in the +orchestra. Handel did not see in it a fine opening for a great +ecclesiastical work, but he saw in it an admirable expression of +popular jubilation, and he understood how to bring out its +character with the liveliest sense of climax and dramatic interest +by taking it at its own value as a popular tune. So he uses it as +an instrumental interlude accompanied with a jingle of carillons, +while the daughters of Israel sing to a square-cut tune those +praises of David which aroused the jealousy of Saul. But now +turn to the opening of the <i>Dettingen Te Deum</i> and see what +splendid use is made of the other side of Urio’s idea, the contrast +between a jubilant noise in the lowest part of the scale and the +blaze of trumpets at an extreme height. In the fourth bar of +the <i>Dettingen Te Deum</i> we find the same florid trumpet figures +as we find in the fifth bar of Urio’s, but at the first moment they +are on oboes. The first four bars beat a tattoo on the tonic +and dominant, with the whole orchestra, including trumpets +and drums, in the lowest possible position and in a stirring +rhythm with a boldness and simplicity characteristic only of +a stroke of genius. Then the oboes appear with Urio’s trumpet +flourishes; the momentary contrast is at least as brilliant +as Urio’s; and as the oboes are immediately followed by the +same figures on the trumpets themselves the contrast gains +incalculably in subtlety and climax. Moreover, these flourishes +are more melodious than the broad and massive opening, instead +of being, as in Urio’s scheme, incomparably less so. Lastly, +Handel’s primitive opening rhythmic figures inevitably underlie +every subsequent inner part and bass that occurs at every +half close and full close throughout the movement, especially +where the trumpets are used. And thus every detail of his +scheme is rendered alive with a rhythmic significance which +the elementary nature of the theme prevents from ever becoming +obtrusive.</p> + +<p>No other great composer has ever so overcrowded his life +with occasional and mechanical work as Handel, and in no other +artist are the qualities that make the difference between inspired +and uninspired pages more difficult to analyse. The libretti +of his oratorios are full of absurdities, except when they are +derived in every detail from Scripture, as in the <i>Messiah</i> and +<i>Israel in Egypt</i>, or from the classics of English literature, as in +<i>Samson</i> and <i>L’Allegro</i>. These absurdities, and the obvious fact +that in every oratorio Handel writes many more numbers than +are desirable for one performance, and that he was continually +in later performances adding, transferring and cutting out +solo numbers and often choruses as well—all this may seem at +first sight to militate seriously against the view that Handel’s +originality and greatness consists in his grasp of the works as +wholes, but in reality it strengthens that view. These things +militate against the perfection of the whole, but they would +have been absolutely fatal to a work of which the whole is not +(as in all true art) greater than the sum of its parts. That they +are felt as absurdities and defects already shows that Handel +created in English oratorio a true art-form on the largest possible +scale.</p> + +<p>There never has been a time when Handel has been overrated, +except in so far as other composers have been neglected. But +no composer has suffered so much from pious misinterpretation +and the popular admiration of misleading externals. It is not the +place here to dilate upon the burial of Handel’s art beneath the +“mammoth” performances of the Handel Festivals at the +Crystal Palace; nor can we give more than a passing reference +to the effects of “additional accompaniments” in the style of an +altogether later age, started most unfortunately by Mozart +(whose share in the work has been very much misinterpreted +and corrupted) and continued in the middle of the 19th century +by musicians of every degree of intelligence and refinement, until +all sense of unity of style has been lost and does not seem likely +to be recovered as a general element in the popular appreciation +of Handel for some time to come. But in spite of this, Handel +will never cease to be revered and loved as one of the greatest +of composers, if we value the criteria of architectonic power, +a perfect sense of style, and the power to rise to the most sublime +height of musical climax by the simplest means.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Handel’s important works have all been mentioned above with +their dates, and a separate detailed list does not seem necessary. +He was an extremely rapid worker, and his later works are dated +almost day by day as they proceed. From this we learn that the +<i>Messiah</i> was sketched and scored within twenty-one days, and that +even <i>Jephtha</i>, with an interruption of nearly four months besides +several other delays caused by Handel’s failing sight, was begun and +finished within seven months, representing hardly five weeks’ actual +writing. Handel’s extant works may be roughly summarized from +the edition of the <i>Händelgesellschaft</i> as 41 Italian operas, 2 Italian +oratorios, 2 German Passions, 18 English oratorios, 4 English secular +oratorios, 4 English secular cantatas, and a few other small works, +English and Italian, of the type of oratorio or incidental dramatic +music; 3 Latin settings of the <i>Te Deum</i>; the (English) <i>Dettingen +Te Deum</i> and <i>Utrecht Te Deum and Jubilate</i>; 4 coronation anthems; +3 volumes of English anthems (<i>Chandos Anthems</i>); 1 volume of +Latin church music; 3 volumes of Italian vocal chamber-music; +1 volume of clavier works; 37 instrumental duets and trios (sonatas), +and 4 volumes of orchestral music and organ concertos (about 40 +works). Precise figures are impossible as there is no means of drawing +the line between <i>pasticcios</i> and original works. The instrumental +pieces especially are used again and again as overtures to operas and +oratorios and anthems.</p> + +<p>The complete edition of the German <i>Händelgesellschaft</i> suffers +from being the work of one man who would not recognize that his +task was beyond any single man’s power. The best arrangements +of the vocal scores are undoubtedly those published by Novello +that are not based on “additional accompaniments.” None is +absolutely trustworthy, and those of the editor of the German +<i>Händelgesellschaft</i> are sad proofs of the uselessness of expert library-scholarship +without a sound musical training. Yet Chrysander’s +services in the restoration of Handel are beyond praise. We need +only mention his discovery of authentic trombone parts in <i>Israel +in Egypt</i> as one among many of his priceless contributions to musical +history and aesthetics.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(D. F. T.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Chrysander says Mattei instead of Ariosti.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2i" id="ft2i" href="#fa2i"><span class="fn">2</span></a> By a dramatic coincidence Handel’s blindness interrupted him +during the writing of the chorus, “How dark, oh Lord, are Thy +decrees, ... all our joys to sorrow turning ... as the night succeeds +the day.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft3i" id="ft3i" href="#fa3i"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The “moral” question has been raised afresh in reviews of +Mr Sedley Taylor’s admirable volume of analysed illustrations (<i>The +Indebtedness of Handel to works of other Composers</i>, Cambridge, 1906). +The latest argument is that Handel shows moral obliquity in borrowing +“regrettably” from sources no one could know at the time. +This reasoning makes it mysterious that a man of such moral +obliquity should ever have written a note of his own music in +England when he could have stolen the complete choral works of +Bach and most of the hundred operas of Alessandro Scarlatti with +the certainty that the sources would not be printed for a century +after his death, even if his own name did not then check curiosity +among antiquarians. Of course Handel’s plagiarisms would have +damaged his reputation if contemporaries had known of them. His +polyphonic scholarship was more “antiquated” in the 18th century +than it is in the 20th.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4i" id="ft4i" href="#fa4i"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Much light would be thrown on the subject if some one sufficiently +ignorant of architecture were to make researches into Sir Christopher +Wren’s indebtedness to Italian architects!</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HANDFASTING<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (A.S. <i>handfæstnung</i>, pledging one’s hand), +primarily the O. Eng. synonym for <i>betrothal</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), and later a +peculiar form of temporary marriage at one time common in +Scotland, the only necessary ceremony being the verbal pledge +of the couple while holding hands. The pair thus handfasted +were, in accordance with Scotch law, entitled to live together +for a year and a day. If then they so wished, the temporary +marriage could be made permanent: if not, they could go their +several ways without reproach, the child, if any, being supported +by the party who objected to further cohabitation.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HANDICAP<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> (from the expression <i>hand in cap</i>, referring to +drawing lots), a disadvantageous condition imposed upon the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page916" id="page916"></a>916</span> +superior competitor in sports and games, or an advantage +allowed the inferior, in order to equalize the chances of both. +The character of the handicap depends upon the nature of the +sport. Thus in horse-racing the better horse must carry the +heavier weight. In foot races the inferior runners are allowed +to start at certain distances in advance of the best (or “scratch”) +man, according to their previous records. In distance competitions +(weights, fly-casting, jumping, &c.) the inferior contestants +add certain distances to their scores. In time contests (yachting, +canoe-racing, &c.) the weaker or smaller competitors subtract +certain periods of time from that actually made, reckoned by +the mile. In stroke contests (<i>e.g.</i> golf) a certain number of +strokes are subtracted from or added to the scores, according +to the strength of the players. In chess and draughts the +stronger competitor may play without one or more pieces. In +court games (tennis, lawn-tennis, racquets, &c.) and in billiards +certain points, or percentage of points, are accorded the weaker +players.</p> + +<p>Handicapping was applied to horse-racing as early as 1680, +though the word was not used in this connexion much before the +middle of the 18th century. A “Post and Handy-Cap Match” +is described in <i>Pond’s Racing Calendar</i> for 1754. A reference +to something similar in Germany and Scandinavia, called +<i>Freimarkt</i>, may be found in <i>Germania</i>, vol. xix.</p> + +<p>Competitions in which handicaps are given are called <i>handicap-events</i> +or <i>handicaps</i>. There are many systems which depend +upon the whim of the individual competitors. Thus a tennis +player may offer to play against his inferior with a selzer-bottle +instead of a racquet; or a golfer to play with only one +club; or a chess-player to make his moves without seeing the +board.</p> + +<p>The name “handicap” was taken from an ancient English +game, to which Pepys, in his <i>Diary</i> under the date of the 18th +of September 1660, thus refers: “Here some of us fell to handicap, +a sport that I never knew before, which was very good.” +This game, which became obsolete in the 19th century, was +described as early as the 14th in <i>Piers the Plowman</i> under the +name of “New Faire.” It was originally played by three +persons, one of whom proposed to “challenge,” or exchange, +some piece of property belonging to another for something of +his own. The challenge being accepted an umpire was chosen, +and all three put up a sum of money as a forfeit. The two +players then placed their right hands in a cap, or in their pockets, +in which there was loose money, while the umpire proceeded to +describe the two objects of exchange, and to declare what sum +of money the owner of the inferior article should pay as a bonus +to the other. This declaration was made as rapidly as possible +and ended with the invitation, “Draw, gentlemen!” Each +player then withdrew and held out his hand, which he opened. +If both hands contained money the exchange was effected +according to the conditions laid down by the umpire, who then +took the forfeit money for himself. If neither hand contained +money the exchange was declined and the umpire took the +forfeit money. If only one player signified his acceptance of +the exchange by holding money in his hand, he was entitled to +the forfeit-money, though the exchange was not made.</p> + +<p>Handicap was also the name of an old game at cards, now +obsolete. It resembled the game of Loo, and probably derived +its name from the ancient sport described above.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HANDSEL,<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> the O. Eng. term for earnest money; especially +in Scotland the first money taken at a market or fair. The +termination <i>sel</i> is the modern “sell.” “Hand” indicates, not +a bargain by shaking hands, but the actual putting of the money +into the hand. Handsels were also presents or earnests of goodwill +in the North; thus Handsel Monday, the first Monday in +the year, an occasion for universal tipping, is the equivalent of +the English Boxing day.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HANDSWORTH.<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> (1) An urban district in the Handsworth +parliamentary division of Staffordshire, England, suburban +to Birmingham on the north-west. Pop. (1891), 32,756; (1901) +52,921. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Birmingham</a></span>.) (2) An urban district in the +Hallamshire parliamentary division of Yorkshire, 4 m. S.E. +of Sheffield. Pop. (1901), 13,404. In this neighbourhood are +extensive collieries and quarries.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HANDWRITING.<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> Under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palaeography</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Writing</a></span>, the +history of handwriting is dealt with. Questions of handwriting +come before legal tribunals mainly in connexion with the law +of evidence. In Roman law, the authenticity of documents +was proved first by the attesting witnesses; in the second place, +if they were dead, by comparison of handwritings. It was +necessary, however, that the document to be used for purposes +of comparison either should have been executed with the formalities +of a public document, or should have its genuineness +proved by three attesting witnesses. The determination was +apparently, in the latter case, left to experts, who were sworn +to give an impartial opinion (Code 4, 21. 20). Proof by comparison +of handwritings, with a reference if necessary to three +experts as to the handwriting which is to be used for the purposes +of comparison, is provided for in the French Code of Civil +Procedure (arts. 193 et seq.); and in Quebec (Code Proc. Civ. +arts. 392 et seq.) and St Lucia (Code Civ. Proc. arts. 286 et seq.), +the French system has been adopted with modifications. Comparison +by witnesses of disputed writings with any writing +proved to the satisfaction of the judge to be genuine is accepted +in England and Ireland in all legal proceedings whether criminal +or civil, including proceedings before arbitrators (Denman +Act, 28 & 29 Vict. c. 18, 55. 1, 8); and such writings and the +evidence of witnesses respecting the same may be submitted +to the court and jury as evidence of the genuineness or otherwise +of the writing in dispute. It is admitted in Scotland (where the +term <i>comparatio literarum</i> is in use) and in most of the American +states, subject to the same conditions. In England, prior to +the Common Law Procedure Act of 1854 (now superseded by +the act of 1866), documents irrelevant to the matter in issue +were not admissible for the sole purpose of comparison, and this +rule has been adopted, and is still adhered to, in some of the +states in America. In England, as in the United States, and in +most legal systems, the primary and best evidence of handwriting +is that of the writer himself. Witnesses who saw him +write the writing in question, or who are familiar with his +handwriting either from having seen him write or from having +corresponded with him, or otherwise, may be called. In cases +of disputed handwriting the court will accept the evidence of +experts in handwriting, <i>i.e.</i> persons who have an adequate +knowledge of handwriting, whether acquired in the way of their +business or not, such as solicitors or bank cashiers (<i>R.</i> v. +<i>Silverlock</i>, 1894, 2 Q.B. 766). In such cases the witness is +required to compare the admitted handwriting of the person +whose writing is in question with the disputed document, and +to state in detail the similarities or differences as to the formation +of words and letters, on which he bases his opinion as to the +genuineness or otherwise of the disputed document. By the use +of the magnifying glass, or, as in the Parnell case, by enlarged +photographs of the letters alleged to have been written by Mr +Parnell, the court and jury are much assisted to appreciate the +grounds on which the conclusions of the expert are founded. +Evidence of this kind, being based on opinion and theory, +needs to be very carefully weighed, and the dangers of implicit +reliance on it have been illustrated in many cases (<i>e.g.</i> the +Beck case in 1904; and see <i>Seaman</i> v. <i>Netherclift</i>, 1876, 1 +C.P.D. 540). Evidence by comparison of handwriting comes +in principally either in default, or in corroboration, of the other +modes of proof.</p> + +<p>Where attestation is necessary to the validity of a document, +<i>e.g.</i> wills and bills of sale, the execution must be proved by one +or more of the attesting witnesses, unless they are dead or +cannot be produced, when it is sufficient to prove the signature +of one of them to the attesting clause (28 & 29 Vict. c. 18, s. 7). +Signatures to certain public and official documents need not in +general be proved (see <i>e.g.</i> Evidence Act, 1845, ss. 1, 2).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Taylor, <i>Law of Evidence</i> (10th ed., London, 1906); Erskine +<i>Principles of the Law of Scotland</i> (20th ed., Edinburgh, 1903); +Bouvier, <i>Law Dicty.</i> (Boston and London, 1897); Harris, <i>Identification</i> +(Albany, 1892); Hagan, <i>Disputed Handwriting</i> (New York, +1894); also the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Identification</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. W. R.)</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page917" id="page917"></a>917</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HANG-CHOW-FU,<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> a city of China, in the province of Cheh-Kiang, +2 m. N.W. of the Tsien-tang-Kiang, at the southern +terminus of the Grand canal, by which it communicates with +Peking. It lies about 100 m. S.W. of Shanghai, in 30° 20′ +20″ N., 120° 7′ 27″ E. Towards the west is the Si-hu or Western +Lake, a beautiful sheet of water, with its banks and islands +studded with villas, monuments and gardens, and its surface +traversed by gaily-painted pleasure boats. Exclusive of extensive +and flourishing suburbs, the city has a circuit, of 12 m.; +its streets are well paved and clean; and it possesses a large +number of arches, public monuments, temples, hospitals and +colleges. It has long ranked as one of the great centres of +Chinese commerce and Chinese learning. In 1869 the silk +manufactures alone were said to give employment to 60,000 +persons within its walls, and it has an extensive production of +gold and silver work and tinsel paper. On one of the islands +in the lake is the great Wên-lan-ko or pavilion of literary +assemblies, and it is said that at the examinations for the second +degree, twice every three years, from 10,000 to 15,000 candidates +come together. In the north-east corner of the city is the +Nestorian church which was noted by Marco Polo, the façade +being “elaborately carved and the gates covered with elegantly +wrought iron.” There is a Roman Catholic mission in Hangchow, +and the Church Missionary Society, the American Presbyterians, +and the Baptists have stations. The local dialect differs +from the Mandarin mainly in pronunciation. The population, +which is remarkable for gaiety of clothing, was formerly reckoned +at 2,000,000, but is now variously estimated at 300,000, 400,000 +or 800,000. Hang-chow-fu was declared open to foreign trade +in 1896, in pursuance of the Japanese treaty of Shimonoseki. +It is connected with Shanghai by inland canal, which is navigable +for boats drawing up to 4 ft. of water, and which might be +greatly improved by dredging. The cities of Shanghai, Hangchow +and Suchow form the three points of a triangle, each being +connected with the other by canal, and trade is now open by +steam between all three under the inland navigation rules. +These canals pass through the richest and most populous districts +of China, and in particular lead into the great silk-producing +districts. They have for many centuries been the highway +of commerce, and afford a cheap and economical means of +transport. Hangchow lies at the head of the large estuary +of that name, which is, however, too shallow for navigation by +steamers. The estuary or bay is funnel-shaped, and its configuration +produces at spring tides a “bore” or tidal wave, +which at its maximum reaches a height of 15 to 20 ft. The +value of trade passing through the customs in 1899 was +£1,729,000; in 1904 these figures had risen to £2,543,831.</p> + +<p>Hang-chow-fu is the Kinsai of Marco Polo, who describes it +as the finest and noblest city in the world, and speaks enthusiastically +of the number and splendour of its mansions and the +wealth and luxuriance of its inhabitants. According to this +authority it had a circuit of 100 m., and no fewer than 12,000 +bridges and 3000 baths. The name Kinsai, which appears in +Wassaf as Khanzai, in Ibn Batuta as Khansa, in Odoric of +Pordenone as Camsay, and elsewhere as Campsay and Cassay, +is really a corruption of the Chinese <i>King-sze</i>, capital, the same +word which is still applied to Peking. From the 10th to the +13th century (960-1272) the city, whose real name was then +Ling-nan, was the capital of southern China and the seat of the +Sung dynasty, which was dethroned by the Mongolians shortly +before Marco Polo’s visit. Up to 1861, when it was laid in ruins +by the T’aip’ings, Hangchow continued to maintain its position +as one of the most flourishing cities in the empire.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HANGING,<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> one of the modes of execution under Roman law +(<i>ad furcam domnatio</i>), and in England and some other countries +the usual form of capital punishment. It was derived by the +Anglo-Saxons from their German ancestors (Tacitus, <i>Germ.</i> +12). Under William the Conqueror this mode of punishment is +said to have been disused in favour of mutilation: but Henry I. +decreed that all thieves taken should be hanged (<i>i.e.</i> summarily +without trial), and by the time of Henry II. hanging was fully +established as a punishment for homicide; the “right of pit +and gallows” was ordinarily included in the royal grants of +jurisdiction to lords of manors and to ecclesiastical<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and +municipal corporations. In the middle ages every town, abbey, +and nearly all the more important manorial lords had the right +of hanging. The clergy had rights, too, in respect to the gallows. +Thus William the Conqueror invested the abbot of Battle Abbey +with authority to save the life of any criminal. From the end +of the 12th century the jurisdiction of the royal courts gradually +became exclusive; as early as 1212 the king’s justices sentenced +offenders to be hanged (<i>Seld. Soc. Publ.</i> vol. i.; <i>Select Pleas +of the Crown</i>, p. 111), and in the Gloucester eyre of 1221 instances +of this sentence are numerous (Maitland, pl. 72, 101, 228). In +1241 a nobleman’s son, William Marise, was hanged for piracy. +In the reign of Edward I. the abbot of Peterborough set up a +gallows at Collingham, Notts, and hanged a thief. In 1279 +two hundred and eighty Jews were hanged for clipping coin. +The mayor and the porter of the South Gate of Exeter were +hanged for their neglect in leaving the city gate open at night, +thereby aiding the escape of a murderer. Hanging in time +superseded all other forms of capital punishment for felony. +It was substituted in 1790 for burning as a punishment of female +traitors and in 1814 for beheading as a punishment for male +traitors. The older and more primitive modes of carrying out +the sentence were by hanging from the bough of a tree (“the +father to the bough, the son to the plough”) or from a gallows. +Formerly in the worst cases of murder it was customary after +execution to hang the criminal’s body in chains near the scene +of his crime. This was known as “gibbeting,” and, though by +no means rare in the earliest times, was, according to Blackstone, +no part of the legal sentence. Holinshed is the authority for +the statement that sometimes culprits were gibbeted alive, +but this is doubtful. It was not until 1752 that gibbeting was +recognized by statute. The act (25 Geo. II. c. 37) empowered +the judges to direct that the dead body of a murderer should be +hung in chains, in the manner practised for the most atrocious +offences, or given over to surgeons to be dissected and anatomized, +and forbade burial except after dissection (see Foster, Crown +Law, 107, Earl Ferrers’ case, 1760). The hanging in chains +was usually on the spot where the murder took place. Pirates +were gibbeted on the sea shore or river bank. The act of 1752 +was repealed in 1828, but the alternatives of dissection or hanging +in chains were re-enacted and continued in use until abolished +as to dissection by the Anatomy Act in 1832, and as to hanging +in chains in 1834. The last murderer hung in chains seems to +have been James Cook, executed at Leicester on the 10th of +August 1832. The irons used on that occasion are preserved in +Leicester prison. Instead of chains, gibbet irons, a framework +to hold the limbs together, were sometimes used. At the town +hall, Rye, Sussex, are preserved the irons used in 1742 for one +John Breeds who murdered the mayor.</p> + +<p>The earlier modes of hanging were gradually disused, and +the present system of hanging by use of the drop is said to have +been inaugurated at the execution of the fourth Earl Ferrers +in 1760. The form of scaffold now in use<a name="fa2j" id="fa2j" href="#ft2j"><span class="sp">2</span></a> has under the gallows +a drop constructed on the principle of the trap-doors on a +theatrical stage, upon which the convict is placed under the +gallows, a white cap is placed over his head, and when the halter +has been properly adjusted the drop is withdrawn by a mechanical +contrivance worked by a lever, much like those in use on railways +for moving points and signals. The convict falls into a pit, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page918" id="page918"></a>918</span> +the length of the fall being regulated by his height and weight. +Death results not from real hanging and strangulation, but from +a fracture of the cervical vertebrae. Compression of the windpipe +by the rope and the obstruction of the circulation aid in the +fatal result. Recently the noose has had imbedded in its fibre +a metal eyelet which is adjusted tightly beneath the ear and +considerably expedites death. The convict is left hanging +until life is extinct.</p> + +<p>It was long considered essential that executions, like trials, +should be public, and be carried out in a manner calculated to +impress evil-doers. Partly to this idea, partly to notions of +revenge and temporal punishment of sin, is probably due the +rigour of the administration of the English law. But the methods +of execution were unseemly, as delineated in Hogarth’s print +of the execution of the idle apprentice, and were ineffectual in +reducing the bulk of crime, which was augmented by the inefficiency +of the police and the uncertainty and severity of the +law, which rendered persons tempted to commit crime either +reckless or confident of escape. The scandals attending public +executions led to an attempt to alter the law in 1841, although +many protests had been made long before, among them those of +the novelist Fielding. But perhaps the most forcible and +effectual was that of Charles Dickens in his letters to <i>The Times</i> +written after mixing in the crowd gathered to witness the execution +of the Mannings at Horsemonger Lane gaol in 1849. After +his experiences he came to the conclusion that public executions +attracted the depraved and those affected by morbid curiosity; +and that the spectacle had neither the solemnity nor the salutary +effect which should attend the execution of public justice. His +views were strongly resisted in some quarters; and it was not +until 1868 (31 & 32 Vict. c. 24) that they were accepted. The +last public hanging in England was that of Michael Barrett for +murder by causing an explosion at Clerkenwell prison with the +object of releasing persons confined there for treason and felony +(Ann. Reg., 1868, p. 63). Under the act of 1868 (31 & 32 Vict. +c. 24), which was adapted from similar legislation already in +force in the Australian colonies convicted murderers are hanged +within the walls of a prison. The sentence of the court is that +the convict “be hanged by the neck until he is dead.” The +execution of the sentence devolves on the sheriff of the county +(Sheriffs Act 1887, s. 13). As a general rule the sentence is +carried out in England and Ireland at 8 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> on a week-day +(not being Monday), in the week following the third Sunday after +sentence was passed. In old times prisoners were often hanged +on the day after sentence was passed; and under the act of +1752 this was made the rule in cases of murder. A public notice +of the date and hour of execution must be posted on the prison +walls not less than twelve hours before the execution and must +remain until the inquest is over. The persons required to be +present are the sheriff, the gaoler, chaplain and surgeon of the +prison, and such other officers of the prison as the sheriff requires; +justices of the peace for the jurisdiction to which the prison +belongs, and such of the relatives, or such other persons as the +sheriff or visiting justices allow, may also attend. It is usual +to allow the attendance of some representatives of the press. +The death of the prisoner is certified by the prison surgeon, and +a declaration that judgment of death has been executed is signed +by the sheriff. An inquest is then held on the body by the +coroner for the jurisdiction and a jury from which prison officers +are excluded. The certificate and declaration, and a duplicate +of the coroner’s inquiry also, are sent to the home office, or in +Ireland to the lord-lieutenant, and the body of the prisoner is +interred in quicklime within the prison walls if space is available. +It is also the practice to toll the bell of the parish or other neighbouring +church, for fifteen minutes before and fifteen minutes +after the execution. The hoisting of the black flag at the moment +of execution was abolished in 1902. The regulations as to +execution are printed in the Statutory Rules and Orders, Revised +ed. 1904, vol. x. (tits. Prison E. and Prison I). The act of 1868 +applies only to executions for murder; but since the passing of +the act there have been no executions for any other crime +within the United Kingdom. (See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Capital Punishment</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>In Scotland execution by hanging is carried out in the same +manner as in England and Ireland, but under the supervision +of the magistrates of the burgh in which it is decreed to take +place, and in lieu of the inquest required in England and Ireland +an inquiry is held at the instance of the procurator-fiscal before +a sheriff or sheriff substitute (act of 1868, s. 13). The procedure +at the execution is governed by the act of 1868 and the Scottish +Prison Rules, rr. 465-469 (Stat. Rules and Orders, Revised ed. +1904, tit. Prison S).</p> + +<p><i>British Dominions beyond the Seas.</i>—Throughout the King’s +dominions hanging is the regular method of executing sentence +of death. In India the Penal Code superseded the modes of +punishment under Mahommedan law, and s. 368 of the Criminal +Procedure Code of 1898 provides that sentence of death is to be +executed by hanging by the neck.</p> + +<p>In Canada the sentence is executed within a prison under +conditions very similar to those in England (Criminal Code, 1892; +ss. 936-945). In Australia the execution takes place within the +prison walls, at a time and place appointed by the governor of +the state. See Queensland Code, 1899, s. 664; Western Australia +Code, 1901, s. 663; in these states no inquest is held. In Western +Australia the governor may cause an aboriginal native to be +executed outside a prison. In New Zealand the only mode of +execution is by hanging within a prison (Act of 1883).</p> + +<p><i>United States.</i>—-In all the states except New York, Massachusetts, +New Jersey, North Carolina, Mississippi, Virginia, and +Ohio (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Electrocution</a></span>) persons sentenced to death are +hanged. In Utah the criminal may elect to be shot instead.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The only countries, whose law is not of direct English origin, +which inflict capital punishment by hanging are Japan, Austria, +Hungary and Russia.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. F. C.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See Pollock and Maitland vol. i. 563. The sole survival of these +grants is the jurisdiction of the justices of the Soke of Peterborough +to try for capital offences at their quarter sessions.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2j" id="ft2j" href="#fa2j"><span class="fn">2</span></a> In most counties in Ireland the scaffold used (in 1852) to consist +in an iron balcony permanently fixed outside the gaol wall. There +was a small door in the wall commanding the balcony and opening +out upon it. The bottom of the iron balcony or cage was so constructed +that on the withdrawal of a pin or bolt which could be +managed from within the gaol, the trap-door upon which the culprit +stood dropped from under his feet. The upper end of the rope was +fastened to a strong iron bar, which projected over the trap-door. +There were usually two or three trap-doors on the same balcony, +so that, if required, two or more men could be hanged simultaneously. +(Trench, <i>Realities of Irish Life</i> (1869), 280.)</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HANGÖ,<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> a port and sea-bathing resort situated on the promontory +of Hangöudd, to the extreme south-west of Finland. +Hangö owes its commercial importance to the fact that it is +practically the only winter ice-free port in Finland, and is thus +of value both to the Finnish and the Russian sea-borne trade. +When incorporated in 1874 it had only a few hundred inhabitants; +in 1900 it had 2501 and it has now over six thousand (5986 in +1904). It is connected by railway with Helsingfors and Tammerfors, +and is the centre of the Finnish butter export, which +now amounts to over £1,000,000 yearly. There is a considerable +import of coal, cotton, iron and breadstuffs, the chief exports +being butter, fish, timber and wood pulp. During the period +of emigration, owing to political troubles with Russia, over +12,000 Finns sailed from Hangö in a single year (1901), mostly +for the United States and Canada. Hangö now takes front rank +as a fashionable watering-place, especially for wealthy Russians, +having a dry climate and a fine strand.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HANKA, WENCESLAUS<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> (1791-1861), Bohemian philologist, +was born at Horeniowes, a hamlet of eastern Bohemia, on the +10th of June 1791. He was sent in 1807 to school at Königgrätz, +to escape the conscription, then to the university of Prague, +where he founded a society for the cultivation of the Czech +language. At Vienna, where he afterwards studied law, he +established a Czech periodical; and in 1813 he made the +acquaintance of Joseph Dobrowsky, the eminent philologist. +On the 16th of September 1817 Hanka alleged that he had +discovered some ancient Bohemian manuscript poems (the +Königinhof MS.) of the 13th and 14th century in the church +tower of the village of Kralodwor, or Königinhof. These were +published in 1818, under the title <i>Kralodworsky Rukopis</i>, with +a German translation by Swoboda. Great doubt, however, was +felt as to their genuineness, and Dobrowsky, by pronouncing +<i>The Judgment of Libussa</i>, another manuscript found by +Hanka, an “obvious fraud,” confirmed the suspicion. Some +years afterwards Dobrowsky saw fit to modify his decision, +but by modern Czech scholars the MS. is regarded as a forgery. +A translation into English, <i>The Manuscript of the Queen’s Court</i>, +was made by Wratislaw in 1852. The originals were presented +by the discoverer to the Bohemian museum at Prague, of which +he was appointed librarian in 1818. In 1848 Hanka, who was +an ardent Panslavist, took part in the Slavonic congress and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page919" id="page919"></a>919</span> +other peaceful national demonstrations, being the founder of +the political society Slovanska Lipa. He was elected to the +imperial diet at Vienna, but declined to take his seat. In the +winter of 1848 he became lecturer and in 1849 professor of +Slavonic languages in the university of Prague, where he died +on the 12th of January 1861.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His chief works and editions are the following: <i>Hankowy Pjsne</i> +(Prague, 1815), a volume of poems; <i>Starobyla Skladani</i> (1817-1826), +in 5 vols.—a collection of old Bohemian poems, chiefly from unpublished +manuscripts; <i>A Short History of the Slavonic Peoples</i> +(1818); <i>A Bohemian Grammar</i> (1822) and <i>A Polish Grammar</i> (1839)—these +grammars were composed on a plan suggested by Dobrowsky; +<i>Igor</i> (1821), an ancient Russian epic, with a translation into +Bohemian; a part of the Gospels from the Reims manuscript in +the Glagolitic character (1846); the old Bohemian Chronicles of +<i>Dalimil</i> (1848) and the <i>History of Charles IV.</i>, by Procop Lupáč +(1848); <i>Evangelium Ostromis</i> (1853).</p> +</div> + +<p>HANKOW (“Mouth of the Han”), the great commercial +centre of the middle portion of the Chinese empire, and since +1858 one of the principal places opened to foreign trade. It is +situated on the northern side of the Yangtsze-kiang at its +junction with the Han river, about 600 m. W. of Shanghai in +30° 32′ 51″ N., 114° 19′ 55″ E., at a height of 150 ft. By the +Chinese it is not considered a separate city, but as a suburb +of the now decadent city of Hanyang; and it may almost be +said to stand in a similar relation to Wu-chang the capital of +the province of Hupeh, which lies immediately opposite on the +southern bank of the Yangtsze-kiang. Hankow extends for about +a mile along the main river and about two and a half along the +Han. It is protected by a wall 18 ft. high, which was erected +in 1863 and has a circuit of about 4 m. Within recent years +the port has made rapid advance in wealth and importance. +The opening up of the upper waters of the Yangtsze to steam +navigation has made it a commercial <i>entrepôt</i> second only to +Shanghai. It is the terminus of a railway between Peking +and the Yangtsze, the northern half of the trunk line from +Peking to Canton. There is daily communication by regular +lines of steamers with Shanghai, and smaller steamers ply on the +upper section of the river between Hankow and Ich’ang. The +principal article of export continues to be black tea, of which +staple Hankow has always been the central market. The bulk +of the leaf tea, however, now goes to Russia by direct steamers +to Odessa instead of to London as formerly, and a large quantity +goes overland via Tientsin and Siberia in the form of brick tea. +The quantity of brick tea thus exported in 1904 was upwards +of 10 million ℔. The exports which come next in value are +opium, wood-oil, hides, beans, cotton yarn and raw silk. The +population of Hankow, together with the city of Wu-chang on +the opposite bank, is estimated at 800,000, and the number of +foreign residents is about 500. Large iron-works have been +erected by the Chinese authorities at Hanyang, a couple of miles +higher up the river, and at Wuchang there are two official cotton +mills. The British concession, on which the business part of +the foreign settlement is built, was obtained in 1861 by a lease +in perpetuity from the Chinese authorities in favour of the crown. +By 1863 a great embankment and a roadway were completed +along the river, which may rise as much as 50 ft. or more above +its ordinary levels, and not infrequently, as in 1849 and 1866, +lays a large part of the town under water. On the former occasion +little was left uncovered but the roofs of the houses. In 1864 +a public assay office was established. Sub-leases for a term of +years are granted by the crown to private individuals; local +control, including the policing of the settlement, is managed by +a municipal council elected under regulations promulgated by +the British minister in China, acting by authority of the +sovereign’s orders in council. Foreigners, <i>i.e.</i> non-British, are +admitted to become lease-holders on their submitting to be +bound by the municipal regulations. The concession, however, +gives no territorial jurisdiction. All foreigners, of whatever +nationality, are justiciable only before their own consular +authorities by virtue of the extra-territorial clauses of their +treaties with China. In 1895 a concession, on similar terms to +that under which the British is held, was obtained by Germany, +and this was followed by concessions to France and Russia. +These three concessions all lie on the north bank of the river +and immediately below the British. An extension of the British +concession backwards was granted in 1898. The Roman +Catholics, the London Missionary Society and the Wesleyans +have all missions in the town; and there are two missionary +hospitals. The total trade in 1904 was valued at £15,401,076 +(£9,042,190 being exports and £6,358,886 imports) as compared +with a total of £17,183,400 in 1891 and £11,628,000 in 1880.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HANLEY,<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> a market town and parliamentary borough of +Staffordshire, England, in the Potteries district, 148 m. N.W. +from London, on the North Staffordshire railway. Pop. (1891) +54,946; (1901) 61,599. The parliamentary borough includes +the adjoining town of Burslem. The town, which lies on high +ground, has handsome municipal buildings, free library, technical +and art museum, elementary, science and art schools, and a +large park. Its manufactures include porcelain, encaustic tiles, +and earthenware, and give employment to the greater part of +the population, women and children being employed almost as +largely as men. In the neighbourhood coal and iron are obtained. +Hanley is of modern development. Its municipal constitution +dates from 1857, the parliamentary borough from 1885, and +the county borough from 1888. Shelton, Hope, Northwood and +Wellington are populous ecclesiastical parishes included within +its boundaries. That of Etruria, adjoining on the west, originated +in the Ridge House pottery works of Josiah Wedgwood and +Thomas Bentley, who founded them in 1769, naming them after +the country of the Etruscans in Italy. Etruria Hall was the +scene of Wedgwood’s experiments. The parliamentary borough +of Hanley returns one member. The town was governed by a +mayor, 6 aldermen, and 18 councillors until under the “Potteries +federation” scheme (1908) it became part of the borough of +Stoke-on-Trent (<i>q.v.</i>) in 1910.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HANNA, MARCUS ALONZO<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (1837-1904), American politician, +was born at New Lisbon (now Lisbon) Columbiana county, +Ohio, on the 24th of September 1837. In 1852 he removed +with his father to Cleveland, where the latter established himself +in the wholesale grocery business, and the son received his +education in the public schools of that city, and at the Western +Reserve University. Leaving college before the completion of +his course, he became associated with his father in business, +and on his father’s death (1862) became a member of the firm. +In 1867 he entered into partnership with his father-in-law, +Daniel P. Rhodes, in the coal and iron business. It was largely +due to Hanna’s progressive methods that the business of the +firm, which became M. A. Hanna & Company in 1877, was +extended to include the ownership of a fleet of lake steam-ships +constructed in their own shipyards, and the control and operation +of valuable coal and iron mines. Subsequently he became +largely interested in street railway properties in Cleveland and +elsewhere, and in various banking institutions. In early life he +had little time for politics, but after 1880 he became prominent +in the affairs of the Republican party in Cleveland, and in 1884 +and 1888 was a delegate to the Republican National Convention, +in the latter year being associated with William McKinley in +the management of the John Sherman canvass. It was not, +however, until 1896, when he personally managed the canvass +that resulted in securing the Republican presidential nomination +for William McKinley at the St Louis Convention (at which he +was a delegate), that he became known throughout the United +States as a political manager of great adroitness, tact and +resourcefulness. Subsequently he became chairman of the +Republican National Committee, and managed with consummate +skill the campaign of 1896 against William Jennings Bryan and +“free-silver.” In March 1897 he was appointed, by Governor +Asa S. Bushnell (1834-1904) United States senator from Ohio, +to succeed John Sherman. In the senate, to which in January +1898 he was elected for the short term ending on the 3rd of +March 1899 and for the succeeding full term, he took little part +in the debates, but was recognized as one of the principal advisers +of the McKinley administration, and his influence was large +in consequence. Apart from politics he took a deep and active +interest in the problems of capital and labour, was one of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page920" id="page920"></a>920</span> +organizers (1901) and the first president of the National Civic +Federation, whose purpose was to solve social and industrial +problems, and in December 1901 became chairman of a permanent +board of conciliation and arbitration established by +the Federation. After President Roosevelt’s policies became +defined, Senator Hanna came to be regarded as the leader of +the conservative branch of the Republican party and a possible +presidential candidate in 1904. He died at Washington on the +15th of February 1904.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HANNAY, JAMES<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> (1827-1873), Scottish critic, novelist and +publicist, was born at Dumfries on the 17th of February 1827. +He came of the Hannays of Sorbie, an ancient Galloway family. +He entered the navy in 1840 and served till 1845, when he +adopted literature as his profession. He acted as reporter on +the <i>Morning Chronicle</i> and gradually obtained a connexion, +writing for the quarterly and monthly journals. In 1857 Hannay +contested the Dumfries burghs in the Conservative interest, +but without success. He edited the <i>Edinburgh Courant</i> from +1860 till 1864, when he removed to London. From 1868 till his +death on the 8th of January 1873 he was British consul at +Barcelona. His letters to the <i>Pall Mall Gazette</i> “From an +Englishman in Spain” were highly appreciated. Hannay’s +best books are his two naval novels, <i>Singleton Fontenoy</i> (1850) +and <i>Eustace Conyers</i> (1855); <i>Satire and Satirists</i> (1854); and +<i>Essays from the Quarterly Review</i> (1861). <i>Satire</i> not only shows +loving appreciation of the great satirists of the past, but is +itself instinct with wit and fine satiric power. The book sparkles +with epigrams and apposite classical allusions, and contains +admirable critical estimates of Horace (Hannay’s favourite +author), Juvenal, Erasmus, Sir David Lindsay, George Buchanan, +Boileau, Butler, Dryden, Swift, Pope, Churchill, Burns, Byron +and Moore.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Among his other works are <i>Biscuits and Grog, Claret Cup</i>, and +<i>Hearts are Trumps</i> (1848); <i>King Dobbs</i> (1849); <i>Sketches in Ultramarine</i> +(1853); an edition of the <i>Poems</i> of Edgar Allan Poe, to which +he prefixed an essay on the poet’s life and genius (1852); <i>Characters +and Criticisms</i>, consisting mainly of his contributions to the <i>Edinburgh +Courant</i> (1865); <i>A Course of English Literature</i> (1866); +<i>Studies on Thackeray</i> (1869); and a family history entitled <i>Three +Hundred Years of a Norman House</i> (the Gurneys) (1867).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HANNEN, JAMES HANNEN,<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1821-1894), English +judge, son of a London merchant, was born at Peckham in 1821. +He was educated at St Paul’s school and at Heidelberg University, +which was famous as a school of law. Called to the bar +at the Middle Temple in 1848, he joined the home circuit. At +this time he also wrote for the press, and supplied special reports +for the <i>Morning Chronicle</i>. Though not eloquent in speech, he +was clear, accurate and painstaking, and soon advanced in his +profession, passing many more brilliant competitors. He +appeared for the claimant in the Shrewsbury peerage case in 1858, +when the 3rd Earl Talbot was declared to be entitled to the +earldom of Shrewsbury as the descendant of the 2nd earl; +was principal agent for Great Britain on the mixed British and +American commission for the settlement of outstanding claims, +1853-1855; and assisted in the prosecution of the Fenian +prisoners at Manchester. In 1868 Hannen was appointed a +judge of the Court of Queen’s Bench. In many cases he took a +strong position of his own, notably in that of <i>Farrar</i> v. <i>Close</i> +(1869), which materially affected the legal status of trade unions +and was regarded by unionists as a severe blow to their interests. +Hannen became judge of the Probate and Divorce Court in 1872, +and in 1875 he was appointed president of the probate and +admiralty division of the High Court of Justice. Here he +showed himself a worthy successor to Cresswell and Penzance. +Many important causes came before him, but he will chiefly +be remembered for the manner in which he presided over the +Parnell special commission. His influence pervaded the whole +proceedings, and it is understood that he personally penned a +large part of the voluminous report. Hannen’s last public +service was in connexion with the Bering Sea inquiry at Paris, +when he acted as one of the British arbitrators. In January +1891 he was appointed a lord of appeal in ordinary (with the +dignity of a life peerage), but in that capacity he had few opportunities +for displaying his powers, and he retired at the close +of the session of 1893. He died in London, after a prolonged +illness, on the 29th of March 1894.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HANNIBAL<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (“mercy” or “favour of Baal”), Carthaginian +general and statesman, son of Hamilcar Barca (<i>q.v.</i>), was born +in 249 or 247 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Destined by his father to succeed him in +the work of vengeance against Rome, he was taken to Spain, +and while yet a boy gave ample evidence of his military aptitude. +Upon the death of his brother-in-law Hasdrubal (221) he was +acclaimed commander-in-chief by the soldiers and confirmed +in his appointment by the Carthaginian government. After +two years spent in completing the conquest of Spain south of +the Ebro, he set himself to begin what he felt to be his life’s task, +the conquest and humiliation of Rome. Accordingly in 219 +he seized some pretext for attacking the town of Saguntum +(mod. Murviedro), which stood under the special protection of +Rome, and disregarding the protests of Roman envoys, stormed +it after an eight months’ siege. As the home government, in +view of Hannibal’s great popularity, did not venture to repudiate +this action, the declaration of war which he desired took place at +the end of the year.</p> + +<p>Of the large army of Libyan and Spanish mercenaries which +he had at his disposal Hannibal selected the most trustworthy +and devoted contingents, and with these determined to execute +the daring plan of carrying the war into the heart of Italy by +a rapid march through Spain and Gaul. Starting in the spring +of 218 he easily fought his way through the northern tribes to +the Pyrenees, and by conciliating the Gaulish chiefs on his +passage contrived to reach the Rhone before the Romans could +take any measures to bar his advance. After out-manœuvring +the natives, who endeavoured to prevent his crossing, Hannibal +evaded a Roman force sent to operate against him in Gaul; he +proceeded up the valley of one of the tributaries of the Rhone +(Isère or, more probably, Durance), and by autumn arrived at +the foot of the Alps. His passage over the mountain-chain, at +a point which cannot be determined with certainty, though the +balance of the available evidence inclines to the Mt Genèvre +pass, and fair cases can be made out for the Col d’Argentière +and for Mt Cenis, was one of the most memorable achievements +of any military force of ancient times. Though the opposition +of the natives and the difficulties of ground and climate cost +Hannibal half his army, his perilous march brought him directly +into Roman territory and entirely frustrated the attempts of the +enemy to fight out the main issue on foreign ground. His +sudden appearance among the Gauls, moreover, enabled him +to detach most of the tribes from their new allegiance to the +Romans before the latter could take steps to check rebellion. +After allowing his soldiers a brief rest to recover from their +exertions Hannibal first secured his rear by subduing the hostile +tribe of the Taurini (mod. Turin), and moving down the Po +valley forced the Romans by virtue of his superior cavalry to +evacuate the plain of Lombardy. In December of the same year +he had an opportunity of showing his superior military skill +when the Roman commander attacked him on the river Trebia +(near Placentia); after wearing down the excellent Roman +infantry he cut it to pieces by a surprise attack from an ambush +in the flank. Having secured his position in north Italy by this +victory, he quartered his troops for the winter on the Gauls, +whose zeal in his cause thereupon began to abate. Accordingly +in spring 217 Hannibal decided to find a more trustworthy base +of operations farther south; he crossed the Apennines without +opposition, but in the marshy lowlands of the Arno he lost a +large part of his force through disease and himself became blind +in one eye. Advancing through the uplands of Etruria he provoked +the main Roman army to a hasty pursuit, and catching +it in a defile on the shore of Lake Trasimenus destroyed it in +the waters or on the adjoining slopes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Trasimene</a></span>). He had +now disposed of the only field force which could check his advance +upon Rome, but realizing that without siege engines he could +not hope to take the capital, he preferred to utilize his victory +by passing into central and southern Italy and exciting a general +revolt against the sovereign power. Though closely watched +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page921" id="page921"></a>921</span> +by a force under Fabius Maximus Cunctator, he was able to +carry his ravages far and wide through Italy: on one occasion +he was entrapped in the lowlands of Campania, but set himself +free by a stratagem which completely deluded his opponent. +For the winter he found comfortable quarters in the Apulian +plain, into which the enemy dared not descend. In the campaign +of 217 Hannibal had failed to obtain a following among the +Italians; in the following year he had an opportunity of turning +the tide in his favour. A large Roman army advanced into +Apulia in order to crush him, and accepted battle on the site +of Cannae. Thanks mainly to brilliant cavalry tactics, Hannibal, +with much inferior numbers, managed to surround and cut to +pieces the whole of this force; moreover, the moral effect of +this victory was such that all the south of Italy joined his cause. +Had Hannibal now received proper material reinforcements +from his countrymen at Carthage he might have made a direct +attack upon Rome; for the present he had to content himself +with subduing the fortresses which still held out against him, +and the only other notable event of 216 was the defection of +Capua, the second largest city of Italy, which Hannibal made +his new base.</p> + +<p>In the next few years Hannibal was reduced to minor operations +which centred mainly round the cities of Campania. He +failed to draw his opponents into a pitched battle, and in some +slighter engagements suffered reverses. As the forces detached +under his lieutenants were generally unable to hold their own, +and neither his home government nor his new ally Philip V. +of Macedon helped to make good his losses, his position in south +Italy became increasingly difficult and his chance of ultimately +conquering Rome grew ever more remote. In 212 he gained an +important success by capturing Tarentum, but in the same year +he lost his hold upon Campania, where he failed to prevent the +concentration of three Roman armies round Capua. Hannibal +attacked the besieging armies with his full force in 211, and +attempted to entice them away by a sudden march through +Samnium which brought him within 3 m. of Rome, but caused +more alarm than real danger to the city. But the siege continued, +and the town fell in the same year. In 210 Hannibal again +proved his superiority in tactics by a severe defeat inflicted at +Herdoniae (mod. Ordona) in Apulia upon a proconsular army, +and in 208 destroyed a Roman force engaged in the siege of +Locri Epizephyrii. But with the loss of Tarentum in 209 and +the gradual reconquest by the Romans of Samnium and Lucania +his hold on south Italy was almost lost. In 207 he succeeded +in making his way again into Apulia, where he waited to concert +measures for a combined march upon Rome with his brother +Hasdrubal (<i>q.v.</i>). On hearing, however, of his brother’s defeat +and death at the Metaurus he retired into the mountain fastnesses +of Bruttium, where he maintained himself for the ensuing +years. With the failure of his brother Mago (<i>q.v.</i>) in Liguria +(205-203) and of his own negotiations with Philip of Macedon, +the last hope of recovering his ascendancy in Italy was lost. +In 203, when Scipio was carrying all before him in Africa and the +Carthaginian peace-party were arranging an armistice, Hannibal +was recalled from Italy by the “patriot” party at Carthage. +After leaving a record of his expedition, engraved in Punic and +Greek upon brazen tablets, in the temple of Juno at Crotona, +he sailed back to Africa. His arrival immediately restored the +predominance of the war-party, who placed him in command of +a combined force of African levies and of his mercenaries from +Italy. In 202 Hannibal, after meeting Scipio in a fruitless peace +conference, engaged him in a decisive battle at Zama. Unable +to cope with his indifferent troops against the well-trained and +confident Roman soldiers, he experienced a crushing defeat +which put an end to all resistance on the part of Carthage.</p> + +<p>Hannibal was still only in his forty-sixth year. He soon showed +that he could be a statesman as well as a soldier. Peace having +been concluded, he was appointed chief magistrate (<i>suffetes, +sofet</i>). The office had become rather insignificant, but Hannibal +restored its power and authority. The oligarchy, always jealous +of him, had even charged him with having betrayed the interests +of his country while in Italy, and neglected to take Rome when +he might have done so. The dishonesty and incompetence of +these men had brought the finances of Carthage into grievous +disorder. So effectively did Hannibal reform abuses that the +heavy tribute imposed by Rome could be paid by instalments +without additional and extraordinary taxation.</p> + +<p>Seven years after the victory of Zama, the Romans, alarmed at +this new prosperity, demanded Hannibal’s surrender. Hannibal +thereupon went into voluntary exile. First he journeyed to +Tyre, the mother-city of Carthage, and thence to Ephesus, where +he was honourably received by Antiochus III. of Syria, who was +then preparing for war with Rome. Hannibal soon saw that the +king’s army was no match for the Romans. He advised him +to equip a fleet and throw a body of troops on the south of +Italy, adding that he would himself take the command. But +he could not make much impression on Antiochus, who listened +more willingly to courtiers and flatterers, and would not +entrust Hannibal with any important charge. In 190 he was +placed in command of a Phoenician fleet, but was defeated in a +battle off the river Eurymedon.</p> + +<p>From the court of Antiochus, who seemed prepared to surrender +him to the Romans, Hannibal fled to Crete, but he soon went +back to Asia, and sought refuge with Prusias, king of Bithynia. +Once more the Romans were determined to hunt him out, and +they sent Flaminius to insist on his surrender. Prusias agreed to +give him up, but Hannibal did not choose to fall into his enemies’ +hands. At Libyssa, on the eastern shore of the Sea of Marmora, +he took poison, which, it was said, he had long carried about +with him in a ring. The precise year of his death was a matter +of controversy. If, as Livy seems to imply, it was 183, he died +in the same year as Scipio Africanus.</p> + +<p>As to the transcendent military genius of Hannibal there +cannot be two opinions. The man who for fifteen years could +hold his ground in a hostile country against several powerful +armies and a succession of able generals must have been a +commander and a tactician of supreme capacity. In the use of +stratagems and ambuscades he certainly surpassed all other +generals of antiquity. Wonderful as his achievements were, we +must marvel the more when we take into account the grudging +support he received from Carthage. As his veterans melted +away, he had to organize fresh levies on the spot. We never +hear of a mutiny in his army, composed though it was of Africans, +Spaniards and Gauls. Again, all we know of him comes for the +most part from hostile sources. The Romans feared and hated +him so much that they could not do him justice. Livy speaks +of his great qualities, but he adds that his vices were equally +great, among which he singles out his “more than Punic perfidy” +and “an inhuman cruelty.” For the first there would seem to +be no further justification than that he was consummately +skilful in the use of ambuscades. For the latter there is, we +believe, no more ground than that at certain crises he acted in +the general spirit of ancient warfare. Sometimes he contrasts +most favourably with his enemy. No such brutality stains his +name as that perpetrated by Claudius Nero on the vanquished +Hasdrubal. Polybius merely says that he was accused of cruelty +by the Romans and of avarice by the Carthaginians. He had +indeed bitter enemies, and his life was one continuous struggle +against destiny. For steadfastness of purpose, for organizing +capacity and a mastery of military science he has perhaps never +had an equal.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Polybius iii.-xv., xxi.-ii., xxiv.; Livy xxi.-xxx.; +Cornelius Nepos, <i>Vita Hannibalis</i>; Appian, <i>Bellum Hannibalicum</i>; +E. Hennebert, <i>Histoire d’Annibal</i> (Paris, 1870-1891, 3 vols.); F. A. +Dodge, <i>Great Captains, Hannibal</i> (Boston and New York, 1891); +D. Grassi, <i>Annibale giudicato da Polibio e Tito Livio</i> (Vicenza, 1896); +W. How, <i>Hannibal and the Great War between Rome and Carthage</i> +(London, 1899); Te Montanari, <i>Annibale</i>, down to 217 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (Rovigo, +1901); K. Lehmann, <i>Die Angriffe der drei Barkiden auf Italien</i> +(Leipzig, 1905), with bibliography. See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Punic Wars</a></span> and +articles on the chief battle sites. On Hannibal’s passage through +Gaul and the Alps see T. Arnold, <i>The Second Punic War</i> (ed. W. T. +Arnold, London, 1886), Appendix B, pp. 362-373, with bibliography; +D. Freshfield in <i>Alpine Journal</i> (1883), pp. 267-300; L. Montlahuc, +<i>Le Vrai Chemin d’Annibal à travers les Alpes</i> (Paris, 1896); J. Fuchs, +<i>Hannibals Alpenübergang</i> (Vienna, 1897); G. E. Marindin in <i>Classical +Review</i> (1899), pp. 238-249; W. Osiander, <i>Der Hannibalweg neu</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page922" id="page922"></a>922</span> +<i>untersucht</i> (Berlin, 1900); P. Azan, <i>Annibal dans les Alpes</i> (Paris, +1902); J. L. Colin, <i>Annibal en Gaule</i> (Paris, 1904); E. Hesselmeyer, +<i>Hannibals Alpenübergang im Lichte der neueren Kriegsgeschichte</i>, +(1906); Kromyer, in <i>N. Jahrb. f. kl. Alt.</i> (1907).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(M. O. B. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HANNIBAL,<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> a city of Marion county, Missouri, U.S.A., on +the Mississippi river, about 120 m. N.W. of Saint Louis. Pop. +(1890), 12,857; (1900), 12,780, including 920 foreign-born and 1836 +negroes; (1910) 18,341. It is served by the Wabash, the Missouri, +Kansas & Texas, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, and the +St Louis & Hannibal railways, and by boat lines to Saint Louis, +Saint Paul and intermediate points. The business section is +in the level bottom-lands of the river, while the residential +portion spreads up the banks, which afford fine building sites +with beautiful views. Mark Twain’s boyhood was spent at +Hannibal, which is the setting of <i>Life on the Mississippi</i>, <i>Huckleberry +Finn</i> and <i>Tom Sawyer</i>; Hannibal Cave, described in +<i>Tom Sawyer</i>, extends for miles beneath the river and its bluffs. +Hannibal has a good public library (1889; the first in Missouri); +other prominent buildings are the Federal building, the court +house, a city hospital and the high school. The river is here +spanned by a long iron and steel bridge connecting with East +Hannibal, Ill. Hannibal is the trade centre of a rich agricultural +region, and has an important lumber trade, railway shops, and +manufactories of lumber, shoes, stoves, flour, cigars, lime, +Portland cement and pearl buttons (made from mussel shells); +the value of the city’s factory products increased from $2,698,720 +in 1900 to $4,442,099 in 1905, or 64.6%. In the vicinity are +valuable deposits of crinoid limestone, a coarse white building +stone which takes a good polish. The electric-lighting plant is +owned and operated by the municipality. Hannibal was laid out +as a town in 1819 (its origin going back to Spanish land grants, +which gave rise to much litigation) and was first chartered as a city +in 1839. The town of South Hannibal was annexed to it in 1843.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HANNINGTON, JAMES<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> (1847-1885), English missionary, was +born at Hurstpierpoint, in Sussex, on the 3rd of September +1847. From earliest childhood he displayed a love of adventure +and natural history. At school he made little progress, and left +at the age of fifteen for his father’s counting-house at Brighton. +He had no taste for office work, and much of his time was +occupied in commanding a battery of volunteers and in charge +of a steam launch. At twenty-one he decided on a clerical +career and entered St Mary’s Hall, Oxford, where he exercised +a remarkable influence over his fellow-undergraduates. He +was, however, a desultory student, and in 1870 was advised to +go to the little village of Martinhoe, in Devon, for quiet reading, +but distinguished himself more by his daring climbs after sea-gulls’ +eggs and his engineering skill in cutting a pathway along +precipitous cliffs to some caves. In 1872 the death of his mother +made a deep impression upon him. He began to read hard, +took his B.A. degree, and in 1873 was ordained deacon and +placed in charge of the small country parish of Trentishoe in +Devon. Whilst curate in charge at Hurstpierpoint, his thoughts +were turned by the murder of two missionaries on the shores +of Victoria Nyanza to mission work. He offered himself to +the Church Missionary Society and sailed on the 17th of May +1882, at the head of a party of six, for Zanzibar, and thence set +out for Uganda; but, prostrated by fever and dysentery, he +was obliged to return to England in 1883. On his recovery he +was consecrated bishop of Eastern Equatorial Africa (June +1884), and in January 1885 started again for the scene of his +mission, and visited Palestine on the way. On his arrival at +Freretown, near Mombasa, he visited many stations in the +neighbourhood. Then, filled with the idea of opening a new +route to Uganda, he set out and reached a spot near Victoria +Nyanza in safety. His arrival, however, roused the suspicion +of the natives, and under King Mwanga’s orders he was lodged +in a filthy hut swarming with rats and vermin. After eight +days his men were murdered, and on the 29th of October 1885 +he himself was speared in both sides, his last words to the +soldiers appointed to kill him being, “Go, tell Mwanga I have +purchased the road to Uganda with my blood.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His <i>Last Journals</i> were edited in 1888. See also <i>Life</i> by E. C. +Dawson (1887); and W. G. Berry, <i>Bishop Hannington</i> (1908).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HANNINGTON,<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> a lake of British East Africa in the eastern +rift-valley just south of the equator and in the shadow of the +Laikipia escarpment. It is 7 m. long by 2 m. broad. The +water is shallow and brackish. Standing in the lake and along +its shores are numbers of dead trees, the remains of an ancient +forest, which serve as eyries for storks, herons and eagles. The +banks and flats at the north end of the lake are the resort of +hundreds of thousands of flamingoes. The places where they +cluster are dazzling white with guano deposits. The lake is +named after Bishop James Hannington.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HANNO,<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> the name of a large number of Carthaginian soldiers +and statesmen. Of the majority little is known; the most +important are the following<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a>:—</p> + +<p>1. <span class="sc">Hanno</span>, Carthaginian navigator, who probably flourished +about 500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It has been conjectured that he was the son of +the Hamilcar who was killed at Himera (480), but there is nothing +to prove this. He was the author of an account of a coasting +voyage on the west coast of Africa, undertaken for the purpose +of exploration and colonization. The original, inscribed on a +tablet in the Phoenician language, was hung up in the temple +of Melkarth on his return to Carthage. What is generally supposed +to be a Greek translation of this is still extant, under the +title of <i>Periplus</i>, although its authenticity has been questioned. +Hanno appears to have advanced beyond Sierra Leone as far +as Cape Palmas. On the island which formed the terminus of +his voyage the explorer found a number of hairy women, +whom the interpreters called Gorillas (<span class="grk" title="Gorillas">Γορίλλας</span>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Valuable editions by T. Falconer (1797, with translation and +defence of its authenticity) and C. W. Müller in <i>Geographici Graeci +minores</i>, i.; see also E. H. Bunbury, <i>History of Ancient Geography</i>, i., +and treatise by C. T. Fischer (1893), with bibliography.</p> +</div> + +<p>2. <span class="sc">Hanno</span> (3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), called “the Great,” Carthaginian +statesman and general, leader of the aristocratic party and the +chief opponent of Hamilcar and Hannibal. He appears to have +gained his title from military successes in Africa, but of these +nothing is known. In 240 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> he drove Hamilcar’s veteran +mercenaries to rebellion by withholding their pay, and when +invested with the command against them was so unsuccessful +that Carthage might have been lost but for the exertions of his +enemy Hamilcar (<i>q.v.</i>). Hanno subsequently remained at +Carthage, exerting all his influence against the democratic +party, which, however, had now definitely won the upper hand. +During the Second Punic War he advocated peace with Rome, +and according to Livy even advised that Hannibal should be +given up to the Romans. After the battle of Zama (202) he +was one of the ambassadors sent to Scipio to sue for peace. +Remarkably little is known of him, considering the great influence +he undoubtedly exercised amongst his countrymen.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Livy xxi. 3 ff., xxiii. 12; Polybius i. 67 ff.; Appian, <i>Res Hispanicae</i>, +4, 5, <i>Res Punicae</i>, 34, 49, 68.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For others of the name see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Carthage</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hannibal</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Punic +Wars</a></span>. Smith’s <i>Classical Dictionary</i> has notices of some thirty of the +name.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HANOI,<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> capital of Tongking and of French Indo-China, on +the right bank of the Song-koi or Red river, about 80 m. from +its mouth in the Gulf of Tongking. Taking in the suburban +population the inhabitants numbered in 1905 about 110,000, +including 103,000 Annamese, 2289 Chinese and 2665 French, +exclusive of troops. Hanoi resembles a European city in the +possession of wide well-paved streets and promenades, systems of +electric light and drainage and a good water-supply. A crowded +native quarter built round a picturesque lake lies close to the +river with the European quarter to the south of it. The public +buildings include the palace of the governor-general, situated +in a spacious botanical and zoological garden, the large military +hospital, the cathedral of St Joseph, the Paul Bert college, and +the theatre. The barracks and other military buildings occupy +the site of the old citadel, an area of over 300 acres, to the west +of the native town. The so-called pagoda of the Great Buddha +is the chief native building. The river is embanked and is +crossed by the Pont Doumer, a fine railway bridge over 1 m. +long. Vessels drawing 8 or 9 ft. can reach the town. Hanoi is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page923" id="page923"></a>923</span> +the seat of the general government of Indo-China, of the resident-superior +of Tongking, and of a bishop, who is vicar-apostolic of +central Tongking. It is administered by an elective municipal +council with a civil service administrator as mayor. It has a +chamber of commerce, the president of which has a seat on the +superior council of Indo-China; a chamber of the court of +appeal of Indo-China, a civil tribunal of the first order, and is +the seat of the chamber of agriculture of Tongking. Its industries +include cotton-spinning, brewing, distilling, and the manufacture +of tobacco, earthenware and matches; native industry produces +carved and inlaid furniture, bronzes and artistic metal-work, +silk embroidery, &c. Hanoi is the junction of railways to +Hai-Phong, its seaport, Lao-Kay, Vinh, and the Chinese frontier +via Lang-Son. It is in frequent communication with Hai-Phong +by steamboat.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C. Madrolle, <i>Tonkin du sud: Hanoi</i> (Paris, 1907).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HANOTAUX, ALBERT AUGUSTE GABRIEL<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (1853-  ), +French statesman and historian, was born at Beaurevoir in the +department of Aisne. He received his historical training in the +École des Chartes, and became <i>maître de conférences</i> in the +École des Hautes Études. His political career was rather that +of a civil servant than of a party politician. In 1879 he entered +the ministry of foreign affairs as a secretary, and rose step by +step through the diplomatic service. In 1886 he was elected +deputy for Aisne, but, defeated in 1889, he returned to his diplomatic +career, and on the 31st of May 1894 was chosen by Charles +Dupuy to be minister of foreign affairs. With one interruption +(during the Ribot ministry, from the 26th of January to the +2nd of November 1895) he held this portfolio until the 14th of +June 1898. During his ministry he developed the <i>rapprochement</i> +of France with Russia—visiting St Petersburg with the +president, Felix Faure—and sent expeditions to delimit the +French colonies in Africa. The Fashoda incident of July 1898 +was a result of this policy, and Hanotaux’s distrust of England +is frankly stated in his literary works. As an historian he published +<i>Origines de l’institution des intendants de provinces</i> (1884), +which is the authoritative study on the intendants; <i>Études historiques +sur les XVI<span class="sp">e</span> et XVII<span class="sp">e</span> siècles en France</i> (1886); <i>Histoire +de Richelieu</i> (2 vols., 1888); and <i>Histoire de la Troisième République +(1904, &c.), the standard history of contemporary France.</i> +He also edited the <i>Instructions des ambassadeurs de France à +Rome, depuis les traités de Westphalie</i> (1888). He was elected a +member of the French Academy on the 1st of April 1897.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HANOVER<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Hannover</i>), formerly an independent kingdom +of Germany, but since 1866 a province of Prussia. It is bounded +on the N. by the North Sea, Holstein, Hamburg and Mecklenburg-Schwerin, +E. and S.E. by Prussian Saxony and the duchy +of Brunswick, S.W. by the Prussian provinces of Hesse-Nassau +and Westphalia, and W. by Holland. These boundaries include +the grand-duchy of Oldenburg and the free state of Bremen, the +former stretching southward from the North Sea nearly to the +southern boundary of Hanover. A small portion of the province +in the south is separated from Hanover proper by the interposition +of part of Brunswick. On the 23rd of March 1873 +the province was increased by the addition of the Jade territory +(purchased by Prussia from Oldenburg), lying south-west of +the Elbe and containing the great naval station and arsenal of +Wilhelmshaven. The area of the province is 14,870 sq. m.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Physical Features.</i>—The greater part of Hanover is a plain with +sandhills, heath and moor. The most fertile districts lie on the +banks of the Elbe and near the North Sea, where, as in Holland, rich +meadows are preserved from encroachment of the sea by broad +dikes and deep ditches, kept in repair at great expense. The main +feature of the northern plain is the so-called <i>Lüneburger Heide</i>, a +vast expanse of moor and fen, mainly covered with low brushwood +(though here and there are oases of fine beech and oak woods) +and intersected by shallow valleys, and extending almost due north +from the city of Hanover to the southern arm of the Elbe at Harburg. +The southern portion of the province is hilly, and in the district +of Klausenburg, containing the Harz, mountainous. The higher +elevations are covered by dense forests of fir and larch, and the +lower slopes with deciduous trees. The eastern portion of the +northern plain is covered with forests of fir. The whole of Hanover +dips from the Harz Mountains to the north, and the rivers consequently +flow in that direction. The three chief rivers of the province +are the Elbe in the north-east, where it mainly forms the boundary +and receives the navigable tributaries Jeetze, Ilmenau, Seve, Este, +Lühe, Schwinge and Medem; the Weser in the centre, with its +important tributary the Aller (navigable from Celle downwards); +and in the west the Ems, with its tributaries the Aa and the Leda. +Still farther West is the Vecht, which, rising in Westphalia, flows +to the Zuider Zee. Canals are numerous and connect the various +river systems.</p> + +<p>The principal lakes are the Steinhuder Meer, about 4 m. long and +2 m. broad, and 20 fathoms deep, on the borders of Schaumburg-Lippe; +the Dümmersee, on the borders of Oldenburg, about 12 m. +in circuit; the lakes of Bederkesa and some others in the moorlands +of the north; the Seeburger See, near Duderstadt; and the Oderteich, +in the Harz, 2100 ft. above the level of the sea.</p> + +<p><i>Climate.</i>—The climate in the low-lying districts near the coast is +moist and foggy, in the plains mild, on the Harz mountains severe +and variable. In spring the prevailing winds blow from the N.E. +and E., in summer from the S.W. The mean annual temperature is +about 46° Fahr.; in the town of Hanover it is higher. The average +annual rainfall is about 23.5 in.; but this varies greatly in different +districts. In the west the Herauch, a thick fog arising from the +burning of the moors, is a plague of frequent occurrence.</p> + +<p><i>Population; Divisions.</i>—The province contains an area of 14,869 +sq. m., and the total population, according to the census of 1905, was +2,759,699 (1,384,161 males and 1,375,538 females). In this connexion +it is noticeable that in Hanover, almost alone among German +states and provinces, there is a considerable proportion of male +births over female. The density of the population is 175 to the +sq. m. (English), and the proportion of urban to rural population, +roughly, as 1 to 3 of the inhabitants. The province is divided into +the six <i>Regierungsbezirke</i> (or departments) of Hanover, Hildesheim, +Lüneburg, Stade, Osnabrück and Aurich, and these again into +Kreise (circles, or local government districts)—76 in all. The chief +towns—containing more than 10,000 inhabitants—are Hanover, +Linden, Osnabrück, Hildesheim, Geestemünde, Wilhelmshaven, +Harburg, Lüneburg, Celle, Göttingen and Emden. Religious statistics +show that 84% of the inhabitants belong to the Evangelical-Lutheran +Church, 17 to the Roman Catholic and less than 1% to +the Jewish communities. The Roman Catholics are mostly gathered +around the episcopal sees of Hildesheim and Osnabrück and close +to Münster (in Westphalia) on the western border, and the Jews in +the towns. A court of appeal for the whole province sits at Celle, +and there are eight superior courts. Hanover returns 19 members +to the <i>Reichstag</i> (imperial diet) and 36 to the <i>Abgeordnetenhaus</i> +(lower house) of the Prussian parliament (<i>Landtag</i>).</p> + +<p><i>Education.</i>—Among the educational institutions of the province +the university of Göttingen stands first, with an average yearly +attendance of 1500 students. There are, besides, a technical college +in Hanover, an academy of forestry in Münden, a mining college in +Clausthal, a military school and a veterinary college (both in +Hanover), 26 gymnasia (classical schools), 18 semi-classical, and 14 +commercial schools. There are also two naval academies, asylums +for the deaf and dumb, and numerous charitable institutions.</p> + +<p><i>Agriculture.</i>—Though agriculture constitutes the most important +branch of industry in the province, it is still in a very backward +state. The greater part of the soil is of inferior quality, and much +that is susceptible of cultivation is still lying waste. Of the entire +area of the country 28.6% is arable, 16.2 in meadow or pasture land, +14% in forests, 37.2% in uncultivated moors, heaths, &c.; from +17 to 18% is in possession of the state. The best agriculture is to +be found in the districts of Hildesheim, Calenberg, Göttingen and +Grubenhagen, on the banks of the Weser and Elbe, and in East +Friesland. Rye is generally grown for bread. Flax, for which +much of the soil is admirably adapted, is extensively cultivated, and +forms an important article of export, chiefly, however, in the form +of yarn. Potatoes, hemp, turnips, hops, tobacco and beet are also +extensively grown, the latter, in connexion with the sugar industry, +showing each year a larger return. Apples, pears, plums and +cherries are the principal kinds of fruit cultivated, while the wild +red cranberries from the Harz and the black bilberries from the +Lüneburger Heide form an important article of export.</p> + +<p><i>Live Stock.</i>—Hanover is renowned for its cattle and live stock +generally. Of these there were counted in 1900 1,115,022 head of +horned cattle, 824,000 sheep, 1,556,000 pigs, and 230,000 goats. The +Lüneburger Heide yields an excellent breed of sheep, the <i>Heidschnucken</i>, +which equal the Southdowns of England in delicacy of +flavour. Horses famous for their size and quality are reared in the +marshes of Aurich and Stade, in Hildesheim and Hanover; and, for +breeding purposes, in the stud farm of Celle. Bees are principally +kept on the Lüneburger Heide, and the annual yield of honey is very +considerable. Large flocks of geese are kept in the moist lowlands; +their flesh is salted for domestic consumption during the winter, and +their feathers are prepared for sale. The rivers yield trout, salmon +(in the Weser) and crayfish. The sea fisheries are important and have +their chief centre at Geestemünde.</p> + +<p><i>Mining.</i>—Minerals occur in great variety and abundance. The +Harz Mountains are rich in silver, lead, iron and copper; coal is +found around Osnabrück, on the Deister, at Osterwald, &c., lignite in +various places; salt-springs of great richness exist at Egestorfshall +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page924" id="page924"></a>924</span> +and Neuhall near Hanover, and at Lüneburg; and petroleum may +be obtained south of Celle. In the cold regions of the northern lowlands +peat occurs in beds of immense thickness.</p> + +<p><i>Manufactures.</i>—Works for the manufacture of iron, copper, silver, +lead, vitriol and sulphur are carried on to a large extent. The iron +works are very important: smelting is carried on in the Harz and +near Osnabrück; there are extensive foundries and machine factories +at Hanover, Linden, Osnabrück, Hameln, Geestemünde, Harburg, +Osterode, &c., and manufactories of arms at Herzberg, and of +cutlery in the towns of the Harz and in the Sollinger Forest. The +textile industries are prosecuted chiefly in the towns. Linen yarn +and cloth are largely manufactured, especially in the south about +Osnabrück and Hildesheim, and bleaching is engaged in extensively; +woollen cloths are made to a considerable extent in the south about +Einbeck, Göttingen and Hameln; cotton-spinning and weaving +have their principal seats at Hanover and Linden. Glass houses, +paper-mills, potteries, tile works and tobacco-pipe works are numerous. +Wax is bleached to a considerable extent, and there are +numerous tobacco factories, tanneries, breweries, vinegar works +and brandy distilleries. Shipbuilding is an important industry, +especially at Wilhelmshaven, Papenburg, Leer, Stade and Harburg; +and at Münden river-barges are built.</p> + +<p><i>Commerce.</i>—Although the carrying trade of Hanover is to a great +extent absorbed by Hamburg and Bremen, the shipping of the +province counted, in 1903, 750 sailing vessels and 86 steamers of, +together, 55,498 registered tons. The natural port is Bremen-Geestemünde +and to it is directed the river traffic down the Weser, +which practically forms the chief commercial artery of the province.</p> + +<p><i>Communications.</i>—The roads throughout are, on the whole, well +laid, and those connecting the principal towns macadamized. +Hanover is intersected by important trunk lines of railway; notably +the lines from Berlin to Cologne, from Hamburg to Frankfort-on-Main, +from Hamburg to Bremen and Cologne, and from Berlin to +Amsterdam.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The name Hanover (<i>Hohenufer</i> = high bank), +originally confined to the town which became the capital of +the duchy of Lüneburg-Calenberg, came gradually into use to +designate, first, the duchy itself, and secondly, the electorate +of Brunswick-Lüneburg; and it was officially recognized as +the name of the state when in 1814 the electorate was raised +to the rank of a kingdom.</p> + +<p>The early history of Hanover is merged in that of the duchy +of Brunswick (<i>q.v.</i>), from which the duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg +and its offshoots, the duchies of Lüneburg-Celle and +Lüneburg-Calenberg have sprung. Ernest I. (1497-1546), duke +of Brunswick-Lüneburg, who introduced the reformed doctrines +into Lüneburg, obtained the whole of this duchy in 1539; and +in 1569 his two surviving sons made an arrangement which +was afterwards responsible for the birth of the kingdom of +Hanover. By this agreement the greater part of the duchy, +with its capital at Celle, came to William (1535-1592), the +younger of the brothers, who gave laws to his land and added +to its area; and this duchy of Lüneburg-Celle was subsequently +ruled in turn by four of his sons: Ernest II. (1564-1611), +Christian (1566-1633), Augustus (d. 1636) and Frederick +(d. 1648). In addition to these four princes Duke William left +three other sons, and in 1610 the seven brothers entered into a +compact that the duchy should not be divided, and that only +one of them should marry and continue the family. Casting +lots to determine this question, the lot fell upon the sixth brother, +George (1582-1641), who was a prominent soldier during the +period of the Thirty Years’ War and saw service in almost all +parts of Europe, fighting successively for Christian IV. of Denmark, +the emperor Ferdinand II., and for the Swedes both +before and after the death of Gustavus Adolphus. In 1617 +he aided his brother, Duke Christian, to add Grubenhagen to +Lüneburg, and after the extinction of the family of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel +in 1634, he obtained Calenberg for himself, making +Hanover the capital of his small dukedom. In 1648, on Duke +Frederick’s death, George’s eldest son, Christian Louis (d. 1665), +became duke of Lüneburg-Celle; and at this time he handed +over Calenberg, which he had ruled since his father’s death, +to his second brother, George William (d. 1705). When Christian +Louis died George William succeeded him in Lüneburg-Celle; +but the duchy was also claimed by a younger brother, John +Frederick, a cultured and enlightened prince who had forsaken +the Lutheran faith of his family and had become a Roman +Catholic. Soon, however, by an arrangement John Frederick +received Calenberg and Grubenhagen, which he ruled in absolute +fashion, creating a standing army and modelling his court +after that of Louis XIV., and which came on his death in 1679 +to his youngest brother, Ernest Augustus (1630-1698), the +Protestant bishop of Osnabrück. During the French wars of +aggression the Lüneburg princes were eagerly courted by Louis +XIV. and by his opponents; and after some hesitation George +William, influenced by Ernest Augustus, fought among the +Imperialists, while John Frederick was ranged on the side of +France. In 1689 George William was one of the claimants for +the duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg, which was left without a ruler +in that year; and after a struggle with John George III., elector +of Saxony, and other rivals, he was invested with the duchy +by the emperor Leopold I. It was, however, his more ambitious +brother, Ernest Augustus, who did most for the prestige and +advancement of the house. Having introduced the principle +of primogeniture into Calenberg in 1682, Ernest determined +to secure for himself the position of an elector, and the condition +of Europe and the exigencies of the emperor favoured his pretensions. +He made skilful use of Leopold’s difficulties; and in +1692, in return for lavish promises of assistance to the Empire +and the Habsburgs, the emperor granted him the rank and title +of elector of Brunswick-Lüneburg with the office of standard-bearer +in the Holy Roman Empire. Indignant protests followed +this proceeding. A league was formed to prevent any addition +to the electoral college; France and Sweden were called upon +for assistance; and the constitution of the Empire was reduced +to a state of chaos. This agitation, however, soon died away; +and in 1708 George Louis, the son and successor of Ernest +Augustus, was recognized as an elector by the imperial diet. +George Louis married his cousin Sophia Dorothea, the only child +of George William of Lüneburg-Celle; and on his uncle’s death +in 1705 he united this duchy, together with Saxe-Lauenburg, +with his paternal inheritance of Calenberg or Hanover. His +father, Ernest Augustus, had taken a step of great importance +in the history of Hanover when he married Sophia, daughter +of the elector palatine, Frederick V., and grand-daughter of +James I. of England, for, through his mother, the elector George +Louis became, by the terms of the Act of Settlement of 1701, +king of Great Britain and Ireland in 1714.</p> + +<p>From this time until the death of William IV. in 1837, Lüneburg +or Hanover, was ruled by the same sovereign as Great +Britain, and this personal union was not without important +results for both countries. Under George I. Hanover joined +the alliance against Charles XII. of Sweden in 1715; and by +the peace of Stockholm in November 1719 the elector received +the duchies of Bremen and Verden, which formed an important +addition to the electorate. His son and successor, George II., +who founded the university of Göttingen in 1737, was on bad +terms with his brother-in-law Frederick William I. of Prussia, +and his nephew Frederick the Great; and in 1729 war between +Prussia and Hanover was only just avoided. In 1743 George +took up arms on behalf of the empress Maria Theresa; but in +August 1745 the danger in England from the Jacobites led him +to sign the convention of Hanover with Frederick the Great, +although the struggle with France raged around his electorate +until the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748. Induced by political +exigencies George allied himself with Frederick the Great when +the Seven Years’ War broke out in 1756; but in September 1757 +his son William Augustus, duke of Cumberland, was compelled +after his defeat at Hastenbeck to sign the convention of Klosterzeven +and to abandon Hanover to the French. English money, +however, came to the rescue; in 1758 Ferdinand, duke of +Brunswick, cleared the electorate of the invader; and Hanover +suffered no loss of territory at the peace of 1763. Both George I. +and George II. preferred Hanover to England as a place of +residence, and it was a frequent and perhaps justifiable cause of +complaint that the interests of Great Britain were sacrificed +to those of the smaller country. But George III. was more +British than either his grandfather or his great-grandfather, +and owing to a variety of causes the foreign policies of the two +countries began to diverge in the later years of his reign. Two +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page925" id="page925"></a>925</span> +main considerations dominated the fortunes of Hanover during +the period of the Napoleonic wars, the jealousy felt by Prussia +at the increasing strength and prestige of the electorate, and its +position as a vulnerable outpost of Great Britain. From 1793 the +Hanoverian troops fought for the Allies against France, until +the treaty of Basel between France and Prussia in 1795 imposed +a forced neutrality upon Hanover. At the instigation of Bonaparte +Hanover was occupied by the Prussians for a few months +in 1801, but at the settlement which followed the peace of +Lunéville the secularized bishopric of Osnabrück was added to +the electorate. Again tempting the fortune of war after the +rupture of the peace of Amiens, the Hanoverians found that +the odds against them were too great; and in June 1803 by +the convention of Sulingen their territory was occupied by the +French. The formation of the third coalition against France +in 1805 induced Napoleon to purchase the support of Prussia +by allowing her troops to seize Hanover; but in 1807, after +the defeat of Prussia at Jena, he incorporated the southern +part of the electorate in the kingdom of Westphalia, adding the +northern portion to France in 1810. The French occupation +was costly and aggressive; and the Hanoverians, many of whom +were found in the allied armies, welcomed the fall of Napoleon +and the return of the old order. Represented at the congress of +Vienna by Ernest, Count Münster, the elector was granted the +title of king; but the British ministers wished to keep the +interests of Great Britain distinct from those of Hanover. The +result of the congress, however, was not unfavourable to the new +kingdom, which received East Friesland, the secularized bishopric +of Hildesheim, the city of Goslar, and some smaller additions of +territory, in return for the surrender of the greater part of the +duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg to Prussia.</p> + +<p>Like those of the other districts of Germany, the estates of +the different provinces which formed the kingdom of Hanover +had met for many years in an irregular fashion to exercise their +varying and ill-defined authority; and, although the elector +Ernest Augustus introduced a system of administrative councils +into Celle, these estates, consisting of the three orders of prelates, +nobles and towns, together with a body somewhat resembling +the English privy council, were the only constitution which the +country possessed, and the only check upon the power of its +ruler. When the elector George Louis became king of Great +Britain in 1714 he appointed a representative, or <i>Statthalter</i>, +to govern the electorate, and thus the union of the two countries +was attended with constitutional changes in Hanover as well +as in Great Britain. Responsible of course to the elector, the +Statthalter, aided by the privy council, conducted the internal +affairs of the electorate, generally in a peaceful and satisfactory +fashion, until the welter of the Napoleonic wars. On the conclusion +of peace in 1814 the estates of the several provinces of +the kingdom were fused into one body, consisting of eighty-five +members, but the chief power was exercised as before by the +members of a few noble families. In 1819, however, this feudal +relic was supplanted by a new constitution. Two chambers +were established, the one formed of nobles and the other of elected +representatives; but although they were authorized to control +the finances, their power with regard to legislation was very +circumscribed. This constitution was sanctioned by the prince +regent, afterwards King George IV.; but it was out of harmony +with the new and liberal ideas which prevailed in Europe, and +it hardly survived George’s decease in 1830. The revolution +of that year compelled George’s brother and successor, William, +to dismiss Count Münster, who had been the actual ruler of the +country, and to name his own brother, Adolphus Frederick, +duke of Cambridge, a viceroy of Hanover; one of the viceroy’s +earliest duties being to appoint a commission to draw up a new +constitution. This was done, and after William had insisted upon +certain alterations, it was accepted and promulgated in 1833. +Representation was granted to the peasants; the two chambers +were empowered to initiate legislation; ministers were made +responsible for all acts of government; a civil list was given to +the king in return for the surrender of the crown lands; and, +in short, the new constitution was similar to that of Great +Britain. These liberal arrangements, however, did not entirely +allay the discontent. A strong and energetic party endeavoured +to thwart the working of the new order, and matters came to a +climax on the death of William IV. in 1837.</p> + +<p>By the law of Hanover a woman could not ascend the throne, +and accordingly Ernest Augustus, duke of Cumberland, the fifth +son of George III., and not Victoria, succeeded William as +sovereign in 1837, thus separating the crowns of Great Britain +and Hanover after a union of 123 years. Ernest, a prince with +very autocratic ideas, had disapproved of the constitution of +1833, and his first important act as king was to declare it invalid. +He appears to have been especially chagrined because the crown +lands were not his personal property, but the whole of the new +arrangements were repugnant to him. Seven Göttingen professors +who protested against this proceeding were deprived of +their chairs; and some of them, including F. C. Dahlmann and +Jakob Grimm, were banished from the country for publishing +their protest. To save the constitution an appeal was made to +the German Confederation, which Hanover had joined in 1815; +but the federal diet declined to interfere, and in 1840 Ernest +altered the constitution to suit his own illiberal views. Recovering +the crown lands, he abolished the principle of ministerial +responsibility, the legislative power of the two chambers, and +other reforms, virtually restoring affairs to their condition before +1833. The inevitable crisis was delayed until the stormy year +1848, when the king probably saved his crown by hastily giving +back the constitution of 1833. Order, however, having been +restored, in 1850 he dismissed the Liberal ministry and attempted +to evade his concessions; a bitter struggle had just broken out +when Ernest Augustus died in November 1851. During this +reign the foreign policy of Hanover both within and without +Germany had been coloured by jealousy of Prussia and by the +king’s autocratic ideas. Refusing to join the Prussian <i>Zollverein</i>, +Hanover had become a member of the rival commercial union, +the <i>Steuerverein</i>, three years before Ernest’s accession; but as +this union was not a great success the <i>Zollverein</i> was joined in +1851. In 1849, after the failure of the German parliament at +Frankfort, the king had joined with the sovereigns of Prussia +and Saxony to form the “three kings’ alliance”; but this +union with Prussia was unreal, and with the king of Saxony he +soon transferred his support to Austria and became a member +of the “four kings’ alliance.”</p> + +<p>George V., the new king of Hanover, who was unfortunately +blind, sharing his father’s political ideas, at once appointed +a ministry whose aim was to sweep away the constitution of +1848. This project, however, was resisted by the second +chamber of the <i>Landtag</i>, or parliament; and after several +changes of government a new ministry advised the king in 1855 +to appeal to the diet of the German Confederation. This was +done, and the diet declared the constitution of 1848 to be invalid. +Acting on this verdict, not only was a ministry formed to restore +the constitution of 1840, but after some trouble a body of +members fully in sympathy with this object was returned to +parliament in 1857. But these members were so far from representing +the opinions of the people that popular resentment +compelled George to dismiss his advisers in 1862. But the more +liberal government which succeeded did not enjoy his complete +confidence, and in 1865 a ministry was once more formed which +was more in accord with his own ideas. This contest soon lost +both interest and importance owing to the condition of affairs +in Germany. Bismarck, the director of the policy of Prussia, +was devising methods for the realization of his schemes, and it +became clear after the war over the duchies of Schleswig and +Holstein that the smaller German states would soon be obliged +to decide definitely between Austria and Prussia. After a period +of vacillation Hanover threw in her lot with Austria, the decisive +step being taken when the question of the mobilization of the +federal army was voted upon in the diet on the 14th of June +1866. At once Prussia requested Hanover to remain unarmed +and neutral during the war, and with equal promptness King +George refused to assent to these demands. Prussian troops +then crossed his frontier and took possession of his capital. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page926" id="page926"></a>926</span> +The Hanoverians, however, were victorious at the battle of +Langensalza on the 27th of June 1866, but the advance of fresh +bodies of the enemy compelled them to capitulate two days +later. By the terms of this surrender the king was not to reside +in Hanover, his officers were to take no further part in the war, +and his ammunition and stores became the property of Prussia. +The decree of the 20th of September 1866 formally annexed +Hanover to Prussia, when it became a province of that kingdom, +while King George from his retreat at Hietzing appealed in vain +to the powers of Europe. Many of the Hanoverians remained +loyal to their sovereign; some of them serving in the Guelph +Legion, which was maintained largely at his expense in France, +where a paper, <i>La Situation</i>, was founded by Oskar Meding +(1829-1903) and conducted in his interests. These and other +elaborate efforts, however, failed to bring about the return of the +king to Hanover, though the Guelph party continued to agitate +and to hope even after the Franco-German War had immensely +increased the power and the prestige of Prussia. George died +in June 1878. His son, Ernest Augustus, duke of Cumberland, +continued to maintain his claim to the crown of Hanover, and +refused to be reconciled with Prussia. Owing to this attitude +the German imperial government refused to allow him to take +possession of the duchy of Brunswick, which he inherited on +the extinction of the elder branch of his family in 1884, and again +in 1906 when the same subject came up for settlement on the +death of the regent, Prince Albert of Prussia.</p> + +<p>In 1867 King George had agreed to accept Prussian bonds to +the value of about £1,600,000 as compensation for the confiscation +of his estates in Hanover. In 1868, however, on account of his +continued hostility to Prussia, the Prussian government +sequestrated this property; and, known as the <i>Welfenfonds</i>, +or <i>Reptilienfonds</i>, it was employed as a secret service fund to +combat the intrigues of the Guelphs in various parts of Europe; +until in 1892 it was arranged that the interest should be paid +to the duke of Cumberland. In 1885 measures were taken to +incorporate the province of Hanover more thoroughly in the +kingdom of Prussia, and there is little doubt but that the great +majority of the Hanoverians have submitted to the inevitable, +and are loyal subjects of the king of Prussia.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—A. Hüne, <i>Geschichte des Königreichs Hannover und +des Herzogtums Braunschweig</i> (Hanover, 1824-1830); A. F. H. +Schaumann, <i>Handbuch der Geschichte der Lande Hannover und +Braunschweig</i> (Hanover, 1864); G. A. Grotefend, <i>Geschichte der +allgemeinen landständischen Verfassung des Königreichs Hannover, +1814-1848</i> (Hanover, 1857); H. A. Oppermann, <i>Zur Geschichte des +Königreichs Hannover</i>, 1832-1860 (Berlin, 1868); E. von Meier, +<i>Hannoversche Verfassungs- und Verwaltungsgeschichte</i> (Leipzig, +1898-1899); W. von Hassell, <i>Das Kurfürstentum Hannover vom +Baseler Frieden bis zur preussischen Okkupation</i> (Hanover, 1894); +and <i>Geschichte des Königreichs</i> Hannover (Leipzig, 1898-1901); H. +von Treitschke, <i>Der Herzog von Cumberland und das hannoversche +Staatsgrundgesetz von 1833</i> (Leipzig, 1888); M. Bär, <i>Übersicht über +die Bestände des königlichen Staatsarchivs zu Hannover</i> (Leipzig, +1900); <i>Hannoversches Portfolio</i> (Stuttgart, 1839-1841); and the +authorities given for the history of Brunswick.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HANOVER,<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> the capital of the Prussian province of the same +name, situated in a sandy but fertile plain on the Leine, which +here receives the Ihme, 38 m. N.W. from Brunswick, 78 S.E. +of Bremen, and at the crossing of the main lines of railway, +Berlin to Cologne and Hamburg to Frankfort-on-Main. Pop. +(1885) 139,731; (1900) 235,666; (1905) 250,032. On the north +and east the town is half encircled by the beautiful woods and +groves of the Eilenriede and the List which form the public +park. The Leine flows through the city, having the old town +on its right and the quaint Calenberger quarter between its left +bank and the Ihme. The old town is irregularly built, with +narrow streets and old-fashioned gabled houses. In its centre +lies the Markt Kirche, a red-brick edifice of the 14th century, +containing interesting monuments and some fine stained-glass +windows, and with a steeple 310 ft. in height (the highest in +Hanover). Its interior was restored in 1855. Close by, on the +market square, is the red-brick medieval town-hall (Rathaus), +with an historical wine cellar beneath. It has been superseded +for municipal business by a new building, and now contains the +civic archives and museum. The new town, surrounding the +old on the north and east, and lying between it and the woods +referred to, has wide streets, handsome buildings and beautiful +squares. Among the last-mentioned are the square at the railway +station—the Ernst August-Platz—with an equestrian statue of +King Ernest Augustus in bronze; the triangular Theater-Platz, +with statues of the composer Marschner and others; and the +Georgs-Platz, with a statue of Schiller. To the south of the old +town, on the banks of the Ihme, lies the Waterloo-Platz, with +a column of victory, 154 ft. high, having inscribed on it the +names of 800 Hanoverians who fell at Waterloo. In the adjacent +gardens an open rotunda encloses a marble bust of the philosopher +Leibnitz, and near it is a monument to General Count von Alten, +the commander of the Hanoverian troops at Waterloo. Among +the other churches the most noticeable are the Neustädterkirche, +with a graceful shrine containing the tomb of Leibnitz, the +Kreuzkirche, built about 1300, with a curious steeple, and the +Aegidienkirche among ancient edifices, and among modern ones +the Christuskirche, a gift of King George V., the Lukaskirche, +the Lutherkirche, and the Roman Catholic church of St Mary, +with a tower 300 ft. high, containing the grave of Ludwig +Windthorst, “his little excellency,” for many years leader of +the Ultramontane (Centre) party in the imperial diet. Of +secular buildings the most remarkable is the royal palace—Schloss—built +1636-1640, with a grand portal and handsome quadrangle. +In its chapel are preserved the relics of saints which Henry +the Lion brought from Palestine. The new provincial museum +built in 1897-1902 contains the Cumberland Gallery and the +Guelph Museum; and the Kestner Museum also contains +interesting and valuable collections of works of art. The other +principal public buildings are the royal archives and library, +containing a library of 200,000 volumes and 3500 manuscripts; +the old provincial museum, which houses a variety of collections, +such as natural, historical and ethnographical, and a collection +of modern paintings; the theatre (built 1845-1852), one +of the largest in Germany, the archaeological museum, the +railway station, and, in the west, close to Herrenhausen (see +below), the magnificent Welfenschloss (Guelph-palace). The last, +begun in 1859, was almost completed in 1866, but was never +occupied by the Hanoverian royal family. Since 1875 it has +been occupied by the technical high school, an academy with +university privileges. Close to it lies the famous Herrenhausen, +the summer palace of the former kings of Hanover, with fine +gardens, an open-air theatre, a museum and an orangery, and +approached by a grand avenue over a mile in length.</p> + +<p>Hanover has a number of colleges and schools, and is the seat +of several learned societies. It is largely frequented by foreign +students, especially English, attracted by the educational +facilities it offers and by the reputed purity of the German +spoken. Hanover is the headquarters of the X. Prussian army +corps, has a large garrison of nearly all arms and a famous military +riding school. It occupies a leading position among the industrial +and commercial towns of the empire, and of recent years has +made rapid progress in prosperity. It is connected by railway +with Berlin, Hamburg, Bremen, Hameln, Cologne, Altenbeken +and Cassel, and the facilities of intercourse have, under the +fostering care of the Prussian government, enormously developed +its trade and manufactures. Almost all industries are represented; +chief among them are machine-building, the manufacture +of india-rubber, linen, cloth, hardware, chemicals, +tobacco, pianos, furniture and groceries. The commerce consists +principally in wine, hides, horses, coal, wood and cereals. There +are extensive printing establishments. Hanover was the first +German town that was lighted with gas. It is the birthplace +of Sir William Herschel, the astronomer, of the brothers Schlegel, +of Iffland and of the historian Pertz. The philosopher Leibnitz +died there in 1716.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Close by, on the left bank of the Leine, lies the manufacturing +town of Linden, which, though practically forming one town with +Hanover, is treated under a separate heading.</p> +</div> + +<p>The town of Hanover is first mentioned during the 12th +century. It belonged to the family of Welf, then to the bishops +of Hildesheim, and then, in 1369, it came again into the possession +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page927" id="page927"></a>927</span> +of the Welfs, now dukes of Brunswick. It joined the Hanseatic +League, and was later the residence of the branch of the ducal +house, which received the title of elector of Hanover and +ascended the British throne in the person of George I. One or +two important treaties were signed in Hanover, which from 1810 +to 1813 was part of the kingdom of Westphalia, and in 1866 was +annexed by Prussia, after having been the capital of the kingdom +of Hanover since its foundation in 1815.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See O. Ulrich, <i>Bilder aus Hannovers Vergangenheit</i> (1891); Hoppe, +<i>Geschichte der Stadt Hannover</i> (1845); Hirschfeld, <i>Hannovers Grossindustrie +und Grosshandel</i> (Leipzig, 1891); Frensdorff, <i>Die Stadtverfassung +Hannovers in alter und neuer Zeit</i> (Leipzig, 1883); W. +Bahrdt, <i>Geschichte der Reformation der Stadt Hannover</i> (1891); Hartmann, +<i>Geschichte von Hannover mit besonderer Rücksichtnahme auf die +Entwickelung der Residenzstadt Hannover</i> (1886); <i>Hannover und +Umgegend, Entwickelung und Zustände seiner Industrie und +Gewerbe</i> (1874); and the <i>Urkundenbuch der Stadt Hannover</i> (1860, +fol.).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HANOVER,<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> a town of Jefferson county, Indiana, U.S.A., +on the Ohio river, about 5 m. below Madison. Pop. (1900) +377; (1910) 356. It is served by boats on the Ohio river and +by stages to Madison, the nearest railway station. Along the +border of the town and on a bluff rising about 500 ft. above the +river is Hanover College, an institution under Presbyterian +control, embracing a college and a preparatory department, and +offering classical and scientific courses and instruction in music; +there is no charge for tuition. In 1908-1909 there were 211 +students, 75 being in the Academy. The institution was opened +in a log cabin in 1827, was incorporated as Hanover Academy in +1828, was adopted as a synodical school by the Presbyterian +Synod of Indiana in 1829 on condition that a Theological department +be added, and in 1833 was incorporated under its present +name. In 1840, however, the theological department became a +separate institution and was removed to New Albany, whence +in 1859 it was removed to Chicago, where it was named, first, +the Presbyterian Theological Seminary of the North-west, and, +in 1886, the McCormick Theological Seminary. In the years +immediately after its incorporation in 1833 Hanover College +introduced the “manual labor system” and was for a time +very prosperous, but the system was not a success, the college +ran into debt, and in 1843 the trustees attempted to surrender +the charter and to acquire the charter of a university at Madison. +This effort was opposed by a strong party, which secured a +more liberal charter for the college. In 1880 the college became +coeducational.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HANOVER,<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> a township of Grafton county, New Hampshire, +U.S.A., on the Connecticut river, 75 m. by rail N.W. of Concord. +Pop. (1900) 1884; (1910) 2075. No railway enters this township; +the Ledyard Free Bridge (the first free bridge across the +Connecticut) connects it with Norwich, Vt., which is served by +the Boston & Maine railway. Ranges of rugged hills, broken +by deep narrow gorges and by the wider valley of Mink Brook, +rise near the river and culminate in the E. section in Moose +Mountain, 2326 ft. above the sea. Near the foot of Moose +Mountain is the birthplace of Laura D. Bridgman. Agriculture, +dairying and lumbering are the chief pursuits of the inhabitants. +The village of Hanover, the principal settlement of the township, +occupies Hanover Plain in the S.W. corner, and is the seat of +Dartmouth College (<i>q.v.</i>), which has a strikingly beautiful campus, +and among its buildings several excellent examples of the +colonial style, notably Dartmouth Hall. The Mary Hitchcock +memorial hospital, a cottage hospital of 36 beds, was erected +in 1890-1893 by Hiram Hitchcock in memory of his wife. The +charter of the township was granted by Gov. Benning Wentworth +on the 4th of July 1761, and the first settlement was made +in May 1765. The records of the town meetings and selectmen, +1761-1818, have been published by E. P. Storrs (Hanover, 1905).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Frederick Chase, <i>A History of Dartmouth College and the Town +of Hanover</i> (Cambridge, 1891).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HANOVER,<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> a borough of York county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., +36 m. S. by W. of Harrisburg, and 6 m. from the S. border of +the state. Pop. (1890) 3746; (1900) 5302, (133 foreign-born); +(1910) 7057. It is served by the Northern Central and the +Western Maryland railways. The borough is built on nearly +level ground in the fertile valley of the Conewago, at the point +of intersection of the turnpike roads leading to Baltimore, Carlisle, +York and Frederick, from which places the principal streets—sections +of these roads—are named. Among its manufactures +are foundry and machine-shop products, flour, silk, waggons, +shoes, gloves, furniture, wire cloth and cigars. The settlement +of the place was begun mostly by Germans during the middle +of the 18th century. Hanover was laid out in 1763 or 1764 by +Col. Richard MacAllister; and in 1815 it was incorporated. +On the 30th of June 1863 there was a cavalry engagement in +and near Hanover between the forces of Generals H. J. Kilpatrick +(Union) and J. E. B. Stuart (Confederate) preliminary to the +battle of Gettysburg. This engagement is commemorated by +an equestrian statue erected in Hanover by the state.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HANRIOT, FRANÇOIS<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> (1761-1794), French revolutionist, +was born at Nanterre (Seine) of poor parentage. Having lost his +first employment—with a <i>procureur</i>—through dishonesty, +he obtained a clerkship in the Paris octroi in 1789, but was +dismissed for abandoning his post when the Parisians burned +the <i>octroi</i> barriers on the night of the 12th-13th of July 1789. +After leading a hand-to-mouth existence for some time, he became +one of the orators of the section of the <i>sans-culottes</i>, and commanded +the armed force of that section during the insurrection +on the 10th of August 1792 and the massacres of September. But +he did not come into prominence until the night of the 30th-31st +of May 1793, when he was provisionally appointed commandant-general +of the armed forces of Paris by the council general of +the Commune. On the 31st of May he was one of the delegates +from the Commune to the Convention demanding the dissolution +of the Commission of Twelve and the proscription of the +Girondists (<i>q.v.</i>), and he was in command of the insurrectionary +forces of the Commune during the <i>émeute</i> of the 2nd of June +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">French Revolution</a></span>). On the 11th of June he resigned +his command, declaring that order had been restored. On the +13th he was impeached in the Convention; but the motion was +not carried, and on the 1st of July he was elected by the Commune +permanent commander of the armed forces of Paris. This +position, which gave him enormous power, he retained until +the revolution of the 9th Thermidor (July 27, 1794). His +arrest was decreed; but he had the <i>générale</i> sounded and the +tocsin rung, and tried to rescue Robespierre, who was under +arrest in the hall of the <i>Comité de Sûreté Générale</i>. Hanriot was +himself arrested, but was rescued by his adherents, and hastened +to the Hôtel de Ville. After a vain attempt to organize resistance +he fled and hid in a secluded yard, where he was discovered the +next day. He was arrested, sentenced to death, and guillotined +with Robespierre and his friends on the 10th Thermidor of the +year II. (the 28th of July 1794).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HANSARD, LUKE<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> (1752-1828), English printer, was born on +the 5th of July 1752 in St Mary’s parish, Norwich. He was +educated at Boston grammar school, and was apprenticed to +Stephen White, a Norwich printer. As soon as his apprenticeship +had expired Hansard started for London with only a guinea in +his pocket, and became a compositor in the office of John Hughs +(1703-1771), printer to the House of Commons. In 1774 he was +made a partner, and undertook almost the entire conduct of the +business, which in 1800 came completely into his hands. On the +admission of his sons the firm became Luke Hansard & Sons. +Among those whose friendship Hansard won in the exercise +of his profession were Robert Orme, Burke and Dr Johnson; +while Porson praised him as the most accurate printer of Greek. +He printed the <i>Journals of the House of Commons</i> from 1774 till +his death. The promptitude and accuracy with which Hansard +printed parliamentary papers were often of the greatest service +to government—notably on one occasion when the proof-sheets +of the report of the Secret Committee on the French Revolution +were submitted to Pitt twenty-four hours after the draft had +left his hands. On the union with Ireland in 1801, the increase +of parliamentary printing compelled Hansard to give up all +private printing except when parliament was not sitting. He +devised numerous expedients for reducing the expense of publishing +the reports; and in 1805, when his workmen struck at a time +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page928" id="page928"></a>928</span> +of great pressure, he and his sons themselves set to work as +compositors. Luke Hansard died on the 29th of October 1828.</p> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">Thomas Curson Hansard</span> (1776-1833), established +a press of his own in Paternoster Row, and began in 1803 to +print the <i>Parliamentary Debates</i>, which were not at first independent +reports, but were taken from the newspapers. After +1889 the debates were published by the Hansard Publishing +Union Limited. T. C. Hansard was the author of <i>Typographia, +an Historical Sketch of the Origin and Progress of the Art of +Printing</i> (1825). The original business remained in the hands +of his younger brothers, James and Luke Graves Hansard +(1777-1851). The firm was prosecuted in 1837 by John Joseph +Stockwell for printing by order of the House of Commons, in an +official report of the inspector of prisons, statements regarded by +the plaintiff as libellous. Hansard sheltered himself on the +ground of privilege, but it was not until after much litigation +that the security of the printers of government reports was +guaranteed by statute in 1840.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HANSEATIC LEAGUE.<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> It is impossible to assign any +precise date for the beginning of the Hanseatic League or +to name any single factor which explains the origin of that +loose but effective federation of North German towns. Associated +action and partial union among these towns can be +traced back to the 13th century. In 1241 we find Lübeck and +Hamburg agreeing to safeguard the important road connecting +the Baltic and the North Sea. The first known meeting of +the “maritime towns,” later known as the Wendish group and +including Lübeck, Hamburg, Lüneburg, Wismar, Rostock and +Stralsund, took place in 1256. The Saxon towns, during the +following century, were joining to protect their common interests, +and indeed at this period town confederacies in Germany, both +North and South, were so considerable as to call for the declaration +against them in the Golden Bull of 1356. The decline of +the imperial power and the growing opposition between the +towns and the territorial princes justified these defensive town +alliances, which in South Germany took on a peculiarly political +character. The relative weakness of territorial power in the +North, after the fall of Henry the Lion of Saxony, diminished +without however removing this motive for union, but the +comparative immunity from princely aggression on land left +the towns freer to combine in a stronger and more permanent +union for the defence of their commerce by sea and for the +control of the Baltic.</p> + +<p>While the political element in the development of the Hanseatic +League must not be underestimated, it was not so formative +as the economic. The foundation was laid for the growth of +German towns along the southern shore of the Baltic by the great +movement of German colonization of Slavic territory east of the +Elbe. This movement, extending in time from about the middle +of the 11th to the middle of the 13th century and carrying a +stream of settlers and traders from the North-west, resulted not +only in the Germanization of a wide territory but in the extension +of German influence along the sea-coast far to the east of actual +territorial settlement. The German trading towns, at the mouths +of the numerous streams which drain the North European plain, +were stimulated or created by the unifying impulse of a common +and long-continued advance of conquest and colonization.</p> + +<p>The impetus of this remarkable movement of expansion not +only carried German trade to the East and North within the +Baltic basin, but reanimated the older trade from the lower Rhine +region to Flanders and England in the West. Cologne and the +Westphalian towns, the most important of which were Dortmund, +Soest and Münster, had long controlled this commerce but now +began to feel the competition of the active traders of the Baltic, +opening up that direct communication by sea from the Baltic +to western Europe which became the essential feature in the +history of the League. The necessity of seeking protection from +the sea-rovers and pirates who infested these waters during +the whole period of Hanseatic supremacy, the legal customs, +substantially alike in the towns of North Germany, which +governed the groups of traders in the outlying trading posts, +the establishment of common factories, or “counters” (Komtors) +at these points, with aldermen to administer justice and to +secure trading privileges for the community of German merchants—such +were some of the unifying influences which preceded the +gradual formation of the League. In the century of energetic +commercial development before 1350 the German merchants +abroad led the way.</p> + +<p>Germans were early pushing as permanent settlers into the +Scandinavian towns, and in Wisby, on the island of Gothland, +the Scandinavian centre of Baltic trade, equal rights as citizens +in the town government were possessed by the German settlers +as early as the beginning of the 13th century. There also came +into existence at Wisby the first association of German traders +abroad, which united the merchants of over thirty towns, +from Cologne and Utrecht in the West to Reval in the East. +We find the Gothland association making in 1229 a treaty with +a Russian prince and securing privileges for their branch trading +station at Novgorod. According to the “Skra,” the by-laws +of the Novgorod branch, the four aldermen of the community +of Germans, who among other duties held the keys of the common +chest, deposited in Wisby, were to be chosen from the merchants +of the Gothland association and of the towns of Lübeck, Soest +and Dortmund. The Gothland association received in 1237 +trading rights in England, and shortly after the middle of the +century it also secured privileges in Flanders. It legislated on +matters relating to common trade interests, and, in the case of +the regulation of 1287 concerning shipwrecked goods, we find +it imposing this legislation on the towns under the penalty of +exclusion from the association. But with the extension of the +East and West trade beyond the confines of the Baltic, this +association by the end of the century was losing its position of +leadership. Its inheritance passed to the gradually forming +union of towns, chiefly those known as Wendish, which looked to +Lübeck as their head. In 1293 the Saxon and Wendish merchants +at Rostock decided that all appeals from Novgorod be taken to +Lübeck instead of to Wisby, and six years later the Wendish +and Westphalian towns, meeting at Lübeck, ordered that the +Gothland association should no longer use a common seal. +Though Lübeck’s right as court of appeal from the Hanseatic +counter at Novgorod was not recognized by the general assembly +of the League until 1373, the long-existing practice had simply +accorded with the actual shifting of commercial power. The +union of merchants abroad was beginning to come under the +control of the partial union of towns at home.</p> + +<p>A similar and contemporary extension of the influence of the +Baltic traders under Lübeck’s leadership may be witnessed in +the West. As a consequence of the close commercial relations +early existing between England and the Rhenish-Westphalian +towns, the merchants of Cologne were the first to possess a gild-hall +in London and to form a “hansa” with the right of admitting +other German merchants on payment of a fee. The charter of +1226, however, by which Emperor Frederick II. created Lübeck +a free imperial city, expressly declared that Lübeck citizens +trading in England should be free from the dues imposed by +the merchants of Cologne and should enjoy equal rights and +privileges. In 1266 and 1267 the merchants of Hamburg and +Lübeck received from Henry III. the right to establish their +own hansas in London, like that of Cologne. The situation thus +created led by 1282 to the coalescence of the rival associations +in the “Gild-hall of the Germans,” but though the Baltic traders +had secured a recognized foothold in the enlarged and unified +organization, Cologne retained the controlling interest in the +London settlement until 1476. Lübeck and Hamburg, however, +dominated the German trade in the ports of the east coast, +notably in Lynn and Boston, while they were strong in the +organized trading settlements at York, Hull, Ipswich, Norwich, +Yarmouth and Bristol. The counter at London, first called the +Steelyard in a parliamentary petition of 1422, claimed jurisdiction +over the other factories in England.</p> + +<p>In Flanders, also, the German merchants from the West had +long been trading, but here had later to endure not only the +rivalry but the pre-eminence of those from the East. In 1252 +the first treaty privileges for German trade in Flanders show +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page929" id="page929"></a>929</span> +two men of Lübeck and Hamburg heading the “Merchants of +the Roman Empire,” and in the later organization of the counter +at Bruges four or five of the six aldermen were chosen from +towns east of the Elbe, with Lübeck steadily predominant. The +Germans recognized the staple rights of Bruges for a number of +commodities, such as wool, wax, furs, copper and grain, and in +return for this material contribution to the growing commercial +importance of the town, they received in 1309 freedom from the +compulsory brokerage which Bruges imposed on foreign merchants. +The importance and independence of the German +trading settlements abroad was exemplified in the statutes of +the “Company of German merchants at Bruges,” drawn up +in 1347, where for the first time appears the grouping of towns +in three sections (the “Drittel”), the Wendish-Saxon, the +Prussian-Westphalian, and those of Gothland and Livland. +Even more important than the assistance which the concentration +of the German trade at Bruges gave to that leading mart of +European commerce was the service rendered by the German +counter of Bruges to the cause of Hanseatic unity. Not merely +because of its central commercial position, but because of its +width of view, its political insight, and its constant insistence on +the necessity of union, this counter played a leading part in +Hanseatic policy. It was more Hanse than the Hanse towns.</p> + +<p>The last of the chief trading settlements, both in importance +and in date of organization, was that at Bergen in Norway, +where in 1343 the Hanseatics obtained special trade privileges. +Scandinavia had early been sought for its copper and iron, its +forest products and its valuable fisheries, especially of herring +at Schonen, but it was backward in its industrial development +and its own commerce had seriously declined in the 14th century. +It had come to depend largely upon the Germans for the importation +of all its luxuries and of many of its necessities, as well as +for the exportation of its products, but regular trade with the +three kingdoms was confined for the most part to the Wendish +towns, with Lübeck steadily asserting an exclusive ascendancy. +The fishing centre at Schonen was important as a market, though, +like Novgorod, its trade was seasonal, but it did not acquire the +position of a regularly organized counter, reserved alone, in the +North, for Bergen. The commercial relations with the North +cannot be regarded as an important element in the union of the +Hanse towns, but the geographical position of the Scandinavian +countries, especially that of Denmark, commanding the Sound +which gives access to the Baltic, compelled a close attention to +Scandinavian politics on the part of Lübeck and the League and +thus by necessitating combined political action in defence of +Hanseatic sea-power exercised a unifying influence.</p> + +<p>Energetic and successful though the scattered trading settlements +had been in establishing German trade connexions and +in securing valuable trade privileges, the middle of the 14th +century found them powerless to meet difficulties arising from +internal dissension and still more from the political rivalries +and trade jealousies of nascent nationalities. Flanders became +a battle-field in the great struggle between France and England, +and the war of trade prohibitions led to infractions of the German +privileges in Bruges. An embargo on trade with Flanders, voted +in 1358 by a general assembly, resulted by 1360 in the full +restoration of German privileges in Flanders, but reduced the +counter at Bruges to an executive organ of a united town policy. +It is worth noting that in a document connected with this action +the union of towns, borrowing the term from English usage, was +first called the “German Hansa.” In 1361 representatives from +Lübeck and Wisby visited Novgorod to recodify the by-laws +of the counter and to admonish it that new statutes required +the consent of Lübeck, Wisby, Riga, Dorpat and Reval. This +action was confirmed in 1366 by an assembly of the Hansa which +at the same time, on the occasion of a regulation made by the +Bruges counter and of statutes drawn up by the young Bergen +counter, ordered that in future the approval of the towns must +be obtained for all new regulations.</p> + +<p>The counter at London was soon forced to follow the example +of the other counters at Bruges, Novgorod and Bergen. After +the failure of the Italians, the Hanseatics remained the strongest +group of alien merchants in England, and, as such, claimed the +exclusive enjoyment of the privileges granted by the <i>Carta +Mercatoria</i> of 1303. Their highly favoured position in England, +contrasting markedly with their refusal of trade facilities to the +English in some of the Baltic towns and their evident policy of +monopoly in the Baltic trade, incensed the English mercantile +classes, and doubtless influenced the increases in customs-duties +which were regarded by the Germans as contrary to their treaty +rights. Unsuccessful in obtaining redress from the English +government, the German merchants finally, in 1374, appealed +for aid to the home towns, especially to Lübeck. The result +of Hanseatic representations was the confirmation by Richard II. +in 1377 of all their privileges, which accorded them the preferential +treatment they had claimed and became the foundation +of the Hanseatic position in England.</p> + +<p>In the meanwhile, the conquest of Wisby by Waldemar IV. +of Denmark in 1361 had disclosed his ambition for the political +control of the Baltic. He was promptly opposed by an alliance +of Hanse towns, led by Lübeck. The defeat of the Germans +at Helsingborg only called into being the stronger town and +territorial alliance of 1367, known as the Cologne Confederation, +and its final victory, with the peace of Stralsund in 1370, which +gave for a limited period the four chief castles on the Sound into +the hands of the Hanseatic towns, greatly enhanced the prestige +of the League.</p> + +<p>The assertion of Hanseatic influence in the two decades, 1356 to +1377, marks the zenith of the League’s power and the completion +of the long process of unification. Under the pressure of commercial +and political necessity, authority was definitely transferred +from the Hansas of merchants abroad to the Hansa of +towns at home, and the sense of unity had become such that in +1380 a Lübeck official could declare that “whatever touches +one town touches all.” But even at the time when union was +most important, this statement went further than the facts +would warrant, and in the course of the following century it +became less and less true. Dortmund held aloof from the +Cologne Confederation on the ground that it had no concern in +Scandinavian politics. It became, indeed, increasingly difficult +to obtain the support of the inland towns for a policy of sea-power +in the Baltic. Cologne sent no representatives to the +regular Hanseatic assemblies until 1383, and during the 15th +century its independence was frequently manifested. It rebelled +at the authority of the counter at Bruges, and at the time of +the war with England (1469-1474) openly defied the League. +In the East, the German Order, while enjoying Hanseatic +privileges, frequently opposed the policy of the League abroad, +and was only prevented by domestic troubles and its Hinterland +enemies from playing its own hand in the Baltic. After the fall +of the order in 1467, the towns of Prussia and Livland, especially +Dantzig and Riga, pursued an exclusive trade policy even against +their Hanseatic confederates. Lübeck, however, supported by +the Bruges counter, despite the disaffection and jealousy on all +sides hampering and sometimes thwarting its efforts, stood +steadfastly for union and the necessity of obedience to the decrees +of the assemblies. Its headship of the League, hitherto tacitly +accepted, was definitely recognized in 1418.</p> + +<p>The governing body of the Hansa was the assembly of town +representatives, the “Hansetage,” held irregularly as occasion +required at the summons of Lübeck, and, with few exceptions, +attended but scantily. The delegates were bound by instructions +from their towns and had to report home the decisions of +the assembly for acceptance or rejection. In 1469 the League +declared that the English use of the terms “societas,” “collegium” +and “universitas” was inappropriate to so loose an +organization. It preferred to call itself a “firma confederatio” +for trade purposes only. It had no common seal, though that +of Lübeck was accepted, particularly by foreigners, in behalf +of the League. Disputes between the confederate towns were +brought for adjudication before the general assembly, but the +League had no recognized federal judiciary. Lübeck, with the +counters abroad, watched over the execution of the measures +voted by the assembly, but there was no regular administrative +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page930" id="page930"></a>930</span> +organization. Money for common purposes was raised from +time to time, as necessity demanded, by the imposition on Hanse +merchandise of poundage dues, introduced in 1361, while the +counters relied upon a small levy of like nature and upon fines +to meet current needs. Even this slender financial provision +met with opposition. The German Order in 1398 converted +the Hanseatic poundage to a territorial tax for its own purposes, +and one of the chief causes for Cologne’s disaffection a half-century +later was the extension from Flanders to other parts of +the Netherlands of the levy made by the counter at Bruges. Since +the authority of the League rested primarily on the moral support +of its members, allied in common trade interests and acquiescing +in the able leadership of Lübeck, its only means of compulsion +was the “Verhansung,” or exclusion of a recalcitrant town from +the benefits of the trade privileges of the League. A conspicuous +instance was the exclusion of Cologne from 1471 until its +obedience in 1476, but the penalty had been earlier imposed, +as in the case of Brunswick, on towns which overthrew their +patrician governments. It was obviously, however, a measure +to be used only in the last resort and with extreme reluctance.</p> + +<p>The decisive factor in determining membership in the League +was the historical right of the citizens of a town to participate +in Hanseatic privileges abroad. At first the merchant Hansas +had shared these privileges with almost any German merchant, +and thus many little villages, notably those in Westphalia, +ultimately claimed membership. Later, under the Hansa of the +towns, the struggle for the maintenance of a coveted position +abroad led to a more exclusive policy. A few new members were +admitted, mainly from the westernmost sphere of Hanseatic +influence, but membership was refused to some important +applicants. In 1447 it was voted that admission be granted +only by unanimous consent. No complete list of members was +ever drawn up, despite frequent requests from foreign powers. +Contemporaries usually spoke of 70, 72, 73 or 77 members, and +perhaps the list is complete with Daenell’s recent count of 72, +but the obscurity on so vital a point is significant of the +amorphous character of the organization.</p> + +<p>The towns of the League, stretching from Thorn and Krakow +on the East to the towns of the Zuider Zee on the West, and from +Wisby and Reval in the North to Göttingen in the South, were +arranged in groups, following in the main the territorial divisions. +Separate assemblies were held in the groups for the discussion +both of local and Hanseatic affairs, and gradually, but not fully +until the 16th century, the groups became recognized as the lowest +stage of Hanse organization. The further grouping into +“Thirds,” later “Quarters,” under head-towns, was also more +emphasized in that century.</p> + +<p>In the 15th century the League, with increasing difficulty, +held a defensive position against the competition of strong rivals +and new trade-routes. In England the inevitable conflict of +interests between the new mercantile power, growing conscious +of its national strength, and the old, standing insistant on the +letter of its privileges, was postponed by the factional discord +out of which the Hansa in 1474 dexterously snatched a renewal +of its rights. Under Elizabeth, however, the English Merchant +Adventurers could finally rejoice at the withdrawal of privileges +from the Hanseatics and their concession to England, in return +for the retention of the Steelyard, of a factory in Hamburg. In +the Netherlands the Hanseatics clung to their position in Bruges +until 1540, while trade was migrating to the ports of Antwerp +and Amsterdam. By the peace of Copenhagen in 1441, after the +unsuccessful war of the League with Holland, the attempted +monopoly of the Baltic was broken, and, though the Hanseatic +trade regulations were maintained on paper, the Dutch with +their larger ships increased their hold on the herring fisheries, +the French salt trade, and the Baltic grain trade. For the +Russian trade new competitors were emerging in southern +Germany. The Hanseatic embargo against Bruges from 1451 +to 1457, its later war and embargo against England, the Turkish +advance closing the Italian Black Sea trade with southern Russia, +all were utilized by Nuremberg and its fellows to secure a land-trade +outside the sphere of Hanseatic influence. The fairs of +Leipzig and Frankfort-on-Main rose in importance as Novgorod, +the stronghold of Hanse trade in the East, was weakened by +the attacks of Ivan III. The closing of the Novgorod counter +in 1494 was due not only to the development of the Russian state +but to the exclusive Hanseatic policy which had stimulated the +opening of competing trade routes.</p> + +<p>Within the League itself increasing restiveness was shown +under the restrictions of its trade policy. At the Hanseatic +assembly of 1469, Dantzig, Hamburg and Breslau opposed the +maintenance of a compulsory staple at Bruges in the face of +the new conditions produced by a widening commerce and more +advantageous markets. Complaint was made of South German +competition in the Netherlands. “Those in the Hansa,” protested +Breslau, “are fettered and must decline and those outside +the Hansa are free and prosper.” By 1477 even Lübeck had +become convinced that a continuance of the effort to maintain +the compulsory staple against Holland was futile and should be +abandoned. But while it was found impossible to enforce the +staple or to close the Sound against the Dutch, other features +of the monopolistic system of trade regulations were still upheld. +It was forbidden to admit an outsider to partnership or to +co-ownership of ships, to trade in non-Hanseatic goods, to buy +or sell on credit in a foreign mart or to enter into contracts for +future delivery. The trade of foreigners outside the gates of +Hanse towns or with others than Hanseatics was forbidden +in 1417, and in the Eastern towns the retail trade of strangers +was strictly limited. The whole system was designed to suppress +the competition of outsiders, but the divergent interests of +individuals and towns, the pressure of competition and changing +commercial conditions, in part the reactionary character of +the legislation, made enforcement difficult. The measures were +those of the late-medieval town economy applied to the wide +region of the German Baltic trade, but not supported, as was +the analogous mercantilist system, by a strong central government.</p> + +<p>Among the factors, economic, geographic, political and social, +which combined to bring about the decline of the Hanseatic +League, none was probably more influential than the absence +of a German political power comparable in unity and energy with +those of France and England, which could quell particularism +at home, and abroad maintain in its vigour the trade which these +towns had developed and defended with their imperfect union. +Nothing was to be expected from the declining Empire. Still +less was any co-operation possible between the towns and the +territorial princes. The fatal result of conflict between town +autonomy and territorial power had been taught in Flanders. +The Hanseatics regarded the princes with a growing and exaggerated +fear and found some relief in the formation in 1418 +of a thrice-renewed alliance, known as the “Tohopesate,” +against princely aggression. But no territorial power had as yet +arisen in North Germany capable of subjugating and utilizing +the towns, though it could detach the inland towns from the +League. The last wars of the League with the Scandinavian +powers in the 16th century, which left it shorn of many of its +privileges and of any pretension to control of the Baltic basin +eliminated it as a factor in the later struggle of the Thirty Years’ +War for that control. At an assembly of 1629, Lübeck, Bremen +and Hamburg were entrusted with the task of safeguarding the +general welfare, and after an effort to revive the League in the +last general assembly of 1669, these three towns were left alone +to preserve the name and small inheritance of the Hansa which +in Germany’s disunion had upheld the honour of her commerce. +Under their protection, the three remaining counters lingered on +until their buildings were sold at Bergen in 1775, at London in +1852 and at Antwerp in 1863.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—<i>Hansisches Urkundenbuch</i>, bearbeitet von K. +Höhlbaum, K. Kunze und W. Stein (10 vols., Halle und Leipzig, +1876-1907); <i>Hanserecesse</i>, erste Abtheilung, 1256-1430 (8 vols., +Leipzig, 1870-1897), zweite Abtheilung, 1431-1476 (7 vols., 1876-1892); +dritte Abtheilung, 1477-1530 (7 vols., 1881-1905); <i>Hansische +Geschichtsquellen</i> (7 vols., 1875-1894; 3 vols., 1897-1906); <i>Inventare +hansischer Archive des sechzehnten Jahrhunderts</i> (vols. 1 and 2, +1896-1903); <i>Hansische Geschictsblätter</i> (14 vols., 1871-1908). All +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page931" id="page931"></a>931</span> +the above-mentioned chief sources have been issued by the Verein +für hansische Geschichte. Of the secondary literature, the following +histories and monographs should be named. G. F. Sartorius, +<i>Geschichte des hanseatischen Bundes</i> (3 vols., Göttingen, 1802-1808), +<i>Urkundliche Geschichte des Ursprunges der deutschen Hanse</i>, herausgegeben +von J. M. Lappenberg (2 vols., Hamburg, 1830); F. W. +Barthold, <i>Geschichte der deutschen Hansa</i> (3 vols., 2nd ed., Leipzig, +1862); D. Schäfer, <i>Die Hansestädte und König Waldemar von +Dänemark</i> (Jena, 1879); W. Stein, <i>Beiträge zur Geschichte der +deutschen Hanse bis um die Mitte des fünfzehnten Jahrhunderts</i> (Giessen, +1900); E. Daenell, <i>Die Blütezeit der deutschen Hanse. Hansische +Geschichte von der zweiten Hälfte des XIV. bis zum letzten Viertel des +XV. Jahrhunderts</i> (2 vols., Berlin, 1905-1906); J. M. Lappenberg, +<i>Urkundliche Geschichte des hansischen Stahlhofes zu London</i> (Hamburg, +1851); F. Keutgen, <i>Die Beziehungen der Hanse zu England im letzten +Drittel des vierzehnten Jahrhunderts</i> (Giessen, 1890); R. Ehrenberg, +<i>Hamburg und England im Zeitalter der Königin Elisabeth</i> (Jena, +1896); W. Stein, <i>Die Genossenschaft der deutschen Kaufleute zu +Brügge in Flandern</i> (Berlin, 1890); H. Rogge, <i>Der Stapelzwang des +hansischen Kontors zu Brügge im fünfzehnten Jahrhundert</i> (Kiel, +1903); A. Winckler, <i>Die deutsche Hansa in Russland</i> (Berlin, 1886).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. F. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HANSEN, PETER ANDREAS<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> (1795-1874), Danish astronomer, +was born on the 8th of December 1795, at Tondern, in the duchy +of Schleswig. The son of a goldsmith, he learned the trade of a +watchmaker at Flensburg, and exercised it at Berlin and Tondern, +1818-1820. He had, however, long been a student of science; +and Dr Dircks, a physician practising at Tondern, prevailed +with his father to send him in 1820 to Copenhagen, where he +won the patronage of H. C. Schumacher, and attracted the +personal notice of King Frederick VI. The Danish survey was +then in progress, and he acted as Schumacher’s assistant in work +connected with it, chiefly at the new observatory of Altona, +1821-1825. Thence he passed on to Gotha as director of the +Seeberg observatory; nor could he be tempted to relinquish +the post by successive invitations to replace F. G. W. Struve at +Dorpat in 1829, and F. W. Bessel at Königsberg in 1847. The +problems of gravitational astronomy engaged the chief part of +Hansen’s attention. A research into the mutual perturbations of +Jupiter and Saturn secured for him the prize of the Berlin +Academy in 1830, and a memoir on cometary disturbances was +crowned by the Paris Academy in 1850. In 1838 he published +a revision of the lunar theory, entitled <i>Fundamenta nova investigationis</i>, +&c., and the improved Tables of the Moon based upon +it were printed in 1857, at the expense of the British government, +their merit being further recognized by a grant of £1000, and by +their immediate adoption in the <i>Nautical Almanac</i>, and other +Ephemerides. A theoretical discussion of the disturbances +embodied in them (still familiarly known to lunar experts as +the <i>Darlegung</i>) appeared in the <i>Abhandlungen</i> of the Saxon +Academy of Sciences in 1862-1864. Hansen twice visited England +and was twice (in 1842 and 1860) the recipient of the Royal +Astronomical Society’s gold medal. He communicated to that +society in 1847 an able paper on a long-period lunar inequality +(<i>Memoirs Roy. Astr. Society</i>, xvi. 465), and in 1854 one on the +moon’s figure, advocating the mistaken hypothesis of its deformation +by a huge elevation directed towards the earth (<i>Ib.</i> xxiv. +29). He was awarded the Copley medal by the Royal Society +in 1850, and his Solar Tables, compiled with the assistance of +Christian Olufsen, appeared in 1854. Hansen gave in 1854 the +first intimation that the accepted distance of the sun was too +great by some millions of miles (<i>Month. Notices Roy. Astr. Soc.</i> +xv. 9), the error of J. F. Encke’s result having been rendered +evident through his investigation of a lunar inequality. He died +on the 28th of March 1874, at the new observatory in the town +of Gotha, erected under his care in 1857.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Vierteljahrsschrift astr. Gesellschaft</i>, x. 133; <i>Month. Notices +Roy. Astr. Society</i>, xxxv. 168; <i>Proc. Roy. Society</i>, xxv. p. v.; R. +Wolf, <i>Geschichte der Astronomie</i>, p. 526; <i>Wochenschrift für Astronomie</i>, +xvii. 207 (account of early years by E. Heis); <i>Allgemeine +deutsche Biographie</i> (C. Bruhns).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. M. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HANSI,<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> a town of British India, in the Hissar district of the +Punjab, on a branch of the Western Jumna canal, with a station +on the Rewari-Ferozepore railway, 16 m. E. of Hissar. Pop. +(1901) 16,523. Hansi is one of the most ancient towns in +northern India, the former capital of the tract called Hariana. +At the end of the 18th century it was the headquarters of the +famous Irish adventurer George Thomas; from 1803 to 1857 +it was a British cantonment, and it became the scene of a +murderous outbreak during the Mutiny. A ruined fort overlooks +the town, which is still surrounded by a high brick wall, with +bastions and loop holes. It is a centre of local trade, with +factories for ginning and pressing cotton.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HANSOM, JOSEPH ALOYSIUS<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> (1803-1882), English architect +and inventor, was born in York on the 26th of October 1803. +Showing an aptitude for designing and construction, he was taken +from his father’s joinery shop and apprenticed to an architect +in York, and, by 1831, his designs for the Birmingham town hall +were accepted and followed—to his financial undoing, as he had +become bond for the builders. In 1834 he registered the design +of a “Patent Safety Cab,” and subsequently sold the patent +to a company for £10,000, which, however, owing to the +company’s financial difficulties, was never paid. The hansom +cab as improved by subsequent alterations, nevertheless, took +and held the fancy of the public. There was no back seat for the +driver in the original design, and there is little beside the suspended +axle and large wheels in the modern hansom to recall +the early ones. In 1834 Hansom founded the <i>Builder</i> newspaper, +but was compelled to retire from this enterprise owing to insufficient +capital. Between 1854 and 1879 he devoted himself +to architecture, designing and erecting a great number of +important buildings, private and public, including churches, +schools and convents for the Roman Catholic church to which +he belonged. Buildings from his designs are scattered all over +the United Kingdom, and were even erected in Australia and +South America. He died in London on the 29th of June 1882.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HANSON, SIR RICHARD DAVIES<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> (1805-1876), chief justice +of South Australia, was born in London on the 6th of December +1805. Admitted a solicitor in 1828, he practised for some time +in London. In 1838 he went with Lord Durham to Canada as +assistant-commissioner of inquiry into crown lands and immigration. +In 1840, on the death of Lord Durham, whose private +secretary he had been, he settled in Wellington, New Zealand. +He there acted as crown prosecutor, but in 1846 removed to +South Australia. In 1851 he was appointed advocate-general +of that colony and took an active share in the passing of many +important measures, such as the first Education Act, the District +Councils Act of 1852, and the Act of 1856 which granted constitutional +government to the colony. In 1856 and again from +1857 to 1860 he was attorney-general and leader of the government. +In 1861 he was appointed chief justice of the supreme +court of South Australia and was knighted in 1869. He died +in Australia on the 4th of March 1876.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HANSTEEN, CHRISTOPHER<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> (1784-1873), Norwegian astronomer +and physicist, was born at Christiania, on the 26th of +September 1784. From the cathedral school he went to the +university at Copenhagen, where first law and afterwards +mathematics formed his main study. In 1806 he taught mathematics +in the gymnasium of Frederiksborg, Zeeland, and in the +following year he began the inquiries in terrestrial magnetism +with which his name is especially associated. He took in 1812 +the prize of the Danish Royal Academy of Sciences for his reply +to a question on the magnetic axes. Appointed lecturer in 1814, +he was in 1816 raised to the chair of astronomy and applied +mathematics in the university of Christiania. In 1819 he published +a volume of researches on terrestrial magnetism, which was +translated into German by P. T. Hanson, under the title of +<i>Untersuchungen über den Magnetismus der Erde</i>, with a supplement +containing <i>Beobachtungen der Abweichung und Neigung +der Magnetnadel</i> and an atlas. By the rules there framed for +the observation of magnetical phenomena Hansteen hoped to +accumulate analyses for determining the number and position +of the magnetic poles of the earth. In prosecution of his +researches he travelled over Finland and the greater part of his +own country; and in 1828-1830 he undertook, in company +with G. A. Erman, and with the co-operation of Russia, a government +mission to Western Siberia. A narrative of the expedition +soon appeared (<i>Reise-Erinnerungen aus Sibirien</i>, 1854; <i>Souvenirs</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page932" id="page932"></a>932</span> +<i>d’un voyage en Sibérie</i>, 1857); but the chief work was not issued +till 1863 (<i>Resultate magnetischer Beobachtungen</i>, &c.). Shortly +after the return of the mission, an observatory was erected in +the park of Christiania (1833), and Hansteen was appointed +director. On his representation a magnetic observatory was +added in 1839. In 1835-1838 he published text-books on +geometry and mechanics; and in 1842 he wrote his <i>Disquisitiones +de mutationibus quas patitur momentum acus magneticae</i>, &c. +He also contributed various papers to different scientific journals, +especially the <i>Magazin for Naturvidenskaberne</i>, of which he +became joint-editor in 1823. He superintended the trigonometrical +and topographical survey of Norway, begun in 1837. +In 1861 he retired from active work, but still pursued his studies, +his <i>Observations de l’inclination magnétique</i> and <i>Sur les variations +séculaires du magnétisme</i> appearing in 1865. He died at +Christiania on the 11th of April 1873.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HANTHAWADDY,<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> a district in the Pegu division of Lower +Burma, the home district of Rangoon, from which the town +was detached to make a separate district in 1880. It has an area +of 3023 sq. m., with a population in 1901 of 484,811, showing an +increase of 22% in the decade. Hanthawaddy and Henzada +are the two most densely populated districts in the province. +It consists of a vast plain stretching up from the sea between +the To or China Bakir mouth of the Irrawaddy and the Pegu +Yomas. Except the tract lying between the Pegu Yomas on +the east and the Hlaing river, the country is intersected by +numerous tidal creeks, many navigable by large boats and some +by steamers. The headquarters of the district are in Rangoon, +which is also the sub-divisional headquarters. The second +sub-division has its headquarters at Insein, where there are +large railway works. Cultivation is almost wholly confined to +rice, but there are many vegetable and fruit gardens.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HANUKKAH,<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> a Jewish festival, the “Feast of Dedication” +(cf. John x. 22) or the “Feast of the Maccabees,” beginning +on the 25th day of the ninth month <i>Kislev</i> (December), of the +Hebrew ecclesiastical year, and lasting eight days. It was +instituted in 165 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> in commemoration of, and thanksgiving +for, the purification of the temple at Jerusalem on this day by +Judas Maccabaeus after its pollution by Antiochus Epiphanes, +king of Syria, who in 168 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> set up a pagan altar to Zeus +Olympius. The Talmudic sources say that when the perpetual +lamp of the temple was to be relighted only one flask of holy oil +sufficient for the day remained, but this miraculously lasted +for the eight days (cf. the legend in 2 Macc. i. 18). In memory +of this the Jews burn both in synagogues and in houses on the +first night of the festival one light, on the second two, and so on +to the end (so the Hillelites), or vice versa eight lights on the +first, and one less on each succeeding night (so the Shammaites). +From the prominence of the lights the festival is also known as +the “Festival of Lights” or “Illumination” (<i>Talmud</i>). It is +said that the day chosen by Judas for the setting up of the new +altar was the anniversary of that on which Antiochus had set +up the pagan altar; hence it is suggested (<i>e.g.</i> by Wellhausen) +that the 25th of Kislev was an old pagan festival, perhaps the +day of the winter solstice.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For further details and illustrations of Ḥanukkah lamps see +<i>Jewish Encyc.</i>, s.v.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HANUMAN,<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> in Hindu mythology, a monkey-god, who forms a +central figure in the <i>Ramayana</i>. He was the child of a nymph by +the god of the wind. His exploits, as the ally of Rama (incarnation +of Vishnu) in the latter’s recovery of his wife Sita from the +clutches of the demon Ravana, include the bridging of the +straits between India and Ceylon with huge boulders carried +away from the Himalayas. He is the leader of a host of monkeys +who aid in these supernatural deeds. Temples in his honour are +frequent throughout India.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HANWAY, JONAS<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> (1712-1786), English traveller and philanthropist, +was born at Portsmouth in 1712. While still a child, +his father, a victualler, died, and the family moved to London. +In 1729 Jonas was apprenticed to a merchant in Lisbon. In +1743, after he had been some time in business for himself in +London, he became a partner with Mr Dingley, a merchant in +St Petersburg, and in this way was led to travel in Russia and +Persia. Leaving St Petersburg on the 10th of September 1743, +and passing south by Moscow, Tsaritsyn and Astrakhan, he +embarked on the Caspian on the 22nd of November, and arrived +at Astrabad on the 18th of December. Here his goods were +seized by Mohammed Hassan Beg, and it was only after great +privations that he reached the camp of Nadir Shah, under whose +protection he recovered most (85%) of his property. His +return journey was embarrassed by sickness (at Resht), by +attacks from pirates, and by six weeks’ quarantine; and he +only reappeared at St Petersburg on the 1st of January 1745. +He again left the Russian capital on the 9th of July 1750 and +travelled through Germany and Holland to England (28th of +October). The rest of his life was mostly spent in London, +where the narrative of his travels (published in 1753) soon made +him a man of note, and where he devoted himself to philanthropy +and good citizenship. In 1756 he founded the Marine Society, +to keep up the supply of British seamen; in 1758 he became a +governor of the Foundling, and established the Magdalen, +hospital; in 1761 he procured a better system of parochial +birth-registration in London; and in 1762 he was appointed a +commissioner for victualling the navy (10th of July); this office +he held till October 1783. He died, unmarried, on the 5th of +September 1786. He was the first Londoner, it is said, to carry +an umbrella, and he lived to triumph over all the hackney +coachmen who tried to hoot and hustle him down. He attacked +“vail-giving,” or tipping, with some temporary success; by +his onslaught upon tea-drinking he became involved in controversy +with Johnson and Goldsmith. His last efforts were on +behalf of little chimney-sweeps. His advocacy of solitary +confinement for prisoners and opposition to Jewish naturalization +were more questionable instances of his activity in social +matters.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Hanway left seventy-four printed works, mostly pamphlets; +the only one of literary importance is the <i>Historical Account of +British Trade over the Caspian Sea, with a Journal of Travels</i>, &c. +(London, 1753). On his life, see also Pugh, <i>Remarkable Occurrences +in the Life of Jonas Hanway</i> (London, 1787); <i>Gentleman’s Magazine</i>, +vol. xxxii. p. 342; vol. lvi. pt. ii. pp. 812-814, 1090, 1143-1144; +vol. lxv. pt. ii. pp. 721-722, 834-835; <i>Notes and Queries</i>, 1st series, i. +436, ii. 25; 3rd series, vii. 311; 4th series, viii. 416.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HANWELL,<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> an urban district in the Brentford parliamentary +division of Middlesex, England, 10½ m. W. of St Paul’s cathedral, +London, on the river Brent and the Great Western railway. Pop. +(1891) 6139; (1901) 10,438. It ranks as an outer residential +suburb of London. The Hanwell lunatic asylum of the county of +London has been greatly extended since its erection 1831, and +can accommodate over 2500 inmates. The extensive cemeteries +of St Mary Abbots, Kensington, and St George, Hanover Square, +London, are here. In the churchyard of St Mary’s church was +buried Jonas Hanway (d. 1786), traveller, philanthropist, and +by repute, introducer of the umbrella into England. The +Roman Catholic Convalescent Home for women and children +was erected in 1865. Before the Norman period the manor of +Hanwell belonged to Westminster Abbey.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAPARANDA<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> (Finnish <i>Haaparanta</i>, “Aspen Shore”), a +town of Sweden in the district (<i>län</i>) of Norbotten, at the head +of the Gulf of Bothnia. Pop. (1900) 1568. It lies about 1½ m. +from the mouth of the Torne river, on the frontier with Russia +(Finland), opposite the town of Torneå which has belonged +to Russia since 1809. The towns are divided by a marshy +channel, formerly the bed of the Torne, but the main stream +is now east of the Russian town. Haparanda was founded in +1812, and at first bore the name of Karljohannstad. It received +its municipal constitution in 1842. Shipbuilding is prosecuted. +Sea-going vessels load and unload at Salmio, 7 m. from +Haparanda. Since 1859 the town has been the seat of an important +meteorological station. Annual mean temperature, +32.4° Fahr.; February 10.5°; July 58.8°. Rainfall, 16.5 in. +annually. Up the Torne valley (54 m.) is the hill Avasaxa, +whither pilgrimages were formerly made in order to stand +in the light of the sun at midnight on St John’s day +(June 24).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page933" id="page933"></a>933</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAPLODRILI<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> (so called by Lankester), often called Archiannelida +(Hatschek), the name provisionally given to a number of +interesting lowly-organized marine worms, whose affinities are +very doubtful (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chaetopoda</a></span>.) <i>Polygordius</i> and <i>Protodrilus</i> +live in sand, but while the former moves by means of the contraction +of its body-wall muscles, <i>Protodrilus</i> can progress by the +action of the bands of cilia surrounding its segments, and of the +longitudinal ciliated ventral groove. <i>Saccocirrus</i>, which also +lives in sand, and more closely resembles the Polychaeta, has +throughout the greater length of its body on each segment a +pair of small uniramous parapodia bearing a bunch of simple +setae. No other member of the group is known to have any +trace of setae or parapodia at any stage of development.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:479px; height:957px" src="images/img933a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>A, <i>Polygordius neapolitanus</i>. (From Fraipont.)</p> +<p>B, Transverse section of <i>Polygordius</i>. (From Fraipont.)</p> +<p>C, Trochophore of <i>Polygordius</i>. and D, later stage of the same, + showing the development of the trunk. (From Hatschek.)</p> +<p>E, Dorsal view of <i>Dinophilus taeniatus</i>.</p> +<p>F, Male apparatus of the same (From Harmer.)</p> +<p><i>a</i>, Anus.</p> +<p><i>ap</i>, Apical organ.</p> +<p><i>c</i>, Coelom.</p> +<p><i>c.o</i>, Ciliated pit.</p> +<p><i>c.t</i>, Cuticle.</p> +<p><i>d.v</i>, Dorsal vessel.</p> +<p><i>e</i>, Eye.</p> +<p><i>ep</i>, Epidermis.</p> +<p><i>g.f</i>, Genital funnel.</p> +<p><i>h</i>, “Head kidney,” with second nephridium just below it.</p> +<p><i>i</i>, Intestine.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>l.m</i>, Longitudinal muscles.</p> +<p><i>m</i>, Mouth.</p> +<p><i>m.o</i>, Muscular pharyngeal organ.</p> +<p><i>m.p</i>, Male pore.</p> +<p><i>n</i>, Nephridium.</p> +<p><i>o.m</i>, Oblique muscles.</p> +<p><i>ov</i>, Ovary.</p> +<p><i>p</i>, Penis.</p> +<p><i>pr</i>, Prototroch.</p> +<p><i>pt</i>, Prostomial tentacle.</p> +<p><i>sp</i>, Sperm-sac.</p> +<p><i>spd</i>, Sperm-duct.</p> +<p><i>st</i>, Stomach.</p> +<p><i>t</i>, Testes.</p> +<p><i>tr</i>, Trunk segment.</p> +<p><i>tt</i>, Telotroch.</p> +<p><i>v.n</i>, Ventral nerve cord.</p> +<p><i>v.v</i>, Ventral vessel.</p></td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p class="pt2">These three genera have the following characters in common. +The body is composed of a large number of segments; the prostomium +bears a pair of tentacles; the nervous system consists +of a brain and longitudinal ventral nerve cords closely connected +with the epidermis (without distinct ganglia), widely separated in +<i>Saccocirrus</i>, closely approximated in <i>Protodrilus</i>, fused together +in <i>Polygordius</i>; the coelom is well developed, the septa are distinct, +and the dorsal and ventral longitudinal mesenteries are complete; +the nephridia are simple, and open into the coelom. Polygordius +differs from <i>Protodrilus</i> and <i>Saccocirrus</i> in the absence of a distinct +suboesophageal muscular pouch, and in the absence of a peculiar +closed cavity in the head region, which is especially well developed +in <i>Saccocirrus</i>, and probably represents the specialized coelom of +the first segment. Moreover, in <i>Saccocirrus</i> the genital organs, +present in the majority of the trunk segments, have become much +complicated (fig. 2). In the female there is in every fertile segment +a pair of spermathecae opening at the nephridiopores. In +the male there are a right and a left protrusible penis in every +genital segment, into which opens the nephridium and a sperm-sac. +The wide funnels of the nephridia of this region are possibly of +coelomic origin.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:464px; height:292px" src="images/img933b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—Diagram of a transverse section of <i>Saccocirrus</i> showing +on the left side the organs in a genital segment of a male, and on +the right side the organs in a genital segment of a female. (From +Goodrich.)</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2"><i>Dinophilus</i> is a free-swimming form without tentacles, and with +segmental bands of cilia (fig. 1). The parasitic <i>Histriodritus</i> (Histriobdella) +feeds on the eggs of the lobster. It resembles <i>Dinophilus</i> +in the possession of a ventral pharyngeal pouch (which bears teeth +in <i>Histriodrilus</i> only), the small number of segments, and absence +of distinct septa, the absence of a vascular system, the presence of +distinct ganglia on the ventral nerve cords, and of small nephridia +which do not appear to open internally. <i>Histriodrilus</i> resembles +<i>Saccocirrus</i> in the possession of two posterior adhesive processes, +and to some extent in the structure of the complex genital organs, +which, however, are restricted to a single segment. In <i>Dinophilus</i>, +there is also only a single pair of genital ducts behind; and in the +male there are sperm-sacs and a median penis. In some species of +<i>Dinophilus</i> there is pronounced sexual dimorphism (the male being +small and without gut) as in the Rotifera. The resemblance of +<i>Dinophilus</i> to the Rotifera is, however, quite superficial, and the +general structure of this genus with distinct traces of segmentation, +especially in the embryo, points to its close affinity, if not to +<i>Polygordius</i> in particular, at all events to the Annelida.</p> + +<p>That <i>Polygordius</i>, <i>Protodrilus</i> and <i>Saccocirrus</i> are on the whole +primitive forms, and related to each other, there can be little +doubt, but their place amongst the Annelida is difficult to determine. +The development of <i>Polygordius</i> alone is well known, having +been studied by Hatschek, Fraipont and others. The larva (fig. 1, +C and D) is a typical but very specialized form of trochophore, +provided with a branching nephridium bearing solenocytes. The +trunk develops on the lower surface of the disk-like larva, which +undergoes a more or less sudden metamorphosis into the young +worm (fig. 1). There appears to be little either in the development +or in the structure of the Haplodrili to warrant the view held by +Hatschek and Fraipont that <i>Polygordius</i> and <i>Protodrilus</i> are exceedingly +primitive forms, ancestral to the whole group of seta-bearing +Annelids (Oligochaeta, Polychaeta, Hirudinea and Echiuroidea). +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page934" id="page934"></a>934</span> +Whatever may be the conclusion as to the position of <i>Dinophilus</i> +and <i>Histriodrilus</i>, it seems only reasonable to suppose that +<i>Polygordius</i> and <i>Protodrilus</i>, so far from representing a stage in the +phylogeny of the Annelida before setae were developed, have lost +the setae, which are already in a reduced state in <i>Saccocirrus</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Hatschek, “Studien z. Entw. der Anneliden,” +<i>Arb. Zool. Inst. Wien</i>, vol. i., 1878; “Protodrilus,” ibid. vol. iii. +(1881); Fraipont, “Le Genre Polygordius,” <i>Fauna u. Flora d. +Golfes v. Neapel.</i>, xiv., 1887; Weldon, “Dinophilus gigas,” <i>Quart. +Journ. Micr. Sci.</i> vol. xxvii., 1886; Harmer, “Dinophilus,” <i>Journ. +Mar. Biol.</i> N.S. vol. i., 1889; Schimkewitsch, “Entwickl. des +<i>Dinophilus,” Zeit. f. wiss. Zool.</i> vol. lix., 1895; Korschelt, “Über +Bau u. Entw. des <i>Dinophilus</i>,” <i>Zeit. f. wiss. Zool.</i> vol. xxxvii., +1882; Foettinger, “Histriobdella,” <i>Arch. Biol.</i> vol. v., 1884; +Goodrich, “On Saccocirrus,” <i>Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.</i> vol. xliv., +1901.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. S. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAPTARA<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> (lit. <i>conclusion</i>), the Hebrew title given to the +prophetic lessons with which the ancient Synagogue service +concluded. In the time of Christ these prophetic lessons were +already in vogue, and Christ himself read the lessons and discoursed +on them in the synagogues of Galilee. In the modern +synagogue these readings from the prophets are regularly +included in the ritual of Sabbaths, festivals and some other +occasions.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A list of the current lessons is given in the <i>Jewish Encyclopedia</i>, +vol. vi. pp. 136-137.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(I. A.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAPUR,<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> a town of British India in the Meerut district of the +United Provinces, 18 m. S. of Meerut. Pop. (1901) 17,796. +It is said to have been founded in the 10th century, and was +granted by Sindhia to his French general Perron at the end +of the 18th century. Several fine groves surround the town, +but the wall and ditch have fallen out of repair, and only +the names of the five gates remain. Considerable trade is +carried on in sugar, grain, cotton, timber, bamboos and brass +utensils.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARA-KIRI<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (Japanese <i>hara</i>, belly, and <i>kiri</i>, cutting), self-disembowelment, +primarily the method of suicide permitted +to offenders of the noble class in feudal Japan, and later the +national form of honourable suicide. Hara-kiri has been often +translated as “the happy dispatch” in confusion with a native +euphemism for the act. More usually the Japanese themselves +speak of hara-kiri by its Chinese synonym, <i>Seppuku</i>. Hara-kiri +is not an aboriginal Japanese custom. It was a growth of +medieval militarism, the act probably at first being prompted +by the desire of the noble to escape the humiliation of falling +into an enemy’s hands. By the end of the 14th century the +custom had become a much valued privilege, being formally +established as such under the Ashi-Kaga dynasty. Hara-kiri +was of two kinds, obligatory and voluntary. The first is the +more ancient. An official or noble, who had broken the law +or been disloyal, received a message from the emperor, couched +always in sympathetic and gracious tones, courteously intimating +that he must die. The mikado usually sent a jewelled dagger +with which the deed might be done. The suicide had so many +days allotted to him by immemorial custom in which to make +dignified preparations for the ceremony, which was attended by +the utmost formality. In his own baronial hall or in a temple +a daïs 3 or 4 in. from the ground was constructed. Upon this +was laid a rug of red felt. The suicide, clothed in his ceremonial +dress as an hereditary noble, and accompanied by his second or +“Kaishaku,” took his place on the mat, the officials and his +friends ranging themselves in a semicircle round the daïs. After +a minute’s prayer the weapon was handed to him with many +obeisances by the mikado’s representative, and he then made a +public confession of his fault. He then stripped to the waist. +Every movement in the grim ceremony was governed by +precedent, and he had to tuck his wide sleeves under his knees +to prevent himself falling backwards, for a Japanese noble +must die falling forward. A moment later he plunged the dagger +into his stomach below the waist on the left side, drew it across +to the right and, turning it, gave a slight cut upward. At the +same moment the Kaishaku who crouched at his friend’s side, +leaping up, brought his sword down on the outstretched neck. +At the conclusion of the ceremony the bloodstained dagger was +taken to the mikado as a proof of the consummation of the heroic +act. The performance of hara-kiri carried with it certain +privileges. If it was by order of the mikado half only of a +traitor’s property was forfeited to the state. If the gnawings +of conscience drove the disloyal noble to voluntary suicide, his +dishonour was wiped out, and his family inherited all his +fortune.</p> + +<p>Voluntary hara-kiri was the refuge of men rendered desperate +by private misfortunes, or was committed from loyalty to a dead +superior, or as a protest against what was deemed a false national +policy. This voluntary suicide still survives, a characteristic +case being that of Lieutenant Takeyoshi who in 1891 gave himself +the “belly-cut” in front of the graves of his ancestors at Tōkyo +as a protest against what he considered the criminal lethargy +of the government in not taking precautions against possible +Russian encroachments to the north of Japan. In the Russo-Japanese +War, when faced by defeat at Vladivostock, the officer +in command of the troops on the transport “Kinshu Maru” +committed hara-kiri. Hara-kiri has not been uncommon among +women, but in their case the mode is by cutting the throat. +The popularity of this self-immolation is testified to by the +fact that for centuries no fewer than 1500 hara-kiris are said +to have taken place annually, at least half being entirely +voluntary. Stories of amazing heroism are told in connexion +with the performance of the act. One noble, barely out of his +teens, not content with giving himself the customary cuts, +slashed himself thrice horizontally and twice vertically. Then he +stabbed himself in the throat until the dirk protruded on the +other side with the sharp edge to the front, and with a supreme +effort drove the knife forward with both hands through his neck. +Obligatory hara-kiri was obsolete in the middle of the 19th +century, and was actually abolished in 1868.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. B. Mitford, <i>Tales of Old Japan</i>; Basil Hall Chamberlain, +<i>Things Japanese</i> (1898).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARALD,<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> the name of four kings of Norway.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Harald I.</span> (850-933), surnamed Haarfager (of the beautiful +hair), first king over Norway, succeeded on the death or his +father Halfdan the Black in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 860 to the sovereignty of +several small and somewhat scattered kingdoms, which had +come into his father’s hands through conquest and inheritance +and lay chiefly in south-east Norway (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Norway</a></span>). The tale +goes that the scorn of the daughter of a neighbouring king +induced Harald to take a vow not to cut nor comb his hair until +he was sole king of Norway, and that ten years later he was +justified in trimming it; whereupon he exchanged the epithet +“Shockhead” for the one by which he is usually known. In +866 he made the first of a series of conquests over the many +petty kingdoms which then composed Norway; and in 872, +after a great victory at Hafrsfjord near Stavanger, he found +himself king over the whole country. His realm was, however, +threatened by dangers from without, as large numbers of his +opponents had taken refuge, not only in Iceland, then recently +discovered, but also in the Orkneys, Shetlands, Hebrides and +Faeroes, and in Scotland itself; and from these winter quarters +sallied forth to harry Norway as well as the rest of northern +Europe. Their numbers were increased by malcontents from +Norway, who resented Harald’s claim of rights of taxation over +lands which the possessors appear to have previously held in +absolute ownership. At last Harald was forced to make an +expedition to the west to clear the islands and Scottish mainland +of Vikings. Numbers of them fled to Iceland, which grew into +an independent commonwealth, while the Scottish isles fell +under Norwegian rule. The latter part of Harald’s reign was +disturbed by the strife of his many sons. He gave them all the +royal title and assigned lands to them which they were to govern +as his representatives; but this arrangement did not put an end +to the discord, which continued into the next reign. When he +grew old he handed over the supreme power to his favourite +son Erik “Bloody Axe,” whom he intended to be his successor. +Harald died in 933, in his eighty-fourth year.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">HARALD II.</span>, surnamed Graafeld, a grandson of Harald I., +became, with his brothers, ruler of the western part of Norway +in 961; he was murdered in Denmark in 969.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page935" id="page935"></a>935</span></p> + +<p><span class="sc">Harald III.</span> (1015-1066), king of Norway, surnamed Haardraade, +which might be translated “ruthless,” was the son of King +Sigurd and half-brother of King Olaf the Saint. At the age of +fifteen he was obliged to flee from Norway, having taken part in +the battle of Stiklestad (1030), at which King Olaf met his death. +He took refuge for a short time with Prince Yaroslav of Novgorod +(a kingdom founded by Scandinavians), and thence went to +Constantinople, where he took service under the empress Zoe, +whose Varangian guard he led to frequent victory in Italy, +Sicily and North Africa, also penetrating to Jerusalem. In the +year 1042 he left Constantinople, the story says because he was +refused the hand of a princess, and on his way back to his own +country he married Ellisif or Elizabeth, daughter of Yaroslav +of Novgorod. In Sweden he allied himself with the defeated +Sven of Denmark against his nephew Magnus, now king of +Norway, but soon broke faith with Sven and accepted an offer +from Magnus of half his kingdom. In return for this gift Harald +is said to have shared with Magnus the enormous treasure which +he had amassed in the East. The death of Magnus in 1047 +put an end to the growing jealousies between the two kings, +and Harald turned all his attention to the task of subjugating +Denmark, which he ravaged year after year; but he met with +such stubborn resistance from Sven that in 1064 he gave up the +attempt and made peace. Two years afterwards, possibly +instigated by the banished Earl Tostig of Northumbria, he +attempted the conquest of England, to the sovereignty of which +his predecessor had advanced a claim as successor of Harthacnut. +In September 1066 he landed in Yorkshire with a large army, +reinforced from Scotland, Ireland and the Orkneys; took +Scarborough by casting flaming brands into the town from the +high ground above it; defeated the Northumbrian forces at +Fulford; and entered York on the 24th of September. But the +following day the English Harold arrived from the south, and +the end of the long day’s fight at Stamford Bridge saw the rout +of the Norwegian forces after the fall of their king (25th of +September 1066). He was only fifty years old, but he was the +first of the six kings who had ruled Norway since the death of +Harald Haarfager to reach that age. As a king he was unpopular +on account of his harshness and want of good faith, but his many +victories in the face of great odds prove him to have been a +remarkable general, of never-failing resourcefulness and indomitable +courage.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Harald IV.</span> (d. 1136), king of Norway, surnamed Gylle +(probably from <i>Gylle Krist</i>, <i>i.e.</i> servant of Christ), was born in +Ireland about 1103. About 1127 he went to Norway and +declared he was a son of King Magnus III. (Barefoot), who had +visited Ireland just before his death in 1103, and consequently +a half-brother of the reigning king, Sigurd. He appears to have +submitted successfully to the ordeal of fire, and the alleged +relationship was acknowledged by Sigurd on condition that +Harald did not claim any share in the government of the kingdom +during his lifetime or that of his son Magnus. Living on friendly +terms with the king, Harald kept this agreement until Sigurd’s +death in 1130. Then war broke out between himself and Magnus, +and after several battles the latter was captured in 1134, his eyes +were put out, and he was thrown into prison. Harald now ruled +the country until 1136, when he was murdered by Sigurd Slembi-Diakn, +another bastard son of Magnus Barefoot. Four of +Harald’s sons, Sigurd, Ingi, Eysteinn and Magnus, were subsequently +kings of Norway.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARBIN,<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Kharbin</span>, town of Manchuria, on the right +bank of the river Sungari. Pop. about 20,000. Till 1896 there +was only a small village here, but in that year the town was +founded in connexion with surveys for the Chinese Eastern +railway company, at a point which subsequently became the +junction of the main line of the Manchurian railway with the +branch line southward to Port Arthur. Occupying such a +position, Harbin became an important Russian military centre +during the Russo-Japanese War. The portion of the town +founded in 1896 is called Old Harbin, but the centre has shifted +to New Harbin, where the chief public buildings and offices of +the railway administration are situated. The river-port forms +a third division of the town, industrially the most important; +here are railway workshops, factories and mercantile establishments. +Trade is chiefly in the hands of the Chinese.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARBINGER,<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> originally one who provides a shelter or lodging +for an army. The word is derived from the M. E. and O. Fr. +<i>herbergere</i>, through the Late Lat. <i>heribergator</i>, formed from the +O. H. Ger. <i>heri</i>, mod. Ger. <i>Heer</i>, an army, and <i>bergen</i>, shelter or +defence, cf. “harbour.” The meaning was soon enlarged to +include any place where travellers could be lodged or entertained, +and also by transference the person who provided lodgings, and +so one who goes on before a party to secure suitable lodgings in +advance. A herald sent forward to announce the coming of a +king. A Knight Harbinger was an officer in the royal household +till 1846. In these senses the word is now obsolete. It is used +chiefly in poetry and literature for one who announces the +immediate approach of something, a forerunner. This is illustrated +in the “harbinger of spring,” a name given to a small +plant belonging to the Umbelliferae, which has a tuberous root, +and small white flowers; it is found in the central states of North +America, and blossoms in March.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARBOUR<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> (from M. E. <i>hereberge</i>, <i>here</i>, an army; cf. Ger. <i>Heer</i> +and -<i>beorg</i>, protection or shelter. Other early forms in English +were <i>herberwe</i> and <i>harborow</i>, as seen in various place names, +such as Market Harborough. The French <i>auberge</i>, an inn, +derived through <i>heberger</i>, is thus the same word), a place of +refuge or shelter. It is thus used for an asylum for criminals, +and particularly for a place of shelter for ships.</p> + +<p>Sheltered sites along exposed sea-coasts are essential for purposes +of trade, and very valuable as refuges for vessels from +storms. In a few places, natural shelter is found in combination +with ample depth, as in the Bay of Rio de Janeiro, New York +Harbour (protected by Long Island), Portsmouth Harbour and +Southampton Water (sheltered by the Isle of Wight), and the +land-locked creeks of Milford Haven and Kiel Harbour. At +various places there are large enclosed areas which have openings +into the sea; but these lagoons for the most part are very shallow +except in the main channels and at their outlets. Access to +them is generally obstructed by a bar as at the lagoon harbour +of Venice (fig. 1), and similar harbours, like those of Poole and +Wexford; and such harbours usually require works to prevent +their deterioration, and to increase the depth near their outlet. +Generally, however, harbours are formed where shelter is provided +to a certain extent by a bay, creek or projecting headland, but +requires to be rendered complete by one or more breakwaters +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Breakwater</a></span>), or where the approach to a river, a ship-canal +or a seaport, needs protection. A refuge harbour is +occasionally constructed where a long length of stormy coast, +near the ordinary track of vessels, is entirely devoid of natural +shelter. Naval harbours are required by maritime powers as +stations for their fleets, and dockyards for construction and +repairs, and also in some cases as places of shelter from the night +attacks of torpedoes. Commercial harbours have to be provided +for the formation of ports within their shelter on important +trade routes, or for the protection of the approaches from the +sea of ports near the sea-coast, or maritime waterways running +inland, in some cases at points on the coast devoid of all natural +shelter. A greater latitude in the selection of suitable sites is, +indeed, possible for refuge and naval harbours than for commercial +harbours; but these three classes of harbours are very similar +in their general outline and the works protecting them, only +differing in size and internal arrangements according to the purpose +for which they have been constructed, the chief differences +being due to the local conditions.</p> + +<p>Harbours may be divided into three distinct groups, namely, +lagoon harbours, jetty harbours and sea-coast harbours, protected +by breakwaters, including refuge, naval and commercial +harbours.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:522px; height:839px" src="images/img936a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Venetian Lagoon Harbour.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Lagoon Harbours.</i>—A lagoon, consisting of a sort of large shallow +lake separated from the sea by a narrow belt of coast, formed of +deposit from a deltaic river or of sand dunes heaped up by on-shore +winds along a sandy shore, possesses good natural shelter; and, +owing to the large expanse which is filled and emptied at each tide, +even when the tidal range is quite small, together with the discharge +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page936" id="page936"></a>936</span> +from any rivers flowing into the lagoon, one or more fairly deep +outlets are maintained through the fringe of coast, which afford +navigable access to the lagoon; whilst channels formed inside by +the currents lead to ports on its banks. Lagoons, however, are liable +to be gradually silted up, if rivers flowing into them bring down +considerable quantities of alluvium, which is readily deposited in +their fairly still waters; and their outlet channels are in danger of +becoming shallower, by the sea in storms forming additional outlets +by breaking through the narrow +barrier separating them from the +sea. Moreover, the approach from +the sea to these channels through the +fringe of coast is generally impeded +by a bar, owing to the scour of the +issuing current through these outlet +channels becoming gradually too enfeebled, +on entering the open sea, to +overcome the heaping-up action of +the waves along the shore, which +tends to form a continuous beach +across these openings. Rivers, accordingly, +whose discharge is very valuable +in maintaining a lagoon if their +waters are free from sediment, must, +if possible, be diverted from a lagoon +if they bring down large amounts of +silt; whilst the narrow belt of land +in front of the lagoon must be protected +from erosion by the waves, on +its sea face, by groynes or revetments. +The depth over the bar in front of an outlet can be improved by +concentrating the current through the outlet by jetties on each side, +and prolonging the jetties, and consequently the scour, out to the +bar so as to lower it, and by supplementing the scouring action, if +necessary, by dredging.</p> + +<p><i>Jetty Harbours.</i>—Several small ports were formed on the sea-coast +long ago at points where flat marshy ground lying below the level +of high-water, and shut off from the sandy beach by dikes or sand +dunes, was connected with the sea by a small creek or river. Such +ports presented in their original condition a slight resemblance to +lagoons on a very small scale. Several examples are to be found +on the sandy shores of the English Channel and North Sea, such as +Dieppe, Boulogne, Calais, Dunkirk, Nieuport and Ostend, where +the influx and efflux of the water from these enclosed tide-covered +areas, through a narrow opening, sufficed to maintain a shallow +channel to the sea across the beach, deep enough near high-water +for vessels of small draught. When the increase in draught necessitated +the provision of an improved channel, the scour of the issuing +current was concentrated and prolonged by erecting parallel jetties +across the beach, raised solid to a little above low water of neap tides, +with open timber-work above to indicate the channel and guide the +vessels. Even this low obstruction, however, to the littoral drift +of sand caused an advance of the low water line as the jetties were +carried out, so that further extensions of the jetties had eventually +to be abandoned, as occurred at Dunkirk (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dock</a></span>). Moreover, reclamation +of the low-lying areas was gradually effected, thus reducing +the tidal scour; and sluicing basins were excavated in part of the +low ground, into which the tide flowed through the entrance channel, +and the water being shut in at high tide by gates at the outlet of +the basin, was released at low water, producing a rapid current +through the channel as a compensation for the loss of the former +natural scour. The current, however, from the sluicing basin +gradually lost its velocity in passing down the channel, and besides, +being most effective near the outlet of the basin, could only scour +the channel down to a moderate depth below low water, on account +of the increase in the volume of still water in the channel at low +tide as its deepening progressed. Lastly, about 1880, improvements +in suction dredgers (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dredge and Dredging</a></span>) led to the +adoption of sand-pump dredging in the outer part of the channel, +and across the foreshore in front to deep water; and at Dunkirk, +docks were formed on the site of the sluicing basin; whilst at Calais +sluicing was abandoned in favour of dredging. Ostend is the only +jetty <span class="correction" title="amended from habour">harbour</span> in which a large sluicing basin has been recently constructed, +but it can only provide for the maintenance of deep-water +quays in its vicinity; and dredging is relied upon to an increasing +extent, both for the maintenance and further deepening of the outer +portion of the approach channel, and for maintaining the direct +channel dredged to deep water across the Stroombank extending +in front of Ostend (fig. 2).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:728px; height:483px" src="images/img936b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—Ostend Harbour and Jetty Channel.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Similar methods of improving the entrance channel to ports +possessing an extensive backwater have been adopted on a large +scale in the United States. For instance at Charleston, converging +jetties, about 2¾ m. long, have been extended across the bar to concentrate +the scour due to a small tidal range expanding over the +enclosed backwater, 15 sq. m. in extent, and to protect the channel +from littoral drift; but these jetties have caused an advance of +the foreshore, and a progression +seawards of the bar, necessitating +dredging beyond the ends of the +jetties to maintain the requisite +depth.</p> + +<p>Parallel jetties, moreover, across +the beach, combined with extensive +sand-pump dredging, have +been employed with success at +some of the ports situated at the +outlet of rivers, enclosed bays, or +lagoons, on the sandy shores of +south-east Africa, for improving the access to them across encumbering +shoals, where the littoral drift is too great to allow of +the projection of breakwaters from the shore to shelter an approach +channel.</p> + +<p><i>Harbours Protected by Breakwaters.</i>—The design for a harbour on +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page937" id="page937"></a>937</span> +the sea-coast must depend on the configuration of the adjacent +coast-line, the extent and direction of the exposure, the amount of +sheltered area required and the depth obtainable, the prospect of +the accumulation of drift or the occurrence of scour from the proposed +works, and the best position for an entrance in respect of +shelter and depth of approach.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:757px; height:377px" src="images/img937a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—Genoa Harbour and Extensions.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Completion of Shelter of Harbours in Bays.</i>—In the case of a deep, +fairly land-locked bay, a detached breakwater across the outlet +completes the necessary shelter, leaving an entrance between each +extremity and the shore, provided there is deep enough water near +the shore, as effected at Plymouth harbour, and also across the wider +but shallower bay forming Cherbourg harbour. A breakwater may +instead be extended across the outlet from each shore, leaving a +single central entrance between the ends of the breakwaters; and +if one breakwater placed somewhat farther out is made to overlap +an inner one, a more sheltered entrance is obtained. This arrangement +has been adopted at the existing Genoa harbour within the +bay (fig. 3), and for the harbour at the mouth of the Nervion (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">River Engineering</a></span>). The adoption of a bay with deep water for +a harbour does not merely reduce the shelter to be provided artificially, +but it also secures a site not exposed to silting up, and where +the sheltering works do not interfere with any littoral drift along +the open coast. A third method of sheltering a deep bay is that +adopted for forming a refuge harbour at Peterhead (fig. 4), where +a single breakwater is extended out from one shore for 3250 ft. +across the outlet of the bay, leaving a single entrance between its +extremity and the opposite shore and enclosing an area of about +250 acres at low tide, half of which has a depth of over 5 fathoms.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:388px; height:392px" src="images/img937b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>—Peterhead Harbour of Refuge.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Harbours possessing partial Natural Shelter.</i>—The most common +form of harbour is that in which one or more breakwaters supplement +a certain amount of natural shelter. Sometimes, where the +exposure is from one direction only, approximately parallel with +the coast-line at the site, and there is more or less shelter from a projecting +headland or a curve of the coast in the opposite direction, a +single breakwater extending out at right angles to the shore, with +a slight curve or bend inwards near its outer end, suffices to afford +the necessary shelter. As examples of this form of harbour construction +may be mentioned Newhaven breakwater, protecting the +approach to the port from the west, and somewhat sheltered from +the moderate easterly storms by Beachy Head, and Table Bay +breakwater, which shelters the harbour from the north-east, and is +somewhat protected on the opposite side by the wide sweep of the +coast-line known as Table Bay. Generally, however, some partial +embayment, or abrupt projection from the coast, is utilized as +providing shelter from one quarter, which is completed by breakwaters +enclosing the site, of which Dover and Colombo (fig. 5) +harbours furnish typical and somewhat similar examples.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:324px; height:448px" src="images/img937c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>—Colombo Harbour.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Harbours formed on quite Open +Seacoasts.</i>—Occasionally harbours +have to be constructed for some +special purpose where no natural +shelter exists, and where on an open, +sandy shore considerable littoral drift +may occur. Breakwaters, carried out +from the shore at some distance +apart, and converging to a central +entrance of suitable width, provide +the requisite shelter, as for instance +the harbour constructed to form a +sheltered approach to the river Wear +and the Sunderland docks (fig. 6). +If there is little littoral drift from +the most exposed quarter, the amount +of sand brought in during storms, +which is smaller in proportion to the +depth into which the entrance is +carried, can be readily removed by +dredging; whilst the scour across +the projecting ends of the breakwaters +tends to keep the outlet free +from deposit. Where there is littoral +drift in both directions on an open, +sandy coast, due to winds blowing +alternately from opposite quarters, +sand accumulates in the sheltered angles outside the harbour +between each converging breakwater and the shore. This has +happened at Ymuiden harbour at the entrance to the Amsterdam +ship-canal on the North Sea, but there the advance of the shore +appears to have reached its limit only a short distance out from +the old shore-line on each side; and the only evidence of drift +consists in the advance seawards of the lines of soundings +alongside, and in the considerable amount of sand which enters the +harbour and has to be removed by dredging. The worst results +occur where the littoral drift is almost wholly in one direction, so +that the projection of a solid breakwater out from the shore causes +a very large accretion on +the side facing the exposed +quarter; whilst +owing to the arrest of the +travel of sand, erosion of +the beach occurs beyond +the second breakwater +enclosing the harbour on +its comparatively sheltered +side. These effects +have been produced at +Port Said harbour at the +entrance to the Suez +Canal from the Mediterranean, +formed by two +converging breakwaters, +where, owing to the +prevalent north-westerly +winds, the drift is from +west to east, and is augmented +by the alluvium +issuing from the Nile. +Accordingly, the shore +has advanced considerably +against the outer +face of the western breakwater; +and erosion of +the beach has occurred +at the shore end of the +eastern breakwater, cutting +it off from the land. +The advance of the shore-line, however, has been much slower +during recent years; and though the progress seawards of the +lines of soundings close to and in front of the harbour continues, +the advance is checked by the sand and silt coming from the west +passing through some apertures purposely left in the western breakwater, +and falling into the approach channel, from which it is readily +dredged and taken away. Madras harbour, begun in 1875, consists +of two breakwaters, 3000 ft. apart, carried straight out to sea at +right angles to the shore for 3000 ft., and completed by two return +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page938" id="page938"></a>938</span> +arms inclined slightly seawards, enclosing an area of 220 acres and +leaving a central entrance, 550 ft. wide, facing the Indian Ocean in +a depth of about 8 fathoms. The great drift, however, of sand along +the coast from south to north soon produced an advance of the shore +against the outside of the south breakwater, and erosion beyond +the north breakwater; and the progression of the foreshore has +extended so far seawards as to produce shoaling at the entrance. +Accordingly, the closing of the entrance, and the formation of a new +entrance through the outer part of the main north breakwater, +facing north and sheltered +by an arm starting from the +angle of the northern return +arm and running north +parallel to the shore, round +the end of which vessels +would turn to enter, have +been recommended, to provide +a deep entrance beyond +the influence of the advancing +foreshore.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 330px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:284px; height:313px" src="images/img938a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>—Sunderland Harbour.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Proposals have been made +from time to time to evade +this advance of the foreshore +against a solid obstacle, by +extending an open viaduct +across the zone of littoral +drift, and forming a closed +harbour, or a sheltering +breakwater against which +vessels can lie, beyond the +influence of accretion. This +principle was carried out on a +large scale at the port of call and sheltering breakwater constructed +in front of the entrance to the Bruges ship-canal, at Zeebrugge on the +sandy North Sea coast, where a solid breakwater, provided with a +wide quay furnished with sidings and sheds, and curving round so +as to overlap thoroughly the entrance to the canal and shelter a +certain water-area, is approached by an open metal viaduct extending +out 1007 ft. from low water into a depth of 20 ft. (fig. 7). It is +hoped that by thus avoiding interference with the littoral drift close +to the shore, coming mainly from the west, the accumulation of silt +to the west of the harbour, and also in the harbour itself, will be +prevented; and though it appears probable that some accretion will +occur within the area sheltered by the breakwater, it will to some +extent be disturbed by the wash of the steamers approaching and +leaving the quays, and can readily be removed under shelter by +dredging.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:480px; height:479px" src="images/img938b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>—Zeebrugge Harbour.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Entrances to Harbours.</i>—Though captains of vessels always wish +for wide entrances to harbours as affording greater facility of safe +access, it is important to keep the width as narrow as practicable, +consistent with easy access, to exclude waves and swell as much +as possible and secure tranquillity inside. At Madras, the width of +550 ft. proved excessive for the great exposure of the entrance, and +moderate size of the harbour, which does not allow of the adequate +expansion of the entering swell. Where an adequately easy and safe +approach can be secured, it is advantageous to make the entrance +face a somewhat sheltered quarter by the overlapping of the end +of one of the breakwaters, as accomplished at Bilbao and Genoa +harbours (fig. 3), and at the southern entrance to Dover harbour. +Occasionally, owing to the comparative shelter afforded by a bend +in the adjacent coast-line, a very wide entrance can be left between +a breakwater and the shore; typical examples are furnished by the +former open northern entrance to Portland harbour, now closed +against torpedoes, and the wide entrances at Holyhead and Zeebrugge +(fig. 7). With a large harbour and the adoption of a detached +breakwater, it is possible to gain the advantage of two entrances +facing different quarters, as effected at Dover and Colombo, which +enables vessels to select their entrance according to the state of the +wind and weather; where there is a large tidal rise they reduce the +current through the entrances, and they may, under favourable +conditions, create a circulation of the water in the harbour, tending +to check the deposit of silt.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(L. F. V.-*H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARBURG,<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> a seaport town of Germany, in the Prussian +province of Hanover, on the left bank of the southern arm of +the Elbe, 6 m. by rail S. of Hamburg. Pop. (1885), 26,320; +(1905)—the area of the town having been increased since 1895—55,676. +It is pleasantly situated at the foot of a lofty range of +hills, which here dip down to the river, at the junction of the +main lines of railway from Bremen and Hanover to Hamburg, +which are carried to the latter city over two grand bridges +crossing the southern and the northern arms of the Elbe. It +possesses a Roman Catholic and two Protestant churches, +a palace, which from 1524 to 1642 was the residence of the +Harburg line of the house of Brunswick, a high-grade modern +school, a commercial school and a theatre. The leading industries +are the crushing of palm-kernels and linseed and the manufacture +of india-rubber, phosphates, starch, nitrate and jute. Machines +are manufactured here; beer is brewed, and shipbuilding is +carried on. The port is accessible to vessels drawing 18 ft. of +water, and, despite its proximity to Hamburg, its trade has of +late years shown a remarkable development. It is the chief +mart in the empire for resin and palm-oil. The Prussian government +proposes establishing here a free port, on the lines of the +<i>Freihafen</i> in Hamburg.</p> + +<p>Harburg belonged originally to the bishopric of Bremen, and +received municipal rights in 1297. In 1376 it was united to +the principality of Lüneburg, along with which it fell in 1705 +to Hanover, and in 1806 to Prussia. In 1813 and 1814 it suffered +considerably from the French, who then held Hamburg, and +who built a bridge between the two towns, which remained +standing till 1816.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Ludewig, <i>Geschichte des Schlosses und der Stadt Harburg</i> +(Harburg, 1845); and Hoffmeyer, <i>Harburg und die nächste Umgegend</i> +(1885).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARCOURT,<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> a village in Normandy, now a commune in the +department of Eure, arrondissement of Bernay and canton of +Brionne, which gives its name to a noble family distinguished +in French history, a branch of which was early established in +England. Of the lords of Harcourt, whose genealogy can be +traced back to the 11th century, the first to distinguish himself +was Jean II. (d. 1302) who was marshal and admiral of France. +Godefroi d’Harcourt, seigneur of Saint Sauveur le Vicomte, +surnamed “Le boiteux” (the lame), was a marshal in the English +army and was killed near Coutances in 1356. The fief of Harcourt +was raised to the rank of a countship by Philip of Valois, in favour +of Jean IV., who was killed at the battle of Creçy (1346). His +son, Jean V. (d. 1355) married Blanche, heiress of Jean II., +count of Aumale, and the countship of Harcourt passed with +that of Aumale until, in 1424, Jean VIII., count of Aumale and +Mortain and lieutenant-general of Normandy, was killed at the +battle of Verneuil, and with him the elder branch became extinct +in the male line. The heiress, Marie, by her marriage with +Anthony of Lorraine, count of Vaudémont, brought the countship +of Harcourt into the house of Lorraine. The title of count of +Harcourt was borne by several princes of this house. The most +famous instance was Henry of Lorraine, count of Harcourt, +Brionne, and Armagnac, and nicknamed “Cadet la perle” (1601-1666). +He distinguished himself in several campaigns against +Spain, and later played an active part in the civil wars of the +Fronde. He took the side of the princes, and fought against the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page939" id="page939"></a>939</span> +government in Alsace; but was defeated by Marshal de la +Ferté, and made his submission in 1654.</p> + +<p>The most distinguished among the younger branches of the +family are those of Montgomery and of Beuvron. To the former +belonged Jean d’Harcourt, bishop of Amiens and Tournai, +archbishop of Narbonne and patriarch of Antioch, who died in +1452; and Guillaume d’Harcourt, count of Tancarville, and +viscount of Melun, who was head of the administration of the +woods and forests in the royal domain (<i>souverain maître et +réformateur des eaux et forêts de France</i>) and died in 1487.</p> + +<p>From the branch of the marquises of Beuvron sprang Henri +d’Harcourt, marshal of France, and ambassador at the Spanish +court, who was made duke of Harcourt (1700) and a peer of +France (1709); also François Eugène Gabriel, count, and +afterwards duke, of Harcourt, who was ambassador first in +Spain, and later at Rome, and died in 1865. This branch of the +family is still in existence.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G. A. de la Rogne, <i>Histoire généalogique de la maison d’Harcourt</i> +(4 vols., Paris, 1662); P. Anselme, <i>Histoire généalogique de la +maison de France</i>, v. 114, &c.; and Dom le Noir, <i>Preuves généalogiques +et historiques de la maison de Harcourt</i> (Paris, 1907).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(M. P.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARCOURT, SIMON HARCOURT,<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Viscount</span> (<i>c.</i> 1661-1727), +lord chancellor of England, only son of Sir Philip Harcourt +of Stanton Harcourt, Oxfordshire, by his first wife, Anne, +daughter of Sir William Waller, was born about 1661 at Stanton +Harcourt, and was educated at a school at Shilton, Oxfordshire, +and at Pembroke College, Oxford. He was called to the bar +in 1683, and soon afterwards was appointed recorder of Abingdon, +which borough he represented as a Tory in parliament from +1690 to 1705. In 1701 he was nominated by the Commons to +conduct the impeachment of Lord Somers; and in 1702 he +became solicitor-general and was knighted by Queen Anne. +He was elected member for Bossiney in 1705, and as commissioner +for arranging the union with Scotland was largely instrumental +in promoting that measure. Harcourt was appointed +attorney-general in 1707, but resigned office in the following +year when his friend Robert Harley, afterwards earl of Oxford, +was dismissed. He defended Sacheverell at the bar of the House +of Lords in 1710, being then without a seat in parliament; but +in the same year was returned for Cardigan, and in September +again became attorney-general. In October he was appointed +lord keeper of the great seal, and in virtue of this office he +presided in the House of Lords for some months without a +peerage, until, on the 3rd of September 1711, he was created +Baron Harcourt of Stanton Harcourt; but it was not till April +1713 that he received the appointment of lord chancellor. In +1710 he had purchased the Nuneham-Courtney estate in Oxfordshire, +but his usual place of residence continued to be at Cokethorpe +near Stanton Harcourt, where he received a visit in state +from Queen Anne. In the negotiations preceding the peace of +Utrecht, Harcourt took an important part. There is no sufficient +evidence for the allegations of the Whigs that Harcourt entered +into treasonable relations with the Pretender. On the accession +of George I. he was deprived of office and retired to Cokethorpe, +where he enjoyed the society of men of letters, Swift, Pope, +Prior and other famous writers being among his frequent guests. +With Swift, however, he had occasional quarrels, during one of +which the great satirist bestowed on him the sobriquet of “Trimming +Harcourt.” He exerted himself to defeat the impeachment +of Lord Oxford in 1717, and in 1723 he was active in +obtaining a pardon for another old political friend, Lord Bolingbroke. +In 1721 Harcourt was created a viscount and returned +to the privy councils; and on several occasions during the king’s +absences from England he was on the council of regency. He +died in London on the 23rd of July 1727. Harcourt was not a +great lawyer, but he enjoyed the reputation of being a brilliant +orator; Speaker Onslow going so far as to say that Harcourt +“had the greatest skill and power of speech of any man I ever +knew in a public assembly.” He was a member of the famous +Saturday Club, frequented by the chief <i>literati</i> and wits of the +period, with several of whom he corresponded. Some letters to +him from Pope are preserved in the <i>Harcourt Papers</i>. His +portrait by Kneller is at Nuneham.</p> + +<p>Harcourt married, first, Rebecca, daughter of Thomas Clark, +his father’s chaplain, by whom he had five children; secondly, +Elizabeth, daughter of Richard Spencer; and thirdly, Elizabeth, +daughter of Sir Thomas Vernon. He left issue by his first wife +only. His son, Simon (1684-1720), married Elizabeth, sister of +Sir John Evelyn of Wotton, by whom he had one son and four +daughters, one of whom married George Venables Vernon, +afterwards Lord Vernon (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Harcourt, Sir William</a></span>—footnote). +Simon Harcourt predeceased his father, the lord chancellor, +in 1720, leaving a son <span class="sc">Simon Harcourt</span> (1714-1777), +1st Earl Harcourt, who succeeded his grandfather in the title +of viscount in 1727. He was educated at Westminster school. +In 1745, having raised a regiment, he received a commission as a +colonel in the army; and in 1749 he was created Earl Harcourt +of Stanton Harcourt. He was appointed governor to the prince +of Wales, afterwards George III., in 1751; and after the accession +of the latter to the throne he was appointed, in 1761, special +ambassador to Mecklenburg-Strelitz to negotiate a marriage +between King George and the princess Charlotte, whom he +conducted to England. After holding a number of appointments +at court and in the diplomatic service, he was promoted to the +rank of general in 1772; and in October of the same year he +succeeded Lord Townsend as lord lieutenant of Ireland, an office +which he held till 1777. His proposal to impose a tax of 10% +on the rents of absentee landlords had to be abandoned owing +to opposition in England; but he succeeded in conciliating the +leaders of Opposition in Ireland, and he persuaded Henry Flood +to accept office in the government. Resigning in January 1777, +he retired to Nuneham, where he died in the following September. +He married, in 1735, Rebecca, daughter and heiress of Charles +Samborne Le Bas, of Pipewell Abbey, Northamptonshire, by +whom he had two daughters and two sons, George Simon and +William, who succeeded him as 2nd and 3rd earl respectively.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Lord Campbell, <i>Lives of the Lord Chancellors</i>, vol. v. (London, +1846); Edward Foss, <i>The Judges of England</i>, vol. viii. (London, +1848); Gilbert Burnet, <i>Hist. of his own Time</i> (with notes by earls +of Dartmouth and Hardwicke, &c., Oxford, 1833); Earl Stanhope, +<i>Hist. of England, comprising the reign of Queen Anne until the Peace +of Utrecht</i> (London, 1870). In addition to the above-mentioned +authorities many particulars concerning the 1st Viscount Harcourt, +and also of his grandson, the 1st earl, will be found in the <i>Harcourt +Papers</i>. For the earl, see also Horace Walpole, <i>Memoirs of the Reign +of George II.</i> (3 vols., 2nd ed., London, 1847), <i>Memoirs of the Reign +of George III.</i> (4 vols., London, 1845, 1894); also, for his vice-royalty +of Ireland, see Henry Grattan, <i>Memoirs of the Life and +Times of the Right Hon. H. Grattan</i> (5 vols., London, 1839-1846); +Francis Hardy, <i>Memoirs of J. Caulfield, Earl of Charlemont</i> (2 vols., +London, 1812); and for his genealogy, see Sir John Bernard Burke, +<i>Genealogical History of Dormant and Extinct Peerages</i> (London, +1883).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. J. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARCOURT, SIR WILLIAM GEORGE GRANVILLE VENABLES VERNON<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> (1827-1904). English statesman, second +son of the Rev. Canon William Vernon Harcourt (<i>q.v.</i>), of +Nuneham Park, Oxford, was born on the 14th of October 1827. +Canon Harcourt was the fourth son and eventually heir of +Edward Harcourt (1757-1847), archbishop of York, who was +the son of the 1st Lord Vernon (d. 1780), and who took the name +of Harcourt alone instead of Vernon on succeeding to the property +of his cousin, the last Earl Harcourt, in 1831.<a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The subject +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page940" id="page940"></a>940</span> +of this biography was therefore born a Vernon, and by his +connexion with the old families of Vernon and Harcourt was +related to many of the great English houses, a fact which gave +him no little pride. Indeed, in later life his descent from the +Plantagenets<a name="fa2l" id="fa2l" href="#ft2l"><span class="sp">2</span></a> was a subject of some banter on the part of his +political opponents. He was educated at Trinity College, +Cambridge, graduating with first-class honours in the classical +tripos in 1851. He was called to the bar in 1854, became a +Q.C. in 1866, and was appointed Whewell professor of international +law, Cambridge, 1869. He quickly made his mark +in London society as a brilliant talker; he contributed largely +to the <i>Saturday Review</i>, and wrote some famous letters (1862) +to <i>The Times</i> over the signature of “Historicus,” in opposition +to the recognition of the Southern States as belligerents in the +American Civil War. He entered parliament as Liberal member +for Oxford, and sat from 1868 to 1880, when, upon seeking +re-election after acceptance of office, he was defeated by Mr Hall. +A seat was, however, found for him at Derby, by the voluntary +retirement of Mr Plimsoll, and he continued to represent that +constituency until 1895, when, having been defeated at the +general election, he found a seat in West Monmouthshire. He +was appointed solicitor-general and knighted in 1873; and, +although he had not shown himself a very strenuous supporter +of Mr Gladstone during that statesman’s exclusion from power, +he became secretary of state for the home department on the +return of the Liberals to office in 1880. His name was connected +at that time with the passing of the Ground Game Act (1880), +the Arms (Ireland) Act (1881), and the Explosives Act (1883). +As home secretary at the time of the dynamite outrages he had +to take up a firm attitude, and the Explosives Act was passed +through all its stages in the shortest time on record. Moreover, +as champion of law and order against the attacks of the Parnellites, +his vigorous speeches brought him constantly into conflict +with the Irish members. In 1884 he introduced an abortive +bill for unifying the municipal administration of London. He +was indeed at that time recognized as one of the ablest and most +effective leaders of the Liberal party; and when, after a brief +interval in 1885, Mr Gladstone returned to office in 1886, he was +made chancellor of the exchequer, an office which he again filled +from 1892 to 1895.</p> + +<p>Between 1880 and 1892 Sir William Harcourt acted as Mr +Gladstone’s loyal and indefatigable lieutenant in political life. +A first-rate party fighter, his services were of inestimable value; +but in spite of his great success as a platform speaker, he was +generally felt to be speaking from an advocate’s brief, and did +not impress the country as possessing much depth of conviction. +It was he who coined the phrase about “stewing in Parnellite +juice,” and, when the split came in the Liberal party on the +Irish question, even those who gave Mr Gladstone and Mr Morley +the credit of being convinced Home Rulers could not be persuaded +that Sir William had followed anything but the line of +party expediency. In 1894 he introduced and carried a memorable +budget, which equalized the death duties on real and +personal property. After Mr Gladstone’s retirement in 1894 +and Lord Rosebery’s selection as prime minister Sir William +became the leader of the Liberal party in the House of Commons, +but it was never probable that he would work comfortably in +the new conditions. His title to be regarded as Mr Gladstone’s +successor had been too lightly ignored, and from the first it was +evident that Lord Rosebery’s ideas of Liberalism and of the +policy of the Liberal party were not those of Sir William Harcourt. +Their differences were patched up from time to time, but the +combination could not last. At the general election of 1895 +it was clear that there were divisions as to what issue the Liberals +were fighting for, and the effect of Sir William Harcourt’s +abortive Local Veto Bill on the election was seen not only in his +defeat at Derby, which gave the signal for the Liberal rout, but +in the set-back it gave to temperance legislation. Though +returned for West Monmouthshire (1895, 1900), his speeches +in debate only occasionally showed his characteristic spirit, +and it was evident that for the hard work of Opposition he no +longer had the same motive as of old. In December 1898 the +crisis arrived, and with Mr John Morley he definitely retired +from the counsels of the party and resigned his leadership of the +Opposition, alleging as his reason, in letters exchanged between +Mr Morley and himself, the cross-currents of opinion among his +old supporters and former colleagues. The split excited considerable +comment, and resulted in much heart-burning and a +more or less open division between the section of the Liberal +party following Lord Rosebery (<i>q.v.</i>) and those who disliked +that statesman’s Imperialistic views.</p> + +<p>Though now a private member, Sir William Harcourt still +continued to vindicate his opinions in his independent position, +and his attacks on the government were no longer restrained +by even the semblance of deference to Liberal Imperialism. +He actively intervened in 1899 and 1900, strongly condemning +the government’s financial policy and their attitude towards the +Transvaal; and throughout the Boer War he lost no opportunity +of criticizing the South African developments in a pessimistic +vein. One of the readiest parliamentary debaters, he savoured +his speeches with humour of that broad and familiar order which +appeals particularly to political audiences. In 1898-1900 he was +conspicuous, both on the platform and in letters written to The +<i>Times</i>, in demanding active measures against the Ritualistic +party in the Church of England; but his attitude on that subject +could not be dissociated from his political advocacy of Disestablishment. +In March 1904, just after he had announced his +intention not to seek election again to parliament, he succeeded, +by the death of his nephew, to the family estates at Nuneham. +But he died suddenly there on the 1st of October in the same year. +He married, first, in 1859, Thérèse (d. 1863), daughter of Mr +T. H. Lister, by whom he had one son, Lewis Vernon Harcourt +(b. 1863), afterwards first commissioner of works both in Sir +Henry Campbell-Bannerman’s 1905 ministry (included in the +cabinet in 1907) and in Mr Asquith’s cabinet (1908); and +secondly, in 1876, Elizabeth, widow of Mr T. Ives and daughter +of Mr. J. L. Motley, the historian, by whom he had another son, +Robert (b. 1878).</p> + +<p>Sir William Harcourt was one of the great parliamentary +figures of the Gladstonian Liberal period. He was essentially +an aristocratic type of late 19th century Whig, with a remarkable +capacity for popular campaign fighting. He had been, and +remained, a brilliant journalist in the non-professional sense. +He was one of those who really made the <i>Saturday Review</i> in its +palmy days, and in the period of his own most ebullient vigour, +while Mr Gladstone was alive, his sense of political expediency +and platform effectiveness in controversy was very acute. But +though he played the game of public life with keen zest, he never +really touched either the country or his own party with the +faith which creates a personal following, and in later years he +found himself somewhat isolated and disappointed, though he +was free to express his deeper objections to the new developments +in church and state. A tall, fine man, with the grand +manner, he was, throughout a long career, a great personality +in the life of his time.</p> +<div class="author">(H. Ch.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> William, 3rd and last Earl Harcourt (1743-1830), who succeeded +his brother in the title, was a soldier who distinguished himself +in the American War of Independence by capturing General +Charles Lee, and commanded the British forces in Flanders in 1794, +eventually becoming a field-marshal. He was a son of Simon, 1st +earl (1714-1777), created viscount and earl in 1749, a soldier, and +from 1772 to 1777 viceroy of Ireland, who was grandson and heir of +Simon, Viscount Harcourt (1661-1727), lord chancellor—the +“trimming Harcourt” of Swift—the purchaser of the Nuneham-Courtney +estates in Oxfordshire, and son of Sir Philip Harcourt of +Stanton Harcourt. The knights of Stanton Harcourt, from the +13th century onwards, traced their descent to the Norman de Harcourts, +a branch of that family having come over with the Conqueror; +and the pedigree claims to go back to Bernard of Saxony, who in +876 acquired the lordships of Harcourt, Castleville and Beauficel +in Normandy. Viscount Harcourt’s second son Simon, who was +father of the 1st earl, was also father of Martha, who married George +Venables Vernon, of Sudbury, created 1st Baron Vernon in 1762. +The latter was a descendant of Sir Richard Vernon (d. 1451), speaker +of the Leicester parliament (1425) and treasurer of Calais, a member +of a Norman family which came over with the Conqueror.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2l" id="ft2l" href="#fa2l"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The Plantagenet descent (see <i>The Blood Royal of Britain</i>, by the +marquis of Ruvigny, 1903, for tables) could be traced through +Lady Anna Leveson Gower (wife of Archbishop Harcourt) to Lady +Frances Stanley, the wife of the 1st earl of Bridgewater (1579-1649), +and so to Lady Eleanor Brandon, wife of the earl of Cumberland +(1517-1570), and daughter of Mary Tudor (wife of Charles Brandon, +duke of Suffolk, 1484-1545), the daughter of Henry VII. and grand-daughter +of Edward IV.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARCOURT, WILLIAM VERNON<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> (1789-1871), founder of +the British Association, was born at Sudbury, Derbyshire, in +1789, a younger son of Edward Vernon [Harcourt], archbishop +of York (see above). Having served for five years in the navy +he went up to Christ Church, Oxford, with a view to taking +holy orders. He began his clerical duties at Bishopthorpe, +Yorkshire, in 1811, and having developed a great interest in +science while at the university, he took an active part in the +foundation of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society, of which he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page941" id="page941"></a>941</span> +was the first president. The laws and the plan of proceedings +for the British Association for the Advancement of Science +were drawn up by him; and Harcourt was elected president in +1839. In 1824 he became canon of York and rector of Wheldrake +in Yorkshire, and in 1837 rector of Bolton Percy. The Yorkshire +school for the blind and the Castle Howard reformatory both +owe their existence to his energies. His spare time until quite +late in life was occupied with scientific experiments. Inheriting +the Harcourt estates in Oxfordshire from his brother in 1861, +he removed to Nuneham, where he died in April 1871.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARDANGER FJORD,<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> an inlet on the west coast of Norway, +penetrating the mainland for 70 m. apart from the deep fringe +of islands off its mouth, the total distance from the open sea to +the head of the fjord being 114 m. Its extreme depth is about +350 fathoms. The entrance at Torö is 50 m. by water south of +Bergen, 60° N., and the general direction is N.E. from that point. +The fjord is flanked by magnificent mountains, from which +many waterfalls pour into it. The main fjord is divided into +parts under different names, and there are many fine branch +fjords. The fjord is frequented by tourists, and the principal +stations have hotels. The outer fjord is called the Kvindherredsfjord, +flanked by the Melderskin (4680 ft.); then follow Sildefjord +and Bonde Sund, separated by Varalds island. Here +Mauranger-fjord opens on the east; from Sundal on this inlet the +great Folgefond snowfield may be crossed, and a fine glacier +(Bondhusbrae) visited. Bakke and Vikingnaes are stations on +Hisfjord, Nordheimsund and Östensö on Ytre Samlen, which +throws off a fine narrow branch northward, the Fiksensund. +There follow Indre Samlen and Utnefjord, with the station of +Utne opposite Oxen (4120 ft.), and its northward branch, +Gravenfjord, with the beautiful station of Eide at its head, +whence a road runs north-west to Vossevangen. From the Utne +terminal branches of the fjord run south and east; the Sörfjord, +steeply walled by the heights of the Folgefond, with the frequented +resort of Odde at its head; and the Eidfjord, with its +branch Osefjord, terminating beneath a tremendous rampart +of mountains, through which the sombre Simodal penetrates, +the river flowing from Daemmevand, a beautiful lake among +the fields, and forming with its tributaries the fine falls of +Skykje and Rembesdal. Vik is the principal station on Eidfjord, +and Ulvik on a branch of the Ose, with a road to Vossevangen. +At Vik is the mouth of the Björeia river, which, in forming the +Vöringfos, plunges 520 ft. into a magnificent rock-bound basin. +A small stream entering Sörfjord forms in its upper course the +Skjaeggedalsfos, of equal height with the Vöringfos, and hardly +less beautiful. The natives of Hardanger have an especially +picturesque local costume.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARDEE, WILLIAM JOSEPH<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> (1815-1873), American soldier, +was born in Savannah, Georgia, on the 10th of November 1815 +and graduated from West Point in 1838. As a subaltern of +cavalry he was employed on a special mission to Europe to +study the cavalry methods in vogue (1839). He was promoted +captain in 1844 and served under Generals Taylor and Scott in +the Mexican War, winning the brevet of major for gallantry in +action in March 1847 and subsequently that of lieut.-colonel. +After the war he served as a substantive major under Colonel +Sidney Johnston and Lieut.-Colonel Robert Lee in the 2nd +U.S. cavalry, and for some time before 1856 he was engaged in +compiling the official manual of infantry drill and tactics which, +familiarly called “Hardee’s Tactics,” afterwards formed the +text-book for the infantry arm in both the Federal and the +Confederate armies. From 1856 to 1861 he was commandant +of West Point, resigning his commission on the secession of his +state in the latter year. Entering the Confederate service as +a colonel, he was shortly promoted brigadier-general. He +distinguished himself very greatly by his tactical leadership on +the field of Shiloh, and was immediately promoted major-general. +As a corps commander he fought under General Bragg at Perryville +and Stone River, and for his distinguished services in these +battles was promoted lieutenant-general. He served in the latter +part of the campaign of 1863 under Bragg and in that of 1864 +under J. E. Johnston. When the latter officer was superseded +by Hood, Hardee was relieved at his own request, and for the +remainder of the war he served in the Carolinas. When the Civil +War came to an end in 1865 he retired to his plantation near +Selma, Alabama. He died at Wytheville, Virginia, on the 6th +of November 1873.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARDENBERG, KARL AUGUST VON,<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> <span class="sc">Prince</span> (1750-1822), +Prussian statesman, was born at Essenroda in Hanover on the +31st of May 1750. After studying at Leipzig and Göttingen +he entered the Hanoverian civil service in 1770 as councillor +of the board of domains (<i>Kammerrat</i>); but, finding his advancement +slow, he set out—on the advice of King George III.—on +a course of travels, spending some time at Wetzlar, Regensburg +(where he studied the mechanism of the Imperial government), +Vienna and Berlin. He also visited France, Holland and England, +where he was kindly received by the king. On his return he +married, by his father’s desire, the countess Reventlow. In +1778 he was raised to the rank of privy councillor and created a +count. He now again went to England, in the hope of obtaining +the post of Hanoverian envoy in London; but, his wife becoming +entangled in an <i>amour</i> with the prince of Wales, so great a +scandal was created that he was forced to leave the Hanoverian +service. In 1782 he entered that of the duke of Brunswick, +and as president of the board of domains displayed a zeal for +reform, in the manner approved by the enlightened despots +of the century, that rendered him very unpopular with the +orthodox clergy and the conservative estates. In Brunswick, +too, his position was in the end made untenable by the conduct +of his wife, whom he now divorced; he himself, shortly afterwards, +marrying a divorced woman. Fortunately for him, this +coincided with the lapsing of the principalities of Ansbach and +Bayreuth to Prussia, owing to the resignation of the last margrave, +Charles Alexander, in 1791. Hardenberg, who happened to be +in Berlin at the time, was on the recommendation of Herzberg +appointed administrator of the principalities (1792). The +position, owing to the singular overlapping of territorial claims +in the old Empire, was one of considerable delicacy, and Hardenberg +filled it with great skill, doing much to reform traditional +anomalies and to develop the country, and at the same time +labouring to expand the influence of Prussia in South Germany. +After the outbreak of the revolutionary wars his diplomatic +ability led to his appointment as Prussian envoy, with a roving +commission to visit the Rhenish courts and win them over to +Prussia’s views; and ultimately, when the necessity for making +peace with the French Republic had been recognized, he was +appointed to succeed Count Goltz as Prussian plenipotentiary +at Basel (February 28, 1795), where he signed the treaty of peace.</p> + +<p>In 1797, on the accession of King Frederick William III., +Hardenberg was summoned to Berlin, where he received an +important position in the cabinet and was appointed chief of +the departments of Magdeburg and Halberstadt, for Westphalia, +and for the principality of Neuchâtel. In 1793 Hardenberg had +struck up a friendship with Count Haugwitz, the influential +minister for foreign affairs, and when in 1803 the latter went +away on leave (August-October) he appointed Hardenberg his +<i>locum tenens</i>. It was a critical period. Napoleon had just +occupied Hanover, and Haugwitz had urged upon the king the +necessity for strong measures and the expediency of a Russian +alliance. During his absence, however, the king’s irresolution +continued; he clung to the policy of neutrality which had so +far seemed to have served Prussia so well; and Hardenberg +contented himself with adapting himself to the royal will. By +the time Haugwitz returned, the unyielding attitude of Napoleon +had caused the king to make advances to Russia; but the mutual +declarations of the 3rd and 25th of May 1804 only pledged the +two powers to take up arms in the event of a French attack upon +Prussia or of further aggressions in North Germany. Finally, +Haugwitz, unable to persuade the cabinet to a more vigorous +policy, resigned, and on the 14th of April 1804 Hardenberg +succeeded him as foreign minister.</p> + +<p>If there was to be war, Hardenberg would have preferred the +French alliance, which was the price Napoleon demanded for the +cession of Hanover to Prussia; for the Eastern powers would +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page942" id="page942"></a>942</span> +scarcely have conceded, of their free will, so great an augmentation +of Prussian power. But he still hoped to gain the coveted +prize by diplomacy, backed by the veiled threat of an armed +neutrality. Then occurred Napoleon’s contemptuous violation +of Prussian territory by marching three French corps through +Ansbach; King Frederick William’s pride overcame his weakness, +and on the 3rd of November he signed with the tsar Alexander +the terms of an ultimatum to be laid before the French emperor. +Haugwitz was despatched to Vienna with the document; but +before he arrived the battle of Austerlitz had been fought, and +the Prussian plenipotentiary had to make the best terms he could +with the conqueror. Prussia, indeed, by the treaty signed at +Schönbrunn on the 15th of December 1805, received Hanover, +but in return for all her territories in South Germany. One +condition of the arrangement was the retirement of Hardenberg, +whom Napoleon disliked. He was again foreign minister for a +few months after the crisis of 1806 (April-July 1807); but +Napoleon’s resentment was implacable, and one of the conditions +of the terms granted to Prussia by the treaty of Tilsit was +Hardenberg’s dismissal.</p> + +<p>After the enforced retirement of Stein in 1810 and the unsatisfactory +interlude of the feeble Altenstein ministry, Hardenberg +was again summoned to Berlin, this time as chancellor (June 6, +1810). The campaign of Jena and its consequences had had a +profound effect upon him; and in his mind the traditions of the +old diplomacy had given place to the new sentiment of nationality +characteristic of the coming age, which in him found expression +in a passionate desire to restore the position of Prussia and +crush her oppressors. During his retirement at Riga he had +worked out an elaborate plan for reconstructing the monarchy +on Liberal lines; and when he came into power, though the +circumstances of the time did not admit of his pursuing an +independent foreign policy, he steadily prepared for the struggle +with France by carrying out Stein’s far-reaching schemes of +social and political reorganization. The military system was +completely reformed, serfdom was abolished, municipal institutions +were fostered, the civil service was thrown open to all +classes, and great attention was devoted to the educational needs +of every section of the community.</p> + +<p>When at last the time came to put these reforms to the test, +after the Moscow campaign of 1812, it was Hardenberg who, +supported by the influence of the noble Queen Louise, determined +Frederick William to take advantage of General Yorck’s loyal +disloyalty and declare against France. He was rightly regarded +by German patriots as the statesman who had done most to +encourage the spirit of national independence; and immediately +after he had signed the first peace of Paris he was raised to the +rank of prince (June 3, 1814) in recognition of the part he had +played in the War of Liberation.</p> + +<p>Hardenberg now had an assured position in that close +corporation of sovereigns and statesmen by whom Europe, during +the next few years, was to be governed. He accompanied the +allied sovereigns to England, and at the congress of Vienna +(1814-1815) was the chief plenipotentiary of Prussia. But from +this time the zenith of his influence, if not of his fame, was passed. +In diplomacy he was no match for Metternich, whose influence +soon overshadowed his own in the councils of Europe, of Germany, +and ultimately even of Prussia itself. At Vienna, in spite of the +powerful backing of Alexander of Russia, he failed to secure the +annexation of the whole of Saxony to Prussia; at Paris, after +Waterloo, he failed to carry through his views as to the further dismemberment +of France; he had weakly allowed Metternich to +forestall him in making terms with the states of the Confederation +of the Rhine, which secured to Austria the preponderance in the +German federal diet; on the eve of the conference of Carlsbad +(1819) he signed a convention with Metternich, by which—to +quote the historian Treitschke—“like a penitent sinner, without +any formal <i>quid pro quo</i>, the monarchy of Frederick the Great +yielded to a foreign power a voice in her internal affairs.” At the +congresses of Aix-la-Chapelle, Troppau, Laibach and Verona +the voice of Hardenberg was but an echo of that of Metternich.</p> + +<p>The cause lay partly in the difficult circumstances of the +loosely-knit Prussian monarchy, but partly in Hardenberg’s +character, which, never well balanced, had deteriorated with +age. He continued amiable, charming and enlightened as ever; +but the excesses which had been pardonable in a young diplomatist +were a scandal in an elderly chancellor, and could not +but weaken his influence with so pious a <i>Landesvater</i> as Frederick +William III. To overcome the king’s terror of Liberal experiments +would have needed all the powers of an adviser at once +wise and in character wholly trustworthy. Hardenberg was +wise enough; he saw the necessity for constitutional reform; +but he clung with almost senile tenacity to the sweets of office, +and when the tide turned strongly against Liberalism he allowed +himself to drift with it. In the privacy of royal commissions +he continued to elaborate schemes for constitutions that never +saw the light; but Germany, disillusioned, saw only the faithful +henchman of Metternich, an accomplice in the policy of the +Carlsbad Decrees and the Troppau Protocol. He died, soon +after the closing of the congress of Verona, at Genoa, on the +26th of November 1822.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See L. v. Ranke, <i>Denkwürdigkeiten des Staatskanzlers Fürsten von +Hardenberg</i> (5 vols., Leipzig, 1877); J. R. Seeley, <i>The Life and Times +of Stein</i> (3 vols., Cambridge, 1878); E. Meier, <i>Reform der Verwaltungsorganisation +unter Stein und Hardenberg</i> (<i>ib.</i>, 1881); Chr. +Meyer, <i>Hardenberg und seine Verwaltung der Fürstentümer Ansbach +und Bayreuth</i> (Breslau, 1892); Koser, <i>Die Neuordnung des preussischen +Archivwesens durch den Staatskanzler Fürsten v. Hardenberg</i> +(Leipzig, 1904).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARDERWYK,<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> a seaport in the province of Gelderland, +Holland, on the shores of the Zuider Zee, 17 m. by rail N.N.E. +of Amersfoort. Pop. (1900) 7425. It is a quaint old town, +approached by a fine avenue of trees, and standing in the midst +of a patch of fertile ground. Harderwyk is chiefly important as +being the depot for recruits for the Dutch colonial army. It +contains a small fort and large barracks. The principal buildings +are the town hall, with some ancient furniture, a large 15th +century church with a notable square tower, a municipal orphanage, +and the Nassau-Veluwe gymnasium. Agriculture, fishing, +and a few domestic industries form the only employment of the +inhabitants. As a seaport its trade is now confined exclusively +to the Zuider Zee.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARDICANUTE<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> [more correctly <span class="sc">Hardacnut</span>] (<i>c.</i> 1010-1042), +son of Canute, king of England, by his wife Ælfgifu or Emma, +was born about 1019. In the contest for the English crown +which followed the death of Canute in 1035 the claims of Hardicanute +were supported by Emma and her ally, Godwine, earl of +the West Saxons, in opposition to those of Harold, Canute’s +illegitimate son, who was backed by the Mercian earl Leofric +and the chief men of the north. At a meeting of the witan at +Oxford a compromise was ultimately arranged by which Harold +was temporarily elected regent of all England, pending the final +settlement of the question on the return of Hardicanute from +Denmark. The compromise was strongly opposed by Godwine +and Emma, who for a time forcibly held Wessex in Hardicanute’s +behalf. But Harold’s party rapidly increased; and early in +1037 he was definitely elected king. Emma was driven out and +took refuge at Bruges. In 1039 Hardicanute joined her, and +together they concerted an attack on England. But next year +Harold died; and Hardicanute peacefully succeeded. His short +reign was marked by great oppression and cruelty. He caused +the dead body of Harold to be dug up and thrown into a fen; +he exacted so heavy a geld for the support of his foreign fleet +that great discontent was created throughout the kingdom, and +in Worcestershire a general uprising took place against those +sent to collect the tax, whereupon he burned the city of +Worcester to the ground and devastated the surrounding +country; in 1041 he permitted Edwulf, earl of Northumbria, +to be treacherously murdered after having granted him a safe-conduct. +While “he stood at his drink” at the marriage feast +of one of his flegns he was suddenly seized with a fit, from which +he died a few days afterwards on the 8th of June 1042.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARDING, CHESTER<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> (1792-1866), American portrait painter, +was born at Conway, Massachusetts, on the 1st of September +1792. Brought up in the wilderness of New York state, Harding, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page943" id="page943"></a>943</span> +as a lad of splendid physique, standing over 6 ft. 3 in., marched +as a drummer with the militia to the St Lawrence in 1813. He +became subsequently chairmaker, peddler, inn-keeper, and +house-painter, painting signs in Pittsburg, Pa., and eventually +going on the road, self-taught, as an itinerant portrait painter. +He made enough money to take him to the schools at the Philadelphia +Academy of Design, and he soon became proficient +enough to gain a competency, so that later he went to England +and set up a studio in London. There he met with great success, +painting royalty and the nobility, and, despite the lackings of +an early education and social experience, he became a favourite +in all circles. Returning to the United States, he settled in +Boston and painted portraits of many of the prominent men +and women of his time. He died on the 1st of April 1866.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARDING, JAMES DUFFIELD<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> (1798-1863), English landscape +painter, was the son of an artist, and took to the same +vocation at an early age, although he had originally been destined +for the law. He was in the main a water-colour painter and a +lithographer, but he produced various oil-paintings both at +the beginning and towards the end of his career. He frequently +contributed to the exhibitions of the Water-Colour Society, of +which he became an associate in 1821, and a full member in 1822. +He was also very largely engaged in teaching, and published +several books developing his views of art—amongst others, +<i>The Tourist in Italy</i> (1831); <i>The Tourist in France</i> (1834); <i>The +Park and the Forest</i> (1841); <i>The Principles and the Practice of +Art</i> (1845); <i>Elementary Art</i> (1846); <i>Scotland Delineated in a Series +of Views</i> (1847); <i>Lessons on Art</i> (1849). He died at Barnes on +the 4th of December 1863. Harding was noted for facility, +sureness of hand, nicety of touch, and the various qualities +which go to make up an elegant, highly trained, and accomplished +sketcher from nature, and composer of picturesque landscape +material; he was particularly skilful in the treatment of foliage.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARDINGE, HENRY HARDINGE,<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> <span class="sc">Viscount</span> (1785-1856), +British field marshal and governor-general of India, was born +at Wrotham in Kent on the 30th of March 1785. After being +at Eton, he entered the army in 1799 as an ensign in the Queen’s +Rangers, a corps then stationed in Upper Canada. His first +active service was at the battle of Vimiera, where he was +wounded; and at Corunna he was by the side of Sir John Moore +when he received his death-wound. Subsequently he received +an appointment as deputy-quartermaster-general in the Portuguese +army from Marshal Beresford, and was present at nearly +all the battles of the Peninsular War, being wounded again at +Vittoria. At Albuera he saved the day for the British by taking +the responsibility at a critical moment of strongly urging General +Cole’s division to advance. When peace was again broken in +1815 by Napoleon’s escape from Elba, Hardinge hastened into +active service, and was appointed to the important post of +commissioner at the Prussian headquarters. In this capacity +he was present at the battle of Ligny on the 16th of June 1815, +where he lost his left hand by a shot, and thus was not present +at Waterloo, fought two days later. For the loss of his hand he +received a pension of £300; he had already been made a K.C.B., +and Wellington presented him with a sword that had belonged +to Napoleon. In 1820 and 1826 Sir Henry Hardinge was returned +to parliament as member for Durham; and in 1828 he accepted +the office of secretary at war in Wellington’s ministry, a post +which he also filled in Peel’s cabinet in 1841-1844. In 1830 and +1834-1835 he was chief secretary for Ireland. In 1844 he +succeeded Lord Ellenborough as governor-general of India. +During his term of office the first Sikh War broke out; and +Hardinge, waiving his right to the supreme command, magnanimously +offered to serve as second in command under Sir Hugh +Gough; but disagreeing with the latter’s plan of campaign at +Ferozeshah, he temporarily reasserted his authority as governor-general +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sikh Wars</a></span>). After the successful termination of +the campaign at Sobraon he was created Viscount Hardinge of +Lahore and of King’s Newton in Derbyshire, with a pension of +£3000 for three lives; while the East India Company voted him +an annuity of £5000, which he declined to accept. Hardinge’s +term of office in India was marked by many social and educational +reforms. He returned to England in 1848, and in 1852 succeeded +the duke of Wellington as commander-in-chief of the British +army. While in this position he had the home management +of the Crimean War, which he endeavoured to conduct on +Wellington’s principles—a system not altogether suited to the +changed mode of warfare. In 1855 he was promoted to the rank +of field marshal. Viscount Hardinge resigned his office of +commander-in-chief in July 1856, owing to failing health, and +died on the 24th of September of the same year at South Park +near Tunbridge Wells. His elder son, Charles Stewart (1822-1894), +who had been his private secretary in India, was the +2nd Viscount Hardinge; and the latter’s eldest son succeeded +to the title. The younger son of the 2nd Viscount, Charles +Hardinge (b. 1858), became a prominent diplomatist (see +Edward VII.), and was appointed governor-general of India +in 1910, being created Baron Hardinge of Penshurst.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C. Hardinge, <i>Viscount Hardinge</i> (Rulers of India series, 1891); +and R. S. Rait, <i>Life and Campaigns of Viscount Gough</i> (1903).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARDOI,<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> a town and district of British India, in the Lucknow +division of the United Provinces. The town is 63 m. N.E. of +Lucknow by rail. Pop. (1901) 12,174. It has a wood-carving +industry, saltpetre works, and an export trade in grain.</p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">District of Hardoi</span> has an area of 2331 sq. m. It is a +level district watered by the Ganges, Ramganga, Deoha or Garra, +Sukheta, Sai, Baita and Gumti—the three rivers first named +being navigable by country boats. Towards the Ganges the +land is uneven, and often rises in hillocks of sand cultivated at +the base, and their slopes covered with lofty <i>munj</i> grass. Several +large <i>jhils</i> or swamps are scattered throughout the district, +the largest being that of Sāndi, which is 3 m. long by from 1 to 2 +m. broad. These <i>jhils</i> are largely used for irrigation. Large +tracts of forest jungle still exist. Leopards, black buck, spotted +deer, and <i>nilgai</i> are common; the mallard, teal, grey duck, +common goose, and all kinds of waterfowl abound. In 1901 +the population of the district was 1,092,834, showing a decrease +of nearly 2% in the decade. The district contains a larger urban +population than any other in Oudh, the largest town being +Shahabad, 20,036 in 1901. It is traversed by the Oudh and +Rohilkhand railway from Lucknow to Shahjahanpur, and its +branches. The chief exports are grain, sugar, hides, tobacco and +saltpetre.</p> + +<p>The first authentic records of Hardoi are connected with the +Mussulman colonization. Bāwan was occupied by Sayyid +Sālār Masāūd in 1028, but the permanent Moslem occupation did +not begin till 1217. Owing to the situation of the district, Hardoi +formed the scene of many sanguinary battles between the rival +Afghan and Mogul empires. Between Bīlgrām and Sāndi was +fought the great battle between Humāyun and Sher Shāh, in +which the former was utterly defeated. Hardoi, along with the +rest of Oudh, became British territory under Lord Dalhousie’s +proclamation of February 1856.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARDOUIN, JEAN<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> (1646-1729), French classical scholar, +was born at Quimper in Brittany. Having acquired a taste +for literature in his father’s book-shop, he sought and obtained +about his sixteenth year admission into the order of the Jesuits. +In Paris, where he went to study theology, he ultimately +became librarian of the Collège Louis le Grand in 1683, and he +died there on the 3rd of September 1729. His first published +work was an edition of Themistius (1684), which included no +fewer than thirteen new orations. On the advice of Jean Garnier +(1612-1681) he undertook to edit the <i>Natural History</i> of Pliny +for the Delphin series, a task which he completed in five years. +His attention having been turned to numismatics as auxiliary to +his great editorial labours, he published several learned works +in that department, marred, however, as almost everything he +did was marred, by a determination to be at all hazards different +from other interpreters. It is sufficient to mention his <i>Nummi +antiqui populorum et urbium illustrati</i> (1684), <i>Antirrheticus de +nummis antiquis coloniarum et municipiorum</i> (1689), and <i>Chronologia +Veteris Testamenti ad vulgatam versionem exacta et nummis +illustrata</i> (1696). By the ecclesiastical authorities Hardouin +was appointed to supervise the <i>Conciliorum collectio regia maxima</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page944" id="page944"></a>944</span> +(1715); but he was accused of suppressing important documents +and foisting in apocryphal matter, and by the order of the +parlement of Paris (then at war with the Jesuits) the publication +of the work was delayed. It is really a valuable collection, much +cited by scholars. Hardouin declared that all the councils +supposed to have taken place before the council of Trent were +fictitious. It is, however, as the originator of a variety of paradoxical +theories that Hardouin is now best remembered. The +most remarkable, contained in his <i>Chronologiae ex nummis +antiquis restitutae</i> (1696) and <i>Prolegomena ad censuram veterum +scriptorum</i>, was to the effect that, with the exception of the +works of Homer, Herodotus and Cicero, the <i>Natural History</i> of +Pliny, the <i>Georgics</i> of <i>Virgil</i>, and the <i>Satires and Epistles of +Horace</i>, all the ancient classics of Greece and Rome were spurious, +having been manufactured by monks of the 13th century, under +the direction of a certain Severus Archontius. He denied the +genuineness of most ancient works of art, coins and inscriptions, +and declared that the New Testament was originally written in +Latin.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Debacker, <i>Bibliothèque des écrivains de la Compagnie de +Jésus</i> (1853).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARDT, HERMANN VON DER<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> (1660-1746), German historian +and orientalist, was born at Melle, in Westphalia, on the 15th +of November 1660. He studied oriental languages in Jena and +in Leipzig, and in 1690 he was called to the chair of oriental +languages at Helmstedt. He resigned his position in 1727, but +lived at Helmstedt until his death on the 28th of February 1746. +Among his numerous writings the following deserve mention: +<i>Autographa Lutheri aliorumque celebrium virorum, ab anno 1517 +ad annum 1546</i>, <i>Reformationis aetatem et historiam egregie +illustrantia</i> (1690-1691); <i>Magnum oecumenicum Constantiense +concilium</i> (1697-1700); <i>Hebraeae linguae fundamenta</i> (1694); +<i>Syriacae linguae fundamenta</i> (1694); <i>Elementa Chaldaica</i> (1693); +<i>Historia litteraria reformationis</i> (1717); <i>Enigmata prisci orbis</i> +(1723). Hardt left in manuscript a history of the Reformation +which is preserved in the Helmstedt Juleum.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See F. Lamey, <i>Hermann von der Hardt in seinen Briefen</i> (Karlsruhe, +1891).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARDT, THE,<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> a mountainous district of Germany, in the +Bavarian palatinate, forming the northern end of the Vosges +range. It is, in the main, an undulating high plateau of sandstone +formation, of a mean elevation of 1300 ft., and reaching its +highest point in the Donnersberg (2254 ft.). The eastern slope, +which descends gently towards the Rhine, is diversified by deep +and well-wooded valleys, such as those of the Lauter and the +Queich, and by conical hills surmounted by the ruins of frequent +feudal castles and monasteries. Noticeable among these are the +Madenburg near Eschbach, the Trifels (long the dungeon of +Richard I. of England), and the Maxburg near Neustadt. Three-fifths +of the whole area is occupied by forests, principally oak, +beech and fir. The lower eastern slope is highly cultivated and +produces excellent wine.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARDWAR,<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Hurdwar</span>, an ancient town of British India, +and Hindu place of pilgrimage, in the Saharanpur district of +the United Provinces, on the right bank of the Ganges, 17 m. +N.E. of Rurki, with a railway station. The Ganges canal here +takes off from the river. A branch railway to Dehra was opened +in 1900. Pop. (1901), 25,597. The town is of great antiquity, +and has borne many names. It was originally known as Kapila +from the sage Kapila. Hsūan Tsang, the Chinese Buddhist +pilgrim, in the 7th century visited a city which he calls Mo-yu-lo, +the remains of which still exist at Mayapur, a little to the south +of the modern town. Among the ruins are a fort and three +temples, decorated with broken stone sculptures. The great +object of attraction at present is the Hari-ka-charan, or bathing +<i>ghat</i>, with the adjoining temple of Gangadwara. The <i>charan</i> +or foot-mark of Vishnu, imprinted on a stone let into the upper +wall of the <i>ghat</i>, forms an object of special reverence. A great +assemblage of people takes place annually, at the beginning +of the Hindu solar year, when the sun enters Aries; and every +twelfth year a feast of peculiar sanctity occurs, known as a +<i>Kumbh-mela</i>. The ordinary number of pilgrims at the annual fair +amounts to 100,000, and at the Kumbh-mela to 300,000; in +1903 there were 400,000 present. Since 1892 many sanitary +improvements have been made for the benefit of the annual +concourse of pilgrims. In early days riots and also outbreaks +of cholera were of common occurrence. The Hardwar meeting +also possesses mercantile importance, being one of the principal +horse-fairs in Upper India. Commodities of all kinds, Indian +and European, find a ready sale, and the trade in grain and +food-stuffs forms a lucrative traffic.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARDWICKE, PHILIP YORKE<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span>, <span class="sc">1st Earl of</span> (1690-1764), +English lord chancellor, son of Philip Yorke, an attorney, was +born at Dover, on the 1st of December 1690. Through his +mother, Elizabeth, daughter and co-heiress of Richard Gibbon +of Rolvenden, Kent, he was connected with the family of Gibbon +the historian. At the age of fourteen, after a not very thorough +education at a private school at Bethnal Green, where, however, +he showed exceptional promise, he entered an attorney’s office +in London. Here he gave some attention to literature and the +classics as well as to law; but in the latter he made such progress +that his employer, Salkeld, impressed by Yorke’s powers, entered +him at the Middle Temple in November 1708; and soon afterwards +recommended him to Lord Chief Justice Parker (afterwards +earl of Macclesfield) as law tutor to his sons. In 1715 he +was called to the bar, where his progress was, says Lord Campbell, +“more rapid than that of any other débutant in the annals of +our profession,” his advancement being greatly furthered by the +patronage of Macclesfield, who became lord chancellor in 1718, +when Yorke transferred his practice from the king’s bench to +the court of chancery, though he continued to go on the western +circuit. In the following year he established his reputation +as an equity lawyer in a case in which Sir Robert Walpole’s +family was interested, by an argument displaying profound +learning and research concerning the jurisdiction of the +chancellor, on lines which he afterwards more fully developed +in a celebrated letter to Lord Kames on the distinction between +law and equity. Through Macclesfield’s influence with the duke +of Newcastle Yorke entered parliament in 1719 as member for +Lewes, and was appointed solicitor-general, with a knighthood, +in 1720, although he was then a barrister of only four years’ +standing. His conduct of the prosecution of Christopher Layer +in that year for treason as a Jacobite further raised Sir Philip +Yorke’s reputation as a forensic orator; and in 1723, having +already become attorney-general, he passed through the House +of Commons the bill of pains and penalties against Bishop +Atterbury. He was excused, on the ground of his personal +friendship, from acting for the crown in the impeachment of +Macclesfield in 1725, though he did not exert himself to save +his patron from disgrace largely brought about by Macclesfield’s +partiality for Yorke himself. He soon found a new and still +more influential patron in the duke of Newcastle, to whom he +henceforth gave his political support. He rendered valuable +service to Walpole’s government by his support of the bill for +prohibiting loans to foreign powers (1730), of the increase of +the army (1732) and of the excise bill (1733). In 1733 Yorke +was appointed lord chief justice of the king’s bench, with the +title of Lord Hardwicke, and was sworn of the privy council; +and in 1737 he succeeded Talbot as lord chancellor, thus becoming +a member of Sir Robert Walpole’s cabinet. One of his first +official acts was to deprive the poet Thomson of a small office +conferred on him by Talbot.</p> + +<p>Hardwicke’s political importance was greatly increased by +his removal to the House of Lords, where the incompetency of +Newcastle threw on the chancellor the duty of defending the +measures of the government. He resisted Carteret’s motion +to reduce the army in 1738, and the resolutions hostile to Spain +over the affair of Captain Jenkins’s ears. But when Walpole +bent before the storm and declared war against Spain, Hardwicke +advocated energetic measures for its conduct; and he tried +to keep the peace between Newcastle and Walpole. There is no +sufficient ground for Horace Walpole’s charge that the fall of +Sir Robert was brought about by Hardwicke’s treachery. No +one was more surprised than himself when he retained the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page945" id="page945"></a>945</span> +chancellorship in the following administration, and he resisted +the proposal to indemnify witnesses against Walpole in one of +his finest speeches in May 1742. He exercised a leading influence +in the Wilmington Cabinet; and when Wilmington died in +August 1743, it was Hardwicke who put forward Henry Pelham +for the vacant office against the claims of Pulteney. For many +years from this time he was the controlling power in the government. +During the king’s absences on the continent Hardwicke +was left at the head of the council of regency; it thus fell to +him to concert measures for dealing with the Jacobite rising +in 1745. He took a just view of the crisis, and his policy for +meeting it was on the whole statesmanlike. After Culloden he +presided at the trial of the Scottish Jacobite peers, his conduct +of which, though judicially impartial, was neither dignified +nor generous; and he must be held partly responsible for the +unnecessary severity meted out to the rebels, and especially +for the cruel, though not illegal, executions on obsolete attainders +of Charles Radcliffe and (in 1753) of Archibald Cameron. He +carried, however, a great reform in 1746, of incalculable benefit +to Scotland, which swept away the grave abuses of feudal power +surviving in that country in the form of private heritable jurisdictions +in the hands of the landed gentry. On the other hand +his legislation in 1748 for disarming the Highlanders and prohibiting +the use of the tartan in their dress was vexatious without +being effective. Hardwicke supported Chesterfield’s reform of +the calendar in 1751; in 1753 his bill for legalizing the naturalization +of Jews in England had to be dropped on account of the +popular clamour it excited; but he successfully carried a +salutary reform of the marriage law, which became the basis of +all subsequent legislation on the subject.</p> + +<p>On the death of Pelham in 1754 Hardwicke obtained for +Newcastle the post of prime minister, and for reward was created +earl of Hardwicke and Viscount Royston; and when in +November 1756 the weakness of the ministry and the threatening +aspect of foreign affairs compelled Newcastle to resign, Hardwicke +retired with him. He played an important and disinterested +part in negotiating the coalition between Newcastle +and Pitt in 1757, when he accepted a seat in Pitt’s cabinet +without returning to the woolsack. After the accession of +George III. Hardwicke opposed the ministry of Lord Bute on +the peace with France in 1762, and on the cider tax in the +following year. In the Wilkes case Hardwicke condemned +general warrants, and also the doctrine that seditious libels +published by members of parliament were protected by parliamentary +privilege. He died in London on the 6th of March +1764.</p> + +<p>Although for a lengthy period Hardwicke was an influential +minister, he was not a statesman of the first rank. On the other +hand he was one of the greatest judges who ever sat on the English +bench. He did not, indeed, by his three years’ tenure of the chief-justiceship +of the king’s bench leave any impress on the common +law; but Lord Campbell pronounces him “the most consummate +judge who ever sat in the court of chancery, being distinguished +not only for his rapid and satisfactory decision of +the causes which came before him, but for the profound and +enlightened principles which he laid down, and for perfecting +English equity into a systematic science.” He held the office +of lord chancellor longer than any of his predecessors, with a +single exception; and the same high authority quoted above +asserts that as an equity judge Lord Hardwicke’s fame “has +not been exceeded by that of any man in ancient or modern times. +His decisions have been, and ever will continue to be, appealed to +as fixing the limits and establishing the principles of the great +juridical system called Equity, which now not only in this +country and in our colonies, but over the whole extent of the +United States of America, regulates property and personal +rights more than the ancient common law.”<a name="fa1m" id="fa1m" href="#ft1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Hardwicke had +prepared himself for this great and enduring service to English +jurisprudence by study of the historical foundations of the +chancellor’s equitable jurisdiction, combined with profound +insight into legal principle, and a thorough knowledge of the +Roman civil law, the principles of which he scientifically incorporated +into his administration of English equity in the absence +of precedents bearing on the causes submitted to his judgment. +His decisions on particular points in dispute were based on +general principles, which were neither so wide as to prove inapplicable +to future circumstances, nor too restricted to serve +as the foundation for a coherent and scientific system. His +recorded judgments—which, as Lord Campbell observes, +“certainly do come up to every idea we can form of judicial +excellence”—combine luminous method of arrangement with +elegance and lucidity of language.</p> + +<p>Nor was the creation of modern English equity Lord Hardwicke’s +only service to the administration of justice. Born +within two years of the death of Judge Jeffreys his influence was +powerful in obliterating the evil traditions of the judicial bench +under the Stuart monarchy, and in establishing the modern +conception of the duties and demeanour of English judges. +While still at the bar Lord Chesterfield praised his conduct of +crown prosecutions as a contrast to the former “bloodhounds of +the crown”; and he described Sir Philip Yorke as “naturally +humane, moderate and decent.” On the bench he had complete +control over his temper; he was always urbane and decorous +and usually dignified. His exercise of legal patronage deserves +unmixed praise. As a public man he was upright and, in +comparison with most of his contemporaries, consistent. His +domestic life was happy and virtuous. His chief fault was +avarice, which perhaps makes it the more creditable that, +though a colleague of Walpole, he was never suspected of corruption. +But he had a keen and steady eye to his own advantage, +and he was said to be jealous of all who might become his rivals +for power. His manners, too, were arrogant. Lord Waldegrave +said of Hardwicke that “he might have been thought a great +man had he been less avaricious, less proud, less unlike a gentleman.” +Although in his youth he contributed to the <i>Spectator</i> +over the signature “Philip Homebred,” he seems early to have +abandoned all care for literature, and he has been reproached +by Lord Campbell and others with his neglect of art and letters. +He married, on the 16th of May 1719, Margaret, daughter of +Charles Cocks (by his wife Mary, sister of Lord Chancellor +Somers), and widow of John Lygon, by whom he had five sons +and two daughters. His eldest daughter, Elizabeth, married +Lord Anson; and the second, Margaret, married Sir Gilbert +Heathcote. Three of his younger sons attained some distinction. +Charles Yorke (<i>q.v.</i>), the second son, became like his father +lord chancellor; the third, Joseph, was a diplomatist, and was +created Lord Dover; while James, the fifth son, became bishop +of Ely.</p> + +<p>Hardwicke was succeeded in the earldom by his eldest son, +<span class="sc">Philip Yorke</span> (1720-1795), 2nd earl of Hardwicke, born on the +19th of March 1720, and educated at Cambridge. In 1741 he +became a fellow of the Royal Society. With his brother, Charles +Yorke, he was one of the chief contributors to <i>Athenian Letters; +or the Epistolary Correspondence of an agent of the King of Persia +residing at Athens during the Peloponnesian War</i> (4 vols., London, +1741), a work that for many years had a considerable vogue +and went through several editions. He sat in the House of +Commons as member for Reigate (1741-1747), and afterwards +for Cambridgeshire; and he kept notes of the debates which +were afterwards embodied in Cobbett’s <i>Parliamentary History</i>. +He was styled Viscount Royston from 1754 till 1764, when he +succeeded to the earldom. In politics he supported the Rockingham +Whigs. He held the office of teller of the exchequer, and +was lord-lieutenant of Cambridgeshire and high steward of +Cambridge University. He edited a quantity of miscellaneous +state papers and correspondence, to be found in MSS. collections +in the British Museum. He died in London, on the 16th of May +1790. He married Jemima Campbell, only daughter of John, +3rd earl of Breadalbane, and grand-daughter and heiress of Henry +de Grey, duke of Kent, who became in her own right marchioness +de Grey.</p> + +<p>In default of sons, the title devolved on his nephew, <span class="sc">Philip</span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page946" id="page946"></a>946</span> +<span class="sc">Yorke</span> (1757-1834), 3rd earl of Hardwicke, eldest son of Charles +Yorke, lord chancellor, by his first wife, Catherine Freman, who +was born on the 31st of May 1757 and was educated at Cambridge. +He was M.P. for Cambridgeshire, following the Whig traditions +of his family; but after his succession to the earldom in 1790 +he supported Pitt, and took office in 1801 as lord lieutenant +of Ireland (1801-1806), where he supported Catholic emancipation. +He was created K.G. in 1803, and was a fellow of the +Royal Society. He married Elizabeth, daughter of James +Lindsay, 5th earl of Balcarres, in 1782, but left no son.</p> + +<p>He was succeeded in the peerage by his nephew, <span class="sc">Charles +Philip Yorke</span> (1799-1873), 4th earl of Hardwicke, English +admiral, eldest son of Admiral Sir Joseph Sydney Yorke (1768-1831), +who was second son of Charles Yorke, lord chancellor, +by his second wife, Agneta Johnson. Charles Philip was born +at Southampton on the 2nd of April 1799 and was educated +at Harrow. He entered the royal navy in 1815, and served on +the North American station and in the Mediterranean, attaining +the rank of captain in 1825. He represented Reigate (1831) +and Cambridgeshire (1832-1834) in the House of Commons; +and after succeeding to the earldom in 1834, was appointed a +lord in waiting by Sir Robert Peel in 1841. In 1858 he retired +from the active list with the rank of rear-admiral, becoming +vice-admiral in the same year, and admiral in 1863. He was +a member of Lord Derby’s cabinet in 1852 as postmaster-general +and lord privy seal in 1858. In 1833 he married Susan, daughter +of the 1st Lord Ravensworth, by whom he had five sons and +three daughters. His eldest son, <span class="sc">Charles Philip Yorke</span> (1836-1897), +5th earl of Hardwicke, was comptroller of the household +of Queen Victoria (1866-1868) and master of the buckhounds +(1874-1880). He married in 1863, Sophia Georgiana, daughter +of the 1st Earl Cowley. He was succeeded by his only son +<span class="sc">Albert Edward Philip Henry Yorke</span> (1867-1904), 6th earl +of Hardwicke, who, after holding the posts of under-secretary +of state for India (1900-1902) and for war (1902-1903), died +unmarried on the 29th of November 1904; the title then went +to his uncle, <span class="sc">John Manners Yorke</span> (1840-1909), 7th earl of +Hardwicke, second son of Charles Philip, the 4th earl, who joined +the royal navy and served in the Baltic and in the Crimea (1854-1855). +This earl died on the 13th of March 1909 and was succeeded +by his son Charles Alexander (b. 1869) as 8th earl.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The contemporary authorities for the life of Lord Chancellor +Hardwicke are voluminous, being contained in the memoirs of the +period and in numerous collections of correspondence in the British +Museum. See, especially, the <i>Hardwicke Papers</i>; the <i>Stowe MSS.</i>; +<i>Hist. MSS. Commission</i> (Reports 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 11); Horace Walpole, +<i>Letters</i> (ed. by P. Cunningham, 9 vols., London, 1857-1859); +<i>Letters to Sir H. Mann</i> (ed. by Lord Dover, 4 vols., London, 1843-1844); +<i>Memoirs of the Reign of George II.</i> (ed. by Lord Holland, +2nd ed. revised, London, 1847); <i>Memoirs of the Reign of George III.</i> +(ed. by G. F. R. Barker, 4 vols., London, 1894); <i>Catalogue of Royal +and Noble Authors of England, Scotland and Ireland</i> (ed. by T. Park, +5 vols., London, 1806). Horace Walpole was violently hostile to +Hardwicke, and his criticism, therefore, must be taken with extreme +reserve. See also the earl Waldegrave, <i>Memoirs 1754-1758</i> (London, +1821); Lord Chesterfield, <i>Letters</i> (ed. by Lord Mahon, 5 vols., +London, 1892); Richard Cooksey, <i>Essay on John, Lord Somers, +and Philip, Earl of Hardwicke</i> (Worcester, 1791); William Coxe, +<i>Memoirs of Sir R. Walpole</i> (4 vols., London, 1816); <i>Memoirs of the +Administration of Henry Pelham</i> (2 vols., London, 1829); Lord +Campbell, <i>Lives of the Lord Chancellors</i>, vol. v. (8 vols., London, +1845); Edward Foss, <i>The Judges of England</i>, vols. vii. and viii. +(9 vols., London, 1848-1864); George Harris, <i>Life of Lord Chancellor +Hardwicke; with Selections from his Correspondence, Diaries, +Speeches and Judgments</i> (3 vols., London, 1847). The last-named +work may be consulted for the lives of the 2nd and 3rd earls. For +the 3rd earl see also the duke of Buckingham, <i>Memoirs of the Court +and Cabinets of George III.</i> (4 vols., London, 1853-1855). For the +4th earl see <i>Charles Philip Yorke</i>, by his daughter, Lady Biddulph of +Ledbury (1910).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. J. M.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1m" id="ft1m" href="#fa1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Lord Campbell, <i>Lives of the Lord Chancellors</i>, v. 43 (London, +1846).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARDY, ALEXANDRE<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> (1569?-1631), French dramatist, was +born in Paris. He was one of the most fertile of all dramatic +authors, and himself claimed to have written some six hundred +plays, of which, however, only thirty-four are preserved. He +seems to have been connected all his life with a troupe of actors +headed by a clever comedian named Valleran-Lecomte, whom +he provided with plays. Hardy toured the provinces with this +company, which gave some representations in Paris in 1599 +at the Hôtel de Bourgogne. Valleran-Lecomte occupied the +same theatre in 1600-1603, and again in 1607, apparently for +some years. In consequence of disputes with the Confrérie +de la Passion, who owned the privilege of the theatre, they played +elsewhere in Paris and in the provinces for some years; but in +1628, when they had long borne the title of “royal,” they were +definitely established at the Hôtel de Bourgogne. Hardy’s +numerous dedications never seem to have brought him riches +or patrons. His most powerful friend was Isaac de Laffemas +(d. 1657), one of Richelieu’s most unscrupulous agents, and he +was on friendly terms with the poet Théophile, who addressed +him in some verses placed at the head of his <i>Théâtre</i> (1632), +and Tristan l’Hermite had a similar admiration for him. Hardy’s +plays were written for the stage, not to be read; and it was +in the interest of the company that they should not be printed +and thus fall into the common stock. But in 1623 he published +<i>Les Chastes et loyales amours de Théagène et Cariclée</i>, a tragi-comedy +in eight “days” or dramatic poems; and in 1624 he +began a collected edition of his works, <i>Le Théâtre d’Alexandre +Hardy, parisien</i>, of which five volumes (1624-1628) were +published, one at Rouen and the rest in Paris. These comprise +eleven tragedies: <i>Didon se sacrifiant</i>, <i>Scédase ou l’hospitalité +violée</i>, <i>Panthée</i>, <i>Méléagre</i>, <i>La Mort d’Achille</i>, <i>Coriolan</i>, <i>Marianne</i>, +a trilogy on the history of Alexander, <i>Alcméon, ou la vengeance +féminine</i>; five mythological pieces; thirteen tragi-comedies, +among them <i>Gésippe</i>, drawn from Boccaccio; <i>Phraarte</i>, taken +from Giraldi’s <i>Cent excellentes nouvelles</i> (Paris, 1584); <i>Cornélie</i>, +<i>La Force du sang</i>, <i>Félismène</i>, <i>La Belle Égyptienne</i>, taken from +Spanish subjects; and five pastorals, of which the best is <i>Alphée, +ou la justice d’amour</i>. Hardy’s importance in the history of +the French theatre can hardly be over-estimated. Up to the +end of the 16th century medieval farce and spectacle kept their +hold on the stage in Paris. The French classical tragedy of +Étienne Jodelle and his followers had been written for the +learned, and in 1628 when Hardy’s work was nearly over and +Rotrou was on the threshold of his career, very few literary +dramas by any other author are known to have been publicly +represented. Hardy educated the popular taste, and made +possible the dramatic activity of the 17th century. He had +abundant practical experience of the stage, and modified tragedy +accordingly, suppressing chorus and monologue, and providing +the action and variety which was denied to the literary drama. +He was the father in France of tragi-comedy, but cannot fairly +be called a disciple of the romantic school of England and Spain. +It is impossible to know how much later dramatists were indebted +to him in detail, since only a fraction of his work is preserved, +but their general obligation is amply established. He died in +1631 or 1632.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The sources for Hardy’s biography are extremely limited. The +account given by the brothers Parfaict in their <i>Hist. du théâtre +français</i> (1745, &c., vol. iv. pp. 2-4) must be received with caution, +and no documents are forthcoming. Many writers have identified +him with the provincial playwright picturesquely described in +chap. xi. of <i>Le Page disgrâcié</i> (1643), the autobiography of Tristan +l’Hermite, but if the portrait is drawn from life at all, it is more +probably drawn from Théophile. See <i>Le Théâtre d’Alexandre Hardy</i>, +edited by E. Stengel (Marburg and Paris, 1883-1884, 5 vols.); E. +Lombard, “Étude sur Alexandre Hardy,” in <i>Zeitschr. für neufranz. +Spr. u. Lit.</i> (Oppeln and Leipzig, vols. i. and ii., 1880-1881); K. +Nagel, <i>A. Hardy’s Einfluss auf Pierre Corneille</i> (Marburg, 1884); +and especially E. Rigal, <i>Alexandre Hardy ...</i> (Paris, 1889) and <i>Le +Théâtre français avant la période classique</i> (Paris, 1901.)</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARDY, THOMAS<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> (1840-  ), English novelist, was born +in Dorsetshire on the 2nd of June 1840. His family was one of +the branches of the Dorset Hardys, formerly of influence in and +near the valley of the Frome, claiming descent from John Le +Hardy of Jersey (son of Clement Le Hardy, lieutenant-governor +of that island in 1488), who settled in the west of England. His +maternal ancestors were the Swetman, Childs or Child, and +kindred families, who before and after 1635 were small landed +proprietors in Melbury Osmond, Dorset, and adjoining parishes. +He was educated at local schools, 1848-1854, and afterwards +privately, and in 1856 was articled to Mr John Hicks, an +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page947" id="page947"></a>947</span> +ecclesiastical architect of Dorchester. In 1859 he began writing +verse and essays, but in 1861 was compelled to apply himself +more strictly to architecture, sketching and measuring many old +Dorset churches with a view to their restoration. In 1862 he +went to London (which he had first visited at the age of nine) +and became assistant to the late Sir Arthur Blomfield, R.A. +In 1863 he won the medal of the Royal Institute of British +Architects for an essay on <i>Coloured Brick and Terra-cotta +Architecture</i>, and in the same year won the prize of the Architectural +Association for design. In March 1865 his first short +story was published in <i>Chambers’s Journal</i>, and during the next +two or three years he wrote a good deal of verse, being somewhat +uncertain whether to take to architecture or to literature as a +profession. In 1867 he left London for Weymouth, and during +that and the following year wrote a “purpose” story, which +in 1869 was accepted by Messrs Chapman and Hall. The +manuscript had been read by Mr George Meredith, who asked the +writer to call on him, and advised him not to print it, but to +try another, with more plot. The manuscript was withdrawn +and re-written, but never published. In 1870 Mr Hardy took +Mr Meredith’s advice too literally, and constructed a novel that +was all plot, which was published in 1871 under the title <i>Desperate +Remedies</i>. In 1872 appeared <i>Under the Greenwood Tree</i>, a “rural +painting of the Dutch school,” in which Mr Hardy had already +“found himself,” and which he has never surpassed in happy +and delicate perfection of art. <i>A Pair of Blue Eyes</i>, in which +tragedy and irony come into his work together, was published +in 1873. In 1874 Mr Hardy married Emma Lavinia, daughter +of the late T. Attersoll Gifford of Plymouth. His first popular +success was made by <i>Far from the Madding Crowd</i> (1874), which, +on its appearance anonymously in the <i>Cornhill Magazine</i>, was +attributed by many to George Eliot. Then came <i>The Hand of +Ethelberta</i> (1876), described, not inaptly, as “a comedy in +chapters”; <i>The Return of the Native</i> (1878), the most sombre +and, in some ways, the most powerful and characteristic of +Mr Hardy’s novels; <i>The Trumpet-Major</i> (1880); <i>A Laodicean</i> +(1881); <i>Two on a Tower</i> (1882), a long excursion in constructive +irony; <i>The Mayor of Casterbridge</i> (1886); <i>The Woodlanders</i> +(1887); <i>Wessex Tales</i> (1888); <i>A Group of Noble Dames</i> (1891); +<i>Tess of the D’Urbervilles</i> (1891), Mr Hardy’s most famous novel; +<i>Life’s Little Ironies</i> (1894); <i>Jude the Obscure</i> (1895), his most +thoughtful and least popular book; <i>The Well-Beloved</i>, a reprint, +with some revision, of a story originally published in the <i>Illustrated +London News</i> in 1892 (1897); <i>Wessex Poems</i>, written +during the previous thirty years, with illustrations by the +author (1898); and <i>The Dynasts</i> (2 parts, 1904-1906). In 1909 +appeared <i>Time’s Laughing-stocks and other Verses</i>. In all +his work Mr Hardy is concerned with one thing, seen under two +aspects; not civilization, nor manners, but the principle of life +itself, invisibly realized in humanity as sex, seen visibly in the +world as what we call nature. He is a fatalist, perhaps rather a +determinist, and he studies the workings of fate or law (ruling +through inexorable moods or humours), in the chief vivifying +and disturbing influence in life, women. His view of women is +more French than English; it is subtle, a little cruel, not as +tolerant as it seems, thoroughly a man’s point of view, and not, +as with Mr Meredith, man’s and woman’s at once. He sees +all that is irresponsible for good and evil in a woman’s character, +all that is untrustworthy in her brain and will, all that is alluring +in her variability. He is her apologist, but always with a reserve +of private judgment. No one has created more attractive women +of a certain class, women whom a man would have been more +likely to love or to regret loving. In his earlier books he is +somewhat careful over the reputation of his heroines; gradually +he allows them more liberty, with a franker treatment of instinct +and its consequences. <i>Jude the Obscure</i> is perhaps the most +unbiassed consideration in English fiction of the more complicated +questions of sex. There is almost no passion in his work, +neither the author nor his characters ever seeming able to pass +beyond the state of curiosity, the most intellectually interesting +of limitations, under the influence of any emotion. In his feeling +for nature, curiosity sometimes seems to broaden into a more +intimate communion. The heath, the village with its peasants, +the change of every hour among the fields and on the roads of +that English countryside which he has made his own—the +Dorsetshire and Wiltshire “Wessex”—mean more to him, in a +sense, than even the spectacle of man and woman in their blind +and painful and absorbing struggle for existence. His knowledge +of woman confirms him in a suspension of judgment; his knowledge +of nature brings him nearer to the unchanging and consoling +element in the world. All the entertainment which he gets out +of life comes to him from his contemplation of the peasant, as +himself a rooted part of the earth, translating the dumbness of +the fields into humour. His peasants have been compared with +Shakespeare’s; he has the Shakespearean sense of their placid +vegetation by the side of hurrying animal life, to which they act +the part of chorus, with an unconscious wisdom in their close, +narrow and undistracted view of things. The order of merit +was conferred upon Mr Hardy in July 1910.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Annie Macdonell, <i>Thomas Hardy</i> (London, 1894); Lionel P. +Johnson, <i>The Art of Thomas Hardy</i> (London, 1894).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. Sy.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARDY, SIR THOMAS DUFFUS<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> (1804-1878), English antiquary, +was the third son of Major Thomas Bartholomew Price +Hardy, and belonged to a family several members of which had +distinguished themselves in the British navy. Born at Port +Royal in Jamaica on the 22nd of May 1804, he crossed over to +England and in 1819 entered the Record Office in the Tower of +London. Trained under Henry Petrie (1768-1842) he gained a +sound knowledge of palaeography, and soon began to edit +selections of the public records. From 1861 until his death on the +15th of June 1878 he was deputy-keeper of the Record Office, +which just before his appointment had been transferred to its +new London headquarters in Chancery Lane. Hardy, who was +knighted in 1873, had much to do with the appointment of the +Historical Manuscripts Commission in 1869.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Sir T. Hardy edited the Close Rolls, <i>Rotuli litterarum clausarum, +1204-1227</i> (2 vols., 1833-1844), with an introduction entitled “A +Description of the Close Rolls, with an Account of the early Courts of +Law and Equity”; and the Patent Rolls, <i>Rotuli litterarum patentium, +1201-1216</i> (1835), with introduction, “A Description of the Patent +Rolls, to which is added an Itinerary of King John.” He also edited +the <i>Rotuli de oblatis et finibus</i> (1835), which deal also with the time of +King John; the <i>Rotuli Normanniae, 1200-1205</i>, and <i>1417-1418</i> (1835), +containing letters and grants of the English kings concerning the +duchy of Normandy; the Charter Rolls, <i>Rotuli chartarum, 1199-1216</i> +(1837), giving with this work an account of the structure of +charters; the Liberate Rolls, <i>Rotuli de liberate ac de misis et praestitis +regnante Johanne</i> (1844); and the <i>Modus tenendi parliamentum</i>, +with a translation (1846). He wrote <i>A Catalogue of Lords Chancellors, +Keepers of the Great Seal, Masters of the Rolls and Officers of +the Court of Chancery</i> (1843); the preface to Henry Petrie’s <i>Monumenta +historica Britannica</i> (1848); and <i>Descriptive Catalogue of +Materials relating to the History of Great Britain and Ireland</i> (3 vols., +1862-1871). He edited William of Malmesbury’s <i>De gestis regum +anglorum</i> (2 vols., 1840); he continued and corrected John le Neve’s +<i>Fasti ecclesiae Anglicanae</i> (3 vols., Oxford, 1854); and with C. T. +Martin he edited and translated <i>L’Estorie des Engles</i> of Geoffrey +Gaimar (1888-1889). He wrote <i>Syllabus in English of Documents in +Rymer’s Foedera</i> (3 vols., 1869-1885), and gave an account of the +history of the public records from 1837 to 1851 in his <i>Memoirs of +the Life of Henry, Lord Langdale</i> (1852), Lord Langdale (1783-1851), +master of the rolls from 1836 to 1851, being largely responsible +for the erection of the new Record Office. Hardy took part in the +controversy about the date of the Athanasian creed, writing <i>The +Athanasian Creed in connection with the Utrecht Psalter</i> (1872); and +<i>Further Report on the Utrecht Psalter</i> (1874).</p> +</div> + +<p>His younger brother, <span class="sc">Sir William Hardy</span> (1807-1887), was +also an antiquary. He entered the Record Office in 1823, +leaving it in 1830 to become keeper of the records of the duchy +of Lancaster. In 1868, when these records were presented by +Queen Victoria to the nation, he returned to the Record Office +as an assistant keeper, and in 1878 he succeeded his brother +Sir Thomas as deputy-keeper, resigning in 1886. He died on +the 17th of March 1887.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Sir W. Hardy edited Jehan de Waurin’s <i>Recueil des croniques et +anchiennes istories de la Grant Bretaigne</i> (5 vols., 1864-1891); and he +translated and edited the <i>Charters of the Duchy of Lancaster</i> (1845).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARDY, SIR THOMAS MASTERMAN,<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> Bart. (1769-1839), +British vice-admiral, of the Portisham (Dorsetshire) family of +Hardy, was born on the 5th of April 1769, and in 1781 began +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page948" id="page948"></a>948</span> +his career as a sailor. He became lieutenant in 1793, and in +1796, being then attached to the “Minerve” frigate, attracted +the attention of Nelson by his gallant conduct. He continued +to serve with distinction, and in 1798 was promoted to be captain +of the “Vanguard,” Nelson’s flagship. In the “St George” +he did valuable work before the battle of Copenhagen in 1801, +and his association with Nelson was crowned by his appointment +in 1803 to the “Victory” as flag-captain, in which capacity he +was engaged at the battle of Trafalgar in 1805, witnessed Nelson’s +will, and was in close attendance on him at his death. Hardy +was created a baronet in 1806. He was then employed on the +North American station, and later (1819), was made commodore +and commander-in-chief on the South American station, where +his able conduct came prominently into notice. In 1825 he +became rear-admiral, and in December 1826 escorted the +expeditionary force to Lisbon. In 1830 he was made first sea +lord of the admiralty, being created G.C.B. in 1831. In 1834 +he was appointed governor of Greenwich hospital, where thenceforward +he devoted himself with conspicuous success to the +charge of the naval pensioners; in 1837 he became vice-admiral. +He died at Greenwich on the 20th of September 1839. In 1807 +he had married Anne Louisa Emily, daughter of Sir George +Cranfield Berkeley, under whom he had served on the North +American station, and by her he had three daughters, the +baronetcy becoming extinct.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Marshall, <i>Royal Naval Biography</i>, ii. and iii.; Nicolas, <i>Despatches +of Lord Nelson</i>; Broadley and Bartelot, <i>The Three Dorset +Captains at Trafalgar</i> (1906), and <i>Nelson’s Hardy, his Life, Letters +and Friends</i> (1909).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARDYNG<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> or <b>HARDING, JOHN</b> (1378-1465), English +chronicler, was born in the north, and as a boy entered the +service of Sir Henry Percy (Hotspur), with whom he was present +at the battle of Shrewsbury (1403). He then passed into the +service of Sir Robert Umfraville, under whom he was constable +of Warkworth Castle, and served in the campaign of Agincourt +in 1415 and in the sea-fight before Harfleur in 1416. In 1424 +he was on a diplomatic mission at Rome, where at the instance +of Cardinal Beaufort he consulted the chronicle of Trogus +Pompeius. Umfraville, who died in 1436, had made Hardyng +constable of Kyme in Lincolnshire, where he probably lived till +his death about 1465. Hardyng was a man of antiquarian +knowledge, and under Henry V. was employed to investigate +the feudal relations of Scotland to the English crown. For this +purpose he visited Scotland, at much expense and hardship. +For his services he says that Henry V. promised him the manor +of Geddington in Northamptonshire. Many years after, in 1439, +he had a grant of £10 a year for similar services. In 1457 there +is a record of the delivery of documents relating to Scotland by +Hardyng to the earl of Shrewsbury, and his reward by a further +pension of £20. It is clear that Hardyng was well acquainted +with Scotland, and James I. is said to have offered him a bribe +to surrender his papers. But the documents, which are still +preserved in the Record Office, have been shown to be forgeries, +and were probably manufactured by Hardyng himself. Hardyng +spent many years on the composition of a rhyming chronicle +of England. His services under the Percies and Umfravilles +gave him opportunity to obtain much information of value for +15th century history. As literature the chronicle has no merit. +It was written and rewritten to suit his various patrons. The +original edition ending in 1436 had a Lancastrian bias and was +dedicated to Henry VI. Afterwards he prepared a version for +Richard, duke of York (d. 1460), and the chronicle in its final +form was presented to Edward IV. after his marriage to Elizabeth +Woodville in 1464.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The version of 1436 is preserved in Lansdowne MS. 204, and the best +of the later versions in Harley MS. 661, both in the British Museum. +Richard Grafton printed two editions in January 1543, which differ +much from one another and from the now extant manuscripts. +Stow, who was acquainted with a different version, censured Grafton on +this point somewhat unjustly. Sir Henry Ellis published the longer +version of Grafton with some additions from the Harley MS. in 1812.</p> + +<p>See Ellis’ preface to Hardyng’s <i>Chronicle</i>, and Sir F. Palgrave’s +<i>Documents illustrating the History of Scotland</i> (for an account of +Hardyng’s forgeries).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. L. K.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARE, AUGUSTUS JOHN CUTHBERT<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span> (1834-1903), English +writer and traveller, was born at Rome in 1834. He was educated +at Harrow school and at University College, Oxford. His +name is familiar as the author of a large number of guide-books +to the principal countries and towns of Europe, most of which +were written to order for John Murray. They were made up +partly of the author’s own notes of travel, partly of quotations +from others’ books taken with a frankness of appropriation that +disarmed criticism. He also wrote <i>Memorials of a Quiet Life</i>—that +of his aunt by whom he had been adopted when a baby +(1872), and a tediously long autobiography in six volumes, +<i>The Story of My Life</i>. He died at St Leonards-on-Sea on the +22nd of January 1903.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARE, SIR JOHN<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> (1844-  ), English actor and manager, +was born in Yorkshire on the 16th of May 1844, and was educated +at Giggleswick school, Yorkshire. He made his first appearance +on the stage at Liverpool in 1864, coming to London in 1865, +and acting for ten years with the Bancrofts. He soon made his +mark, particularly in T. W. Robertson’s comedies, and in 1875 +became manager of the Court theatre. But it was in association +with Mr and Mrs Kendal at the St James’s theatre from 1879 +to 1888 that he established his popularity in London, in important +“character” and “men of the world” parts, the joint management +of Hare and Kendal making this theatre one of the chief +centres of the dramatic world for a decade. In 1889 he became +lessee and manager of the Garrick theatre, where (though he +was often out of the cast) he produced several important plays, +such as Pinero’s <i>The Profligate</i> and <i>The Notorious Mrs Ebbsmith</i>, +and had a remarkable personal success in the chief part in +Sydney Grundy’s <i>A Pair of Spectacles</i>. In 1897 he took the +Globe theatre, where his acting in Pinero’s <i>Gay Lord Quex</i> was +another personal triumph. He became almost as well known in +the United States as in England, his last tour in America being +in 1900 and 1901. He was knighted in 1907.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARE, JULIUS CHARLES<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> (1795-1855), English theological +writer, was born at Valdagno, near Vicenza, in Italy, on the +13th of September 1795. He came to England with his parents +in 1799, but in 1804-1805 spent a winter with them at Weimar, +where he met Goethe and Schiller, and received a bias to German +literature which influenced his style and sentiments throughout +his whole career. On the death of his mother in 1806, Julius +was sent home to the Charterhouse in London, where he remained +till 1812, when he entered Trinity College, Cambridge. There +he became fellow in 1818, and after some time spent abroad he +began to read law in London in the following year. From 1822 +to 1832 he was assistant-tutor at Trinity College. Turning his +attention from law to divinity, Hare took priest’s orders in 1826; +and, on the death of his uncle in 1832, he succeeded to the rich +family living of Hurstmonceaux in Sussex, where he accumulated +a library of some 12,000 volumes, especially rich in German +literature. Before taking up residence in his parish he once +more went abroad, and made in Rome the acquaintance of the +Chevalier Bunsen, who afterwards dedicated to him part of his +work, <i>Hippolytus and his Age</i>. In 1840 Hare was appointed +archdeacon of Lewes, and in the same year preached a course of +sermons at Cambridge (<i>The Victory of Faith</i>), followed in 1846 +by a second, <i>The Mission of the Comforter</i>. Neither series when +published attained any great popularity. Archdeacon Hare +married in 1844 Esther, a sister of his friend Frederick Maurice. +In 1851 he was collated to a prebend in Chichester; and in 1853 +he became one of Queen Victoria’s chaplains. He died on the +23rd of January 1855.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Julius Hare belonged to what has been called the “Broad Church +party,” though some of his opinions approach very closely to those +of the Evangelical Arminian school, while others again seem vague +and undecided. He was one of the first of his countrymen to +recognize and come under the influence of German thought and +speculation, and, amidst an exaggerated alarm of German heresy, +did much to vindicate the authority of the sounder German critics. +His writings, which are chiefly theological and controversial, are +largely formed of charges to his clergy, and sermons on different +topics; but, though valuable and full of thought, they lose some +of their force by the cumbrous German structure of the sentences, +and by certain orthographical peculiarities in which the author +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page949" id="page949"></a>949</span> +indulged. In 1827 <i>Guesses at Truth by Two Brothers</i><a name="fa1n" id="fa1n" href="#ft1n"><span class="sp">1</span></a> appeared. +Hare assisted Thirlwall, afterwards bishop of St David’s, in the +translation of the 1st and 2nd volumes of Niebuhr’s <i>History of Rome</i> +(1828 and 1832), and published a <i>Vindication of Niebuhr’s History</i> +in 1829. He wrote many similar works, among which is a <i>Vindication +of Luther against his recent English Assailants</i> (1854). In 1848 +he edited the <i>Remains of John Sterling</i>, who had formerly been his +curate. Carlyle’s <i>Life of John Sterling</i> was written through dissatisfaction +with the “Life” prefixed to Archdeacon Hare’s book. +<i>Memorials of a Quiet Life</i>, published in 1872, contain accounts of +the Hare family.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1n" id="ft1n" href="#fa1n"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Julius Hare’s co-worker in this book was his brother Augustus +William Hare (1792-1834), who, after a distinguished career at +Oxford, was appointed rector of Alton Barnes, Wiltshire. He died +prematurely at Rome in 1834. He was the author of <i>Sermons to a +Country Congregation</i>, published in 1837.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARE,<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span> the name of the well-known English rodent now +designated <i>Lepus europaeus</i> (although formerly termed, incorrectly, +<i>L. timidus</i>). In a wider sense the name includes all the +numerous allied species which do not come under the designation +of rabbits (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rabbit</a></span>). Over the greater part of Europe, where +the ordinary species (fig. 1) does not occur, its place is taken by +the closely allied Alpine, or mountain hare (fig. 2), the true +<i>L. timidus</i> of Linnaeus, and the type of the genus <i>Lepus</i> and the +family <i>Leporidae</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rodentia</a></span>). The second is a smaller animal +than the first, with a more rounded and relatively smaller head, +and the ears, hind-legs and tail shorter. In Ireland and the +southern districts of Sweden it is permanently of a light fulvous +grey colour, with black tips to the ears, but in more northerly +districts the fur—except the black ear-tips—changes to white in +winter, and still farther north the animal appears to be white at +all seasons of the year. The range of the common or brown hare, +inclusive of its local races, extends from England across southern +and central Europe to the Caucasus; while that of the blue or +mountain species, likewise inclusive of local races, reaches +from Ireland, Scotland and Scandinavia through northern +Europe and Asia to Japan and Kamchatka, and thence to +Alaska.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:420px; height:317px" src="images/img949a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—The Hare (<i>Lepus europaeus</i>).</td></tr></table> + +<p>The brown hare is a night-feeding animal, remaining during +the day on its “form,” as the slight depression is called which +it makes in the open field, usually among grass. This it leaves +at nightfall to seek fields of young wheat and other cereals +whose tender herbage forms its favourite food. It is also fond +of gnawing the bark of young trees, and thus often does great +damage to plantations. In the morning it returns to its form, +where it finds protection in the close approach which the colour +of its fur makes to that of its surroundings; should it thus fail, +however, to elude observation it depends for safety on its extraordinary +fleetness. On the first alarm of danger it sits erect to +reconnoitre, when it either seeks concealment by clapping close +to the ground, or takes to flight. In the latter case its great +speed, and the cunning endeavours it makes to outwit its canine +pursuers, form the chief attractions of coursing. The hare takes +readily to the water, where it swims well; an instance having +been recorded in which one was observed crossing an arm of +the sea about a mile in width. Hares are remarkably prolific, +pairing when scarcely a year old, and the female bringing forth +several broods in the year, each consisting of from two to five +leverets (from the Fr. <i>lièvre</i>), as the young are called. These are +born covered with hair and with the eyes open, and after being +suckled for a month are able to look after themselves. In Europe +this species has seldom bred in confinement, although an instance +has recently been recorded. It will interbreed with the blue hare. +Hares (and rabbits) have a cosmopolitan distribution with the +exception of Madagascar and Australasia; and are now divided +into numerous genera and subgenera, mentioned in the article +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rodentia</a></span>. Reference may here be made to a few species. +Asia is the home of numerous species, of which the Common +Indian <i>L. ruficaudatus</i> and the black-necked hare <i>L. nigricollis</i>, +are inhabitants of the plains of India; the latter taking its name +from a black patch on the neck. In Assam there is a small +spiny hare (<i>Caprolagus hispidus</i>), with the habits of a rabbit; +and an allied species (<i>Nesolagus nitscheri</i>) inhabits Sumatra, +and a third (<i>Pentalagus furnessi</i>) the Liu-kiu Islands. The +plateau of Tibet is very rich in species, among which <i>L. hypsibius</i> +is very common.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:420px; height:318px" src="images/img949b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—The Blue or Mountain Hare (<i>Lepus timidus</i>) in winter dress.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Of African species, the Egyptian Hare (<i>L. aegyptius</i>) is a small +animal, with long ears and pale fur; and in the south there are +the Cape hare (<i>L. capensis</i>), the long-eared rock-hare (<i>L. saxatilis</i>) +and the diminutive <i>Pronolagus crassicaudatus</i>, characterized +by its thick red tail.</p> + +<p>North America is the home of numerous hares, some of which +are locally known as “cotton-tails” and others as “jack-rabbits.” +The most northern are the Polar hare (<i>L. arcticus</i>), +the Greenland hare (<i>L. groenlandicus</i>) and the Alaska hare +(<i>L. timidus tschuktschorum</i>), all allied to the blue hare. Of the +others, two, namely the large prairie-hare (<i>L. campestris</i>) and +the smaller varying hare (<i>L.</i> [<i>Poecilolagus</i>] <i>americanus</i>), turn +white in winter; the former having long ears and the whole tail +white, whereas in the latter the ears are shorter and the upper +surface of the tail is dark. Of those which do not change colour, +the wood-hare, grey-rabbit or cotton-tail, <i>Sylvilagus floridanus</i>, +is a southern form, with numerous allied kinds. Distantly allied +to the prairie-hare or white-tailed jack-rabbit, are several forms +distinguished by having a more or less distinct black stripe on +the upper surface of the tail. These include a buff-bellied species +found in California, N. Mexico and S.W. Oregon (<i>L.</i> [<i>Macrotolagus</i>] +<i>californicus</i>), a large, long-legged form from S. Arizona +and Sonora (<i>L.</i> [<i>M.</i>] <i>alleni</i>), the Texan jack-rabbit (<i>L.</i> [<i>M.</i>] +<i>texanus</i>) and the black-eared hare (<i>L.</i> [<i>M.</i>] <i>melanotis</i>) of the +Great Plains, which differs from the third only by its shorter +ears and richer coloration. In S. America, the small tapiti +or Brazilian hare (<i>Sylvilagus brasiliensis</i>) is nearly allied to the +wood-hare, but has a yellowish brown under surface to the tail.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coursing</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 330px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:220px; height:460px" src="images/img950.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Harebell (<i>Campanula rotundifolia</i>).</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="bold">HAREBELL<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> (sometimes wrongly written <span class="sc">Hairbell</span>), known +also as the blue-bell of Scotland, and witches’ thimbles, a +well-known perennial wild flower, <i>Campanula rotundifolia</i>, a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page950" id="page950"></a>950</span> +member of the natural order Campanulaceae. The harebell has +a very slender slightly creeping root-stock, and a wiry, erect +stem. The radical leaves, that is, +those at the base of the stem, to +which the specific name <i>rotundifolia</i> +refers, have long stalks, and are +roundish or heart-shaped with crenate +or serrate margin; the lower stem +leaves are ovate or lanceolate, and +the upper ones linear, subsessile, +acute and entire, rarely pubescent. +The flowers are slightly drooping, +arranged in a panicle, or in small +specimens single, having a smooth +calyx, with narrow pointed erect +segments, the corolla bell-shaped, +with slightly recurved segments, and +the capsule nodding, and opening by +pores at the base. There are two +varieties:—(<i>a</i>) <i>genuina</i>, with slender +stem leaves, and (<i>b</i>) <i>montana</i>, in which +the lower stem-leaves are broader +and somewhat elliptical in shape. +The plant is found on heaths and +pastures throughout Great Britain +and flowers in late summer and in +autumn; it is widely spread in the +north temperate zone. The harebell +has ever been a great favourite with poets, and on account of +its delicate blue colour has been considered as an emblem of +purity.</p> + + +<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAREM,<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> less frequently <span class="sc">Haram</span> or <span class="sc">Harim</span> (Arab <i>harīm</i>—commonly +but wrongly pronounced hārĕm—“that which is +illegal or prohibited”), the name generally applied to that part +of a house in Oriental countries which is set apart for the women; +it is also used collectively for the women themselves. Strictly the +women’s quarters are the <i>haremlik</i> (<i>lik</i>, belonging to), as opposed +to <i>selamlik</i> the men’s quarters, from which they are in large +houses separated by the <i>mabein</i>, the private apartments of the +householder. The word <i>harem</i> is strictly applicable to Mahommedan +households only, but the system is common in greater or +less degree to all Oriental communities, especially where polygamy +is permitted. Other names for the women’s quarters are Seraglio +(Ital. <i>serraglio</i>, literally an enclosure, from Lat. <i>sera</i>, a bar; +wrongly narrowed down to the sense of harem through confusion +with Turkish <i>serāi</i> or <i>sarāi</i>, palace or large building, cf. <i>caravanserai</i>); +Zenana (strictly <i>zanana</i>, from Persian <i>zan</i>, woman, +allied with Gr. <span class="grk" title="gynê">γυνή</span>), used specifically of Hindu harems; +Andarūn (or Anderoon), the Persian word for the “inner part” +(<i>sc.</i> of a house). The Indian harem system is also commonly +known as <i>pardah</i> or <i>purdah</i>, literally the name of the thick +curtains or blinds which are used instead of doors to separate +the women’s quarters from the rest of the house. A male doctor +attending a zenana lady would put his hand between the <i>purdah</i> +to feel her pulse.</p> + +<p>The seclusion of women in the household is fundamental to +the Oriental conception of the sex relation, and its origin must, +therefore, be sought far earlier than the precepts of Islam as set +forth in the Koran, which merely regulate a practically universal +Eastern custom.<a name="fa1o" id="fa1o" href="#ft1o"><span class="sp">1</span></a> It is inferred from the remains of many ancient +Oriental palaces (Babylonian, Persian, &c.) that kings and wealthy +nobles devoted a special part of the palace to their womankind. +Though in comparatively early times there were not wanting +men who regarded polygamy as wrong (<i>e.g.</i> the prophets of +Israel), nevertheless in the East generally there has never been +any real movement against the conception of woman as a chattel +of her male relatives. A man may have as many wives and +concubines as he can support, but each of these women must be +his exclusive property. The object of this insistence upon +female chastity is partly the maintenance of the purity of the +family with special reference to property, and partly to protect +women from marauders, as was the case with the people of India +when the Mahommedans invaded the country and sought for +women to fill their harems. In Mahommedan countries theoretically +a woman must veil her face to all men except her father, +her brother and her husband; any violation of this rule is still +regarded by strict Mahommedans as the gravest possible offence, +though among certain Moslem communities (<i>e.g.</i> in parts of +Albania) women of the poorer classes may appear in public +unveiled. If any other man make his way into a harem he may +lose his life; the attempted escape of a harem woman is a capital +offence, the husband having absolute power of life and death, +to such an extent that, especially in the less civilized parts of +the Moslem world, no one would think of questioning a man’s +right to mutilate or kill a disobedient wife or concubine.</p> + +<p><i>Turkish Harems.</i>—A good deal of misapprehension, due to +ignorance combined with strong prejudice against the whole +system, exists in regard to the system in Turkey. It is often +assumed, for example, that the sultan’s seraglio is typical, +though on a uniquely large scale, of all Turkish households, and +as a consequence that every Turk is a polygamist. This is far +from being the case, for though the Koran permits four wives, +and etiquette allows the sultan seven, the man of average +possessions is perforce content with one, and a small number of +female servants. It is, therefore, necessary to take the imperial +seraglio separately.</p> + +<p>Though the sultan’s household in modern times is by no means +as numerous as it used to be, it is said that the harem of Abdul +Hamid contained about 1000 women, all of whom were of slave +origin. This body of women form an elaborately organized +community with a complete system of officers, disciplinary and +administrative, and strict distinctions of status. The real ruler +of this society is the sultan’s mother, the <i>Sultana Validé</i>, who +exercises her authority through a female superintendent, the +<i>Kyahya Khatun</i>. She has also a large retinue of subordinate +officials (<i>Kalfas</i>) ranging downwards from the <i>Hasnadar ousta</i> +(“Lady of the Treasury”) to the “Mistress of the Sherbets” +and the “Chief Coffee Server.” Each of these officials has under +her a number of pupil-slaves (<i>alaiks</i>), whom she trains to succeed +her if need be, and from whom the service is recruited. After +the sultana validé (who frequently enjoys considerable political +power and is a mistress of intrigue) ranks the mother of the heir-apparent; +she is called the <i>Bash Kadin Effendi</i> (“Her excellency +the Chief Lady”), and also <i>hasseki</i> or <i>kasseky</i>, and is distinguished +from the other three chief wives who only bear the title +<i>Kadin Effendi</i>. Next come the ladies who have borne the +younger children of the sultan, the <i>Hanum Effendis</i>, and after +them the so-called Odalisks or Odalisques (a perversion of <i>odalik</i>, +from <i>odah</i>, chamber). These are subdivided, according to the +degree of favour in which they stand with the sultan or padishah, +into <i>Ikbals</i> (“Favourites”) and <i>Geuzdés</i> (literally the “Eyed” +ones), those whom the sultan has favourably noticed in the +course of his visits to the apartments of his wives or his mother. +All the women are at the disposal of the sultan, though it is +contrary to etiquette for him actually to select recruits for his +harem. The numbers are kept up by his female relatives and +state officials, the latter of whom present girls annually on the +evening before the 15th of Ramadan.</p> + +<p>Every odalisk who has been promoted to the royal couch +receives a <i>daïra</i>, consisting of an allowance of money, a suite of +apartments, and a retinue, in proportion to her status. It should +be noted that, since all the harem women are slaves, the sultans, +with practically no exceptions, have never entered into legal +marriage contracts. Any slave, in however menial a position, +may be promoted to the position of a kadin effendi. Hence all +the slaves who have any pretension to beauty are carefully +trained, from the time they enter the harem, in deportment, +dancing, music and the arts of the toilette: they are instructed +in the Moslem religion and learn the daily prayers (<i>namaz</i>); +a certain number are specially trained in reading and writing +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page951" id="page951"></a>951</span> +for secretarial work. Discipline is strict, and continued disobedience +leads to corporal punishment by the eunuchs. All +the women of the harem are absolutely under the control of the +sultana validé (who alone of the harem of her dead husband is +not sent away to an older palace when her son succeeds), and +owe her the most profound respect, even to the point of having +to obtain permission to leave their own apartments. Her +financial secretary, the <i>Haznadar Ousta</i>, succeeds to her power +if she dies. The sultan’s foster-mother also is a person of importance, +and is known as the <i>Taia Kadin</i>.</p> + +<p>The security of the harem is in the hands of a body of eunuchs +both black and white. The white eunuchs have charge of the +outer gates of the seraglio, but they are not allowed to approach +the women’s apartments, and obtain no posts of distinction. +Their chief, however, the <i>kapu aghasi</i> (“master of the gates”) +has part control over the ecclesiastical possessions, and even the +vizier cannot enter the royal apartments without his permission. +The black eunuchs have the right of entering the gardens and +chambers of the harem. Their chief, usually called the <i>kislar +aghasi</i> (“master of the maidens”), though his true title is <i>darus +skadet aga</i> (“chief of the abode of felicity”), is an official +of high importance. His appointment is for life. If he is +deprived of his post he receives his freedom; and if he resigns +of his own accord he is generally sent to Egypt with a pension +of 100 francs a day. His secretary keeps count of the revenues +of the mosques built by the sultans. He is usually succeeded +by the second eunuch, who bears the title of treasurer, and has +charge of the jewels, &c., of the women. The number of eunuchs +is always a large one. The sultana validé and the sultana +hasseki have each fifty at their service, and others are assigned +to the kadins and the favourite odalisks.</p> + +<p>The ordinary middle-class household is naturally on a very +different scale. The <i>selamlik</i> is on the ground floor with a separate +entrance, and there the master of the house receives his male +guests; the rest of the ground floor is occupied by the kitchen +and perhaps the stables. The <i>haremlik</i> is generally (in towns at +least) on the upper floor fronting on and slightly overhanging +the street; it has a separate entrance, courtyard and garden. +The windows are guarded by lattices pierced with circular holes +through which the women may watch without being seen. +Communication with the <i>haremlik</i> is effected by a locked door, +of which the Effendi keeps the key and also by a sort of revolving +cupboard (<i>dutap</i>) for the conveyance of meals. The furniture, +of the old-fashioned harems at least, is confined to divans, rugs, +carpets and mirrors. For heating purposes the old brass tray +of charcoal and wood ash is giving way to American stoves, and +there is a tendency to import French furniture and decoration +without regard to their suitability.</p> + +<p>The presence of a second wife is the exception, and is generally +attributable to the absence of children by the first wife. The +expense of marrying a free woman leads many Turks to prefer +a slave woman who is much more likely to be an amenable +partner. If a slave woman bears a child she is often set free +and then the marriage ceremony is gone through.</p> + +<p>The harem system is, of course, wholly inconsistent with any +high ideal of womanhood. Certain misapprehensions, however, +should be noticed. The depravity of the system and the vapid +idleness of harem life are much exaggerated by observers whose +sympathies are wholly against the system. In point of fact +much depends on the individuals. In many households there +exists a very high degree of mutual consideration and the +standard of conduct is by no means degraded. Though a woman +may not be seen in the streets without the <i>yashmak</i> which covers +her face except for her eyes, and does not leave her house except +by her husband’s permission, none the less in ordinary households +the harem ladies frequently drive into the country and visit the +shops and public baths. Their seclusion has very considerable +compensations, and legally they stand on a far better basis in +relation to their husbands than do the women of monogamous +Christian communities. From the moment when a woman, +free or slave, enters into any kind of wifely relation with a man, +she has a legally enforceable right against him both for her own +and for her children’s maintenance. She has absolute control +over her personal property whether in money, slaves or goods; +and, if divorce is far easier in Islam than in Christendom, still +the marriage settlement must be of such amount as will provide +suitable maintenance in that event.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, of course, the system is open to the gravest +abuse, and in countries like Persia, Morocco and India, the life +of Moslem women and slaves is often far different from that of +middle class women of European Turkey, where law is strict +and culture advanced. The early age at which girls are secluded, +the dulness of their surroundings, and the low moral standard +which the system produces react unfavourably not only +upon their moral and intellectual growth but also upon their +capacity for motherhood and their general physique. A harem +woman is soon passée, and the lot of a woman past her youth, +if she is divorced or a widow, is monotonous and empty. This +is true especially of child-widows.</p> + +<p>Since the middle of the 19th century familiarity with European +customs and the direct influence of European administrators has +brought about a certain change in the attitude of Orientals to +the harem system. This movement is, however, only in its +infancy, and the impression is still strong that the time is not +ripe for reform. The Oriental women are in general so accustomed +to their condition that few have any inclination to change +it, while men as a rule are emphatically opposed to any alteration +of the system. The Young Turkish party, the upper classes in +Egypt, as also the Babists in Persia, have to some extent progressed +beyond the orthodox conception of the status of women, +but no radical reform has been set on foot.</p> + +<p><i>In India</i> various attempts have been made by societies, +missionary and other, as well as by private individuals, to +improve the lot of the zenana women. Zenana schools and +hospitals have been founded, and a few women have been +trained as doctors and lawyers for the special purposes of protecting +the women against their own ignorance and inertia. +Thus in 1905 a Parsee Christian lady, Cornelia Sorabjee, was +appointed by the Bengal government as legal adviser to the +court of wards, so that she might give advice to the widowed +mothers of minors within the harem walls. Similarly trained +medical women are introduced into zenanas and harems by the +Lady Dufferin Association for medical aid to Indian women. +Gradually native Christian churches are making provision for +the attendance of women at their services, though the sexes are +rigorously kept apart. In India, as in Turkey, the introduction +of Western dress and education has begun to create new ideas +and ambitions, and not a few Eastern women have induced +English women to enter the harems as companions, nurses +and governesses. But training and environment are extremely +powerful, and in some parts of the Mahommedan world, the +supply of Asiatic, European and even American girls is so +steady, that reform has touched only the fringe of the system.</p> + +<p>Among the principal societies which have been formed to +better the condition of Indian and Chinese women in general +with special reference to the zenana system are the Church of +England Zenana Missionary Society and the Zenana Bible and +Medical Mission. Much information as to the medical, industrial +and educational work done by these societies will be found in +their annual reports and other publications. Among these are +J. K. H. Denny’s <i>Toward the Uprising</i>; Irene H. Barnes, +<i>Behind the Pardah</i> (1897), an account of the former society’s +work; the general condition of Indian women is described in +Mrs Marcus B. Fuller’s <i>Wrongs of Indian Womanhood</i> (1900), +and Maud Dover’s <i>The Englishwoman in India</i> (1909); see +also article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Missions</a></span>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—The literature of the subject is very large, though +a great deal of it is naturally based on insufficient evidence, and +coloured by Western prepossessions. Among useful works are A. +van Sommer and Zwerner, <i>Our Moslem Sisters</i> (1907), a collection +of essays by authors acquainted with various parts of the Mahommedan +world and strongly opposed to the whole harem system; +Mrs W. M. Ramsay, <i>Everyday Life in Turkey</i> (1897), cc. iv. and v., +containing an account of a day in a harem near Afium-Kara-Hissar; +cf. <i>e.g.</i> art. “Harem” in Hughes, <i>Dictionary of Islam</i>; Mrs S. +Harvey’s <i>Turkish Harems and Circassian Homes</i> (1871); for +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page952" id="page952"></a>952</span> +Mahomet’s regulations, see R. Bosworth Smith’s <i>Mohammed and +Mohammedanism</i> (1889); for Egypt, Lane, <i>Manners and Customs of +the Modern Egyptians</i> (1837); and E. Lott, <i>Harem Life in Egypt and +Constantinople</i> (1869); for the sultan’s household in the 18th century, +Lady Wortley Montagu’s <i>Letters</i>, with which may be compared +S. Lane-Poole, <i>Turkey</i> (ed. 1909); G. Dorys, <i>La Femme turque</i> +(1902); especially Lucy M. J. Garnett (with J. S. Stuart-Glennie), +<i>The Women of Turkey</i> (London, 1901), and <i>The Turkish People</i> +(London, 1909). For the attempts which have been made to modify +and improve the Indian zenana system, see <i>e.g.</i> the reports of the +Dufferin Association and other official publications. Other information +will be found in Hoffman’s article in Ersch and Gruber’s +<i>Encyclopädie</i>; Flandin in <i>Revue des deux mondes</i> (1852) on the +harem of the Persian prince Malik Kasim Mirza; the count de +Beauvoir, in <i>Voyage round the World</i> (1870), on Javanese and Siamese +harems; Häntzsche in <i>Zeitschrift für allgemeine Erdkunde</i> (Berlin, +1864).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. M. M.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1o" id="ft1o" href="#fa1o"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In Africa also, among the non-Mahommedan negroes of the west +coast and the Bahima of the Victoria Nyanza, the seclusion of +women of the upper classes has been practised in states (<i>e.g.</i> Ashanti +and Buganda) possessing a considerable degree of civilization.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARFLEUR,<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> a port of France in the department of Seine-Inférieure, +about 6 m. E. of Havre by rail. Pop. (1906) 2864. +It lies in the fertile valley of the Lézarde, at the foot of wooded +hills not far from the north bank of the estuary of the Seine. +The port, which had been rendered almost inaccessible owing +to the deposits of the Lézarde, again became available on +the opening of the Tancarville canal (1887) connecting it +with the port of Havre and with the Seine. Vessels drawing +18 ft. can moor alongside the quays of the new port, which is on +a branch of the canal, has some trade in coal and timber, and +carries on fishing. The church of St Martin is the most remarkable +building in the town, and its lofty stone steeple forms a +landmark for the pilots of the river. It dates from the 15th +and 16th centuries, but the great portal is the work of the 17th, +and the whole has undergone modern restoration. Of the old +castle there are only insignificant ruins, near which, in a fine park, +stands the present castle, a building of the 17th century. The +old ramparts of the town are now replaced by manufactories, +and the fosses are transformed into vegetable gardens. There +is a statue of Jean de Grouchy, lord of Montérollier, under whose +leadership the English were expelled from the town in 1435. +The industries include distilling, metal founding and the manufacture +of oil and grease.</p> + +<p>Harfleur is identified with <i>Caracotinum</i>, the principal port +of the ancient Calates. In the middle ages, when its name, +Herosfloth, Harofluet or Hareflot, was still sufficiently uncorrupted +to indicate its Norman derivation, it was the principal +seaport of north-western France. In 1415 it was captured by +Henry V. of England, but when in 1435 the people of the district +of Caux rose against the English, 104 of the inhabitants opened +the gates of the town to the insurgents, and thus got rid of the +foreign yoke. The memory of the deed was long perpetuated +by the bells of St Martin’s tolling 104 strokes. Between 1445 +and 1449 the English were again in possession; but the town +was recovered for the French by Dunois. In the 16th century +the port began to dwindle in importance owing to the silting up +of the Seine estuary and the rise of Havre. In 1562 the +Huguenots put Harfleur to pillage, and its registers and charters +perished in the confusion; but its privileges were restored by +Charles IX. in 1568, and it was not till 1710 that it was subjected +to the “taille.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARIANA,<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span> a tract of country in the Punjab, India, once the +seat of a flourishing Hindu civilization. It consists of a level +upland plain, interspersed with patches of sandy soil, and largely +overgrown with brushwood. The Western Jumna canal irrigates +the fields of a large number of its villages. Since the 14th century +Hissar has been the local capital. During the troubled period +which followed on the decline of the Mogul empire, Hariana +formed the battlefield where the Mahrattas, Bhattis and Sikhs +met to settle their territorial quarrels. The whole country was +devastated by the famine of 1783. In 1797-1798 Hariana was +overrun by the famous Irish adventurer George Thomas, who +established his capital at Hansi; in 1801 he was dispossessed +by Sindhia’s French general Perron; in 1803 Hariana passed +under British rule. On the conquest of the Punjab Hariana was +broken up into the districts of Hissar, Rohtak and Sirsa, +which last has in its turn been divided between Hissar and +Ferozepore.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARINGTON, SIR JOHN<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> (1561-1612), English writer, was +born at Kelston, near Bath, in 1561. His father, John Harington, +acquired considerable estates by marrying Etheldreda, a natural +daughter of Henry VIII., and after his wife’s death he was +attached to the service of the Princess Elizabeth. He married +Isabella Markham, one of her ladies, and on Mary’s accession +he and his wife were imprisoned in the Tower with the princess. +John, the son of the second marriage, was Elizabeth’s godson. +He studied at Eton and at Christ’s College, Cambridge, where he +took the degree of M.A., his tutor being John Still, afterwards +bishop of Bath and Wells, formerly reputed to be the author +of <i>Gammer Gurton’s Needle</i>. He came up to London about +1583 and was entered at Lincoln’s Inn, but his talents marked +him out for success at court rather than for a legal career. +Tradition relates that he translated the story of Giocondo from +Ariosto and was reproved by the queen for acquainting her +ladies with so indiscreet a selection. He was to retire to his seat +at Kelston until he completed the translation of the entire work. +<i>Orlando Furioso</i> in English heroical verse was published in 1591 +and reprinted in 1607 and 1634. Harington was high sheriff +of Somerset in 1592 and received Elizabeth at his house during +her western progress of 1591. In 1596 he published in succession +<i>The Metamorphosis of Ajax</i>, <i>An Anatomie of the Metamorphosed +Ajax</i>, and <i>Ulysses upon Ajax</i>, the three forming collectively a +very absurd and indecorous work of a Pantagruelistic kind. An +allusion to Leicester in this book threw the writer into temporary +disgrace, but in 1598 he received a commission to serve in Ireland +under Essex. He was knighted on the field, to the annoyance of +Elizabeth. Harington saved himself from being involved in +Essex’s disgrace by writing an account of the Irish campaign +which increased Elizabeth’s anger against the unfortunate earl. +Among some papers found in the chapter library at York was a +<i>Tract on the Succession to the Crown</i> (1602), written by Harington +to secure the favour of the new king, to whom he sent the gift of +a lantern constructed to symbolize the waning glory of the late +queen and James’s own splendour. This pamphlet, which +contains many details of great interest about Elizabeth and gives +an unprejudiced sketch of the religious question, was edited +for the Roxburghe Club in 1880 by Sir Clements Markham. +Harington’s efforts to win favour at the new court were unsuccessful. +In 1605 he even asked for the office of chancellor of Ireland +and proposed himself as archbishop. The document in which +he preferred this extraordinary request was published in 1879 +with the title of <i>A Short View of the State of Ireland written in +1605</i>. Harington was before his time in advocating a policy of +generosity and conciliation towards that country. He eventually +succeeded in obtaining a position as one of the tutors of Prince +Henry, for whom he annotated Francis Godwin’s <i>De praesulibus +Angliae</i>. Harington’s grandson, John Chetwind, found in this +somewhat scandalous production an argument for the Presbyterian +side, and published it in 1653, under the title of <i>A Briefe +View of the State of the Church, &c.</i></p> + +<p>Harington died at Kelston on the 20th of November 1612. +His <i>Epigrams</i> were printed in a collection entitled <i>Alcilia</i> in +1613, and separately in 1615. The translation of the <i>Orlando +Furioso</i> was carried out with skill and perseverance. It is not +to be supposed that Harington failed to realize the ironic quality +of his original, but he treated it as a serious allegory to suit the +temper of Queen Elizabeth’s court. He was neither a very exact +scholar nor a very poetical translator, and he cannot be named +in the same breath with Fairfax. The <i>Orlando Furioso</i> was +sumptuously illustrated, and to it was prefixed an <i>Apologie of +Poetrie</i>, justifying the subject matter of the poem, and, among +other technical matters, the author’s use of disyllabic and +trisyllabic rhymes, also a life of Ariosto compiled by Harington +from various Italian sources. Harington’s Rabelaisian pamphlets +show that he was almost equally endowed with wit and indelicacy, +and his epigrams are sometimes smart and always easy. His +works include <i>The Englishman’s Doctor, Or the School of Salerne</i> +(1608), and <i>Nugae antiquae</i>, miscellaneous papers collected in 1779.</p> + +<p><i>A biographical account of Harington is prefixed to the Roxburghe +Club edition of his tract on the succession mentioned above.</i></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page953" id="page953"></a>953</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ḤARĪRĪ<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> [Abū Maḥommed ul-Qāsim ibn ’Ali ibn Maḥommed +al-Ḥarīrī,] <i>i.e.</i> “the manufacturer or seller of silk”] (1054-1122), +Arabian writer, was born at Baṣra. He owned a large estate +with 18,000 date-palms at Mashān, a village near Baṣra. He +is said to have occupied a government position, but devoted his +life to the study of the niceties of the Arabic language. On this +subject he wrote a grammatical poem the <i>Mulḥat ul-‘Irāb</i> +(French trans. <i>Les Récréations grammaticales</i> with notes by L. +Pinto, Paris 1885-1889; extracts in S. de Sacy’s <i>Anthologie +arabe</i>, pp. 145-151, Paris, 1829); a work on the faults of the +educated called <i>Ḍurrat ul-Ghawwās</i> (ed. H. Thorbecke, Leipzig, +1871), and some smaller treatises such as the two letters on words +containing the letters <i>sin</i> and <i>shin</i> (ed. in Arnold’s <i>Chrestomathy</i>, +pp. 202-9). But his fame rests chiefly on his fifty <i>maqāmas</i> +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arabia</a></span>: <i>Literature</i>, section “Belles Lettres”). These +were written in rhymed prose like those of Hamadhānī, and are +full of allusions to Arabian history, poetry and tradition, and +discussions of difficult points of Arabic grammar and rhetoric.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The Maqāmas have been edited with Arabic commentary by +S. de Sacy (Paris, 1822, 2nd ed. with French notes by Reinaud and +J. Derenbourg, Paris, 1853); with English notes by F. Steingass +(London, 1896). An English translation with notes was made by +T. Preston (London, 1850), and another by T. Chenery and F. +Steingass (London, 1867 and 1898). Many editions have been +published in the East with commentaries, especially with that of +Sharīshī (d. 1222).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. W. T.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARI-RUD,<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span> a river of Afghanistan. It rises in the northern +slopes of the Koh-i-Baba to the west of Kabul, and finally loses +itself in the Tejend oasis north of the Trans-Caspian railway +and west of Merv. It runs a remarkably straight course westward +through a narrow trough from Daolatyar to Obeh, amidst +the bleak wind-swept uplands of the highest central elevations +in Afghanistan. From Obeh to Kuhsan 50 m. west of Herat, +it forms a valley of great fertility, densely populated and highly +cultivated; practically all its waters being drawn off for purposes +of irrigation. It is the contrast between the cultivated aspect +of the valley of Herat and the surrounding desert that has given +Herat its great reputation for fertility. Three miles to the south +of Herat the Kandahar road crosses the river by a masonry bridge +of 26 arches now in ruins. A few miles below Herat the river +begins to turn north-west, and after passing through a rich country +to Kuhsan, it turns due north and breaks through the Paropamisan +hills. Below Kuhsan it receives fresh tributaries from +the west. Between Kuhsan and Zulfikar it forms the boundary +between Afghanistan and Persia, and from Zulfikar to Sarakhs +between Russia and Persia. North of Sarakhs it diminishes +rapidly in volume till it is lost in the sands of the Turkman +desert. The Hari-Rud marks the only important break existing +in the continuity of the great central water-parting of +Asia. It is the ancient Arius.</p> +<div class="author">(T. H. H.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARISCHANDRA,<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span> in Hindu mythology, the 28th king of the +Solar race. He was renowned for his piety and justice. He +is the central figure of legends in the Aitareyabrahmana, Mahabharata +and the Markandeyapurana. In the first he is represented +as so desirous of a son that he vows to Varuna that if his +prayer is granted the boy shall be eventually sacrificed to the +latter. The child is born, but Harischandra, after many delays, +arranges to purchase another’s son and make a vicarious sacrifice. +According to the Mahabharata he is at last promoted to Paradise +as the reward for his munificent charity.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ḤĀRITH IBN ḤILLIZA UL-YASHKURĪ,<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> pre-Islamic Arabian +poet of the tribe of Bakr, famous as the author of one of the +poems generally received among the Mo‘allakāt (<i>q.v.</i>). Nothing is +known of the details of his life.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ḤARIZI, JUDAH BEN SOLOMON<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> (13th cent.), called also +al-Ḥarizi, a Spanish Hebrew poet and traveller. He translated +from the Arabic to Hebrew some of the works of Maimonides +(<i>q.v.</i>) and also of the Arab poet Ḥariri. His own most considerable +work was the <i>Taḥkemoni</i>, composed between 1218 and 1220. +This is written in Hebrew in unmetrical rhymes, in what is +commonly termed “rhymed prose.” It is a series of humorous +episodes, witty verses, and quaint applications of Scriptural +texts. The episodes are bound together by the presence of the +hero and of the narrator, who is also the author. Ḥarizi not only +brought to perfection the art of applying Hebrew to secular +satire, but he was also a brilliant literary critic and his <i>makame</i> +on the Andalusian Hebrew poets is a fruitful source of information.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See, on the <i>Taḥkemoni</i>, Kaempf, <i>Nicht-andalusische Poesie andalusischer +Dichter</i> (Prague, 1858). In that work a considerable +section of the <i>Taḥkemoni</i> is translated into German.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(I. A.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARKNESS, ALBERT<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> (1822-1907), American classical scholar, +was born at Mendon, Massachusetts, on the 6th of October 1822. +He graduated at Brown University in 1842, taught in the Providence +high school in 1843-1853, studied in Berlin, Bonn +(where in 1854 he was the first American to receive the degree +of Ph.D.) and Göttingen, and was professor of Greek language +and literature in Brown University from 1855 to 1892, when +he became professor emeritus. He was one of the founders in +1869 of the American Philological Association, of which he was +president in 1875-1876, and to whose <i>Transactions</i> he made +various contributions; was a member of the Archaeological +Institute’s committee on founding the American School of +Classical Studies at Athens, and served as the second director +of that school in 1883-1884. He studied English and German +university methods during trips to Europe in 1870 and 1883, +and introduced a new scholarly spirit into American teaching of +Latin in secondary schools with a series of Latin text-books, +which began in 1851 with a <i>First Latin Book</i> and continued for +more than fifty years. His <i>Latin Grammar</i> (1864, 1881) and +<i>Complete Latin Grammar</i> (1898) are his best-known books. He +was a member of the board of fellows of Brown University +from 1904 until his death, and in 1904-1905 was president of +the Rhode Island Historical Society. He died in Providence, +Rhode Island, on the 27th of May 1907.</p> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">Albert Granger Harkness</span> (1857-  ), also a +classical scholar, was born in Providence, Rhode Island, on the +19th of November 1857. He graduated at Brown University +in 1879, studied in Germany in 1879-1883, and was professor +of German and Latin at Madison (now Colgate) University +from 1883 to 1889, and associate professor of Latin at Brown +from 1889 to 1893, when he was appointed to the chair of Roman +literature and history there. He was director of the American +School of Classical Studies in Rome in 1902-1903.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARKNESS, ROBERT<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span> (1816-1878), English geologist, was +born at Ormskirk, Lancashire, on the 28th of July 1816. He +was educated at the high school, Dumfries, and afterwards +(1833-1834) at the university of Edinburgh where he acquired +an interest in geology from the teachings of Robert Jameson +and J. D. Forbes. Returning to Ormskirk he worked zealously +at the local geology, especially on the Coal-measures and New +Red Sandstone, his first paper (read before the Manchester +Geol. Soc. in 1843) being on <i>The Climate of the Coal Epoch</i>. In +1848 his family went to reside in Dumfries and there he commenced +to work on the Silurian rocks of the S.W. of Scotland, +and in 1849 he carried his investigations into Cumberland. +In these regions during the next few years he added much to +our knowledge of the strata and their fossils, especially graptolites, +in papers read before the Geological Society of London. +He wrote also on the New Red rocks of the north of England +and Scotland. In 1853 he was appointed professor of geology +in Queen’s College, Cork, and in 1856 he was elected F.R.S. +During this period he wrote some articles on the geology of parts +of Ireland, and exercised much influence as a teacher, but he +returned to England during his vacations and devoted himself +assiduously to the geology of the Lake district. He was also a +constant attendant at the meetings of the British Association. +In 1876 the syllabus for the Queen’s Colleges in Ireland was +altered, and Professor Harkness was required to lecture not only +on geology, palaeontology, mineralogy and physical geography, +but also on zoology and botany. The strain of the extra work +proved too much, he decided to relinquish his post, and had +retired but a short time when he died, on the 4th of October +1878.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“Memoir,” by J. G. Goodchild, in <i>Trans. Cumberland Assoc.</i> No. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page954" id="page954"></a>954</span> +viii. (with portrait). In memory of Professor Harkness his sister +established two Harkness scholarships. One scholarship (of the +value of about £35 a year, tenable for three years) for women, +tenable at either Girton or Newnham College, Cambridge, is awarded +triennially to the best candidate in an examination in geology and +palaeontology, provided that proficiency be shown; the other, +for men, is vested in the hands of the university of Cambridge, and +is awarded annually, any member of the university being eligible +who has graduated as a B.A., “provided that not more than three +years have elapsed since the 19th day of December next following +his final examination for the degree of bachelor of arts.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARLAN, JAMES<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> (1820-1899), American politician, was born +in Clark county, Illinois, on the 26th of August 1820. He +graduated from Indiana Asbury (now De Pauw) University +in 1845, was president (1846-1847) of the newly founded and +short-lived Iowa City College, studied law, was first superintendent +of public instruction in Iowa in 1847-1848, and was +president of Iowa Wesleyan University in 1853-1855. He took +a prominent part in organizing the Republican party in Iowa, +and was a member of the United States Senate from 1855 to +1865, when he became secretary of the interior. He had been +a delegate to the peace convention in 1861, and from 1861 to +1865 was chairman of the Senate committee on public lands. +He disapproved of President Johnson’s conservative reconstruction +policy, retired from the cabinet in August 1866, and from +1867 to 1873 was again a member of the United States Senate. +In 1866 he was a delegate to the loyalists’ convention at Philadelphia. +One of his principal speeches in the Senate was that +which he made in March 1871 in reply to Sumner’s and Schurz’s +attack on President Grant’s Santo Domingan policy. He was +presiding judge of the court of commissioners of Alabama +claims (1882-1885). He died in Mount Pleasant, Iowa, on the +5th of October 1899.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARLAN, JOHN MARSHALL<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span> (1833-  ), American jurist, +was born in Boyle county, Kentucky, on the 1st of June 1833. +He graduated at Centre College, Danville, Ky., in 1850, and at +the law department of Transylvania University, Lexington, in +1853. He was county judge of Franklin county in 1858-1859, +was an unsuccessful candidate for Congress on the Whig ticket +in 1859, and was elector on the Constitutional Union ticket in +1860. On the outbreak of the Civil War he recruited and +organized the Tenth Kentucky United States Volunteer Infantry, +and in 1861-1863 served as colonel. Retiring from the army +in 1863, he was elected by the Union party attorney-general +of the state, and was re-elected in 1865, serving from 1863 to +1867, when he removed to Louisville to practise law. He was +the Republican candidate for governor in 1871 and in 1875, +and was a member of the commission which was appointed +by President Hayes early in 1877 to accomplish the recognition +of one or other of the existing state governments +of Louisiana (<i>q.v.</i>); and he was a member of the Bering Sea +tribunal which met in Paris in 1893. On the 29th of November +1877 he became an associate justice of the United States Supreme +Court. In this position he showed himself a liberal constructionist. +In opinions on the Civil Rights cases and in the interpretation +of the 13th, 14th and 15th Amendments to the +Constitution, he dissented from the majority of the court and +advocated increasing the power of the Federal government. +He supported the constitutionality of the income tax clause +in the Wilson Tariff Bill of 1894, and he drafted the decision of +the court in the Northern Securities Company Case, which +applied to railways the provisions of the Sherman Anti-Trust +Law. In 1889 he became a professor in the Law School of +the Columbian University (afterwards George Washington +University) in Washington, D.C.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARLAND, HENRY<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span> (1861-1905), American novelist, was +born in St Petersburg, Russia, in March 1861, and was educated +in New York and at Harvard. He went to Europe as a journalist, +and, after publishing several novels, mainly of American-Jewish +life (under the name of Sidney Luska), first made his literary +reputation in London as editor of the <i>Yellow Book</i> in 1894. +His association with this clever publication, and his own contributions +to it, brought his name into prominence, but it was +not till he published <i>The Cardinal’s Snuff-box</i> (1900), followed +by <i>The Lady Paramount</i> (1902), that his lightly humorous touch +and picturesque style as a novelist brought him any real success. +His health was always delicate, and he died at San Remo on +the 20th of December 1905.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARLAY DE CHAMPVALLON, FRANÇOIS DE<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span> (1625-1695), +5th archbishop of Paris, was born in that city on the 14th of +August 1625. Nephew of François de Harlay, archbishop of +Rouen, he was presented to the abbey of Jumièges immediately +on leaving the Collège de Navarre, and he was only twenty-six +when he succeeded his uncle in the archiepiscopal see. He was +transferred to the see of Paris in 1671, he was nominated by the +king for the cardinalate in 1690, and the domain of St Cloud was +erected into a duchy in his favour. He was commander of the +order of the Saint Esprit and a member of the French Academy. +During the early part of his political career he was a firm adherent +of Mazarin, and is said to have helped to procure his return from +exile. His private life gave rise to much scandal, but he had +a great capacity for business, considerable learning, and was an +eloquent and persuasive speaker. He definitely secured the +favour of Louis XIV. by his support of the claims of the Gallican +Church formulated by the declaration made by the clergy in +assembly on the 19th of March 1682, when Bossuet accused him +of truckling to the court like a valet. One of the three witnesses +of the king’s marriage with Madame de Maintenon, he was hated +by her for using his influence with the king to keep the matter +secret. He had a weekly audience of Louis XIV. in company +with Père la Chaise on the affairs of the Church in Paris, but his +influence gradually declined, and Saint-Simon, who bore him no +good will for his harsh attitude to the Jansenists, says that his +friends deserted him as the royal favour waned, until at last +most of his time was spent at Conflans in company with the +duchess of Lesdiguières, who alone was faithful to him. He +urged the revocation of the edict of Nantes, and showed great +severity to the Huguenots at Dieppe, of which he was temporal +and spiritual lord. He died suddenly, without having received +the sacraments, on the 6th of August 1695. His funeral discourse +was delivered by the Père Gaillard, and Mme de Sévigné made +on the occasion the severe comment that there were only two +trifles to make this a difficult matter—his life and his death.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Abbé Legendre, <i>Vita Francisci de Harlay</i> (Paris, 1720) and +<i>Éloge de Harlay</i> (1695); Saint-Simon, <i>Mémoires</i> (vol. ii., ed. A. de +Boislisle, 1879), and numerous references in the <i>Lettres</i> of Mme de +Sévigné.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARLECH<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span> (perhaps for <i>Hardd lech</i>, fair slate, or <i>Harleigh</i>, an +Anglicized variant), a town of Merionethshire, Wales, 38 m. +from Aberystwyth, and 29 from Carnarvon on the Cambrian +railway. Pop. 900. Ruins of a fortress crown the rock of +Harlech, about half a mile from the sea. Discovery of Roman +coins makes it probable that it was once occupied by the Romans. +In the 3rd century Bronwen (white bosom), daughter of Bran +Fendigaid (the blessed), is said to have stayed here, perhaps +by force; and there was here a tower, called Twr Bronwen, +and replaced about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 550 by the building of Maelgwyn +Gwynedd, prince of North Wales. In the early 10th century, +Harlech castle was, apparently, repaired by Colwyn, lord of +Ardudwy, founder of one of the fifteen North Wales tribes, and +thence called Caer Colwyn. The present structure dates, like +many others in the principality, from Edward I., perhaps even +from the plans of the architect of Carnarvon and Conway castles, +but with the retention of old portions. It is thought to have +been square, each side measuring some 210 ft., with towers and +turrets. Glendower held it for four years. Here, in 1460, +Margaret, wife of Henry VI., defeated at Northampton, took +refuge. Dafydd ap Ieuan ap Einion held it for the Lancastrians, +until famine, rather than Edward IV., made him surrender. +From this time is said to date the air “March of the men of +Harlech” (<i>Rhyfelgerdd gwyr Harlech</i>). The castle was alternately +Roundhead and Cavalier in the civil war. Edward I. made +Harlech a free borough, and it was formerly the county town. +It is in the parish of Llandanwg (pop. in 1901, 931). Though +interesting from an antiquarian point of view, the district around, +especially Dyffryn Ardudwy (the valley), is dreary and desolate, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page955" id="page955"></a>955</span> +<i>e.g.</i> Drws (the door of) Ardudwy, Rhinog fawr and Rhinog fach +(cliffs); an exception is the verdant Cwm bychan (little combe +or hollow). The Meini gwyr Ardudwy (stones of the men of +Ardudwy) possibly mark the site of a fight.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARLEQUIN,<a name="ar196" id="ar196"></a></span> in modern pantomime, the posturing and +acrobatic character who gives his name to the “harlequinade,” +attired in mask and parti-coloured and spangled tights, and +provided with a sword like a bat, by which, himself invisible, +he works wonders. It has generally been assumed that Harlequin +was transferred to France from the “Arlecchino” of Italian +medieval and Renaissance popular comedy; but Dr Driesen in +his <i>Ursprung des Harlekins</i> (Berlin, 1904) shows that this is +incorrect. An old French “Harlekin” (Herlekin, Hellequin +and other variants) is found in folk-literature as early as 1100; +he had already become proverbial as a ragamuffin of a demoniacal +appearance and character; in 1262 a number of harlekins +appear in a play by Adam de la Halle as the intermediaries of +King Hellekin, prince of Fairyland, in courting Morgan le Fay; +and it was not till much later that the French Harlekin was +transformed into the Italian Arlecchino. In his typical French +form down to the time of Gottsched, he was a spirit of the air, +deriving thence his invisibility and his characteristically light +and aery whirlings. Subsequently he returned from the Italian +to the French stage, being imported by Marivaux into light +comedy; and his various attributes gradually became amalgamated +into the latter form taken in pantomime.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARLESS<a name="ar197" id="ar197"></a></span> (originally <span class="sc">Harles</span>), <b>GOTTLIEB CHRISTOPH</b> +(1738-1815), German classical scholar and bibliographer, was born +at Culmbach in Bavaria on the 21st of June 1738. He studied at +Halle, Erlangen and Jena. In 1765 he was appointed professor of +oriental languages and eloquence at the Gymnasium Casimirianum +in Coburg, in 1770 professor of poetry and eloquence at Erlangen, +and in 1776 librarian of the university. He held his professorship +for forty-five years till his death on the 2nd of November 1815. +Harless was an extremely prolific writer. His numerous editions +of classical authors, deficient in originality and critical judgment, +although valuable at the time as giving the student the results +of the labours of earlier scholars, are now entirely superseded. +But he will always be remembered for his meritorious work in +connexion with the great <i>Bibliotheca Graeca</i> of J. A. Fabricius, +of which he published a new and revised edition (12 vols., 1790-1809, +not quite completed),—a task for which he was peculiarly +qualified. He also wrote much on the history and bibliography +of Greek and Latin literature.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His life was written by his son, Johann Christian Friedrich Harless +(1818).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARLESS, GOTTLIEB CHRISTOPH ADOLF VON<a name="ar198" id="ar198"></a></span> (1806-1879), +German divine, was born at Nuremberg on the 21st of +November 1806, and was educated at the universities of Erlangen +and Halle. He was appointed professor of theology at Erlangen +in 1836 and at Leipzig in 1845. He was a strong Lutheran and +exercised a powerful influence in that direction as court preacher +in Dresden and as president of the Protestant consistory at +Munich. His chief works were <i>Theologische Encyklopädie und +Methodologie</i> (1837) and <i>Die christliche Ethik</i> (1842, Eng. trans. +1868). He died on the 5th of September 1879, having, a few +years earlier, written an autobiography under the title <i>Bruchstücke +aus dem Leben eines süddeutschen Theologen</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARLINGEN,<a name="ar199" id="ar199"></a></span> a seaport in the province of Friesland, Holland, +on the Zuider Zee, and the terminus of the railway and canal +from Leeuwarden (15½ m. E.). It is connected by steam tramway +by way of Bolswaard with Sneek. Pop. (1900) 10,448. Harlingen +has become the most considerable seaport of Friesland +since the construction of the large outer harbour in 1870-1877, +and in addition to railway and steamship connexion with +Bremen, Amsterdam, and the southern provinces there are +regular sailings to Hull and London. Powerful sluices protect +the inner harbour from the high tides. The only noteworthy +buildings are the town hall (1730-1733), the West church, which +consists of a part of the former castle of Harlingen, the Roman +Catholic church, the Jewish synagogue and the schools of +navigation and of design. The chief trade of Harlingen is the +exportation of Frisian produce, namely, butter and cheese, +cattle, sheep, fish, potatoes, flax, &c. There is also a considerable +import trade in timber, coal, raw cotton, hemp and jute for the +Twente factories. The local industries are unimportant, consisting +of saw-mills, rope-yards, salt refineries, and sail-cloth and +margarine factories.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARMATTAN,<a name="ar200" id="ar200"></a></span> the name of a hot dry parching wind that blows +during December, January and February on the coast of Upper +Guinea, bringing a high dense haze of red dust which darkens +the air. The natives smear their bodies with oil or fat while this +parching wind is blowing.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARMODIUS,<a name="ar201" id="ar201"></a></span> a handsome Athenian youth, and the intimate +friend of Aristogeiton. Hipparchus, the younger brother of +the tyrant Hippias, endeavoured to supplant Aristogeiton in the +good graces of Harmodius, but, failing in the attempt, revenged +himself by putting a public affront on Harmodius’s sister at a +solemn festival. Thereupon the two friends conspired with a few +others to murder both the tyrants during the armed procession +at the Panathenaic festival (514 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), when the people were +allowed to carry arms (this licence is denied by Aristotle in +<i>Ath. Pol.</i>). Seeing one of their accomplices speaking to Hippias, +and imagining that they were being betrayed, they prematurely +attacked and slew Hipparchus alone. Harmodius was cut down +on the spot by the guards, and Aristogeiton was soon captured +and tortured to death. When Hippias was expelled (510), +Harmodius and Aristogeiton became the most popular of +Athenian heroes; their descendants were exempted from public +burdens, and had the right of public entertainment in the +Prytaneum, and their names were celebrated in popular songs and +scolia (after-dinner songs) as the deliverers of Athens. One of +these songs, attributed to a certain Callistratus, is preserved +in Athenaeus (p. 695). Their statues by Antenor in the agora +were carried off by Xerxes and replaced by new ones by Critius +and Nesiotes. Alexander the Great afterwards sent back the +originals to Athens. It is not agreed which of these was the +original of the marble tyrannicide group in the museum at +Naples, for which see article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Art</a></span>, Pl. I. fig. 50.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Köpp in <i>Neue Jahrb. f. klass. Altert.</i> (1902), p. 609.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARMONIA,<a name="ar202" id="ar202"></a></span> in Greek mythology, according to one account +the daughter of Ares and Aphrodite, and wife of Cadmus. When +the government of Thebes was bestowed upon Cadmus by Athena, +Zeus gave him Harmonia to wife. All the gods honoured the +wedding with their presence. Cadmus (or one of the gods) +presented the bride with a robe and necklace, the work of +Hephaestus. This necklace brought misfortune to all who +possessed it. With it Polyneices bribed Eriphyle to persuade +her husband Amphiaraus to undertake the expedition against +Thebes. It led to the death of Eriphyle, of Alcmaeon, of Phegeus +and his sons. Even after it had been deposited in the temple +of Athena Pronoia at Delphi, its baleful influence continued. +Phayllus, one of the Phocian leaders in the Sacred War (352 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) +carried it off and gave it to his mistress. After she had worn it +for a time, her son was seized with madness and set fire to the +house, and she perished in the flames. According to another +account, Harmonia belonged to Samothrace and was the daughter +of Zeus and Electra, her brother Iasion being the founder of +the mystic rites celebrated on the island (Diod. Sic. v. 48). +Finally, Harmonia is rationalized as closely allied to Aphrodite +Pandemos, the love that unites all people, the personification of +order and civic unity, corresponding to the Roman Concordia.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Apollodorus iii. 4-7; Diod. Sic. iv. 65, 66; Parthenius, <i>Erotica</i>, +25; L. Preller, <i>Griech. Mythol.</i>; Crusius in Roscher’s <i>Lexikon</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARMONIC.<a name="ar203" id="ar203"></a></span> In acoustics, a harmonic is a secondary tone +which accompanies the fundamental or primary tone of a vibrating +string, reed, &c.; the more important are the 3rd, 5th, 7th, +and octave (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sound</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Harmony</a></span>). A harmonic proportion +in arithmetic and algebra is such that the reciprocals of the +proportionals are in arithmetical proportion; thus, if <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i> +be in harmonic proportion then 1/<i>a</i>, 1/<i>b</i>, 1/<i>c</i> are in arithmetical +proportion; this leads to the relation 2/<i>b</i> = <i>ac</i>/(<i>a</i> + <i>c</i>). A harmonic +progression or series consists of terms whose reciprocals +form an arithmetical progression; the simplest example is: +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page956" id="page956"></a>956</span> +1 + ½ + <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> + ¼ + ... (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Algebra</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arithmetic</a></span>). The occurrence +of a similar proportion between segments of lines is the +foundation of such phrases as harmonic section, harmonic ratio, +harmonic conjugates, &c. (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Geometry</a></span>: II. <i>Projective</i>). The +connexion between acoustical and mathematical harmonicals +is most probably to be found in the Pythagorean discovery that +a vibrating string when stopped at ½ and <span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> of its length yielded +the octave and 5th of the original tone, the numbers, 1<span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>, ½ +being said to be, probably first by Archytas, in harmonic proportion. +The mathematical investigation of the form of a +vibrating string led to such phrases as harmonic curve, harmonic +motion, harmonic function, harmonic analysis, &c. (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mechanics</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spherical Harmonics</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARMONICA,<a name="ar204" id="ar204"></a></span> a generic term applied to musical instruments +in which sound is produced by friction upon glass bells. The +word is also used to designate instruments of percussion of the +Glockenspiel type, made of steel and struck by hammers (Ger. +<i>Stahlharmonika</i>).</p> + +<p>The origin of the glass-harmonica tribe is to be found in the +fashionable 18th century instrument known as musical glasses +(Fr. <i>verrillon</i>), the principle of which was known already in the +17th century.<a name="fa1p" id="fa1p" href="#ft1p"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The invention of musical glasses is generally +ascribed to an Irishman, Richard Pockrich, who first played the +instrument in public in Dublin in 1743 and the next year in +England, but Eisel<a name="fa2p" id="fa2p" href="#ft2p"><span class="sp">2</span></a> described the <i>verrillon</i> and gave an illustration +of it in 1738. The <i>verrillon</i> or <i>Glassspiel</i> consisted of 18 +beer glasses arranged on a board covered with cloth, water +being poured in when necessary to alter the pitch. The glasses +were struck on both sides gently with two long wooden sticks +in the shape of a spoon, the bowl being covered with silk or cloth. +Eisel states that the instrument was used for church and other +solemn music. Gluck gave a concert at the “little theatre in +the Haymarket” (London) in April 1746, at which he performed +on musical glasses a concerto of his composition with full +orchestral accompaniment. E. H. Delaval is also credited with +the invention. When Benjamin Franklin visited London in +1757, he was so much struck by the beauty of tone elicited by +Delaval and Pockrich, and with the possibilities of the glasses +as musical instruments, that he set to work on a mechanical +application of the principle involved, the eminently successful +result being the glass harmonica finished in 1762. In this the +glass bowls were mounted on a rotating spindle, the largest to +the left, and their under-edges passed during each revolution +through a water-trough. By applying the fingers to the moistened +edges, sound was produced varying in intensity with the pressure, +so that a certain amount of expression was at the command of +a good player. It is said that the timbre was extremely enervating, +and, together with the vibration caused by the friction on +the finger-tips, exercised a highly deleterious effect on the nervous +system. The instrument was for many years in great vogue, +not only in England but on the Continent of Europe, and more +especially in Saxony, where it was accorded a place in the court +orchestra. Mozart, Beethoven, Naumann and Hasse composed +music for it. Marianne Davies and Marianna Kirchgessner +were celebrated virtuosi on it. The curious vogue of the instrument, +as sudden as it was ephemeral, produced emulation in a +generation unsurpassed for zeal in the invention of musical +instruments. The most notable of its offspring were Carl +Leopold Röllig’s improved harmonica with a keyboard in 1786, +Chladni’s euphon in 1791 and clavicylinder in 1799, Ruffelsen’s +melodicon in 1800 and 1803, Franz Leppich’s panmelodicon <span class="correction" title="added 'in'">in</span> 1810, +Buschmann’s uranion in the same year, &c. Of most of these +nothing now remains but the name and a description in the +<i>Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung</i>, but there are numerous +specimens of the Franklin type in the museums for musical +instruments of Europe. One specimen by Emanuel Pohl, a +Bohemian maker, is preserved in the Victoria and Albert +Museum, London.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For the steel harmonica see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Glockenspiel</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(K. S.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1p" id="ft1p" href="#fa1p"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See G. P. Harsdörfer, <i>Math. und philos. Erquickstunden</i> (Nuremberg, +1677), ii. 147.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2p" id="ft2p" href="#fa2p"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Musicus</i> <span class="grk" title="autodidaktos">αὐτοδίδακτος</span> (Erfurt, 1738), p. 70.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARMONIC ANALYSIS,<a name="ar205" id="ar205"></a></span> in mathematics, the name given by +Sir William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) and P. G. Tait in their +treatise on <i>Natural Philosophy</i> to a general method of investigating +physical questions, the earliest applications of which seem +to have been suggested by the study of the vibrations of strings +and the analysis of these vibrations into their fundamental tone +and its harmonics or overtones.</p> + +<p>The motion of a uniform stretched string fixed at both ends +is a periodic motion; that is to say, after a certain interval of +time, called the fundamental period of the motion, the form of the +string and the velocity of every part of it are the same as before, +provided that the energy of the motion has not been sensibly +dissipated during the period.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>There are two distinct methods of investigating the motion of a +uniform stretched string. One of these may be called the wave +method, and the other the harmonic method. The wave method +is founded on the theorem that in a stretched string of infinite +length a wave of any form may be propagated in either direction +with a certain velocity, V, which we may define as the “velocity of +propagation.” If a wave of any form travelling in the positive +direction meets another travelling in the opposite direction, the +form of which is such that the lines joining corresponding points +of the two waves are all bisected in a fixed point in the line of the +string, then the point of the string corresponding to this point will +remain fixed, while the two waves pass it in opposite directions. If +we now suppose that the form of the waves travelling in the positive +direction is periodic, that is to say, that after the wave has travelled +forward a distance l, the position of every particle of the string is +the same as it was at first, then l is called the wave-length, and the +time of travelling a wave-length is called the periodic time, which +we shall denote by T, so that l = VT.</p> + +<p>If we now suppose a set of waves similar to these, but reversed +in position, to be travelling in the opposite direction, there will be +a series of points, distant ½l from each other, at which there will be +no motion of the string; it will therefore make no difference to the +motion of the string if we suppose the string fastened to fixed +supports at any two of these points, and we may then suppose +the parts of the string beyond these points to be removed, as it +cannot affect the motion of the part which is between them. We +have thus arrived at the case of a uniform string stretched between +two fixed supports, and we conclude that the motion of the string +may be completely represented as the resultant of two sets of periodic +waves travelling in opposite directions, their wave-lengths being +either twice the distance between the fixed points or a submultiple +of this wave-length, and the form of these waves, subject to this +condition, being perfectly arbitrary.</p> + +<p>To make the problem a definite one, we may suppose the initial +displacement and velocity of every particle of the string given in +terms of its distance from one end of the string, and from these data +it is easy to calculate the form which is common to all the travelling +waves. The form of the string at any subsequent time may then +be deduced by calculating the positions of the two sets of waves at +that time, and compounding their displacements.</p> + +<p>Thus in the wave method the actual motion of the string is considered +as the resultant of two wave motions, neither of which is of +itself, and without the other, consistent with the condition that the +ends of the string are fixed. Each of the wave motions is periodic +with a wave-length equal to twice the distance between the fixed +points, and the one set of waves is the reverse of the other in respect +of displacement and velocity and direction of propagation; but, +subject to these conditions, the form of the wave is perfectly arbitrary. +The motion of a particle of the string, being determined by the two +waves which pass over it in opposite directions, is of an equally +arbitrary type.</p> + +<p>In the harmonic method, on the other hand, the motion of the +string is regarded as compounded of a series of vibratory motions +(<i>normal modes</i> of vibration), which may be infinite in number, but +each of which is perfectly definite in type, and is in fact a particular +solution of the problem of the motion of a string with its ends fixed.</p> + +<p>A simple harmonic motion is thus defined by Thomson and Tait +(§ 53):—When a point Q moves uniformly in a circle, the perpendicular +QP, drawn from its position at any instant to a fixed diameter +AA′ of the circle, intersects the diameter in a point P whose position +changes by a <i>simple harmonic motion</i>.</p> + +<p>The amplitude of a simple harmonic motion is the range on one +side or the other of the middle point of the course.</p> + +<p>The period of a simple harmonic motion is the time which elapses +from any instant until the moving-point again moves in the same +direction through the same position.</p> + +<p>The phase of a simple harmonic motion at any instant is the +fraction of the whole period which has elapsed since the moving-point +last passed through its middle position in the positive direction.</p> + +<p>In the case of the stretched string, it is only in certain particular +cases that the motion of a particle of the string is a simple harmonic +motion. In these particular cases the form of the string at any +instant is that of a curve of sines having the line joining the fixed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page957" id="page957"></a>957</span> +points for its axis, and passing through these two points, and therefore +having for its wave-length either twice the length of the string +or some submultiple of this wave-length. The amplitude of the +curve of sines is a simple harmonic function of the time, the period +being either the fundamental period or some submultiple of the +fundamental period. Every one of these modes of vibration is +dynamically possible by itself, and any number of them may coexist +independently of each other.</p> + +<p>By a proper adjustment of the initial amplitude and phase of +each of these modes of vibration, so that their resultant shall represent +the initial state of the string, we obtain a new representation +of the whole motion of the string, in which it is seen to be the resultant +of a series of simple harmonic vibrations whose periods are the +fundamental period and its submultiples. The determination of +the amplitudes and phases of the several simple harmonic vibrations +so as to satisfy the initial conditions is an example of harmonic +analysis.</p> + +<p>We have thus two methods of solving the partial differential +equation of the motion of a string. The first, which we have called +the wave method, exhibits the solution in the form containing an +arbitrary function, the nature of which must be determined from +the initial conditions. The second, or harmonic method, leads to a +series of terms involving sines and cosines, the coefficients of which +have to be determined. The harmonic method may be defined in a +more general manner as a method by which the solution of any +actual problem may be obtained as the sum or resultant of a number +of terms, each of which is a solution of a particular case of the problem. +The nature of these particular cases is defined by the condition that +any one of them must be conjugate to any other.</p> + +<p>The mathematical test of conjugacy is that the energy of the +system arising from two of the harmonics existing together is equal +to the sum of the energy arising from the two harmonics taken +separately. In other words, no part of the energy depends on the +product of the amplitudes of two different harmonics. When two +modes of motion of the same system are conjugate to each other, +the existence of one of them does not affect the other.</p> + +<p>The simplest case of harmonic analysis, that of which the treatment +of the vibrating string is an example, is completely investigated +in what is known as Fourier’s theorem.</p> + +<p>Fourier’s theorem asserts that any periodic function of a single +variable period p, which does not become infinite at any phase, +can be expanded in the form of a series consisting of a constant +term, together with a double series of terms, one set involving +cosines and the other sines of multiples of the phase.</p> + +<p>Thus if φ(ξ) is a periodic function of the variable ξ having a +period p, then it may be expanded as follows:</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">φ(ξ) = A<span class="su">0</span> + Σ<span class="sp1">∞</span><span class="su1">1</span> <span class="sp">i</span> A<span class="su">i</span> cos</td> <td>2iπξ</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ Σ<span class="sp1">∞</span><span class="su1">1</span> <span class="sp">i</span> B<span class="su">i</span> sin</td> <td>2iπξ</td> +<td rowspan="2">.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">p</td> <td class="denom">p</td></tr></table> +<div class="author">(1)</div> + +<p>The part of the theorem which is most frequently required, and +which also is the easiest to investigate, is the determination of the +values of the coefficients A<span class="su">0</span>, A<span class="su">i</span>, B<span class="su">i</span>. These are</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">A<span class="su">0</span> =</td> <td>1</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span><span class="sp1">p</span><span class="su1">0</span> φ(ξ)dξ;   A<span class="su">i</span> =</td> <td>2</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span><span class="sp1">p</span><span class="su1">0</span> φ(ξ) cos</td> <td>2iπξ</td> +<td rowspan="2">dξ;   B<span class="su">i</span> =</td> <td>2</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">∫</span><span class="sp1">p</span><span class="su1">0</span> φ(ξ) sin</td> <td>2iπξ</td> +<td rowspan="2">dξ.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">p</td> <td class="denom">p</td> +<td class="denom">p</td> <td class="denom">p</td> <td class="denom">p</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">This part of the theorem may be verified at once by multiplying +both sides of (1) by dξ, by cos (2iπξ/p)/dξ or by sin (2iπξ/p)/dξ, and +in each case integrating from 0 to p.</p> + +<p>The series is evidently single-valued for any given value of ξ. +It cannot therefore represent a function of ξ which has more than +one value, or which becomes imaginary for any value of ξ. It is +convergent, approaching to the true value of φ(ξ) for all values +of ξ such that if ξ varies infinitesimally the function also varies +infinitesimally.</p> + +<p>Lord Kelvin, availing himself of the disk, globe and cylinder +integrating machine invented by his brother, Professor James +Thomson, constructed a machine by which eight of the integrals +required for the expression of Fourier’s series can be obtained simultaneously +from the recorded trace of any periodically variable +quantity, such as the height of the tide, the temperature or pressure +of the atmosphere, or the intensity of the different components of +terrestrial magnetism. If it were not on account of the waste of +time, instead of having a curve drawn by the action of the tide, +and the curve afterwards acted on by the machine, the time axis +of the machine itself might be driven by a clock, and the tide itself +might work the second variable of the machine, but this would involve +the constant presence of an expensive machine at every tidal +station.</p> +<div class="author">(J. C. M.)</div> + +<p>For a discussion of the restrictions under which the expansion +of a periodic function of ξ in the form (1) is valid, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fourier’s +Series</a></span>. An account of the contrivances for mechanical calculation +of the coefficients A<span class="su">i</span>, B<span class="su">i</span> ... is given under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Calculating +Machines</a></span>.</p> + +<p>A more general form of the problem of harmonic analysis presents +itself in astronomy, in the theory of the tides, and in various magnetic +and meteorological investigations. It may happen, for instance, +that a variable quantity ƒ(t) is known theoretically to be of the form</p> + +<p class="center">ƒ(t) = A<span class="su">0</span> + A<span class="su">1</span> cos n<span class="su">1</span>t + B<span class="su">1</span> sin n<span class="su">1</span>t + A<span class="su">2</span> cos n<span class="su">2</span>t + B<span class="su">2</span> sin n<span class="su">2</span>t + ...</p> +<div class="author">(2)</div> + +<p class="noind">where the periods 2π/n<span class="su">1</span>, 2π/n<span class="su">2</span>, ... of the various simple-harmonic +constituents are already known with sufficient accuracy, although +they may have no very simple relations to one another. The +problem of determining the most probable values of the constants +A<span class="su">0</span>, A<span class="su">1</span>, B<span class="su">1</span>, A<span class="su">2</span>, B<span class="su">2</span>, ... by means of a series of recorded values of +the function ƒ(t) is then in principle a fairly simple one, although +the actual numerical work may be laborious (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tide</a></span>). A much +more difficult and delicate question arises when, as in various +questions of meteorology and terrestrial magnetism, the periods +2π/n<span class="su">1</span>, 2π/n<span class="su">2</span>, ... are themselves unknown to begin with, or are at +most conjectural. Thus, it may be desired to ascertain whether +the magnetic declination contains a periodic element synchronous +with the sun’s rotation on its axis, whether any periodicities can +be detected in the records of the prevalence of sun-spots, and so on. +From a strictly mathematical standpoint the problem is, indeed, +indeterminate, for when all the symbols are at our disposal, the +representation of the observed values of a function, over a finite +range of time, by means of a series of the type (2), can be effected +in an infinite variety of ways. Plausible inferences can, however, +be drawn, provided the proper precautions are observed. This +question has been treated most systematically by Professor A. +Schuster, who has devised a remarkable mathematical method, in +which the action of a diffraction-grating in sorting out the various +periodic constituents of a heterogeneous beam of light is closely +imitated. He has further applied the method to the study of the +variations of the magnetic declination, and of sun-spot records.</p> + +<p>The question so far chiefly considered has been that of the representation +of an arbitrary function of the <i>time</i> in terms of functions +of a special type, viz. the circular functions cos nt, sin nt. This is +important on dynamical grounds; but when we proceed to consider +the problem of expressing an arbitrary function of <i>space-co-ordinates</i> +in terms of functions of specified types, it appears that the preceding +is only one out of an infinite variety of modes of representation +which are equally entitled to consideration. Every problem of +mathematical physics which leads to a linear differential equation +supplies an instance. For purposes of illustration we will here +take the simplest of all, viz. that of the transversal vibrations of a +tense string. The equation of motion is of the form</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">ρ</td> <td>∂²y</td> +<td rowspan="2">= T</td> <td>∂²y</td> +<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">∂t²</td> <td class="denom">∂x²</td></tr></table> +<div class="author">(3)</div> + +<p class="noind">where T is the tension, and ρ the line-density. In a “normal mode” +of vibration y will vary as e<span class="sp">int</span>, so that</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>∂²y</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ k²y = 0,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">∂x²</td></tr></table> +<div class="author">(4)</div> + +<p class="noind">where</p> + +<p class="center">k² = n²ρ/T.</p> +<div class="author">(5)</div> + +<p class="noind">If ρ, and therefore k, is constant, the solution of (4) subject to the +condition that y = 0 for x = 0 and x = l is</p> + +<p class="center">y = B sin kx</p> +<div class="author">(6)</div> + +<p class="noind">provided</p> + +<p class="center">kl = sπ, [s = 1, 2, 3, ...].</p> +<div class="author">(7)</div> + +<p class="noind">This determines the various <i>normal modes</i> of free vibration, the corresponding +periods (2π/n) being given by (5) and (7). By analogy +with the theory of the free vibrations of a system of <i>finite</i> freedom +it is inferred that the most general free motions of the string can be +obtained by superposition of the various normal modes, with suitable +amplitudes and phases; and in particular that any arbitrary initial +form of the string, say y = ƒ(x), can be reproduced by a series of the +type</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">ƒ(x) = B<span class="su">1</span> sin</td> <td>πx</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ B<span class="su">2</span> sin</td> <td>2πx</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ B<span class="su">3</span> sin</td> <td>3πx</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ ...</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l</td> +<td class="denom">l</td></tr></table> +<div class="author">(8)</div> + +<p>So far, this is merely a restatement, in mathematical language, +of an argument given in the first part of this article. The series (8) +may, moreover, be arrived at otherwise, as a particular case of +Fourier’s theorem. But if we no longer assume the density ρ of the +string to be uniform, we obtain an endless variety of new expansions, +corresponding to the various laws of density which may be prescribed. +The normal modes are in any case of the type</p> + +<p class="center">y = Cu(x)e<span class="sp">int</span></p> +<div class="author">(9)</div> + +<p class="noind">where u is a solution of the equation</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>d²u</td> +<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>n²ρ</td> +<td rowspan="2">u = 0.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">dx²</td> <td class="denom">T</td></tr></table> +<div class="author">(10)</div> + +<p class="noind">The condition that u(x) is to vanish for x = 0 and x = l leads to a +transcendental equation in n (corresponding to sin kl = 0 in the +previous case). If the forms of u(x) which correspond to the various +roots of this be distinguished by suffixes, we infer, on physical +grounds alone, the possibility of the expansion of an arbitrary +initial form of the string in a series</p> + +<p class="center">ƒ(x) = C<span class="su">1</span>u<span class="su">1</span>(x) + C<span class="su">2</span>u<span class="su">2</span>(x) + C<span class="su">3</span>u<span class="su">3</span>(x) + ...</p> +<div class="author">(11)</div> + +<p class="noind">It may be shown further that if r and s are different we have the +<i>conjugate</i> or <i>orthogonal</i> relation</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="f150">∫</span><span class="sp1">l</span><span class="su">0</span> ρu<span class="su">r</span>(x) u<span class="su">s</span>(x) dx = 0.</p> +<div class="author">(12)</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page958" id="page958"></a>958</span></p> + +<p class="noind">This enables us to determine the coefficients, thus</p> + +<p class="center">C<span class="su">r</span> = <span class="f150">∫</span><span class="sp1">l</span><span class="su">0</span> ρƒ(x) u<span class="su">r</span> (x)dx ÷ <span class="f150">∫</span><span class="sp1">1</span><span class="su">0</span> ρ {u<span class="su">r</span>(x)}² dx.</p> +<div class="author">(13)</div> + +<p>The extension to spaces of two or three dimensions, or to cases +where there is more than one dependent variable, must be passed +over. The mathematical theories of acoustics, heat-conduction, +elasticity, induction of electric currents, and so on, furnish an indefinite +supply of examples, and have suggested in some cases +methods which have a very wide application. Thus the transverse +vibrations of a circular membrane lead to the theory of Bessel’s +Functions; the oscillations of a spherical sheet of air suggest the +theory of expansions in spherical harmonics, and so forth. The +physical, or intuitional, theory of such methods has naturally always +been in advance of the mathematical. From the latter point of +view only a few isolated questions of the kind had, until quite +recently, been treated in a rigorous and satisfactory manner. A +more general and comprehensive method, which seems to derive +some of its inspiration from physical considerations, has, however, +at length been inaugurated, and has been vigorously cultivated in +recent years by D. Hilbert, H. Poincaré, I. Fredholm, E. Picard +and others.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">References.</span>—Schuster’s method for detecting hidden periodicities +is explained in <i>Terrestrial Magnetism</i> (Chicago, 1898), 3, p. 13; +<i>Camb. Trans.</i> (1900), 18, p. 107; <i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i> (1906), 77, p. 136. +The general question of expanding an arbitrary function in a series +of functions of special types is treated most fully from the physical +point of view in Lord Rayleigh’s <i>Theory of Sound</i> (2nd ed., London, +1894-1896). An excellent detailed historical account of the matter +from the mathematical side is given by H. Burkhardt, <i>Entwicklungen +nach oscillierenden Funktionen</i> (Leipzig, 1901). A sketch of the +more recent mathematical developments is given by H. Bateman, +<i>Proc. Lond. Math. Soc.</i> (2), 4, p. 90, with copious references.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. Lb.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARMONICHORD,<a name="ar206" id="ar206"></a></span> an ingenious kind of upright piano, in +which the strings were set in vibration not by the blow of the +hammer but by indirectly transmitted friction. The harmonichord, +one of the many attempts to fuse piano and violin, was +invented by Johann Gottfried and Johann Friedrich Kaufmann +(father and son) in Saxony at the beginning of the 19th century, +when the craze for new and ingenious musical instruments was +at its height. The case was of the variety known as <i>giraffe</i>. +The space under the keyboard was enclosed, a knee-hold being +left in which were two pedals used to set in rotation a large +wooden cylinder fixed just behind the keyboard over the levers, +and covered with a roll-top similar to those of modern office +desks. The cylinder (in some specimens covered with chamois +leather) tapered towards the treble-end. When a key was +depressed, a little tongue of wood, one end of which stopped the +string, was pressed against the revolving cylinder, and the +vibrations produced by friction were transmitted to the string +and reinforced as in piano and violin by the soundboard. The +adjustment of the parts and the velocity of the cylinder required +delicacy and great nicety, for if the little wooden tongues rested +too lightly upon the cylinder or the strings, harmonics were +produced, and the note jumped to the octave or twelfth. Sometimes +when chords were played the touch became so heavy that +two performers were required, as in the early medieval organistrum, +the prototype of the harmonichord. Carl Maria von +Weber must have had some opinion of the possibilities of the +harmonichord, which in tone resembled the glass harmonica, +since he composed for it a concerto with orchestral accompaniment.</p> +<div class="author">(K. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HARMONIUM<a name="ar207" id="ar207"></a></span> (Fr. <i>harmonium</i>, <i>orgue expressif</i>; Ger. <i>Physharmonika</i>, +<i>Harmonium</i>), a wind keyboard instrument, a small +organ without pipes, furnished with free reeds. Both the +harmonium and its later development, the American organ, are +known as free-reed instruments, the musical tones being produced +by tongues of brass, technically termed “vibrators” (Fr. +<i>anche libre</i>; Ger. <i>durchschlagende Zunge</i>; Ital. <i>ancia</i> or <i>lingua +libera</i>). The vibrator is fixed over an oblong, rectangular frame, +through which it swings freely backwards and forwards like a +pendulum while vibrating, whereas the beating reeds (similar to +those of the clarinet family), used in church organs, cover the +entire orifice, beating against the sides at each vibration. A +reed or vibrator, set in periodic motion by impact of a current +of air, produces a corresponding succession of air puffs, the +rapidity of which determines the pitch of the musical note. +There is an essential difference between the harmonium and the +American organ in the direction of this current; in the former +the wind apparatus forces the current upwards, and in the latter +sucks it downwards, whence it becomes desirable to separate in +description these varieties of free-reed instruments.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 170px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:114px; height:355px" src="images/img958b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">By courtesy of Metzler & Co.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Free Reed +Vibrator, Alexandre Harmonium.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>harmonium</i> has a keyboard of five octaves compass when +complete, <img style="width:138px; height:61px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img958a.jpg" alt="" /> and a simple action controlling the +valves, &c. The necessary pressure of wind is generated by bellows +worked by the feet of the performer upon foot-boards or treadles. +The air is thus forced up the wind-trunks into an air-chamber +called the wind-chest, the pressure of it being equalized by a +reservoir, which receives the excess of wind through an aperture, +and permits escape, when above a certain pressure, by a discharge +valve or pallet. The aperture admitting air to the reservoir may +be closed by a drawstop named “expression.” The air being thus +cut off, the performer depends for his supply entirely upon the +management of the bellows worked by the treadles, whereby he +regulates the compression of the wind. The character of the instrument +is then entirely changed from a mechanical response to +the player’s touch to an expressive one, rendering what emotion +may be communicated from the player by increase or diminution of +sound through the greater or less pressure of wind to which the +reeds may be submitted. The drawstops bearing the names of the +different registers in imitation of the organ, admit, when drawn, the +wind from the wind-chest to the corresponding reed compartments, +shutting them off when closed. These compartments +are of about two octaves and a half +each, there being a division in the middle of +the keyboard scale dividing the stops into +bass and treble. A stop being drawn and a +key pressed down, wind is admitted by a +corresponding valve to a reed or vibrator +(fig. 1). Above each reed in the so-called +sound-board or pan is a channel, a small air-chamber +or cavity, the shape and capacity of +which have greatly to do with the colour of +tone of the note it reinforces. The air in this +resonator is highly compressed at an even or +a varying pressure as the expression-stop may +not be or may be drawn. The wind finally +escapes by a small pallet-hole opened by +pressing down the corresponding key. In +Mustel and other good harmoniums, the reed +compartments that form the scheme of the +instrument are eight in number, four bass +and four treble, of three different pitches of +octave and double octave distance. The front +bass and treble rows are the “diapason” of +the pitch known as 8 ft., and the bourdon +(double diapason), 16 ft. These may be +regarded as the foundation stops, and are +technically the front organ. The back organ has +solo and combination stops, the principal of 4 +ft. (octave higher than diapason), and bassoon +(bass) and oboe (treble), 8 ft. These may be mechanically combined +by a stop called full organ. The French maker, Mustel, added other +registers for much-admired effects of tone, viz. “harpe éolienne,” +two bass rows of 2 ft. pitch, the one tuned a beat too sharp, the +other a beat too flat, to produce a waving tremulous tone that has +a certain charm; “musette” and “voix celeste,” 16 ft.; and +“baryton,” a treble stop 32 ft., or two octaves lower than the +normal note of the key. The “back organ” is usually covered by +a swell box, containing louvres or shutters similar to a Venetian +blind, and divided into fortes corresponding with the bass and +treble division of the registers. The fortes are governed by knee +pedals which act by pneumatic pressure. Tuning the reeds is +effected by scraping them at the point to sharpen them, or near the +shoulder or heel to flatten them in pitch. Air pressure affects the +pitch but slightly, being noticeable only in the larger reeds, and +harmoniums long retain their tuning, a decided advantage over the +organ and the pianoforte. Mechanical contrivances in the harmonium, +of frequent or occasional employment, besides those +already referred to, are the “percussion,” a small pianoforte action +of hammer and escapement which, acting upon the reeds of the +diapason rows at the moment air is admitted to them, gives prompter +response to the depression of the key, or quicker speech; the +“double expression,” a pneumatic balance of great delicacy in the +wind reservoir, exactly maintaining by gradation equal pressure of +the wind; and the “double touch,” by which the back organ +registers speak sooner than those of the front that are called upon +by deeper pressure of the key, thus allowing prominence or accentuation +of certain parts by an expert performer. “Prolongement” +permits selected notes to be sustained after the fingers have quitted +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page959" id="page959"></a>959</span> +their keys. Dawes’s “melody attachment” is to give prominence +to an air or treble part by shutting off in certain registers all notes +below it. This notion has been adapted by inversion to a “pedal +substitute” to strengthen the lowest bass notes. The “tremolo” +affects the wind in the vicinity of the reeds by means of small bellows +which increase the velocity of the pulsation according to pressure; +and the “sourdine” diminishes the supply of wind by controlling +its admission to the reeds.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 170px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:96px; height:347px" src="images/img959.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">By courtesy of Metzler & Co.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—Free Reed +Vibrator, Mason & Hamlin American Organ.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>The American Organ</i> acts by wind exhaustion. A vacuum is +practically created in the air-chamber by the exhausting power of +the footboards, and a current of air thus drawn downwards passes +through any reeds that are left open, setting them in vibration. +This instrument has therefore exhaust instead of force bellows. +Valves in the board above the air-chamber give communication to +reeds (fig. 2) made more slender than those of the harmonium and +more or less bent, while the frames in which +they are fixed are also differently shaped, +being hollowed rather in spoon fashion. The +channels, the resonators above the reeds, are +not varied in size or shape as in the harmonium; +they exactly correspond with the +reeds, and are collectively known as the “tube-board.” +The swell “fortes” are in front of +the openings of these tubes, rails that open +or close by the action of the knees upon what +may be called knee pedals. The American +organ has a softer tone than the harmonium; +this is sometimes aided by the use of extra +resonators, termed pipes or qualifying tubes, +as, for instance, in Clough & Warren’s (of +Detroit, Michigan, U.S.). The blowing being +also easier, ladies find it much less fatiguing. +The expression stop can have little power in +the American organ, and is generally absent; +the “automatic swell” in the instruments +of Mason & Hamlin (of Boston, U.S.) is a +contrivance that comes the nearest to it, +though far inferior. By it a swell shutter or +rail is kept in constant movement, proportioned +to the force of the air-current. Another very +clever improvement introduced by these +makers, who were the originators of the instrument +itself, is the “vox humana,” a smaller +rail or fan, made to revolve rapidly by +wind pressure; its rotation, disturbing the +air near the reeds, causes interferences of vibration that produce +a tremulous effect, not unlike the beatings heard from combined +voices, whence the name. The arrangement of reed compartments +in American organs does not essentially differ from that of harmoniums; +but there are often two keyboards, and then the solo +and combination stops are found on the upper manual. The +diapason treble register is known as “melodia”; different makers +occasionally vary the use of fancy names for other stops. The +“sub-bass,” however, an octave of 16 ft. pitch and always apart +from the other reeds, is used with great advantage for pedal effects +on the manual, the compass of American organs being usually down +to F (FF, 5 octaves). In large instruments there are sometimes foot +pedals as in an organ, with their own reed boxes of 8 and 16 ft. +the lowest note being then CC. Blowing for pedal instruments +has to be done by hand, a lever being attached for that purpose. +The “celeste” stop is managed as in the harmonium, by rows of +reeds tuned not quite in unison, or by a shade valve that alters the +air-current and flattens one row of reeds thereby.</p> + +<p>Harmoniums and American organs are the result of many experiments +in the application of free reeds to keyboard instruments. The +principle of the free reed became widely known in Europe through +the introduction of the Chinese cheng<a name="fa1q" id="fa1q" href="#ft1q"><span class="sp">1</span></a> during the second half of +the 18th century, and culminated in the invention of the harmonium +and kindred instruments. The first step in the invention of the +harmonium is due to Professor Christian Gottlieb Kratzenstein of +Copenhagen, who had had the opportunity of examining a cheng +sent to his native city and of testing its merits.<a name="fa2q" id="fa2q" href="#ft2q"><span class="sp">2</span></a> In 1779 the +Academy of Science of St Petersburg had offered a prize for an +essay on the formation of the vowel sounds on an instrument similar +to the “vox humana” in the organ, which should be capable of +reproducing these sounds faithfully. Kratzenstein made as a +demonstration of his invention a small pneumatic organ fitted with +free reeds, and presented it to the Academy of St Petersburg.<a name="fa3q" id="fa3q" href="#ft3q"><span class="sp">3</span></a> His +essay was crowned and was republished with diagrams in Paris<a name="fa4q" id="fa4q" href="#ft4q"><span class="sp">4</span></a> in +1782. Meanwhile, in 1780, a countryman of Kratzenstein’s, an +organ-builder named Kirsnick, established in St Petersburg, adapted +these reed pipes to some of his organs and to an instrument of his +invention called organochordium, an organ combined with piano. +When Abt Vogler visited St Petersburg in 1788, he was so delighted +with these reeds that in 1790 he induced Rackwitz, an assistant +of Kirsnick’s, to come to him and adapt some to an organ he +was having built in Rotterdam. Three years later Abt Vogler’s +orchestrion, a chamber organ containing some 900 pipes, was completed, +and, according to Rackwitz,<a name="fa5q" id="fa5q" href="#ft5q"><span class="sp">5</span></a> was fitted with free-reed pipes. +Vogler himself, however, does not mention the free reed when +describing this wonderful instrument and his system of “simplification” +for church organs.<a name="fa6q" id="fa6q" href="#ft6q"><span class="sp">6</span></a> To Abt Vogler, who travelled all over +Germany, Scandinavia and the Netherlands, exhibiting his skill +on his orchestrion and reconstructing many organs, is due the credit +of making Kratzenstein’s invention known and inducing the musical +world to appreciate the capabilities of the free reed. The introduction +of free-reed stops into the organ, however, took a secondary +place in his scheme for reform.<a name="fa7q" id="fa7q" href="#ft7q"><span class="sp">7</span></a> Friedrich Kaufmann<a name="fa8q" id="fa8q" href="#ft8q"><span class="sp">8</span></a> of Dresden +states that Vogler told him he had imparted to J. N. Mälzel of Vienna +particulars as to the construction of free-reed pipes, and that the +latter used them in his panharmonicon,<a name="fa9q" id="fa9q" href="#ft9q"><span class="sp">9</span></a> which he exhibited during +his stay in Paris from 1805 to 1807. Kaufmann suggests that it was +through him that G. J. Grenié obtained the knowledge which led +to his experiments with free reeds in organs. It is more likely that +Grenié had read Kratzenstein’s essay and had experimented independently +with free reeds. In 1812 his first <i>orgue expressif</i> was +finished. It was a small organ with one register of free reeds—the +expression stop, in fact, added to the pipe organ and having a +separate wind-chest and bellows. It would seem from his description +of the orchestrion in <i>Data zur Akustik</i> that Vogler knew of no such +device. He used the swell shutter borrowed from England and a +threefold screen of canvas covered with a blanket arranged <i>outside +the instrument</i>, neither of which is capable of increasing the volume +of sound from the organ, or at least only after having first damped +the sound to a pianissimo. Vogler explains minutely the apparatus +used to conceal the working of the screen from the eyes of the +public.<a name="fa10q" id="fa10q" href="#ft10q"><span class="sp">10</span></a> The credit of discovering in the free reed the capability +of dynamic expression was undoubtedly due to Grenié, although Abt +Vogler claims to have used compression in 1796,<a name="fa11q" id="fa11q" href="#ft11q"><span class="sp">11</span></a> and Kaufmann in +his choraulodion in 1816. A larger <i>orgue expressif</i> was begun by +Grenié for the Conservatoire of Paris in 1812, the construction of +which was interrupted and then continued in 1816. Descriptions +of Grenié’s instrument have been published in French and German.<a name="fa12q" id="fa12q" href="#ft12q"><span class="sp">12</span></a> +The organ of the Conservatoire had a pedal free-reed stop of 16 ft., +with vibrators 0.240 m. long, 0.035 m. wide, and 0.003 m. thick.<a name="fa13q" id="fa13q" href="#ft13q"><span class="sp">13</span></a> +Two compressors, one for the treble and the other for the bass, +worked by treadles, enabled the performer to regulate the pressure +of wind on the reeds and therefore to obtain the gradations of forte +and piano which gained for his instrument the name of <i>orgue expressif</i>. +Grenié’s instrument was a pipe organ, the pipes terminating +in a cone with a hemispherical cap in the top of which was a small +hole. There were eight registers including the pedal, and the +positive on the first keyboard had reed stops furnished with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page960" id="page960"></a>960</span> +beating reeds. Biot insists on the Importance of the regulating +wires (Fr. <i>rasettes</i>; Ger. <i>Krücken</i>) for determining the vibrating +length of the reed tongue and maintaining it invariable. These +are clearly shown in his diagram (see article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Free Reed Vibrator</a></span>, +fig. 1); they do not essentially differ from those used with the +beating-reed stops in his organ (fig. 76, pl. II.), or indeed from those +figured by Praetorius.</p> + +<p>Isolated specimens of the cheng must have found their way to +Europe during the 15th and 16th centuries, for Mersenne<a name="fa14q" id="fa14q" href="#ft14q"><span class="sp">14</span></a> depicts +part of one showing the free reed. It would seem that still earlier +in the 17th century there was an organ in a monastery in Hesse +with free reeds for the <i>Posaune</i> stop, for Praetorius gives a description +of the “extraordinary” reed (p. 169); there is no record of the +inventor in this case.</p> + +<p>During the first half of the 19th century various tentative efforts +in France and Germany, and subsequently in England, were made +to produce new keyboard instruments with free reeds, the most +notable of these being the physharmonica<a name="fa15q" id="fa15q" href="#ft15q"><span class="sp">15</span></a> of Anton Häckel, +invented in Vienna in 1818, which, improved and enlarged, has +retained its hold on the German people. The modern physharmonica +is a harmonium without stops or percussion action; it does not +therefore speak readily or clearly. It has a range of five to six +octaves. Other instruments of similar type are the French melophone +and the English seraphine, a keyboard harmonica with +bellows but no channels for the tongues, for which a patent was +granted to Myers and Storer in 1839; the aeoline or aelodicon<a name="fa16q" id="fa16q" href="#ft16q"><span class="sp">16</span></a> of +Eschenbach; the melodicon<a name="fa17q" id="fa17q" href="#ft17q"><span class="sp">17</span></a> of Dietz; the melodica<a name="fa18q" id="fa18q" href="#ft18q"><span class="sp">18</span></a> of Rieffelson; +the apollonicon;<a name="fa19q" id="fa19q" href="#ft19q"><span class="sp">19</span></a> the new cheng<a name="fa20q" id="fa20q" href="#ft20q"><span class="sp">20</span></a> of Reichstein; the terpodion<a name="fa21q" id="fa21q" href="#ft21q"><span class="sp">21</span></a> +of Buschmann, &c. None of these has survived to the present day.</p> + +<p>The inventor of the harmonium was indubitably Alexandre +Debain, who took out a patent for it in Paris in 1840. He produced +varied timbre registers by modifying reed channels, and brought +these registers on to one keyboard. Unfortunately he patented +too much, for he secured even the name <i>harmonium</i>, obliging contemporary +and future experimenters to shelter their improvements +under other names, and the venerable name of organ becoming +impressed into connexion with an inferior instrument, we have now +to distinguish between reed and pipe organs. The compromise of +reed organ for the harmonium class of instruments must therefore +be accepted. Debain’s harmonium was at first quite mechanical; +it gained expression by the expression-stop already described. The +Alexandres, well-known French makers, by the ingenuity of one of +their workmen, P. A. Martin, added the percussion and the prolongement. +The melody attachment was the invention of an +English engineer; the introduction of the double touch, now used +in the harmoniums of Mustel, Bauer and others—also in American +organs—was due to Tamplin, an English professor.</p> + +<p>The principle of the American organ originated with the Alexandres, +whose earliest experiments are said to have been made with +the view of constructing an instrument to exhaust air. The realization +of the idea proving to be more in consonance with the genius +of the American people, to whom what we may call the devotional +tone of the instrument appealed, the introduction of it by Messrs +Mason and Hamlin in 1861 was followed by remarkable success. +They made it generally known in Europe by exhibiting it at Paris +in 1867, and from that time instruments have been exported in large +numbers by different makers.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. J. H.; K. S.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1q" id="ft1q" href="#fa1q"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See <i>Allg. musik. Ztg.</i> (Leipzig, 1821), Bd. xxiii. pp. 369-374. +The cheng was made known in France by Père Amiot, who published +a careful description of the instrument in <i>Mémoire sur la musique +des Chinois</i>, p. 80 seq., with excellent diagrams.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2q" id="ft2q" href="#fa2q"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Ib., Bd. xxv. p. 152.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3q" id="ft3q" href="#fa3q"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The essay was published in <i>Acta Acad. Petrop.</i> (1780).</p> + +<p><a name="ft4q" id="ft4q" href="#fa4q"><span class="fn">4</span></a> “Essai sur la naissance et sur la formation des voyelles” in +Rozier’s <i>Observations sur la physique</i> (Paris, 1782), <i>Supplément</i>, +xxi. 358 seq.,, with two plates. The description of the instrument +begins on p. 374, § xxii.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5q" id="ft5q" href="#fa5q"><span class="fn">5</span></a> See “Über die Erfindung der Rohrwerke mit durchschlagenden +Zungen,” by Wilke, in <i>Allg. musik. Ztg.</i> (Leipzig, 1823), Bd. xxv. +pp. 152-153 and Bd. xxvii. p. 263; also Thos. Ant. Kunz, “Orchestrion,” +id., Bd. i. p. 88 and Bd. ii. pp. 514, 542; and Dr +Karl Emil von Schafhäutl, <i>Abt Georg Joseph Vogler</i> (Augsburg, +1888), p. 37.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6q" id="ft6q" href="#fa6q"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Data zur Akustik, eine Abhandlung vorgelesen bey der Sitzung der +naturforschenden Freunde in Berlin, den 15ten Dezember 1800</i> +(Offenbach, 1801); also published in <i>Allg. musik. Ztg.</i> (1801), +Bd. iii. pp. 517, 533, 565. See also an excellent article by the +Rev. J. H. Mee on Vogler in Grove’s <i>Dictionary of Music and +Musicians</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7q" id="ft7q" href="#fa7q"><span class="fn">7</span></a> See <i>Data zur Akustik</i>, and a pamphlet by Vogler, “Über die +Umschaffung der St Marien Orgel in Berlin nach dem Voglerschen +Simplifikations-System, eine Nachahmung des Orchestrion” +(Berlin); also “Kurze Beschreibung der in der Stadtpfarrkirche zu +St Peter zu München nach dem Voglerschen Simplifikations-System +neuerbauten Orgel” (Munich, 1809).</p> + +<p><a name="ft8q" id="ft8q" href="#fa8q"><span class="fn">8</span></a> See <i>Allg. musik. Ztg.</i> (1823), Bd. xxv. pp. 153 and 154 note, +and 117-118 note.</p> + +<p><a name="ft9q" id="ft9q" href="#fa9q"><span class="fn">9</span></a> A description of Mälzel’s panharmonicon before the addition of +the clarinet and oboe stops with free reeds is to be found in the +<i>Allg. musik. Ztg.</i> (1800), Bd. ii. pp. 414-415.</p> + +<p><a name="ft10q" id="ft10q" href="#fa10q"><span class="fn">10</span></a> In the article in Grove’s <i>Dictionary</i> the screen is said to have +been in the wind-trunk.</p> + +<p><a name="ft11q" id="ft11q" href="#fa11q"><span class="fn">11</span></a> See <i>Allg. musik. Ztg.</i> Bd. iii. p. 523.</p> + +<p><a name="ft12q" id="ft12q" href="#fa12q"><span class="fn">12</span></a> See J. B. Biot, <i>Précis élémentaire de physique expérimentale</i> +(Paris, 1817), tome i. p. 386, and his <i>Traité de physique</i> (Paris, 1816), +tome ii. p. 172 et seq., pl. ii.; “Über die Crescendo und Diminuendo +Züge an Orgeln,” by Wilke and Kaufmann, <i>Allg. musik. Ztg.</i> (1823), +Bd. xxv. pp. 113-122; and <i>Allg. musik. Ztg.</i> Bd. xxiii. pp. 133-139 +and 149-154, with diagrams on p. 167 which are not absolutely +correct in small details.</p> + +<p><a name="ft13q" id="ft13q" href="#fa13q"><span class="fn">13</span></a> J. B. Biot, <i>Traité</i>, tome ii. p. 174.</p> + +<p><a name="ft14q" id="ft14q" href="#fa14q"><span class="fn">14</span></a> <i>Harmonie universelle</i> (Paris, 1636), livre v., prop. xxxv.</p> + +<p><a name="ft15q" id="ft15q" href="#fa15q"><span class="fn">15</span></a> <i>Wien. musik. Ztg.</i> Bd. v. Nos. 39 and 87.</p> + +<p><a name="ft16q" id="ft16q" href="#fa16q"><span class="fn">16</span></a> <i>Allg. musik. Ztg.</i> Bd. xxii. p. 505, and Bd. xxxv. p. 354.</p> + +<p><a name="ft17q" id="ft17q" href="#fa17q"><span class="fn">17</span></a> Id. Bd. viii. pp. 526 and 715.</p> + +<p><a name="ft18q" id="ft18q" href="#fa18q"><span class="fn">18</span></a> Id. Bd. xi. p. 625.</p> + +<p><a name="ft19q" id="ft19q" href="#fa19q"><span class="fn">19</span></a> <i>Allg. musik. Ztg.</i> Bd. ii. p. 767, and <i>Wien. musik. Ztg.</i> Bd. i. No. 501.</p> + +<p><a name="ft20q" id="ft20q" href="#fa20q"><span class="fn">20</span></a> Id. Bd. xxxi. p. 489.</p> + +<p><a name="ft21q" id="ft21q" href="#fa21q"><span class="fn">21</span></a> Id. Bd. xxxiv. pp. 856 and 858; and <i>Cäcilia</i>, Bd. xiv. p. 259.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 12, Slice 8, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + +***** This file should be named 38454-h.htm or 38454-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/8/4/5/38454/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 12, Slice 8 + "Haller, Albrecht" to "Harmonium" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: December 31, 2011 [EBook #38454] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters, [oo] for infinity symbol and [dP] for partial differential + symbol. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE HALLER, ALBRECHT VON: "From a literary point of view the + main result of this, the first of his many journeys through the + Alps, was his poem entitled Die Alpen, which was finished in March + 1729, and appeared in the first edition (1732) of his Gedichte." + 'poem' amended from 'peom'. + + ARTICLE HAMBURG: "... and if the progress of the tide up the river + gives indication of danger, another three shots follow." 'another' + amended from 'other'. + + ARTICLE HARBOUR: "Ostend is the only jetty harbour in which a large + sluicing basin has been recently constructed, but it can only + provide for the maintenance of deep-water quays in its vicinity; + ..." 'harbour' amended from 'habour'. + + ARTICLE HARMONICA: "... Franz Leppich's panmelodicon in 1810, + Buschmann's uranion in the same year, &c. Of most of these nothing + now remains but the name and a description in the Allgemeine + musikalische Zeitung ..." Added 'in'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME XII, SLICE VIII + + Haller, Albrecht to Harmonium + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + HALLER, ALBRECHT VON HANDICAP + HALLER, BERTHOLD HANDSEL + HALLEY, EDMUND HANDSWORTH + HALLGRIMSSON, JONAS HANDWRITING + HALLIDAY, ANDREW HANG-CHOW-FU + HALLIWELL-PHILLIPPS, ORCHARD HANGING + HALLOWE'EN HANGO + HALLSTATT HANKA, WENCESLAUS + HALLUCINATION HANLEY + HALLUIN HANNA, MARCUS ALONZO + HALM, CARL FELIX HANNAY, JAMES + HALMA HANNEN, JAMES HANNEN + HALMAHERA HANNIBAL (Carthaginian statesman) + HALMSTAD HANNIBAL (Missouri, U.S.A.) + HALO HANNINGTON, JAMES + HALOGENS HANNINGTON + HALS, FRANS HANNO + HALSBURY, HARDINGE GIFFARD HANOI + HALSTEAD HANOTAUX, ALBERT AUGUSTE GABRIEL + HALT HANOVER (province of Prussia) + HALUNTIUM HANOVER (city of Prussia) + HALYBURTON, JAMES HANOVER (Indiana, U.S.A.) + HALYBURTON, THOMAS HANOVER (New Hampshire, U.S.A.) + HAM (son of Noah) HANOVER (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.) + HAM (town of France) HANRIOT, FRANCOIS + HAMADAN HANSARD, LUKE + HAMADHANI HANSEATIC LEAGUE + HAMAH HANSEN, PETER ANDREAS + HAMANN, JOHANN GEORG HANSI + HAMAR HANSOM, JOSEPH ALOYSIUS + HAMASA HANSON, SIR RICHARD DAVIES + HAMBURG (German state) HANSTEEN, CHRISTOPHER + HAMBURG (German seaport) HANTHAWADDY + HAMDANI HANUKKAH + HAMELIN, FRANCOIS ALPHONSE HANUMAN + HAMELN HANWAY, JONAS + HAMERLING, ROBERT HANWELL + HAMERTON, PHILIP GILBERT HAPARANDA + HAMI HAPLODRILI + HAMILCAR BARCA HAPTARA + HAMILTON HAPUR + HAMILTON, MARQUESSES & DUKES OF HARA-KIRI + HAMILTON, ALEXANDER HARALD + HAMILTON, ANTHONY HARBIN + HAMILTON, ELIZABETH HARBINGER + HAMILTON, EMMA HARBOUR + HAMILTON, JAMES HARBURG + HAMILTON, JAMES HAMILTON HARCOURT + HAMILTON, JOHN HARCOURT, SIMON HARCOURT + HAMILTON, PATRICK HARCOURT, SIR WILLIAM VENABLES VERNON + HAMILTON, ROBERT HARCOURT, WILLIAM VERNON + HAMILTON, THOMAS HARDANGER FJORD + HAMILTON, WILLIAM HARDEE, WILLIAM JOSEPH + HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM (1730-1803) HARDENBERG, KARL AUGUST VON + HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM (1788-1856) HARDERWYK + HAMILTON, WILLIAM GERARD HARDICANUTE + HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM ROWAN HARDING, CHESTER + HAMILTON (town of Australia) HARDING, JAMES DUFFIELD + HAMILTON (river of Canada) HARDINGE, HENRY HARDINGE + HAMILTON (city of Canada) HARDOI + HAMILTON (burgh of Scotland) HARDOUIN, JEAN + HAMILTON (New York, U.S.A.) HARDT, HERMANN VON DER + HAMILTON (Ohio, U.S.A.) HARDT, THE + HAMIRPUR HARDWAR + HAMITIC RACES AND LANGUAGES HARDWICKE, PHILIP YORKE + HAMLET HARDY, ALEXANDRE + HAMLEY, SIR EDWARD BRUCE HARDY, THOMAS + HAMLIN, HANNIBAL HARDY, SIR THOMAS DUFFUS + HAMM HARDY, SIR THOMAS MASTERMAN + HAMMAD AR-RAWIYA HARDYNG, JOHN + HAMMER, FRIEDRICH JULIUS HARE, AUGUSTUS JOHN CUTHBERT + HAMMER HARE, SIR JOHN + HAMMERBEAM ROOF HARE, JULIUS CHARLES + HAMMERFEST HARE + HAMMER-KOP HAREBELL + HAMMER-PURGSTALL, JOSEPH HAREM + HAMMERSMITH HARFLEUR + HAMMER-THROWING HARIANA + HAMMER-TOE HARINGTON, SIR JOHN + HAMMOCK HARIRI + HAMMOND, HENRY HARI-RUD + HAMMOND HARISCHANDRA + HAMON, JEAN LOUIS HARITH IBN HILLIZA UL-YASHKURI + HAMPDEN, HENRY BOUVERIE BRAND HARIZI, JUDAH BEN SOLOMON + HAMPDEN, JOHN HARKNESS, ALBERT + HAMPDEN, RENN DICKSON HARKNESS, ROBERT + HAMPDEN-SIDNEY HARLAN, JAMES + HAMPSHIRE HARLAN, JOHN MARSHALL + HAMPSTEAD HARLAND, HENRY + HAMPTON, WADE HARLAY DE CHAMPVALLON, FRANCOIS DE + HAMPTON (Middlesex, England) HARLECH + HAMPTON (Virginia, U.S.A.) HARLEQUIN + HAMPTON ROADS HARLESS, GOTTLIEB CHRISTOPH + HAMSTER HARLESS, GOTTLIEB CHRISTOPH ADOLF VON + HANAPER HARLINGEN + HANAU HARMATTAN + HANBURY WILLIAMS, SIR CHARLES HARMODIUS + HANCOCK, JOHN HARMONIA + HANCOCK, WINFIELD SCOTT HARMONIC + HANCOCK HARMONICA + HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF HARMONIC ANALYSIS + HAND HARMONICHORD + HANDEL, GEORGE FREDERICK HARMONIUM + HANDFASTING + + + + +HALLER, ALBRECHT VON (1708-1777), Swiss anatomist and physiologist, was +born of an old Swiss family at Bern, on the 16th of October 1708. +Prevented by long-continued ill-health from taking part in boyish +sports, he had the more opportunity for the development of his +precocious mind. At the age of four, it is said, he used to read and +expound the Bible to his father's servants; before he was ten he had +sketched a Chaldee grammar, prepared a Greek and a Hebrew vocabulary, +compiled a collection of two thousand biographies of famous men and +women on the model of the great works of Bayle and Moreri, and written +in Latin verse a satire on his tutor, who had warned him against a too +great excursiveness. When still hardly fifteen he was already the author +of numerous metrical translations from Ovid, Horace and Virgil, as well +as of original lyrics, dramas, and an epic of four thousand lines on the +origin of the Swiss confederations, writings which he is said on one +occasion to have rescued from a fire at the risk of his life, only, +however, to burn them a little later (1729) with his own hand. Haller's +attention had been directed to the profession of medicine while he was +residing in the house of a physician at Biel after his father's death in +1721; and, following the choice then made, he while still a sickly and +excessively shy youth went in his sixteenth year to the university of +Tubingen (December 1723), where he studied under Camerarius and +Duvernoy. Dissatisfied with his progress, he in 1725 exchanged Tubingen +for Leiden, where Boerhaave was in the zenith of his fame, and where +Albinus had already begun to lecture in anatomy. At that university he +graduated in May 1727, undertaking successfully in his thesis to prove +that the so-called salivary duct, claimed as a recent discovery by +Coschwitz, was nothing more than a blood-vessel. Haller then visited +London, making the acquaintance of Sir Hans Sloane, Cheselden, Pringle, +Douglas and other scientific men; next, after a short stay in Oxford, he +visited Paris, where he studied under Ledran and Winslow; and in 1728 he +proceeded to Basel, where he devoted himself to the study of the higher +mathematics under John Bernoulli. It was during his stay there also that +his first great interest in botany was awakened; and, in the course of a +tour (July-August, 1828), through Savoy, Baden and several of the Swiss +cantons, he began a collection of plants which was afterwards the basis +of his great work on the flora of Switzerland. From a literary point of +view the main result of this, the first of his many journeys through the +Alps, was his poem entitled _Die Alpen_, which was finished in March +1729, and appeared in the first edition (1732) of his _Gedichte_. This +poem of 490 hexameters is historically important as one of the earliest +signs of the awakening appreciation of the mountains (hitherto generally +regarded as horrible monstrosities), though it is chiefly designed to +contrast the simple and idyllic life of the inhabitants of the Alps with +the corrupt and decadent existence of the dwellers in the plains. + +In 1729 he returned to Bern and began to practise as a physician; his +best energies, however, were devoted to the botanical and anatomical +researches which rapidly gave him a European reputation, and procured +for him from George II. in 1736 a call to the chair of medicine, +anatomy, botany and surgery in the newly founded university of +Gottingen. He became F.R.S. in 1743, and was ennobled in 1749. The +quantity of work achieved by Haller in the seventeen years during which +he occupied his Gottingen professorship was immense. Apart from the +ordinary work of his classes, which entailed upon him the task of newly +organizing a botanical garden, an anatomical theatre and museum, an +obstetrical school, and similar institutions, he carried on without +interruption those original investigations in botany and physiology, the +results of which are preserved in the numerous works associated with his +name; he continued also to persevere in his youthful habit of poetical +composition, while at the same time he conducted a monthly journal (the +_Gottingische gelehrte Anzeigen_), to which he is said to have +contributed twelve thousand articles relating to almost every branch of +human knowledge. He also warmly interested himself in most of the +religious questions, both ephemeral and permanent, of his day; and the +erection of the Reformed church in Gottingen was mainly due to his +unwearied energy. Notwithstanding all this variety of absorbing +interests he never felt at home in Gottingen; his untravelled heart kept +ever turning towards his native Bern (where he had been elected a member +of the great council in 1745), and in 1753 he resolved to resign his +chair and return to Switzerland. + +The twenty-one years of his life which followed were largely occupied in +the discharge of his duties in the minor political post of a +_Rathhausammann_ which he had obtained by lot, and in the preparation of +his _Bibliotheca medica_, the botanical, surgical and anatomical parts +of which he lived to complete; but he also found time to write the three +philosophical romances--_Usong_ (1771), _Alfred_ (1773) and _Fabius and +Cato_ (1774),--in which his views as to the respective merits of +despotism, of limited monarchy and of aristocratic republican government +are fully set forth. About 1773 the state of his health rendered +necessary his entire withdrawal from public business; for some time he +supported his failing strength by means of opium, on the use of which he +communicated a paper to the _Proceedings_ of the Gottingen Royal Society +in 1776; the excessive use of the drug is believed, however, to have +hastened his death, which occurred on the 17th of December 1777. Haller, +who had been three times married, left eight children, the eldest of +whom, Gottlieb Emanuel, attained to some distinction as a botanist and +as a writer on Swiss historical bibliography (1785-1788, 7 vols.). + + Subjoined is a classified but by no means an exhaustive list of his + very numerous works in various branches of science and literature (a + complete list, up to 1775, numbering 576 items, including various + editions, was published by Haller himself, in 1775, at the end of vol. + 6 of the correspondence addressed to him by various learned + friends):--(1) Anatomical:--_Icones anatomicae_ (1743-1754); + _Disputationes anatomicae selectiores_ (1746-1752); and _Opera acad. + minora anatomici argumenti_ (1762-1768). (2) Physiological:--_De + respiratione experimenta anatomica_ (1747); _Primae lineae + physiologiae_ (1747); and _Elementa physiologiae corporis humani_ + (1757-1760). (3) Pathological and surgical:--_Opuscula pathologica_ + (1754); _Disputationum chirurg. collectio_ (1777); also careful + editions of Boerhaave's _Praelectiones academicae in suas + institutiones rei medicae_ (1739), and of the _Artis medicae + principia_ of the same author (1769-1774). (4) Botanical:--_Enumeratio + methodica stirpium Helveticarum_ (1742); _Opuscula botanica_ (1749); + _Bibliotheca botanica_ (1771). (5) Theological:--_Briefe uber die + wichtigsten Wahrheiten der Offenbarung_ (1772); and _Briefe zur + Vertheidigung der Offenbarung_ (1775-1777). (6) Poetical:--_Gedichte_ + (1732, 12th ed., 1777). His three romances have been already + mentioned. Several volumes of lectures and "Tagebucher" or journals + were published posthumously. + + See J. G. Zimmermann, _Das Leben des Herrn von Haller_ (1755), and the + articles by Forster and Seiler in Ersch and Gruber's _Encyklopadie_, + and particularly the detailed biography (over 500 pages) by L. Hirzel, + printed at the head of his elaborate edition (Frauenfeld, 1882) of + Haller's _Gedichte_. + + + + +HALLER, BERTHOLD (1492-1536), Swiss reformer, was born at Aldingen in +Wurttemberg, and after studying at Pforzheim, where he met Melanchthon, +and at Cologne, taught in the gymnasium at Bern. He was appointed +assistant preacher at the church of St Vincent in 1515 and people's +priest in 1520. Even before his acquaintance with Zwingli in 1521 he had +begun to preach the Reformation, his sympathetic character and his +eloquence making him a great force. In 1526 he was at the abortive +conference of Baden, and in January 1528 drafted and defended the ten +theses for the conference of Bern which established the new religion in +that city. He left no writings except a few letters which are preserved +in Zwingli's works. He died on the 25th of February 1536. + + Life by Pestalozzi (Elberfeld, 1861). + + + + +HALLEY, EDMUND (1656-1742), English astronomer, was born at Haggerston, +London, on the 29th of October 1656. His father, a wealthy soapboiler, +placed him at St Paul's school, where he was equally distinguished for +classical and mathematical ability. Before leaving it for Queen's +College, Oxford, in 1673, he had observed the change in the variation of +the compass, and at the age of nineteen, he supplied a new and improved +method of determining the elements of the planetary orbits (_Phil. +Trans._ xi. 683). His detection of considerable errors in the tables +then in use led him to the conclusion that a more accurate ascertainment +of the places of the fixed stars was indispensable to the progress of +astronomy; and, finding that Flamsteed and Hevelius had already +undertaken to catalogue those visible in northern latitudes, he assumed +to himself the task of making observations in the southern hemisphere. A +recommendation from Charles II. to the East India Company procured for +him an apparently suitable, though, as it proved, ill-chosen station, +and in November 1676 he embarked for St Helena. On the voyage he noticed +the retardation of the pendulum in approaching the equator; and during +his stay on the island he observed, on the 7th of November 1677, a +transit of Mercury, which suggested to him the important idea of +employing similar phenomena for determining the sun's distance. He +returned to England in November 1678, having by the registration of 341 +stars won the title of the "Southern Tycho," and by the translation to +the heavens of the "Royal Oak," earned a degree of master of arts, +conferred at Oxford by the king's command on the 3rd of December 1678, +almost simultaneously with his election as fellow of the Royal Society. +Six months later, the indefatigable astronomer started for Danzig to set +at rest a dispute of long standing between Hooke and Hevelius as to the +respective merits of plain or telescopic sights; and towards the end of +1680 he proceeded on a continental tour. In Paris he observed, with G. +D. Cassini, the great comet of 1680 after its perihelion passage; and +having returned to England, he married in 1682 Mary, daughter of Mr +Tooke, auditor of the exchequer, with whom he lived harmoniously for +fifty-five years. He now fixed his residence at Islington, engaged +chiefly upon lunar observations, with a view to the great desideratum of +a method of finding the longitude at sea. His mind, however, was also +busy with the momentous problem of gravity. Having reached so far as to +perceive that the central force of the solar system must decrease +inversely as the square of the distance, and applied vainly to Wren and +Hooke for further elucidation, he made in August 1684 that journey to +Cambridge for the purpose of consulting Newton, which resulted in the +publication of the _Principia_. The labour and expense of passing this +great work through the press devolved upon Halley, who also wrote the +prefixed hexameters ending with the well-known line-- + + Nec fas est propius mortali attingere divos. + +In 1696 he was, although a zealous Tory, appointed deputy comptroller of +the mint at Chester, and (August 19, 1698) he received a commission as +captain of the "Paramour Pink" for the purpose of making extensive +observations on the conditions of terrestrial magnetism. This task he +accomplished in a voyage which lasted two years, and extended to the +52nd degree of S. latitude. The results were published in a _General +Chart of the Variation of the Compass_ in 1701; and immediately +afterwards he executed by royal command a careful survey of the tides +and coasts of the British Channel, an elaborate map of which he produced +in 1702. On his return from a journey to Dalmatia, for the purpose of +selecting and fortifying the port of Trieste, he was nominated, November +1703, Savilian professor of geometry at Oxford, and received an honorary +degree of doctor of laws in 1710. Between 1713 and 1721 he acted as +secretary to the Royal Society, and early in 1720 he succeeded Flamsteed +as astronomer-royal. Although in his sixty-fourth year, he undertook to +observe the moon through an entire revolution of her nodes (eighteen +years), and actually carried out his purpose. He died on the 14th of +January 1742. His tomb is in the old graveyard of St Margaret's church, +Lee, Kent. + +Halley's most notable scientific achievements were--his detection of the +"long inequality" of Jupiter and Saturn, and of the acceleration of the +moon's mean motion (1693), his discovery of the proper motions of the +fixed stars (1718), his theory of variation (1683), including the +hypothesis of four magnetic poles, revived by C. Hansteen in 1819, and +his suggestion of the magnetic origin of the aurora borealis; his +calculation of the orbit of the 1682 comet (the first ever attempted), +coupled with a prediction of its return, strikingly verified in 1759; +and his indication (first in 1679, and again in 1716, Phil. Trans., No. +348) of a method extensively used in the 18th and 19th centuries for +determining the solar parallax by means of the transits of Venus. + + His principal works are _Catalogus stellarum australium_ (London, + 1679), the substance of which was embodied in vol. iii. of Flamsteed's + _Historia coelestis_ (1725); _Synopsis astronomiae cometicae_ (Oxford, + 1705); _Astronomical Tables_ (London, 1752); also eighty-one + miscellaneous papers of considerable interest, scattered through the + _Philosophical Transactions_. To these should be added his version + from the Arabic (which language he acquired for the purpose) of the + treatise of Apollonius _De sectione rationis_, with a restoration of + his two lost books _De sectione spatii_, both published at Oxford in + 1706; also his fine edition of the _Conics_ of Apollonius, with the + treatise by Serenus _De sectione cylindri et coni_ (Oxford, 1710, + folio). His edition of the _Spherics_ of Menelaus was published by his + friend Dr Costard in 1758. See also _Biographia Britannica_, vol. iv. + (1757); _Gent. Mag._ xvii. 455, 503; A. Wood, _Athenae Oxon._ (Bliss), + iv. 536; J. Aubrey, _Lives_, ii. 365; F. Baily, _Account of + Flamsteed_; Sir D. Brewster, _Life of Newton_; R. Grant, _History of + Astronomy_, p. 477 and _passim_; A. J. Rudolph, _Bulletin of + Bibliography_, No. 14 (Boston, 1904); E. F. McPike, "Bibliography of + Halley's Comet," _Smithsonian Misc. Collections_, vol. xlviii. pt. i. + (1905); _Notes and Queries_, 9th series, vols. x. xi. xii., 10th + series, vol. ii. (E. F. McPike). A collection of manuscripts regarding + Halley is preserved among the Rigaud papers in the Bodleian library, + Oxford; and many of his unpublished letters exist at the Record Office + and in the library of the Royal Society. (A. M. C.) + + + + +HALLGRIMSSON, JONAS (1807-1844), the chief lyrical poet of Iceland, was +born in 1807 at Steinsstathir in Eyjafjartharsysla in the north of that +island, and educated at the famous school of Bessastathr. In 1832 he went +to the university of Copenhagen, and shortly afterwards turned his +attention to the natural sciences, especially geology. Having obtained +pecuniary assistance from the Danish government, he travelled through +all Iceland for scientific purposes in the years 1837-1842, and made +many interesting geological observations. Most of his writings on +geology are in Danish. His renown was, however, not acquired by his +writings in that language, but by his Icelandic poems and short stories. +He was well read in German literature, Heine and Schiller being his +favourites, and the study of the German masters and the old classical +writers of Iceland opened his eyes to the corrupt state of Icelandic +poetry and showed him the way to make it better. The misuse of the Eddic +metaphors made the lyrical and epical poetry of the day hardly +intelligible, and, to make matters worse, the language of the poets was +mixed up with words of German and Danish origin. The great Danish +philologist and friend of Iceland, Rasmus Rask, and the poet Bjarni +Thorarensen had done much to purify the language, but Jonas Hallgrimsson +completed their work by his poems and tales, in a purer language than +ever had been written in Iceland since the days of Snorri Sturlason. The +excesses of Icelandic poetry were specially seen in the so-called +_rimur_, ballads of heroes, &c., which were fiercely attacked by Jonas +Hallgrimsson, who at last succeeded in converting the educated to his +view. Most of the principal poems, tales and essays of Jonas +Hallgrimsson appeared in the periodical _Fjolnir_, which he began +publishing at Copenhagen in 1835, together with Konrath Gislason, a +well-known philologist, and the patriotic Thomas Saemundsson. _Fjolnir_ +had in the beginning a hard struggle against old prejudices, but as the +years went by its influence became enormous; and when it at last +ceased, its programme and spirit still lived in _Ny Felagsrit_ and other +patriotic periodicals which took its place. Jonas Hallgrimsson, who died +in 1844, is the father of a separate school in Icelandic lyric poetry. +He introduced foreign thoughts and metres, but at the same time revived +the metres of the Icelandic classical poets. Although his poetical works +are all comprised in one small volume, he strikes every string of the +old harp of Iceland. (S. Bl.) + + + + +HALLIDAY, ANDREW [ANDREW HALLIDAY DUFF] (1830-1877), British journalist +and dramatist, was born at Marnoch, Banffshire, in 1830. He was educated +at Marischal College, Aberdeen, and in 1849 he came to London, and +discarding the name of Duff, devoted himself to literature. His first +engagement was with the daily papers, and his work having attracted the +notice of Thackeray, he was invited to write for the _Cornhill +Magazine_. From 1861 he contributed largely to _All the Year Round_, and +many of his articles were republished in collected form. He was also the +author, alone and with others, of a great number of farces, burlesques +and melodramas and a peculiarly successful adapter of popular novels for +the stage. Of these _Little Em'ly_ (1869), his adaptation of _David +Copperfield_, was warmly approved by Dickens himself, and enjoyed a long +run at Drury Lane. Halliday died in London on the 10th of April 1877. + + + + +HALLIWELL-PHILLIPPS, JAMES ORCHARD (1820-1889), English Shakespearian +scholar, son of Thomas Halliwell, was born in London, on the 21st of +June 1820. He was educated privately and at Jesus College, Cambridge. He +devoted himself to antiquarian research, particularly in early English +literature. In 1839 he edited Sir John Mandeville's _Travels_; in 1842 +published an _Account of the European MSS. in the Chetham Library_, +besides a newly discovered metrical romance of the 15th century +(_Torrent of Portugal_). He became best known, however, as a +Shakespearian editor and collector. In 1848 he brought out his _Life of +Shakespeare_, which passed through several editions; in 1853-1865 a +sumptuous edition, limited to 150 copies, of Shakespeare in folio, with +full critical notes; in 1863 a _Calendar of the Records at +Stratford-on-Avon_; in 1864 a _History of New Place_. After 1870 he +entirely gave up textual criticism, and devoted his attention to +elucidating the particulars of Shakespeare's life. He collated all the +available facts and documents in relation to it, and exhausted the +information to be found in local records in his _Outlines of the Life of +Shakespeare_. He was mainly instrumental in the purchase of New Place +for the corporation of Stratford-on-Avon, and in the formation there of +the Shakespeare museum. His publications in all numbered more than sixty +volumes. He assumed the name of Phillipps in 1872, under the will of the +grandfather of his first wife, a daughter of Sir Thomas Phillipps the +antiquary. He took an active interest in the Camden Society, the Percy +Society and the Shakespeare Society, for which he edited many early +English and Elizabethan works. From 1845 Halliwell was excluded from the +library of the British Museum on account of the suspicion attaching to +his possession of some manuscripts which had been removed from the +library of Trinity College, Cambridge. He published privately an +explanation of the matter in 1845. His house, Hollingbury Copse, near +Brighton, was full of rare and curious works, and he generously gave +many of them to the Chetham library, Manchester, to the town library of +Penzance, to the Smithsonian Institute, Washington, and to the library +of Edinburgh university. He died on the 3rd of January 1889. + + + + +HALLOWE'EN, or ALL HALLOWS EVE, the name given to the 31st of October as +the vigil of Hallowmas or All Saints' Day. Though now known as little +else but the eve of the Christian festival, Hallowe'en and its formerly +attendant ceremonies long antedate Christianity. The two chief +characteristics of ancient Hallowe'en were the lighting of bonfires and +the belief that of all nights in the year this is the one during which +ghosts and witches are most likely to wander abroad. Now on or about the +1st of November the Druids held their great autumn festival and lighted +fires in honour of the Sun-god in thanksgiving for the harvest. Further, +it was a Druidic belief that on the eve of this festival Saman, lord of +death, called together the wicked souls that within the past twelve +months had been condemned to inhabit the bodies of animals. Thus it is +clear that the main celebrations of Hallowe'en were purely Druidical, +and this is further proved by the fact that in parts of Ireland the 31st +of October was, and even still is, known as _Oidhche Shamhna_, "Vigil of +Saman." On the Druidic ceremonies were grafted some of the +characteristics of the Roman festival in honour of Pomona held about the +1st of November, in which nuts and apples, as representing the winter +store of fruits, played an important part. Thus the roasting of nuts and +the sport known as "apple-ducking"--attempting to seize with the teeth +an apple floating in a tub of water,--were once the universal occupation +of the young folk in medieval England on the 31st of October. The custom +of lighting Hallowe'en fires survived until recent years in the +highlands of Scotland and Wales. In the dying embers it was usual to +place as many small stones as there were persons around, and next +morning a search was made. If any of the pebbles were displaced it was +regarded as certain that the person represented would die within the +twelve months. + + For details of the Hallowe'en games and bonfires see Brand's + _Antiquities of Great Britain_; Chambers's _Book of Days_; Grimm's + _Deutsche Mythologie_, ch. xx. (_Elemente_) and ch. xxxiv. + (_Aberglaube_); and J. G. Frazer's _Golden Bough_, vol. iii. Compare + also BELTANE and BONFIRE. + + + + +HALLSTATT, a market-place of Austria, in Upper Austria, 67 m. S.S.W. of +Linz by rail. Pop. (1900) 737. It is situated on the shore of the +Hallstatter-see and at the foot of the Hallstatter Salzberg, and is +built in amphitheatre with its houses clinging to the mountain side. The +salt mine of Hallstatt, which is one of the oldest in existence, was +rediscovered in the 14th century. In the neighbourhood is the celebrated +Celtic burial ground, where a great number of very interesting +antiquities have been found. Most of these have been removed to the +museums at Vienna and Linz, but some are kept in the local museum. + +The excavations (1847-1864) revealed a form of culture hitherto unknown, +and accordingly the name Hallstatt has been applied to objects of like +form and decoration since found in Styria, Carniola, Bosnia (at +Glasinatz and Jezerin), Epirus, north Italy, France, Spain and Britain +(see CELT). Everywhere else the change from iron weapons to bronze is +immediate, but at Hallstatt iron is seen gradually superseding bronze, +first for ornament, then for edging cutting instruments, then replacing +fully the old bronze types, and finally taking new forms of its own. +There can be no doubt that the use of iron first developed in the +Hallstatt area, and that thence it spread southwards into Italy, Greece, +the Aegean, Egypt and Asia, and northwards and westwards in Europe. At +Noreia, which gave its name to Noricum (q.v.) less than 40 m. from +Hallstatt, were the most famous iron mines of antiquity, which produced +the Noric iron and Noric swords so prized and dreaded by the Romans +(Pliny, _Hist. Nat._ xxxiv. 145; Horace, _Epod._ 17. 71). This iron +needed no tempering, and the Celts had probably found it ready smelted +by nature, just as the Eskimo had learned of themselves to use telluric +iron embedded in basalt. The graves at Hallstatt were partly inhumation +partly cremation; they contained swords, daggers, spears, javelins, +axes, helmets, bosses and plates of shields and hauberks, brooches, +various forms of jewelry, amber and glass beads, many of the objects +being decorated with animals and geometrical designs. Silver was +practically unknown. The weapons and axes are mostly iron, a few being +bronze. The swords are leaf-shaped, with blunt points intended for +cutting, not for thrusting; the hilts differ essentially from those of +the Bronze Age, being shaped like a crescent to grasp the blade, with +large pommels, or sometimes with antennae (the latter found also in +Bavaria, Wurttemberg, Baden, Switzerland, the Pyrenees, Spain, north +Italy): only six arrowheads (bronze) were found. Both flanged and +socketed celts occurred, the iron being much more numerous than the +bronze. The flat axes are distinguished by the side stops and in some +cases the transition from palstave to socketed axe can be seen. The +shields were round as in the early Iron Age of north Italy (see +VILLANOVA). Greaves were found at Glasinatz and Jezerin, though not at +Hallstatt; two helmets were found at Hallstatt and others in Bosnia; +broad bronze belts were numerous, adorned in _repousse_ with beast and +geometric ornament. Brooches are found in great numbers, both those +derived from the primitive safety-pin ("Peschiera" type) and the +"spectacle" or "Hallstatt" type found all down the Balkans and in +Greece. The latter are formed of two spirals of wire, sometimes four +such spirals being used, whilst there were also brooches in animal +forms, one of the latter being found with a bronze sword. The Hallstatt +culture is that of the Homeric Achaeans (see ACHAEANS), but as the +brooch (along with iron, cremation of the dead, the round shield and the +geometric ornament) passed down into Greece from central Europe, and as +brooches are found in the lower town at Mycenae, 1350 B.C., they must +have been invented long before that date in central Europe. But as they +are found in the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age, the early iron +culture of Hallstatt must have originated long before 1350 B.C., a +conclusion in accord with the absence of silver at Hallstatt itself. + + See Baron von Sacken, _Das Grabfeld von Hallstatt_; Bertrand and S. + Reinach, _Les Celtes dans les vallees du Po et du Danube_; W. + Ridgeway, _Early Age of Greece_; ARCHAEOLOGY (plate). (W. Ri.) + + + + +HALLUCINATION (from Lat. _alucinari_ or _allucinari_, to wander in mind, +Gr. [Greek: alyssein] or [Greek: alyein], from [Greek: ale], wandering), +a psychological term which has been the subject of much controversy, and +to which, although there is now fair agreement as to its denotation, it +is still impossible to give a precise and entirely satisfactory +definition. Hallucinations constitute one of the two great classes of +all false sense-perceptions, the other class consisting of the +"illusions," and the difficulty of definition is clearly to mark the +boundary between the two classes. _Illusion_ may be defined as the +misinterpretation of sense-impression, while _hallucination_, in its +typical instances, is the experiencing of a sensory presentation, i.e. a +presentation having the sensory vividness that distinguishes perceptions +from representative imagery, at a time when no stimulus is acting on the +corresponding sense-organ. There is, however, good reason to think that +in many cases, possibly in all cases, some stimulation of the +sense-organ, coming either from without or from within the body, plays a +part in the genesis of the hallucination. This being so, we must be +content to leave the boundary between illusions and hallucinations +ill-defined, and to regard as illusions _those false perceptions in +which impressions made on the sense-organ play a leading part in +determining the character of the percept_, and as hallucinations _those +in which any such impression is lacking, or plays but a subsidiary part +and bears no obvious relation to the character of the false percept_. + +As in the case of illusion, hallucination may or may not involve +delusion, or belief in the reality of the object falsely perceived. +Among the sane the hallucinatory object is frequently recognized at once +as unreal or at least as but quasi-real; and it is only the insane, or +persons in abnormal states, such as hypnosis, who, when an hallucination +persists or recurs, fail to recognize that it corresponds to no physical +impression from, or object in, the outer world. Hallucinations of all +the senses occur, but the most commonly reported are the auditory and +the visual, while those of the other senses seem to be comparatively +rare. This apparent difference of frequency is no doubt largely due to +the more striking character of visual and auditory hallucinations, and +to the relative difficulty of ascertaining, in the case of perceptions +of the lower senses, e.g. of taste and smell, that no impression +adequate to the genesis of the percept has been made upon the +sense-organ; but, in so far as it is real, it is probably due in part to +the more constant use of the higher senses and the greater strain +consequently thrown upon them, in part also to their more intimate +connexion with the life of ideas. + +The hallucinatory perception may involve two or more senses, e.g., the +subject may seem to see a human being, to hear his voice and to feel the +touch of his hand. This is rarely the case in spontaneous hallucination, +but in hypnotic hallucination the subject is apt to develop the object +suggested to him, as present to one of his senses, and to perceive it +also through other senses. + +Among visual hallucinations the human figure, and among auditory +hallucinations human voices, are the objects most commonly perceived. +The figure seen always appears localized more or less definitely in the +outer world. In many cases it appears related to the objects truly seen +in just the same way as a real object; e.g. it is no longer seen if the +eyes are closed or turned away, it does not move with the movements of +the eyes, and it may hide objects lying behind it, or be hidden by +objects coming between the place that it appears to occupy and the eye +of the percipient. Visual hallucinations are most often experienced when +the eyes are open and the surrounding space is well or even brightly +illuminated. Less frequently the visual hallucination takes the form of +a self-luminous figure in a dark place or appears in a luminous globe or +mist which shuts out from view the real objects of the part of the field +of view in which it appears. + +Auditory hallucinations, especially voices, seem to fall into two +distinct classes--(1) those which are heard as coming from without, and +are more or less definitely localized in outer space, (2) those which +seem to be within the head or, in some cases, within the chest, and to +have less definite auditory quality. It seems probable that the latter +are hallucinations involving principally kinaesthetic sensations, +sensations of movement of the organs of speech. + +Hallucinations occur under a great variety of bodily and mental +conditions, which may conveniently be classified as follows. + + +I. _Conditions which imply normal waking Consciousness and no distinct +Departure from bodily and mental Sanity._ + +a. It would seem that a considerable number of perfectly healthy persons +occasionally experience, while in a fully waking state, hallucinations +for which no cause can be assigned. The census of hallucinations +conducted by the Society for Psychical Research showed that about 10% of +all sane persons can remember having experienced at least one +hallucination while they believed themselves to be fully awake and in +normal health. These sporadic hallucinations of waking healthy persons +are far more frequently visual than auditory, and they usually take the +form of some familiar person in ordinary attire. The figure in many +cases is seen, on turning the gaze in some new direction, fully +developed and lifelike, and its hallucinatory character may be revealed +only by its noiseless movements, or by its fading away _in situ_. A +special interest attaches to hallucinations of this type, owing to the +occasional coincidence of the death of the person with his hallucinatory +appearance. The question raised by these coincidences will be discussed +in a separate paragraph below. + +b. A few persons, otherwise normal in mind and body, seem to experience +repeatedly some particular kind of hallucination. The voice ([Greek: +daimonion]) so frequently heard by Socrates, warning or advising him, is +the most celebrated example of this type. + + +II. _Conditions more or less unusual or abnormal but not implying +distinct Departure from Health._ + +a. A kind of hallucination to which perhaps every normal person is +liable is that known technically as "recurrent sensation." This kind is +experienced only when some sense-organ has been continuously or +repeatedly subjected to some one kind of impression or stimulation for a +considerable period; e.g. the microscopist, after examining for some +hours one particular kind of object or structure, may suddenly perceive +the object faithfully reproduced in form and colour, and lying, as it +were, upon any surface to which his gaze is directed. Perhaps the +commonest experience of this type is the recurrence of the sensations of +movement at intervals in the period following a sea voyage or long +railway journey. + +b. A considerable proportion of healthy sane persons can induce +hallucinations of vision by gazing fixedly at a polished surface or +into some dark translucent mass; or of hearing, by applying a large +shell or similar object to the ear. These methods of inducing +hallucinations, especially the former, have long been practised in many +countries as modes of divination, various objects being used, e.g. a +drop of ink in the palm of the hand, or a polished finger-nail. The +object now most commonly used is a polished sphere of clear glass or +crystal (see CRYSTAL-GAZING). Hence such hallucinations go by the name +of _crystal visions_. The crystal vision often appears as a picture of +some distant or unknown scene lying, as it were, in the crystal; and in +the picture figures may come and go, and move to and fro, in a perfectly +natural manner. In other cases, written or printed words or sentences +appear. The percipient, seer or scryer, commonly seems to be in a fully +waking state as he observes the objects thus presented. He is usually +able to describe and discuss the appearances, successively +discriminating details by attentive observation, just as when observing +an objective scene; and he usually has no power of controlling them, and +no sense of having produced them by his own activity. In some cases +these visions have brought back to the mind of the scryer facts or +incidents which he could not voluntarily recollect. In other cases they +are asserted by credible witnesses to have given to the scryer +information, about events distant in time or place, that had not come to +his knowledge by normal means. These cases have been claimed as evidence +of telepathic communication or even of clairvoyance. But at present the +number of well-attested cases of this sort is too small to justify +acceptance of this conclusion by those who have only secondhand +knowledge of them. + +c. Prolonged deprivation of food predisposes to hallucinations, and it +would seem that, under this condition, a large proportion of otherwise +healthy persons become liable to them, especially to auditory +hallucinations. + +d. Certain drugs, notably opium, Indian hemp, and mescal predispose to +hallucinations, each tending to produce a peculiar type. Thus Indian +hemp and mescal, especially the latter, produce in many cases visual +hallucinations in the form of a brilliant play of colours, sometimes a +mere succession of patches of brilliant colour, sometimes in +architectural or other definite spatial arrangement. + +e. The states of transition from sleep to waking, and from waking to +sleep, seem to be peculiarly favourable to the appearance of +hallucinations. The recurrent sensations mentioned above are especially +prone to appear at such times, and a considerable proportion of the +sporadic hallucinations of persons in good health are reported to have +been experienced under these conditions. The name "hypnagogic" +hallucinations, first applied by Alfred Maury, is commonly given to +those experienced in these transition states. + +f. The presentations, predominantly visual, that constitute the +principal content of most dreams, are generally described as +hallucinatory, but the propriety of so classing them is very +questionable. The present writer is confident that his own +dream-presentations lack the sensory vividness which is the essential +mark of the percept, whether normal or hallucinatory, and which is the +principal, though not the only, character in which it differs from the +representation or memory-image. It is true that the dream-presentation, +like the percept, differs from the representative imagery of waking life +in that it is relatively independent of volition; but that seems to be +merely because the will is in abeyance or very ineffective during sleep. +The wide currency of the doctrine that classes dream-images with +hallucinations seems to be due to this independence of volitional +control, and to the fact that during sleep the representative imagery +appears without that rich setting of undiscriminated or marginal +sensation which always accompanies waking imagery, and which by contrast +accentuates for introspective reflection the lack of sensory vividness +of such imagery. + +g. Many of the subjects who pass into the deeper stages of hypnosis +(see HYPNOTISM) show themselves, while in that condition, extremely +liable to hallucination, perceiving whatever object is suggested to them +as present, and failing to perceive any object of which it is asserted +by the operator that it is no longer present. The reality of these +positive and negative hallucinations of the hypnotized subject has been +recently questioned, it being maintained that the subject merely gives +verbal assent to the suggestions of the operator. But that the +hypnotized subject does really experience hallucinations seems to be +proved by the cases in which it is possible to make the hallucination, +positive or negative, persist for some time after the termination of +hypnosis, and by the fact that in some of these cases the subject, who +in the post-hypnotic state seems in every other respect normal and wide +awake, may find it difficult to distinguish between the hallucinatory +and real objects. Further proof is afforded by experiments such as those +by which Alfred Binet showed that a visual hallucination may behave for +its percipient in many respects like a real object, e.g. that it may +appear reflected in a mirror, displaced by a prism and coloured when a +coloured glass is placed before the patient's eyes. It was by means of +experiments of this kind that Binet showed that hypnotic hallucinations +may approximate to the type of the illusion, i.e. that some real object +affecting the sense-organ (in the case of a visual hallucination some +detail of the surface upon which it is projected) may provide a nucleus +of peripherally excited sensation around which the false percept is +built up. An object playing a part of this sort in the genesis of an +hallucination is known as a "_point de repere_." It has been maintained +that all hallucinations involve some such _point de repere_ or objective +nucleus; but there are good reasons for rejecting this view. + +h. In states of ecstasy, or intense emotional concentration of +attention upon some one ideal object, the object contemplated seems at +times to take on sensory vividness, and so to acquire the character of +an hallucination. In these cases the state of mind of the subject is +probably similar in many respects to that of the deeply hypnotized +subject, and these two classes of hallucination may be regarded as very +closely allied. + + +III. _Hallucinations which occur as symptoms of both bodily and mental +diseases._ + +a. Dr H. Head has the credit of having shown for the first time, in +the year 1901, that many patients, suffering from more or less painful +visceral diseases, disorders of heart, lungs, abdominal viscera, &c., +are liable to experience hallucinations of a peculiar kind. These +"visceral" hallucinations, which are constantly accompanied by headache +of the reflected visceral type, are most commonly visual, more rarely +auditory. In all Dr Head's cases the visual hallucination took the form +of a shrouded human figure, colourless and vague, often incomplete, +generally seen by the patient standing by his bed when he wakes in a +dimly lit room. The auditory "visceral" hallucination was in no instance +vocal, but took such forms as sounds of tapping, scratching or rumbling, +and were heard only in the absence of objective noises. In a few cases +the "visceral" hallucination was bisensory, i.e. both auditory and +visual. + +In all these respects the "visceral" hallucination differs markedly from +the commoner types of the sporadic hallucination of healthy persons. + +b. Hallucinations are constant symptoms of certain general disorders +in which the nervous system is involved, notably of the _delirium +tremens_, which results from chronic alcohol poisoning, and of the +delirium of the acute specific fevers. The hallucinations of these +states are generally of a distressing or even terrifying character. +Especially is this the rule with those of _delirium tremens_, and in the +hallucinations of this disease certain kinds of objects, e.g. rats and +snakes, occur with curious frequency. + +c. Hallucinations occasionally occur as symptoms of certain nervous +diseases that are not usually classed with the insanities, notably in +cases of epilepsy and severe forms of hysteria. In the former disorder, +the sensory aura that so often precedes the epileptic convulsion may +take the form of an hallucinatory object, which in some cases is very +constant in character. Unilateral hallucinations, an especially +interesting class, occur in severe cases of hysteria, and are usually +accompanied by hemi-anaesthesia of the body on the side on which the +hallucinatory object is perceived. + +d. Hallucinations occur in a large, but not accurately definable, +proportion of all cases of mental disease proper. Two classes are +recognized: (1) those that are intimately connected with the dominant +emotional state or with some dominant delusion; (2) those that occur +sporadically and have no such obvious relation to the other symptoms of +disease. Hallucinations of the former class tend to accentuate, and in +turn to be confirmed by, the congruent emotional or delusional state; +but whether these are to be regarded as primary symptoms and as the +cause of the hallucinations, or _vice versa_, it is generally impossible +to say. Patients who suffer delusions of persecution are very apt to +develop later in the course of their disease hallucinations of the +voices of their persecutors; while in other cases hallucinatory voices, +which are at first recognized as such, come to be regarded as real and +in these cases seem to be factors of primary importance in the genesis +of further delusions. Hallucinations occur in almost every variety of +mental disease, but are commonest in the forms characterized by a cloudy +dream-like condition of consciousness, and in extreme cases of this sort +the patient (as in the delirium of chronic alcohol-poisoning) seems to +move waking through a world consisting largely of the images of his own +creation, set upon a background of real objects. + +In some cases hallucinations are frequently experienced for long periods +in the absence of any other symptom of mental disorder, but these no +doubt usually imply some morbid condition of the brain. + +_Physiology of Hallucination._--There has been much discussion as to the +nature of the neural process in hallucination. It is generally and +rightly assumed that the hallucinatory perception of any object has for +its immediate neural correlate a state of excitement which, as regards +its characters and its distribution in the elements of the brain, is +entirely similar to the neural correlate of the normal perception of the +same object. The hallucination is a perception, though a false +perception. In the perception of an object and in the representation of +it, introspective analysis discovers a number of presentative elements. +In the case of the representation these elements are memory images only +(except perhaps in so far as actual kinaesthetic sensations enter into +its composition); whereas, in the case of the percept, some of these +elements are sensations, sensations which differ from images in having +the attribute of sensory vividness; and the sensory vividness of these +elements lends to the whole complex the sensory vividness or reality, +the possession of which character by the percept constitutes its +principal difference from the representation. Normally, sensory +vividness attaches only to those presentative elements which are excited +through stimulations of the sense-organs. The normal percept, then, owes +its character of sensory reality to the fact that a certain number of +its presentative elements are sensations peripherally excited by +impressions made upon a sense-organ. The problem is, then, to account +for the fact that the hallucination contains presentative elements that +have sensory vividness, that are sensations, although they are not +excited by impressions from the external world falling upon a +sense-organ. Most of the discussions of this subject suffer from the +neglect of this preliminary definition of the problem. Many authors, +notably W. Wundt and his disciples, have been content to assume that the +sensation differs from the memory-image only in having a higher degree +of intensity; from which they infer that its neural correlate in the +brain cortex also differs from that of the image only in having a higher +degree of intensity. For them an hallucination is therefore merely a +representation whose neural correlate involves an intensity of +excitement of certain brain-elements such as is normally produced only +by peripheral stimulation of sensory nerves in the sense-organs. But +this view, so attractively simple, ignores an insuperable objection. +Sensory vividness is not to be identified with superior intensity; for +while the least intense sensation has it, the memory image of the most +intense sensation lacks it completely. And, since intensity of +sensation is a function of the intensity of the underlying neural +excitement, we may not assume that sensory vividness is also the +expression in consciousness of that intensity of excitement. If Wundt's +view were true a progressive diminution of the intensity of a sensory +stimulus should bring the sensation to a point in the scale of +diminishing intensity at which it ceases to be sensation, ceases to have +sensory vividness and becomes an image merely. But this is not the case; +with diminishing intensity of stimulation, the sensation declines to a +minimal intensity and then disappears from consciousness. This objection +applies not only to Wundt's view of hallucinations, but also to H. +Taine's explanation of them by the aid of his doctrine of "reductives," +for this too identifies sensory vividness with intensity. (H. Taine, _De +l'intelligence_, tome i. p. 108.) + +Another widely current explanation is based on the view that the +representation and the percept have their anatomical bases in different +element-groups or "centres" of the brain, the "centre" of the +representation being assigned to a higher level of the brain than that +of the percept (the latter being sometimes assigned to the basal ganglia +of the brain, the former to the cortex). It is then assumed that while +the lower perceptual centre is normally excited only through the +sense-organ, it may occasionally be excited by impulses playing down +upon it from the corresponding centre of representation, when +hallucination results. + +This view also is far from satisfactory, because the great additions +recently made to our knowledge of the brain tend very strongly to show +that both sensations and memory-images have their anatomical bases in +the same sensory areas of the cerebral cortex; and many considerations +converge to show that their anatomical bases must be, in part at least, +identical. + +The views based on the assumptions of complete identity, and of complete +separateness, of the anatomical bases of the percept and of the +representation are then alike untenable; and the alternative--that their +anatomical bases are in part identical, in part different, which is +indicated by this conclusion--renders possible a far more satisfactory +doctrine. We have good reason to believe that the neural correlate of +sensation is the transmission of the nervous impulse through a +sensori-motor arc of the cortex, made up of a chain of neurones; and the +view suggests itself that the neural correlate of the corresponding +memory-image is the transmission of the impulse through a part only of +this chain of cortical elements, either the efferent motor part of this +chain or the afferent sensory part of it. Professor W. James's theory of +hallucinations is based on the latter assumption. He suggests that the +sensory vividness of sensation and of the percept is due to the +discharge of the excitement of the chain of elements in the forward or +motor direction; and that, in the case of the image and of the +representation, the discharge takes place, not in this direction through +the efferent channel of the centre, but laterally into other centres of +the cortex. Hallucination may then be conceived as caused by +obstruction, or abnormally increased resistance, of the paths connecting +such a cortical centre with others, so that, when it becomes excited in +any way, the tension or potential of its charge rises, until discharge +takes place in the motor direction through the efferent limbs of the +sensori-motor arcs which constitute the centre. + +It is a serious objection to this view that, as James himself, in common +with most modern authors, maintains, every idea has its motor tendency +which commonly, perhaps always, finds expression in some change of +tension of muscles, and in many cases issues in actual movements. Now if +we accept James's theory of hallucination, we should expect to find that +whenever a representation issues in bodily action it should assume the +sensory vividness of an hallucination; and this, of course, is not the +case. + +The alternative form of the view that assumes partial identity of the +anatomical bases of the percept and the representation of an object, +would regard the neural correlate of the sensation as the transmission +of the nervous impulse throughout the length of the sensori-motor arc +of the cortex, from sensory inlet to motor outlet; and that of the image +as its transmission through the efferent part of this arc only; that is +to say, in the case of the image, it would regard the excitement of the +arc as being initiated at some point between its afferent inlet and its +motor outlet, and as spreading, in accordance with the law of forward +conduction, towards the motor outlet only, so that only the part of the +arc distal or efferent to this point becomes excited. + +This view of the neural basis of sensory vividness, which correlates the +difference between the sensation and the image with the only known +difference between their physiological conditions, namely the peripheral +initiation of the one and the central initiation of the other, enables +us to formulate a satisfactory theory of the physiology of +hallucinations. + +The anatomical basis of the perception and of the representation of any +object is a functional system of nervous elements, comprising a number +of sensori-motor arcs, whose excitement by impulses ascending to them by +the sensory paths from the sense-organs determines sensations, and whose +excitement in their efferent parts only determines the corresponding +images. In the case of perception, some of these arcs are excited by +impulses ascending from the sense-organs, others only by the spread of +the excitement through the system from these peripherally excited arcs; +while, in the case of the representation, all alike are excited by +impulses that reach the system from other parts of the cortex and spread +throughout its efferent parts only to its motor outlets. + +If then impulses enter this system by any of the afferent limbs of its +sensori-motor arcs, the presentation that accompanies its excitement +will have sensory vividness and will be a true perception, an illusion, +or an hallucination, according as these impulses have followed the +normal course from the sense-organ, or have been diverted, to a lesser +or greater degree, from their normal paths. If any such neural system +becomes abnormally excitable, or becomes excited in any way with +abnormal intensity, it is thereby rendered a path of exceptionally +low-resistance capable of diverting to itself, from their normal path, +any streams of impulses ascending from the sense-organ; which ascending +impulses, entering the system by its afferent inlets, excite sensations +that impart to the presentation the character of sensory vividness; the +presentation thus acquires the character of a percept in spite of the +absence of the appropriate impression on the sense-organ, and we call it +an hallucination. + +This view renders intelligible the _modus operandi_ of many of the +predisposing causes of hallucination; e.g. the pre-occupation with +certain representations of the ecstatic, or of the sufferer from +delusions of persecution; the intense expectation of a particular sense +impression, the generally increased excitability of the cortex in states +of delirium; in all these conditions the abnormally intense excitement +of the cortical systems may be supposed to give them an undue directive +and attractive influence upon the streams of impulses ascending from the +sense-organs, so that sensory impulses may be diverted from their normal +paths. Again, it renders intelligible the part played by chronic +irritation of a sense-organ, as when chronic irritation of the internal +ear leads on to hallucinations of hearing; perhaps also the chronic +irritation of sensory nerves that must accompany the states of visceral +disease, shown by Head to be so frequently accompanied by a liability to +hallucinations; for any such chronic irritation supplies a stream of +disorderly impulses rising constantly from the sense-organ, for the +reception of which the brain has no appropriate system, and which, +therefore, readily enters any organized cortical system that at any +moment constitutes a path of low-resistance. A similar explanation +applies to the influence of fixed gazing upon a crystal, or the placing +of a shell over the ear, in inducing visual and auditory hallucinations. +The "recurrent sensations" experienced after prolonged occupation with +some one kind of sensory object may be regarded as due to an abnormal +excitability of the cortical system concerned, resulting from its unduly +prolonged exercise. The hypothesis renders intelligible also the +liability to hallucination of persons in the hysterical and hypnotic +states, in whose brains the cortical neural systems are in a state of +partial dissociation, which renders possible an unduly intense and +prolonged excitement of some one system at the expense of all other +systems (cf. HYPNOTISM). + +_Coincidental Hallucinations._--It would seem that, in well-nigh all +countries and in all ages, apparitions of persons known to be in distant +places have been occasionally observed. Such appearances have usually +been regarded as due to the presence, before the bodily eye of the seer, +of the ghost, wraith, double or soul of the person who thus appears; +and, since the soul has been very commonly supposed to leave the body, +permanently at death and temporarily during sleep, trance or any period +of unconsciousness, however induced, it was natural to regard such an +appearance as evidence that the person whose wraith was thus seen was in +some such condition. Such apparitions have probably played a part, +second only to that of dreams, in generating the almost universal belief +in the separability of soul and body. + +In many parts of the world traditional belief has connected such +apparitions more especially with the death of the person so appearing, +the apparition being regarded as an indication that the person so +appearing has recently died, is dying or is about to die. Since death is +so much less common an event than sleep, trance, or other form of +temporary unconsciousness, the wide extension of this belief suggests +that such apparitions may coincide in time with death, with +disproportionate frequency. The belief in the significance of such +apparitions still survives in civilized communities, and stories of +apparitions coinciding with the death of the person appearing are +occasionally reported in the newspapers, or related as having recently +occurred. The Society for Psychical Research has sought to find grounds +for an answer to the question "Is there any sufficient justification for +the belief in a causal relation between the apparition of a person at a +place distant from his body and his death or other exceptional and +momentous event in his experience?" The problem was attacked in a +thoroughly scientific spirit, an extensive inquiry was made, and the +results were presented and fully discussed in two large volumes, +_Phantasms of the Living_, published in the year 1886, bearing on the +title-page the names of Edmund Gurney, F. W. H. Myers and F. Podmore. Of +the three collaborators Gurney took the largest share in the planning of +the work, in the collection of evidence, and in the elaboration and +discussion of it. + +Gurney set out with the presumption that apparitions, whether +coincidental or not, are hallucinations in the sense defined above; that +_they are false perceptions_ and are not excited by any object or +process of the external world acting upon the sense-organs of the +percipient in normal fashion; that they do not imply the presence, in +the place apparently occupied by them, of any wraith or any form of +existence emanating from, or specially connected with, the person whose +phantasm appears. This initial assumption was abundantly justified by an +examination of a large number of cases for it, which showed that, in all +important respects, most of these apparitions of persons at a distance, +whether coincidental or not, were similar to other forms of +hallucination. + +The acceptance of this conclusion does not, however, imply a negative +answer to the question formulated above. The Society for Psychical +Research had accumulated an impressive and, to almost all those who had +first-hand acquaintance with it, a convincing mass of experimental +evidence of the reality of telepathy (q.v.), the influence of mind on +mind otherwise than through the recognized channels of sense. The +successful experiments had for the most part been made between persons +in close proximity, in the same room or in adjoining rooms; but they +seemed to show that the state of consciousness of one person may induce +directly (i.e. without the mediation of the organs of expression and +sense-perception) a similar state of consciousness in another person, +especially if the former, usually called the "agent," strongly desired +or "willed" that this effect should be produced on the other person, the +"percipient." + +The question formulated above thus resolved itself for Gurney into the +more definite form, "Can we find any good reason for believing that +coincidental hallucinations are sometimes veridical, that the state of +mind of a person at some great crisis of his experience may +telepathically induce in the mind of some distant relative or friend an +hallucinatory perception of himself?" It was at once obvious that, if +coincidental apparitions can be proved to occur, this question can only +be answered by a statistical inquiry; for each such coincidental +hallucination, considered alone, may always be regarded as most educated +persons of the present time have regarded them, namely, as merely +accidental coincidences. That the coincidences are not merely accidental +can only be proved by showing that they occur more frequently than the +doctrine of chances would justify us in expecting. Now, the death of any +person is a unique event, and the probability of its occurrence upon any +particular day may be very simply calculated from the mortality +statistics, if we assume that nothing is known of the individual's +vitality. On the other hand, hallucinatory perceptions of persons, +occurring to sane and healthy individuals in the fully waking state, are +comparatively rare occurrences, whose frequency we may hope to determine +by a statistical inquiry. If, then, we can obtain figures expressing the +frequency of such hallucinations, we can deduce, by the help of the laws +of chance, the proportion of such hallucinations that may be expected to +coincide with (or, for the purposes of the inquiry, to fall within +twelve hours of) the death of the person whose apparition appears, if no +causal relation obtains between the coinciding events. If, then, it +appears that the proportion of such coincidental hallucinations is +greater than the laws of probability will account for, a certain +presumption of a causal relation between the coinciding events is +thereby established; and the greater the excess of such coincidences, +the stronger does this presumption become. Gurney attempted a census of +hallucinations in order to obtain data for this statistical treatment, +and the results of it, embodied in _Phantasms of the Living_, were +considered by the authors of that work to justify the belief that some +coincidental hallucinations are veridical. In the year 1889 the Society +for Psychical Research appointed a committee, under the chairmanship of +the late Henry Sidgwick, to make a second census of hallucinations on a +more extensive and systematic plan than the first, in order that the +important conclusion reached by the authors of _Phantasms of the Living_ +might be put to the severer test rendered possible by a larger and more +carefully collected mass of data. Seventeen thousand adults returned +answers to the question, "Have you ever, when believing yourself to be +completely awake, had a vivid impression of seeing or being touched by a +living being or inanimate object, or of hearing a voice; which +impression, so far as you could discover, was not due to any external +physical cause?" Rather more than two thousand persons answered +affirmatively, and to each of these were addressed careful inquiries +concerning their hallucinatory experiences. In this way it was found +that of the total number, 381 apparitions of persons living at the +moment (or not more than twelve hours dead) had been recognized by the +percipients, and that, of these, 80 were alleged to have been +experienced within twelve hours of the death of the person whose +apparition had appeared. A careful review of all the facts, conditions +and probabilities, led the committee to estimate that the former number +should be enlarged to 1300 in order to make ample allowance for +forgetfulness and for all other causes that might have tended to prevent +the registration of apparitions of this class. On the other hand, a +severe criticism of the alleged death-coincidences led them to reduce +the number, admitted by them for the purposes of their calculation, to +30. The making of these adjustments gives us about 1 in 43 as the +proportion of coincidental death-apparitions to the total number of +recognized apparitions among the 17,000 persons reached by the census. +Now the death-rate being just over 19 per thousand, the probability that +any person taken at random will die on a given day is about 1 in 19,000; +or, more strictly speaking, the average probability that any person will +die within any given period of twenty-four hours duration is about 1 in +19,000. Hence the probability that any other particular event, having no +causal relation to his death, but occurring during his lifetime (or not +later than twelve hours after his death) will fall within the same +twenty-four hours as his death is 1 in 19,000; i.e. if an apparition of +any individual is seen and recognized by any other person, the +probability of its being experienced within twelve hours of that +individual's death is 1 in 19,000, if no causal relation obtains between +the two events. Therefore, of all recognized apparitions of living +persons, 1 only in 19,000 may be expected to be a death-coincidence of +this sort. But the census shows that of 1300 recognized apparitions of +living persons 30 are death-coincidences and that is equivalent to 440 +in 19,000. Hence, of recognized hallucinations, those coinciding with +death are 440 times more numerous than we should expect, if no causal +relation obtained; therefore, if neither the data nor the reasoning can +be destructively criticized, we are compelled to believe that some +causal relation obtains; and, since good evidence of telepathic +communication has been experimentally obtained, the least improbable +explanation of these death-apparitions is that the dying person exerts +upon his distant friend some telepathic influence which generates an +hallucinatory perception of himself. + +These death-coincidences constitute the main feature of the argument in +favour of telepathic communication between distant persons, but the +census of hallucinations afforded other data from which a variety of +arguments, tending to support this conclusion, were drawn by the +committee; of these the most important are the cases in which the +hallucinatory percept embodied details that were connected with the +person perceived and which could not have become known to the percipient +by any normal means. The committee could not find in the results of the +census any evidence sufficient to justify a belief that hallucinations +may be due to telepathic influence exerted by personalities surviving +the death of the body. + +The critical handling of the cases by the committee seems to be above +reproach. Those who do not accept their conclusion based on the +death-coincidences must direct their criticism to the question of the +reliability of the reports of these cases. It is to be noted that, +although only those cases are reckoned in which the percipient had no +cause to expect the death of the person whose apparition he experienced, +and although, in nearly all the accepted cases, some record or +communication of the hallucination was made before hearing of the death, +yet in very few cases was any contemporary written record of the event +forthcoming for the inspection of the committee. (W. McD.) + + + + +HALLUIN, a frontier town of northern France, in the department of Nord, +near the right bank of the Lys, 14 m. N. by E. of Lille by rail. Pop. +(1906) town, 11,670; commune, 16,158. Its church is of Gothic +architecture. The manufactures comprise linen and cotton goods, chairs +and rubber goods, and brewing and tanning are carried on; there is a +board of trade arbitration. The family of Halluin is mentioned as early +as the 13th century. In 1587 the title of duke and peer of the realm was +granted to it, but in the succeeding century it became extinct. + + + + +HALM, CARL FELIX (1809-1882), German classical scholar and critic, was +born at Munich on the 5th of April 1809. In 1849, after having held +appointments at Spires and Hadamar, he became rector of the newly +founded Maximiliansgymnasium at Munich, and in 1856 director of the +royal library and professor in the university. These posts he held till +his death on the 5th of October 1882. It is chiefly as the editor of +Cicero and other Latin prose authors that Halm is known, although in +early years he also devoted considerable attention to Greek. After the +death of J. C. Orelli, he joined J. G. Baiter in the preparation of a +revised critical edition of the rhetorical and philosophical writings of +Cicero (1854-1862). His school editions of some of the speeches of +Cicero in the Haupt and Sauppe series, with notes and introductions, +were very successful. He also edited a number of classical texts for the +Teubner series, the most important of which are Tacitus (4th ed., 1883); +_Rhetores Latini minores_ (1863); Quintilian (1868); Sulpicius Severus +(1866); Minucius Felix together with Firmicus Maternus _De errore_ +(1867); Salvianus (1877) and Victor Vitensis's _Historia persecutionis +Africanae provinciae_ (1878). He was also an enthusiastic collector of +autographs. + + See articles by W. Christ and G. Laubmann in _Allgemeine deutsche + Biographie_ and by C. Bursian in _Biographisches Jahrbuch_; and J. E. + Sandys, _Hist. of Classical Scholarship_, iii. 195 (1908). + + + + +HALMA (Greek for "jump"), a table game, a form of which was known to the +ancient Greeks, played on a board divided into 256 squares with wooden +_men_, resembling chess pawns. In the two-handed game 19 men are +employed on each side, coloured respectively black and white; in the +four-handed each player has 13, the men being coloured white, black, red +and green. At the beginning of the game the men are drawn up in +triangular formation in the enclosures, or _yards_, diagonally opposite +each other in the corners of the board. The object of each player is to +get all his men into his enemy's yard, the player winning who first +accomplishes this. The moves are made alternately, the mode of +progression being by a _step_, from one square to another immediately +adjacent, or by a jump (whence the name), which is the jumping of a man +from a square in front of it into an empty square on the other side of +it. This corresponds to jumping in draughts, except that, in halma, the +hop may be in any direction, over friendly as well as hostile men, and +the men jumped over are not taken but remain on the board. + +In the four-handed game either each player plays for himself, or two +adjacent players play against the other two. + + See _Card and Table Games_, by Professor Hoffmann (London, 1903). + + + + +HALMAHERA ["great land"; also Jilolo or Gilolo], an island of the Dutch +East Indies, belonging to the residency of Ternate, lying under the +equator and about 128 deg. E. Its shape is extremely irregular, +resembling that of the island of Celebes. It consists of four peninsulas +so arranged as to enclose three great bays (Kayu, Bicholi, Weda), all +opening towards the east, the northern peninsula being connected with +the others by an isthmus only 5 m. wide. On the western side of the +isthmus lies another bay, that of Dodinga, in the mouth of which are +situated the two islands Ternate and Tidore, whose political importance +exceeds that of the larger island (see these articles). Of the four +peninsulas of Halmahera the northern and the southern are reckoned to +the sultanate of Ternate, the north-eastern and south-eastern to that of +Tidore; the former having eleven, the latter three districts. The +distance between the extremities of the northern and southern +peninsulas, measured along the curve of the west coast, is about 240 m.; +and the total area of the island is 6700 sq. m. Knowledge of the island +is very incomplete. It appears that the four peninsulas are traversed in +the direction of their longitudinal axis by mountain chains 3000 to 4000 +ft. high, covered with forest, without a central chain at the nucleus of +the island whence the peninsulas diverge. The mountain chains are +frequently interrupted by plains, such as those of Weda and Kobi. The +northern part of the mountain chain of the northern peninsula is +volcanic, its volcanoes continuing the line of those of Makian, Ternate +and Tidore. Coral formations on heights in the interior would indicate +oscillations of the land in several periods, but a detailed geology of +the island is wanting. To the north-east of the northern peninsula is +the considerable island of Morotai (635 sq. m.), and to the west of the +southern peninsula the more important island of Bachian (q.v.) among +others. Galela is a considerable settlement, situated on a bay of the +same name on the north-east coast, in a well cultivated plain which +extends southward and inland. Vegetation is prolific. Rice is grown by +the natives, but the sago tree is of far greater importance to them. +Dammar and coco-nuts are also grown. The sea yields trepang and pearl +shells. A little trade is carried on by the Chinese and Macassars of +Ternate, who, crossing the narrow isthmus of Dodinga, enter the bay of +Kayu on the east coast. The total population is estimated at 100,000. + +The inhabitants are mostly of immigrant Malayan stock. In the northern +peninsula are found people of Papuan type, probably representing the +aborigines, and a tribe around Galela, who are Polynesian in physique, +possibly remnants, much mixed by subsequent crossings with the Papuan +indigenes, of the Caucasian hordes emigrating in prehistoric times +across the Pacific. M. Achille Raffray gives a description of them in +_Tour du monde_ (1879) where photographs will be found. "They are as +unlike the Malays as we are, excelling them in tallness of stature and +elegance of shape, and being perfectly distinguished by their oval face, +with a fairly high and open brow, their aquiline nose and their +horizontally placed eyes. Their beards are sometimes thick; their limbs +are muscular; the colour of their skins is cinnamon brown. Spears of +iron-wood, abundantly barbed, and small bows and bamboo arrows free from +poison are their principal weapons." They are further described as +having temples (_sabuas_) in which they suspend images of serpents and +other monsters as well as the trophies procured by war. They believe in +a better life hereafter, but have no idea of a hell or a devil, their +evil spirits only tormenting them in the present state. + +The Portuguese and Spaniards were better acquainted with Halmahera than +with many other parts of the archipelago; they called it sometimes Batu +China and sometimes Moro. It was circumnavigated by one of their vessels +in 1525, and the general outline of the coasts is correctly given in +their maps at a time when separate portions of Celebes, such as Macassar +and Menado, are represented as distinct islands. The name (Jilolo) was +really that of a native state, the sultan of which had the chief rank +among the princes of the Moluccas before he was supplanted by the sultan +of Ternate about 1380. His capital, Jilolo, lay on the west coast on the +first bay to the north of that of Dodinga. In 1876 Danu Hassan, a +descendant of the sultans of Jilolo, raised an insurrection in the +island for the purpose of throwing off the authority of the sultans of +Tidore and Ternate; and his efforts would probably have been successful +but for the intervention of the Dutch. In 1878 a Dutch expedition was +directed against the pirates of Tobalai, and they were virtually +extirpated. Slavery remains in the interior. Missionary work, carried on +in the northern peninsula of Halmahera since 1866, has been fairly +successful among the heathen natives, but less so among the Mahommedans, +who have often incited the others against the missionaries and their +converts. + + + + +HALMSTAD, a seaport of Sweden, chief town of the district (_lan_) of +Halland, on the E. shore of the Cattegat, 76 m. S.S.E. of Gothenburg by +the railway to Helsingborg. Pop. (1900), 15,362. It lies at the mouth of +the river Nissa, having an inner harbour (15 ft. depth), an outer +harbour, and roads giving anchorage (24 to 36 ft.) exposed to S. and +N.W. winds. In the neighbourhood there are quarries of granite, which is +exported chiefly to Germany. Other industries are engineering, +shipbuilding and brewing, and there are cloth, jute, hat, wood-pulp and +paper factories. The principal exports are granite, timber and hats; and +butter through Helsingborg and Gothenburg. The imports are coal, +machinery and grain. Potatoes are largely grown in the district, and the +salmon fisheries are valuable. The castle is the residence of the +governor of the province. There are both mineral and sea-water baths in +the neighbourhood. + +Mention of the church of Halmstad occurs as early as 1462, and the +fortifications are mentioned first in 1225. The latter were demolished +in 1734. There were formerly Dominican and Franciscan monasteries in the +town. The oldest town-privileges date from 1307. During the revolt of +the miner Engelbrekt, it twice fell into the hands of the rebels--in +1434 and 1436. The town appears to have been frequently chosen as the +meeting-place of the rulers and delegates of the three northern +kingdoms; and under the union of Kalmar it was appointed to be the place +for the election of a new Scandinavian monarch whenever necessary. The +_lan_ of Halland formed part of the territory of Denmark in Sweden, and +accordingly, in 1534, during his war with the Danes, Gustavus Vasa +assaulted and took its chief town. In 1660, by the treaty of Copenhagen, +the whole district was ceded to Sweden. In 1676 Charles XII. defeated +near Halmstad a Danish army which was attempting to retake the district, +and since that time Halland has formed part of Sweden. + + + + +HALO, a word derived from the Gr. [Greek: halos], a threshing-floor, and +afterwards applied to denote the disk of the sun or moon, probably on +account of the circular path traced out by the oxen threshing the corn. +It was thence applied to denote any luminous ring, such as that viewed +around the sun or moon, or portrayed about the heads of saints. + +In physical science, a halo is a luminous circle, surrounding the sun or +moon, with various auxiliary phenomena, and formed by the reflection and +refraction of light by ice-crystals suspended in the atmosphere. The +optical phenomena produced by atmospheric water and ice may be divided +into two classes, according to the relative position of the luminous +ring and the source of light. In the first class we have _halos_, and +_coronae_, or "glories," which encircle the luminary; the second class +includes _rainbows_, _fog-bows_, _mist-halos_, _anthelia_ and +_mountain-spectres_, whose centres are at the anti-solar point. Here it +is only necessary to distinguish halos from coronae. Halos are at +definite distances (22 deg. and 46 deg.) from the sun, and are coloured +red on the _inside_, being due to refraction; coronae closely surround +the sun at variable distances, and are coloured red on the _outside_, +being due to diffraction. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +The phenomenon of a solar (or lunar) halo as seen from the earth is +represented in fig. 1; fig. 2 is a diagrammatic sketch showing the +appearance as viewed from the zenith; but it is only in exceptional +circumstances that all the parts are seen. Encircling the sun or moon +(S), there are two circles, known as the inner halo I, and the outer +halo O, having radii of about 22 deg. and 46 deg., and exhibiting the +colours of the spectrum in a confused manner, the only decided tint +being the red on the inside. Passing through the luminary and parallel +to the horizon, there is a white luminous circle, the _parhelic circle_ +(P), on which a number of images of the luminary appear. The most +brilliant are situated at the intersections of the inner halo and the +parhelic circle; these are known as _parhelia_ (denoted by the letter p +in the figures) (from the Gr. [Greek: para], beside, and [Greek: +helios], the sun) or "mock-suns," in the case of the sun, and as +_paraselenae_ (from [Greek: para] and [Greek: selene], the moon) or +"mock-moons," in the case of the moon. Less brilliant are the parhelia +of the outer halo. The parhelia are most brilliant when the sun is near +the horizon. As the sun rises, they pass a little beyond the halo and +exhibit flaming tails. The other images on the parhelic circle are the +_paranthelia_ (q) and the _anthelion_ (a) (from the Greek [Greek: anti], +opposite, and [Greek: helios], the sun). The former are situated at from +90 deg. to 140 deg. from the sun; the latter is a white patch of light +situated at the anti-solar point and often exceeding in size the +apparent diameter of the luminary. A vertical circle passing through the +sun may also be seen. From the parhelia of the inner halo two oblique +curves (L) proceed. These are known as the "arcs of Lowitz," having been +first described in 1794 by Johann Tobias Lowitz (1757-1804). Luminous +arcs (T), tangential to the upper and lower parts of each halo, also +occur, and in the case of the inner halo, the arcs may be prolonged to +form a quasi-elliptic halo. + +The physical explanation of halos originated with Rene Descartes, who +ascribed their formation to the presence of ice-crystals in the +atmosphere. This theory was adopted by Edme Mariotte, Sir Isaac Newton +and Thomas Young; and, although certain of their assumptions were +somewhat arbitrary, yet the general validity of the theory has been +demonstrated by the researches of J. G. Galle and A. Bravais. The memoir +of the last-named, published in the _Journal de l'Ecole royale +polytechnique_ for 1847 (xviii., 1-270), ranks as a classic on the +subject; it is replete with examples and illustrations, and discusses +the various phenomena in minute detail. + +The usual form of ice-crystals in clouds is a right hexagonal prism, +which may be elongated as a needle or foreshortened like a thin plate. +There are three refracting angles possible, one of 120 deg. between two +adjacent prism faces, one of 60 deg. between two alternate prism faces, +and one of 90 deg. between a prism face and the base. If innumerable +numbers of such crystals fall in any manner between the observer and the +sun, light falling upon these crystals will be refracted, and the +refracted rays will be crowded together in the position of minimum +deviation (see REFRACTION OF LIGHT). Mariotte explained the inner halo +as being due to refraction through a pair of alternate faces, since the +minimum deviation of an ice-prism whose refracting angle is 60 deg. is +about 22 deg. Since the minimum deviation is least for the least +refrangible rays, it follows that the red rays will be the least +refracted, and the violet the more refracted, and therefore the halo +will be coloured red on the inside. Similarly, as explained by Henry +Cavendish, the halo of 46 deg. is due to refraction by faces inclined at +90 deg. The impurity of the colours (due partly to the sun's diameter, +but still more to oblique refraction) is more marked in halos than in +rainbows; in fact, only the red is at all pure, and as a rule, only a +mere trace of green or blue is seen, the external portion of each halo +being nearly white. + +The two halos are the only phenomena which admit of explanation without +assigning any particular distribution to the ice-crystals. But it is +obvious that certain distributions will predominate, for the crystals +will tend to fall so as to offer the least resistance to their motion; a +needle-shaped crystal tending to keep its axis vertical, a plate-shaped +crystal to keep its axis horizontal. Thomas Young explained the parhelic +circle (P) as due to reflection from the vertical faces of the long +prisms and the bases of the short ones. If these vertical faces become +very numerous, the eye will perceive a colourless horizontal circle. +Reflection from an excess of horizontal prisms gives rise to a vertical +circle passing through the sun. + +The parhelia (p) were explained by Mariotte as due to refraction through +a pair of alternate faces of a vertical prism. When the sun is near the +horizon the rays fall upon the principal section of the prisms; the +minimum deviation for such rays is 22 deg., and consequently the +parhelia are not only on the inner halo, but also on the parhelic +circle. As the sun rises, the rays enter the prisms more and more +obliquely, and the angle of minimum deviation increases; but since the +emergent ray makes the same angle with the refracting edge as the +incident ray, it follows that the parhelia will remain on the parhelic +circle, while receding from the inner halo. The different values of the +angle of minimum deviation for rays of different refrangibilities give +rise to spectral colours, the red being nearest the sun, while farther +away the overlapping of the spectra forms a flaming colourless tail +sometimes extending over as much as 10 deg. to 20 deg. The "arcs of +Lowitz" (L) are probably due to small oscillations of the vertical +prisms. + +The "tangential arcs" (T) were explained by Young as being caused by the +thin plates with their axes horizontal, refraction taking place through +alternate faces. The axes will take up any position, and consequently +give rise to a continuous series of parhelia which touch externally the +inner halo, both above and below, and under certain conditions (such as +the requisite altitude of the sun) form two closed elliptical curves; +generally, however, only the upper and lower portions are seen. +Similarly, the tangential arcs to the halo of 46 deg. are due to +refraction through faces inclined at 90 deg. + +The paranthelia (q) may be due to two internal or two external +reflections. A pair of triangular prisms having a common face, or a +stellate crystal formed by the symmetrical interpenetration of two +triangular prisms admits of two internal reflections by faces inclined +at 120 deg., and so give rise to two colourless images each at an +angular distance of 120 deg. from the sun. Double internal reflection by +a triangular prism would form a single coloured image on the parhelic +circle at about 98 deg. from the sun. These angular distances are +attained only when the sun is on the horizon, and they increase as it +rises. + +The anthelion (a) may be explained as caused by two internal reflections +of the solar rays by a hexagonal lamellar crystal, having its axis +horizontal and one of the diagonals of its base vertical. The emerging +rays are parallel to their original direction and form a colourless +image on the parhelic circle opposite the sun. + + REFERENCES.--Auguste Bravais's celebrated memoir, "Sur les halos et + les phenomenes optiques qui les accompagnent" (_Journ. Ecole poly._ + vol. xviii., 1847), contains a full account of the geometrical theory. + See also E. Mascart, _Traite d'optique_; J. Pernter, _Meteorologische + Optik_ (1902-1905); and R. S. Heath, _Geometrical Optics_. + + + + +HALOGENS. The word halogen is derived from the Greek [Greek: hals] +(sea-salt) and [Greek: gennan] (to produce), and consequently means the +sea-salt producer. The term is applied to the four elements fluorine, +chlorine, bromine and iodine, on account of the great similarity of +their sodium salts to ordinary sea-salt. These four elements show a +great resemblance to one another in their general chemical behaviour, +and in that of their compounds, whilst their physical properties show a +gradual transition. Thus, as the atomic weight increases, the state of +aggregation changes from that of a gas in the case of fluorine and +chlorine, to that of a liquid (bromine) and finally to that of the solid +(iodine); at the same time the melting and boiling points rise with +increasing atomic weights. The halogen of lower atomic weight can +displace one of higher atomic weight from its hydrogen compound, or from +the salt derived from such hydrogen compound, while, on the other hand, +the halogen of higher atomic weight can displace that of lower atomic +weight, from the halogen oxy-acids and their salts; thus iodine will +liberate chlorine from potassium chlorate and also from perchloric acid. +All four of the halogens unite with hydrogen, but the affinity for +hydrogen decreases as the atomic weight increases, hydrogen and fluorine +uniting explosively at very low temperatures and in the dark, whilst +hydrogen and iodine unite only at high temperatures, and even then the +resulting compound is very readily decomposed by heat. The hydrides of +the halogens are all colourless, strongly fuming gases, readily soluble +in water and possessing a strong acid reaction; they react readily with +basic oxides, forming in most cases well defined crystalline salts which +resemble one another very strongly. On the other hand the stability of +the known oxygen compounds increases with the atomic weight, thus iodine +pentoxide is, at ordinary temperatures, a well-defined crystalline +solid, which is only decomposed on heating strongly, whilst chlorine +monoxide, chlorine peroxide, and chlorine heptoxide are very unstable, +even at ordinary temperatures, decomposing at the slightest shock. +Compounds of fluorine and oxygen, and of bromine and oxygen, have not +yet been isolated. In some respects there is a very marked difference +between fluorine and the other members of the group, for, whilst sodium +chloride, bromide and iodide are readily soluble in water, sodium +fluoride is much less soluble; again, silver chloride, bromide and +iodide are practically insoluble in water, whilst, on the other hand, +silver fluoride is appreciably soluble in water. Again, fluorine shows a +great tendency to form double salts, which have no counterpart among the +compounds formed by the other members of the family. + + + + +HALS, FRANS (1580?-1666), Dutch painter, was born at Antwerp according +to the most recent authorities in 1580 or 1581, and died at Haarlem in +1666. As a portrait painter second only to Rembrandt in Holland, he +displayed extraordinary talent and quickness in the exercise of his art +coupled with improvidence in the use of the means which that art secured +to him. At a time when the Dutch nation fought for independence and won +it, Hals appears in the ranks of its military gilds. He was also a +member of the Chamber of Rhetoric, and (1644) chairman of the Painters' +Corporation at Haarlem. But as a man he had failings. He so ill-treated +his first wife, Anneke Hermansz, that she died prematurely in 1616; and +he barely saved the character of his second, Lysbeth Reyniers, by +marrying her in 1617. Another defect was partiality to drink, which led +him into low company. Still he brought up and supported a family of ten +children with success till 1652, when the forced sale of his pictures +and furniture, at the suit of a baker to whom he was indebted for bread +and money, brought him to absolute penury. The inventory of the property +seized on this occasion only mentions three mattresses and bolsters, an +armoire, a table and five pictures. This humble list represents all his +worldly possessions at the time of his bankruptcy. Subsequently to this +he was reduced to still greater straits, and his rent and firing were +paid by the municipality, which afterwards gave him (1664) an annuity of +200 florins. We may admire the spirit which enabled him to produce some +of his most striking works in his unhappy circumstances: we find his +widow seeking outdoor relief from the guardians of the poor, and dying +obscurely in a hospital. + +Hals's pictures illustrate the various strata of society into which his +misfortunes led him. His banquets or meetings of officers, of +sharpshooters, and gildsmen are the most interesting of his works. But +they are not more characteristic than his low-life pictures of itinerant +players and singers. His portraits of gentlefolk are true and noble, but +hardly so expressive as those of fishwives and tavern heroes. + +His first master at Antwerp was probably van Noort, as has been +suggested by M. G. S. Davies, but on his removal to Haarlem Frans Hals +entered the atelier of van Mander, the painter and historian, of whom he +possessed some pictures which went to pay the debt of the baker already +alluded to. But he soon improved upon the practice of the time, +illustrated by J. van Schoreel and Antonio Moro, and, emancipating +himself gradually from tradition, produced pictures remarkable for truth +and dexterity of hand. We prize in Rembrandt the golden glow of effects +based upon artificial contrasts of low light in immeasurable gloom. Hals +was fond of daylight of silvery sheen. Both men were painters of touch, +but of touch on different keys--Rembrandt was the bass, Hals the treble. +The latter is perhaps more expressive than the former. He seizes with +rare intuition a moment in the life of his sitters. What nature displays +in that moment he reproduces thoroughly in a very delicate scale of +colour, and with a perfect mastery over every form of expression. He +becomes so clever at last that exact tone, light and shade, and +modelling are all obtained with a few marked and fluid strokes of the +brush. + +In every form of his art we can distinguish his earlier style from that +of later years. It is curious that we have no record of any work +produced by him in the first decade of his independent activity, save an +engraving by Jan van de Velde after a lost portrait of "The Minister +Johannes Bogardus," who died in 1614. The earliest works by Frans Hals +that have come down to us, "Two Boys Playing and Singing" in the gallery +of Cassel, and a "Banquet of the officers of the 'St Joris Doele'" or +Arquebusiers of St George (1616) in the museum of Haarlem, exhibit him +as a careful draughtsman capable of great finish, yet spirited withal. +His flesh, less clear than it afterwards becomes, is pastose and +burnished. Later he becomes more effective, displays more freedom of +hand, and a greater command of effect. At this period we note the +beautiful full-length of "Madame van Beresteyn" at the Louvre in Paris, +and a splendid full-length portrait of "Willem van Heythuysen" leaning +on a sword in the Liechtenstein collection at Vienna. Both these +pictures are equalled by the other "Banquet of the officers, of the +Arquebusiers of St George" (with different portraits) and the "Banquet +of the officers of the 'Cloveniers Doelen'" or Arquebusiers of St Andrew +of 1627 and an "Assembly of the officers of the Arquebusiers of St +Andrew" of 1633 in the Haarlem Museum. A picture of the same kind in the +town hall of Amsterdam, with the date of 1637, suggests some study of +the masterpieces of Rembrandt, and a similar influence is apparent in a +picture of 1641 at Haarlem, representing the "Regents of the Company of +St Elizabeth" and in the portrait of "Maria Voogt" at Amsterdam. But +Rembrandt's example did not create a lasting impression on Hals. He +gradually dropped more and more into grey and silvery harmonies of tone; +and two of his canvases, executed in 1664, "The Regents and Regentesses +of the Oudemannenhuis" at Haarlem, are masterpieces of colour, though in +substance all but monochromes. In fact, ever since 1641 Hals had shown a +tendency to restrict the gamut of his palette, and to suggest colour +rather than express it. This is particularly noticeable in his flesh +tints which from year to year became more grey, until finally the +shadows were painted in almost absolute black, as in the "Tymane +Oosdorp," of the Berlin Gallery. As this tendency coincides with the +period of his poverty, it has been suggested that one of the reasons, if +not the only reason, of his predilection for black and white pigment was +the cheapness of these colours as compared with the costly lakes and +carmines. + +As a portrait painter Frans Hals had scarcely the psychological insight +of a Rembrandt or Velazquez, though in a few works, like the "Admiral de +Ruyter," in Earl Spencer's collection, the "Jacob Olycan" at the Hague +Gallery, and the "Albert van der Meer" at Haarlem town hall, he reveals +a searching analysis of character which has little in common with the +instantaneous expression of his so-called "character" portraits. In +these he generally sets upon the canvas the fleeting aspect of the +various stages of merriment, from the subtle, half ironic smile that +quivers round the lips of the curiously misnamed "Laughing Cavalier" in +the Wallace Collection to the imbecile grin of the "Hille Bobbe" in the +Berlin Museum. To this group of pictures belong Baron Gustav +Rothschild's "Jester," the "_Bohemienne_" at the Louvre, and the "Fisher +Boy" at Antwerp, whilst the "Portrait of the Artist with his second +Wife" at the Ryks Museum in Amsterdam, and the somewhat confused group +of the "Beresteyn Family" at the Louvre show a similar tendency. Far +less scattered in arrangement than this Beresteyn group, and in every +respect one of the most masterly of Frans Hals's achievements is the +group called "The Painter and his Family" in the possession of Colonel +Warde, which was almost unknown until it appeared at the winter +exhibition at the Royal Academy in 1906. + +Though a visit to Haarlem town hall, which contains the five enormous +Doelen groups and the two Regenten pictures, is as necessary for the +student of Hals's art as a visit to the Prado in Madrid is for the +student of Velazquez, good examples of the Dutch master have found their +way into most of the leading public and private collections. In the +British Isles, besides the works already mentioned, portraits from his +brush are to be found at the National Gallery, the Edinburgh Gallery, +the Glasgow Corporation Gallery, Hampton Court, Buckingham Palace, +Devonshire House, and the collections of Lord Northbrooke, Lord +Ellesmere, Lord Iveagh and Lord Spencer. + +At Amsterdam is the celebrated "Flute Player," once in the Dupper +collection at Dort; at Brussels, the patrician "Heythuysen"; at the +Louvre, "Descartes"; at Dresden, the painter "Van der Vinne." Hals's +sitters were taken from every class of society--admirals, generals and +burgomasters pairing with merchants, lawyers, clerks. To register all +that we find in public galleries would involve much space. There are +eight portraits at Berlin, six at Cassel, five at St Petersburg, six at +the Louvre, two at Brussels, five at Dresden, two at Gotha. In private +collections, chiefly in Paris, Haarlem and Vienna, we find an equally +important number. Amongst the painter's most successful representations +of fishwives and termagants we should distinguish the "Hille Bobbe" of +the Berlin Museum, and the "Hille Bobbe with her Son" in the Dresden +Gallery. Itinerant players are best illustrated in the Neville-Goldsmith +collection at the Hague, and the Six collection at Amsterdam. Boys and +girls singing, playing or laughing, or men drinking, are to be found in +the gallery of Schwerin, in the Arenberg collection, and in the royal +palace at Brussels. + +For two centuries after his death Frans Hals was held in such poor +esteem that some of his paintings, which are now among the proudest +possessions of public galleries, were sold at auction for a few pounds +or even shillings. The portrait of "Johannes Acronius," now at the +Berlin Museum, realized five shillings at the Enschede sale in 1786. The +splendid portrait of the man with the sword at the Liechtenstein gallery +was sold in 1800 for L4, 5s. With his rehabilitation in public esteem +came the enormous rise in values, and, at the Secretan sale in 1889, the +portrait of "Pieter van de Broecke d'Anvers" was bid up to L4420, while +in 1908 the National Gallery paid L25,000 for the large group from the +collection of Lord Talbot de Malahide. + +Of the master's numerous family none has left a name except FRANS HALS +THE YOUNGER, born about 1622, who died in 1669. His pictures represent +cottages and poultry; and the "Vanitas" at Berlin, a table laden with +gold and silver dishes, cups, glasses and books, is one of his finest +works and deserving of a passing glance. + +Quite in another form, and with much of the freedom of the elder HALS, +DIRK HALS, his brother (born at Haarlem, died 1656), is a painter of +festivals and ball-rooms. But Dirk had too much of the freedom and too +little of the skill in drawing which characterized his brother. He +remains second on his own ground to Palamedes. A fair specimen of his +art is a "Lady playing a Harpsichord to a Young Girl and her Lover" in +the van der Hoop collection at Amsterdam, now in the Ryks Museum. More +characteristic, but not better, is a large company of gentle-folk rising +from dinner, in the Academy at Vienna. + + LITERATURE.--See W. Bode, _Frans Hals und seine Schule_ (Leipzig, + 1871); W. Unger and W. Vosmaer, _Etchings after Frans Hals_ (Leyden, + 1873); Percy Rendell Head, _Sir Anthony Van Dyck and Frans Hals_ + (London, 1879); D. Knackfuss, _Frans Hals_ (Leipzig, 1896); G. S. + Davies, _Frans Hals_ (London, 1902). (P. G. K.) + + + + +HALSBURY, HARDINGE STANLEY GIFFARD, 1ST EARL OF (1825- ), English lord +chancellor, son of Stanley Lees Giffard, LL.D., was born in London on +the 3rd of September 1825. He was educated at Merton College, Oxford, +and was called to the bar at the Inner Temple in 1850, joining the North +Wales and Chester circuit. Afterwards he had a large practice at the +central criminal court and the Middlesex sessions, and he was for +several years junior prosecuting counsel to the treasury. He was engaged +in most of the celebrated trials of his time, including the Overend and +Gurney and the Tichborne cases. He became queen's counsel in 1865, and a +bencher of the Inner Temple. Mr Giffard twice contested Cardiff in the +Conservative interest, in 1868 and 1874, but he was still without a seat +in the House of Commons when he was appointed solicitor-general by +Disraeli in 1875 and received the honour of knighthood. In 1877 he +succeeded in obtaining a seat, when he was returned for Launceston, +which borough he continued to represent until his elevation to the +peerage in 1885. He was then created Baron Halsbury and appointed lord +chancellor, thus forming a remarkable exception to the rule that no +criminal lawyer ever reaches the woolsack. Lord Halsbury resumed the +position in 1886 and held it until 1892 and again from 1895 to 1905, his +tenure of the office, broken only by the brief Liberal ministries of +1886 and 1892-1895, being longer than that of any lord chancellor since +Lord Eldon. In 1898 he was created earl of Halsbury and Viscount +Tiverton. Among Conservative lord chancellors Lord Halsbury must always +hold a high place, his grasp of legal principles and mastery in applying +them being pre-eminent among the judges of his day. + + + + +HALSTEAD, a market-town in the Maldon parliamentary division of Essex, +England, on the Colne, 17 m. N.N.E. from Chelmsford; served by the Colne +Valley railway from Chappel Junction on the Great Eastern railway. Pop. +of urban district (1901), 6073. It lies on a hill in a pleasant wooded +district. The church of St Andrew is mainly Perpendicular. It contains a +monument supposed to commemorate Sir Robert Bourchier (d. 1349), lord +chancellor to Edward III. The Lady Mary Ramsay grammar school dates from +1594. There are large silk and crape works. Two miles N. of Halstead is +Little Maplestead, where the church is the latest in date of the four +churches with round naves extant in England, being perhaps of +12th-century foundation, but showing early Decorated work in the main. +The chancel, which is without aisles, terminates in an apse. Three +miles N.W. from Halstead are the large villages of Sible Hedingham (pop. +1701) and Castle Hedingham (pop. 1097). At the second is the Norman keep +of the de Veres, of whom Aubrey de Vere held the lordship from William +I. The keep dates from the end of the 11th century, and exhibits much +fine Norman work. The church of St Nicholas, Castle Hedingham, has fine +Norman, Transitional and Early English details, and there is a black +marble tomb of John de Vere, 15th earl of Oxford (d. 1540), with his +countess. + +There are signs of settlement at Halstead (Halsteda, Halgusted, Halsted) +in the Bronze Age; but there is no evidence of the causes of its growth +in historic times. Probably its situation on the river Colne made it to +some extent a local centre. Throughout the middle ages Halstead was +unimportant, and never rose to the rank of a borough. + + + + +HALT. (1) An adjective common to Teutonic languages and still appearing +in Swedish and Danish, meaning lame, crippled. It is also used as a +verb, meaning to limp, and as a substantive, especially in the term +"string-halt" or "spring-halt," a nervous disorder affecting the muscles +of the hind legs of horses. (2) A pause or stoppage made on a march or a +journey. The word came into English in the form "to make alto" or "alt," +and was taken from the French _faire alte_ or Italian _far alto_. The +origin is a German military term, _Halt machen_, _Halt_ meaning "hold." + + + + +HALUNTIUM (Gr. [Greek: Alontion], mod. S. Marco d'Alunzio), an ancient +city of Sicily, 6 m. from the north coast and 25 m. E.N.E. of Halaesa. +It was probably of Sicel origin, though its foundation was ascribed to +some of the companions of Aeneas. It appears first in Roman times as a +place of some importance, and suffered considerably at the hands of +Verres. The abandoned church of S. Mark, just outside the modern town, +is built into the cella of an ancient Greek temple, which measures 62 +ft. by 18. A number of ancient inscriptions have been found there. + + + + +HALYBURTON, JAMES (1518-1589), Scottish reformer, was born in 1518, and +was educated at St Andrews, where he graduated M.A. in 1538. From 1553 +to 1586 he was provost of St Andrews and a prominent figure in the +national life. He was chosen as one of the lords of the congregation in +1557, and commanded the contingents sent by Forfar and Fife against the +queen regent in 1559. He took part in the defence of Edinburgh, and in +the battles of Langside (1568) and Restalrig (1571). He had stoutly +opposed the marriage of Mary with Darnley, and when, after Restalrig, he +was captured by the queen's troops, he narrowly escaped execution. He +represented Morton at the conference of 1578, and was one of the royal +commissioners to the General Assembly in 1582 and again in 1588. He died +in February 1589. + + + + +HALYBURTON, THOMAS (1674-1712), Scottish divine, was born at Dupplin, +near Perth, on the 25th of December 1674. His father, one of the ejected +ministers, having died in 1682, he was taken by his mother in 1685 to +Rotterdam to escape persecution, where he for some time attended the +school founded by Erasmus. On his return to his native country in 1687 +he completed his elementary education at Perth and Edinburgh, and in +1696 graduated at the university of St Andrews. In 1700 he was ordained +minister of the parish of Ceres, and in 1710 he was recommended by the +synod of Fife for the chair of theology in St Leonard's College, St +Andrews, to which accordingly he was appointed by Queen Anne. After a +brief term of active professorial life he died from the effects of +overwork in 1712. + + The works by which he continues to be known were all of them published + after his death. Wesley and Whitefield were accustomed to commend them + to their followers. They were published as follows: _Natural Religion + Insufficient, and Revealed Religion Necessary, to Man's Happiness in + his Present State_ (1714), an able statement of the orthodox + Calvinistic criticism of the deism of Lord Herbert of Cherbury and + Charles Blount; _Memoirs of the Life of Mr Thomas Halyburton_ (1715), + three parts by his own hand, the fourth from his diary by another + hand; _The Great Concern of Salvation_ (1721), with a word of + commendation by I. Watts; _Ten Sermons Preached Before and After the + Lord's Supper_ (1722); _The Unpardonable Sin Against the Holy Ghost_ + (1784). See Halyburton's _Memoirs_ (1714). + + + + +HAM, in the Bible. (1) [Hebrew: Ham], _Ham_, in Gen. v. 32, vi. 10, vii. +13, ix. 18, x. 5, 1 Chron. i. 4, the _second_ son of Noah; in Gen. ix. +24, the _youngest_ son (but cf. below); and in Gen. x. 6, 1 Chron. i. 8, +the father of Cush (Ethiopia), Mizraim (Egypt), Phut and Canaan. Genesis +x. exhibits in the form of genealogies the political, racial and +geographical relations of the peoples known to Israel; as it was +compiled from various sources and has been more than once edited, it +does not exactly represent the situation at any given date,[1] but Ham +seems to stand roughly for the south-western division of the world as +known to Israel, which division was regarded as the natural sphere of +influence of Egypt. Ham is held to be the Egyptian word _Khem_ (black) +which was the native name of Egypt; thus in Pss. lxxviii. 51, cv. 23, +27, cvi. 22, Ham = Egypt. In Gen. ix. 20-26 Canaan was originally the +third son of Noah and the villain of the story. Ham is a later addition +to harmonize with other passages. + +(2) [Hebrew: Ham], _Ham_, 1 Chron. iv. 40, apparently the name of a +place or tribe. It can hardly be identical with (1); nothing else is +known of this second Ham, which may be a scribe's error; the Syriac +version rejects the name. + +(3) [Hebrew: Ham], _Ham_, Gen. xiv. 5; the place where Chedorlaomer +defeated the Zuzim, apparently in eastern Palestine. The place is +unknown, and the name may be a scribe's error, perhaps for Ammon. (W. H. +Be.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] A. Jeremias, _Das A.T. im Lichte des alten Orients_, p. 145, + holds that it represents the situation in the 8th century B.C. + + + + +HAM, a small town of northern France, in the department of Somme, 36 m. +E.S.E. of Amiens on the Northern railway between that city and Laon. +Pop. (1906), 2957. It stands on the Somme in a marshy district where +market-gardening is carried on. From the 9th century onwards it appears +as the seat of a lordship which, after the extinction of its hereditary +line, passed in succession to the houses of Coucy, Enghien, Luxembourg, +Rohan, Vendome and Navarre, and was finally united to the French crown +on the accession of Henry IV. Notre-Dame, the church of an abbey of +canons regular of St Augustin, dates from the 12th and 13th centuries, +but in 1760 all the inflammable portions of the building were destroyed +by a conflagration caused by lightning, and a process of restoration was +subsequently carried out. Of special note are the bas-reliefs of the +nave and choir, executed in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the crypt +of the 12th century, which contains the sepulchral effigies of Odo IV. +of Ham and his wife Isabella of Bethencourt. The castle, founded before +the 10th century, was rebuilt early in the 13th, and extended in the +14th; its present appearance is mainly due to the constable Louis of +Luxembourg, count of St Pol, who between 1436 and 1470 not only +furnished it with outworks, but gave such a thickness to the towers and +curtains, and more especially to the great tower or donjon which still +bears his motto _Mon Myeulx_, that the great engineer and architect +Viollet-le-Duc considered them, even in the 19th century, capable of +resisting artillery. It forms a rectangle 395 ft. long by 263 ft. broad, +with a round tower at each angle and two square towers protecting the +curtains. The eastern and western sides are each defended by a +demi-lune. The Constable's Tower, for so the great tower is usually +called in memory of St Pol, has a height of about 100 ft., and the +thickness of the walls is 36 ft.; the interior is occupied by three +large hexagonal chambers in as many stories. The castle of Ham, which +now serves as barracks, has frequently been used as a state prison both +in ancient and modern times, and the list of those who have sojourned +there is an interesting one, including as it does Joan of Arc, Louis of +Bourbon, the ministers of Charles X., Louis Napoleon, and Generals +Cavaignac and Lamoriciere. Louis Napoleon was there for six years, and +at last effected his escape in the disguise of a workman. During +1870-1871 Ham was several times captured and recaptured by the +belligerents. A statue commemorates the birth in the town of General Foy +(1775-1825). + + See J. G. Cappot, _Le Chateau de Ham_ (Paris, 1842); and Ch. Gomart, + _Ham, son chateau et ses prisonniers_ (Ham, 1864). + + + + + +HAMADAN, a province and town of Persia. The province is bounded N. by +Gerrus and Khamseh, W. by Kermanshah, S. by Malayir and Irak, E. by +Savah and Kazvin. It has many well-watered, fertile plains and more than +four hundred flourishing villages producing much grain, and its +population, estimated at 350,000--more than half being Turks of the +Karaguzlu (black-eyed) and Shamlu (Syrian) tribes--supplies several +battalions of infantry to the army, and pays, besides, a yearly revenue +of about L18,000. + +Hamadan, the capital of the province, is situated 188 m. W.S.W. of +Teheran, at an elevation of 5930 ft., near the foot of Mount Elvend (old +Persian _Arvand_, Gr. _Orontes_), whose granite peak rises W. of it to +an altitude of 11,900 ft. It is a busy trade centre with about 40,000 +inhabitants (comprising 4000 Jews and 300 Armenians), has extensive and +well-stocked bazaars and fourteen large and many small caravanserais. +The principal industries are tanning leather and the manufacture of +saddles, harnesses, trunks, and other leather goods, felts and copper +utensils. The leather of Hamadan is much esteemed throughout the country +and exported to other provinces in great quantities. The streets are +narrow, and by a system called Kucheh-bandi (street-closing) established +long ago for impeding the circulation of crowds and increasing general +security, every quarter of the town, or block of buildings, is shut off +from its neighbours by gates which are closed during local disorders and +regularly at night. Hamadan has post and telegraph offices and two +churches, one Armenian, the other Protestant (of the American +Presbyterian Mission). + +Among objects of interest are the alleged tombs of Esther and Mordecai +in an insignificant domed building in the centre of the town. There are +two wooden sarcophagi carved all over with Hebrew inscriptions. That +ascribed to Mordecai has the verses Isaiah lix. 8; Esther ii. 5; Ps. +xvi. 9, 10, 11, and the date of its erection A.M. 4318 (A.D. 557). The +inscriptions on the other sarcophagus consist of the verses Esther ix. +29, 32, x. 1; and the statement that it was placed there A.M. 4602 (A.D. +841) by "the pious and righteous woman Gemal Setan." A tablet let into +the wall states that the building was repaired A.M. 4474 (A.D. 713). +Hamadan also has the grave of the celebrated physician and philosopher +Abu Ali ibn Sina, better known as Avicenna (d. 1036). It is now +generally admitted that Hamadan is the Hagmatana (of the inscriptions), +Agbatana or Ecbatana (q.v., of the Greek writers), the "treasure city" +of the Achaemenian kings which was taken and plundered by Alexander the +Great, but very few ancient remains have been discovered. A rudely +carved stone lion, which lies on the roadside close to the southern +extremity of the city, and by some is supposed to have formed part of a +building of the ancient city, is locally regarded as a talisman against +famine, plague, cold, &c., placed there by Pliny, who is popularly known +as the sorcerer Balinas (a corruption of Plinius). + +Five miles S.W. from the city in a mountain gorge of Mount Elvend is the +so-called Ganjnama (treasure-deed), which consists of two tablets with +trilingual cuneiform inscriptions cut into the rock and relating the +names and titles of Darius I. (521-485 B.C.) and his son Xerxes I. +(485-465 B.C.). (A. H. S.) + + + + +HAMADHANI, in full ABU-L FADL AHMAD IBN UL-HUSAIN UL-HAMADHANI +(967-1007), Arabian writer, known as Badi' uz-Zaman (the wonder of the +age), was born and educated at Hamadban. In 990 be went to Jorjan, where +he remained two years; then passing to Nishapur, where he rivalled and +surpassed the learned Khwarizmi. After journeying through Khorasan and +Sijistan, he finally settled in Herat under the protection of the vizir +of Mahmud, the Ghaznevid sultan. There he died at the age of forty. He +was renowned for a remarkable memory and for fluency of speech, as well +as for the purity of his language. He was one of the first to renew the +use of rhymed prose both in letters and _maqamas_ (see ARABIA: +_Literature_, section "Belles Lettres"). + + His letters were published at Constantinople (1881), and with + commentary at Beirut (1890); his _maqamas_ at Constantinople (1881), + and with commentary at Beirut (1889). A good idea of the latter may + be obtained from S. de Sacy's edition of six of the _maqamas_ with + French translation and notes in his _Chrestomathie_ arabe, vol. iii. + (2nd ed., Paris, 1827). A specimen of the letters is translated into + German in A. von Kremer's _Culturgeschichte des Orients_, ii. 470 sqq. + (Vienna, 1877). (G. W. T.) + + + + +HAMAH, the Hamath of the Bible, a Hittite royal city, situated in the +narrow valley of the Orontes, 110 English miles N. (by E.) of Damascus. +It finds a place in the northern boundaries of Israel under David, +Solomon and Jeroboam II. (2 Sam. viii. 9; 1 Kings viii. 65; 2 Kings xiv. +25). The Orontes flows winding past the city and is spanned by four +bridges. On the south-east the houses rise 150 ft. above the river, and +there are four other hills, that of the _Kalah_ or castle being to the +north 100 ft. high. Twenty-four minarets rise from the various mosques. +The houses are principally of mud, and the town stands amid poplar +gardens with a fertile plain to the west. The castle is ruined, the +streets are narrow and dirty, but the bazaars are good, and the trade +with the Bedouins considerable. The numerous water-wheels (_naurah_,) of +enormous dimension, raising water from the Orontes are the most +remarkable features of the view. Silk, woollen and cotton goods are +manufactured. The population is about 40,000. + +In the year 854 B.C. Hamath was taken by Shalmaneser II., king of +Assyria, who defeated a large army of allied Hamathites, Syrians and +Israelites at Karkor and slew 14,000 of them. In 738 B.C. Tiglath +Pileser III. reduced the city to tribute, and another rebellion was +crushed by Sargon in 720 B.C. The downfall of so ancient a state made a +great impression at Jerusalem (Isa. x. 9). According to 2 Kings xvii. +24, 30, some of its people were transported to the land of N. Israel, +where they made images of Ashima or Eshmun (probably Ishtar). After the +Macedonian conquest of Syria Hamath was called Epiphania by the Greeks +in honour of Antiochus IV., Epiphanes, and in the early Byzantine period +it was known by both its Hebrew and its Greek name. In A.D. 639 the town +surrendered to Abu 'Obeida, one of Omar's generals, and the church was +turned into a mosque. In A.D. 1108 Tancred captured the city and +massacred the Ism'aileh defenders. In 1115 it was retaken by the +Moslems, and in 1178 was occupied by Saladin. Abulfeda, prince of Hamah +in the early part of the 14th century, is well known as an authority on +Arab geography. + + + + +HAMANN, JOHANN GEORG (1730-1788), German writer on philosophical and +theological subjects, was born at Konigsberg in Prussia on the 27th of +August 1730. His parents were of humble rank and small means. The +education he received was comprehensive but unsystematic, and the want +of definiteness in this early training doubtless tended to aggravate the +peculiar instability of character which troubled Hamann's after life. In +1746 be began theological studies, but speedily deserted them and turned +his attention to law. That too was taken up in a desultory fashion and +quickly relinquished. Hamann seems at this time to have thought that any +strenuous devotion to "bread-and-butter" studies was lowering, and +accordingly gave himself entirely to reading, criticism and philological +inquiries. Such studies, however, were pursued without any definite aim +or systematic arrangement, and consequently were productive of nothing. +In 1752, constrained to secure some position in the world, he accepted a +tutorship in a family resident in Livonia, but only retained it a few +months. A similar situation in Courland he also resigned after about a +year. In both cases apparently the rupture might be traced to the +curious and unsatisfactory character of Hamann himself. After leaving +his second post he was received into the house of a merchant at Riga +named Johann Christoph Behrens, who contracted a great friendship for +him and selected him as his companion for a tour through Danzig, Berlin, +Hamburg, Amsterdam and London. Hamann, however, was quite unfitted for +business, and when left in London, gave himself up entirely to his +fancies, and was quickly reduced to a state of extreme poverty and want. +It was at this period of his life, when his inner troubles of spirit +harmonized with the unhappy external conditions of his lot, that he +began an earnest and prolonged study of the Bible; and from this time +dates the tone of extreme pietism which is characteristic of his +writings, and which undoubtedly alienated many of his friends. He +returned to Riga, and was well received by the Behrens family, in whose +house he resided for some time. A quarrel, the precise nature of which +is not very clear though the occasion is evident, led to an entire +separation from these friends. In 1759 Hamann returned to Konigsberg, +and lived for several years with his father, filling occasional posts in +Konigsberg and Mitau. In 1767 he obtained a situation as translator in +the excise office, and ten years later a post as storekeeper in a +mercantile house. During this period of comparative rest Hamann was able +to indulge in the long correspondence with learned friends which seems +to have been his greatest pleasure. In 1784 the failure of some +commercial speculations greatly reduced his means, and about the same +time he was dismissed with a small pension from his situation. The +kindness of friends, however, supplied provision for his children, and +enabled him to carry out the long-cherished wish of visiting some of his +philosophical allies. He spent some time with Jacobi at Pempelfort and +with Buchholz at Walbergen. At the latter place he was seized with +illness, and died on the 21st of June 1788. + + Hamann's works resemble his life and character. They are entirely + unsystematic so far as matter is concerned, chaotic and disjointed in + style. To a reader not acquainted with the peculiar nature of the man, + which led him to regard what commended itself to him as therefore + objectively true, they must be, moreover, entirely unintelligible and, + from their peculiar, pietistic tone and scriptural jargon, probably + offensive. A place in the history of philosophy can be yielded to + Hamann only because he expresses in uncouth, barbarous fashion an idea + to which other writers have given more effective shape. The + fundamental thought is with him the unsatisfactoriness of abstraction + or one-sidedness. The _Aufklarung_, with its rational theology, was to + him the type of abstraction. Even Epicureanism, which might appear + concrete, was by him rightly designated abstract. Quite naturally, + then, Hamann is led to object strongly to much of the Kantian + philosophy. The separation of sense and understanding is for him + unjustifiable, and only paralleled by the extraordinary blunder of + severing matter and form. Concreteness, therefore, is the one demand + which Hamann expresses, and as representing his own thought he used to + refer to Giordano Bruno's conception (previously held by Nicolaus + Curanus) of the identity of contraries. The demand, however, remains + but a demand. Nothing that Hamann has given can be regarded as in the + slightest degree a response to it. His hatred of system, incapacity + for abstract thinking, and intense personality rendered it impossible + for him to do more than utter the disjointed, oracular, obscure dicta + which gained for him among his friends the name of "Magus of the + North." Two results only appear throughout his writings--first, the + accentuation of belief; and secondly, the transference of many + philosophical difficulties to language. Belief is, according to + Hamann, the groundwork of knowledge, and he accepts in all sincerity + Hume's analysis of experience as being most helpful in constructing a + theological view. In language, which he appears to regard as somehow + acquired, he finds a solution for the problems of reason which Kant + had discussed in the _Kritik der reinen Vernunft_. On the application + of these thoughts to the Christian theology one need not enter. + + None of Hamann's writings is of great bulk; most are mere pamphlets of + some thirty or forty pages. A complete collection has been published + by F. Roth (_Schriften_, 8vo, 1821-1842), and by C. H. Gildemeister + (_Leben und Schriften_, 6 vols., 1851-1873). See also M. Petri, + _Hamanns Schriften u. Briefe_, (4 vols., 1872-1873); J. Poel, _Hamann, + der Magus im Norden, sein Leben u. Mitteilungen aus seinen Schriften_ + (2 vols., 1874-1876); J. Claassen, _Hamanns Leben und Werke_ (1885). + Also H. Weber, _Neue Hamanniana_ (1905). A very comprehensive essay on + Hamann is to be found in Hegel's _Vermischte Schriften_, ii. (Werke, + Bd. xvii.). On Hamann's influence on German literature, see J. Minor, + _J. G. Hamann in seiner Bedeutung fur die Sturm- und Drang-Periode_ + (1881). + + + + +HAMAR, or STOREHAMMER (GREAT HAMAR), a town of Norway in Hedemarken +_amt_ (county), 78 m. by rail N. of Christiania. Pop. (1900), 6003. It +is pleasantly situated between two bays of the great Lake Mjosen, and is +the junction of the railways to Trondhjem (N.) and to Otta in +Gudbrandsdal (N.W.). The existing town was laid out in 1849, and made a +bishop's see in 1864. Near the same site there stood an older town, +which, together with a bishop's see, was founded in 1152 by the +Englishman Nicholas Breakspeare (afterwards Pope Adrian IV.); but both +town and cathedral were destroyed by the Swedes in 1567. Remains of the +latter include a nave-arcade with rounded arches. The town is a centre +for the local agricultural and timber trade. + + + + +HAMASA (HAMASAH), the name of a famous Arabian anthology compiled by +Habib ibn Aus at-Ta'i, surnamed Abu Tammam (see ABU TAMMAM). The +collection is so called from the title of its first book, containing +poems descriptive of constancy and valour in battle, patient endurance +of calamity, steadfastness in seeking vengeance, manfulness under +reproach and temptation, all which qualities make up the attribute +called by the Arabs _hamasah_ (briefly paraphrased by at-Tibrizi as +_ash-shiddah fi-l-amr_). It consists of ten books or parts, containing +in all 884 poems or fragments of poems, and named respectively--(1) +_al-Hamasa_, 261 pieces; (2) _al-Marathi_, "Dirges," 169 pieces; (3) +_al-Adab_, "Manners," 54 pieces; (4) _an-Nasib_, "The Beauty and Love of +Women," 139 pieces; (5) _al-Hija_, "Satires," 80 pieces; (6) _al-Adyaf +wa-l-Madih_, "Hospitality and Panegyric," 143 pieces; (7) _as-Sifat_, +"Miscellaneous Descriptions," 3 pieces; (8) _as-Sair wa-n-Nu'as_, +"Journeying and Drowsiness," 9 pieces; (9) _al-Mulah_, "Pleasantries," +38 pieces; and (10) _Madhammat-an-nisa_, "Dispraise of Women," 18 +pieces. Of these books the first is by far the longest, both in the +number and extent of its poems, and the first two together make up more +than half the bulk of the work. The poems are for the most part +fragments selected from longer compositions, though a considerable +number are probably entire. They are taken from the works of Arab poets +of all periods down to that of Abu Tammam himself (the latest +ascertainable date being A.D. 832), but chiefly of the poets of the +Ante-Islamic time (_Jahiliyyun_), those of the early days of Al-Islam +(_Mukhadrimun_), and those who flourished during the reigns of the +Omayyad caliphs, A.D. 660-749 (_Islamiyyun_). Perhaps the oldest in the +collection are those relating to the war of Basus, a famous legendary +strife which arose out of the murder of Kulaib, chief of the combined +clans of Bakr and Taghlib, and lasted for forty years, ending with the +peace of Dhu-l-Majaz, about A.D. 534. Of the period of the Abbasid +caliphs, under whom Abu Tammam himself lived, there are probably not +more than sixteen fragments. + +Most of the poems belong to the class of extempore or occasional +utterances, as distinguished from _qasidas_, or elaborately finished +odes. While the latter abound with comparisons and long descriptions, in +which the skill of the poet is exhibited with much art and ingenuity, +the poems of the _Hamasa_ are short, direct and for the most part free +from comparisons; the transitions are easy, the metaphors simple, and +the purpose of the poem clearly indicated. It is due probably to the +fact that this style of composition was chiefly sought by Abu Tammam in +compiling his collection that he has chosen hardly anything from the +works of the most famous poets of antiquity. Not a single piece from +Imra 'al-Qais (Amru-ul-Qais) occurs in the _Hamasa_, nor are there any +from 'Alqama, Zuhair or A'sha; Nabigha is represented only by two pieces +(pp. 408 and 742 of Freytag's edition) of four and three verses +respectively; 'Antara by two pieces of four verses each (id. pp. 206, +209); Tarafa by one piece of five verses (id. p. 632); Labid by one +piece of three verses (id. p. 468); and 'Amr ibn Kulthum by one piece of +four verses (id. p. 236). The compilation is thus essentially an +anthology of minor poets, and exhibits (so far at least as the more +ancient poems are concerned) the general average of poetic utterance at +a time when to speak in verse was the daily habit of every warrior of +the desert. + +To this description, however, there is an important exception in the +book entitled _an-Nasib_, containing verses relating to women and love. +In the classical age of Arab poetry it was the established rule that all +_qasidas_, or finished odes, whatever their purpose, must begin with the +mention of women and their charms (_tashbib_), in order, as the old +critics said, that the hearts of the hearers might be softened and +inclined to regard kindly the theme which the poet proposed to unfold. +The fragments included in this part of the work are therefore generally +taken from the opening verses of _qasidas_; where this is not the case, +they are chiefly compositions of the early Islamic period, when the +school of exclusively erotic poetry (of which the greatest +representative was 'Omar ibn Abi Rabi'a) arose. + +The compiler was himself a distinguished poet in the style of his day, +and wandered through many provinces of the Moslem empire earning money +and fame by his skill in panegyric. About 220 A.H. he betook himself to +Khorasan, then ruled by 'Abdallah ibn Tahir, whom he praised and by whom +he was rewarded; on his journey home to 'Irak he passed through +Hamadhan, and was there detained for many months a guest of Abu-l-Wafa, +son of Salama, the road onward being blocked by heavy falls of snow. +During his residence at Hamadhan, Abu Tammam is said to have compiled or +composed, from the materials which he found in Abu-l-Wafa's library, +five poetical works, of which one was the _Hamasa_. This collection +remained as a precious heirloom in the family of Abu-l-Wafa until their +fortunes decayed, when it fell into the hands of a man of Dinawar named +Abu-l-'Awadhil, who carried it to Isfahan and made it known to the +learned of that city. + +The worth of the _Hamasa_ as a store-house of ancient legend, of +faithful detail regarding the usages of the pagan time and early +simplicity of the Arab race, can hardly be exaggerated. The high level +of excellence which is found in its selections, both as to form and +matter, is remarkable, and caused it to be said that Abu Tammam +displayed higher qualities as a poet in his choice of extracts from the +ancients than in his own compositions. What strikes us chiefly in the +class of poetry of which the _Hamasa_ is a specimen, is its exceeding +truth and reality, its freedom from artificiality and hearsay, the +evident first-hand experience which the singers possessed of all of +which they sang. For historical purposes the value of the collection is +not small; but most of all there shines forth from it a complete +portraiture of the hardy and manful nature, the strenuous life of +passion and battle, the lofty contempt of cowardice, niggardliness and +servility, which marked the valiant stock who bore Islam abroad in a +flood of new life over the outworn civilizations of Persia, Egypt and +Byzantium. It has the true stamp of the heroic time, of its cruelty and +wantonness as of its strength and beauty. + + No fewer than twenty commentaries are enumerated by Hajji Khalifa. Of + these the earliest was by Abu Riyash (otherwise ar-Riyashi), who died + in 257 A.H.; excerpts from it, chiefly in elucidation of the + circumstances in which the poems were composed, are frequently given + by at-Tibrizi (Tabrizi). He was followed by the famous grammarian + Abu-l-Fath ibn al-Jinni (d. 392 A.H.), and later by Shihab ad-Din + Ahmad al-Marzuqi of Isfahan (d. 421 A.H.). Upon al-Marzuqi's + commentary is chiefly founded that of Abu Zakariya Yahya at-Tibrizi + (b. 421 A.H., d. 502), which has been published by the late Professor + G. W. Freytag of Bonn, together with a Latin translation and notes + (1828-1851). This monumental work, the labour of a life, is a treasure + of information regarding the classical age of Arab literature which + has not perhaps its equal for extent, accuracy, and minuteness of + detail in Europe. No other complete edition of the _Hamasa_ has been + printed in the West; but in 1856 one appeared at Calcutta under the + names of Maulavi Ghulam Rabbani and Kabiru-d-din Ahmad. Though no + acknowledgment of the fact is contained in this edition, it is a + simple reprint of Professor Freytag's text (without at-Tibrizi's + commentary), and follows its original even in the misprints (corrected + by Freytag at the end of the second volume, which being in Latin the + Calcutta editors do not seem to have consulted). It contains in an + appendix of 12 pages a collection of verses (and some entire + fragments) not found in at-Tibrizi's recension, but stated to exist in + some copies consulted by the editors; these are, however, very + carelessly edited and printed, and in many places unintelligible. + Freytag's text, with at-Tibrizi's commentary, has been reprinted at + Bulaq (1870). In 1882 an edition of the text, with a marginal + commentary by Munshi 'Abdul-Qadir ibn Shaikh Luqman, was published at + Bombay. + + The _Hamasa_ has been rendered with remarkable skill and spirit into + German verse by the illustrious Friedrich Ruckert (Stuttgart, 1846), + who has not only given translations of almost all the poems proper to + the work, but has added numerous fragments drawn from other sources, + especially those occurring in the _scholia_ of at-Tibrizi, as well as + the Mu'allaqas of Zuhair and 'Antara, the _Lamiyya_ of Ash-Shanfara, + and the Banat Su'ad of Ka'b, son of Zuhair. A small collection of + translations, chiefly in metres imitating those of the original, was + published in London by Sir Charles Lyall in 1885. + + When the _Hamasa_ is spoken of, that of Abu Tammam, as the first and + most famous of the name, is meant; but several collections of a + similar kind, also called _Hamasa_, exist. The best-known and earliest + of these is the _Hamasa_ of Buhturi (d. 284 A.H.), of which the unique + MS. now in the Leiden University Library, has been reproduced by + photo-lithography (1909); a critical edition has been prepared by + Professor Chlikho at Beyreuth. Four other works of the same name, + formed on the model of Abu Tammam's compilation, are mentioned by + Hajji Khalifa. Besides these, a work entitled _Hamasat ar-Rah_ ("the + Hamasa of wine") was composed of Abu-l-'Alaal-Ma'arri (d. 429 A.H.). + (C. J. L.) + + + + +HAMBURG, a state of the German empire, on the lower Elbe, bounded by the +Prussian provinces of Schleswig-Holstein and Hanover. The whole +territory has an area of 160 sq. m., and consists of the city of Hamburg +with its incorporated suburbs and the surrounding district, including +several islands in the Elbe, five small enclaves in Holstein; the +communes of Moorburg in the Luneburg district of the Prussian province +of Hanover and Cuxhaven-Ritzebuttel at the mouth of the Elbe, the island +of Neuwerk about 5 m. from the coast, and the bailiwick (_amt_) of +Bergedorf, which down to 1867 was held in common by Lubeck and Hamburg. +Administratively the state is divided into the city, or metropolitan +district, and four rural domains (or _Landherrenschaften_), each under a +senator as _praeses_, viz. the domain of the Geestlande, of the +Marschlande, of Bergedorf and of Ritzebuttel with Cuxhaven. +Cuxhaven-Ritzebuttel and Bergedorf are the only towns besides the +capital. The Geestlande comprise the suburban districts encircling the +city on the north and west; the Marschlande includes various islands in +the Elbe and the fertile tract of land lying between the northern and +southern arms of the Elbe, and with its pastures and market gardens +supplying Hamburg with large quantities of country produce. In the +Bergedorf district lies the Vierlande, or Four Districts (Neuengamme, +Kirchwarder, Altengamme and Curslack), celebrated for its fruit gardens +and the picturesque dress of the inhabitants. Ritzebuttel with Cuxhaven, +also a watering-place, have mostly a seafaring population. Two rivers, +the Alster and the Bille, flow through the city of Hamburg into the +Elbe, the mouth of which, at Cuxhaven, is 75 m. below the city. + +_Government._--As a state of the empire, Hamburg is represented in the +federal council (_Bundesrat_) by one plenipotentiary, and in the +imperial diet (_Reichstag_) by three deputies. Its present constitution +came into force on the 1st of January 1861, and was revised in 1879 and +again in 1906. According to this Hamburg is a republic, the government +(_Staatsgewalt_) residing in two chambers, the Senate and the House of +Burgesses. The Senate, which exercises the greater part of the executive +power, is composed of eighteen members, one half of whom must have +studied law or finance, while at least seven of the remainder must +belong to the class of merchants. The members of the Senate are elected +for life by the House of Burgesses; but a senator is free to retire from +office at the expiry of six years. A chief (_ober-_) and second +(_zweiter-_) burgomaster, the first of whom bears the title of +"Magnificence," chosen annually in secret ballot, preside over the +meetings of the Senate, and are usually jurists. No burgomaster can be +in office for longer than two years consecutively, and no member of the +Senate may hold any other public office. The House of Burgesses consists +of 160 members, of whom 80 are elected in secret ballot by the direct +suffrages of all tax-paying citizens, 40 by the owners of house-property +within the city (also by ballot), and the remaining 40, by ballot also, +by the so-called "notables," i.e. active and former members of the law +courts and administrative boards. They are elected for a period of six +years, but as half of each class retire at the end of three years, new +elections for one half the number take place at the end of that time. +The House of Burgesses is represented by a _Burgerausschuss_ (committee +of the house) of twenty deputies whose duty it is to watch over the +proceedings of the Senate and the constitution generally. The Senate can +interpose a veto in all matters of legislation, saving taxation, and +where there is a collision between the two bodies, provision is made for +reference to a court of arbitration, consisting of members of both +houses in equal numbers, and also to the supreme court of the empire +(_Reichsgericht_) sitting at Leipzig. The law administered is that of +the civil and penal codes of the German empire, and the court of appeal +for all three Hanse towns is the common _Oberlandesgericht_, which has +its seat in Hamburg. There is also a special court of arbitration in +commercial disputes and another for such as arise under accident +insurance. + +_Religion._--The church in Hamburg is completely separated from the +state and manages its affairs independently. The ecclesiastical +arrangements of Hamburg have undergone great modifications since the +general constitution of 1860. From the Reformation to the French +occupation in the beginning of the 19th century, Hamburg was a purely +Lutheran state; according to the "Recess" of 1529, re-enacted in 1603, +non-Lutherans were subject to legal punishment and expulsion from the +country. Exceptions were gradually made in favour of foreign residents; +but it was not till 1785 that regular inhabitants were allowed to +exercise the religious rites of other denominations, and it was not till +after the war of freedom that they were allowed to have buildings in the +style of churches. In 1860 full religious liberty was guaranteed, and +the identification of church and state abolished. By the new +constitution of the Lutheran Church, published at first in 1870 for the +city only, but in 1876 extended to the rest of the Hamburg territory, +the parishes or communes are divided into three church-districts, and +the general affairs of the whole community are entrusted to a synod of +53 members and to an ecclesiastical council of 9 members which acts as +an executive. Since 1887 a church rate has been levied on the +Evangelical-Lutheran communities, and since 1904 upon the Roman +Catholics also. The German Reformed Church, the French Reformed, the +English Episcopal, the English Reformed, the Roman Catholic, and the +Baptist are all recognized by the state. Civil marriages have been +permissible in Hamburg since 1866, and since the introduction of the +imperial law in January 1876 the number of such marriages has greatly +increased. + +_Finance._--The jurisdiction of the Free Port was on the 1st of January +1882 restricted to the city and port by the extension of the Zollverein +to the lower Elbe, and in 1888 the whole of the state of Hamburg, with +the exception of the so-called "Free Harbour" (which comprises the port +proper and some large warehouses, set apart for goods in bond), was +taken into the Zollverein. + +_Population._--The population increased from 453,000 in 1880 to 622,530 +in 1890, and in 1905 amounted to 874,878. The population of the country +districts (exclusive of the city of Hamburg) was 72,085 in 1905. The +crops raised in the country districts are principally vegetables and +fruit, potatoes, hay, oats, rye and wheat. For manufactures and trade +statistics see HAMBURG (city). + +The military organization of Hamburg was arranged by convention with +Prussia. The state furnishes three battalions of the 2nd Hanseatic +regiment, under Prussian officers. The soldiers swear the oath of +allegiance to the senate. + + + + +HAMBURG, a seaport of Germany, capital of the free state of Hamburg, on +the right bank of the northern arm of the Elbe, 75 m. from its mouth at +Cuxhaven and 178 m. N.W. from Berlin by rail. It is the largest and most +important seaport on the continent of Europe and (after London and New +York) the third largest in the world. Were it not for political and +municipal boundaries Hamburg might be considered as forming with Altona +and Ottensen (which lie within Prussian territory) one town. The view of +the three from the south, presenting a continuous river frontage of six +miles, the river crowded with shipping and the densely packed houses +surmounted by church towers--of which three are higher than the dome of +St Paul's in London--is one of great magnificence. + +The city proper lies on both sides of the little river Alster, which, +dammed up a short distance from its mouth, forms a lake, of which the +southern portion within the line of the former fortifications bears the +name of the Inner Alster (_Binnen Alster_), and the other and larger +portion (2500 yards long and 1300 yards at the widest) that of the Outer +Alster (_Aussen Alster_). The fortifications as such were removed in +1815, but they have left their trace in a fine girdle of green round the +city, though too many inroads on its completeness have been made by +railways and roadways. The oldest portion of the city is that which lies +to the east of the Alster; but, though it still retains the name of +Altstadt, nearly all trace of its antiquity has disappeared, as it was +rebuilt after the great fire of 1842. To the west lies the new town +(Neustadt), incorporated in 1678; beyond this and contiguous to Altona +is the former suburb of St Pauli, incorporated in 1876, and towards the +north-east that of St Georg, which arose in the 13th century but was not +incorporated till 1868. + +[Illustration: Map of Hamburg.] + +The old town lies low, and it is traversed by a great number of narrow +canals or "fleets" (_Fleeten_)--for the same word which has left its +trace in London nomenclature is used in the Low German city--which add +considerably to the picturesqueness of the meaner quarters, and serve as +convenient channels for the transport of goods. They generally form what +may be called the back streets, and they are bordered by warehouses, +cellars and the lower class of dwelling-houses. As they are subject to +the ebb and flow of the Elbe, at certain times they run almost dry. As +soon as the telegram at Cuxhaven announces high tide three shots are +fired from the harbour to warn the inhabitants of the "fleets"; and if +the progress of the tide up the river gives indication of danger, +another three shots follow. The "fleets" with their quaint medieval +warehouses, which come sheer down to the water, and are navigated by +barges, have gained for Hamburg the name of "Northern Venice." They are, +however, though antique and interesting, somewhat dismal and unsavoury. +In fine contrast to them is the bright appearance of the Binnen Alster, +which is enclosed on three sides by handsome rows of buildings, the +Alsterdamm in the east, the Alter Jungfernstieg in the south, and the +Neuer Jungfernstieg in the west, while it is separated from the Aussen +Alster by part of the rampart gardens traversed by the railway uniting +Hamburg with Altona and crossing the lakes by a beautiful bridge--the +Lombards-Brucke. Around the outer lake are grouped the suburbs +Harvestehude and Posseldorf on the western shore, and Uhlenhorst on the +eastern, with park-like promenades and villas surrounded by well-kept +gardens. Along the southern end of the Binnen Alster runs the +Jungfernstieg with fine shops, hotels and restaurants facing the water. +A fleet of shallow-draught screw steamers provides a favourite means of +communication between the business centre of the city and the outlying +colonies of villas. + +The streets enclosing the Binnen Alster are fashionable promenades, and +leading directly from this quarter are the main business thoroughfares, +the Neuer-Wall, the Grosse Bleichen and the Hermannstrasse. The largest +of the public squares in Hamburg is the Hopfenmarkt, which contains the +church of St Nicholas (Nikolaikirche) and is the principal market for +vegetables and fruit. Others of importance are the Gansemarkt, the +Zeughausmarkt and the Grossneumarkt. Of the thirty-five churches +existing in Hamburg (the old cathedral had to be taken down in 1805), +the St Petrikirche, Nikolaikirche, St Katharinenkirche, St Jakobikirche +and St Michaeliskirche are those that give their names to the five old +city parishes. The Nikolaikirche is especially remarkable for its spire, +which is 473 ft. high and ranks, after those of Ulm and Cologne, as the +third highest ecclesiastical edifice in the world. The old church was +destroyed in the great fire of 1842, and the new building, designed by +Sir George Gilbert Scott in 13th century Gothic, was erected 1845-1874. +The exterior and interior are elaborately adorned with sculptures. +Sandstone from Osterwald near Hildesheim was used for the outside, and +for the inner work a softer variety from Postelwitz near Dresden. The +Michaeliskirche, which is built on the highest point in the city and has +a tower 428 ft. high, was erected (1750-1762) by Ernst G. Sonnin on the +site of the older building of the 17th century destroyed by lightning; +the interior, which can contain 3000 people, is remarkable for its bold +construction, there being no pillars. The St Petrikirche, originally +consecrated in the 12th century and rebuilt in the 14th, was the oldest +church in Hamburg; it was burnt in 1842 and rebuilt in its old form in +1844-1849. It has a graceful tapering spire 402 ft. in height (completed +1878); the granite columns from the old cathedral, the stained glass +windows by Kellner of Nuremberg, and H. Schubert's fine relief of the +entombment of Christ are worthy of notice. The St Katharinenkirche and +the St Jakobikirche are the only surviving medieval churches, but +neither is of special interest. Of the numerous other churches, +Evangelical, Roman Catholic and Anglican, none are of special interest. +The new synagogue was built by Rosengarten between 1857 and 1859, and to +the same architect is due the sepulchral chapel built for the Hamburg +merchant prince Johann Heinrich, Freiherr von Schroder (1784-1883), in +the churchyard of the Petrikirche. The beautiful chapel of St Gertrude +was unfortunately destroyed in 1842. + +Hamburg has comparatively few secular buildings of great architectural +interest, but first among them is the new Rathaus, a huge German +Renaissance building, constructed of sandstone in 1886-1897, richly +adorned with sculptures and with a spire 330 ft. in height. It is the +place of meeting of the municipal council and of the senate and contains +the city archives. Immediately adjoining it and connected with it by two +wings is the exchange. It was erected in 1836-1841 on the site of the +convent of St Mary Magdalen and escaped the conflagration of 1842. It +was restored and enlarged in 1904, and shelters the commercial library +of nearly 100,000 vols. During the business hours (1-3 P.M.) the +exchange is crowded by some 5000 merchants and brokers. In the same +neighbourhood is the Johanneum, erected in 1834 and in which are +preserved the town library of about 600,000 printed books and 5000 MSS. +and the collection of Hamburg antiquities. In the courtyard is a statue +(1885) of the reformer Johann Bugenhagen. In the Fischmarkt, immediately +south of the Johanneum, a handsome fountain was erected in 1890. +Directly west of the town hall is the new Stadthaus, the chief police +station of the town, in front of which is a bronze statue of the +burgomaster Karl Friedrich Petersen (1809-1892), erected in 1897. A +little farther away are the headquarters of the Patriotic Society +(_Patriotische Gesellschaft_), founded in 1765, with fine rooms for the +meetings of artistic and learned societies. Several new public buildings +have been erected along the circuit of the former walls. Near the west +extremity, abutting upon the Elbe, the moat was filled in in 1894-1897, +and some good streets were built along the site, while the Kersten +Miles-Brucke, adorned with statues of four Hamburg heroes, was thrown +across the Helgolander Allee. Farther north, along the line of the +former town wall, are the criminal law courts (1879-1882, enlarged 1893) +and the civil law courts (finished in 1901). Close to the latter stand +the new supreme court, the old age and accident state insurance offices, +the chief custom house, and the concert hall, founded by Karl Laeisz, a +former Hamburg wharfinger. Farther on are the chemical and the physical +laboratories and the Hygienic Institute. Facing the botanical gardens a +new central post-office, in the Renaissance style, was built in 1887. At +the west end of the Lombards-Brucke there is a monument by Schilling, +commemorating the war of 1870-71. A few streets south of that is a +monument to Lessing (1881); while occupying a commanding site on the +promenades towards Altona is the gigantic statue of Bismarck which was +unveiled in June 1906. The Kunst-Halle (the picture gallery), containing +some good works by modern masters, faces the east end of +Lombards-Brucke. The new Natural History Museum, completed in 1891, +stands a little distance farther south. To the east of it comes the +Museum for Art and Industry, founded in 1878, now one of the most +important institutions of the kind in Germany, with which is connected a +trades school. Close by is the Hansa-fountain (65 ft. high), erected in +1878. On the north-east side of the suburb of St Georg a botanical +museum and laboratory have been established. There is a new general +hospital at Eppendorf, outside the town on the north, built on the +pavilion principle, and one of the finest structures of the kind in +Europe; and at Ohlsdorf, in the same direction, a crematorium was built +in 1891 in conjunction with the town cemeteries (370 acres). There must +also be mentioned the fine public zoological gardens, Hagenbeck's +private zoological gardens in the vicinity, the schools of music and +navigation, and the school of commerce. In 1900 a high school for +shipbuilding was founded, and in 1901 an institute for seamen's and +tropical diseases, with a laboratory for their physiological study, was +opened, and also the first public free library in the city. The river is +spanned just above the Frei Hafen by a triple-arched railway bridge, +1339 ft. long, erected in 1868-1873 and doubled in width in 1894. Some +270 yds. higher up is a magnificent iron bridge (1888) for vehicles and +foot passengers. The southern arm of the Elbe, on the south side of the +island of Wilhelmsburg, is crossed by another railway bridge of four +arches and 2050 ft. in length. + +_Railways._--The through railway traffic of Hamburg is practically +confined to that proceeding northwards--to Kiel and Jutland--and for the +accommodation of such trains the central (terminus) station at Altona is +the chief gathering point. The Hamburg stations, connected with the +other by the Verbindungs-Bahn (or metropolitan railway) crossing the +Lombards-Brucke, are those of the Venloer (or Hanoverian, as it is often +called) Bahnhof on the south-east, in close proximity to the harbour, +into which converge the lines from Cologne and Bremen, Hanover and +Frankfort-on-Main, and from Berlin, via Nelzen; the Klostertor-Bahnhof +(on the metropolitan line) which temporarily superseded the old Berlin +station, and the Lubeck station a little to the north-east, during the +erection of the new central station, which occupies a site between the +Klostertor-Bahnhof and the Lombards-Brucke. Between this central station +and Altona terminus runs the metropolitan railway, which has been raised +several feet so as to bridge over the streets, and on which lie the +important stations Dammtor and Sternschanze. An excellent service of +electric trams interconnect the towns of Hamburg, Altona and the +adjacent suburbs, and steamboats provide communication on the Elbe with +the riparian towns and villages; and so with Blankenese and Harburg, +with Stade, Gluckstadt and Cuxhaven. + +_Trade and Shipping._--Probably there is no place which during the last +thirty years of the 19th century grew faster commercially than Hamburg. +Its commerce is, however, almost entirely of the nature of transit +trade, for it is not only the chief distributing centre for the middle +of Europe of the products of all other parts of the world, but is also +the chief outlet for German, Austrian, and even to some extent Russian +(Polish) raw products and manufactures. Its principal imports are coffee +(of which it is the greatest continental market), tea, sugar, spices, +rice, wine (especially from Bordeaux), lard (from Chicago), cereals, +sago, dried fruits, herrings, wax (from Morocco and Mozambique), +tobacco, hemp, cotton (which of late years shows a large increase), +wool, skins, leather, oils, dyewoods, indigo, nitrates, phosphates and +coal. Of the total importations of all kinds of coal to Hamburg, that of +British coal, particularly from Northumberland and Durham, occupies the +first place, and despite some falling off in late years, owing to the +competition made by Westphalian coal, amounts to more than half the +total import. The increase of the trade of Hamburg is most strikingly +shown by that of the shipping belonging to the port. Between 1876 and +1880 there were 475 sailing vessels with a tonnage of 230,691, and 110 +steam-ships with a tonnage of 87,050. In 1907 there were (exclusive of +fishing vessels) 470 sailing ships with a tonnage of 271,661, and 610 +steamers with a tonnage of 1,256,449. In 1870 the crews numbered 6900 +men, in 1907 they numbered 29,536. + +_Industries._--The development of manufacturing industries at Hamburg +and its immediate vicinity since 1880, though not so rapid as that of +its trade and shipping, has been very remarkable, and more especially +has this been the case since the year 1888, when Hamburg joined the +German customs union, and the barriers which prevented goods +manufactured at Hamburg from entering into other parts of Germany were +removed. Among the chief industries are those for the production of +articles of food and drink. The import trade of various cereals by sea +to Hamburg is very large, and a considerable portion of this corn is +converted into flour at Hamburg itself. There are also, in this +connexion, numerous bakeries for biscuit, rice-peeling mills and spice +mills. Besides the foregoing there are cocoa, chocolate, confectionery +and baking-powder factories, coffee-roasting and ham-curing and smoking +establishments, lard refineries, margarine manufactories and +fish-curing, preserving and packing factories. There are numerous +breweries, producing annually about 24,000,000 gallons of beer, spirit +distilleries and factories of artificial waters. Yarns, textile goods +and weaving industries generally have not attained any great dimensions, +but there are large jute-spinning mills and factories for cotton-wool +and cotton driving-belts. Among other important articles of domestic +industry are tobacco and cigars (manufactured mainly in bond, within the +free harbour precincts), hydraulic machinery, electro-technical +machinery, chemical products (including artificial manures), oils, +soaps, india-rubber, ivory and celluloid articles and the manufacture of +leather. + +Shipbuilding has made very important progress, and there are at present +in Hamburg eleven large shipbuilding yards, employing nearly 10,000 +hands. Of these, however, only three are of any great extent, and one, +where the largest class of ocean-going steamers and of war vessels for +the German navy are built, employs about 5000 persons. There are also +two yards for the building of pleasure yachts and rowing-boats (in both +which branches of sport Hamburg takes a leading place in Germany). Art +industries, particularly those which appeal to the luxurious taste of +the inhabitants in fitting their houses, such as wall-papers and +furniture, and those which are included in the equipment of ocean-going +steamers, have of late years made rapid strides and are among the best +productions of this character of any German city. + + _Harbour._--It was the accession of Hamburg to the customs union in + 1888 which gave such a vigorous impulse to her more recent commercial + development. At the same time a portion of the port was set apart as a + free harbour, altogether an area of 750 acres of water and 1750 acres + of dry land. In anticipation of this event a gigantic system of docks, + basins and quays was constructed, at a total cost of some L7,000,000 + (of which the imperial treasury contributed L2,000,000), between the + confluence of the Alster and the railway bridge (1868-1873), an entire + quarter of the town inhabited by some 24,000 people being cleared away + to make room for these accessories of a great port. On the north side + of the Elbe there are the Sandtor basin (3380 ft. long, 295 to 427 ft. + wide), in which British and Dutch steamboats and steamboats of the + Sloman (Mediterranean) line anchor. South of this lies the Grasbrook + basin (quayage of 2100 ft. and 1693 ft. alongside), which is used by + French, Swedish and transatlantic steamers. At the quay point between + these two basins there are vast state granaries. On the outer (i.e. + river) side of the Grasbrook dock is the quay at which the emigrants + for South America embark, and from which the mail boats for East + Africa, the boats of the Woermann (West Africa) line, and the + Norwegian tourist boats depart. To the east of these two is the small + Magdeburg basin, penetrating north, and the Baaken basin, penetrating + east, i.e. parallel to the river. The latter affords accommodation to + the transatlantic steamers, including the emigrant ships of the + Hamburg-America line, though their "ocean mail boats" generally load + and unload at Cuxhaven. On the south bank of the stream there follow + in succession, going from east to west, the Moldau dock for river + craft, the sailing vessel dock (Segelschiff Hafen, 3937 ft. long, 459 + to 886 ft. wide, 26-1/4 ft. deep), the Hansa dock, India dock, petroleum + dock, several swimming and dry docks; and in the west of the free + port area three other large docks, one of 77 acres for river craft, + the others each 56 acres in extent, and one 23-3/4 ft. deep, the other + 26-1/4 ft. deep, at low water, constructed in 1900-1901. In 1897 Hamburg + was provided with a huge floating dock, 558 ft. long and 84 ft. in + maximum breadth, capable of holding a vessel of 17,500 tons and + draught not exceeding 29 ft., so constructed and equipped that in time + of need (war) it could be floated down to Cuxhaven. During the last 25 + years of the 19th century the channel of the Elbe was greatly improved + and deepened, and during the last two years of the 19th century some + L360,000 was spent by Hamburg alone in regulating and correcting this + lower course of the river. The new Kuhwarder-basin, on the left bank + of the river, as well as two other large dock basins (now leased to + the Hamburg-American Company), raise the number of basins to twelve in + all. + + _Emigration._--Hamburg is one of the principal continental ports for + the embarkation of emigrants. In 1881-1890, on an average they + numbered 90,000 a year (of whom 60,000 proceeded to the United + States). In 1900 the number was 87,153 (and to the United States + 64,137). The number of emigrant Germans has enormously decreased of + late years, Russia and Austria-Hungary now being most largely + represented. For the accommodation of such passengers large and + convenient emigrant shelters have been recently erected close to the + wharf of embarkation. + + _Health and Population._--The health of the city of Hamburg and the + adjoining district may be described as generally good, no epidemic + diseases having recently appeared to any serious degree. The malady + causing the greatest number of deaths is that of pulmonary + consumption; but better housing accommodation has of late years + reduced the mortality from this disease very considerably. The results + of the census of 1905 showed the population of the city (not including + the rural districts belonging to the state of Hamburg) to be 802,793. + + Hamburg is well supplied with places of amusement, especially of the + more popular kind. Its Stadt-Theater, rebuilt in 1874, has room for + 1750 spectators and is particularly devoted to operatic performances; + the Thalia-Theater dates from 1841, and holds 1700 to 1800 people, and + the Schauspielhaus (for drama) from 1900 people, and there are some + seven or eight minor establishments. Theatrical performances were + introduced into the city in the 17th century, and 1678 is the date of + the first opera, which was played in a house in the Gansemarkt. Under + Schroder and Lessing the Hamburg stage rose into importance. Though + contributing few names of the highest rank to German literature, the + city has been intimately associated with the literary movement. The + historian Lappenberg and Friedrich von Hagedorn were born in Hamburg; + and not only Lessing, but Heine and Klopstock lived there for some + time. + +_History._--Hamburg probably had its origin in a fortress erected in 808 +by Charlemagne, on an elevation between the Elbe and Alster, as a +defence against the Slavs, and called Hammaburg because of the +surrounding forest (_Hamme_). In 811 Charlemagne founded a church here, +perhaps on the site of a Saxon place of sacrifice, and this became a +great centre for the evangelization of the north of Europe, missionaries +from Hamburg introducing Christianity into Jutland and the Danish +islands and even into Sweden and Norway. In 834 Hamburg became an +archbishopric, St Ansgar, a monk of Corbie and known as the apostle of +the North, being the first metropolitan. In 845 church, monastery and +town were burnt down by the Norsemen, and two years later the see of +Hamburg was united with that of Bremen and its seat transferred to the +latter city. The town, rebuilt after this disaster, was again more than +once devastated by invading Danes and Slavs. Archbishop Unwan of +Hamburg-Bremen (1013-1029) substituted a chapter of canons for the +monastery, and in 1037 Archbishop Bezelin (or Alebrand) built a stone +cathedral and a palace on the Elbe. In 1110 Hamburg, with Holstein, +passed into the hands of Adolph I., count of Schauenburg, and it is with +the building of the Neustadt (the present parish of St Nicholas) by his +grandson, Adolph III. of Holstein, that the history of the commercial +city actually begins. In return for a contribution to the costs of a +crusade, he obtained from the emperor Frederick I. in 1189 a charter +granting Hamburg considerable franchises, including exemption from +tolls, a separate court and jurisdiction, and the rights of fishery on +the Elbe from the city to the sea. The city council (_Rath_), first +mentioned in 1190, had jurisdiction over both the episcopal and the new +town. Craft gilds were already in existence, but these had no share in +the government; for, though the Lubeck rule excluding craftsmen from the +_Rath_ did not obtain, they were excluded in practice. The counts, of +course, as over-lords, had their _Vogt_ (_advocatus_) in the town, but +this official, as the city grew in power, became subordinate to the +_Rath_, as at Lubeck. + +The wealth of the town was increased in 1189 by the destruction of the +flourishing trading centre of Bardowieck by Henry the Lion; from this +time it began to be much frequented by Flemish merchants. In 1201 the +city submitted to Valdemar of Schleswig, after his victory over the +count of Holstein, but in 1225, owing to the capture of King Valdemar +II. of Denmark by Henry of Schwerin, it once more exchanged the Danish +over-lordship for that of the counts of Schauenburg, who established +themselves here and in 1231 built a strong castle to hold it in check. +The defensive alliance of the city with Lubeck in 1241, extended for +other purpose by the treaty of 1255, practically laid the foundations of +the Hanseatic League (q.v.), of which Hamburg continued to be one of the +principal members. The internal organization of the city, too, was +rendered more stable by the new constitution of 1270, and the +recognition in 1292 of the complete internal autonomy of the city by the +count of Schauenburg. The exclusion of the handicraftsmen from the +_Rath_ led, early in the 15th century, to a rising of the craft gilds +against the patrician merchants, and in 1410 they forced the latter to +recognize the authority of a committee of 48 burghers, which concluded +with the senate the so-called First Recess; there were, however, fresh +outbursts in 1458 and 1483, which were settled by further compromises. +In 1461 Hamburg did homage to Christian I. of Denmark, as heir of the +Schauenburg counts; but the suzerainty of Denmark was merely nominal and +soon repudiated altogether; in 1510 Hamburg was made a free imperial +city by the emperor Maximilian I. + +In 1529 the Reformation was definitively established in Hamburg by the +Great Recess of the 19th of February, which at the same time vested the +government of the city in the _Rath_, together with the three colleges +of the _Oberalten_, the Forty-eight (increased to 60 in 1685) and the +Hundred and Forty-four (increased to 180). The ordinary burgesses +consisted of the freeholders and the master-workmen of the gilds. In +1536 Hamburg joined the league of Schmalkalden, for which error it had +to pay a heavy fine in 1547 when the league had been defeated. During +the same period the Lutheran zeal of the citizens led to the expulsion +of the Mennonites and other Protestant sects, who founded Altona. The +loss this brought to the city was, however, compensated for by the +immigration of Protestant refugees from the Low Countries and Jews from +Spain and Portugal. In 1549, too, the English merchant adventurers +removed their staple from Antwerp to Hamburg. + +The 17th century saw notable developments. Hamburg had established, so +early as the 16th century, a regular postal service with certain cities +in the interior of Germany, e.g. Leipzig and Breslau; in 1615 it was +included in the postal system of Turn and Taxis. In 1603 Hamburg +received a code of laws regulating exchange, and in 1619 the bank was +established. In 1615 the Neustadt was included within the city walls. +During the Thirty Years' War the city received no direct harm; but the +ruin of Germany reacted upon its prosperity, and the misery of the lower +orders led to an agitation against the _Rath_. In 1685, at the +invitation of the popular leaders, the Danes appeared before Hamburg +demanding the traditional homage; they were repulsed, but the internal +troubles continued, culminating in 1708 in the victory of the democratic +factions. The imperial government, however, intervened, and in 1712 the +"Great Recess" established durable good relations between the _Rath_ and +the commonalty. Frederick IV. of Denmark, who had seized the opportunity +to threaten the city (1712), was bought off with a ransom of 246,000 +_Reichsthaler_. Denmark, however, only finally renounced her claims by +the treaty of Gottorp in 1768, and in 1770 Hamburg was admitted for the +first time to a representation in the diet of the empire. + +The trade of Hamburg received its first great impulse in 1783, when the +United States, by the treaty of Paris, became an independent power. From +this time dates its first direct maritime communication with America. +Its commerce was further extended and developed by the French +occupation of Holland in 1795, when the Dutch trade was largely directed +to its port. The French Revolution and the insecurity of the political +situation, however, exercised a depressing and retarding effect. The +wars which ensued, the closing of continental ports against English +trade, the occupation of the city after the disastrous battle of Jena, +and pestilence within its walls brought about a severe commercial crisis +and caused a serious decline in its prosperity. Moreover, the great +contributions levied by Napoleon on the city, the plundering of its bank +by Davoust, and the burning of its prosperous suburbs inflicted wounds +from which the city but slowly recovered. Under the long peace which +followed the close of the Napoleonic wars, its trade gradually revived, +fostered by the declaration of independence of South and Central +America, with both of which it energetically opened close commercial +relations, and by the introduction of steam navigation. The first +steamboat was seen on the Elbe on the 17th of June 1816; in 1826 a +regular steam communication was opened with London; and in 1856 the +first direct steamship line linked the port with the United States. The +great fire of 1842 (5th-8th of May) laid in waste the greatest part of +the business quarter of the city and caused a temporary interruption of +its commerce. The city, however, soon rose from its ashes, the churches +were rebuilt and new streets laid out on a scale of considerable +magnificence. In 1866 Hamburg joined the North German Confederation, and +in 1871, while remaining outside the Zollverein, became a constituent +state of the German empire. In 1883-1888 the works for the Free Harbour +were completed, and on the 18th of October 1888 Hamburg joined the +Customs Union (Zollverein). In 1892 the cholera raged within its walls, +carried off 8500 of its inhabitants, and caused considerable losses to +its commerce and industry; but the visitation was not without its +salutary fruits, for an improved drainage system, better hospital +accommodation, and a purer water-supply have since combined to make it +one of the healthiest commercial cities of Europe. + + Further details about Hamburg will be found in the following works: O. + C. Gaedechens, _Historische Topographie der Freien und Hansestadt + Hamburg_ (1880); E. H. Wichmann, _Heimatskunde von Hamburg_ (1863); W. + Melhop, _Historische Topographie der Freien und Hansestadt Hamburg von + 1880-1895_ (1896); Wulff, _Hamburgische Gesetze und Verordnungen_ + (1889-1896); and W. von Melle, _Das hamburgische Staatsrecht_ (1891). + There are many valuable official publications which may be consulted, + among these being: _Statistik des hamburgischen Staates_ (1867-1904); + _Hamburgs Handel und Schiffahrt_ (1847-1903); the yearly + _Hamburgischer Staatskalender_; and _Jahrbuch der Hamburger + wissenschaftlichen Anstalten_. See also _Hamburg und seine Bauten_ + (1890); H. Benrath, _Lokalfuhrer durch Hamburg und Umgebungen_ (1904); + and the consular reports by Sir William Ward, H.B.M.'s consul-general + at Hamburg, to whom the author is indebted for great assistance in + compiling this article. + + For the history of Hamburg see the _Zeitschrift des Vereins fur + hamburgische Geschichte_ (1841, fol.); G. Dehio, _Geschichte des + Erzbistums Hamburg-Bremen_ (Berlin, 1877); the _Hamburgisches + Urkundenbuch_ (1842), the _Hamburgische Chroniken_ (1852-1861), and + the _Chronica der Stadt Hamburg bis 1557_ of Adam Tratziger (1865), + all three edited by J. M. Lappenberg; the _Briefsammlung des + hamburgischen Superintendenten Joachim Westphal 1530-1575_, edited by + C. H. W. Sillem (1903); Gallois, _Geschichte der Stadt Hamburg_ + (1853-1856); K. Koppmann, _Aus Hamburgs Vergangenheit_ (1885), and + _Kammereirechnungen der Stadt Hamburg_ (1869-1894); H. W. C. Hubbe, + _Beitrage zur Geschichte der Stadt Hamburg_ (1897); C. Monckeberg, + _Geschichte der Freien und Hansestadt Hamburg_ (1885); E. H. Wichmann, + _Hamburgische Geschichte in Darstellungen aus alter und neuer Zeit_ + (1889); and R. Bollheimer, _Zeittafeln der hamburgischen Geschichte_ + (1895). + + + + +HAMDANI, in full ABU MAHOMMED UL-HASAN IBN AHMAD IBN YA'QUB UL-HAMDANI +(d. 945), Arabian geographer, also known as Ibn ul-Ha'ik. Little is +known of him except that he belonged to a family of Yemen, was held in +repute as a grammarian in his own country, wrote much poetry, compiled +astronomical tables, devoted most of his life to the study of the +ancient history and geography of Arabia, and died in prison at San'a in +945. His _Geography of the Arabian Peninsula_ (_Kitab Jazirat ul-'Arab_) +is by far the most important work on the subject. After being used in +manuscript by A. Sprenger in his _Post- und Reiserouten des Orients_ +(Leipzig, 1864) and further in his _Alte Geographie Arabiens_ (Bern, +1875), it was edited by D. H. Muller (Leiden, 1884; cf. A. Sprenger's +criticism in _Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenlandischen Gesellschaft_, +vol. 45, pp. 361-394). Much has also been written on this work by E. +Glaser in his various publications on ancient Arabia. The other great +work of Hamdani is the _Iklil_ (Crown) concerning the genealogies of the +Himyarites and the wars of their kings in ten volumes. Of this, part 8, +on the citadels and castles of south Arabia, has been edited and +annotated by D. H. Muller in _Die Burgen und Schlosser Sudarabiens_ +(Vienna, 1879-1881). + + For other works said to have been written by Hamdani cf. G. Flugel's + _Die grammatischen Schulen der Araber_ (Leipzig, 1862), pp. 220-221. + (G. W. T.) + + + + +HAMELIN, FRANCOIS ALPHONSE (1796-1864), French admiral, was born at Pont +l'Eveque on the 2nd of September 1796. He went to sea with his uncle, J. +F. E. Hamelin, in the "Venus" frigate in 1806 as cabin boy. The "Venus" +was part of the French squadron in the Indian Ocean, and young Hamelin +had an opportunity of seeing much active service. She, in company with +another and a smaller vessel, captured the English frigate "Ceylon" in +1810, but was immediately afterwards captured herself by the "Boadicea," +under Commodore Rowley (1765-1842). Young Hamelin was a prisoner of war +for a short time. He returned to France in 1811. On the fall of the +Empire he had better fortune than most of the Napoleonic officers who +were turned ashore. In 1821 he became lieutenant, and in 1823 took part +in the French expedition under the duke of Angouleme into Spain. In 1828 +he was appointed captain of the "Acteon," and was engaged till 1831 on +the coast of Algiers and in the conquest of the town and country. His +first command as flag officer was in the Pacific, where he showed much +tact during the dispute over the Marquesas Islands with England in 1844. +He was promoted vice-admiral in 1848. During the Crimean War he +commanded in the Black Sea, and co-operated with Admiral Dundas in the +bombardment of Sevastopol 17th of October 1854. His relations with his +English colleague were not very cordial. On the 7th of December 1854 he +was promoted admiral. Shortly afterwards he was recalled to France, and +was named minister of marine. His administration lasted till 1860, and +was remarkable for the expeditions to Italy and China organized under +his directions; but it was even more notable for the energy shown in +adopting and developing the use of armour. The launch of the "Gloire" in +1859 set the example of constructing sea-going iron-clads. The first +English iron-clad, the "Warrior," was designed as an answer to the +"Gloire." When Napoleon III. made his first concession to Liberal +opposition, Admiral Hamelin was one of the ministers sacrificed. He held +no further command, and died on the 10th of January 1864. + + + + +HAMELN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover, at the +confluence of the Weser and Hamel, 33 m. S.W. of Hanover, on the line to +Altenbeken, which here effects a junction with railways to Lohne and +Brunswick. Pop. (1905) 20,736. It has a venerable appearance and has +many interesting and picturesque houses. The chief public buildings of +interest are the minster, dedicated to St Boniface and restored in +1870-1875; the town hall; the so-called Rattenfangerhaus (rat-catcher's +house) with mural frescoes illustrating the legend (see below); and the +Hochzeitshaus (wedding house) with beautiful gables. There are +classical, modern and commercial schools. The principal industries are +the manufacture of paper, leather, chemicals and tobacco, sugar +refining, shipbuilding and salmon fishing. By the steamboats on the +Weser there is communication with Karlshafen and Minden. In order to +avoid the dangerous part of the river near the town a channel was cut in +1734, the repairing and deepening of which, begun in 1868, was completed +in 1873. The Weser is here crossed by an iron suspension bridge 830 ft. +in length, supported by a pier erected on an island in the middle of the +river. + +The older name of Hameln was Hameloa or Hamelowe, and the town owes its +origin to an abbey. It existed as a town as early as the 11th century, +and in 1259 it was sold by the abbot of Fulda to the bishop of Minden, +afterwards passing under the protection of the dukes of Brunswick. About +1540 the Reformation gained an entrance into the town, which was taken +by both parties during the Thirty Years' War. In 1757 it capitulated to +the French, who, however, vacated it in the following year. Its +fortifications were strengthened in 1766 by the erection of Fort George, +on an eminence to the west of the town, across the river. On the +capitulation of the Hanoverian army in 1803 Hameln fell into the hands +of the French; it was retaken by the Prussians in 1806, but, after the +battle of Jena, again passed to the French, who dismantled the +fortifications and incorporated the town in the kingdom of Westphalia. +In 1814 it again became Hanoverian, but in 1866 fell with that kingdom +to Prussia. + +_Legend of the Pied Piper._--Hameln is famed as the scene of the myth of +the piper of Hameln. According to the legend, the town in the year 1284 +was infested by a terrible plague of rats. One day there appeared upon +the scene a piper clad in a fantastic suit, who offered for a certain +sum of money to charm all the vermin into the Weser. His conditions were +agreed to, but after he had fulfilled his promise the inhabitants, on +the ground that he was a sorcerer, declined to fulfil their part of the +bargain, whereupon on the 26th of June he reappeared in the streets of +the town, and putting his pipe to his lips began a soft and curious +strain. This drew all the children after him and he led them out of the +town to the Koppelberg hill, in the side of which a door suddenly +opened, by which he entered and the children after him, all but one who +was lame and could not follow fast enough to reach the door before it +shut again. Some trace the origin of the legend to the Children's +Crusade of 1211; others to an abduction of children; and others to a +dancing mania which seized upon some of the young people of Hameln who +left the town on a mad pilgrimage from which they never returned. For a +considerable time the town dated its public documents from the event. +The story is the subject of a poem by Robert Browning, and also of one +by Julius Wolff. Curious evidence that the story rests on a basis of +truth is given by the fact that the Koppelberg is not one of the +imposing hills by which Hameln is surrounded, but no more than a slight +elevation of the ground, barely high enough to hide the children from +view as they left the town. + + See C. Langlotz, _Geschichte der Stadt Hameln_ (Hameln, 1888 fol.); + Sprenger, _Geschichte der Stadt Hameln_ (1861); O. Meinardus, _Der + historische Kern der Rattenfangersage_ (Hameln, 1882); Jostes, _Der + Rattenfanger von Hameln_ (Bonn, 1885); and S. Baring-Gould, _Curious + Myths of the Middle Ages_ (1868). + + + + +HAMERLING, ROBERT (1830-1889), Austrian poet, was born at +Kirchenberg-am-Walde in Lower Austria, on the 24th of March 1830, of +humble parentage. He early displayed a genius for poetry and his +youthful attempts at drama excited the interest and admiration of some +influential persons. Owing to their assistance young Hamerling was +enabled to attend the gymnasium in Vienna and subsequently the +university. In 1848 he joined the student's legion, which played so +conspicuous a part in the revolutions of the capital, and in 1849 shared +in the defence of Vienna against the imperialist troops of Prince +Windischgratz, and after the collapse of the revolutionary movement he +was obliged to hide for a long time to escape arrest. For the next few +years he diligently pursued his studies in natural science and +philosophy, and in 1855 was appointed master at the gymnasium at +Trieste. For many years he battled with ill-health, and in 1866 retired +on a pension, which in acknowledgment of his literary labours was +increased by the government to a sum sufficient to enable him to live +without care until his death at his villa in Stiftingstal near Graz, on +the 13th of July 1889. Hamerling was one of the most remarkable of the +poets of the modern Austrian school; his imagination was rich and his +poems are full of life and colour. His most popular poem, _Ahasver in +Rom_ (1866), of which the emperor Nero is the central figure, shows at +its best the author's brilliant talent for description. Among his other +works may be mentioned _Venus im Exil_ (1858); _Der Konig von Sion_ +(1869), which is generally regarded as his masterpiece; _Die sieben +Todsunden_ (1872); _Blatter im Winde_ (1887); _Homunculus_ (1888); _Amor +und Psyche_ (1882). His novel, _Aspasia_ (1876) gives a finely-drawn +description of the Periclean age, but like his tragedy _Danton und +Robespierre_ (1870), is somewhat stilted, showing that Hamerling's +genius, though rich in imagination, was ill-suited for the realistic +presentation of character. + + A popular edition of Hamerling's works in four volumes was published + by M. M. Rabenlechner (Hamburg, 1900). For the poet's life, see his + autobiographical writings, _Stationen meiner Lebenspilgerschaft_ + (1889) and _Lehrjahre der Liebe_ (1890); also M. M. Rabenlechner, + _Hamerling, sein Leben und seine Werke_, i. (Hamburg, 1896); a short + biography by the same (Dresden, 1901); R. H. Kleinert, _R. Hamerling, + ein Dichter der Schonheit_ (Hamburg, 1889); A. Polzer, _Hamerling, + sein Wesen und Wirken_ (Hamburg, 1890). + + + + +HAMERTON, PHILIP GILBERT (1834-1894), English artist and author, was +born at Laneside, near Shaw, close to Oldham, on the 10th of September +1834. His mother died at his birth, and having lost his father ten years +afterwards, he was educated privately under the direction of his +guardians. His first literary attempt, a volume of poems, proving +unsuccessful, he devoted himself for a time entirely to landscape +painting, encamping out of doors in the Highlands, where he eventually +rented the island of Innistrynych, upon which he settled with his wife, +a French lady, in 1858. Discovering after a time that his qualifications +were rather those of an art critic than of a painter he removed to the +neighbourhood of his wife's relatives in France, where he produced his +_Painter's Camp in the Highlands_ (1863), which obtained a great success +and prepared the way for his standard work on _Etching and Etchers_ +(1866). In the following year he published a book, entitled +_Contemporary French Painters_, and in 1868 a continuation, _Painting in +France after the Decline of Classicism_. He had meanwhile become art +critic to the _Saturday Review_, a position which, from the burden it +laid upon him of frequent visits to England, he did not long retain. He +proceeded (1870) to establish an art journal of his own, _The +Portfolio_, a monthly periodical, each number of which consisted of a +monograph upon some artist or group of artists, frequently written and +always edited by him. The discontinuance of his active work as a painter +gave him time for more general literary composition, and he successively +produced _The Intellectual Life_ (1873), perhaps the best known and most +valuable of his writings; _Round my House_ (1876), notes on French +society by a resident; and _Modern Frenchmen_ (1879), admirable short +biographies. He also wrote two novels, _Wenderholme_ (1870) and +_Marmorne_ (1878). In 1884 _Human Intercourse_, another valuable volume +of essays, was published, and shortly afterwards Hamerton began to write +his autobiography, which he brought down to 1858. In 1882 he issued a +finely illustrated work on the technique of the great masters of various +arts, under the title of The _Graphic Arts_, and three years later +another splendidly illustrated volume, _Landscape_, which traces the +influence of landscape upon the mind of man. His last books were: +_Portfolio Papers_ (1889) and _French and English_ (1889). In 1891 he +removed to the neighbourhood of Paris, and died suddenly on the 4th of +November 1894, occupied to the last with his labours on _The Portfolio_ +and other writings on art. + + In 1896 was published _Philip Gilbert Hamerton: an Autobiography_, + 1834-1858; and a _Memoir by his Wife_, 1858-1894. + + + + +HAMI, a town in Chinese Turkestan, otherwise called KAMIL, KOMUL or +KAMUL, situated on the southern slopes of the Tian-Shan mountains, and +on the northern verge of the Great Gobi desert, in 42 deg. 48' N., 93 +deg. 28' E., at a height above sea-level of 3150 ft. The town is first +mentioned in Chinese history in the 1st century, under the name I-wu-lu, +and said to be situated 1000 lis north of the fortress Yu-men-kuan, and +to be the key to the western countries. This evidently referred to its +advantageous position, lying as it did in a fertile tract, at the point +of convergence of two main routes running north and south of the +Tian-Shan and connecting China with the west. It was taken by the +Chinese in A.D. 73 from the Hiungnu (the ancient inhabitants of +Mongolia), and made a military station. It next fell into the bands of +the Uighurs or Eastern Turks, who made it one of their chief towns and +held it for several centuries, and whose descendants are said to live +there now. From the 7th to the 11th century I-wu-lu is said to have +borne the name of Igu or I-chu, under the former of which names it is +spoken of by the Chinese pilgrim, Hsuan tsang, who passed through it in +the 7th century. The name Hami is first met in the Chinese _Yuan-shi_ or +"History of the Mongol Dynasty," but the name more generally used there +is Homi-li or Komi-li. Marco Polo, describing it apparently from +hearsay, calls it Camul, and speaks of it as a fruitful place inhabited +by a Buddhist people of idolatrous and wanton habits. It was visited in +1341 by Giovanni de Marignolli, who baptized a number of both sexes +there, and by the envoys of Shah Rukh (1420), who found a magnificent +mosque and a convent of dervishes, in juxtaposition with a fine Buddhist +temple. Hadji Mahommed (Ramusio's friend) speaks of Kamul as being in +his time (c. 1550) the first Mahommedan city met with in travelling from +China. When Benedict Goes travelled through the country at the beginning +of the 17th century, the power of the king Mahommed Khan of Kashgar +extended over nearly the whole country at the base of the Tian-Shan to +the Chinese frontier, including Kamil. It fell under the sway of the +Chinese in 1720, was lost to them in 1865 during the great Mahommedan +rebellion, and the trade route through it was consequently closed, but +was regained in 1873. Owing to its commanding position on the principal +route to the west, and its exceptional fertility, it has very frequently +changed hands in the wars between China and her western neighbours. Hami +is now a small town of about 6000 inhabitants, and is a busy trading +centre. The Mahommedan population consists of immigrants from Kashgaria, +Bokhara and Samarkand, and of descendants of the Uighurs. + + + + +HAMILCAR BARCA, or BARCAS (Heb. _barak_ "lightning"), Carthaginian +general and statesman, father of Hannibal, was born soon after 270 B.C. +He distinguished himself during the First Punic War in 247, when he took +over the chief command in Sicily, which at this time was almost entirely +in the hands of the Romans. Landing suddenly on the north-west of the +island with a small mercenary force he seized a strong position on Mt. +Ercte (Monte Pellegrino, near Palermo), and not only maintained himself +against all attacks, but carried his raids as far as the coast of south +Italy. In 244 he transferred his army to a similar position on the +slopes of Mt. Eryx (Monte San Giuliano), from which he was able to lend +support to the besieged garrison in the neighbouring town of Drepanum +(Trapani). By a provision of the peace of 241 Hamilcar's unbeaten force +was allowed to depart from Sicily without any token of submission. On +returning to Africa his troops, which had been kept together only by his +personal authority and by the promise of good pay, broke out into open +mutiny when their rewards were withheld by Hamilcar's opponents among +the governing aristocracy. The serious danger into which Carthage was +brought by the failure of the aristocratic generals was averted by +Hamilcar, whom the government in this crisis could not but reinstate. By +the power of his personal influence among the mercenaries and the +surrounding African peoples, and by superior strategy, he speedily +crushed the revolt (237). After this success Hamilcar enjoyed such +influence among the popular and patriotic party that his opponents could +not prevent him being raised to a virtual dictatorship. After recruiting +and training a new army in some Numidian forays he led on his own +responsibility an expedition into Spain, where he hoped to gain a new +empire to compensate Carthage for the loss of Sicily and Sardinia, and +to serve as a basis for a campaign of vengeance against the Romans +(236). In eight years by force of arms and diplomacy he secured an +extensive territory in Spain, but his premature death in battle (228) +prevented him from completing the conquest. Hamilcar stood out far above +the Carthaginians of his age in military and diplomatic skill and in +strength of patriotism; in these qualities he was surpassed only by his +son Hannibal, whom he had imbued with his own deep hatred of Rome and +trained to be his successor in the conflict. + + This Hamilcar has been confused with another general who succeeded to + the command of the Carthaginians in the First Punic War, and after + successes at Therma and Drepanum was defeated at Ecnomus (256 B.C.). + Subsequently, apart from unskilful operations against Regulus, nothing + is certainly known of him. For others of the name see CARTHAGE, + SICILY, Smith's _Classical Dictionary_. So far as the name itself is + concerned, _Milcar_ is perhaps the same as _Melkarth_, the Tyrian god. + + See Polybius i.-iii.; Cornelius Nepos, _Vita Hamilcaris_; Appian, _Res + Hispanicae_, chs. 4, 5, Diodorus, _Excerpta_, xxiv., xxv.; O. Meitzer, + _Geschichte der Karthager_ (Berlin, 1877), ii. also PUNIC WARS. + (M. O. B. C.) + + + + +HAMILTON, the name of a famous Scottish family. Chief among the legends +still clinging to this important family is that which gives a descent +from the house of Beaumont, a branch of which is stated to have held the +manor of Hamilton in Leicestershire; and it is argued that the three +cinquefoils of the Hamilton shield bear some resemblance to the single +cinquefoil of the Beaumonts. In face of this it has been recently shown +that the single cinquefoil was also borne by the Umfravilles of +Northumberland, who appear to have owned a place called Hamilton in that +county. It may be pointed out that Simon de Montfort, the great earl of +Leicester, in whose veins flowed the blood of the Beaumonts, obtained +about 1245 the wardship of Gilbert de Umfraville, second earl of Angus, +and it is conceivable that this name Gilbert may somehow be responsible +for the legend of the Beaumont descent, seeing that the first authentic +ancestor of the Hamiltons is one Walter FitzGilbert. He first appears in +1294-1295 as one of the witnesses to a charter by James, the high +steward of Scotland, to the monks of Paisley; and in 1296 his name +appears in the Homage Roll as Walter FitzGilbert of "Hameldone." Who +this Gilbert of "Hameldone" may have been is uncertain, "but the fact +must be faced," Mr John Anderson points out (_Scots Peerage_, iv. 340) +"that in a charter of the 12th of December 1272 by Thomas of Cragyn or +Craigie to the monks of Paisley of his church of Craigie in Kyle, there +appears as witness a certain 'Gilbert de Hameldun _clericus_,' whose +name occurs along with the local clergy of Inverkip, Blackhall, Paisley +and Dunoon. He was therefore probably also a cleric of the same +neighbourhood, and it is significant that 'Walter FitzGilbert' appears +first in that district in 1294 and in 1296 is described as son of +Gilbert de Hameldone...." Walter FitzGilbert took some part in the +affairs of his time. At first he joined the English party but after +Bannockburn went over to Bruce, was knighted and subsequently received +the barony of Cadzow. His younger son John was father of Alexander +Hamilton who acquired the lands of Innerwick by marriage, and from him +descended a certain Thomas Hamilton, who acquired the lands of +Priestfield early in the 16th century. Another Thomas, grandson of this +last, who had with others of his house followed Queen Mary and with them +had been restored to royal favour, became a lord of session as Lord +Priestfield. Two of his younger sons enjoyed also this legal +distinction, while the eldest, Thomas, was made an ordinary lord of +session as early as 1592 and was eventually created earl of Haddington +(q.v.). It is interesting to note that the 5th earl of Haddington by his +marriage with Lady Margaret Leslie brought for a time the earldom of +Rothes to the Hamiltons to be added to their already numerous titles. + +Sir "David FitzWalter FitzGilbert," who carried on the main line of the +Hamiltons, was taken prisoner at the battle of Neville's Cross (1346) +and treated as of great importance, being ransomed, it is stated, for a +large sum of money; in 1371 and 1373 he was one of the barons in the +parliament. Of the four sons attributed to him David succeeded in the +representation of the family, Sir John Hamilton of Fingaltoun was +ancestor of the Hamiltons of Preston, and Walter is stated to have been +progenitor of the Hamiltons of Cambuskeith and Sanquhar in Ayrshire. + +David Hamilton, the first apparently to describe himself as lord of +Cadzow, died before 1392, leaving four or five sons, from whom descended +the Hamiltons of Bathgate and of Bardowie, and perhaps also of Udstown, +to which last belong the lords Belhaven. + +Sir John Hamilton of Cadzow, the eldest son, was twice a prisoner in +England, but beyond this little is known of him; even the date of his +death is uncertain. His two younger sons are stated to have been +founders of the houses of Dalserf and Raploch. His eldest son, James +Hamilton of Cadzow, like his father and great-grandfather, visited +England as a prisoner, being one of the hostages for the king's ransom. +From him the Hamiltons of Silvertonhill and the lords Hamilton of +Dalzell claim descent, among the more distinguished members of the +former branch being General Sir Ian Hamilton, K.C.B. James Hamilton was +succeeded by his eldest son Sir James Hamilton of Cadzow, who was +created in 1445 an hereditary lord of parliament, and was thereafter +known as Lord Hamilton. He had allied himself some years before with the +great house of Douglas by marriage with Euphemia, widow of the 5th earl +of Douglas, and was at first one of its most powerful supporters in the +struggle with James II. Later, however, he obtained the royal favour and +married about 1474 Mary, sister of James III. and widow of Thomas Boyd, +earl of Arran. Of this marriage was born James, second Lord Hamilton, +who as a near relative took an active part in the arrangements at the +marriage of James IV. with Margaret Tudor; being rewarded on the same +day (the 8th of August 1503) with the earldom of Arran. A champion in +the lists he was scarcely so successful as a leader of men, his struggle +with the Douglases being destitute of any great martial achievement. Of +his many illegitimate children Sir James Hamilton of Finnart, beheaded +in 1540, was ancestor of the Hamiltons of Gilkerscleugh; and John, +archbishop of St Andrews, hanged by his Protestant enemies, was ancestor +of the Hamiltons of Blair, and is said also to have been ancestor of +Hamilton of London, baronet. James, second earl of Arran, son of the +first earl by his second wife Janet Beaton, was chosen governor to the +little Queen Mary, being nearest of kin to the throne through his +grandmother, though the question of the validity of his mother's +marriage was by no means settled. He held the governorship till 1554, +having in 1549 been granted the duchy of Chatellerault in France. In his +policy he was vacillating and eventually he retired to France, being +absent during the three momentous years prior to the deposition of Mary. +On his return he headed the queen's party, his property suffering in +consequence. He was succeeded in the title in 1579 by his eldest son +James, whose qualities were such that he was even proposed as a husband +for Queen Elizabeth, but unfortunately he soon after became insane, his +brother John, afterwards first marquess of Hamilton, administering the +estates. From the third son, Claud, descends the duke of Abercorn, heir +male of the house of Hamilton. + +The first marquess of Hamilton had a natural son, Sir John Hamilton of +Lettrick, who was legitimated in 1600 and was ancestor of the lords +Bargany. His two legitimate sons were James, 3rd marquess and first duke +of Hamilton, and William, who succeeded his brother as 2nd duke and was +in turn succeeded under the special remainder contained in the patent of +dukedom, by his niece Anne, duchess of Hamilton, who was married in 1656 +to William Douglas, earl of Selkirk. The history of the descendants of +this marriage belongs to the great house of Douglas, the 7th duke of +Hamilton becoming the male representative and chief of the house of +Douglas, earls of Angus. + +The above mentioned Claud Hamilton, who with his brother, the first +marquess, had taken so large a part in the cause of Queen Mary, was +created a lord of parliament as Lord Paisley in 1587. He had five sons, +of whom three settled in Ireland, Sir Claud being ancestor of the +Hamiltons of Beltrim and Sir Frederick, distinguished in early life in +the Swedish wars, being ancestor of the viscounts Boyne. + +James, the eldest son of Lord Paisley, found favour with James VI. and +was created in 1603 Lord of Abercorn, and three years later was advanced +in the peerage as earl of Abercorn and lord of Paisley, Hamilton, +Mountcastell and Kilpatrick. His eldest son James, 2nd earl of Abercorn, +eventually heir male of the house of Hamilton and successor to the +dukedom of Chatellerault, was created in his father's lifetime lord of +Strabane in Ireland, but he resigned this title in 1633 in favour of his +brother Claud, whose grandson, Claud, 5th Lord Strabane, succeeded +eventually as 4th earl of Abercorn. This earl, taking the side of James +II., was with him in Ireland, his estate and title being afterwards +forfeited, while his kinsman Gustavus Hamilton, afterwards first Lord +Boyne, raised several regiments for William III., and greatly +distinguished himself in the service of that monarch. His brother +Charles, 5th earl of Abercorn, who obtained a reversal of the attainder, +died without issue surviving in 1701 when the titles passed to his +kinsman James Hamilton, grandson of Sir George Hamilton of Donalong in +Ireland and great-grandson of the first earl. This branch, most faithful +to the house of Stuart, counted among its many members distinguished in +military annals Count Anthony Hamilton, author of the _Memoires du comte +de Gramont_ and brother of "la belle Hamilton." James, 6th earl of +Abercorn (whose brother William was ancestor of Hamilton of the Mount, +baronet), was a partizan of William III., and obtained in 1701 the +additional Irish titles of lord of Mountcastle and viscount of Strabane. + +The 8th earl of Abercorn, who was summoned to the Irish house of peers +in his father's lifetime as Lord Mountcastle, was created a peer of +Great Britain in 1786 as Viscount Hamilton of Hamilton in +Leicestershire, and renewed the family's connexion with Scotland by +repurchasing the barony of Duddingston and later the lordship of +Paisley. His nephew and successor was created marquess of Abercorn in +1790, and was father of James, 1st duke of Abercorn. + + See the article Hamilton and other articles on the different branches + of the family (e.g. Haddington and Belhaven) in Sir J. B. Paul's + edition of Sir R. Douglas's _Peerage of Scotland_; and also G. + Marshall, _Guide to Heraldry and Genealogy_. + + + + +HAMILTON, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OF. The holders of these titles descended +from Sir James Hamilton of Cadzow, who was made an hereditary lord of +parliament in 1445, his lands and baronies at the same time being +erected into the "lordship" of Hamilton. His first wife Euphemia, widow +of the 5th earl of Douglas, died in 1468, and probably early in 1474 he +married Mary, daughter of King James II. and widow of Thomas Boyd, earl +of Arran; the consequent nearness of the Hamiltons to the Scottish crown +gave them very great weight in Scottish affairs. The first Lord Hamilton +has been frequently confused with his father, James Hamilton of Cadzow, +who was one of the hostages in England for the payment of James I.'s +ransom, and is sometimes represented as surviving until 1451 or even +1479, whereas he certainly died, according to evidence brought forward +by J. Anderson in _The Scots Peerage_, before May 1441. James, 2nd Lord +Hamilton, son of the 1st lord and Princess Mary, was created earl of +Arran in 1503; and his son James, who was regent of Scotland from 1542 +to 1554, received in February 1549 a grant of the duchy of Chatellerault +in Poitou. + +JOHN, 1st marquess of Hamilton (c. 1542-1604), third son of James +Hamilton, 2nd earl of Arran (q.v.) and duke of Chatellerault, was given +the abbey of Arbroath in 1551. In politics he was largely under the +influence of his energetic and unscrupulous younger brother Claud, +afterwards Baron Paisley (c. 1543-1622), ancestor of the dukes of +Abercorn. The brothers were the real heads of the house of Hamilton, +their elder brother Arran being insane. At first hostile to Mary, they +later became her devoted partisans. Their uncle, John Hamilton, +archbishop of St Andrews, natural son of the 1st earl of Arran, was +restored to his consistorial jurisdiction by Mary in 1566, and in May of +the next year he divorced Bothwell from his wife. Lord Claud met Mary on +her escape from Lochleven and escorted her to Hamilton palace. John +appears to have been in France in 1568 when the battle of Langside was +fought, and it was probably Claud who commanded Mary's vanguard in the +battle. With others of the queen's party they were forfeited by the +parliament and sought their revenge on the regent Murray. Although the +Hamiltons disavowed all connexion with Murray's murderer, James Hamilton +of Bothwellhaugh, he had been provided with horse and weapons by the +abbot of Arbroath, and it was at Hamilton that he sought refuge after +the deed. Archbishop Hamilton was hanged at Stirling in 1571 for alleged +complicity in the murder of Darnley, and is said to have admitted that +he was a party to the murder of Murray. At the pacification of Perth in +1573 the Hamiltons abandoned Mary's cause, and a reconciliation with the +Douglases was sealed by Lord John's marriage with Margaret, daughter of +the 7th Lord Glamis, a cousin of the regent Morton. Sir William Douglas +of Lochleven, however, persistently sought his life in revenge for the +murder of Murray until, on his refusal to keep the peace, he was +imprisoned. On the uncertain evidence extracted from the assassin by +torture, the Hamiltons had been credited with a share in the murder of +the regent Lennox in 1571. In 1579 proceedings against them for these +two crimes were resumed, and when they escaped to England their lands +and titles were seized by their political enemies, James Stewart +becoming earl of Arran. John Hamilton presently dissociated himself from +the policy of his brother Claud, who continued to plot for Spanish +intervention on behalf of Mary; and Catholic plotters are even said to +have suggested his murder to procure the succession of his brother. +Hamilton had at one time been credited with the hope of marrying Mary; +his desires now centred on the peaceful enjoyment of his estates. With +other Scottish exiles he crossed the border in 1585 and marched on +Stirling; he was admitted on the 4th of November and formally reconciled +with James VI., with whom he was thenceforward on the friendliest terms. +Claud returned to Scotland in 1586, and the abbey of Paisley was erected +into a temporal barony in his favour in 1587. Much of his later years +was spent in strict retirement, his son being authorized to act for him +in 1598. John was created marquess of Hamilton and Lord Evan in 1599, +and died on the 6th of April 1604. + +His eldest surviving son JAMES, 2nd marquess of Hamilton (c. 1589-1625), +was created baron of Innerdale and earl of Cambridge in the peerage of +England in 1619, and these honours descended to his son James, who in +1643 was created duke of Hamilton (q.v.). William, 2nd duke of Hamilton +(1616-1651), succeeded to the dukedom on his brother's execution in +1649. He was created earl of Lanark in 1639, and in the next year became +secretary of state in Scotland. Arrested at Oxford by the king's orders +in 1643 for "concurrence" with Hamilton, he effected his escape and was +temporarily reconciled with the Presbyterian party. He was sent by the +Scottish committee of estates to treat with Charles I. at Newcastle in +1646, when he sought in vain to persuade the king to consent to the +establishment of Presbyterianism in England. On the 26th of September +1647 he signed on behalf of the Scots the treaty with Charles known as +the "Engagement" at Carisbrooke Castle, and helped to organize the +second Civil War. In 1648 he fled to Holland, his succession in the next +year to his brother's dukedom making him an important personage among +the Royalist exiles. He returned to Scotland with Prince Charles in +1650, but, finding a reconciliation with Argyll impossible, he refused +to prejudice Charles's cause by pushing his claims, and lived in +retirement chiefly until the Scottish invasion of England, when he acted +as colonel of a body of his dependants. He died on the 12th of September +1651 from the effects of wounds received at Worcester. He left no male +heirs, and the title devolved on the 1st duke's eldest surviving +daughter Anne, duchess of Hamilton in her own right. + +Anne married in 1656 William Douglas, earl of Selkirk (1635-1694), who +was created duke of Hamilton in 1660 on his wife's petition, receiving +also several of the other Hamilton peerages, but for his life only. The +Hamilton estates had been declared forfeit by Cromwell, and he himself +had been fined L1000. He supported Lauderdale in the early stages of his +Scottish policy, in which he adopted a moderate attitude towards the +Presbyterians, but the two were soon alienated, through the influence of +the countess of Dysart, according to Gilbert Burnet, who spent much time +at Hamilton Palace in arranging the Hamilton papers. With other Scottish +noblemen who resisted Lauderdale's measures Hamilton was twice summoned +to London to present his case at court, but without obtaining any +result. He was dismissed from the privy council in 1676, and on a +subsequent visit to London Charles refused to receive him. On the +accession of James II. he received numerous honours, but he was one of +the first to enter into communication with the prince of Orange. He +presided over the convention of Edinburgh, summoned at his request, +which offered the Scottish crown to William and Mary in March 1689. His +death took place at Holyrood on the 18th of April 1694. His wife +survived until 1716. + +JAMES DOUGLAS, 4th duke of Hamilton (1658-1712), eldest son of the +preceding and of Duchess Anne, succeeded his mother, who resigned the +dukedom to him in 1698, and at the accession of Queen Anne he was +regarded as leader of the Scottish national party. He was an opponent of +the union with England, but his lack of decision rendered his political +conduct ineffective. He was created duke of Brandon in the peerage of +Great Britain in 1711; and on the 15th of November in the following year +he fought the celebrated duel with Charles Lord Mohun, narrated in +Thackeray's _Esmond_, in which both the principals were killed. His son, +James (1703-1743), became 5th duke, and his grandson James, 6th duke of +Hamilton and Brandon (1724-1758), married the famous beauty, Elizabeth +Gunning, afterwards duchess of Argyll. James George, 7th duke +(1755-1769), became head of the house of Douglas on the death in 1761 of +Archibald, duke of Douglas, whose titles but not his estates then +devolved on the duke of Hamilton as heir-male. Archibald's brother +Douglas (1756-1799) was the 8th duke, and when he died childless the +titles passed to his uncle Archibald (1740-1819). His son Alexander, +10th duke (1767-1852), who as marquess of Douglas was a great collector +and connoisseur of books and pictures (his collections realized L397,562 +in 1882), was ambassador at St Petersburg in 1806-1807. His sister, Lady +Anne Hamilton, was lady-in-waiting and a faithful friend to Queen +Caroline, wife of George IV.; she did not write the _Secret History of +the Court of England ..._ (1832) to which her name was attached. William +Alexander, 11th duke of Hamilton (1811-1863), married Princess Marie +Amelie, daughter of Charles, grand-duke of Baden, and, on her mother's +side, a cousin of Napoleon III. The title of duke of Chatellerault, +granted to his remote ancestor in 1548, and claimed at different times +by various branches of the Hamilton family, was conferred on the 11th +duke's son, William Alexander, 12th duke of Hamilton (1845-1895), by the +emperor of the French in 1864. His sister, Lady Mary Douglas-Hamilton, +married in 1869 Albert, prince of Monaco, but their marriage was +declared invalid in 1880. She subsequently married Count Tassilo +Festetics, a Hungarian noble. The 12th duke left no male issue and was +succeeded in 1895 by his kinsman, Alfred Douglas, a descendant of the +4th duke. Claud Hamilton, 1st Baron Paisley, brother of the 1st marquess +of Hamilton, was, as mentioned above, ancestor of the Abercorn branch of +the Hamiltons. His son, who became earl of Abercorn in 1606, received +among a number of other titles that of Lord Hamilton. This title, and +also that of Viscount Hamilton, in the peerage of Great Britain, +conferred on the 8th earl of Abercorn in 1786, are borne by the dukes of +Abercorn, whose eldest son is usually styled by courtesy marquess of +Hamilton, a title which was added to the other family honours when the +2nd marquess of Abercorn was raised to the dukedom in 1868. + + See John Anderson, _The House of Hamilton_ (1825); _Hamilton Papers_, + ed. J. Bain (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1890-1892); Gilbert Burnet, _Lives of + James and William, dukes of Hamilton_ (1677); _The Hamilton Papers + relative to 1638-1650_, ed. S. R. Gardiner for the Camden Society + (1880); G. E. C[okayne], _Complete Peerage_ (1887-1898); an article by + the Rev. J. Anderson in Sir J. B. Paul's edition of the _Scots + Peerage_, vol. iv. (1907). + + + + +HAMILTON, ALEXANDER (1757-1804), American statesman and economist, was +born, as a British subject, on the island of Nevis in the West Indies on +the 11th of January 1757. He came of good family on both sides. His +father, James Hamilton, a Scottish merchant of St Christopher, was a +younger son of Alexander Hamilton of Grange, Lanarkshire, by Elizabeth, +daughter of Sir R. Pollock. His mother, Rachael Fawcett (Faucette), of +French Huguenot descent, married when very young a Danish proprietor of +St Croix, John Michael Levine, with whom she lived unhappily and whom +she soon left, subsequently living with James Hamilton; her husband +procured a divorce in 1759, but the court forbade her remarriage.[1] +Such unions as hers with James Hamilton were long not uncommon in the +West Indies. By her James Hamilton had two sons, Alexander and James. +Business misfortunes having caused his father's bankruptcy, and his +mother dying in 1768, young Hamilton was thrown upon the care of +maternal relatives at St Croix, where, in his twelfth year, he entered +the counting-house of Nicholas Cruger. Shortly afterward Mr Cruger, +going abroad, left the boy in charge of the business. The extraordinary +specimens we possess of his mercantile correspondence and friendly +letters, written at this time, attest an astonishing poise and maturity +of mind, and self-conscious ambition. His opportunities for regular +schooling must have been very scant; but he had cultivated friends who +discerned his talents and encouraged their development, and he early +formed the habits of wide reading and industrious study that were to +persist through his life. An accomplishment later of great service to +Hamilton, common enough in the Antilles, but very rare in the English +continental colonies, was a familiar command of French. In 1772 some +friends, impressed by a description by him of the terrible West Indian +hurricane in that year, made it possible for him to go to New York to +complete his education. Arriving in the autumn of 1772, he prepared for +college at Elizabethtown, N.J., and in 1774 entered King's College (now +Columbia University) in New York City. His studies, however, were +interrupted by the War of American Independence. + +A visit to Boston seems to have thoroughly confirmed the conclusion, to +which reason had already led him, that he should cast in his fortunes +with the colonists. Into their cause he threw himself with ardour. In +1774-1775 he wrote two influential anonymous pamphlets, which were +attributed to John Jay; they show remarkable maturity and controversial +ability, and rank high among the political arguments of the time.[2] He +organized an artillery company, was awarded its captaincy on +examination, won the interest of Nathanael Greene and Washington by the +proficiency and bravery he displayed in the campaign of 1776 around New +York City, joined Washington's staff in March 1777 with the rank of +lieutenant-colonel, and during four years served as his private +secretary and confidential aide. The important duties with which he was +entrusted attest Washington's entire confidence in his abilities and +character; then and afterwards, indeed, reciprocal confidence and +respect took the place, in their relations, of personal attachment.[3] +But Hamilton was ambitious for military glory--it was an ambition he +never lost; he became impatient of detention in what he regarded as a +position of unpleasant dependence, and (Feb. 1781) he seized a slight +reprimand administered by Washington as an excuse for abandoning his +staff position.[4] Later he secured a field command, through Washington, +and won laurels at Yorktown, where he led the American column in the +final assault on the British works. In 1780 he married Elizabeth, +daughter of General Philip Schuyler, and thus became allied with one of +the most distinguished families in New York. + +Meanwhile, he had begun the political efforts upon which his fame +principally rests. In letters of 1779-1780[5] he correctly diagnoses the +ills of the Confederation, and suggests with admirable prescience the +necessity of centralization in its governmental powers; he was, indeed, +one of the first, if not to conceive, at least to suggest adequate +checks on the anarchic tendencies of the time. After a year's service in +Congress in 1782-1783, in which he experienced the futility of +endeavouring to attain through that decrepit body the ends he sought, he +settled down to legal practice in New York.[6] The call for the +Annapolis Convention (1786) was Hamilton's opportunity. A delegate from +New York, he supported Madison in inducing the Convention to exceed its +delegated powers and summon the Federal Convention of 1787 at +Philadelphia (himself drafting the call); he secured a place on the New +York delegation; and, when his anti-Federal colleagues withdrew from the +Convention, he signed the Constitution for his state. So long as his +colleagues were present his own vote was useless, and he absented +himself for some time from the debates after making one remarkable +speech (June 18th, 1787). In this he held up the British government as +the best model in the world.[7] Though fully conscious that monarchy in +America was impossible, he wished to obtain the next best solution in an +aristocratic, strongly centralized, coercive, but representative union, +with devices to give weight to the influence of class and property.[8] +His plan had no chance of success; but though unable to obtain what he +wished, he used his great talents to secure the adoption of the +Constitution. + +To this struggle was due the greatest of his writings, and the greatest +individual contribution to the adoption of the new government, _The +Federalist_, which remains a classic commentary on American +constitutional law and the principles of government, and of which Guizot +said that "in the application of elementary principles of government to +practical administration" it was the greatest work known to him. Its +inception, and much more than half its contents were Hamilton's (the +rest Madison's and Jay's).[9] Sheer will and reasoning could hardly be +more brilliantly and effectively exhibited than they were by Hamilton +in the New York convention of 1788, whose vote he won, against the +greatest odds, for the ratification of the Constitution. It was the +judgment of Chancellor James Kent, the justice of which can hardly be +disputed, that "all the documentary proof and the current observation of +the time lead us to the conclusion that he surpassed all his +contemporaries in his exertions to create, recommend, adopt and defend +the Constitution of the United States." + +When the new government was inaugurated, Hamilton became secretary of +the treasury in Washington's cabinet.[10] Congress immediately referred +to him a press of queries and problems, and there came from his pen a +succession of papers that have left the strongest imprint on the +administrative organization of the national government--two reports on +public credit, upholding an ideal of national honour higher than the +prevalent popular principles; a report on manufactures, advocating their +encouragement (e.g. by bounties paid from surplus revenues amassed by +tariff duties)--a famous report that has served ever since as a +storehouse of arguments for a national protective policy;[11] a report +favouring the establishment of a national bank, the argument being based +on the doctrine of "implied powers" in the Constitution, and on the +application that Congress may do anything that can be made, through the +medium of money, to subserve the "general welfare" of the United +States--doctrines that, through judicial interpretation, have +revolutionized the Constitution; and, finally, a vast mass of detailed +work by which order and efficiency were given to the national finances. +In 1793 he put to confusion his opponents who had brought about a +congressional investigation of his official accounts. The success of his +financial measures was immediate and remarkable. They did not, as is +often but loosely said, create economic prosperity; but they did prop +it, in an all-important field, with order, hope and confidence. His +ultimate purpose was always the strengthening of the union; but before +particularizing his political theories, and the political import of his +financial measures, the remaining events of his life may be traced. + +His activity in the cabinet was by no means confined to the finances. He +regarded himself, apparently, as premier, and sometimes overstepped the +limits of his office in interfering with other departments. The +heterogeneous character of the duties placed upon his department by +Congress seemed in fact to reflect the English idea of its primacy. +Hamilton's influence was in fact predominant with Washington (so far as +any man could have predominant influence). Thus it happens that in +foreign affairs, whatever credit properly belongs to the Federalists as +a party (see also the article FEDERALIST PARTY) for the adoption of that +principle of neutrality which became the traditional policy of the +United States must be regarded as largely due to Hamilton. But allowance +must be made for the mere advantage of initiative which belonged to any +party that organized the government--the differences between Hamilton +and Jefferson, in this question of neutrality, being almost purely +factitious.[12] On domestic policy their differences were vital, and in +their conflicts over Hamilton's financial measures they organized, on +the basis of varying tenets and ideals which have never ceased to +conflict in American politics, the two great parties of Federalists and +Democrats (or Democratic-Republicans). On the 31st of January 1795 +Hamilton resigned his position as secretary of the treasury and returned +to the practice of law in New York, leaving it for public service only +in 1798-1800, when he was the active head, under Washington (who +insisted that Hamilton should be second only to himself), of the army +organized for war against France. But though in private life he remained +the continual and chief adviser of Washington--notably in the serious +crisis of the Jay Treaty, of which Hamilton approved. Washington's +_Farewell Address_ (1796) was written for him by Hamilton. + +After Washington's death the Federalist leadership was divided (and +disputed) between John Adams, who had the prestige of a varied and great +career, and greater strength than any other Federalist with the people, +and Hamilton, who controlled practically all the leaders of lesser rank, +including much the greater part of the most distinguished men of the +country, so that it has been very justly said that "the roll of his +followers is enough of itself to establish his position in American +history" (Lodge). But Hamilton was not essentially a popular leader. +When his passions were not involved, or when they were repressed by a +crisis, he was far-sighted, and his judgment of men was excellent.[13] +But as Hamilton himself once said, his heart was ever the master of his +judgment. He was, indeed, not above intrigue,[14] but he was +unsuccessful in it. He was a fighter through and through, and his +courage was superb; but he was indiscreet in utterance, impolitic in +management, opinionated, self-confident, and uncompromising in nature +and methods. His faults are nowhere better shown than in his quarrel +with John Adams. Three times, in order to accomplish ends deemed by him, +personally, to be desirable, Hamilton used the political fortunes of +John Adams, in presidential elections, as a mere hazard in his +manoeuvres; moreover, after Adams became president, and so the official +head of the party, Hamilton constantly advised the members of the +president's cabinet, and through them endeavoured to control Adams's +policy; and finally, on the eve of the crucial election of 1800, he +wrote a bitter personal attack on the president (containing much +confidential cabinet information), which was intended for private +circulation, but which was secured and published by Aaron Burr, his +legal and political rival. + +The mention of Burr leads us to the fatal end of another great political +antipathy of Hamilton's life. He read Burr's character correctly from +the beginning; deemed it a patriotic duty to thwart him in his +ambitions; defeated his hopes successively of a foreign mission, the +presidency, and the governorship of New York; and in his conversations +and letters repeatedly and unsparingly denounced him. If these +denunciations were known to Burr they were ignored by him until his last +defeat. After that he forced a quarrel on a trivial bit of hearsay (that +Hamilton had said he had a "despicable" opinion of Burr); and Hamilton, +believing as he explained in a letter he left before going to his +death--that a compliance with the duelling prejudices of the time was +inseparable from the ability to be in future useful in public affairs, +accepted a challenge from him. The duel was fought at Weehawken on the +Jersey shore of the Hudson opposite the City of New York. At the first +fire Hamilton fell, mortally wounded, and he died on the following day, +the 12th of July 1804. Hamilton himself did not intend to fire, but his +pistol went off as he fell. The tragic close of his career appeased for +the moment the fierce hatred of politics, and his death was very +generally deplored as a national calamity.[15] + +No emphasis, however strong, upon the mere consecutive personal +successes of Hamilton's life is sufficient to show the measure of his +importance in American history. That importance lies, to a large extent, +in the political ideas for which he stood. His mind was eminently +"legal." He was the unrivalled controversialist of the time. His +writings, which are distinguished by clarity, vigour and rigid +reasoning, rather than by any show of scholarship--in the extent of +which, however solid in character Hamilton's might have been, he was +surpassed by several of his contemporaries--are in general strikingly +empirical in basis. He drew his theories from his experiences of the +Revolutionary period, and he modified them hardly at all through life. +In his earliest pamphlets (1774-1775) he started out with the ordinary +pre-Revolutionary Whig doctrines of natural rights and liberty; but the +first experience of semi-anarchic states'-rights and individualism ended +his fervour for ideas so essentially alien to his practical, logical +mind, and they have no place in his later writings. The feeble +inadequacy of conception, infirmity of power, factional jealousy, +disintegrating particularism, and vicious finance of the Confederation +were realized by many others; but none other saw so clearly the concrete +nationalistic remedies for these concrete ills, or pursued remedial ends +so constantly, so ably, and so consistently. An immigrant, Hamilton had +no particularistic ties; he was by instinct a "continentalist" or +federalist. He wanted a strong union and energetic government that +should "rest as much as possible on the shoulders of the people and as +little as possible on those of the state legislatures"; that should have +the support of wealth and class; and that should curb the states to such +an "entire subordination" as nowise to be hindered by those bodies. At +these ends he aimed with extraordinary skill in all his financial +measures. As early as 1776 he urged the direct collection of federal +taxes by federal agents. From 1779 onward we trace the idea of +supporting government by the interest of the propertied classes; from +1781 onward the idea that a not-excessive public debt would be a +blessing[16] in giving cohesiveness to the union: hence his device by +which the federal government, assuming the war debts of the states, +secured greater resources, based itself on a high ideal of nationalism, +strengthened its hold on the individual citizen, and gained the support +of property. In his report on manufactures his chief avowed motive was +to strengthen the union. To the same end he conceived the constitutional +doctrines of liberal construction, "implied powers," and the "general +welfare," which were later embodied in the decisions of John Marshall. +The idea of nationalism pervaded and quickened all his life and works. +With one great exception, the dictum of Guizot is hardly an +exaggeration, that "there is not in the Constitution of the United +States an element of order, of force, of duration, which he did not +powerfully contribute to introduce into it and to cause to +predominate." + +The exception, as American history showed, was American democracy. The +loose and barren rule of the Confederation seemed to conservative minds +such as Hamilton's to presage, in its strengthening of individualism, a +fatal looseness of social restraints, and led him on to a dread of +democracy that he never overcame. Liberty, he reminded his fellows, in the +New York Convention of 1788, seemed to be alone considered in government, +but there was another thing equally important: "a principle of strength +and stability in the organization ... and of vigour in its operation." But +Hamilton's governmental system was in fact repressive.[17] He wanted a +system strong enough, he would have said, to overcome the anarchic +tendencies loosed by war, and represented by those notions of natural +rights which he had himself once championed; strong enough to overbear all +local, state and sectional prejudices, powers or influence, and to +control--not, as Jefferson would have it, to be controlled by--the people. +Confidence in the integrity, the self-control, and the good judgment of +the people, which was the content of Jefferson's political faith, had +almost no place in Hamilton's theories. "Men," said he, "are reasoning +rather than reasonable animals." The charge that he laboured to introduce +monarchy by intrigue is an under-estimate of his good sense.[18] +Hamilton's thinking, however, did carry him foul of current democratic +philosophy; as he said, he presented his plan in 1787 "not as attainable, +but as a model to which we ought to approach as far as possible"; +moreover, he held through life his belief in its principles, and in its +superiority over the government actually created; and though its +inconsistency with American tendencies was yearly more apparent, he never +ceased to avow on all occasions his aristocratic-monarchical partialities. +Moreover, his preferences for at least an aristocratic republic were +shared by many other men of talent. When it is added that Jefferson's +assertions, alike as regards Hamilton's talk[19] and the intent and +tendency of his political measures, were, to the extent of the underlying +basic fact--but discounting Jefferson's somewhat intemperate +interpretations--unquestionably true,[20] it cannot be accounted strange +that Hamilton's Democratic opponents mistook his theoretic predilections +for positive designs. Nor would it be a strained inference from much that +be said, to believe that he hoped and expected that in the "crisis" he +foresaw, when democracy should have caused the ruin of the country, a new +government might be formed that should approximate to his own ideals.[21] +From the beginning of the excesses of the French Revolution he was +possessed by the persuasion that American democracy, likewise, might at +any moment crush the restraints of the Constitution to enter on a career +of licence and anarchy. To this obsession he sacrificed his life.[22] +After the Democratic victory of 1800, his letters, full of retrospective +judgments and interesting outlooks, are but rarely relieved in their +sombre pessimism by flashes of hope and courage. His last letter on +politics, written two days before his death, illustrates the two sides of +his thinking already emphasized: in this letter he warns his New England +friends against dismemberment of the union as "a clear sacrifice of great +positive advantages, without any counterbalancing good; administering no +relief to our real disease, which is democracy, the poison of which, by a +subdivision, will only be more concentrated in each part, and consequently +the more virulent." To the end he never lost his fear of the states, nor +gained faith in the future of the country. He laboured still, in mingled +hope and apprehension, "to prop the frail and worthless fabric,"[23] but +for its spiritual content of democracy he had no understanding, and even +in its nationalism he had little hope. Yet probably to no one man, except +perhaps to Washington, does American nationalism owe so much as to +Hamilton. + +In the development of the United States the influence of Hamiltonian +nationalism and Jeffersonian democracy has been a reactive union; but +changed conditions since Hamilton's time, and particularly since the +Civil War, are likely to create misconceptions as to Hamilton's position +in his own day. Great constructive statesman as he was, he was also, +from the American point of view, essentially a reactionary. He was the +leader of reactionary forces--constructive forces, as it happened--in +the critical period after the War of American Independence, and in the +period of Federalist supremacy. He was in sympathy with the dominant +forces of public life only while they took, during the war, the +predominant impress of an imperfect nationalism.[24] Jeffersonian +democracy came into power in 1800 in direct line with colonial +development; Hamiltonian Federalism was a break in that development; and +this alone can explain how Jefferson could organize the Democratic Party +in face of the brilliant success of the Federalists in constructing the +government. Hamilton stigmatized his great opponent as a political +fanatic; but actualist as he claimed to be,[25] Hamilton could not see, +or would not concede, the predominating forces in American life, and +would uncompromisingly have minimized the two great political conquests +of the colonial period--local self-government and democracy. + +Few Americans have received higher tributes from foreign authorities. +Talleyrand, personally impressed when in America with Hamilton's +brilliant qualities, declared that he had the power of divining without +reasoning, and compared him to Fox and Napoleon because he had "devine +l'Europe." Of the judgments rendered by his countrymen, Washington's +confidence in his ability and integrity is perhaps the most significant. +Chancellor James Kent, and others only less competent, paid remarkable +testimony to his legal abilities. Chief-justice Marshall ranked him +second to Washington alone. No judgment is more justly measured than +Madison's (in 1831): "That he possessed intellectual powers of the first +order, and the moral qualities of integrity and honour in a captivating +degree, has been awarded him by a suffrage now universal. If his theory +of government deviated from the republican standard he had the candour +to avow it, and the greater merit of co-operating faithfully in maturing +and supporting a system which was not his choice." + +In person Hamilton was rather short and slender; in carriage, erect, +dignified and graceful. Deep-set, changeable, dark eyes vivified his +mobile features, and set off his light hair and fair, ruddy complexion. +His head in the famous Trumbull portrait is boldly poised and very +striking. The captivating charm of his manners and conversation is +attested by all who knew him, and in familiar life he was artlessly +simple. Friends he won readily, and he held them in devoted attachment +by the solid worth of a frank, ardent, generous, warm-hearted and +high-minded character. Versatile as were his intellectual powers, his +nature seems comparatively simple. A firm will, tireless energy, +aggressive courage and bold self-confidence were its leading qualities; +the word "intensity" perhaps best sums up his character. His Scotch and +Gallic strains of ancestry are evident; his countenance was decidedly +Scotch; his nervous speech and bearing and vehement temperament rather +French; in his mind, agility, clarity and penetration were matched with +logical solidity. The remarkable quality of his mind lay in the rare +combination of acute analysis and grasp of detail with great +comprehensiveness of thought. So far as his writings show, he was almost +wholly lacking in humour, and in imagination little less so. He +certainly had wit, but it is hard to believe he could have had any touch +of fancy. In public speaking he often combined a rhetorical +effectiveness and emotional intensity that might take the place of +imagination, and enabled him, on the coldest theme, to move deeply the +feelings of his auditors. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Hamilton's _Works_ have been edited by H. C. Lodge (New + York, 9 vols., 1885-1886, and 12 vols., 1904); all references above + are first to the latter edition, secondly (in brackets) to the former. + There are various additional editions of _The Federalist_, notably + those of H. B. Dawson (1863), H. C. Lodge (1888), and--the most + scholarly--P. L. Ford (1898); cf. _American Historical Review_, ii. + 413, 675. See also James Bryce, "Predictions of Hamilton and de + Tocqueville," in _Johns Hopkins University Studies_, vol. 5 + (Baltimore, 1887); and the capital essay of Anson D. Morse in the + _Political Science Quarterly_, v. (1890), pp. 1-23. For a bibliography + of the period see the _Cambridge Modern History_, vol. vii. pp. + 780-810. The unfinished _Life of Alexander Hamilton, by his Son_, J. + C. Hamilton, going only to 1787 (New York, 2 vols., 1834-1840), was + superseded by the same author's valuable, but partisan and uncritical + _History of the Republic ... as traced in the Writings of Alexander + Hamilton_ (New York, 7 vols., 1857-1864; 4th ed., Boston, 1879). + Professor W. G. Sumner's _Alexander Hamilton_ (Makers of America + series, New York, 1890) is appreciative, and important for its + criticism from the point of view of an American free-trader; see also, + on Hamilton's finance and economic views, Prof. C. F. Dunbar, + _Quarterly Journal of Economics_, iii. (1889), p. 32; E. G. Bourne in + ibid. x. (1894), p. 328; E. C. Lunt in _Journal of Political Economy_, + iii. (1895), p. 289. Among modern studies must also be mentioned J. T. + Morse's able _Life_ (1876); H. C. Lodge's (in the American Statesmen + series, 1882); and G. Shea's two books, his _Historical Study_ (1877) + and _Life and Epoch_ (1879). C. J. Riethmuller's _Hamilton and his + Contemporaries_ (1864), written during the Civil War, is sympathetic, + but rather speculative. The most vivid account of Hamilton is in Mrs + Gertrude Atherton's historical romance, _The Conqueror_ (New York, + 1902), for the writing of which the author made new investigations + into the biographical details, and elucidated some points previously + obscure; see also her _A Few of Hamilton's Letters_ (1903). F. S. + Oliver's brilliant _Alexander Hamilton: An Essay on American Union_ + (London, 1906), which uses its subject to illustrate the necessity of + British imperial federation, is strongly anti-Jeffersonian, but no + other work by a non-American author brings out so well the wider + issues involved in Hamilton's economic policy. (F. S. P.; H. Ch.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] These facts were first definitely determined by Mrs Gertrude + Atherton from the Danish Archives in Denmark and the West Indies; see + article in _North American Review_, Aug. 1902, vol. 175, p. 229; and + preface to her _A Few of Hamilton's Letters_ (New York, 1903). + + [2] These were written in answer to the widely read pamphlets + published over the _nom de plume_ of "A Westchester Farmer," and now + known to have been written by Samuel Seabury (q.v.). Hamilton's + pamphlets were entitled "A Full Vindication of the Measures of the + Congress from the Calumnies of their Enemies," and "The Farmer + Refuted." Concerning them George Ticknor Curtis (_Constitutional + History of the United States_, i. 274) has said, "There are displayed + in these papers a power of reasoning and sarcasm, a knowledge of the + principles of government and of the English constitution, and a grasp + of the merits of the whole controversy, that would have done honour + to any man at any age. To say that they evince precocity of intellect + gives no idea of their main characteristics. They show great + maturity--a more remarkable maturity than has ever been exhibited by + any other person, at so early an age, in the same department of + thought." + + [3] George Bancroft was the first to point out that there is small + evidence that Hamilton ever really appreciated Washington's great + qualities; but on the score of personal and Federalist indebtedness + he left explicit recognition. + + [4] For Hamilton's letter to General Schuyler on this episode--one of + the most important letters, in some ways, that he ever wrote--see the + _Works_, ix. 232 (8: 35). + + [5] Especially the letter of September 1780 to James Duane, _Works_, + i. 213 (1: 203); also the "Continentalist" papers of 1781. + + [6] His most famous case at this time (_Rutgers_ v. _Waddington_) was + one that well illustrated his moral courage. Under a "Trespass Law" + of New York, Elizabeth Rutgers, a widow, brought suit against one + Joshua Waddington, a Loyalist, who during the war of American + Independence, while New York was occupied by the British, had made + use of some of her property. In face of popular clamour, Hamilton, + who advocated a conciliatory treatment of the Loyalists, represented + Waddington, who won the case, decided in 1784. + + [7] As Mr Oliver points out (_Alexander Hamilton_, p. 156), + Hamilton's idea of the British constitution was not a correct picture + of the British constitution in 1787, and still less of that of the + 20th century. "What he had in mind was the British constitution as + George III. had tried to make it." Hamilton's ideal was an elective + monarchy, and his guiding principle a proper balance of authority. + + [8] Briefly, he proposed a governor and two chambers--an Assembly + elected by the people for three years, and a Senate--the governor and + senate holding office for life or during good behaviour, and chosen, + through electors, by voters qualified by property; the governor to + have an unqualified veto on federal legislation; state governors to + have a similar veto on state legislation, and to be appointed by the + federal government; the federal government to control all militia. + See _Works_, i. 347 (1: 331); and cf. his correspondence, which is + scanty, _passim_ in later years, notably x. 446, 431, 329 (8: 606, + 596, 517), and references below. + + [9] Nearly all the papers in _The Federalist_ first appeared (between + October 1787 and April 1788) in New York journals, over the signature + "Publius." Jay wrote only five. The authorship of twelve of them is + uncertain, and has been the subject of much controversy between + partisans of Hamilton and Madison. Concerning _The Federalist_ + Chancellor James Kent (_Commentaries_, i. 241) said: "There is no + work on the subject of the Constitution, and on republican and + federal government generally, that deserves to be more thoroughly + studied. I know not indeed of any work on the principles of free + government that is to be compared, in instruction and intrinsic + value, to this small and unpretending volume.... It is equally + admirable in the depth of its wisdom, the comprehensiveness of its + views, the sagacity of its reflections, and the fearlessness, + patriotism, candour, simplicity, and elegance, with which its truths + are uttered and recommended." + + [10] The position was offered first to Robert Morris, who declined + it, expressing the opinion that Hamilton was the man best fitted to + meet its problems. + + [11] Hamilton's _Report on Manufactures_ (1791) by itself entitles + him to the place of an epoch-maker in economics. It was the first + great revolt from Adam Smith, on whose _Wealth of Nations_ (1776) he + is said to have already written a commentary which is lost. In his + criticism on Adam Smith, and his arguments for a system of moderate + protective duties associated with the deliberate policy of promoting + national interests, his work was the inspiration of Friedrich List, + and so the foundation of the economic system of Germany in a later + day, and again, still later, of the policy of Tariff Reform and + Colonial Preference in England, as advocated by Mr Chamberlain and + his supporters. See the detailed account given in the article + PROTECTION. + + [12] That is, while Jefferson hated British aristocracy and + sympathized with French democracy, Hamilton hated French democracy + and sympathized with British aristocracy and order; but neither + wanted war; and indeed Jefferson, throughout life, was the more + peaceful of the two. Neutrality was in the line of commonplace + American thinking of that time, as may be seen in the writings of all + the leading men of the day. The cry of "British Hamilton" had no good + excuse whatever. + + [13] e.g. his prediction in 1789 of the course of the French + Revolution; his judgments of Burr from 1792 onward, and of Burr and + Jefferson in 1800. + + [14] After the Democrats won New York in 1799, Hamilton proposed to + Governor John Jay to call together the out-going Federalist + legislature, in order to choose Federalist presidential electors, a + suggestion which Jay simply endorsed: "Proposing a measure for party + purposes which it would not become me to adopt."--_Works_, x. 371 (8: + 549). Compare also with later developments of ward politics in New + York City, Hamilton's curious suggestions as to Federalist charities, + &c., in connexion with the Christian Constitutional Society proposed + by him in 1802 to combat irreligion and democracy (_Works_, x. 432 + (8: 596). + + [15] Hamilton's widow, who survived him for half a century, dying at + the age of ninety-seven, was left with four sons and four daughters. + He had been an affectionate husband and father, though his devotion + to his wife had been consistent with occasional lapses from strict + marital fidelity. One intrigue into which he drifted in 1791, with a + Mrs Reynolds, led to the blackmailing of Hamilton by her husband; and + when this rascal, shortly afterwards, got into trouble for fraud, his + relations with Hamilton were unscrupulously misrepresented for + political purposes by some of Hamilton's opponents. But Hamilton + faced the necessity of revealing the true state of things with + conspicuous courage, and the scandal only reacted on his accusers. + One of them was Monroe, whose reputation comes very badly out of this + unsavoury affair. + + [16] In later years he said no debt should be incurred without + providing simultaneously for its payment. + + [17] He warmly supported the Alien and Sedition Laws of 1798 (in + their final form). + + [18] The idea, he wrote to Washington, was "one of those visionary + things none but madmen could undertake, and that no wise man will + believe" (1792). And see his comments on Burr's ambitions, _Works_, + x. 417, 450 (8: 585, 610). We may accept as just, and applicable to + his entire career, the statement made by himself in 1803 of his + principles in 1787: "(1) That the political powers of the people of + this continent would endure nothing but a representative form of + government. (2) That, in the actual situation of the country, it was + itself right and proper that the representative system should have a + full and fair trial. (3) That to such a trial it was essential that + the government should be so constructed as to give it all the energy + and the stability reconcilable with the principles of that theory." + + [19] Cf. Gouverneur Morris, _Diary and Letters_, ii. 455, 526, 531. + + [20] Cf. even Mr Lodge's judgments, pp. 90-92, 115-116, 122, 130, + 140. When he says (p. 140) that "In Hamilton's successful policy + there were certainly germs of an aristocratic republic, there were + certainly limitations and possibly dangers to pure democracy," this + is practically Jefferson's assertion (1792) that "His system flowed + from principles adverse to liberty"; but Jefferson goes on to add: + "and was calculated to undermine and demolish the republic." As to + the intent of Hamilton to secure through his financial measures the + political support of property, his own words are honest and clear; + and in fact he succeeded. Jefferson merely had exaggerated fears of a + moneyed political engine, and seeing that Hamilton's measures of + funding and assumption did make the national debt politically useful + to the Federalists in the beginning he concluded that they would seek + to fasten the debt on the country for ever. + + [21] Cf. Gouv. Morris, _op. cit._ ii. 474. + + [22] He dreamed of saving the country with an army in this crisis of + blood and iron, and wished to preserve unweakened the public + confidence in his personal bravery. + + [23] His own words in 1802. In justification of the above statements + see the correspondence of 1800-1804 _passim_--_Works_, vol. ix.-x. + (or 7-8); especially x. 363, 425, 434, 440, 445 (or 8: 543, 591, 596, + 602, 605). + + [24] Cf. Anson D. Morse, article cited below, pp. 4, 18-21. + + [25] Chancellor Kent tells us (_Memoirs and Letters_, p. 32) that in + 1804 Hamilton was planning a co-operative Federalist work on the + history and science of government on an inductive basis. Kent always + speaks of Hamilton's legal thinking as deductive, however (ibid. p. + 290, 329), and such seems to have been in fact all his political + reasoning: i.e. underlying them were such maxims as that of Hume, + that in erecting a stable government every citizen must be assumed a + knave, and be bound by self-interest to co-operation for the public + good. Hamilton always seems to be reasoning deductively from such + principles. He went too far and fast for even such a Federalist + disbeliever in democracy as Gouverneur Morris; who, to Hamilton's + assertion that democracy must be cast out to save the country, + replied that "such necessity cannot be shown by a political + ratiocination. Luckily, or, to speak with a reverence proper to the + occasion, providentially, mankind are not disposed to embark the + blessings they enjoy on a voyage of syllogistic adventure to obtain + something more beautiful in exchange. They must feel before they will + act" (_op. cit._ ii. 531). + + + + +HAMILTON, ANTHONY, or ANTOINE (1646-1720), French classical author, was +born about 1646. He is especially noteworthy from the fact that, though +by birth he was a foreigner, his literary characteristics are more +decidedly French than those of many of the most indubitable Frenchmen. +His father was George Hamilton, younger brother of James, 2nd earl of +Abercorn, and head of the family of Hamilton in the peerage of +Scotland, and 6th duke of Chatellerault in the peerage of France; and +his mother was Mary Butler, sister of the 1st duke of Ormonde. According +to some authorities he was born at Drogheda, but according to the London +edition of his works in 1811 his birthplace was Roscrea, Tipperary. From +the age of four till he was fourteen the boy was brought up in France, +whither his family had removed after the execution of Charles I. The +fact that, like his father, he was a Roman Catholic, prevented his +receiving the political promotion he might otherwise have expected on +the Restoration, but he became a distinguished member of that brilliant +band of courtiers whose chronicler he was to become. He took service in +the French army, and the marriage of his sister Elizabeth, "la belle +Hamilton," to Philibert, comte de Gramont (q.v.) rendered his connexion +with France more intimate, if possible, than before. On the accession of +James II. he obtained an infantry regiment in Ireland, and was appointed +governor of Limerick and a member of the privy council. But the battle +of the Boyne, at which he was present, brought disaster on all who were +attached to the cause of the Stuarts, and before long he was again in +France--an exile, but at home. The rest of his life was spent for the +most part at the court of St Germain and in the _chateaux_ of his +friends. With Ludovise, duchesse du Maine, he became an especial +favourite, and it was at her seat at Sceaux that he wrote the _Memoires_ +that made him famous. He died at St Germain-en-Laye on the 21st of April +1720. + +It is mainly by the _Memoires ducomte de Gramont_ that Hamilton takes +rank with the most classical writers of France. It was said to have been +written at Gramont's dictation, but it is very evident that Hamilton's +share is the most considerable. The work was first published anonymously +in 1713 under the rubric of Cologne, but it was really printed in +Holland, at that time the great patroness of all questionable authors. +An English translation by Boyer appeared in 1714. Upwards of thirty +editions have since appeared, the best of the French being Renouard's +(1812), forming part of a collected edition of Hamilton's works, and +Gustave Brunet's (1859), and the best of the English, Edwards's (1793), +with 78 engravings from portraits in the royal collections at Windsor +and elsewhere, A. F. Bertrand de Moleville's (2 vols., 1811), with 64 +portraits by E. Scriven and others, and Gordon Goodwin's (2 vols., +1903). The original edition was reprinted by Benjamin Pifteau in 1876. +In imitation and satiric parody of the romantic tales which Antoine +Galland's translation of _The Thousand and One Nights_ had brought into +favour in France, Hamilton wrote, partly for the amusement of Henrietta +Bulkley, sister of the duchess of Berwick, to whom he was much attached, +four ironical and extravagant _contes_, _Le Belier_, _Fleur d'epine_, +_Zeneyde_ and _Les Quatre Facardins_. The saying in _Le Belier_' +"Belier, mon ami, tu me ferais plaisir si tu voulais commencer par le +commencement," has passed into a proverb. These tales were circulated +privately during Hamilton's lifetime, and the first three appeared in +Paris in 1730, ten years after the death of the author; a collection of +his _Oeuvres diverses_ in 1731 contained the unfinished _Zeneyde_. +Hamilton was also the author of some songs as exquisite in their way as +his prose, and interchanged amusing verses with the duke of Berwick. In +the name of his niece, the countess of Stafford, Hamilton maintained a +witty correspondence with Lady Mary Wortley Montagu. + + See notices of Hamilton in Lescure's edition (1873) of the _Contes_, + Sainte-Beuve's _Causeries du lundi_, tome i., Sayou's _Histoire de la + litterature francaise a l'etranger_ (1853), and by L. S. Auger in the + _Oeuvres completes_ (1804). + + + + +HAMILTON, ELIZABETH (1758-1816), British author, was born at Belfast, of +Scottish extraction, on the 21st of July 1758. Her father's death in +1759 left his wife so embarrassed that Elizabeth was adopted in 1762 by +her paternal aunt, Mrs Marshall, who lived in Scotland, near Stirling. +In 1788 Miss Hamilton went to live with her brother Captain Charles +Hamilton (1753-1792), who was engaged on his translation of the +_Hedaya_. Prompted by her brother's associations, she produced her +_Letters of a Hindoo Rajah_ in 1796. Soon after, with her sister Mrs +Blake, she settled at Bath, where she published in 1800 the _Memoirs of +Modern Philosophers_, a satire on the admirers of the French Revolution. +In 1801-1802 appeared her _Letters on Education_. After travelling +through Wales and Scotland for nearly two years, the sisters took up +their abode in 1803 at Edinburgh. In 1804 Mrs Hamilton, as she then +preferred to be called, published her _Life of Agrippina, wife of +Germanicus_; and in the same year she received a pension from +government. _The Cottagers of Glenburnie_ (1808), which is her +best-known work, was described by Sir Walter Scott as "a picture of the +rural habits of Scotland, of striking and impressive fidelity." She also +published _Popular Essays on the Elementary Principles of the Human +Mind_ (1812), and _Hints addressed to the Patrons and Directors of +Public Schools_ (1815). She died at Harrogate on the 23rd of July 1816. + + _Memoirs of Mrs Elizabeth Hamilton_, by Miss Benger, were published in + 1818. + + + + +HAMILTON, EMMA, LADY (c. 1765-1815), wife of Sir William Hamilton +(q.v.), the British envoy at Naples, and famous as the mistress of +Nelson, was the daughter of Henry Lyon, a blacksmith of Great Neston in +Cheshire. The date of her birth cannot be fixed with certainty, but she +was baptized at Great Neston on the 12th of May 1765, and it is not +improbable that she was born in that year. Her baptismal name was Emily. +As her father died soon after her birth, the mother, who was dependent +on parish relief, had to remove to her native village, Hawarden in +Flintshire. Emma's early life is very obscure. She was certainly +illiterate, and it appears that she had a child in 1780, a fact which +has led some of her biographers to place her birth before 1765. It has +been said that she was first the mistress of Captain Willet Payne, an +officer in the navy, and that she was employed in some doubtful capacity +by a notorious quack of the time, Dr Graham. In 1781 she was the +mistress of a country gentleman, Sir Harry Featherstonhaugh, who turned +her out in December of that year. She was then pregnant, and in her +distress she applied to the Hon. Charles Greville, to whom she was +already known. At this time she called herself Emily Hart. Greville, a +gentleman of artistic tastes and well known in society, entertained her +as his mistress, her mother, known as Mrs Cadogan, acting as housekeeper +and partly as servant. Under the protection of Greville, whose means +were narrowed by debt, she acquired some education, and was taught to +sing, dance and act with professional skill. In 1782 he introduced her +to his friend Romney the portrait painter, who had been established for +several years in London, and who admired her beauty with enthusiasm. The +numerous famous portraits of her from his brush may have somewhat +idealised her apparently robust and brilliantly coloured beauty, but her +vivacity and powers of fascination cannot be doubted. She had the +temperament of an artist, and seems to have been sincerely attached to +Greville. In 1784 she was seen by his uncle, Sir William Hamilton, who +admired her greatly. Two years later she was sent on a visit to him at +Naples, as the result of an understanding between Hamilton and +Greville--the uncle paying his nephew's debts and the nephew ceding his +mistress. Emma at first resented, but then submitted to the arrangement. +Her beauty, her artistic capacity, and her high spirits soon made her a +great favourite in the easy-going society of Naples, and Queen Maria +Carolina became closely attached to her. She became famous for her +"attitudes," a series of _poses plastiques_ in which she represented +classical and other figures. On the 6th of September 1791, during a +visit to England, she was married to Sir W. Hamilton. The ceremony was +required in order to justify her public reception at the court of +Naples, where Lady Hamilton played an important part as the agent +through whom the queen communicated with the British minister--sometimes +in opposition to the will and the policy of the king. The revolutionary +wars and disturbances which began after 1792 made the services of Lady +Hamilton always useful and sometimes necessary to the British +government. It was claimed by her, and on her behalf, that she secured +valuable information in 1796, and was of essential service to the +British fleet in 1798 during the Nile campaign, by enabling it to obtain +stores and water in Sicily. These claims have been denied on the rather +irrelevant ground that they are wanting in official confirmation, which +was only to be expected since they were _ex hypothesi_ unofficial and +secret, but it is not improbable that they were considerably +exaggerated, and it is certain that her stories cannot always be +reconciled with one another or with the accepted facts. When Nelson +returned from the Nile in September 1798 Lady Hamilton made him her +hero, and he became entirely devoted to her. Her influence over him +indeed became notorious, and brought him much official displeasure. Lady +Hamilton undoubtedly used her influence to draw Nelson into a most +unhappy participation in the domestic troubles of Naples, and when Sir +W. Hamilton was recalled in 1800 she travelled with him and Nelson +ostentatiously across Europe. In England Lady Hamilton insisted on +making a parade of her hold over Nelson. Their child, Horatia Nelson +Thompson, was born on the 30th of January 1801. The profuse habits which +Emma Hamilton had contracted in Naples, together with a passion for +gambling which grew on her, led her into debt, and also into extravagant +ways of living, against which her husband feebly protested. On his death +in 1803 she received by his will a life rent of L800, and the furniture +of his house in Piccadilly. She then lived openly with Nelson at his +house at Merton. Nelson tried repeatedly to secure her a pension for the +services rendered at Naples, but did not succeed. On his death she +received Merton, and an annuity of L500, as well as the control of the +interest of the L4000 he left to his daughter. But gambling and +extravagance kept her poor. In 1808 her friends endeavoured to arrange +her affairs, but in 1813 she was put in prison for debt and remained +there for a year. A certain Alderman Smith having aided her to get out, +she went over to Calais for refuge from her creditors, and she died +there in distress if not in want on the 15th of January 1815. + + AUTHORITIES.--_The Memoirs of Lady Hamilton_ (London, 1815) were the + work of an ill-disposed but well-informed and shrewd observer whose + name is not given. _Lady Hamilton and Lord Nelson_, by J. C. Jefferson + (London, 1888) is based on authentic papers. It is corrected in some + particulars by the detailed recent life written by Walter Sichel, + _Emma, Lady Hamilton_ (London, 1905). See also the authorities given + in the article NELSON. (D. H.) + + + + +HAMILTON, JAMES (1769-1831), English educationist, and author of the +Hamiltonian system of teaching languages, was born in 1769. The first +part of his life was spent in mercantile pursuits. Having settled in +Hamburg and become free of the city, he was anxious to become acquainted +with German and accepted the tuition of a French emigre, General +d'Angelis. In twelve lessons he found himself able to read an easy +German book, his master having discarded the use of a grammar and +translated to him short stories word for word into French. As a citizen +of Hamburg Hamilton started a business in Paris, and during the peace of +Amiens maintained a lucrative trade with England; but at the rupture of +the treaty he was made a prisoner of war, and though the protection of +Hamburg was enough to get the words _efface de la liste des prisonniers +de guerre_ inscribed upon his passport, he was detained in custody till +the close of hostilities. His business being thus ruined, he went in +1814 to America, intending to become a farmer and manufacturer of +potash; but, changing his plan before he reached his "location," he +started as a teacher in New York. Adopting his old tutor's method, he +attained remarkable success in New York, Baltimore, Washington, Boston, +Montreal and Quebec. Returning to England in July 1823, he was equally +fortunate in Manchester and elsewhere. The two master principles of his +method were that the language should be presented to the scholar as a +living organism, and that its laws should be learned from observation +and not by rules. His system attracted general attention, and was +vigorously attacked and defended. In 1826 Sydney Smith devoted an +article to its elucidation in the _Edinburgh Review_. As text-books for +his pupils Hamilton printed interlinear translations of the Gospel of +John, of an _Epitome historiae sacrae_, of Aesop's _Fables_, Eutropius, +Aurelius Victor, Phaedrus, &c., and many books were issued as +Hamiltonian with which he had nothing personally to do. He died on the +31st of October 1831. + + See Hamilton's own account, _The History, Principles, Practice and + Results of the Hamiltonian System_ (Manchester, 1829; new ed., 1831); + Alberte, _Uber die Hamilton'sche Methode_; C. F. Wurm, _Hamilton und + Jacotot_ (1831). + + + + +HAMILTON, JAMES HAMILTON, 1ST DUKE OF (1606-1649), Scottish nobleman, +son of James, 2nd marquess of Hamilton, and of the Lady Anne Cunningham, +daughter of the earl of Glencairn, was born on the 19th of June 1606. As +the descendant and representative of James Hamilton, 1st earl of Arran, +he was the heir to the throne of Scotland after the descendants of James +VI.[1] He married in his fourteenth year May Feilding, aged seven, +daughter of Lord Feilding, afterwards 1st earl of Denbigh, and was +educated at Exeter College, Oxford, where he matriculated on the 14th of +December 1621. He succeeded to his father's titles on the latter's death +in 1625. In 1628 he was made master of the horse and was also appointed +gentleman of the bedchamber and a privy councillor. In 1631 Hamilton +took over a force of 6000 men to assist Gustavus Adolphus in Germany. He +guarded the fortresses on the Oder while Gustavus fought Tilly at +Breitenfeld, and afterwards occupied Magdeburg, but his army was +destroyed by disease and starvation, and after the complete failure of +the expedition Hamilton returned to England in September 1634. He now +became Charles I.'s chief adviser in Scottish affairs. In May 1638, +after the outbreak of the revolt against the English Prayer-Book, he was +appointed commissioner for Scotland to appease the discontents. He +described the Scots as being "possessed by the devil," and instead of +doing his utmost to support the king's interests was easily intimidated +by the covenanting leaders and persuaded of the impossibility of +resisting their demands, finally returning to Charles to urge him to +give way. It is said that he so far forgot his trust as to encourage the +Scottish leaders in their resistance in order to gain their favour.[2] +On the 27th of July Charles sent him back with new proposals for the +election of an assembly and a parliament, episcopacy being safeguarded +but bishops being made responsible to future assemblies. After a wrangle +concerning the mode of election he again returned to Charles. Having +been sent back to Edinburgh on the 17th of September, he brought with +him a revocation of the prayer-book and canons and another covenant to +be substituted for the national covenant. On the 21st of November +Hamilton presided over the first meeting of the assembly in Glasgow +cathedral, but dissolved it on the 28th on its declaring the bishops +responsible to its authority. The assembly, however, continued to sit +notwithstanding, and Hamilton returned to England to give an account of +his failure, leaving the enemy triumphant and in possession. War was now +decided upon, and Hamilton was chosen to command an expedition to the +Forth to menace the rear of the Scots. On arrival on the 1st of May 1639 +he found the plan impossible, despaired of success, and was recalled in +June. On the 8th of July, after a hostile reception at Edinburgh, he +resigned his commissionership. He supported Strafford's proposal to call +the Short Parliament, but otherwise opposed him as strongly as he could, +as the chief adversary of the Scots; and he aided the elder Vane, it was +believed, in accomplishing Strafford's destruction by sending for him +to the Long Parliament. Hamilton now supported the parliamentary party, +desired an alliance with his nation, and persuaded Charles in February +1641 to admit some of their leaders into the council. On the death of +Strafford Hamilton was confronted by a new antagonist in Montrose, who +detested both his character and policy and repudiated his supremacy in +Scotland. On the 10th of August 1641 he accompanied Charles on his last +visit to Scotland. His aim now was to effect an alliance between the +king and Argyll, the former accepting Presbyterianism and receiving the +help of the Scots against the English parliament, and when this failed +he abandoned Charles and adhered to Argyll. In consequence he received a +challenge from Lord Ker, of which he gave the king information, and +obtained from Ker an apology. Montrose wrote to Charles declaring he +could prove Hamilton to be a traitor. The king himself spoke of him as +being "very active in his own preservation." Shortly afterwards the +plot--known as the "Incident"--to seize Argyll, Hamilton and the +latter's brother, the earl of Lanark, was discovered, and on the 12th of +October they fled from Edinburgh. Hamilton returned not long afterwards, +and notwithstanding all that had occurred still retained Charles's +favour and confidence. He returned with him to London and accompanied +him on the 5th of January 1642 when he went to the city after the +failure to secure the five members. In July Hamilton went to Scotland on +a hopeless mission to prevent the intervention of the Scots in the war, +and a breach then took place between him and Argyll. When in February +1643 proposals of mediation between Charles and the parliament came from +Scotland, Hamilton instigated the "cross petition" which demanded from +Charles the surrender of the annuities of tithes in order to embarrass +Loudoun, the chief promoter of the project, to whom they had already +been granted. This failing, he promoted a scheme for overwhelming the +influence and votes of Argyll and his party by sending to Scotland all +the Scottish peers then with the king, thereby preventing any assistance +to the parliament coming from that quarter, while Charles was to +guarantee the establishment of Presbyterianism in Scotland only. This +foolish intrigue was strongly opposed by Montrose, who was eager to +strike a sudden blow and anticipate and annihilate the plans of the +Covenanters. Hamilton, however, gained over the queen for his project, +and in September was made a duke, while Montrose was condemned to +inaction. Hamilton's scheme, however, completely failed. He had no +control over the parliament. He was unable to hinder the meeting of the +convention of the estates which assembled without the king's authority, +and his supporters found themselves in a minority. Finally, on refusing +to take the Covenant, Hamilton and Lanark were obliged to leave +Scotland. They arrived at Oxford on the 16th of December. Hamilton's +conduct had at last incurred Charles's resentment and he was sent, in +January 1644, a prisoner to Pendennis Castle, in 1645 being removed to +St Michael's Mount, where he was liberated by Fairfax's troops on the +23rd of April 1646. Subsequently he showed great activity in the futile +negotiations between the Scots and Charles at Newcastle. In 1648, in +consequence of the seizure of Charles by the army in 1647, Hamilton +obtained a temporary influence and authority in the Scottish parliament +over Argyll, and led a large force into England in support of the king +on the 8th of July. He showed complete incapacity in military command; +was kept in check for some time by Lambert; and though outnumbering the +enemy by 24,000 to about 9000 men, allowed his troops to disperse over +the country and to be defeated in detail by Cromwell during the three +days August 17th-19th at the so-called battle of Preston, being himself +taken prisoner on the 25th. He was tried on the 6th of February 1649, +condemned to death on the 6th of March and executed on the 9th. + +Hamilton, during his unfortunate career, had often been suspected of +betraying the king's cause, and, as an heir to the Scottish throne, of +intentionally playing into the hands of the Covenanters with a view of +procuring the crown for himself. The charge was brought against him as +early as 1631 when he was levying men in Scotland for the German +expedition, but Charles gave no credence to it and showed his trust in +Hamilton by causing him to share his own room. The charge, however, +always clung to him, and his intriguing character and hopeless +management of the king's affairs in Scotland gave colour to the +accusation. There seems, however, to be no real foundation for it. His +career is sufficiently explained by his thoroughly weak and egotistical +character. He took no interest whatever in the great questions at issue, +was neither loyal nor patriotic, and only desired peace and compromise +to avoid personal losses. "He was devoid of intellectual or moral +strength, and was therefore easily brought to fancy all future tasks +easy and all present obstacles insuperable."[3] A worse choice than +Hamilton could not possibly have been made in such a crisis, and his +want of principle, of firmness and resolution, brought irretrievable +ruin upon the royal cause. + +Hamilton's three sons died young, and the dukedom passed by special +remainder to his brother William, earl of Lanark. On the latter's death +in 1651 the Scottish titles reverted to the 1st duke's daughter, Anne, +whose husband, William Douglas, was created (third) duke of Hamilton. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Article in the _Dict. of Nat. Biog._ by S. R. Gardiner; + _History of England and of the Civil War_, by the same author; + _Memoirs of the Dukes of Hamilton_, by G. Burnet; _Lauderdale Papers_ + (Camden Society, 1884-1885); _The Hamilton Papers_, ed. by S. R. + Gardiner (Camden Society, 1880) and _addenda_ (Camden Miscellany, vol. + ix., 1895); _Thomason Tracts_ in the British Museum, 550 (6), 1948 + (30) (account of his supposed treachery), and 546 (21) (speech on the + scaffold). (P. C. Y.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] + + James, Lord Hamilton = Princess Mary Stuart, + (d. 1479). | daughter of James II. + | + James, Lord Hamilton and 1st earl of Arran + (d. c. 1529). + | + James, duke of Chatelherault, and 2nd earl of Arran + (d. 1575). + | + James, 3rd earl of Arran + (d. 1609). + | + John, 1st marquess of Hamilton + (d. 1604). + | + James, 2nd marquess of Hamilton + (d. 1625). + | + James, 3rd marquess and 1st duke of Hamilton. + + [2] See S. R. Gardiner in the _Dict. of Nat. Biography_. + + [3] See S. R. Gardiner in the _Dict. of Nat. Biography_. + + + + +HAMILTON, JOHN (c. 1511-1571), Scottish prelate and politician, was a +natural son of James Hamilton, 1st earl of Arran. At a very early age he +became a monk and abbot of Paisley, and after studying in Paris he +returned to Scotland, where he soon rose to a position of power and +influence under his half-brother, the regent Arran. He was made keeper +of the privy seal in 1543 and bishop of Dunkeld two years later; in 1546 +he followed David Beaton as archbishop of St Andrews, and about the same +time he became treasurer of the kingdom. He made vigorous efforts to +stay the growth of Protestantism, but with one or two exceptions +"persecution was not the policy of Archbishop Hamilton," and in the +interests of the Roman Catholic religion a catechism called _Hamilton's +Catechism_ (published with an introduction by T. G. Law in 1884) was +drawn up and printed, possibly at his instigation. Having incurred the +displeasure of the Protestants, now the dominant party in Scotland, the +archbishop was imprisoned in 1563. After his release he was an active +partisan of Mary queen of Scots; he baptized the infant James, +afterwards King James VI., and pronounced the divorce of the queen from +Bothwell. He was present at the battle of Langside, and some time later +took refuge in Dumbarton Castle. Here he was seized, and on the charge +of being concerned in the murders of Lord Darnley and the regent Murray +he was tried, and hanged on the 6th of April 1571. The archbishop had +three children by his mistress, Grizzel Sempill. + + + + +HAMILTON, PATRICK (1504-1528), Scottish divine, second son of Sir +Patrick Hamilton, well known in Scottish chivalry, and of Catherine +Stewart, daughter of Alexander, duke of Albany, second son of James II. +of Scotland, was born in the diocese of Glasgow, probably at bis +father's estate of Stanehouse in Lanarkshire. He was educated probably +at Linlithgow. In 1517 he was appointed titular abbot of Ferne, +Ross-shire; and it was probably about the same year that he went to +study at Paris, for his name is found in an ancient list of those who +graduated there in 1520. It was doubtless in Paris, where Luther's +writings were already exciting much discussion, that he received the +germs of the doctrines he was afterwards to uphold. From Alexander Ales +we learn that Hamilton subsequently went to Louvain, attracted probably +by the fame of Erasmus, who in 1521 had his headquarters there. +Returning to Scotland, the young scholar naturally selected St Andrews, +the capital of the church and of learning, as his residence. On the 9th +of June 1523 he became a member of the university of St Andrews, and on +the 3rd of October 1524 he was admitted to its faculty of arts. There +Hamilton attained such influence that he was permitted to conduct as +precentor a musical mass of his own composition in the cathedral. But +the reformed doctrines had now obtained a firm hold on the young abbot, +and he was eager to communicate them to his fellow-countrymen. Early in +1527 the attention of James Beaton, archbishop of St Andrews, was +directed to the heretical preaching of the young priest, whereupon he +ordered that Hamilton should be formally summoned and accused. Hamilton +fled to Germany, first visiting Luther at Wittenberg, and afterwards +enrolling himself as a student, under Franz Lambert of Avignon, in the +new university of Marburg, opened on the 30th of May 1527 by Philip, +landgrave of Hesse. Hermann von dem Busche, one of the contributors to +the _Epistolae obscurorum virorum_, John Frith and Tyndale were among +those whom he met there. Late in the autumn of 1527 Hamilton returned to +Scotland, bold in the conviction of the truth of his principles. He went +first to his brother's house at Kincavel, near Linlithgow, in which town +he preached frequently, and soon afterwards he married a young lady of +noble rank, whose name has not come down to us. Beaton, avoiding open +violence through fear of Hamilton's high connexions, invited him to a +conference at St Andrews. The reformer, predicting that he was going to +confirm the pious in the true doctrine by his death, resolutely accepted +the invitation, and for nearly a month was permitted to preach and +dispute, perhaps in order to provide material for accusation. At length, +however, he was summoned before a council of bishops and clergy presided +over by the archbishop; there were thirteen charges, seven of which were +based on the doctrines affirmed in the _Loci communes_. On examination +Hamilton maintained that these were undoubtedly true. The council +condemned him as a heretic on the whole thirteen charges. Hamilton was +seized, and, it is said, surrendered to the soldiery on an assurance +that he would be restored to his friends without injury. The council +convicted him, after a sham disputation with Friar Campbell, and handed +him over to the secular power. The sentence was carried out on the same +day (February 29, 1528) lest he should be rescued by his friends, and he +was burned at the stake as a heretic. His courageous bearing attracted +more attention than ever to the doctrines for which he suffered, and +greatly helped to spread the Reformation in Scotland. The "reek of +Patrick Hamilton infected all it blew on." His martyrdom is singular in +this respect, that he represented in Scotland almost alone the Lutheran +stage of the Reformation. His only book was entitled _Loci communes_, +known as "Patrick's Places." It set forth the doctrine of justification +by faith and the contrast between the gospel and the law in a series of +clear-cut propositions. It is to be found in Foxs's _Acts and +Monuments_. + + + + +HAMILTON, ROBERT (1743-1829), Scottish economist and mathematician, was +born at Pilrig, Edinburgh, on the 11th of June 1743. His grandfather, +William Hamilton, principal of Edinburgh University, had been a +professor of divinity. Having completed his education at the university +of Edinburgh, where he was distinguished in mathematics, Robert was +induced to enter a banking-house in order to acquire a practical +knowledge of business, but his ambition was really academic. In 1769 he +gave up business pursuits and accepted the rectorship of Perth academy. +In 1779 he was presented to the chair of natural philosophy at Aberdeen +University. For many years, however, by private arrangement with his +colleague Professor Copland, Hamilton taught the class of mathematics. +In 1817 he was presented to the latter chair. + + Hamilton's most important work is the _Essay on the National Debt_, + which appeared in 1813 and was undoubtedly the first to expose the + economic fallacies involved in Pitt's policy of a sinking fund. It is + still of value. A posthumous volume published in 1830, _The Progress + of Society_, is also of great ability, and is a very effective + treatment of economical principles by tracing their natural origin and + position in the development of social life. Some minor works of a + practical character (_Introduction to Merchandise_, 1777; _Essay on + War and Peace_, 1790) are now forgotten. + + + + +HAMILTON, THOMAS (1789-1842), Scottish writer, younger brother of the +philosopher, Sir William Hamilton, Bart., was born in 1789. He was +educated at Glasgow University, where he made a close friend of Michael +Scott, the author of _Tom Cringle's Log_. He entered the army in 1810, +and served throughout the Peninsular and American campaigns, but +continued to cultivate his literary tastes. On the conclusion of peace +he withdrew, with the rank of captain, from active service. He +contributed both prose and verse to _Blackwood's Magazine_, in which +appeared his vigorous and popular military novel, _Cyril Thornton_ +(1827). His _Annals of the Peninsular Campaign_, published originally in +1829, and republished in 1849 with additions by Frederick Hardman, is +written with great clearness and impartiality. His only other work, _Men +and Manners in America_, published originally in 1833, is somewhat +coloured by British prejudice, and by the author's aristocratic dislike +of a democracy. Hamilton died at Pisa on the 7th of December 1842. + + + + +HAMILTON, WILLIAM (1704-1754), Scottish poet, the author of "The Braes +of Yarrow," was born in 1704 at Bangour in Linlithgowshire, the son of +James Hamilton of Bangour, a member of the Scottish bar. As early as +1724 we find him contributing to Allan Ramsay's _Tea Table Miscellany_. +In 1745 Hamilton joined the cause of Prince Charles, and though it is +doubtful whether he actually bore arms, he celebrated the battle of +Prestonpans in verse. After the disaster of Culloden he lurked for +several months in the Highlands and escaped to France; but in 1749 the +influence of his friends procured him permission to return to Scotland, +and in the following year he obtained possession of the family estate of +Bangour. The state of his health compelled him, however, to live abroad, +and he died at Lyons on the 25th of March 1754. He was buried in the +Abbey Church of Holyroodhouse, Edinburgh. He was twice married--"into +families of distinction" says the preface of the authorized edition of +his poems. + +Hamilton left behind him a considerable number of poems, none of them +except "The Braes of Yarrow" of striking originality. The collection is +composed of odes, epitaphs, short pieces of translation, songs, and +occasional verses. The longest is "Contemplation, or the Triumph of +Love" (about 500 lines). The first edition was published without his +permission by Foulis (Glasgow, 1748), and introduced by a preface from +the pen of Adam Smith. Another edition with corrections by himself was +brought out by his friends in 1760, and to this was prefixed a portrait +engraved by Robert Strange. + + In 1850 James Paterson edited _The Poems and Songs of William + Hamilton_. This volume contains several poems till then unpublished, + and gives a life of the author. + + + + +HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM (1730-1803), British diplomatist and +archaeologist, son of Lord Archibald Hamilton, governor of Greenwich +hospital and of Jamaica, was born in Scotland on the 13th of December +1730, and served in the 3rd Regiment of Foot Guards from 1747 to 1758. +He left the army after his marriage with Miss Barlow, a Welsh heiress +from whom he inherited an estate near Swansea upon her death in 1782. +Their only child, a daughter, died in 1775. From 1761 to 1764 he was +member of parliament for Midhurst, but in the latter year he was +appointed envoy to the court of Naples, a post which he held for +thirty-six years--until his recall in 1800. During the greater part of +this time the official duties of the minister were of small importance. +It was enough that the representative of the British crown should be a +man of the world whose means enabled him to entertain on a handsome +scale. Hamilton was admirably qualified for these duties, being an +amiable and accomplished man, who took an intelligent interest in +science and art. In 1766 he became a member of the Royal Society, and +between that year and 1780 he contributed to its Philosophical +Transactions a series of observations on the action of volcanoes, which +he had made, or caused to be made, at Vesuvius and Etna. He employed a +draftsman named Fabris to make studies of the eruption of 1775 and 1776, +and a Dominican, Resina, to make observations at a later period. He +published several treatises on earthquakes and volcanoes between 1776 +and 1783. He was a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries and of the +Dilettanti, and a notable collector. Many of his treasures went to +enrich the British Museum. In 1772 he was made a knight of the Bath. The +last ten years of his life presented a curious contrast to the elegant +peace of those which had preceded them. In 1791 he married Emma Lyon +(see the separate article on Lady Hamilton). The outbreak of the French +Revolution and the rapid extension of the revolutionary movement in +Western Europe soon overwhelmed Naples. It was a misfortune for Sir +William that he was left to meet the very trying political and +diplomatic conditions which arose after 1793. His health had begun to +break down, and he suffered from bilious fevers. Sir William was in fact +in a state approaching dotage before his recall, a fact which, combined +with his senile devotion to Lady Hamilton, has to be considered in +accounting for his extraordinary complaisance in her relations with +Nelson. He died on the 6th of April 1803. + + See E. Edwards, _Lives of the Founders of the British Museum_ (London, + 1870); and the authorities given in the article on Emma, Lady + Hamilton. + + + + +HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM, Bart. (1788-1856), Scottish metaphysician, was +born in Glasgow on the 8th of March 1788. His father, Dr William +Hamilton, had in 1781, on the strong recommendation of the celebrated +William Hunter, been appointed to succeed _his_ father, Dr Thomas +Hamilton, as professor of anatomy in the university of Glasgow; and when +he died in 1790, in his thirty-second year, he had already gained a +great reputation. William Hamilton and a younger brother (afterwards +Captain Thomas Hamilton, q.v.) were thus brought up under the sole care +of their mother. William received his early education in Scotland, +except during two years which he spent in a private school near London, +and went in 1807, as a Snell exhibitioner, to Balliol College, Oxford. +He obtained a first-class _in literis humanioribus_ and took the degree +of B.A. in 1811, M.A. in 1814. He had been intended for the medical +profession, but soon after leaving Oxford he gave up this idea, and in +1813 became a member of the Scottish bar. His life, however, was mainly +that of a student; and the following years, marked by little of outward +incident, were filled by researches of all kinds, through which he daily +added to his stores of learning, while at the same time he was gradually +forming his philosophic system. Investigation enabled him to make good +his claim to represent the ancient family of Hamilton of Preston, and in +1816 he took up the baronetcy, which had been in abeyance since the +death of Sir Robert Hamilton of Preston (1650-1701), well known in his +day as a Covenanting leader. + +Two visits to Germany in 1817 and 1820 led to his taking up the study of +German and later on that of contemporary German philosophy, which was +then almost entirely neglected in the British universities. In 1820 he +was a candidate for the chair of moral philosophy in the university of +Edinburgh, which had fallen vacant on the death of Thomas Brown, +colleague of Dugald Stewart, and the latter's consequent resignation, +but was defeated on political grounds by John Wilson (1785-1854), the +"Christopher North" of _Blackwood's Magazine_. Soon afterwards (1821) he +was appointed professor of civil history, and as such delivered several +courses of lectures on the history of modern Europe and the history of +literature. The salary was L100 a year, derived from a local beer tax, +and was discontinued after a time. No pupils were compelled to attend, +the class dwindled, and Hamilton gave it up when the salary ceased. In +January 1827 he suffered a severe loss in the death of his mother, to +whom he had been a devoted son. In March 1828 he married his cousin +Janet Marshall. + +In 1829 his career of authorship began with the appearance of the +well-known essay on the "Philosophy of the Unconditioned" (a critique of +Comte's _Cours de philosophie_)--the first of a series of articles +contributed by him to the _Edinburgh Review_. He was elected in 1836 to +the Edinburgh chair of logic and metaphysics, and from this time dates +the influence which, during the next twenty years, he exerted over the +thought of the younger generation in Scotland. Much about the same time +he began the preparation of an annotated edition of Reid's works, +intending to annex to it a number of dissertations. Before, however, +this design had been carried out, he was struck (1844) with paralysis of +the right side, which seriously crippled his bodily powers, though it +left his mind wholly unimpaired. The edition of Reid appeared in 1846, +but with only seven of the intended dissertations--the last, too, +unfinished. It was his distinct purpose to complete the work, but this +purpose remained at his death unfulfilled, and all that could be done +afterwards was to print such materials for the remainder, or such notes +on the subjects to be discussed, as were found among his MSS. +Considerably before this time he had formed his theory of logic, the +leading principles of which were indicated in the prospectus of "an +essay on a new analytic of logical forms" prefixed to his edition of +Reid. But the elaboration of the scheme in its details and applications +continued during the next few years to occupy much of his leisure. Out +of this arose a sharp controversy with Augustus de Morgan. The essay did +not appear, but the results of the labour gone through are contained in +the appendices to his _Lectures on Logic_. Another occupation of these +years was the preparation of extensive materials for a publication which +he designed on the personal history, influence and opinions of Luther. +Here he advanced so far as to have planned and partly carried out the +arrangement of the work; but it did not go further, and still remains in +MS. In 1852-1853 appeared the first and second editions of his +_Discussions in Philosophy, Literature and Education_, a reprint, with +large additions, of his contributions to the _Edinburgh Review_. Soon +after, his general health began to fail. Still, however, aided now as +ever by his devoted wife, he persevered in literary labour; and during +1854-1855 he brought out nine volumes of a new edition of Stewart's +works. The only remaining volume was to have contained a memoir of +Stewart, but this he did not live to write. He taught his class for the +last time in the winter of 1855-1856. Shortly after the close of the +session he was taken ill, and on the 6th of May 1856 he died in +Edinburgh. + + Hamilton's positive contribution to the progress of thought is + comparatively slight, and his writings, even where reinforced by the + copious lecture notes taken by his pupils, cannot be said to present a + comprehensive philosophic system. None the less he did considerable + service by stimulating a spirit of criticism in his pupils, by + insisting on the great importance of psychology as opposed to the + older metaphysical method, and not least by his recognition of the + importance of German philosophy, especially that of Kant. By far his + most important work was his "Philosophy of the Unconditioned," the + development of the principle that for the human finite mind there can + be no knowledge of the Infinite. The basis of his whole argument is + the thesis, "To think is to condition." Deeply impressed with Kant's + antithesis between subject and object, the knowing and the known, + Hamilton laid down the principle that every object is known only in + virtue of its relations to other objects (see RELATIVITY OF + KNOWLEDGE). From this it follows limitless time, space, power and so + forth are humanly speaking inconceivable. The fact, however, that all + thought seems to demand the idea of the infinite or absolute provides + a sphere for faith, which is thus the specific faculty of theology. It + is a weakness characteristic of the human mind that it cannot conceive + any phenomenon without a beginning: hence the conception of the causal + relation, according to which every phenomenon has its cause in + preceding phenomena, and its effect in subsequent phenomena. The + causal concept is, therefore, only one of the ordinary necessary forms + of the cognitive consciousness limited, as we have seen, by being + confined to that which is relative or conditioned. As regards the + problem of the nature of objectivity, Hamilton simply accepts the + evidence of consciousness as to the separate existence of the object: + "the root of our nature cannot be a lie." In virtue of this assumption + Hamilton's philosophy becomes a "natural realism." In fact his whole + position is a strange compound of Kant and Reid. Its chief practical + corollary is the denial of philosophy as a method of attaining + absolute knowledge and its relegation to the academic sphere of mental + training. The transition from philosophy to theology, i.e. to the + sphere of faith, is presented by Hamilton under the analogous relation + between the mind and the body. As the mind is to the body, so is the + unconditioned Absolute or God to the world of the conditioned. + Consciousness, itself a conditioned phenomenon, must derive from or + depend on some different thing prior to or behind material phenomena. + Curiously enough, however, Hamilton does not explain how it comes + about that God, who in the terms of the analogy bears to the + conditioned mind the relation which the conditioned mind bears to its + objects, can Himself be unconditioned. He can be regarded only as + related to consciousness, and in so far is, therefore, not absolute or + unconditioned. Thus the very principles of Hamilton's philosophy are + apparently violated in his theological argument. + + Hamilton regarded logic as a purely formal science; it seemed to him + an unscientific mixing together of heterogeneous elements to treat as + parts of the same science the formal and the material conditions of + knowledge. He was quite ready to allow that on this view logic cannot + be used as a means of discovering or guaranteeing facts, even the most + general, and expressly asserted that it has to do, not with the + objective validity, but only with the mutual relations, of judgments. + He further held that induction and deduction are correlative processes + of formal logic, each resting on the necessities of thought and + deriving thence its several laws. The only logical laws which he + recognized were the three axioms of identity, non-contradiction, and + excluded middle, which he regarded as severally phases of one general + condition of the possibility of existence and, therefore, of thought. + The law of reason and consequent he considered not as different, but + merely as expressing metaphysically what these express logically. He + added as a postulate--which in his theory was of importance--"that + logic be allowed to state explicitly what is thought implicitly." + + In logic, Hamilton is known chiefly as the inventor of the doctrine of + the "quantification of the predicate," i.e. that the judgment "All A + is B" should really mean "All A is _all_ B," whereas the ordinary + universal proposition should be stated "All A is _some_ B." This view, + which was supported by Stanley Jevons, is fundamentally at fault since + it implies that the predicate is thought of in its extension; in point + of fact when a judgment is made, e.g. about men, that they are mortal + ("All men are mortal"), the intention is to _attribute a quality_ + (i.e. the predicate is used in connotation). In other words, we are + not considering the question "what kind are men among the various + things which must die?" (as is implied in the form "all men are some + mortals") but "what is the fact about men?" We are not stating a mere + identity (see further, e.g., H. W. B. Joseph, _Introduction to Logic_, + 1906, pp. 198 foll.). + + The philosopher to whom above all others Hamilton professed allegiance + was Aristotle. His works were the object of his profound and constant + study, and supplied in fact the mould in which his whole philosophy + was cast. With the commentators on the Aristotelian writings, ancient, + medieval and modern, he was also familiar; and the scholastic + philosophy he studied with care and appreciation at a time when it had + hardly yet begun to attract attention in his country. His wide reading + enabled him to trace many a doctrine to the writings of forgotten + thinkers; and nothing gave him greater pleasure than to draw forth + such from their obscurity, and to give due acknowledgment, even if it + chanced to be of the prior possession of a view or argument that he + had thought out for himself. Of modern German philosophy he was a + diligent, if not always a sympathetic, student. How profoundly his + thinking was modified by that of Kant is evident from the tenor of his + speculations; nor was this less the case because, on fundamental + points, he came to widely different conclusions. + + Any account of Hamilton would be incomplete which regarded him only as + a philosopher, for his knowledge and his interests embraced all + subjects related to that of the human mind. Physical and mathematical + science had, indeed, no attraction for him; but his study of anatomy + and physiology was minute and experimental. In literature alike + ancient and modern he was widely and deeply read; and, from his + unusual powers of memory, the stores which he had acquired were always + at command. If there was one period with the literature of which he + was more particularly familiar, it was the 16th and 17th centuries. + Here in every department he was at home. He had gathered a vast amount + of its theological lore, had a critical knowledge especially of its + Latin poetry, and was minutely acquainted with the history of the + actors in its varied scenes, not only as narrated in professed + records, but as revealed in the letters, table-talk, and casual + effusions of themselves or their contemporaries (cf. his article on + the _Epistolae obscurorum virorum_, and his pamphlet on the Disruption + of the Church of Scotland in 1843). Among his literary projects were + editions of the works of George Buchanan and Julius Caesar Scaliger. + His general scholarship found expression in his library, which, though + mainly, was far from being exclusively, a philosophical collection. It + now forms a distinct portion of the library of the university of + Glasgow. + + His chief practical interest was in education--an interest which he + manifested alike as a teacher and as a writer, and which had led him + long before he was either to a study of the subject both theoretical + and historical. He thence adopted views as to the ends and methods of + education that, when afterwards carried out or advocated by him, met + with general recognition; but he also expressed in one of his articles + an unfavourable view of the study of mathematics as a mental + gymnastic, which excited much opposition, but which he never saw + reason to alter. As a teacher, he was zealous and successful, and his + writings on university organization and reform had, at the time of + their appearance, a decisive practical effect, and contain much that + is of permanent value. + + His posthumous works are his _Lectures on Metaphysics and Logic_, 4 + vols., edited by H. L. Mansel, Oxford, and John Veitch (_Metaphysics_, + 1858; _Logic_, 1860); and _Additional Notes to Reid's Works_, from + Sir W. Hamilton's MSS., under the editorship of H. L. Mansel, D.D. + (1862). _A Memoir of Sir W. Hamilton_, by Veitch, appeared in 1869. + + + + +HAMILTON, WILLIAM GERARD (1729-1796), English statesman, popularly known +as "Single Speech Hamilton," was born in London on the 28th of January +1729, the son of a Scottish bencher of Lincoln's Inn. He was educated at +Winchester and at Oriel College, Oxford. Inheriting his father's fortune +he entered political life and became M.P. for Petersfield, Hampshire. +His maiden speech, delivered on the 13th of November 1755, during the +debate on the address, which excited Walpole's admiration, is generally +supposed to have been his only effort in the House of Commons. But the +nickname "Single Speech" is undoubtedly misleading, and Hamilton is +known to have spoken with success on other occasions, both in the House +of Commons and in the Irish parliament. In 1756 he was appointed one of +the commissioners for trade and plantations, and in 1761 he became chief +secretary to Lord Halifax, the lord-lieutenant of Ireland, as well as +Irish M. P. for Killebegs and English M. P. for Pontefract. He was +chancellor of the exchequer in Ireland in 1763, and subsequently filled +various other administrative offices. Hamilton was thought very highly +of by Dr Johnson, and it is certain that he was strongly opposed to the +British taxation of America. He died in London on the 16th of July 1796, +and was buried in the chancel vault of St Martin's-in-the-fields. + + Two of his speeches in the Irish House of Commons, and some other + miscellaneous works, were published after his death under the title + _Parliamentary Logick_. + + + + +HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM ROWAN (1805-1865), Scottish mathematician, was +born in Dublin on the 4th of August 1805. His father, Archibald +Hamilton, who was a solicitor, and his uncle, James Hamilton (curate of +Trim), migrated from Scotland in youth. A branch of the Scottish family +to which they belonged had settled in the north of Ireland in the time +of James I., and this fact seems to have given rise to the common +impression that Hamilton was an Irishman. + +His genius first displayed itself in the form of a wonderful power of +acquiring languages. At the age of seven he had already made very +considerable progress in Hebrew, and before he was thirteen he had +acquired, under the care of his uncle, who was an extraordinary +linguist, almost as many languages as he had years of age. Among these, +besides the classical and the modern European languages, were included +Persian, Arabic, Hindustani, Sanskrit and even Malay. But though to the +very end of his life he retained much of the singular learning of his +childhood and youth, often reading Persian and Arabic in the intervals +of sterner pursuits, he had long abandoned them as a study, and employed +them merely as a relaxation. + +His mathematical studies seem to have been undertaken and carried to +their full development without any assistance whatever, and the result +is that his writings belong to no particular "school," unless indeed we +consider them to form, as they are well entitled to do, a school by +themselves. As an arithmetical calculator he was not only wonderfully +expert, but he seems to have occasionally found a positive delight in +working out to an enormous number of places of decimals the result of +some irksome calculation. At the age of twelve he engaged Zerah Colburn, +the American "calculating boy," who was then being exhibited as a +curiosity in Dublin, and he had not always the worst of the encounter. +But, two years before, he had accidentally fallen in with a Latin copy +of _Euclid_, which he eagerly devoured; and at twelve he attacked +Newton's _Arithmetica universalis_. This was his introduction to modern +analysis. He soon commenced to read the _Principia_, and at sixteen he +had mastered a great part of that work, besides some more modern works +on analytical geometry and the differential calculus. + +About this period he was also engaged in preparation for entrance at +Trinity College, Dublin, and had therefore to devote a portion of his +time to classics. In the summer of 1822, in his seventeenth year, he +began a systematic study of Laplace's _Mecanique Celeste_. Nothing +could be better fitted to call forth such mathematical powers as those +of Hamilton; for Laplace's great work, rich to profusion in analytical +processes alike novel and powerful, demands from the most gifted student +careful and often laborious study. It was in the successful effort to +open this treasure-house that Hamilton's mind received its final temper, +"Des-lors il commenca a marcher seul," to use the words of the +biographer of another great mathematician. From that time he appears to +have devoted himself almost wholly to original investigation (so far at +least as regards mathematics), though he ever kept himself well +acquainted with the progress of science both in Britain and abroad. + +Having detected an important defect in one of Laplace's demonstrations, +he was induced by a friend to write out his remarks, that they might be +shown to Dr John Brinkley (1763-1835), afterwards bishop of Cloyne, but +who was then the first royal astronomer for Ireland, and an accomplished +mathematician. Brinkley seems at once to have perceived the vast talents +of young Hamilton, and to have encouraged him in the kindest manner. He +is said to have remarked in 1823 of this lad of eighteen: "This young +man, I do not say _will be_, but _is_, the first mathematician of his +age." + +Hamilton's career at College was perhaps unexampled. Amongst a number of +competitors of more than ordinary merit, he was first in every subject +and at every examination. He achieved the rare distinction of obtaining +an _optime_ for both Greek and for physics. How many more such honours +he might have attained it is impossible to say; but he was expected to +win both the gold medals at the degree examination, had his career as a +student not been cut short by an unprecedented event. This was his +appointment to the Andrews professorship of astronomy in the university +of Dublin, vacated by Dr Brinkley in 1827. The chair was not exactly +offered to him, as has been sometimes asserted, but the electors, having +met and talked over the subject, authorized one of their number, who was +Hamilton's personal friend, to urge him to become a candidate, a step +which his modesty had prevented him from taking. Thus, when barely +twenty-two, he was established at the Observatory, Dunsink, near Dublin. +He was not specially fitted for the post, for although he had a profound +acquaintance with theoretical astronomy, he had paid but little +attention to the regular work of the practical astronomer. And it must +be said that his time was better employed in original investigations +than it would have been had he spent it in observations made even with +the best of instruments,--infinitely better than if he had spent it on +those of the observatory, which, however good originally, were then +totally unfit for the delicate requirements of modern astronomy. Indeed +there can be little doubt that Hamilton was intended by the university +authorities who elected him to the professorship of astronomy to spend +his time as he best could for the advancement of science, without being +tied down to any particular branch. Had he devoted himself to practical +astronomy they would assuredly have furnished him with modern +instruments and an adequate staff of assistants. + +In 1835, being secretary to the meeting of the British Association which +was held that year in Dublin, he was knighted by the lord-lieutenant. +But far higher honours rapidly succeeded, among which we may merely +mention his election in 1837 to the president's chair in the Royal Irish +Academy, and the rare distinction of being made corresponding member of +the academy of St Petersburg. These are the few salient points (other, +of course, than the epochs of his more important discoveries and +inventions presently to be considered) in the uneventful life of this +great man. He retained his wonderful faculties unimpaired to the very +last, and steadily continued till within a day or two of his death, +which occurred on the 2nd of September 1865, the task (his _Elements of +Quaternions_) which had occupied the last six years of his life. + + The germ of his first great discovery was contained in one of those + early papers which in 1823 he communicated to Dr Brinkley, by whom, + under the title of "Caustics," it was presented in 1824 to the Royal + Irish Academy. It was referred as usual to a committee. Their report, + while acknowledging the novelty and value of its contents, and the + great mathematical skill of its author, recommended that, before being + published, it should be still further developed and simplified. During + the next three years the paper grew to an immense bulk, principally by + the additional details which had been inserted at the desire of the + committee. But it also assumed a much more intelligible form, and the + grand features of the new method were now easily to be seen. Hamilton + himself seems not till this period to have fully understood either the + nature or the importance of his discovery, for it is only now that we + find him announcing his intention of applying his method to dynamics. + The paper was finally entitled "Theory of Systems of Rays," and the + first part was printed in 1828 in the _Transactions of the Royal Irish + Academy_. It is understood that the more important contents of the + second and third parts appeared in the three voluminous supplements + (to the first part) which were published in the same _Transactions_, + and in the two papers "On a General Method in Dynamics," which + appeared in the _Philosophical Transactions_ in 1834-1835. The + principle of "Varying Action" is the great feature of these papers; + and it is strange, indeed, that the one particular result of this + theory which, perhaps more than anything else that Hamilton has done, + has rendered his name known beyond the little world of true + philosophers, should have been easily within the reach of Augustin + Fresnel and others for many years before, and in no way required + Hamilton's new conceptions or methods, although it was by them that he + was led to its discovery. This singular result is still known by the + name "conical refraction," which he proposed for it when he first + predicted its existence in the third supplement to his "Systems of + Rays," read in 1832. + + The step from optics to dynamics in the application of the method of + "Varying Action" was made in 1827, and communicated to the Royal + Society, in whose _Philosophical Transactions_ for 1834 and 1835 there + are two papers on the subject. These display, like the "Systems of + Rays," a mastery over symbols and a flow of mathematical language + almost unequalled. But they contain what is far more valuable still, + the greatest addition which dynamical science had received since the + grand strides made by Sir Isaac Newton and Joseph Louis Lagrange. C. + G. J. Jacobi and other mathematicians have developed to a great + extent, and as a question of pure mathematics only, Hamilton's + processes, and have thus made extensive additions to our knowledge of + differential equations. But there can be little doubt that we have as + yet obtained only a mere glimpse of the vast physical results of which + they contain the germ. And though this is of course by far the more + valuable aspect in which any such contribution to science can be + looked at, the other must not be despised. It is characteristic of + most of Hamilton's, as of nearly all great discoveries, that even + their indirect consequences are of high value. + + The other great contribution made by Hamilton to mathematical science, + the invention of Quaternions, is treated under that heading. The + following characteristic extract from a letter shows Hamilton's own + opinion of his mathematical work, and also gives a hint of the devices + which he employed to render written language as expressive as actual + speech. His first great work, _Lectures on Quaternions_ (Dublin, + 1852), is almost painful to read in consequence of the frequent use of + italics and capitals. + + "I hope that it may not be considered as unpardonable vanity or + presumption on my part, if, as my own taste has always led me to feel + a greater interest in _methods_ than in _results_, so it is by + METHODS, rather than by _any_ THEOREMS, which _can_ be separately + _quoted_, that I desire and hope to be remembered. Nevertheless it is + only human nature, to derive _some_ pleasure from being cited, now and + then, even about a 'Theorem'; especially where ... the quoter can + enrich the subject, by combining it with researches of _his own_." + + The discoveries, papers and treatises we have mentioned might well + have formed the whole work of a long and laborious life. But not to + speak of his enormous collection of MS. books, full to overflowing + with new and original matter, which have been handed over to Trinity + College, Dublin, the works we have already called attention to barely + form the greater portion of what he has published. His extraordinary + investigations connected with the solution of algebraic equations of + the fifth degree, and his examination of the results arrived at by N. + H. Abel, G. B. Jerrard, and others in their researches on this + subject, form another grand contribution to science. There is next his + great paper on _Fluctuating Functions_, a subject which, since the + time of J. Fourier, has been of immense and ever increasing value in + physical applications of mathematics. There is also the extremely + ingenious invention of the hodograph. Of his extensive investigations + into the solution (especially by numerical approximation) of certain + classes of differential equations which constantly occur in the + treatment of physical questions, only a few items have been published, + at intervals, in the _Philosophical Magazine_. Besides all this, + Hamilton was a voluminous correspondent. Often a single letter of his + occupied from fifty to a hundred or more closely written pages, all + devoted to the minute consideration of every feature of some + particular problem; for it was one of the peculiar characteristics of + his mind never to be satisfied with a general understanding of a + question; he pursued it until he knew it in all its details. He was + ever courteous and kind in answering applications for assistance in + the study of his works, even when his compliance must have cost him + much time. He was excessively precise and hard to please with + reference to the final polish of his own works for publication; and it + was probably for this reason that he published so little compared with + the extent of his investigations. + + Like most men of great originality, Hamilton generally matured his + ideas before putting pen to paper. "He used to carry on," says his + elder son, William Edwin Hamilton, "long trains of algebraical and + arithmetical calculations in his mind, during which he was unconscious + of the earthly necessity of eating; we used to bring in a 'snack' and + leave it in his study, but a brief nod of recognition of the intrusion + of the chop or cutlet was often the only result, and his thoughts went + on soaring upwards." + + For further details about Hamilton (his poetry and his association + with poets, for instance) the reader is referred to the _Dublin + University Magazine_ (Jan. 1842), the _Gentleman's Magazine_ (Jan. + 1866), and the _Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society_ + (Feb. 1866); and also to an article by the present writer in the + _North British Review_ (Sept. 1866), from which much of the above + sketch has been taken. His works have been collected and published by + R. P. Graves, _Life of Sir W. R. Hamilton_ (3 vols., 1882, 1885, + 1889). (P. G. T.) + + + + +HAMILTON, a town of Dundas and Normanby counties, Victoria, Australia, +on the Grange Burne Creek, 197-1/2 m. by rail W. of Melbourne. Pop. +(1901) 4026. Hamilton has a number of educational institutions, chief +among which are the Hamilton and Western District College, one of the +finest buildings of its kind in Victoria, the Hamilton Academy, and the +Alexandra ladies' college, a state school, and a Catholic college. It +has a fine racecourse, and pastoral and agricultural exhibitions are +held annually, as the surrounding district is mainly devoted to +sheep-farming. Mutton is frozen and exported. Hamilton became a borough +in 1859. + + + + +HAMILTON (GRAND or ASHUANIPI), the chief river of Labrador, Canada. It +rises in the Labrador highlands at an elevation of 1700 ft., its chief +sources being Lakes Attikonak and Ashuanipi, between 65 deg. and 66 deg. +W. and 52 deg. and 53 deg. N. After a precipitous course of 600 m. it +empties into Melville Lake (90 m. long and 18 wide), an extension of +Hamilton inlet, on the Atlantic. About 220 m. from its mouth occur the +Grand Falls of Labrador. Here in a distance of 12 m. the river drops 760 +ft., culminating in a final vertical fall of 316 ft. Below the falls are +violent rapids, and the river sweeps through a deep and narrow canyon. +The country through which it passes is for the most part a wilderness of +barren rock, full of lakes and lacustrine rivers, many of which are its +tributaries. In certain portions of the valley spruce and poplars grow +to a moderate size. From the head of Lake Attikonak a steep and rocky +portage of less than a mile leads to Burnt Lake, which is drained into +the St Lawrence by the Romaine river. + + + + +HAMILTON, one of the chief cities of Canada, capital of Wentworth +county, Ontario. It occupies a highly picturesque situation upon the +shore of a spacious land-locked bay at the western end of Lake Ontario. +It covers the plain stretching between the water-front and the +escarpment (called "The Mountain"), this latter being a continuation of +that over which the Falls of Niagara plunge 40 m. to the west. Founded +about 1778 by one Robert Land, the growth of Hamilton has been steady +and substantial, and, owing to its remarkable industrial development, it +has come to be called "the Birmingham of Canada." This development is +largely due to the use of electrical energy generated by water-power, in +regard to which Hamilton stands first among Canadian cities. The +electricity has not, however, been obtained from Niagara Falls, but from +De Cew Falls, 35 m. S.E. of the city. The entire electrical railway +system, the lighting of the city, and the majority of the factories are +operated by power obtained from this source. The manufacturing interests +of Hamilton are varied, and some of the establishments are of vast size, +employing many thousands of hands each, such as the International +Harvester Co. and the Canadian Westinghouse Co. In addition Hamilton is +the centre of one of the finest fruit-growing districts on the +continent, and its open-air market is a remarkable sight. The municipal +matters are managed by a mayor and board of aldermen. Six steam +railroads and three electric radial roads afford Hamilton ample +facilities for transport by land, while during the season of navigation +a number of steamboat lines supply daily services to Toronto and other +lake ports. Entrance into the broad bay is obtained through a short +canal intersecting Burlington Beach, which is crossed by two swing +bridges, whereof one--that of the Grand Trunk railway--is among the +largest of its kind in the world. Burlington Beach is lined with +cottages occupied by the city residents during the hot summer months. +Hamilton is rich in public institutions. The educational equipment +comprises a normal college, collegiate institute, model school and more +than a score of public schools, for the most part housed in handsome +stone and brick buildings. There are four hospitals, and the asylum for +the insane is the largest in Canada. There is an excellent public +library, and in the same building with it a good art school. Hamilton +boasts of a number of parks, Dundurn Castle Park, containing several +interesting relics of the war of 1812, being the finest, and, as it is +practically within the city limits, it is a great boon to the people. +Gore Park, in the centre of the city, is used for concerts, given by +various bands, one of which has gained an international reputation. +Since its incorporation in 1833 the history of Hamilton has shown +continuous growth. In 1836 the population was 2846; In 1851, 10,248; in +1861, 19,096; in 1871, 26,880; in 1881, 36,661; in 1891, 48,959; and in +1901, 52,634. The Anglican bishop of Niagara has his seat here, and also +a Roman Catholic bishop. Hamilton returns two members to the Provincial +parliament and two to the Dominion. + + + + +HAMILTON, a municipal and police burgh of Lanarkshire, Scotland. Pop. +(1891), 24,859; (1901), 32,775. It is situated about 1 m. from the +junction of the Avon with the Clyde, 10-3/4 m. S.E. of Glasgow by road, +and has stations on the Caledonian and North British railways. The town +hall in the Scottish Baronial style has a clock-tower 130 ft. high, and +the county buildings are in the Grecian style. Among the subjects of +antiquarian interest are Queenzie Neuk, the spot where Queen Mary rested +on her journey to Langside, the old steeple and pillory built in the +reign of Charles I., the Mote Hill, the old Runic cross, and the carved +gateway in the palace park. In the churchyard there is a monument to +four covenanters who suffered at Edinburgh, on the 7th of December 1600, +whose heads were buried here. Among the industries are manufactures of +cotton, lace and embroidered muslins, and carriage-building, and there +are also large market gardens, the district being famed especially for +its apples, and some dairy-farming; but the prosperity of the town +depends chiefly upon the coal and ironstone of the surrounding country, +which is the richest mineral field in Scotland. Hamilton originated in +the 15th century under the protecting influence of the lords of +Hamilton, and became a burgh of barony in 1456 and a royal burgh in +1548. The latter rights were afterwards surrendered and it was made the +chief burgh of the regality and dukedom of Hamilton in 1668, the third +marquess having been created duke in 1643. It unites with Airdrie, +Falkirk, Lanark and Linlithgow to form the Falkirk district of burghs, +which returns one member to parliament. + + Immediately east of the town is Hamilton palace, the seat of the duke + of Hamilton and Brandon, premier peer of Scotland. It occupies most of + the site of the original burgh of Netherton. The first mansion was + erected at the end of the 16th century and rebuilt about 1710, to be + succeeded in 1822-1829 by the present palace, a magnificent building + in the classical style. Its front is a specimen of the enriched + Corinthian architecture, with a projecting pillared portico after the + style of the temple of Jupiter Stator at Rome, 264 ft. in length and + 60 ft. in height. Each of the twelve pillars of the portico is a + single block of stone, quarried at Dalserf, midway between Hamilton + and Lanark, and required thirty horses to draw it to its site. The + interior is richly decorated and once contained the finest collection + of paintings in Scotland, but most of them, together with the Hamilton + and Beckford libraries, were sold in 1882. Within the grounds, which + comprise nearly 1500 acres, is the mausoleum erected by the 10th duke, + a structure resembling in general design that of the emperor Hadrian + at Rome, being a circular building springing from a square basement, + and enclosing a decorated octagonal chapel, the door of which is a + copy in bronze of Ghiberti's gates at Florence. At Barncluith, 1 m. + S.E. of the town, may be seen the Dutch gardens which were laid down + in terraces on the steep banks of the Avon. Their quaint shrubbery and + old-fashioned setting render them attractive. They were planned in + 1583 by John Hamilton, an ancestor of Lord Belhaven, and now belong + to Lord Ruthven. About 2 m. S.E. of Hamilton, within the western High + Park, on the summit of a precipitous rock 200 ft. in height, the foot + of which is washed by the Avon, stand the ruins of Cadzow Castle, the + subject of a spirited ballad by Sir Walter Scott. The castle had been + a royal residence for at least two centuries before Bannockburn + (1314), but immediately after the battle Robert Bruce granted it to + Sir Walter FitzGilbert Hamilton, the son of the founder of the family, + in return for the fealty. Near it is the noble chase with its ancient + oaks, the remains of the Caledonian Forest, where are still preserved + some of the aboriginal breed of wild cattle. Opposite Cadzow Castle, + in the eastern High Park, on the right bank of the Avon, is + Chatelherault, consisting of stables and offices, and imitating in + outline the palace of that name in France. + + + + +HAMILTON, a village of Madison county, New York, U.S.A., about 29 m. +S.W. of Utica. Pop. (1890), 1744; (1900), 1627; (1905) 1522; (1910) +1689. It is served by the New York, Ontario & Western railway. Hamilton +is situated in a productive agricultural region, and has a large trade +in hops; among its manufactures are canned vegetables, lumber and knit +goods. There are several valuable stone quarries in the vicinity. The +village owns and operates its water-supply and electric-lighting system. +Hamilton is the seat of Colgate University, which was founded in 1819, +under the name of the Hamilton Literary and Theological Institution, as +a training school for the Baptist ministry, was chartered as Madison +University in 1846, and was renamed in 1890 in honour of the Colgate +family, several of whom, especially William (1783-1857), the soap +manufacturer, and his sons, James Boorman (1818-1904), and Samuel +(1822-1897), were its liberal benefactors. In 1908-1909 it had a +university faculty of 33 members, 307 students in the college, 60 in the +theological department, and 134 in the preparatory department, and a +library of 54,000 volumes, including the Baptist Historical collection +(about 5000 vols.) given by Samuel Colgate. The township in which the +village is situated and which bears the same name (pop. in 1910, 3825) +was settled about 1790 and was separated from the township of Paris in +1795. The village was incorporated in 1812. + + + + +HAMILTON, a city and the county-seat of Butler county, Ohio, U.S.A., on +both sides of the Great Miami river, 25 m. N. of Cincinnati. Pop. +(1890), 17,565; (1900), 23,914, of whom 2949 were foreign-born; (1910 +census), 35,279. It is served by the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, and +the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railways, and by +interurban electric lines connecting with Cincinnati, Dayton and Toledo. +The valley in which Hamilton is situated is noted for its fertility. The +city has a fine public square and the Lane free library (1866); the +court house is its most prominent public building. A hydraulic canal +provides the city with good water power, and in 1905, in the value of +its factory products ($13,992,574, being 31.3% more than in 1900), +Hamilton ranked tenth among the cities of the state. Its most +distinctive manufactures are paper and wood pulp; more valuable are +foundry and machine shop products; other manufactures are safes, malt +liquors, flour, woollens, Corliss engines, carriages and wagons and +agricultural implements. The municipality owns and operates the +water-works, electric-lighting plant and gas plant. A stockade fort was +built here in 1791 by General Arthur Saint Clair, but it was abandoned +in 1796, two years after the place had been laid out as a town and named +Fairfield. The town was renamed, in honour of Alexander Hamilton, about +1796. In 1803 Hamilton was made the county-seat; in 1810 it was +incorporated as a village; in 1854 it annexed the town of Rossville on +the opposite side of the river; and in 1857 it was made a city. In 1908, +by the annexation of suburbs, the area and the population of Hamilton +were considerably increased. Hamilton was the early home of William Dean +Howells, whose recollections of it are to be found in his _A Boy's +Town_; his father's anti-slavery sentiments made it necessary for him to +sell his printing office, where the son had learned to set type in his +teens, and to remove to Dayton. + + + + +HAMIRPUR, a town and district of British India, in the Allahabad +division of the United Provinces. The town stands on a tongue of land +near the confluence of the Betwa and Jumna, 110 m. N.W. of Allahabad. +Pop. (1901), 6721. It was founded, according to tradition, in the 11th +century by Hamir Deo, a Karchuli Rajput expelled from Alwar by the +Mahommedans. + +The district has an area of 2289 sq. m., and encloses the native states +of Sarila, Jigni and Bihat, besides portions of Charkhari and Garrauli. +Hamirpur forms part of the great plain of Bundelkhand, which stretches +from the banks of the Jumna to the central Vindhyan plateau. The +district is in shape an irregular parallelogram, with a general slope +northward from the low hills on the southern boundary. The scenery is +rendered picturesque by the artificial lakes of Mahoba. These +magnificent reservoirs were constructed by the Chandel rajas before the +Mahommedan conquest, for purposes of irrigation and as sheets of +ornamental water. Many of them enclose craggy islets or peninsulas, +crowned by the ruins of granite temples, exquisitely carved and +decorated. From the base of this hill and lake country the general plain +of the district spreads northward in an arid and treeless level towards +the broken banks of the rivers. Of these the principal are the Betwa and +its tributary the Dhasan, both of which are unnavigable. There is little +waste land, except in the ravines by the river sides. The deep black +soil of Bundelkhand, known as _mar_, retains the moisture under a dried +and rifted surface, and renders the district fertile. The staple produce +is grain of various sorts, the most important being gram. Cotton is also +a valuable crop. Agriculture suffers much from the spread of the _kans_ +grass, a noxious weed which overruns the fields and is found to be +almost ineradicable wherever it has once obtained a footing. Droughts +and famine are unhappily common. The climate is dry and hot, owing to +the absence of shade and the bareness of soil, except in the +neighbourhood of the Mahoba lakes, which cool and moisten the +atmosphere. + +In 1901 the pop. was 458,542, showing a decrease of 11% in the decade, +due to the famine of 1895-1897. Export trade is chiefly in agricultural +produce and cotton cloth. Rath is the principal commercial centre. The +Midland branch of the Great Indian Peninsula railway passes through the +south of the district. + +From the 9th to the 12th century this district was the centre of the +Chandel kingdom, with its capital at Mahoba. The rajas adorned the town +with many splendid edifices, remains of which still exist, besides +constructing the noble artificial lakes already described. At the end of +the 12th century Mahoba fell into the hands of the Mussulmans. In 1680 +the district was conquered by Chhatar Sal, the hero of the Bundelas, who +assigned at his death one-third of his dominions to his ally the peshwa +of the Mahrattas. Until Bundelkhand became British territory in 1803 +there was constant warfare between the Bundela princes and the Mahratta +chieftains. On the outbreak of the Mutiny in 1857, Hamirpur was the +scene of a fierce rebellion, and all the principal towns were plundered +by the surrounding chiefs. After a short period of desultory guerrilla +warfare the rebels were effectually quelled and the work of +reorganization began. The district has since been subject to cycles of +varying agricultural prosperity. + + + + +HAMITIC RACES AND LANGUAGES. The questions involved in a consideration +of Hamitic races and Hamitic languages are independent of one another +and call for separate treatment. + +I. _Hamitic Races._--The term Hamitic as applied to race is not only +extremely vague but has been much abused by anthropological writers. Of +the few who have attempted a precise definition the most prominent is +Sergi,[1] and his classification may be taken as representing one point +of view with regard to this difficult question. + + Sergi considers the Hamites, using the term in the racial sense, as a + branch of his "Mediterranean Race"; and divides them as follows:-- + + 1. _Eastern Branch_-- + (a) Ancient and Modern Egyptian (excluding the Arabs). + (b) Nubians, Beja. + (c) Abyssinians. + (d) Galla, Danakil, Somali. + (e) Masai. + (f) Wahuma or Watusi. + + 2. _Northern Branch_-- + (a) Berbers of the Mediterranean, Atlantic and Sahara. + (b) Tibbu. + (c) Fula. + (d) Guanches (extinct). + + With regard to this classification the following conclusions may be + regarded as comparatively certain: that the members of groups d, e + and f of the first branch appear to be closely inter-connected by + ties of blood, and also the members of the second branch. The + Abyssinians in the south have absorbed a certain amount of Galla + blood, but the majority are Semitic or Semito-Negroid. The question of + the racial affinities of the Ancient Egyptians and the Beja are still + a matter of doubt, and the relation of the two groups to each other is + still controversial. Sergi, it is true, arguing from physical data + believes that a close connexion exists; but the data are so extremely + scanty that the finality of his conclusion may well be doubted. His + "Northern Branch" corresponds with the more satisfactory term "Libyan + Race," represented in fair purity by the Berbers, and, mixed with + Negro elements, by the Fula and Tibbu. This Libyan race is + distinctively a white race, with dark curly hair; the Eastern Hamites + are equally distinctively a brown people with frizzy hair. If, as + Sergi believes, these brown people are themselves a race, and not a + cross between white and black in varying proportions, they are found + in their greatest purity among the Somali and Galla, and mixed with + Bantu blood among the Ba-Hima (Wahuma) and Watussi. The Masai seem to + be as much Nilotic Negro as Hamite. This Galla type does not seem to + appear farther north than the southern portion of Abyssinia, and it is + not unlikely that the Beja are very early Semitic immigrants with an + aboriginal Negroid admixture. It is also possible that they and the + Ancient Egyptians may contain a common element. The Nubians appear + akin to the Egyptians but with a strong Negroid element. + + To return to Sergi's two branches, besides the differences in skin + colour and hair-texture there is also a cultural difference of great + importance. The Eastern Hamites are essentially a pastoral people and + therefore nomadic or semi-nomadic; the Berbers, who, as said above, + are the purest representatives of the Libyans, are agriculturists. The + pastoral habits of the Eastern Hamites are of importance, since they + show the utmost reluctance to abandon them. Even the Ba-Hima and + Watussi, for long settled and partly intermixed with the agricultural + Bantu, regard any pursuit but that of cattle-tending as absolutely + beneath their dignity. + + It would seem therefore that, while sufficient data have not been + collected to decide whether, on the evidence of exact anthropological + measurements, the Libyans are connected racially with the Eastern + Hamites, the testimony derived from broad "descriptive + characteristics" and general culture is against such a connexion. To + regard the Libyans as Hamites solely on the ground that the languages + spoken by the two groups show affinities would be as rash and might be + as false as to aver that the present-day Hungarians are Mongolians + because Magyar is an Asiatic tongue. Regarding the present state of + knowledge it would be safer therefore to restrict the term "Hamites" + to Sergi's first group; and call the second by the name "Libyans." The + difficult question of the origin of the ancient Egyptians is discussed + elsewhere. + + As to the question whether the Hamites in this restricted sense are a + definite race or a blend, no discussion can, in view of the paucity of + evidence, as yet lead to a satisfactory conclusion, but it might be + suggested very tentatively that further researches may possibly + connect them with the Dravidian peoples of India. It is sufficient for + present purposes that the term Hamite, using it as coextensive with + Sergi's Eastern Hamite, has a definite connotation. By the term is + meant a brown people with frizzy hair, of lean and sinewy physique, + with slender but muscular arms and legs, a thin straight or even + aquiline nose with delicate nostrils, thin lips and no trace of + prognathism. (T. A. J.) + +II. _Hamitic Languages._--The whole north of Africa was once inhabited +by tribes of the Caucasian race, speaking languages which are now +generally called, after Genesis x., Hamitic, a term introduced +principally by Friedrich Muller. The linguistic coherence of that race +has been broken up especially by the intrusion of Arabs, whose language +has exercised a powerful influence on all those nations. This splitting +up, and the immense distances over which those tribes were spread, have +made those languages diverge more widely than do the various tongues of +the Indo-European stock, but still their affinity can easily be traced +by the linguist, and is, perhaps, greater than the corresponding +anthropologic similarity between the white Libyan, red Galla and swarthy +Somali. The relationship of these languages to Semitic has long been +noticed, but was at first taken for descent from Semitic (cf. the name +"Syro-Arabian" proposed by Prichard). Now linguists are agreed that the +Proto-Semites and Proto-Hamites once formed a unity, probably in +Arabia. That original unity has been demonstrated especially by +Friedrich Muller (_Reise der osterreichischen Fregatte Novara_, p. 51, +more fully, _Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft_, vol. iii. fasc. 2, p. +226); cf. also A. H. Sayce, _Science of Language_, ii. 178; R. N. Cust, +_The Modern Languages of Africa_, i. 94, &c. The comparative grammars of +Semitic (W. Wright, 1890, and especially H. Zimmern, 1898) demonstrate +this now to everybody by comparative tables of the grammatical elements. + + The classification of Hamitic languages is as follows:[2]-- + + 1. _The Libyan Dialects_ (mostly misnamed "Berber languages," after an + unfortunate, vague Arabic designation, _barabra_, "people of foreign + language"). The representatives of this large group extend from the + Senegal river (where they are called Zenaga; imperfect _Grammaire_ by + L. Faidherbe, 1877) and from Timbuktu (dialect of the Auelimmiden, + sketched by Heinrich Barth, _Travels_, vol. v., 1857) to the oases of + Aujila (Bengazi) and of Siwa on the western border of Egypt. + Consequently, these "dialects" differ more strongly from each other + than, e.g. the Semitic languages do between themselves. The purest + representative seems to be the language of the Algerian mountaineers + (Kabyles), especially that of the Zuawa (Zouaves) tribe, described by + A. Hanoteau, _Essai de grammaire kabyle_ (1858); Ben Sedira, _Cours de + langue kab._ (1887); _Dictionnaire_ by Olivier (1878). The learned + little _Manuel de langue kabyle_, by R. Basset (1887) is an + introduction to the study of the many dialects with full bibliography, + cf. also Basset's _Notes de lexicographie berbere_ (1883 foll.). (The + dictionaries by Brosselard and Venture de Paradis are imperfect.) The + best now described is Shilh(a). a Moroccan dialect (H. Stumme, + _Handbuch des Schilhischen_, 1899), but it is an inferior dialect. + That of Ghat in Tripoli underlies the _Grammar_ of F. W. Newman (1845) + and the _Grammaire Tamashek_ of Hanoteau (1860); cf. also the + _Dictionnaire_ of Cid Kaoui (1900). Neither medieval reports on the + language spoken by the Guanches of the Canary Islands (fullest in A. + Berthelot, _Antiquites canariennes_, 1879; akin to Shilha; by no means + primitive Libyan untouched by Arabic), nor the modern dialect of Siwa + (still little known; tentative grammar by Basset, 1890), have + justified hopes of finding a pure Libyan dialect. Of a few literary + attempts in Arabic letters the religious _Poeme de Cabi_ (ed. Basset, + _Journ. asiatique_, vii. 476) is the most remarkable. The imperfect + native writing (named _tifinaghen_), a derivation from the Sabaean + alphabet (not, as Halevy claimed, from the Punic), still in use among + the Sahara tribes, can be traced to the 2nd century B.C. (bilingual + inscription of Tucca, &c.; cf. J. Halevy, _Essai d'epigraphie + libyque_, 1875), but hardly ever served for literary uses. + + 2. _The Cushitic or Ethiopian Family._--The nearest relative of Libyan + is not Ancient Egyptian but the language of the nomadic Bisharin or + Beja of the Nubian Desert (cf. H. Almkvist, _Die Bischari Sprache_, + 1881 [the northern dialect], and L. Reinisch, _Die Bedauye Sprache_, + 1893, _Worterbuch_, 1895). The speech of the peoples occupying the + lowland east of Abyssinia, the Saho (Reinisch, grammar in _Zeitschrift + d. deutschen morgenland. Gesellschaft_, 32, 1878; _Texte_, 1889; + _Worterbuch_, 1890; cf. also Reinisch, Die Sprache der Irob Saho, + 1878), and the Afar or Danakil (Reinisch, _Die Afar Sprache_, 1887; G. + Colizza, _Lingua Afar_, 1887), merely dialects of one language, form + the connecting link with the southern Hamitic group, i.e. Somali + (Reinisch, _Somali Sprache_, 1900-1903, 3 vols.; Larajasse und de + Sampont, _Practical Grammar of the Somali Language_, 1897; imperfect + sketches by Hunter, 1880, and Schleicher, 1890), and Galla (L. + Tutscheck, _Grammar_, 1845, _Lexicon_, 1844; Massaja, _Lectiones_, + 1877; G. F. F. Praetorius, _Zur Grammatik der Gallasprache_, 1893, + &c.). All these Cushitic languages, extending from Egypt to the + equator, are separated by Reinisch as _Lower Cushitic_ from the _High + Cushitic_ group, i.e. the many dialects spoken by tribes dwelling in + the Abyssinian highlands or south of Abyssinia. Of the original + inhabitants of Abyssinia, called collectively Agau (or Agau) by the + Abyssinians, or Falashas (this name principally for Jewish tribes), + Reinisch considers the Bilin or Bogos tribe as preserving the most + archaic dialect (_Die Bilin Sprache_, Texts, 1883; _Grammatik_, 1882; + _Worterbuch_, 1887); the same scholar gave sketches of the Khamir + (1884) and Quara (1885) dialects. On other dialects, struggling + against the spreading Semitic tongues (Tigre, Amharic, &c.), see Conti + Rossini, "Appunti sulla lingua Khamta," in _Giorn. soc. orient._ + (1905); Waldmeyer, _Wortersammlung_ (1868); J. Halevy, "Essai sur la + langue Agaou" (_Actes soc. philologique_, 1873), &c. Similar dialects + are those of the Sid(d)ama tribes, south of Abyssinia, of which only + Kaf(f)a (Reinisch, _Die Kafa Sprache_, 1888) is known at all fully. Of + the various other dialects (Kullo, Tambaro, &c.), vocabularies only + are known; cf. Borelli, _Ethiopie meridionale_ (1890). (On Hausa see + below.) + + There is no question that the northernmost Hamitic languages have + preserved best the original wealth of inflections which reminds us so + strongly of the formal riches of southern Semitic. Libyan and Beja + are the best-preserved types, and the latter especially may be called + the Sanskrit of Hamitic. The other Cushitic tongues exhibit increasing + agglutinative tendencies the farther we go south, although single + archaisms are found even in Somali. The early isolated High Cushitic + tongues (originally branched off from a stock common with Galla and + Somali) diverge most strongly from the original type. Already the Agau + dialects are full of very peculiar developments; the Hamitic character + of the Sid(d)ama languages can be traced only by lengthy comparisons. + + The simple and pretty Haus(s)a language, the commercial language of + the whole Niger region and beyond (Schoen, _Grammar_, 1862, + _Dictionary_, 1876; Charles H. Robinson, 1897, in Robinson and + Brookes's _Dictionary_) has fairly well preserved its Hamitic grammar, + though its vocabulary was much influenced by the surrounding Negro + languages. It is no relative of Libyan (though it has experienced some + Libyan influences), but comes from the (High ?) Cushitic family; its + exact place in this family remains to be determined. Various languages + of the Niger region _were_ once Hamitic like Haus(s)a, or at least + under some Hamitic influence, but have now lost that character too far + to be classified as Hamitic, e.g. the Muzuk or Musgu language (F. + Muller, 1886). The often-raised question of some (very remote) + relationship between Hamitic and the great Bantu family is still + undecided; more doubtful is that with the interesting Ful (a) language + in the western Sudan, but a relationship with the Nilotic branch of + negro languages is impossible (though a few of these, e.g. Nuba, have + borrowed some words from neighbouring Hamitic peoples). The + development of a grammatical gender, this principal characteristic of + Semito-Hamitic, in Bari and Masai, may be rather accidental than + borrowed; certainly, the same phenomenon in Hottentot does not justify + the attempt often made to classify this with Hamitic. + + 3. _Ancient Egyptian_, as we have seen, does not form the connecting + link between Libyan and Cushitic which its geographical position would + lead us to expect. It represents a third independent branch, or rather + a second one, Libyan and Cushitic forming one division of Hamitic. A + few resemblances with Libyan (M. de Rochemonteix in _Memoires du + congres internat. des orientalistes_, Paris, 1873; elementary) are + less due to original relationship than to the general better + preservation of the northern idioms (see above). Frequent attempts to + detach Egyptian from Hamitic and to attribute it to a Semitic + immigration later than that of the other Hamites cannot be proved. + Egyptian is, in many respects, more remote from Semitic than the + Libyan-Cushitic division, being more agglutinative than the better + types of its sister branch, having lost the most characteristic verbal + flection (the Hamito-Semitic imperfect), forming the nominal plural in + its own peculiar fashion, &c. The advantage of Egyptian, that it is + represented in texts of 3000 B.C., while the sister tongues exist only + in forms 5000 years later, allows us, e.g. to trace the Semitic + principle of triliteral roots more clearly in Egyptian; but still the + latter tongue is hardly more characteristically archaic or nearer + Semitic than Beja or Kabylic. + + All this is said principally of the grammar. Of the vocabulary it must + not be forgotten that none of the Hamitic tongues remained untouched + by Semitic influences after the separation of the Hamites and Semites, + say 4000 or 6000 B.C. Repeated Semitic immigrations and influences + have brought so many layers of loan-words that it is questionable if + any modern Hamitic language has now more than 10% of original Hamitic + words. Which Semitic resemblances are due to original affinity, which + come from pre-Christian immigrations, which from later influences, are + difficult questions not yet faced by science; e.g. the half-Arabic + numerals of Libyan have often been quoted as a proof of primitive + Hamito-Semitic kinship, but they are probably only a gift of some Arab + invasion, prehistoric for us. Arab tribes seem to have repeatedly + swept over the whole area of the Hamites, long before the time of + Mahomet, and to have left deep impressions on races and languages, but + none of these migrations stands in the full light of history (not even + that of the Gee'z tribes of Abyssinia). Egyptian exhibits constant + influences from its Canaanitish neighbours; it is crammed with such + loan-words already in 3000 B.C.; new affluxes can be traced, + especially c. 1600. (The Punic influences on Libyan are, however, very + slight, inferior to the Latin.) Hence the relations of Semitic and + Hamitic still require many investigations in detail, for which the + works of Reinisch and Basset have merely built up a basis. + (W. M. M.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] G. Sergi, _The Mediterranean Race. A Study of the Origin of + European Peoples_ (London, 1901); _idem. Africa, Antropologia della + stirpe camitica_ (Turin, 1897). + + [2] Only works of higher linguistic standing are quoted here; many + vocabularies and imperfect attempts of travellers cannot be + enumerated. + + + + +HAMLET, the hero of Shakespeare's tragedy, a striking figure in +Scandinavian romance. + +The chief authority for the legend of Hamlet is Saxo Grammaticus, who +devotes to it parts of the third and fourth books of his _Historia +Danica_, written at the beginning of the 13th century. It is supposed +that the story of Hamlet, Amleth or Amlothi,[1] was contained in the lost +Skjoldunga saga, but we have no means of determining whether Saxo +derived his information in this case from oral or written sources. The +close parallels between the tale of Hamlet and the English romances of +Havelok, Horn and Bevis of Hampton make it not unlikely that Hamlet is +of British rather than of Scandinavian origin. His name does in fact +occur in the Irish _Annals of the Four Masters_ (ed. O'Donovan, 1851) in +a stanza attributed to the Irish Queen Gormflaith, who laments the death +of her husband, Niall Glundubh, at the hands of Amhlaithe in 919 at the +battle of Ath-Cliath. The slayer of Niall Glundubh is by other +authorities stated to have been Sihtric. Now Sihtric was the father of +that Olaf or Anlaf Cuaran who was the prototype of the English Havelok, +but nowhere else does he receive the nickname of Amhlaithe. If Amhlaithe +may really be identified with Sihtric, who first went to Dublin in 888, +the relations between the tales of Havelok and Hamlet are readily +explicable, since nothing was more likely than that the exploits of +father and son should be confounded (see Havelok). But, whoever the +historic Hamlet may have been, it is quite certain that much was added +that was extraneous to Scandinavian tradition. Later in the 10th century +there is evidence of the existence of an Icelandic saga of Amlothi or +Amleth in a passage from the poet Snaebjorn in the second part of the +prose _Edda_.[2] According to Saxo,[3] Hamlet's history is briefly as +follows. In the days of Rorik, king of Denmark, Gervendill was governor +of Jutland, and was succeeded by his sons Horvendill and Feng. +Horvendill, on his return from a Viking expedition in which he had slain +Koll, king of Norway, married Gerutha, Rorik's daughter, who bore him a +son Amleth. But Feng, out of jealousy, murdered Horvendill, and +persuaded Gerutha to become his wife, on the plea that he had committed +the crime for no other reason than to avenge her of a husband by whom +she had been hated. Amleth, afraid of sharing his father's fate, +pretended to be imbecile, but the suspicion of Feng put him to various +tests which are related in detail. Among other things they sought to +entangle him with a young girl, his foster-sister, but his cunning saved +him. When, however, Amleth slew the eavesdropper hidden, like Polonius, +in his mother's room, and destroyed all trace of the deed, Feng was +assured that the young man's madness was feigned. Accordingly he +despatched him to England in company with two attendants, who bore a +letter enjoining the king of the country to put him to death. Amleth +surmised the purport of their instructions, and secretly altered the +message on their wooden tablets to the effect that the king should put +the attendants to death and give Amleth his daughter in marriage. After +marrying the princess Amleth returned at the end of a year to Denmark. +Of the wealth he had accumulated he took with him only certain hollow +sticks filled with gold. He arrived in time for a funeral feast, held to +celebrate his supposed death. During the feast he plied the courtiers +with wine, and executed his vengeance during their drunken sleep by +fastening down over them the woollen hangings of the hall with pegs he +had sharpened during his feigned madness, and then setting fire to the +palace. Feng he slew with his own sword. After a long harangue to the +people he was proclaimed king. Returning to England for his wife he +found that his father-in-law and Feng had been pledged each to avenge +the other's death. The English king, unwilling personally to carry out +his pledge, sent Amleth as proxy wooer for the hand of a terrible +Scottish queen Hermuthruda, who had put all former wooers to death, but +fell in love with Amleth. On his return to England his first wife, whose +love proved stronger than her resentment, told him of her father's +intended revenge. In the battle which followed Amleth won the day by +setting up the dead men of the day before with stakes, and thus +terrifying the enemy. He then returned with his two wives to Jutland, +where he had to encounter the enmity of Wiglek, Rorik's successor. He +was slain in a battle against Wiglek, and Hermuthruda, although she had +engaged to die with him, married the victor. + +The other Scandinavian versions of the tale are: the _Hrolfssaga +Kraka_,[4] where the brothers Helgi and Hroar take the place of the +hero; the tale of Harald and Halfdan, as related in the 7th book of Saxo +Grammaticus; the modern Icelandic _Ambales Saga_,[5] a romantic tale the +earliest MS. of which dates from the 17th century; and the folk-tale of +Brjam[6] which was put in writing in 1707. Helgi and Hroar, like Harald +and Halfdan, avenge their father's death on their uncle by burning him +in his palace. Harald and Halfdan escape after their father's death by +being brought up, with dogs' names, in a hollow oak, and subsequently by +feigned madness; and in the case of the other brothers there are traces +of a similar motive, since the boys are called by dogs' names. The +methods of Hamlet's madness, as related by Saxo, seem to point to +cynanthropy. In the _Ambales Saga_, which perhaps is collateral to, +rather than derived from, Saxo's version, there are, besides romantic +additions, some traits which point to an earlier version of the tale. + +Saxo Grammaticus was certainly familiar with the Latin historians, and +it is most probable that, recognizing the similarity between the +northern Hamlet legend and the classical tale of Lucius Junius Brutus as +told by Livy, by Valerius Maximus, and by Dionysius of Halicarnassus +(with which he was probably acquainted through a Latin epitome), he +deliberately added circumstances from the classical story. The incident +of the gold-filled sticks could hardly appear fortuitously in both, and +a comparison of the harangues of Amleth (Saxo, Book iv.) and of Brutus +(Dionysius iv. 77) shows marked similarities. In both tales the usurping +uncle is ultimately succeeded by the nephew who has escaped notice +during his youth by a feigned madness. But the parts played by the +personages who in Shakespeare became Ophelia and Polonius, the method of +revenge, and the whole narrative of Amleth's adventure in England, have +no parallels in the Latin story. + +Dr. O. L. Jiriczek[7] first pointed out the striking similarities +existing between the story of Amleth in Saxo and the other northern +versions, and that of Kei Chosro in the _Shahnameh_ (Book of the King) +of the Persian poet Firdausi. The comparison was carried farther by R. +Zenker (_Boeve Amlethus_, pp. 207-268, Berlin and Leipzig, 1904), who +even concluded that the northern saga rested on an earlier version of +Firdausi's story, in which indeed nearly all the individual elements of +the various northern versions are to be found. Further resemblances +exist in the _Ambales Saga_ with the tales of Bellerophon, of Heracles, +and of Servius Tullius. That Oriental tales through Byzantine and +Arabian channels did find their way to the west is well known, and there +is nothing very surprising in their being attached to a local hero. + +The tale of Hamlet's adventures in Britain forms an episode so distinct +that it was at one time referred to a separate hero. The traitorous +letter, the purport of which is changed by Hermuthruda, occurs in the +popular _Dit de l'empereur Constant_,[8] and in Arabian and Indian +tales. Hermuthruda's cruelty to her wooers is common in northern and +German mythology, and close parallels are afforded by Thrytho, the +terrible bride of Offa I., who figures in _Beowulf_, and by Brunhilda in +the _Nibelungenlied_. + +The story of Hamlet was known to the Elizabethans in Francois de +Belleforest's _Histoires tragiques_ (1559), and found its supreme +expression in Shakespeare's tragedy. That as early as 1587 or 1589 +Hamlet had appeared on the English stage is shown by Nash's preface to +Greene's _Menaphon_: "He will afford you whole Hamlets, I should say, +handfulls of tragical speeches." The Shakespearian Hamlet owes, however, +little but the outline of his story to Saxo. In character he is +diametrically opposed to his prototype. Amleth's madness was certainly +altogether feigned; he prepared his vengeance a year beforehand, and +carried it out deliberately and ruthlessly at every point. His riddling +speech has little more than an outward similarity to the words of +Hamlet, who resembles him, however, in his disconcerting penetration +into his enemies' plans. For a discussion of Shakespeare's play and its +immediate sources see SHAKESPEARE. + + See an appendix to Elton's trans. of Saxo Grammaticus; I. Gollancz, + _Hamlet in Iceland_ (London, 1898); H. L. Ward, _Catalogue of + Romances_, under "Havelok," vol. i. pp. 423 seq.; _English Historical + Review_, x. (1895); F. Detter, "Die Hamletsage," _Zeitschr. f. deut. + Alter._ vol. 36 (Berlin, 1892); O. L. Jiriczek, "Die Amlethsage auf + Island," in _Germanistische Abhandlungen_, vol. xii. (Breslau), and + "Hamlet in Iran," in _Zeitschr. des Vereins fur Volkskunde_, x. + (Berlin, 1900); A. Olrik, _Kilderne til Sakses Oldhistorie_ + (Copenhagen, 2 vols., 1892-1894). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The word is used in modern Icelandic metaphorically of an + imbecile or weak-minded person (see Cleasby and Vigfusson, + _Icelandic-English Dictionary_, 1869). + + [2] "'Tis said that far out, off yonder ness, the Nine Maids of the + Island Mill stir amain the host--cruel skerry-quern--they who in ages + past ground Hamlet's meal. The good Chieftain furrows the hull's lair + with his ship's beaked prow." This passage may be compared with some + examples of Hamlet's cryptic sayings quoted by Saxo: "Again, as he + passed along the beach, his companions found the rudder of a ship + which had been wrecked, and said they had discovered a huge knife. + 'This,' said he, 'was the right thing to carve such a huge ham....' + Also, as they passed the sand-hills, and bade him look at the meal, + meaning the sand, he replied that it had been ground small by the + hoary tempests of the ocean." + + [3] Books iii. and iv., chaps. 86-106, Eng. trans. by O. Elton + (London, 1894). + + [4] Printed in Fornaldar Sogur Northtrlanda (vol. i. Copenhagen, + 1829), analysed by F. Detter in _Zeitschr. fur deutsches Altertum_ + (vol. 36, Berlin, 1892). + + [5] Printed with English translation and with other texts germane to + the subject by I. Gollancz (_Hamlet in Iceland_, London, 1898). + + [6] Professor I. Gollancz points out (p. lxix.) that Brjam is a + variation of the Irish Brian, that the relations between Ireland and + the Norsemen were very close, and that, curiously enough, Brian + Boroimhe was the hero of that very battle of Clontarf (1014) where + the device (which occurs in Havelok and Hamlet) of bluffing the enemy + by tying the wounded to stakes to represent active soldiers was used. + + [7] "Hamlet in Iran," in _Zeitschrift des Vereins fur Volkskunde_, x. + (Berlin, 1900). + + [8] See A. B. Gough, _The Constance Saga_ (Berlin, 1902). + + + + +HAMLEY, SIR EDWARD BRUCE (1824-1893), British general and military +writer, youngest son of Vice-Admiral William Hamley, was born on the +27th of April 1824 at Bodmin, Cornwall, and entered the Royal Artillery +in 1843. He was promoted captain in 1850, and in 1851 went to Gibraltar, +where he commenced his literary career by contributing articles to +magazines. He served throughout the Crimean campaign as aide-de-camp to +Sir Richard Dacres, commanding the artillery, taking part in all the +operations with distinction, and becoming successively major and +lieutenant-colonel by brevet. He also received the C.B. and French and +Turkish orders. During the war he contributed to _Blackwood's Magazine_ +an admirable account of the progress of the campaign, which was +afterwards republished. The combination in Hamley of literary and +military ability secured for him in 1859 the professorship of military +history at the new Staff College at Sandhurst, from which in 1866 he +went to the council of military education, returning in 1870 to the +Staff College as commandant. From 1879 to 1881 he was British +commissioner successively for the delimitation of the frontiers of +Turkey and Bulgaria, Turkey in Asia and Russia, and Turkey and Greece, +and was rewarded with the K.C.M.G. Promoted colonel in 1863, he became a +lieutenant-general in 1882, when he commanded the 2nd division of the +expedition to Egypt under Lord Wolseley, and led his troops in the +battle of Tell-el-Kebir, for which he received the K.C.B., the thanks of +parliament, and 2nd class of Osmanieh. Hamley considered that his +services in Egypt had been insufficiently recognized in Lord Wolseley's +despatches, and expressed his indignation freely, but he had no +sufficient ground for supposing that there was any intention to belittle +his services. From 1885 until his death on the 12th of August 1893 he +represented Birkenhead in parliament in the Conservative interest. + + Hamley was a clever and versatile writer. His principal work, _The + Operations of War_, published in 1867, became a text-book of military + instruction. He published some pamphlets on national defence, was a + frequent contributor to magazines, and the author of several novels, + of which perhaps the best known is _Lady Lee's Widowhood_. + + + + +HAMLIN, HANNIBAL (1809-1891), vice-president of the United States +(1861-1865), was born at Paris, Maine, on the 27th of August 1809. After +studying in Hebron Academy, he conducted his father's farm for a time, +became schoolmaster, and later managed a weekly newspaper at Paris. He +then studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1833, and rapidly acquired +a reputation as an able lawyer and a good public speaker. Entering +politics as an anti-slavery Democrat, he was a member of the state +House of Representatives in 1836-1840, serving as its presiding officer +during the last four years. He was a representative in Congress from +1843 to 1847, and was a member of the United States Senate from 1848 to +1856. From the very beginning of his service in Congress he was +prominent as an opponent of the extension of slavery; he was a +conspicuous supporter of the Wilmot Proviso, spoke against the +Compromise Measures of 1850, and in 1856, chiefly because of the passage +in 1854 of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, which repealed the Missouri +Compromise, and his party's endorsement of that repeal at the Cincinnati +Convention two years later, he withdrew from the Democrats and joined +the newly organized Republican party. The Republicans of Maine nominated +him for governor in the same year, and having carried the election by a +large majority he was inaugurated in this office on the 8th of January +1857. In the latter part of February, however, he resigned the +governorship, and was again a member of the Senate from 1857 to January +1861. From 1861 to 1865, during the Civil War, he was Vice-President of +the United States. While in this office he was one of the chief advisers +of President Lincoln, and urged both the Emancipation Proclamation and +the arming of the negroes. After the war he again served in the Senate +(1869-1881), was minister to Spain (1881-1883), and then retired from +public life. He died at Bangor, Maine, on the 4th of July 1891. + + See _Life and Times of Hannibal Hamlin_ (Cambridge, Mass., 1899), by + C. E. Hamlin, his grandson. + + + + +HAMM, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, on the +Lippe, 19 m. by rail N.E. from Dortmund on the main line +Cologne-Hanover. Pop. (1905) 38,430. It is surrounded by pleasant +promenades occupying the site of the former engirdling fortifications. +The principal buildings are four Roman Catholic and three Evangelical +churches, several schools and an infirmary. The town is flourishing and +rapidly increasing, and possesses very extensive wire factories (in +connexion with which there are puddling and rolling works), machine +works, and manufactories of gloves, baskets, leather, starch, chemicals, +varnish, oil and beer. Near the town are some thermal baths. + +Hamm, which became a town about the end of the 12th century, was +originally the capital of the countship of Mark, and was fortified in +1226. It became a member of the Hanseatic League. In 1614 it was +besieged by the Dutch, and it was several times taken and retaken during +the Thirty Years' War. In 1666 it came into the possession of +Brandenburg. In 1761 and 1762 it was bombarded by the French, and in +1763 its fortifications were dismantled. + + + + +HAMMAD AR-RAWIYA [Abu-l-Qasim Hammad ibn Abi Laila Sapur (or ibn +Maisara)] (8th century A.D.), Arabic scholar, was of Dailamite descent, +but was born in Kufa. The date of his birth is given by some as 694, by +others as 714. He was reputed to be the most learned man of his time in +regard to the "days of the Arabs" (i.e. their chief battles), their +stories, poems, genealogies and dialects. He is said to have boasted +that he could recite a hundred long _qasidas_ for each letter of the +alphabet (i.e. rhyming in each letter) and these all from pre-Islamic +times, apart from shorter pieces and later verses. Hence his name +_Hammad ar-Rawiya_, "the reciter of verses from memory." The Omayyad +caliph Walid is said to have tested him, the result being that he +recited 2900 qasidas of pre-Islamic date and Walid gave him 100,000 +dirhems. He was favoured by Yazid II. and his successor Hisham, who +brought him up from Irak to Damascus. Arabian critics, however, say that +in spite of his learning he lacked a true insight into the genius of the +Arabic language, and that he made more than thirty--some say three +hundred--mistakes of pronunciation in reciting the Koran. To him is +ascribed the collecting of the _Mo'allakat_ (q.v.). No diwan of his is +extant, though he composed verse of his own and probably a good deal of +what he ascribed to earlier poets. + + Biography in McG. de Slane's trans. of Ibn Khallikan, vol. i. pp. + 470-474, and many stories are told of him in the _Kitab ul-Aghani_, + vol. v. pp. 164-175. (G. W. T.) + + + + +HAMMER, FRIEDRICH JULIUS (1810-1862), German poet, was born on the 7th +of June 1810 at Dresden. In 1831 he went to Leipzig to study law, but +devoted himself mainly to philosophy and belles lettres. Returning to +Dresden in 1834 a small comedy, _Das seltsame Fruhstuck_, introduced him +to the literary society of the capital, notably to Ludwig Tieck, and +from this time he devoted himself entirely to writing. In 1837 he +returned to Leipzig, and, coming again to Dresden, from 1851 to 1859 +edited the feuilleton of _Sachsische konstitutionelle Zeitung_, and took +the lead in the foundation in 1855 of the Schiller Institute in Dresden. +His marriage in 1851 had made him independent, and he bought a small +property at Pillnitz, on which, soon after his return from a residence +of several years at Nuremberg, he died, on the 23rd of August 1862. + +Hammer wrote, besides several comedies, a drama _Die Bruder_ (1856), a +number of unimportant romances, and the novel _Einkehr und Umkehr_ +(Leipzig, 1856); but his reputation rests upon his epigrammatic and +didactic poems. His _Schau' um dich, und schau' in dich_ (1851), which +made his name, has passed through more than thirty editions. It was +followed by _Zu allen guten Stunden_ (1854), _Fester Grund_ (1857), _Auf +stillen Wegen_ (1859), and _Lerne, liebe, lebe_ (1862). Besides these he +wrote a book of Turkish songs, _Unter dem Halbmond_ (Leipzig, 1860), and +rhymed versions of the psalms (1861), and compiled the popular religious +anthology _Leben und Heimat in Gott_, of which a 14th edition was +published in 1900. + + See C. G. E. Am Ende, _Julius Hammer_ (Nuremberg, 1872). + + + + +HAMMER, an implement consisting of a shaft or handle with head fixed +transversely to it. The head, usually of metal, has one flat face, the +other may be shaped to serve various purposes, e.g. with a claw, a pick, +&c. The implement is used for breaking, beating, driving nails, rivets, +&c., and the word is applied to heavy masses of metal moved by +machinery, and used for similar purposes. (See TOOL.) "Hammer" is a word +common to Teutonic languages. It appears in the same form in German and +Danish, and in Dutch as _hamer_, in Swedish as _hammare_. The ultimate +origin is unknown. It has been connected with the root seen in the Greek +[Greek: kamptein], to bend; the word would mean, therefore, something +crooked or bent. A more illuminating suggestion connects the word with +the Slavonic _kamy_, a stone, cf. Russian _kamen_, and ultimately with +Sanskrit _acman_, a pointed stone, a thunderbolt. The legend of Thor's +hammer, the thunderbolt, and the probability of the primitive hammer +being a stone, adds plausibility to this derivation. The word is applied +to many objects resembling a hammer in shape or function. Thus the +"striker" in a clock, or in a bell, when it is sounded by an independent +lever and not by the swinging of the "tongue," is called a "hammer"; +similarly, in the "action" of a pianoforte the word is used of a wooden +shank with felt-covered head attached to a key, the striking of which +throws the "hammer" against the strings. In the mechanism of a fire-arm, +the "hammer" is that part which by its impact on the cap or primer +explodes the charge. (See GUN.) The hammer, more usually known by its +French name of _martel de fer_, was a medieval hand-weapon. With a long +shaft it was used by infantry, especially when acting against mounted +troops. With a short handle and usually made altogether of metal, it was +also used by horse-soldiers. The _martel_ had one part of the head with +a blunted face, the other pointed, but occasionally both sides were +pointed. There are 16th century examples in which a hand-gun forms the +handle. The name of "hammer," in Latin _malleus_, has been frequently +applied to men, and also to books, with reference to destructive power. +Thus on the tomb of Edward I. in Westminster Abbey is inscribed his name +of _Scotorum Malleus_, the "Hammer of the Scots." The title of "Hammer +of Heretics," _Malleus Haereticorum_, has been given to St Augustine and +to Johann Faber, whose tract against Luther is also known by the name. +Thomas Cromwell was styled _Malleus Monachorum_. The famous text-book of +procedure in cases of witchcraft, published by Sprenger and Kramer in +1489, was called _Hexenhammer_ or _Malleus Maleficarum_ (see +WITCHCRAFT). + +The origin of the word "hammer-cloth," an ornamental cloth covering the +box-seat on a state-coach, has been often explained from the hammer and +other tools carried in the box-seat by the coachman for repairs, &c. The +_New English Dictionary_ points out that while the word occurs as early +as 1465, the use of a box-seat is not known before the 17th century. +Other suggestions are that it is a corruption of "hamper-cloth," or of +"hammock-cloth," which is used in this sense, probably owing to a +mistake. Neither of these supposed corruptions helps very much. Skeat +connects the word with a Dutch word _hemel_, meaning a canopy. In the +name of the bird, the yellow-hammer, the latter part should be "ammer." +This appears in the German name, _Emmerling_, and the word probably +means the "chirper," cf. the Ger. _jammern_, to wail, lament. + + + + +HAMMERBEAM ROOF, in architecture, the name given to a Gothic open timber +roof, of which the finest example is that over Westminster Hall +(1395-1399). In order to give greater height in the centre, the ordinary +tie beam is cut through, and the portions remaining, known as +hammerbeams, are supported by curved braces from the wall; in +Westminster Hall, in order to give greater strength to the framing, a +large arched piece of timber is carried across the hall, rising from the +bottom of the wall piece to the centre of the collar beam, the latter +being also supported by curved braces rising from the end of the +hammerbeam. The span of Westminster Hall is 68 ft. 4 in., and the +opening between the ends of the hammerbeams 25 ft. 6 in. The height from +the paving of the hall to the hammerbeam is 40 ft., and to the underside +of the collar beam 63 ft. 6 in., so that an additional height in the +centre of 23 ft. 6 in. has been gained. Other important examples of +hammerbeam roofs exist over the halls of Hampton Court and Eltham +palaces, and there are numerous examples of smaller dimensions in +churches throughout England and particularly in the eastern counties. +The ends of the hammerbeams are usually decorated with winged angels +holding shields; the curved braces and beams are richly moulded, and the +spandrils in the larger examples filled in with tracery, as in +Westminster Hall. Sometimes, but rarely, the collar beam is similarly +treated, or cut through and supported by additional curved braces, as in +the hall of the Middle Temple, London. + + + + +HAMMERFEST, the most northern town in Europe. Pop. (1900) 2300. It is +situated on an island (Kvalo) off the N.W. coast of Norway, in Finmarken +_amt_ (county), in 70 deg. 40' 11" N., the latitude being that of the +extreme north of Alaska. Its position affords the best illustration of +the warm climatic influence of the north-eastward Atlantic drift, the +mean annual temperature being 36 deg. F. (January 31 deg., July 57 +deg.). Hammerfest is 674 m. by sea N.E. of Trondhjem, and 78 S.W. from +the North Cape. The character of this coast differs from the southern, +the islands being fewer and larger, and of table shape. The narrow +strait Strommen separates Kvalo from the larger Seiland, whose +snow-covered hills with several glaciers rise above 3500 ft., while an +insular rampart of mountains, Soro, protects the strait and harbour from +the open sea. The town is timber-built and modern; and the Protestant +church, town-hall, and schools were all rebuilt after fire in 1890. +There is also a Roman Catholic church. The sun does not set at +Hammerfest from the 13th of May to the 29th of July. This is the busy +season of the townsfolk. Vessels set out to the fisheries, as far as +Spitsbergen and the Kara Sea; and trade is brisk, not only Norwegian and +Danish but British, German and particularly Russian vessels engaging in +it. Cod-liver oil and salted fish are exported with some reindeer-skins, +fox-skins and eiderdown; and coal and salt for curing are imported. In +the spring the great herds of tame reindeer are driven out to swim +Strommen and graze in the summer pastures of Seiland; towards winter +they are called home again. From the 18th of November to the 23rd of +January the sun is not seen, and the enforced quiet of winter prevails. +Electric light was introduced in the town in 1891. On the Fuglenaes or +Birds' Cape, which protects the harbour on the north, there stands a +column with an inscription in Norse and Latin, stating that Hammerfest +was one of the stations of the expedition for the measurement of the +arc of the meridian in 1816-1852. Nor is this its only association with +science; for it was one of the spots chosen by Sir Edward Sabine for his +series of pendulum experiments in 1823. The ascent of the Sadlen or the +Tyven in the neighbourhood is usually undertaken by travellers for the +view of the barren, snow-clad Arctic landscape, the bluff indented +coast, and the vast expanse of the Arctic Ocean. + + + + +HAMMER-KOP, or HAMMERHEAD, an African bird, which has been regarded as a +stork and as a heron, the _Scopus umbretta_ of ornithologists, called +the "Umbre" by T. Pennant, now placed in a separate family _Scopidae_ +between the herons and storks. It was discovered by M. Adanson, the +French traveller, in Senegal about the middle of the 19th century, and +was described by M. J. Brisson in 1760. It has since been found to +inhabit nearly the whole of Africa and Madagascar, and is the +"hammerkop" (hammerhead) of the Cape colonists. Though not larger than a +raven, it builds an enormous nest, some six feet in diameter, with a +flat-topped roof and a small hole for entrance and exit, and placed +either on a tree or a rocky ledge. The bird, of an almost uniform brown +colour, slightly glossed with purple and its tail barred with black, has +a long occipital crest, generally borne horizontally, so as to give rise +to its common name. It is somewhat sluggish by day, but displays much +activity at dusk, when it will go through a series of strange +performances. (A. N.) + + + + +HAMMER-PURGSTALL, JOSEPH, FREIHERR von (1774-1856), Austrian +orientalist, was born at Graz on the 9th of June 1774, the son of Joseph +Johann von Hammer, and received his early education mainly in Vienna. +Entering the diplomatic service in 1796, he was appointed in 1799 to a +position in the Austrian embassy in Constantinople, and in this capacity +he took part in the expedition under Admiral Sir William Sidney Smith +and General Sir John Hely Hutchinson against the French. In 1807 he +returned home from the East, after which he was made a privy councillor, +and, on inheriting in 1835 the estates of the countess Purgstall in +Styria, was given the title of "freiherr." In 1847 he was elected +president of the newly-founded academy, and he died at Vienna on the +23rd of November 1856. + +For fifty years Hammer-Purgstall wrote incessantly on the most diverse +subjects and published numerous texts and translations of Arabic, +Persian and Turkish authors. It was natural that a scholar who traversed +so large a field should lay himself open to the criticism of +specialists, and he was severely handled by Friedrich Christian Diez +(1794-1876), who, in his _Unfug und Betrug_ (1815), devoted to him +nearly 600 pages of abuse. Von Hammer-Purgstall did for Germany the same +work that Sir William Jones (q.v.) did for England and Silvestre de Sacy +for France. He was, like his younger but greater English contemporary, +Edward William Lane, with whom he came into friendly conflict on the +subject of the origin of _The Thousand and One Nights_, an assiduous +worker, and in spite of many faults did more for oriental studies than +most of his critics put together. + + Von Hammer's principal work is his _Geschichte des osmanischen + Reiches_ (10 vols., Pesth, 1827-1835). Another edition of this was + published at Pesth in 1834-1835, and it has been translated into + French by J. J. Hellert (1835-1843). Among his other works are + _Constantinopolis und der Bosporos_ (1822); _Sur les origines russes_ + (St Petersburg, 1825); _Geschichte der osmanischen Dichtkunst_ (1836); + _Geschichte der Goldenen Horde in Kiptschak_ (1840); _Geschichte der + Chane der Krim_ (1856); and an unfinished _Litteraturgeschichte der + Araber_ (1850-1856). His _Geschichte der Assassinen_ (1818) has been + translated into English by O. C. Wood (1835). Texts and + translations--_Eth-Thaalabi_, Arab. and Ger. (1829); _Ibn Wahshiyah, + History of the Mongols_, Arab. and Eng. (1806); _El-Wassaf_, Pers. and + Ger. (1856); _Esch-Schebistani's Rosenflor des Geheimnisses_, Pers. + and Ger. (1838); _Ez-Zamakhsheri, Goldene Halsbander_, Arab. and Germ. + (1835); _El-Ghazzali, Hujjet-el-Islam_, Arab. and Ger. (1838); + _El-Hamawi, Das arab. Hohe Lied der Liebe_, Arab. and Ger. (1854). + Translations of--_El-Mutanebbi's Poems; Er-Resmi's Account of his + Embassy_ (1809); _Contes inedits des 1001 nuits_ (1828). Besides these + and smaller works, von Hammer contributed numerous essays and + criticisms to the _Fundgruben des Orients_, which he edited; to the + _Journal asiatique_; and to many other learned journals; above all to + the _Transactions_ of the "Akademie der Wissenschaften" of Vienna, of + which he was mainly the founder; and he translated Evliya Effendi's + _Travels in Europe_, for the English Oriental Translation Fund. For a + fuller list of his works, which amount in all to nearly 100 volumes, + see _Comptes rendus_ of the Acad. des Inscr. et des Belles-Lettres + (1857). See also Schlottman, _Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall_ (Zurich, + 1857). + + + + +HAMMERSMITH, a western metropolitan borough of London, England, bounded +E. by Kensington and S. by Fulham and the river Thames, and extending N. +and W. to the boundary of the county of London. Pop. (1901) 112,239. The +name appears in the early forms of _Hermodewode_ and _Hamersmith_; the +derivation is probably from the Anglo-Saxon, signifying the place with a +haven (_hythe_). Hammersmith is mentioned with Fulham as a winter camp +of Danish invaders in 879, when they occupied the island of Hame, which +may be identified with Chiswick Eyot. Hammersmith consists of +residential streets of various classes. There are many good houses in +the districts of Brook Green in the south-east, and Ravenscourt Park and +Starch Green in the west. Shepherd's Bush in the east is a populous and +poorer quarter. Boat-building yards, lead-mills, oil mills, +distilleries, coach factories, motor works, and other industrial +establishments are found along the river and elsewhere in the borough. +The main thoroughfares are Uxbridge Road and Goldhawk Road, from Acton +on the west, converging at Shepherd's Bush and continuing towards +Notting Hill; King Street from Chiswick on the south-west, continued as +Hammersmith Broadway and Road to Kensington Road; Bridge Road from +Hammersmith Bridge over the Thames, and Fulham Palace Road from Fulham, +converging at the Broadway. Old Hammersmith Bridge, designed by Tierney +Clark (1824), was the earliest suspension bridge erected near London. +This bridge was found insecure and replaced in 1884-1887. Until 1834 +Hammersmith formed part of Fulham parish. Its church of St Paul was +built as a chapel of ease to Fulham, and consecrated by Laud in 1631. +The existing building dates from 1890. Among the old monuments preserved +is that of Sir Nicholas Crispe (d. 1665), a prominent royalist during +the civil wars and a benefactor of the parish. Schools and religious +houses are numerous. St Paul's school is one of the principal public +schools in England. It was founded in or about 1509 by John Colet, dean +of St Paul's, under the shadow of the cathedral church. But it appears +that Colet actually refounded and reorganized a school which had been +attached to the cathedral of St Paul from very early times; the first +mention of such a school dates from the early part of the 12th century +(see an article in _The Times_, London, July 7, 1909, on the occasion of +the celebration of the quatercentenary of Colet's foundation). The +school was moved to its present site in Hammersmith Road in 1883. The +number of foundation scholars, that is, the number for which Colet's +endowment provided, is 153, according to the number of fishes taken in +the miraculous draught. The total number of pupils is about 600. The +school governors are appointed by the Mercers' Company (by which body +the new site was acquired), and the universities of Oxford, Cambridge +and London. Close to the school is St Paul's preparatory school, and at +Brook Green is a girls' school in connexion with the main school. There +are, besides, the Edward Latymer foundation school for boys (1624), part +of the income of which is devoted to general charitable purposes; the +Godolphin school, founded in the 16th century and remodelled as a +grammar school in 1861; Nazareth House of Little Sisters of the Poor, +the Convent of the Sacred Heart, and other convents. The town hall, the +West London hospital with its post-graduate college, and Wormwood +Scrubbs prison are noteworthy buildings. Other institutions are the +Hammersmith school of art and a Roman Catholic training college. Besides +the picturesque Ravenscourt Park (31 acres) there are extensive +recreation grounds in the north of the borough at Wormwood Scrubbs (193 +acres), and others of lesser extent. An important place of entertainment +is Olympia, near Hammersmith Road and the Addison Road station on the +West London railway, which includes a vast arena under a glass roof; +while at Shepherd's Bush are the extensive grounds and buildings first +occupied by the Franco-British Exhibition of 1908, including a huge +stadium for athletic displays. In the extreme north of the borough is +the Kensal Green Roman Catholic cemetery, in which Cardinal Manning and +many other prominent members of this faith are buried. In the +neighbourhood of the Mall, bordering the river, are the house where +Thomson wrote his poem "The Seasons," and Kelmscott House, the residence +of William Morris. The parliamentary borough of Hammersmith returns one +member. The borough council consists of a mayor, 5 aldermen, and 30 +councillors. Area, 2286.3 acres. + + + + +HAMMER-THROWING, a branch of field athletics which consists of hurling +to the greatest possible distance an instrument with a heavy head and +slender handle called the hammer. Throwing the hammer is in all +probability of Keltic origin, as it has been popular in Ireland and +Scotland for many centuries. The missile was, however, not a hammer, but +the wheel of a chariot attached to a fixed axle, by which it was whirled +round the head and cast for distance. Such a sport was undoubtedly +cultivated in the old Irish games, a large stone being substituted for +the wheel at the beginning of the Christian era. In the Scottish +highlands the missile took the form of a smith's sledgehammer, and in +this form the sport became popular in England in early days. Edward II. +is said to have fostered it, and Henry VIII. is known to have been +proficient. At the beginning of the 19th century two standard hammers +were generally recognized in Scotland, the heavy hammer, weighing about +21 lb., and the light hammer, weighing about 16 lb. These were in +general use until about 1885, although the light hammer gradually +attained popularity at the expense of the heavy. Although originally an +ordinary blacksmith's sledge with a handle about 3 ft. long, the form of +the head was gradually modified until it acquired its present spherical +shape, and the stiff wooden handle gave place to one of flexible +whalebone about 3/8 in. in diameter. The Scottish style of throwing, +which also obtained in America, was to stand on a mark, swing the hammer +round the head several times and hurl it backwards over the shoulder, +the length being measured from the mark made by the falling hammer to +the nearest foot of the thrower, no run or follow being allowed. Such +men as Donald Dinnie, G. Davidson and Kenneth McRae threw the light +hammer over 110 ft., and Dinnie's record was 132 ft. 8 in., made, +however, from a raised mount. Meanwhile the English Amateur Athletic +Association had early fixed the weight of the hammer at 16 lb., but the +length of the handle and the run varied widely, the restrictions being +few. Under these conditions S. S. Brown, of Oxford, made in 1873 a throw +of 120 ft., which was considered extraordinary at the time. In 1875 the +throw was made from a 7-ft. circle without run, head and handle of the +missile weighing together exactly 16 lb. In 1887 the circle was enlarged +to 9 ft., and in 1896 a handle of flexible metal was legalized. The +throw was made after a few rapid revolutions of the body, which added an +impetus that greatly added to the distance attained. It thus happened +that the Scottish competitors at the English games, who clung to their +standing style of throwing, were, although athletes of the very first +class, repeatedly beaten; the result being that the Scottish association +was forced to introduce the English rules. This was also the case in +America, where the throw from the 7-ft. circle, any motions being +allowed within it, was adopted in 1888, and still obtains. The Americans +still further modified the handle, which now consists of steel wire with +two skeleton loops for the hands, the wire being joined to the head by +means of a ball-bearing swivel. Thus the greatest mechanical advantage, +that of having the entire weight of the missile at the end, as well as +the least friction, is obtained. In England the Amateur Athletic +Association in 1908 enacted that "the head and handle may be of any +size, shape and material, provided that the complete implement shall not +be more than 4 ft. and its weight not less than 16 lb. The competitor +may assume any position he chooses, and use either one or both hands. +All throws shall be made from a circle 7 ft. in diameter." The modern +hammer-thrower, if right-handed, begins by placing the head on the +ground at his right side. He then lifts and swings it round his head +with increasing rapidity, his whole body finally revolving with +outstretched arms twice, in some cases three times, as rapidly as +possible, the hammer being released in the desired direction. During the +"spinning," or revolving of the body, the athlete must be constantly, +"ahead of the hammer," i.e. he must be drawing it after him with +continually increased pressure up to the very moment of delivery. The +muscles chiefly called into play are those of the shoulders, back and +loins. The adoption of the hand-loops has given the thrower greater +control over the hammer and has thus rendered the sport much less +dangerous than it once was. + + With a wooden handle the longest throw made in Great Britain from a + 9-ft. circle was that of W. J. M. Barry in 1892, who won the + championship in that year with 133 ft. 3 in. With the flexible handle, + "unlimited run and follow" being permitted, the record was held in + 1909 by M. J. McGrath with 175 ft. 8 in., made in 1907; a Scottish + amateur, T. R. Nicholson, held the British record of 169 ft. 8 in. The + world's record for throw from a 7-ft. circle was 172 ft. 11 in. by J. + Flanagan in 1904 in America; the British record from 9-ft. circle + being also held by Flanagan with a throw of 163 ft. 1 in. made in + 1900. Flanagan's Olympic record (London, 1908) was 170 ft. 4-1/4 in. + + See _Athletics_ in the Badminton library; _Athletes' Guide_ in + Spalding's Athletic library; "Hammer-Throwing" in vol. xx. of + _Outing_. + + + + +HAMMER-TOE, a painful condition in which a toe is rigidly bent and the +salient angle on its upper aspect is constantly irritated by the boot. +It is treated surgically, not as formerly by amputation of the toe, but +the toe is made permanently to lie flat by the simple excision of the +small digital joint. Even in extremely bad cases of hammer-toe the +operation of resection of the head of the metatarsal phalanx is to be +recommended rather than amputation. + + + + +HAMMOCK, a bed or couch slung from each end. The word is said to have +been derived from the hamack tree, the bark of which was used by the +aboriginal natives of Brazil to form the nets, suspended from trees, in +which they slept. The hammock may be of matting, skin or textiles, lined +with cushions or filled with bedding. It is much used in hot climates. + + + + +HAMMOND, HENRY (1605-1660), English divine, was born at Chertsey in +Surrey on the 18th of August 1605. He was educated at Eton and at +Magdalen College, Oxford, becoming demy or scholar in 1619, and fellow +in 1625. He took orders in 1629, and in 1633 in preaching before the +court so won the approval of the earl of Leicester that he presented him +to the living of Penshurst in Kent. In 1643 he was made archdeacon of +Chichester. He was a member of the convocation of 1640, and was +nominated one of the Westminster Assembly of divines. Instead of sitting +at Westminster he took part in the unsuccessful rising at Tunbridge in +favour of King Charles I., and was obliged to flee in disguise to +Oxford, then the royal headquarters. There he spent much of his time in +writing, though he accompanied the king's commissioners to London, and +afterwards to the ineffectual convention at Uxbridge in 1645, where he +disputed with Richard Vines, one of the parliamentary envoys. In his +absence he was appointed canon of Christ Church and public orator of the +university. These dignities he relinquished for a time in order to +attend the king as chaplain during his captivity in the hands of the +parliament. When Charles was deprived of all his loyal attendants at +Christmas 1647, Hammond returned to Oxford and was made subdean of +Christ Church, only, however, to be removed from all his offices by the +parliamentary visitors, who imprisoned him for ten weeks. Afterwards he +was permitted, though still under quasi-confinement, to retire to the +house of Philip Warwick at Clapham in Bedfordshire. In 1650, having +regained his full liberty, Hammond betook himself to the friendly +mansion of Sir John Pakington, at Westwood, in Worcestershire, where he +died on the 25th of April 1660, just on the eve of his preferment to the +see of Worcester. Hammond was held in high esteem even by his opponents. +He was handsome in person and benevolent in disposition. He was an +excellent preacher; Charles I. pronounced him the most natural orator he +had ever heard. His range of reading was extensive, and he was a most +diligent scholar and writer. + + His writings, published in 4 vols. fol. (1674-1684), consist for the + most part of controversial sermons and tracts. The _Anglo-Catholic_ + _Library_ contains four volumes of his _Miscellaneous Theological + Works_ (1847-1850). The best of them are his _Practical Catechism_, + first published in 1644; his _Paraphrase and Annotations on the New + Testament_; and an incomplete work of a similar nature on the Old + Testament. His _Life_, a delightful piece of biography, written by + Bishop Fell, and prefixed to the collected _Works_, has been reprinted + in vol. iv. of Wordsworth's _Ecclesiastical Biography_. See also _Life + of Henry Hammond_, by G. G. Perry. + + + + +HAMMOND, a city of Lake county, Indiana, U.S.A., about 18 m. S.E. of the +business centre of Chicago, on the Grand Calumet river. Pop. (1890), +5428; (1900) 12,376, of whom 3156 were foreign-born; (1910, census) +20,925. It is served by no fewer than eight railways approaching Chicago +from the east, and by several belt lines. As far as its industries are +concerned, it is a part of Chicago, to which fact it owes its rapid +growth and its extensive manufacturing establishments, which include +slaughtering and packing houses, iron and steel works, chemical works, +piano, wagon and carriage factories, printing establishments, flour and +starch mills, glue works, breweries and distilleries. In 1900 Hammond +was the principal slaughtering and meat-packing centre of the state, but +subsequently a large establishment removed from the city, and Hammond's +total factory product (all industries) decreased from $25,070,551 in +1900 to $7,671,203 in 1905; after 1905 there was renewed growth in the +city's manufacturing interests. It has a good water-supply system which +is owned by the city. Hammond was first settled about 1868, was named in +honour of Abram A. Hammond (acting governor of the state in 1860-1861) +and was chartered as a city in 1883. + + + + +HAMON, JEAN LOUIS (1821-1874), French painter, was born at Plouha on the +5th of May 1821. At an early age he was intended for the priesthood, and +placed under the care of the brothers Lamennais, but his strong desire +to become a painter finally triumphed over family opposition, and in +1840 he courageously left Plouha for Paris--his sole resources being a +pension of five hundred francs, granted him for one year only by the +municipality of his native town. At Paris Hamon received valuable +counsels and encouragement from Delaroche and Gleyre, and in 1848 he +made his appearance at the Salon with "Le Tombeau du Christ" (Musee de +Marseille), and a decorative work, "Dessus de Porte." The works which he +exhibited in 1849--"Une Affiche romaine," "L'Egalite au serail," and +"Perroquet jasant avec deux jeunes filles"--obtained no marked success. +Hamon was therefore content to accept a place in the manufactory of +Sevres, but an enamelled casket by his hand having attracted notice at +the London International Exhibition of 1851, he received a medal, and, +reinspired by success, left his post to try his chances again at the +Salon of 1852. "La Comedie humaine," which he then exhibited, turned the +tide of his fortune, and "Ma soeur n'y est pas" (purchased by the +emperor) obtained for its author a third-class medal in 1853. At the +Paris International Exhibition of 1855, when Hamon re-exhibited the +casket of 1851, together with several vases and pictures of which +"L'Amour et son troupeau," "Ce n'est pas moi," and "Une Gardeuse +d'enfants" were the chief, he received a medal of the second class, and +the ribbon of the legion of honour. In the following year he was absent +in the East, but in 1857 he reappeared with "Boutique a quatre sous," +"Papillon enchaine," "Cantharide esclave," "Devideuses," &c., in all ten +pictures; "L'Amour en visite" was contributed to the Salon of 1859, and +"Vierge de Lesbos," "Tutelle," "La Voliere," "L'Escamoteur" and "La +Soeur ainee" were all seen in 1861. Hamon now spent some time in Italy, +chiefly at Capri, whence in 1864 he sent to Paris "L'Aurore" and "Un +Jour de fiancailles." The influence of Italy was also evident in "Les +Muses a Pompei," his sole contribution to the Salon of 1866, a work +which enjoyed great popularity and was re-exhibited at the International +Exhibition of 1867, together with "La Promenade" and six other pictures +of previous years. His last work, "Le Triste Rivage," appeared at the +Salon of 1873. It was painted at St Raphael, where Hamon had finally +settled in a little house on the shores of the Mediterranean, close by +Alphonse Karr's famous garden. In this house he died on the 29th of May +1874. + + + + +HAMPDEN, HENRY BOUVERIE WILLIAM BRAND, 1ST VISCOUNT[1] (1812-1892), +speaker of the House of Commons, was the second son of the 21st Baron +Dacre, and descended from John Hampden, the patriot, in the female line; +the barony of Dacre devolved on him in 1890, after he had been created +Viscount Hampden in 1884. He entered parliament as a Liberal in 1852, +and for some time was chief whip of his party. In 1872 he was elected +speaker, and retained this post till February 1884. It fell to him to +deal with the systematic obstruction of the Irish Nationalist party, and +his speakership is memorable for his action on the 2nd of February 1881 +in refusing further debate on W. E. Forster's Coercion Bill--a step +which led to the formal introduction of the closure into parliamentary +procedure. He died on the 14th of March 1892, being succeeded as 2nd +viscount by his son (b. 1841), who was governor of New South Wales, +1895-1899. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] An earlier viscountcy was bestowed in 1776 on Robert + Hampden-Trevor, 4th Baron Trevor (1706-1783), a great-grandson of the + daughter of John Hampden, the patriot; it became extinct in 1824 by + the death of the 3rd viscount. + + + + +HAMPDEN, JOHN (c. 1595-1643), English statesman, the eldest son of +William Hampden, of Great Hampden in Buckinghamshire, a descendant of a +very ancient family of that place, said to have been established there +before the Conquest, and of Elizabeth, second daughter of Sir Henry +Cromwell, and aunt of Oliver, the future protector, was born about the +year 1595. By his father's death, when he was but a child, he became the +owner of a good estate and a ward of the crown. He was educated at the +grammar school at Thame, and on the 30th of March 1610 became a commoner +of Magdalen College at Oxford. In 1613 he was admitted a student of the +Inner Temple. He first sat in parliament for the borough of Grampound in +1621, representing later Wendover in the first three parliaments of +Charles I., Buckinghamshire in the Short Parliament of 1640, and +Wendover again in the Long Parliament. In the early days of his +parliamentary career he was content to be overshadowed by Eliot, as in +its later days he was content to be overshadowed by Pym and to be +commanded by Essex. Yet it is Hampden, and not Eliot or Pym, who lives +in the popular imagination as the central figure of the English +revolution in its earlier stages. It is Hampden whose statue rather than +that of Eliot or Pym has been selected to take its place in St Stephen's +Hall as the noblest type of the parliamentary opposition, as Falkland's +has been selected as the noblest type of parliamentary royalism. + +Something of Hampden's fame no doubt is owing to the position which he +took up as the opponent of ship-money. But it is hardly possible that +even resistance to ship-money would have so distinguished him but for +the mingled massiveness and modesty of his character, his dislike of all +pretences in himself or others, his brave contempt of danger, and his +charitable readiness to shield others as far as possible from the evil +consequences of their actions. Nor was he wanting in that skill which +enabled him to influence men towards the ends at which he aimed, and +which was spoken of as subtlety by those who disliked his ends. + +During these first parliaments Hampden did not, so far as we know, open +his lips in public debate, but he was increasingly employed in committee +work, for which he seems to have had a special aptitude. In 1626 he took +an active part in the preparation of the charges against Buckingham. In +January 1627 he was bound over to answer at the council board for his +refusal to pay the forced loan. Later in the year he was committed to +the gatehouse, and then sent into confinement in Hampshire, from which +he was liberated just before the meeting of the third parliament of the +reign, in which he once more rendered useful but unobtrusive assistance +to his leaders. + +When the breach came in 1629 Hampden is found in epistolary +correspondence with the imprisoned Eliot, discussing with him the +prospects of the Massachusetts colony,[1] or rendering hospitality and +giving counsel to the patriot's sons now that they were deprived of a +father's personal care. It was not till 1637, however, that his +resistance to the payment of ship-money gained for his name the lustre +which it has never since lost. (See SHIP-MONEY.) Seven out of the twelve +judges sided against him, but the connexion between the rights of +property and the parliamentary system was firmly established in the +popular mind. The tax had been justified, says Clarendon, who expresses +his admiration at Hampden's "rare temper and modesty" at this crisis, +"upon such grounds and reasons as every stander-by was able to swear was +not law" (_Hist._ i. 150, vii. 82). + +In the Short Parliament of 1640 Hampden stood forth amongst the leaders. +He guided the House in the debate on the 4th of May in its opposition to +the grant of twelve subsidies in return for the surrender of ship-money. +Parliament was dissolved the next day, and on the 6th an unsuccessful +search was made among the papers of Hampden and of other chiefs of the +party to discover incriminating correspondence with the Scots. During +the eventful months which followed, when Strafford was striving in vain +to force England, in spite of its visible reluctance, to support the +king in his Scottish war, rumour has much to tell of Hampden's activity +in rousing opposition. It is likely enough that the rumour is in the +main true, but we are not possessed of any satisfactory evidence on the +subject. + +In the Long Parliament, though Hampden was by no means a frequent +speaker, it is possible to trace his course with sufficient +distinctness. His power consisted in his personal influence, and as a +debater rather than as an orator. "He was not a man of many words," says +Clarendon, "and rarely began the discourse or made the first entrance +upon any business that was assumed, but a very weighty speaker, and +after he had heard a full debate and observed how the House was likely +to be inclined, took up the argument and shortly and clearly and +craftily so stated it that he commonly conducted it to the conclusion he +desired; and if he found he could not do that, he never was without the +dexterity to divert the debate to another time, and to prevent the +determining anything in the negative which might prove inconvenient in +the future" (_Hist._ iii. 31). Unwearied in attendance upon committees, +he was in all things ready to second Pym, whom he plainly regarded as +his leader. Hampden was one of the eight managers of Stratford's +prosecution. Like Pym, he was in favour of the more legal and regular +procedure by impeachment rather than by attainder, which at the later +stage was supported by the majority of the Commons; and through his +influence a compromise was effected by which, while an attainder was +subsequently adopted, Strafford's counsel were heard as in the case of +an impeachment, and thus a serious breach between the two Houses, which +threatened to cause the breakdown of the whole proceedings, was averted. + +There was another point on which there was no agreement. A large +minority wished to retain Episcopacy, and to keep the common Prayer Book +unaltered, whilst the majority were at least willing to consider the +question of abolishing the one and modifying the other. On this subject +the parties which ultimately divided the House and the country itself +were fully formed as early as the 8th of February 1641. It is enough to +say that (v. under PYM) Hampden fully shared in the counsels of the +opponents of Episcopacy. It is not that he was a theoretical +Presbyterian, but the bishops had been in his days so fully engaged in +the imposition of obnoxious ceremonies that it was difficult, if not +impossible, to dissociate them from the cause in which they were +embarked. Closely connected with Hampden's distrust of the bishops was +his distrust of monarchy as it then existed. The dispute about the +church therefore soon attained the form of an attack upon monarchy, and, +when the majority of the House of Lords arrayed itself on the side of +Episcopacy and the Prayer Book, of an attack upon the House of Lords as +well. + +No serious importance therefore can be attached to the offers of +advancement made from time to time to Hampden and his friends. Charles +would gladly have given them office if they had been ready to desert +their principles. Every day Hampden's conviction grew stronger that +Charles would never abandon the position which he had taken up. In +August 1640 Hampden was one of the four commissioners who attended +Charles in Scotland, and the king's conduct there, connected with such +events as the "Incident," must have proved to a man far less sagacious +than Hampden that the time for compromise had gone by. He was therefore +a warm supporter of the Grand Remonstrance, and was marked out as one of +the five impeached members whose attempted arrest brought at last the +opposing parties into open collision (see also PYM, STRODE, HOLLES and +LENTHALL). In the angry scene which arose on the proposal to print the +Grand Remonstrance, it was Hampden's personal intervention which +prevented an actual conflict, and it was after the impeachment had been +attempted that Hampden laid down the two conditions under which +resistance to the king became the duty of a good subject. Those +conditions were an attack upon religion and an attack upon the +fundamental laws. There can be no doubt that Hampden fully believed that +both those conditions were fulfilled at the opening of 1642. + +When the Civil War began, Hampden was appointed a member of the +committee for safety, levied a regiment of Buckinghamshire men for the +parliamentary cause, and in his capacity of deputy-lieutenant carried +out the parliamentary militia ordinance in the county. In the earlier +operations of the war he bore himself gallantly and well. He took no +actual part in the battle of Edgehill. His troops in the rear, however, +arrested Rupert's charge at Kineton, and he urged Essex to renew the +attack here, and also after the disaster at Brentford. In 1643 he was +present at the siege and capture of Reading. But it is not on his skill +as a regimental officer that Hampden's fame rests. In war as in peace +his distinction lay in his power of disentangling the essential part +from the non-essential. In the previous constitutional struggle he had +seen that the one thing necessary was to establish the supremacy of the +House of Commons. In the military struggle which followed he saw, as +Cromwell saw afterwards, that the one thing necessary was to beat the +enemy. He protested at once against Essex's hesitations and compromises. +In the formation of the confederacy of the six associated counties, +which was to supply a basis for Cromwell's operations, he took an active +part. His influence was felt alike in parliament and in the field. But +he was not in supreme command, and he had none of that impatience which +often leads able men to fail in the execution of orders of which they +disapprove. His precious life was a sacrifice to his unselfish devotion +to the call of discipline and duty. On the 18th of June 1643, when he +was holding out on Chalgrove Field against the superior numbers of +Rupert till reinforcements arrived, he received two carbine balls in the +shoulder. Leaving the field he reached Thame, survived six days, and +died on the 24th. + +Hampden married (1) in 1619 Elizabeth, daughter of Edmund Symeon of +Pyrton, Oxfordshire, and (2) Letitia, daughter of Sir Francis Knollys +and widow of Sir Thomas Vachell. By his first wife he had nine children, +one of whom, Richard (1631-1695) was chancellor of the exchequer in +William III.'s reign; from two of his daughters are descended the +families of Trevor-Hampden and Hobart-Hampden, the descent in the male +line becoming apparently extinct in 1754 in the person of John Hampden. + +JOHN HAMPDEN the younger (c. 1656-1696), the second son of Richard +Hampden, returned to England after residing for about two years in +France, and joined himself to Lord William Russell and Algernon Sidney +and the party opposed to the arbitrary government of Charles II. With +Russell and Sidney he was arrested in 1683 for alleged complicity in the +Rye House Plot, but more fortunate than his colleagues his life was +spared, although as he was unable to pay the fine of L40,000 which was +imposed upon him he remained in prison. Then in 1685, after the failure +of Monmouth's rising, Hampden was again brought to trial, and on a +charge of high treason was condemned to death. But the sentence was not +carried out, and having paid L6000 he was set at liberty. In the +Convention parliament of 1689 he represented Wendover, but in the +subsequent parliaments he failed to secure a seat. He died by his own +hand on the 12th of December 1696. Hampden wrote numerous pamphlets, and +Bishop Burnet described him as "one of the learnedest gentlemen I ever +knew." + + See S. R. Gardiner's _Hist. of England_ and _of the Great Civil War_; + the article on Hampden in the _Dict. of Nat. Biography_, by C. H. + Firth, with authorities there collected; Clarendon's _Hist. of the + Rebellion_; Sir Philip Warwick's _Mems._ p. 239; Wood's _Ath. Oxon._ + iii. 59; Lord Nugent's _Memorials of John Hampden_ (1831); Macaulay's + _Essay on Hampden_ (1831). The printed pamphlet announcing his capture + of Reading in December 1642 is shown by Mr Firth to be spurious, and + the account in _Mercurius Aulicus_, January 27 and 29, 1643, of + Hampden commanding an attack at Brill, to be also false, while the + published speech supposed to be spoken by Hampden on the 4th of + January 1642, and reproduced by Forster in the _Arrest of the Five + Members_ (1660), has been proved by Gardiner to be a forgery (_Hist. + of England_, x. 135). Mr Firth has also shown in _The Academy_ for + 1889, November 2 and 9, that "the belief that we possess the words of + Hampden's last prayer must be abandoned." + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Hampden was one of the persons to whom the earl of Warwick + granted land in Connecticut, but for the anecdote which relates his + attempted emigration with Cromwell there is no foundation (v. under + JOHN PYM). + + + + +HAMPDEN, RENN DICKSON (1793-1868), English divine, was born in Barbados, +where his father was colonel of militia, in 1793, and was educated at +Oriel College, Oxford. Having taken his B.A. degree with first-class +honours in both classics and mathematics in 1813, he next year obtained +the chancellor's prize for a Latin essay, and shortly afterwards was +elected to a fellowship in his college, Keble, Newman and Arnold being +among his contemporaries. Having left the university in 1816 he held +successively a number of curacies, and in 1827 he published _Essays on +the Philosophical Evidence of Christianity_, followed by a volume of +_Parochial Sermons illustrative of the Importance of the Revelation of +God in Jesus Christ_ (1828). In 1829 he returned to Oxford and was +Bampton lecturer in 1832. Notwithstanding a charge of Arianism now +brought against him by the Tractarian party, he in 1833 passed from a +tutorship at Oriel to the principalship of St Mary's Hall. In 1834 he +was appointed professor of moral philosophy, and despite much university +opposition, Regius professor of divinity in 1836. There resulted a +widespread and violent though ephemeral controversy, after the +subsidence of which he published a _Lecture on Tradition_, which passed +through several editions, and a volume on _The Thirty-nine Articles of +the Church of England_. His nomination by Lord John Russell to the +vacant see of Hereford in December 1847 was again the signal for a +violent and organized opposition; and his consecration in March 1848 +took place in spite of a remonstrance by many of the bishops and the +resistance of Dr John Merewether, the dean of Hereford, who went so far +as to vote against the election when the _conge d'elire_ reached the +chapter. As bishop of Hereford Dr Hampden made no change in his +long-formed habits of studious seclusion, and though he showed no +special ecclesiastical activity or zeal, the diocese certainly prospered +in his charge. Among the more important of his later writings were the +articles on Aristotle, Plato and Socrates, contributed to the eighth +edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, and afterwards reprinted with +additions under the title of _The Fathers of Greek Philosophy_ +(Edinburgh, 1862). In 1866 he had a paralytic seizure, and died in +London on the 23rd of April 1868. + + His daughter, Henrietta Hampden, published _Some Memorials of R. D. + Hampden_ in 1871. + + + + +HAMPDEN-SIDNEY, a village of Prince Edward county, Virginia, U.S.A., +about 70 m. S.W. of Richmond. Pop. about 350. Daily stages connect the +village with Farmville (pop. in 1910, 2971), the county-seat, 6 m. N.E., +which is served by the Norfolk & Western and the Tidewater & Western +railways. Hampden-Sidney is the seat of Hampden-Sidney College, founded +by the presbytery of Hanover county as Hampden-Sidney Academy in 1776, +and named in honour of John Hampden and Algernon Sidney. It was +incorporated as Hampden-Sidney College in 1783. The incorporators +included James Madison, Patrick Henry (who is believed to have drafted +the college charter), Paul Carrington, William Cabell, Sen., and +Nathaniel Venable. The Union Theological School was established in +connexion with the college in 1812, but in 1898 was removed to Richmond, +Virginia. In 1907-1908 the college had 8 instructors, 125 students, and +a library of 11,000 volumes. The college has maintained a high standard +of instruction, and many of its former students have been prominent as +public men, educationalists and preachers. Among them were President +William Henry Harrison, William H. Cabell (1772-1853), president of the +Virginia Court of Appeals; George M. Bibb (1772-1859), secretary of the +treasury (1844-1845) in President Tyler's cabinet; William B. Preston +(1805-1862), secretary of the navy in 1849-1850; William Cabell Rives +and General Sterling Price (1809-1867). + + + + +HAMPSHIRE (or COUNTY OR SOUTHAMPTON, abbreviated Hants), a southern +county of England, bounded N. by Berkshire, E. by Surrey and Sussex, S. +by the English Channel, and W. by Dorsetshire and Wiltshire. The area is +1623.5 sq. m. From the coast of the mainland, which is for the most part +low and irregular, a strait, known in its western part as the Solent, +and in its eastern as Spithead, separates the Isle of Wight. This island +is included in the county. The inlet of Southampton Water opens from +this strait, penetrating inland in a north-westerly direction for 12 m. +The easterly part of the coast forms a large shallow bay containing +Hayling and Portsea Islands, which divide it into Chichester Harbour, +Langston Harbour and Portsmouth Harbour. The westerly part forms the +more regular indentations of Christchurch Bay and part of Poole Bay. In +its general aspect Hampshire presents a beautiful variety of gently +rising hills and fruitful valleys, adorned with numerous mansions and +pleasant villages, and interspersed with extensive tracts of woodland. +Low ranges of hills, included in the system to which the general name of +the Western Downs is given, reach their greatest elevation in the +northern and eastern parts of the county, where there are many +picturesque eminences, of which Beacon, Sidown and Pilot hills near +Highclere in the north-west, each exceeding 850 ft., are the highest. +The portion of the county west of Southampton Water is almost wholly +included in the New Forest, a sequestered district, one of the few +remaining examples of an ancient afforested tract. The river Avon in the +south-west rises in Wiltshire, and passing Fordingbridge and Ringwood +falls into Christchurch Bay below Christchurch, being joined close to +its mouth by the Stour. The Lymington or Boldre river rises in the New +Forest, and after collecting the waters of several brooks falls into the +Solent through Lymington Creek. The Beaulieu in the eastern part of the +forest also enters the Solent by way of a long and picturesque estuary. +The Test rises near Overton in the north, and after its junction with +the Anton at Fullerton passes Stockbridge and Romsey, and enters the +head of Southampton Water. The Itchen rises near Alresford, and flowing +by Winchester and Eastleigh falls into Southampton Water east of +Southampton. The Hamble rises near Bishops Waltham, and soon forms a +narrow estuary opening into Southampton Water. The Wey, the Loddon and +the Blackwater, rising in the north-eastern part of the county, bring +that part into the basin of the Thames. The streams from the chalk hills +run clear and swift, and the trout-fishing in the county is famous. +Salmon are taken in the Avon. + + _Geology._--Somewhat to the north of the centre of the county is a + broad expanse of hilly chalk country about 21 m. wide; the whole of it + has been bent up into a great fold so that the strata on the north dip + northward steeply in places, while those on the south dip in the + opposite direction more gently. In the north the chalk disappears + beneath Tertiary strata of the "London Basin," and some little + distance south of Winchester it runs in a similar manner beneath the + Tertiaries of the "Hampshire Basin." Scattered here and there over the + chalk are small outlying remnants which remain to show that the two + Tertiary areas were once continuous, before the agencies of denudation + had removed them from the chalk. These same agencies have exposed the + strata beneath the chalk over a small area on the eastern border. + + The oldest formation in Hampshire is the Lower Greensand in the + neighbourhood of Woolmer Forest and Petersfield; it is represented by + the Hythe beds, sandstones and limestones which form the high ridge + which runs on towards Hind Head, then by the sands and clays of the + Sandgate beds which lie in the low ground west of the ridge, and + finally by the Folkestone beds; all these dip westward beneath the + Gault. The last-named formation, a clay, worked here and there for + bricks, crops out as a narrow band from Fareham through Worldham and + Stroud common to Petersfield. Between the Gault and the chalk is the + Upper Greensand with a hard bed of calcareous sandstone, the Malm + rock, which stands up in places as a prominent escarpment. The Upper + Greensand is also exposed at Burghclere as an inlier; the rocks are + bent into a sharp anticline and the chalk, having been denuded from + its crest, the older sandy strata are brought to light. A much more + gentle anticline brings up the chalk through the Tertiary rocks in the + neighbourhood of Fareham. Besides occupying the central region already + mentioned, which includes Basingstoke, Whitchurch, Andover, Alresford + and Winchester, the chalk appears also in a small patch round + Rockbourne. The Tertiary rocks of the north (London basin) about + Farnborough, Aldershot and Kingsclere, comprise the Reading beds, + London clay and the more sandy Bagshot beds which cover the latter in + many places, giving rise to heathy commons. The southern Tertiary + rocks of the Hampshire basin include the Lower Eocene Reading + beds--used for brick-making--and the London clay which extend from the + boundary of the chalk by Romsey, Bishop's Waltham, to Havant. These + are succeeded towards the south by the Upper Eocene beds, the + Bracklesham beds and the Barton clay. The Barton clays are noted for + their abundant fossils and the Bagshot beds at Bournemouth contain + numerous remains of subtropical plants. A series of clays and sands of + Oligocene age (unknown in the London basin) are found in the vicinity + of Lymington, Brockenhurst and Beaulieu; they include the Headon beds, + with a fluvio-marine fauna, well exposed at Hordwell cliffs, and the + marine beds of Brockenhurst. Numerous small outliers of Tertiary rocks + are scattered over the chalk area, and many of the chalk and Tertiary + areas are obscured by patches of Pleistocene deposits of brick earth + and gravel. + + _Agriculture and Industries._--Nearly seven-tenths of the total area + is under cultivation (an amount below the average of English counties) + and of this area about two-fifths is in permanent pasture. The acreage + under oats is roughly equal to that under wheat and barley. Small + quantities of rye and hops are cultivated. Barley is usually sown + after turnips, and is more grown in the uplands than in the lower + levels. Beans, pease and potatoes are only grown to a small extent. On + account of the number of sheep pastured on the uplands a large acreage + of turnips is grown. Rotation grasses are grown chiefly in the + uplands, and their acreage is greater than in any other of the + southern counties of England. Sanfoin is the grass most largely grown, + as it is best adapted to land with a calcareous subsoil. In the lower + levels no sanfoin and scarcely any clover is grown, the hay being + supplied from the rich water meadows, which are managed with great + skill and attention, and give the best money return of any lands in + the county. Where a rapid stream of water can be passed over them + during the winter it seldom becomes frozen, and the grasses grow + during the cold weather so as to be fit for pasture before any traces + of vegetation appear in the surrounding fields. Hops are grown in the + eastern part of the county bordering on Surrey. Farming is generally + conducted on the best modern principles, but owing to the varieties of + soil there is perhaps no county in England in which the rotation + observed is more diversified, or the processes and methods more + varied. Most of the farms are large, and there are a number of model + farms. The waste land has been mostly brought under tillage, but a + very large acreage of the ancient forests is still occupied by wood. + In addition to the New Forest there are in the east Woolmer Forest and + Alice Holt, in the south-east the Forest of Bere and Waltham Chase, + and in the Isle of Wight Parkhurst Forest. The honey of the county is + especially celebrated. Much attention is paid to the rearing of sheep + and cattle. The original breed of sheep was white-faced with horns, + but most of the flocks are now of a Southdown variety which have + acquired certain distinct peculiarities, and are known as "short + wools" or "Hampshire downs." Cattle are of no distinctive breed, and + are kept largely for dairy purposes, especially for the supply of + milk. The breeding and rearing of horses is widely practised, and the + fattening of pigs has long been an important industry. The original + breed of pigs is crossed with Berkshire, Essex and Chinese pigs. In + the vicinity of the forest the pigs are fed on acorns and beechmast, + and the flesh of those so reared is considered the best, though the + reputation of Hampshire bacon depends chiefly on the skilful manner in + which it is cured. + + The manufactures are unimportant, except those carried on at + Portsmouth and Gosport in connexion with the royal navy. Southampton + is one of the principal ports in the kingdom. In many of the towns + there are breweries and tanneries, and paper is manufactured at + several places. Fancy pottery and terra-cotta are made at Fareham and + Bishop's Waltham; and Ringwood is celebrated for its knitted gloves. + At most of the coast towns fishing is carried on, and there are oyster + beds at Hayling Island. Cowes in the Isle of Wight is the station of + the Royal Yacht Squadron, and has building yards for yachts and large + vessels. The principal seaside resorts besides those in the Isle of + Wight are Bournemouth, Milford, Lee-on-the-Solent, Southsea and South + Hayling. Aldershot is the principal military training centre in the + British Isles. + + _Communications._--Communications are provided mainly by the lines of + the London & South-Western railway company, which also owns the docks + at Southampton. The main line serves Farnborough, Basingstoke, + Whitchurch and Andover, and a branch diverges southward from + Basingstoke for Winchester, Southampton and the New Forest and + Bournemouth. An alternative line from eastward to Winchester serves + Aldershot, Alton and Alresford. The main Portsmouth line skirts the + south-eastern border by Petersfield to Havant, where it joins the + Portsmouth line of the London, Brighton & South Coast railway. The + South-Western system also connects Portsmouth and Gosport with + Southampton, has numerous branches in the Southampton and + south-western districts, and large work shops at Eastleigh near + Southampton. The Great Western company serves Basingstoke from Reading + and Whitchurch, Winchester and Southampton from Didcot (working the + Didcot, Newbury & Southampton line); the Midland & South-Western + Junction line connects Andover with Cheltenham; and the Somerset & + Dorset (also a Midland & South-Western joint line) connects + Bournemouth with Bath--all these affording through communications + between Southampton, Bournemouth, and the midlands and north of + England. None of the rivers, except in the estuarine parts, is + navigable. + + _Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient county is + 1,039,031 acres, including the Isle of Wight. The population was + 690,097 in 1891 and 797,634 in 1901. The area of the administrative + county of Southampton is 958,742 acres, and that of the administrative + county of the Isle of Wight 94,068 acres. The county is divided for + parliamentary purposes into the following divisions: Northern or + Basingstoke, Western or Andover, Eastern or Petersfield, Southern or + Fareham, New Forest, and Isle of Wight, each returning one member. It + also includes the parliamentary boroughs of Portsmouth and + Southampton, each returning two members, and of Christchurch and + Winchester, each returning one. There are 11 municipal boroughs: + Andover (pop. 6509), Basingstoke (9793), Bournemouth (59,762), + Christchurch (4204), Lymington (4165), Portsmouth (188,133), Romsey + (4365), Southampton (104,824), Winchester (20,929), and in the Isle of + Wight, Newport (10,911) and Ryde (11,043). Bournemouth, Portsmouth and + Southampton are county boroughs. The following are urban districts: + Aldershot (30,974), Alton (5479), Eastleigh and Bishopstoke (9317), + Fareham (8246), Farnborough (11,500), Gosport and Alverstoke (28,884), + Havant (3837), Itchen (13,097), Petersfield (3265), Warblington + (3639); and in the Isle of Wight, Cowes (8652), East Cowes (3196), St + Helen's (4652), Sandown (5006), Shanklin (4533), Ventnor (5866). The + county is in the western circuit, and assizes are held at Winchester. + It has one court of quarter sessions, and is divided into 14 petty + sessional divisions. The boroughs of Andover, Basingstoke, + Bournemouth, Lymington, Newport, Portsmouth, Romsey, Ryde, Southampton + (a county in itself) and Winchester have separate commissions of the + peace, and the boroughs of Andover, Bournemouth, Portsmouth, + Southampton and Winchester have in addition separate courts of quarter + sessions. There are 394 civil parishes. Hampshire is in the diocese of + Winchester, excepting small parts in those of Oxford and Salisbury, + and contains 411 ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly or in + part. + +_History._--The earliest English settlers in the district which is now +Hampshire were a Jutish tribe who occupied the northern parts of the +Isle of Wight and the valleys of the Meon and the Hamble. Their +settlements were, however, unimportant, and soon became absorbed in the +territory of the West Saxons who in 495 landed at the mouth of the +Itchen under the leadership of Cerdic and Cynric, and in 508 slew 5000 +Britons and their king. But it was not until after another decisive +victory at Charford in 519 that the district was definitely organized as +West Saxon territory under the rule of Cerdic and Cynric, thus becoming +the nucleus of the vast later kingdom of Wessex. The Isle of Wight was +subjugated in 530 and bestowed on Stuf and Wihtgar, the nephews of +Cerdic. The Northmen made their first attack on the Hampshire coast in +835, and for the two centuries following the district was the scene of +perpetual devastations by the Danish pirates, who made their +headquarters in the Isle of Wight, from which they plundered the +opposite coast. Hampshire suffered less from the Conquest than almost +any English county, and was a favourite resort of the Norman kings. The +alleged destruction of property for the formation of the New Forest is +refuted by the Domesday record, which shows that this district had never +been under cultivation. + +In the civil war of Stephen's reign Baldwin de Redvers, lord of the Isle +of Wight, supported the empress Matilda, and Winchester Castle was +secured in her behalf by Robert of Gloucester, while the neighbouring +fortress of Wolvesey was held for Stephen by Bishop Henry de Blois. In +1216 Louis of France, having arrived in the county by invitation of the +barons, occupied Winchester Castle, and only met with resistance at +Odiham Castle, which made a brave stand against him for fifteen days. +During the Wars of the Roses Anthony Woodville, 2nd earl Rivers, +defeated the duke of Clarence at Southampton, and in 1471, after the +battle of Barnet, the countess of Warwick took sanctuary at Beaulieu +Abbey. The chief events connected with Hampshire in the Civil War of the +17th century were the gallant resistance of the cavalier garrisons at +Winchester and Basing House; a skirmish near Cheriton in 1644 notable as +the last battle fought on Hampshire soil; and the concealment of Charles +at Titchfield in 1647 before his removal to Carisbrooke. The duke of +Monmouth, whose rebellion met with considerable support in Hampshire, +was captured in 1685 near Ringwood. + +Hampshire was among the earliest shires to be created, and must have +received its name before the revival of Winchester in the latter half of +the 7th century. It is first mentioned in the Saxon chronicle in 755, at +which date the boundaries were practically those of the present day. The +Domesday Survey mentions 44 hundreds in Hampshire, but by the 14th +century the number had been reduced to 37. The hundreds of East Medina +and West Medina in the Isle of Wight are mentioned in 1316. Constables +of the hundreds were first appointed by the Statute of Winchester in +1285, and the hundred court continued to elect a high constable for +Fordingbridge until 1878. The chief court of the Isle of Wight was the +Knighten court held at Newport every three weeks. The sheriff's court +and the assizes and quarter sessions for the county were formerly held +at Winchester, but in 1831 the county was divided into 14 petty +sessional divisions; the quarter sessions for the county were held at +Andover; and Portsmouth, Southampton and Winchester had separate +jurisdiction. Southampton was made a county by itself with a separate +sheriff in 1447. + +In the middle of the 7th century Hampshire formed part of the West Saxon +bishopric of Dorchester-on-Thames. On the transference of the episcopal +seat to Winchester in 676 it was included in that diocese in which it +has remained ever since. In 1291 the archdeaconry of Winchester was +coextensive with the county and comprised the ten rural deaneries of +Alresford, Alton, Andover, Basingstoke, Drokinsford, Fordingbridge, Isle +of Wight, Sombourne, Southampton and Winchester. In 1850 the Isle of +Wight was subdivided into the deaneries of East Medina and West Medina. +In 1856 the deaneries were increased to 24. In 1871 the archdeaconry of +the Isle of Wight was constituted, and about the same time the deaneries +were reduced to 21. In 1892 the deaneries were reconstituted and made 18 +in number, and the archdeaconry of the Isle of Wight was divided into +the deaneries of East Wight and West Wight. + +After the Conquest the most powerful Hampshire baron was William +Fitz-Osbern, who in addition to the lordship of the Isle of Wight held +considerable estates on the mainland. At the time of the Domesday Survey +the chief landholders were Hugh de Port, ancestor of the Fitz-Johns; +Ralf de Mortimer; William Mauduit whose name is preserved in Hartley +Mauditt; and Waleran, called the Huntsman, ancestor of the Waleraund +family. Hursley near Winchester was the seat of Richard Cromwell; and +Gilbert White, the naturalist, was curate of Farringdon near Selborne. + +Apart from the valuable foreign and shipbuilding trade which grew up +with the development of its ports, Hampshire has always been mainly an +agricultural county, the only important manufacture being that of wool +and cloth, which prospered at Winchester in the 12th century and +survived till within recent years. Salt-making and the manufacture of +iron from native ironstone also flourished in Hampshire from pre-Norman +times until within the 19th century. In the 14th century Southampton had +a valuable trade with Venice, and from the 15th to the 18th century many +famous warships were constructed in its docks. Silk-weaving was formerly +carried on at Winchester, Andover, Odiham, Alton, Whitchurch and +Overton, the first mills being set up in 1684 at Southampton by French +refugees. The paper manufacture at Laverstoke was started by the +Portals, a family of Huguenot refugees, in 1685, and a few years later +Henri de Portal obtained the privilege of supplying the bank-note paper +to the Bank of England. + +Hampshire returned four members to parliament in 1295, when the boroughs +of New Alresford, Alton, Andover, Basingstoke, Overton, Portsmouth, +Southampton, Winchester, Yarmouth and Newport were also represented. +After this date the county was represented by two members, but most of +the boroughs ceased to make returns. Odiham and the Isle of Wight were +represented in 1300, Fareham in 1306, and Petersfield in 1307. From 1311 +to 1547 Southampton, Portsmouth, and Winchester were the only boroughs +represented. By the end of the 16th century Petersfield, Newport, +Yarmouth, and Andover had regained representation, and Stockbridge, +Christchurch, Lymington, Newtown and Whitchurch returned two members +each, giving the county with its boroughs a total representation of 26 +members. Under the Reform Act of 1832 the county returned four members +in four divisions; Christchurch and Petersfield lost one member each; +and Newtown, Yarmouth, Stockbridge and Whitchurch were disfranchised. By +the act of 1868 Andover, Lymington and Newport were deprived of one +member each. + +_Antiquities._--Hampshire is rich in monastic remains. Those considered +under separate headings include the monastery of Hyde near Winchester, +the magnificent churches at Christchurch and Romsey, the ruins of Netley +Abbey, and of Beaulieu Abbey in the New Forest, the fragments of the +priory of St Denys, Southampton, the church at Porchester and the slight +ruins at Titchfield, near Fareham, and Quarr Abbey in the Isle of Wight. +Other foundations, of which the remains are slight, were the Augustinian +priory of Southwick near Fareham, founded by William of Wykeham; that of +Breamore, founded by Baldwin de Redvers, and that of Mottisfont near +Romsey, endowed soon after the Conquest. There are many churches of +interest, apart from the cathedral church of Winchester and those in +some of the towns in the Isle of Wight, or already mentioned in +connexion with monastic foundations. Pre-Conquest work is well shown in +the churches of Corhampton and Breamore, and very early masonry is also +found in Headbourne Worthy church, where is also a brass of the 15th +century to a scholar of Winchester College in collegiate dress. The most +noteworthy Norman churches are at Chilcombe and Kingsclere and (with +Early English additions) at Brockenhurst, Upper Clatford, which has the +unusual arrangement of a double chancel arch, Hambledon, Milford and +East Meon. Principally Early English are the churches of Cheriton, +Grately, which retains some excellent contemporary stained glass from +Salisbury cathedral; Sopley, which is partly Perpendicular; and +Thruxton, which contains a brass to Sir John Lisle (d. 1407), affording +a very early example of complete plate armour. Specimens of the later +styles are generally less remarkable. The frescoes in Bramley church, +ranging in date from the 13th to the 15th century, include a +representation of the murder of Thomas a Beckett. A fine series of +Norman fonts in black marble should be mentioned; they occur in +Winchester cathedral and the churches of St Michael, Southampton, East +Meon and St Mary Bourne. + +The most notable old castles are Carisbrooke in the Isle of Wight; +Porchester, a fine Norman stronghold embodying Roman remains, on +Portsmouth Harbour; and Hurst, guarding the mouth of the Solent, where +for a short time Charles I. was imprisoned. Henry VIII. built several +forts to guard the Solent, Spithead and Southampton Water; Hurst Castle +was one, and others remaining, but adapted to various purposes, are at +Cowes, Calshot and Netley. Fine mansions are unusually numerous. That of +Stratfieldsaye or Strathfieldsaye, which belonged to the Pitt family, +was purchased by parliament for presentation to the duke of Wellington +in 1817, his descendants holding the estate from the Crown in +consideration of the annual tribute of a flag to the guard-room at +Windsor. A statue of the duke stands in the grounds, and his war-horse +"Copenhagen" is buried here. The name of Tichborne Park, near Alresford, +is well known in connexion with the famous claimant of the estates whose +case was heard in 1871. Among ancient mansions the Jacobean Bramshill is +conspicuous, lying near Stratfieldsaye in the north of the county. It is +built of stone and is highly decorated, and though the complete original +design was not carried out the house is among the finest of its type in +England. At Bishops Waltham, a small town 10 m. S.S.E. of Winchester, +Henry de Blois, bishop of Winchester, erected a palace, which received +additions from William of Wykeham, who died here in 1404, and from other +bishops. The ruins are picturesque but not extensive. + + See _Victoria County History_, "Hampshire," R. Warner, _Collections + for the History of Hampshire_; &c. (London, 1789); H. Moody, + _Hampshire in 1086_ (1862), and the same author's _Antiquarian and + Topographical Sketches_ (1846), and _Notes and Essays relating to the + Counties of Hants and Wilts_ (1851); R. Mudie, _Hampshire_, &c. (3 + vols., Winchester, 1838); B. B. Woodward, T. C. Wilks and C. Lockhart, + _General History of Hampshire_ (1861-1869); G. N. Godwin, _The Civil + War in Hampshire, 1642-1645_ (London, 1882); H. M. Gilbert and G. N. + Godwin, _Bibliotheca Hantoniensis_ (Southampton, 1891). See also + various papers in _Hampshire Notes and Queries_ (Winchester, 1883 et + seq.). + + + + +HAMPSTEAD, a north-western metropolitan borough of London, England, +bounded E. by St Pancras and S. by St Marylebone, and extending N. and +W. to the boundary of the county of London. Pop. (1901), 81,942. The +name, _Hamstede_, is synonymous with "homestead," and the manor is first +named in a charter of Edgar (957-975), and was granted to the abbey of +Westminster by Ethelred in 986. It reverted to the Crown in 1550, and +had various owners until the close of the 18th century, when it came to +Sir Thomas Spencer Wilson, whose descendants retain it. The borough +includes the sub-manor of Belsize and part of the hamlet of Kilburn. + +The surface of the ground is sharply undulating, an elevated spur +extending south-west from the neighbourhood of Highgate, and turning +south through Hampstead. It reaches a height of 443 ft. above the level +of the Thames. The Edgware Road bounds Hampstead on the west; and the +borough is intersected, parallel to this thoroughfare, by Finchley Road, +and by Haverstock Hill, which, continued under the names of Rosslyn +Hill, High Street, Heath Street, and North End, crosses the Heath for +which Hampstead is chiefly celebrated. This is a fine open space of +about 240 acres, including in its bounds the summit of Hampstead Hill. +It is a sandy tract, in parts well wooded, diversified with several +small sheets of water, and to a great extent preserves its natural +characteristics unaltered. Beautiful views, both near and distant, are +commanded from many points. Of all the public grounds within London this +is the most valuable to the populace at large; the number of visitors on +a Bank holiday in August is generally, under favourable conditions, +about 100,000; and strenuous efforts are always forthcoming from either +public or private bodies when the integrity of the Heath is in any way +menaced. As early as 1829 attempts to save it from the builder are +recorded. In 1871 its preservation as an open space was insured after +several years' dispute, when the lord of the manor gave up his rights. +An act of parliament transferred the ownership to the Metropolitan Board +of Works, to which body the London County Council succeeded. The Heath +is continued eastward in Parliament Hill (borough of St Pancras), +acquired for the public in 1890; and westward outside the county +boundary in Golders Hill, owned by Sir Spenser Wells, Bart., until 1898. +A Protection Society guards the preservation of the natural beauty and +interests of the Heath. It is not the interests of visitors alone that +must be consulted, for Hampstead, adding to its other attractions a +singularly healthy climate, has long been a favourite residential +quarter, especially for lawyers, artists and men of letters. Among +famous residents are found the first earl of Chatham, John Constable, +George Romney, George du Maurier, Joseph Butler, author of the +_Analogy_, Sir Richard Steele, John Keats, the sisters Joanna and Agnes +Baillie, Leigh Hunt and many others. The parish church of St John (1747) +has several monuments of eminent persons. Chatham's residence was at +North End, a picturesque quarter yet preserving characteristics of a +rural village; here also Wilkie Collins was born. Three old-established +inns, the Bull and Bush, the Spaniards, and Jack Straw's Castle (the +name of which has no historical significance), claim many great names +among former visitors; while the Upper Flask Inn, now a private house, +was the meeting-place of the Kit-Cat Club. Chalybeate springs were +discovered at Hampstead in the 17th century, and early in the 18th +rivalled those of Tunbridge Wells and Epsom. The name of Well Walk +recalls them, but their fame is lost. There are others at Kilburn. + +In the south-east Hampstead includes the greater part of Primrose Hill, +a public ground adjacent to the north side of Regent's Park. The borough +has in all about 350 acres of open spaces. The name of the sub-manor of +Belsize is preserved in several streets in the central part. Kilburn, +which as a district extends outside the borough, takes name from a +stream which, as the Westbourne, entered the Thames at Chelsea. Fleet +Road similarly recalls the more famous stream which washed the walls of +the City of London on the west. Hampstead has numerous charitable +institutions, amongst which are the North London consumptive hospital, +the Orphan Working School, Haverstock Hill (1758), the general hospital +and the north-western fever hospital. In Finchley Road are the New and +Hackney Colleges, both Congregational. The parliamentary borough of +Hampstead returns one member. The borough council consists of a mayor, 7 +aldermen and 42 councillors. Area, 2265 acres. + + + + +HAMPTON, WADE (1818-1902), American cavalry leader was born on the 28th +of March 1818 at Columbia, South Carolina, the son of Wade Hampton +(1791-1858), one of the wealthiest planters in the South, and the +grandson of Wade Hampton (1754-1835), a captain in the War of +Independence and a brigadier-general in the War of 1812. He graduated +(1836) at South Carolina College, and was trained for the law. He +devoted himself, however, to the management of his great plantations in +South Carolina and in Mississippi, and took part in state politics and +legislation. Though his own views were opposed to the prevailing +state-rights tone of South Carolinian opinion, he threw himself heartily +into the Southern cause in 1861, raising a mixed command known as +"Hampton's Legion," which he led at the first battle of Bull Run. During +the Civil War he served in the main with the Army of Northern Virginia +in Stuart's cavalry corps. After Stuart's death Hampton distinguished +himself greatly in opposing Sheridan in the Shenandoah Valley, and was +made lieutenant-general to command Lee's whole force of cavalry. In 1865 +he assisted Joseph Johnston in the attempt to prevent Sherman's advance +through the Carolinas. After the war his attitude was conciliatory and +he recommended a frank acceptance by the South of the war's political +consequences. He was governor of his state in 1876-1879, being installed +after a memorable contest; he served in the United States Senate in +1879-1891, and was United States commissioner of Pacific railways in +1893-1897. He died on the 11th of April 1902. + + See E. L. Wells, _Hampton and Reconstruction_ (Columbia, S. C., 1907). + + + + +HAMPTON, an urban district in the Uxbridge parliamentary division of +Middlesex, England, 15 m. S.W. of St Paul's cathedral, London, on the +river Thames, served by the London & South Western railway. Pop. (1901), +6813. Close to the river, a mile below the town, stands Hampton Court +Palace, one of the finest extant specimens of Tudor architecture, and +formerly a royal residence. It was erected by Cardinal Wolsey, who in +1515 received a lease of the old mansion and grounds for 99 years. As +the splendour of the building seemed to awaken the cupidity of Henry +VIII., Wolsey in 1526 thought it prudent to make him a present of it. It +became Henry's favourite residence, and he made several additions to the +building, including the great hall and chapel in the Gothic style. Of +the original five quadrangles only two now remain, but a third was +erected by Sir Christopher Wren for William III. In 1649 a great sale of +the effects of the palace took place by order of parliament, and later +the manor itself was sold to a private owner but immediately after came +into the hands of Cromwell; and Hampton Court continued to be one of the +principal residences of the English sovereigns until the time of George +II. It was the birthplace of Edward VI., and the meeting-place (1604) of +the conference held in the reign of James I. to settle the dispute +between the Presbyterians and the state clergy. William III., riding in +the grounds, met with the accident which resulted in his death. It is +now partly occupied by persons of rank in reduced circumstances; but the +state apartments and picture galleries are open to the public, as is +the home park. The gardens, with their ornamental waters, are +beautifully laid out in the Dutch style favoured by William III., and +contain a magnificent vine planted in 1768. In the enclosure north of +the palace, called the Wilderness, is the Maze, a favourite resort. +North again lies Bushey Park, a royal demesne exceeding 1000 acres in +extent. It is much frequented, especially in early summer, when its +triple avenue of horse-chestnut trees is in blossom. + +Among several residences in the vicinity of Hampton is Garrick Villa, +once, under the name of Hampton House, the residence of David Garrick +the actor. Sir Christopher Wren and Sir Richard Steele are among famous +former residents. Hampton Wick, on the river E. of Bushey Park, is an +urban district with a population (1901) of 2606. + + See E. Law, _History of Hampton Court Palace_ (London, 1890). + + + + +HAMPTON, a city and the county-seat of Elizabeth City county, Virginia, +U.S.A., at the mouth of the James river, on Hampton Roads, about 15 m. +N.W. of Norfolk. Pop. (1890), 2513; (1900) 2764, including 1249 negroes; +(1910) 5505. It is served by the Chesapeake & Ohio railway, and by +trolley lines to Old Point Comfort and Newport News. Hampton is an +agricultural shipping point, ships fish, oysters and canned crabs, and +manufactures fish oil and brick. In the city are St John's church, built +in 1727; a national cemetery, a national soldiers' home (between Phoebus +and Hampton), which in 1907-1908 cared for 4093 veterans and had an +average attendance of 2261; and the Hampton Normal and Agricultural +Institute (coeducational), which was opened by the American Missionary +Association in 1868 for the education of negroes. This last was +chartered and became independent of any denominational control in 1870, +and was superintended by Samuel Chapman Armstrong (q.v.) from 1868 to +1893. The school was opened in 1878 to Indians, whose presence has been +of distinct advantage to the negro, showing him, says Booker T. +Washington, the most famous graduate of the school, that the negro race +is not alone in its struggle for improvement. The National government +pays $167 a year for the support of each of the Indian students. The +underlying idea of the Institute is such industrial training as will +make the pupil a willing and a good workman, able to teach his trade to +others; and the school's graduates include the heads of other successful +negro industrial schools, the organizers of agricultural and industrial +departments in Southern public schools and teachers in graded negro +schools. The mechanism of the school includes three schemes: that of +"work students," who work during the day throughout the year and attend +night school for eight months; that of day school students, who attend +school for four or five days and do manual work for one or two days each +week; and that of trade students, who receive trade instruction in their +daily eight-hours' work and study in night school as well. Agriculture +in one or more of its branches is taught to all, including the four or +five hundred children of the Whittier school, a practice school with +kindergarten and primary classes. Graduate courses are given in +agriculture, business, domestic art and science, library methods, +"matrons'" training, and public school teaching. The girl students are +trained in every branch of housekeeping, cooking, dairying and +gardening. The institute publishes _The Southern Workman_, a monthly +magazine devoted to the interests of the Negro and the Indian and other +backward races. In 1908 the Institute had more than 100 buildings and +188 acres of land S.W. of the national cemetery and on Hampton river and +Jones Creek, and 600 acres at Shellbanks, a stock farm 6 m. away; the +enrolment was 21 in graduate classes, 372 in day school, 489 in night +school and 524 in the Whittier school. Of the total, 88 were Indians. + +Hampton was settled in 1610 on the site of an Indian village, +Kecoughtan, a name it long retained, and was represented at the first +meeting (1619) of the Virginia House of Burgesses. It was fired by the +British during the War of 1812 and by the Confederates under General J. +B. Magruder in August 1861. During the Civil War there was a large Union +hospital here, the building of the Chesapeake Female College, erected in +1857, being used for this purpose. Hampton was incorporated as a town +in 1887, and in 1908 became a city of the second class. + + + + +HAMPTON ROADS, a channel through which the waters of the James, +Nansemond and Elizabeth rivers of Virginia, U.S.A., pass (between Old +Point Comfort to the N. and Sewell's Point to the S.) into Chesapeake +Bay. It is an important highway of commerce, especially for the cities +of Norfolk, Portsmouth and Newport News, and is the chief rendezvous of +the United States navy. For a width of 500 ft. the Federal government +during 1902-1905 increased its minimum depth at low water from 25-1/2 +ft. to 30 ft. The entrance from Chesapeake Bay is defended by Fortress +Monroe on Old Point Comfort and by Fort Wood on a small island called +the Rip Raps near the middle of the channel; and at Portsmouth, a few +miles up the Elizabeth river, is an important United States navy-yard. + +Hampton Roads is famous in history as the scene of the first engagement +between iron-clad vessels. In the spring of 1861 the Federals set fire +to several war vessels in the Gosport navy yard on the Elizabeth river +and abandoned the place. In June the Confederates set to work to raise +one of these abandoned vessels, the frigate "Merrimac" of 3500 tons and +40 guns, and to rebuild it as an iron-clad. The vessel (renamed the +"Virginia" though it is generally known in history by its original name) +was first cut down to the water-line and upon her hull was built a +rectangular casemate, constructed of heavy timber (24 in. in thickness), +covered with bar-iron 4 in. thick, and rising from the water on each +side at an angle of about 35 deg. The iron plating extended 2 ft. below +the water line; and beyond the casemate, toward the bow, was a cast-iron +pilot house, extending 3 ft. above the deck. The reconstruction of the +vessel was completed on the 5th of March 1862. The vessel drew 22 ft. of +water, was equipped with poor engines, so that it could not make more +than 5 knots, and was so unwieldy that it could not be turned in less +than 30 minutes. It was armed with 10 guns--2 (rifled) 7 in., 2 (rifled) +6 in., and 6 (smooth bore Dahlgren) 9 in. Her most powerful equipment, +however, was her 18 in. cast-iron ram. In October 1861 Captain John +Ericsson, an engineer, and a Troy (N.Y.) firm, as builders, began the +construction of the iron-clad "Monitor" for the Federals, at Greenpoint, +Long Island. With a view to enable this vessel to carry at good speed +the thickest possible armour compatible with buoyancy, Ericsson reduced +the exposed surface to the least possible area. Accordingly, the vessel +was built so low in the water that the waves glided easily over its deck +except at the middle, where was constructed a revolving turret[1] for +the guns, and though the vessel's iron armour had a thickness of 1 in. +on the deck, 5 in. on the side, and 8 in. on the turret, its draft was +only 10 ft. 6 in., or less than one-half that of the "Merrimac." Its +turret, 9 ft. high and 20 ft. in inside diameter, seemed small for its +length of 172 ft. and its breadth of 41 ft. 6 in., and this, with the +lowness of its freeboard, caused the vessel to be called the "Yankee +cheese-box on a raft." Forward of the turret was the iron pilot house, +square in shape, and rising about 4 ft. above the deck. The "Monitor's" +displacement was about 1200 tons and her armament was two 11 in. +Dahlgren guns; her crew numbered 58, while that of the "Merrimac" +numbered about 300. She was seaworthy in the shallow waters off the +southern coasts and steered fairly well. The "Monitor" was launched at +Greenpoint, Long Island, on the 30th of January, and was turned over to +the government on the 19th of the following month. The building of the +two vessels was practically a race between the two combatants. + +On the 8th of March about 1 P.M., the "Merrimac," commanded by Commodore +Franklin Buchanan (1795-1871), steamed down the Elizabeth accompanied by +two one-gun gun-boats, to engage the wooden fleet of the Federals, +consisting of the frigate "Congress," 50 guns, and the sloop +"Cumberland," 30 guns, both sailing vessels, anchored off Newport News, +and the steam frigates "Minnesota," and "Roanoke," the sailing frigate +"St Lawrence," and several gun-boats, anchored off Fortress Monroe. +Actual firing began about 2 o'clock, when the "Merrimac" was nearly a +mile from the "Congress" and the "Cumberland." Passing the first of +these vessels with terrific broadsides, the "Merrimac" rammed the +"Cumberland" and then turned her fire again on the "Congress," which in +an attempt to escape ran aground and was there under fire from three +other Confederate gun-boats which had meanwhile joined the "Merrimac." +About 3.30 P.M. the "Cumberland," which, while it steadily careened, had +been keeping up a heavy fire at the Confederate vessels, sank, with "her +pennant still flying from the topmast above the waves." Between 4 and +4.30 the "Congress," having been raked fore and aft for nearly an hour +by the "Merrimac," was forced to surrender. While directing a fire of +hot shot to burn the "Congress," Commodore Buchanan of the "Merrimac" +was severely wounded and was succeeded in the command by Lieutenant +Catesby ap Roger Jones. The Federal steam frigates, "Roanoke," "St +Lawrence" and "Minnesota" had all gone aground in their trip from Old +Point Comfort toward the scene of battle, and only the "Minnesota" was +near enough (about 1 m.) to take any part in the fight. She was in such +shallow water that the Confederate iron-clad ram could not get near her +at ebb tide, and about 5 o'clock the Confederates postponed her capture +until the next day and anchored off Sewell's Point. + +The "Monitor," under Lieut. John Lorimer Worden (1818-1897). had left +New York on the morning of the 6th of March; after a dangerous passage +in which she twice narrowly escaped sinking, she arrived at Hampton +Roads during the night of the 8th, and early in the morning of the 9th +anchored near the "Minnesota." When the "Merrimac" advanced to attack +the "Minnesota," the "Monitor" went out to meet her, and the battle +between the iron-clads began about 9 A.M. on the 9th. Neither vessel was +able seriously to injure the other, and not a single shot penetrated the +armour of either. The "Monitor" had the advantage of being able to +out-manoeuvre her heavier and more unwieldy adversary; but the revolving +turret made firing difficult and communications were none too good with +the pilot house, the position of which on the forward deck lessened the +range of the two turret-guns. The machinery worked so badly that the +revolution of the turret was stopped. After two hours' fighting, the +"Monitor" was drawn off, so that more ammunition could be placed in her +turret. When the battle was renewed (about 11.30) the "Merrimac" began +firing at the "Monitor's" pilot house; and a little after noon a shot +struck the sight-hole of the pilot house and blinded Lieut. Worden. The +"Monitor" withdrew in the confusion consequent upon the wounding of her +commanding officer; and the "Merrimac" after a short wait for her +adversary steamed back to Norfolk. There were virtually no casualties on +either side. After the evacuation of Norfolk by the Confederates on the +9th of May Commodore Josiah Tattnall, then in command of the "Merrimac," +being unable to take her up the James, sank her. The "Monitor" was lost +in a gale off Cape Hatteras on the 31st of December 1862. + +Though the battle between the two vessels was indecisive, its effect was +to "neutralize" the "Merrimac," which had caused great alarm in +Washington, and to prevent the breaking of the Federal blockade at +Hampton Roads; in the history of naval warfare it may be regarded as +marking the opening of a new era--the era of the armoured warship. On +the 3rd of February 1865 near Fortress Monroe on board a steamer +occurred the meeting of President Lincoln and Secretary Seward with +Confederate commissioners which is known as the Hampton Roads Conference +(see LINCOLN, ABRAHAM). At Sewell's Point, on Hampton Roads, in 1907 was +held the Jamestown Tercentennial Exposition. + + See James R. Soley, _The Blockade and the Cruisers_ (New York, 1883); + _Battles and Leaders of the Civil War_, vol. i. (New York, 1887); + chap. ii. of Frank M. Bennett's _The Monitor and the Navy under Steam_ + (Boston, 1900); and William Swinton, _Twelve Decisive Battles of the + War_ (New York, 1867). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] For the idea of the low free-board and the revolving turret + Ericsson was indebted to Theodore R. Timby (1819-1909), who in 1843 + had filed a caveat for revolving towers for offensive or defensive + warfare whether placed on land or water, and to whom the company + building the "Monitor" paid $5000 royalty for each turret. + + + + +HAMSTER, a European mammal of the order Rodentia, scientifically known +as _Cricetus frumentarius_ (or _C. cricetus_), and belonging to the +mouse tribe, _Muridae_, in which it typifies the sub-family +_Cricetinae_. The essential characteristic of the Cricetines is to be +found in the upper cheek-teeth, which (as shown in the figure of those +of _Cricetus_ in the article RODENTIA) have their cusps arranged in two +longitudinal rows separated by a groove. The hamsters, of which there +are several kinds, are short-tailed rodents, with large cheek-pouches, +of which the largest is the common _C. frumentarius_. Their geographical +distribution comprises a large portion of Europe and Asia north of the +Himalaya. All the European hamsters show more or less black on the +under-parts, but the small species from Central Asia, which constitute +distinct subgenera, are uniformly grey. The common species is specially +interesting on account of its habits. It constructs elaborate burrows +containing several chambers, one of which is employed as a granary, and +filled with corn, frequently of several kinds, for winter use. As a +rule, the males, females, and young of the first year occupy separate +burrows. During the winter these animals retire to their burrows, +sleeping the greater part of the time, but awakening about February or +March, when they feed on the garnered grain. They are very prolific, the +female producing several litters in the year, each consisting of over a +dozen blind young; and these, when not more than three weeks old, are +turned out of the parental burrow to form underground homes for +themselves. The burrow of the young hamster is only about a foot in +depth, while that of the adult descends 4 or 5 ft. beneath the surface. +On retiring for the winter the hamster closes the various entrances to +its burrow, and becomes torpid during the coldest period. Although +feeding chiefly on roots, fruits and grain, it is also to some extent +carnivorous, attacking and eating small quadrupeds, lizards and birds. +It is exceedingly fierce and pugnacious, the males especially fighting +with each other for possession of the females. The numbers of these +destructive rodents are kept in check by foxes, dogs, cats and +pole-cats, which feed upon them. The skin of the hamster is of some +value, and its flesh is used as food. Its burrows are sought after in +the countries where it abounds, both for capturing the animal and for +rifling its store. America, especially North America, is the home of by +far the great majority of _Cricetinae_, several of which are called +white-footed or deer-mice. They are divided into numerous genera and the +number of species is very large indeed. Both in size and form +considerable variability is displayed, the species of _Holochilus_ being +some of the largest, while the common white-footed mouse (_Eligmodon +leucopus_) of North America is one of the smaller forms. Some kinds, +such as _Oryzomys_ and _Peromyscus_ have long, rat-like tails, while +others, like _Acodon_, are short-tailed and more vole-like in +appearance. In habits some are partially arboreal, others wholly +terrestrial, and a few more or less aquatic. Among the latter, the most +remarkable are the fish-eating rats (_Ichthyomys_) of North-western +South America, which frequent streams and feed on small fish. The +Florida rice-rat (_Sigmodon hispidus_) is another well-known +representative of the group. In the Old World the group is represented +by the Persian _Calomyscus_, a near relative of _Peromyscus_. + (R. L.*) + + + + +HANAPER, properly a case or basket to contain a "hanap" (O. Eng. _hnaep_: +cf. Dutch _nap_), a drinking vessel, a goblet with a foot or stem; the +term which is still used by antiquaries for medieval stemmed cups. The +famous Royal Gold Cup in the British Museum is called a "hanap" in the +inventory of Charles VI. of France. The word "hanaper" (Med. Lat. +_hanaperium_) was used particularly in the English chancery of a wicker +basket in which were kept writs and other documents, and hence it became +the name of a department of the chancery, now abolished, under an +officer known as the clerk or warden of the hanaper, into which were +paid fees and other moneys for the sealing of charters, patents, writs, +&c., and from which issued certain writs under the great seal (S. R. +Scargill-Bird, _Guide to the Public Records_ (1908). In Ireland it still +survives in the office of the clerk of the crown and hanaper, from which +are issued writs for the return of members of parliament for Ireland. +From "hanaper" is derived the modern "hamper," a wicker or rush basket +used for the carriage of game, fish, wine, &c. The verb "to hamper," to +entangle, obstruct, hinder, especially used of disturbing the mechanism +of a lock or other fastening so as to prevent its proper working, is of +doubtful origin. It is probably connected with a root seen in the Icel. +_hemja_, to restrain, and Ger. _hemmen_, to clog. + + + + +HANAU, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, on +the right bank of the Main, 14 m. by rail E. from Frankfort and at the +junction of lines to Friedberg, Bebra and Aschaffenburg. Pop. (1905) +31,637. It consists of an old and a new town. The streets of the former +are narrow and irregular, but the latter, founded at the end of the 16th +century by fugitive Walloons and Netherlanders, is built in the form of +a pentagon with broad streets crossing at right angles, and possesses +several fine squares, among which may be mentioned the market-place, +adorned with handsome fountains at the four corners. Among the principal +buildings are the ancient castle, formerly the residence of the counts +of Hanau; the church of St John, dating from the 17th century, with a +handsome tower; the old church of St Mary, containing the burial vault +of the counts of Hanau; the church in the new town, built by the +Walloons in the beginning of the 17th century in the form of two +intersecting circles; the Roman Catholic church, the synagogue, the +theatre, the barracks, the arsenal and the hospital. Its educational +establishments include a classical school, and a school of industrial +art. There is a society of natural history and an historical society, +both of which possess considerable libraries and collections. Hanau is +the birthplace of the brothers Grimm, to whom a monument was erected +here in 1896. In the neighbourhood of the town are the palace of +Philippsruhe, with an extensive park and large orangeries, and the spa +of Wilhelmsbad. + +Hanau is the principal commercial and manufacturing town in the +province, and stands next to Cassel in point of population. It +manufactures ornaments of various kinds, cigars, leather, paper, playing +cards, silver and platina wares, chocolate, soap, woollen cloth, hats, +silk, gloves, stockings, ropes and matches. Diamond cutting is carried +on and the town has also foundries, breweries, and in the neighborhood +extensive powder-mills. It carries on a large trade in wood, wine and +corn, in addition to its articles of manufacture. + +From the number of urns, coins and other antiquities found near Hanau it +would appear that it owes its origin to a Roman settlement. It received +municipal rights in 1393, and in 1528 it was fortified by Count Philip +III. who rebuilt the castle. At the end of the 16th century its +prosperity received considerable impulse from the accession of the +Walloons and Netherlanders. During the Thirty Years' War it was in 1631 +taken by the Swedes, and in 1636 it was besieged by the imperial troops, +but was relieved on the 13th of June by Landgrave William V. of +Hesse-Cassel, on account of which the day is still commemorated by the +inhabitants. Napoleon on his retreat from Leipzig defeated the Germans +under Marshal Wrede at Hanau, on the 30th of October 1813; and on the +following day the allies vacated the town, when it was entered by the +French. Early in the 15th century Hanau became the capital of a +principality of the Empire, which on the death of Count Reinhard in 1451 +was partitioned between the Hanau-Munzenberg and Hanau-Lichtenberg +lines, but was reunited in 1642 when the elder line became extinct. The +younger line received princely rank in 1696, but as it became extinct in +1736 Hanau-Munzenberg was joined to Hesse-Cassel and Hanau-Lichtenberg +to Hesse-Darmstadt. In 1785 the whole province was united to +Hesse-Cassel, and in 1803 it became an independent principality. In 1815 +it again came into the possession of Hesse-Cassel, and in 1866 it was +joined to Prussia. + + See R. Wille, _Hanau im dreissigjahrigen Krieg_ (Hanau, 1886); and + Junghaus, _Geschichte der Stadt und des Kreises Hanau_ (1887). + + + + +HANBURY WILLIAMS, SIR CHARLES (1708-1759), English diplomatist and +author, was a son of Major John Hanbury (1664-1734), of Pontypool, +Monmouthshire, and a scion of an ancient Worcestershire family. His +great-great-great-grand-father, Capel Hanbury, bought property at +Pontypool and began the family iron-works there in 1565. His father John +Hanbury was a wealthy iron-master and member of parliament, who +inherited another fortune from his friend Charles Williams of Caerleon, +his son's godfather, with which he bought the Coldbrook estate, +Monmouthshire. Charles accordingly took the name of Williams in 1729. He +went to Eton, and there made friends with Henry Fielding, the novelist, +and, after marrying in 1732 the heiress of Earl Coningsby, was elected +M.P. for Monmouthshire (1734-1747) and subsequently for Leominster +(1754-1759). He became known as one of the prominent gallants and wits +about town, and following Pope he wrote a great deal of satirical light +verse, including _Isabella, or the Morning_ (1740), satires on Ruth +Darlington and Pulleney (1741-1742), _The Country Girl_ (1742), _Lessons +for the Day_ (1742), _Letter to Mr Dodsley_ (1743), &c. A collection of +his poems was published in 1763 and of his _Works_ in 1822. In 1746 he +was sent on a diplomatic mission to Dresden, which led to further +employment in this capacity; and through Henry Fox's influence he was +sent as envoy to Berlin (1750), Dresden (1751), Vienna (1753), Dresden +(1754) and St Petersburg (1755-1757); in the latter case he was the +instrument for a plan for the alliance between England, Russia and +Austria, which finally broke down, to his embarrassment. He returned to +England, and committed suicide on the 2nd of November 1759, being buried +in Westminster Abbey. He had two daughters, the elder of whom married +William Capel, 4th earl of Essex, and was the mother of the 5th earl. +The Coldbrook estates went to Charles's brother, George +Hanbury-Williams, to whose heirs it descended. + + See William Coxe's _Historical Tour in Monmouthshire_ (1801), and T. + Seccombe's article in the _Dict. Nat. Biog._ with bibliography. + + + + +HANCOCK, JOHN (1737-1793), American Revolutionary statesman, was born in +that part of Braintree, Massachusetts, now known as Quincy, on the 23rd +of January 1737. After graduating from Harvard in 1754, he entered the +mercantile house of his uncle, Thomas Hancock of Boston, who had adopted +him, and on whose death, in 1764, he fell heir to a large fortune and a +prosperous business. In 1765 he became a selectman of Boston, and from +1766 to 1772 was a member of the Massachusetts general court. An event +which is thought to have greatly influenced Hancock's subsequent career +was the seizure of the sloop "Liberty" in 1768 by the customs officers +for discharging, without paying the duties, a cargo of Madeira wine +consigned to Hancock. Many suits were thereupon entered against Hancock, +which, if successful, would have caused the confiscation of his estate, +but which undoubtedly enhanced his popularity with the Whig element and +increased his resentment against the British government. He was a member +of the committee appointed in a Boston town meeting immediately after +the "Boston Massacre" in 1770 to demand the removal of British troops +from the town. In 1774 and 1775 he was president of the first and second +Provincial Congresses respectively, and he shared with Samuel Adams the +leadership of the Massachusetts Whigs in all the irregular measures +preceding the War of American Independence. The famous expedition sent +by General Thomas Gage of Massachusetts to Lexington and Concord on the +18th-19th of April 1775 had for its object, besides the destruction of +materials of war at Concord, the capture of Hancock and Adams, who were +temporarily staying at Lexington, and these two leaders were expressly +excepted in the proclamation of pardon issued on the 12th of June by +Gage, their offences, it was said, being "of too flagitious a nature to +admit of any other consideration than that of condign punishment." +Hancock was a member of the Continental Congress from 1775 to 1780, was +president of it from May 1775 to October 1777, being the first to sign +the Declaration of Independence, and was a member of the Confederation +Congress in 1785-1786. In 1778 he commanded, as major-general of +militia, the Massachusetts troops who participated in the Rhode Island +expedition. He was a member of the Massachusetts Constitutional +Convention of 1779-1780, became the first governor of the state, and +served from 1780 to 1785 and again from 1787 until his death. Although +at first unfriendly to the Federal Constitution as drafted by the +convention at Philadelphia, he was finally won over to its support, and +in 1788 he presided over the Massachusetts convention which ratified the +instrument. Hancock was not by nature a leader, but he wielded great +influence on account of his wealth and social position, and was liberal, +public-spirited, and, as his repeated election--the elections were +annual--to the governorship attests, exceedingly popular. He died at +Quincy, Mass., on the 8th of October 1793. + + See Abram E. Brown, _John Hancock, His Book_ (Boston, 1898), a work + consisting largely of extracts from Hancock's letters. + + + + +HANCOCK, WINFIELD SCOTT (1824-1886), American general, was born on the +14th of February 1824, in Montgomery county, Pa. He graduated in 1844 at +the United States Military Academy, where his career was creditable but +not distinguished. On the 1st of July 1844 he was breveted, and on the +18th of June 1846 commissioned second lieutenant. He took part in the +later movements under Winfield Scott against the city of Mexico, and was +breveted first lieutenant for "gallant and meritorious conduct." After +the Mexican war he served in the West, in Florida and elsewhere; was +married in 1850 to Miss Almira Russell of St Louis; became first +lieutenant in 1853, and assistant-quartermaster with the rank of captain +in 1855. The outbreak of the Civil War found him in California. At his +own request he was ordered east, and on the 23rd of September 1861 was +made brigadier-general of volunteers and assigned to command a brigade +in the Army of the Potomac. He took part in the Peninsula campaign, and +the handling of his troops in the engagement at Williamsburg on the 5th +of May 1862, was so brilliant that McClellan reported "Hancock was +superb," an epithet always afterwards applied to him. At the battle of +Antietam he was placed in command of the first division of the II. +corps, and in November he was made major-general of volunteers, and +about the same time was promoted major in the regular army. In the +disastrous battle of Fredericksburg (q.v.), Hancock's division was on +the right among the troops that were ordered to storm Marye's Heights. +Out of the 5006 men in his division 2013 fell. At Chancellorsville his +division received both on the 2nd and the 3rd of May the brunt of the +attack of Lee's main army. Soon after the battle he was appointed +commander of the II. corps. + +The battle of Gettysburg (q.v.) began on the 1st of July with the defeat +of the left wing of the Army of the Potomac and the death of General +Reynolds. About the middle of the afternoon Hancock arrived on the field +with orders from Meade to assume command and to decide whether to +continue the fight there or to fall back. He decided to stay, rallied +the retreating troops, and held Cemetery Hill and Ridge until the +arrival of the main body of the Federal army. During the second day's +battle he commanded the left centre of the Union army, and after General +Sickles had been wounded, the whole of the left wing. In the third day's +battle he commanded the left centre, upon which fell the full brunt of +Pickett's charge, one of the most famous incidents of the war. Hancock's +superb presence and power over men never shone more clearly than when, +as the 150 guns of the Confederate army opened the attack he calmly rode +along the front of his line to show his soldiers that he shared the +dangers of the cannonade with them. His corps lost in the battle 4350 +out of less than 10,000 fighting men. But it had captured twenty-seven +Confederate battle flags and as many prisoners as it had men when the +fighting ceased. Just as the Confederate troops reached the Union line +Hancock was struck in the groin by a bullet, but continued in command +until the repulse of the attack, and as he was at last borne off the +field earnestly recommended Meade to make a general attack on the beaten +Confederates. The wound proved a severe one, so that some six months +passed before he resumed command. + +In the battles of the year 1864 Hancock's part was as important and +striking as in those of 1863. At the Wilderness he commanded, during the +second day's fighting, half of the Union army; at Spottsylvania he had +charge of the fierce and successful attack on the "salient"; at Cold +Harbor his corps formed the left wing in the unsuccessful assault on +the Confederate lines. In August he was promoted to brigadier-general in +the regular army. In November, his old wound troubling him, he obtained +a short leave of absence, expecting to return to his corps in the near +future. He was, however, detailed to raise a new corps, and later was +placed in charge of the "Middle Division." It was expected that he would +move towards Lynchburg, as part of a combined movement against Lee's +communications. But before he could take the field Richmond had fallen +and Lee had surrendered. It thus happened that Hancock, who for three +years had been one of the most conspicuous figures in the Army of the +Potomac did not take part in its final triumph. + +After the assassination of Lincoln, Hancock was placed in charge of +Washington, and it was under his command that Booth's accomplices were +tried and executed. In July 1866 he was appointed major-general in the +regular army. A little later he was placed in command of the department +of the Missouri, and the year following assumed command of the fifth +military division, comprising Louisiana and Texas. His policy, however, +of discountenancing military trials and conciliating the conquered did +not meet with approval at Washington, and he was at his own request +transferred. Hancock had all his life been a Democrat. His splendid war +record and his personal popularity caused his name to be considered as a +candidate for the Presidency as early as 1868, and in 1880 he was +nominated for that office by the Democrats; but he was defeated by his +Republican opponent, General Garfield, though by the small popular +plurality of seven thousand votes. He died at Governor's Island, near +New York, on the 9th of February 1886. Hancock was in many respects the +ideal soldier of the Northern armies. He was quick, energetic and +resourceful, reckless of his own safety, a strict disciplinarian, a +painstaking and hard-working officer. It was on the field of battle, and +when the fighting was fiercest, that his best qualities came to the +front. He was a born commander of men, and it is doubtful if any other +officer in the Northern army could get more fighting and more marching +out of his men. Grant said of him, "Hancock stands the most conspicuous +figure of all the general officers who did not exercise a separate +command. He commanded a corps longer than any other, and his name was +never mentioned as having committed in battle a blunder for which he was +responsible." + + A biography of him has been written by General Francis A. Walker (New + York, 1894). See also _History of the Second Corps_, by the same + author (1886). (F. H. H.) + + + + +HANCOCK, a city of Houghton county, Michigan, U.S.A., on Portage Lake, +opposite Houghton. Pop. (1890) 1772; (1900) 4050, of whom 1409 were +foreign-born; (1904) 6037; (1910) 8981. Hancock is served by the Mineral +Range, the Copper Range, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, and the +Duluth, South Shore & Atlantic railways (the last two send their trains +in over the Mineral Range tracks), and by steamboats through the Portage +Lake Canal which connects with Lake Superior. Hancock is connected by a +bridge and an electric line with the village of Houghton (pop. in 1910, +5113), the county-seat of Houghton county and the seat of the Michigan +College of Mines (opened in 1886). Hancock has three parks, and a marine +and general hospital. The city is the seat of a Finnish Lutheran +Seminary--there are many Finns in and near Hancock, and a Finnish +newspaper is published here. Hancock is in the Michigan copper +region--the Quincy, Franklin and Hancock mines are in or near the +city--and the mining, working and shipping of copper are the leading +industries; among the city's manufactures are mining machinery, lumber, +bricks and beer. The municipality owns and operates the water-works. The +electric-lighting plant, the gas plant and the street railway are owned +by private corporations. Hancock was settled in 1859, was incorporated +as a village in 1875, and was chartered as a city in 1903. + + + + +HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-1851). German classical scholar, was born +at Plauen in Saxony on the 15th of February 1786. He studied at Leipzig, +in 1810 became professor at the Weimar gymnasium, and in 1817 professor +of philosophy and Greek literature in the university of Jena, where he +remained till his death on the 14th of March 1851. The work by which +Hand is chiefly known is his (unfinished) edition of the treatise of +Horatius Tursellinus (Orazio Torsellino, 1545-1599) on the Latin +particles (_Tursellinus, seu de particulis Latinis commentarii_, +1829-1845). Like his treatise on Latin style (_Lehrbuch des lateinischen +Stils_, 3rd ed. by H. L. Schmitt, 1880), it is too abstruse and +philosophical for the use of the ordinary student. Hand was also an +enthusiastic musician, and in his _Asthetik der Tonkunst_ (1837-1841) he +was the first to introduce the subject of musical aesthetics. + + The first part of the last-named work has been translated into English + by W. E. Lawson (_Aesthetics of Musical Art_, or _The Beautiful in + Music_, 1880), and B. Sears's _Classical Studies_ (1849) contains a + "History of the Origin and Progress of the Latin Language," abridged + from Hand's work on the subject. There is a memoir of his life and + work by G. Queck (Jena, 1852). + + + + +HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. _Hand_, Goth. +_handus_), the terminal part of the human arm from below the wrist, and +consisting of the fingers and the palm. The word is also used of the +prehensile termination of the limbs in certain other animals (see +ANATOMY: _Superficial and artistic_; SKELETON: _Appendicular_, and such +articles as MUSCULAR SYSTEM and NERVOUS SYSTEM). There are many +transferred applications of "hand," both as a substantive and in various +adverbial phrases. The following may be mentioned: charge or authority, +agency, source, chiefly in such expressions as "in the hands of," "by +hand," "at first hand." From the position of the hands at the side of +the body, the word means "direction," e.g., on the right, left hand, cf. +"at hand." The hand as given in betrothal or marriage has been from +early times the symbol of marriage as it also is of oaths. Other +applications are to labourers engaged in manual occupations, the members +of the crew of a ship, to a person who has some special skill, as in the +phrase, "old parliamentary hand," and to the pointers of a clock or +watch and to the number of cards dealt to each player in a card game. As +a measure of length the term "hand" is now only used in the measurement +of horses, it is equal to 4 in. The name "hand of glory," is given to a +hand cut from the corpse of a hanged criminal, dried in smoke, and used +as a charm or talisman, for the finding of treasures, &c. The expression +is the translation of the Fr. _main de gloire_, a corruption of the O. +Fr. _mandegloire_, _mandegoire_, i.e. _mandragore_, mandragora, the +mandrake, to the root of which many magical properties are attributed. + + + + +HANDEL, GEORGE FREDERICK (1685-1759), + + + Life. + +English musical composer, German by origin, was born at Halle in Lower +Saxony, on the 23rd of February 1685. His name was Handel, but, like +most 18th-century musicians who travelled, he compromised with its +pronunciation by foreigners, and when in Italy spelt it Hendel, and in +England (where he became naturalized) accepted the version Handel, which +is therefore correct for English writers, while Handel remains the +correct version in Germany. His father was a barber-surgeon, who +disapproved of music, and wished George Frederick to become a lawyer. A +friend smuggled a clavichord into the attic, and on this instrument, +which is inaudible behind a closed door, the little boy practised +secretly. Before he was eight his father went to visit a son by a former +marriage who was a valet-de-chambre to the duke of Saxe-Weissenfels. The +little boy begged in vain to go also, and at last ran after the carriage +on foot so far that he had to be taken. He made acquaintance with the +court musicians and contrived to practise on the organ when he could be +overheard by the duke, who, immediately recognizing his talent, spoke +seriously to the father, who had to yield to his arguments. On returning +to Halle Handel became a pupil of Zachau, the cathedral organist, who +gave him a thorough training as a composer and as a performer on keyed +instruments, the oboe and the violin. Six very good trios for two oboes +and bass, which Handel wrote at the age of ten, are extant; and when he +himself was shown them by an English admirer who had discovered them, he +was much amused and remarked, "I wrote like the devil in those days, +and chiefly for the oboe, which was my favourite instrument." His master +also of course made him write an enormous amount of vocal music, and he +had to produce a motet every week. By the time he was twelve Zachau +thought he could teach him no more, and accordingly the boy was sent to +Berlin, where he made a great impression at the court. + +His father, however, thought fit to decline the proposal of the elector +of Brandenburg, afterwards King Frederick I. of Prussia, to send the boy +to Italy in order afterwards to attach him to the court at Berlin. +German court musicians, as late as the time of Mozart, had hardly enough +freedom to satisfy a man of independent character, and the elder Handel +had not yet given up hope of his son's becoming a lawyer. Young Handel, +therefore, returned to Halle and resumed his work with Zachau. In 1697 +his father died, but the boy showed great filial piety in finishing the +ordinary course of his education, both general and musical, and even +entering the university of Halle in 1702 as a law student. But in that +year he succeeded to the post of organist at the cathedral, and after +his "probation" year in that capacity he departed to Hamburg, where the +only German opera worthy of the name was flourishing under the direction +of its founder, Reinhold Keiser. Here he became friends with Matheson, a +prolific composer and writer on music. On one occasion they set out +together to go to Lubeck, where a successor was to be appointed to the +post left vacant by the great organist Buxtehude, who was retiring on +account of his extreme age. Handel and Matheson made much music on this +occasion, but did not compete, because they found that the successful +candidate was required to accept the hand of the elderly daughter of the +retiring organist. + +Another adventure might have had still more serious consequences. At a +performance of Matheson's opera _Cleopatra_ at Hamburg, Handel refused +to give up the conductor's seat to the composer when the latter returned +to his usual post at the harpsichord after singing the part of Antony on +the stage. The dispute led to a duel outside the theatre, and, but for a +large button on Handel's coat which intercepted Matheson's sword, there +would have been no _Messiah_ or _Israel in Egypt_. But the young men +remained friends, and Matheson's writings are full of the most valuable +facts for Handel's biography. He relates in his _Ehrenpforte_ that his +friend at that time used to compose "interminable cantatas" of no great +merit; but of these no traces now remain, unless we assume that a +_Passion according to St John_, the manuscript of which is in the royal +library at Berlin, is among the works alluded to. But its authenticity, +while strongly upheld by Chrysander, has recently been as strongly +assailed on internal evidence. + +On the 8th of January 1705, Handel's first opera, _Almira_, was +performed at Hamburg with great success, and was followed a few weeks +later by another work, entitled _Nero_. _Nero_ is lost, but _Almira_, +with its mixture of Italian and German language and form, remains as a +valuable example of the tendencies of the time and of Handel's eclectic +methods. It contains many themes used by Handel in well-known later +works; but the current statement that the famous aria in _Rinaldo_, +"Lascia ch'io pianga," comes from a saraband in _Almira_, is based upon +nothing more definite than the inevitable resemblance between the +simplest possible forms of saraband-rhythm. + +In 1706 Handel left Hamburg for Italy, where he remained for three +years, rapidly acquiring the smooth Italian vocal style which hereafter +always characterized his work. He had before this refused offers from +noble patrons to send him there, but had now saved enough money, not +only to support his mother at home, but to travel as his own master. He +divided his time in Italy between Florence, Rome, Naples and Venice; and +many anecdotes are preserved of his meetings with Corelli, Lotti, +Alessandro Scarlatti and Domenico Scarlatti, whose wonderful harpsichord +technique still has a direct bearing on some of the most modern features +of pianoforte style. Handel soon became famous as _Il Sassone_ ("the +Saxon"), and it is said that Domenico on first hearing him play +incognito exclaimed, "It is either the devil or the Saxon!" Then there +is a story of Corelli's coming to grief over a passage in Handel's +overture to _Il Trionfo del tempo_, in which the violins went up to A in +altissimo. Handel impatiently snatched the violin to show Corelli how +the passage ought to be played, and Corelli, who had never written or +played beyond the third position in his life (this passage being in the +seventh), said gently, "My dear Saxon, this music is in the French +style, which I do not understand." In Italy Handel produced two operas, +_Rodrigo_ and _Agrippina_, the latter a very important work, of which +the splendid overture was remodelled forty-four years afterwards as that +of his last original oratorio, _Jephtha_. He also produced two +oratorios, _La Resurrezione_, and _Il Trionfo del tempo_. This, +forty-six years afterwards, formed the basis of his last work. _The +Triumph of Time and Truth_, which contains no original matter. All +Handel's early works contain material that he used often with very +little alteration later on, and, though the famous "Lascia ch'io pianga" +does not occur in Almira, it occurs note for note in _Agrippina_ and the +two Italian oratorios. On the other hand the cantata _Aci, Galattea e +Polifemo_ has nothing in common with _Acis and Galatea_. Besides these +larger works there are several choral and solo cantatas of which the +earliest, such as the great _Dixit Dominus_, show in their extravagant +vocal difficulty how radical was the change which Handel's Italian +experience so rapidly effected in his methods. + +Handel's success in Italy established his fame and led to his receiving +at Venice in 1709 the offer of the post of Kapellmeister to the elector +of Hanover, transmitted to him by Baron Kielmansegge, his patron and +staunch friend of later years. Handel at the time contemplated a visit +to England, and he accepted this offer on condition of leave of absence +being granted to him for that purpose. To England accordingly Handel +journeyed after a short stay at Hanover, arriving in London towards the +close of 1710. He came as a composer of Italian opera, and earned his +first success at the Haymarket with _Rinaldo_, composed, to the +consternation of the hurried librettist, in a fortnight, and first +performed on the 24th of February 1711. In this opera the aria "Lascia +ch'io pianga" found its final home. The work was produced with the +utmost magnificence, and Addison's delightful reviews of it in the +_Spectator_ poked fun at it from an unmusical point of view in a way +that sometimes curiously foreshadows the criticisms that Gluck might +have made on such things at a later period. The success was so great, +especially for Walsh the publisher, that Handel proposed that Walsh +should compose the next opera, and that he should publish it. He +returned to Hanover at the close of the opera season, and composed a +good deal of vocal chamber music for the princess Caroline, the +step-daughter of the elector, besides the instrumental works known to us +as the oboe concertos. In 1712 Handel returned to London and spent a +year with Andrews, a rich musical amateur, in Barn Elms, Surrey. Three +more years were spent in Burlington, in the neighbourhood of London. He +evidently was but little inclined to return to Hanover, in spite of his +duties to the court there. Two Italian operas and the _Utrecht Te Deum_ +written by the command of Queen Anne are the principal works of this +period. It was somewhat awkward for the composer when his deserted +master came to London in 1714 as George I. of England. For some time +Handel did not venture to appear at court, and it was only at the +intercession of Baron Kielmansegge that his pardon was obtained. By his +advice Handel wrote the _Water Music_ which was performed at a royal +water party on the Thames, and it so pleased the king that he at once +received the composer into his good graces and granted him a salary of +L400 a year. Later Handel became music master to the little princesses +and was given an additional L200 by the princess Caroline. In 1716 he +followed the king to Germany, where he wrote a second German Passion to +the popular poem of Brockes, a text which, divested of its worst +features, forms the basis of several of the arias in Bach's _Passion +according to St John_. This was Handel's last work to a German text. + +On his return to England he entered the service of the duke of Chandos +as conductor of his concerts, receiving a thousand pounds for his first +oratorio _Esther_. The music which Handel wrote for performance at +"Cannons," the duke of Chandos's residence at Edgware, is comprised in +the first version of _Esther, Acis and Galatea_, and the twelve _Chandos +Anthems_, which are compositions approximately in the same form as +Bach's church cantatas but without any systematic use of chorale tunes. +The fashionable Londoner would travel 9 miles in those days to the +little chapel of Whitchurch to hear Handel's music, and all that now +remains of the magnificent scene of these visits is the church, which is +the parish church of Edgware. In 1720 Handel appeared again in a public +capacity as impresario of the Italian opera at the Haymarket theatre, +which he managed for the institution called the Royal Academy of Music. +Senesino, a famous singer, to engage whom Handel especially journeyed to +Dresden, was the mainstay of the enterprise, which opened with a highly +successful performance of Handel's opera _Radamisto_. To this time +belongs the famous rivalry between Handel and Buononcini, a melodious +Italian composer whom many thought to be the greater of the two. The +controversy has been perpetuated in John Byrom's lines: + + "Some say, compared to Buononcini + That Mynheer Handel's but a ninny; + Others aver that he to Handel + Is scarcely fit to hold a candle. + Strange all this difference should be + Twixt tweedle-dum and tweedle-dee." + +It must be remembered that at this time Handel had not yet asserted his +greatness as a choral writer; the fashionable ideas of music and +musicianship were based entirely upon success in Italian opera, and the +contest between the rival composers was waged on the basis of works +which have fallen into almost as complete an oblivion in Handel's case +as in Buononcini's. None of Handel's forty-odd Italian operas can be +said to survive, except in some two or three detached arias out of each +opera; arias which reveal their essential qualities far better in +isolation than when performed in groups of between twenty and thirty on +the stage, as interruptions to the action of a classical drama to which +nobody paid the slightest attention. But even within these limits +Handel's artistic resources were too great to leave the issue in doubt; +and when Handel wrote the third act of an opera _Muzio Scevola_, of +which Buononcini and Ariosti[1] wrote the other two, his triumph was +decisive, especially as Buononcini soon got into discredit by failing to +defend himself against the charge of producing as a prize-madrigal of +his own a composition which proved to be by Lotti. At all events +Buononcini left London, and Handel for the next ten years was without a +rival in his ventures as an operatic composer. He was not, however, +without a rival as an impresario; and the hostile competition of a rival +company which obtained the services of the great Farinelli and also +induced Senesino to desert him, led to his bankruptcy in 1737, and to an +attack of paralysis caused by anxiety and overwork. The rival company +also had to be dissolved from want of support, so that Handel's +misfortunes must not be attributed to any failure to maintain his +position in the musical world. Handel's artistic conscience was that of +the most easy-going opportunist, or he would never have continued till +1741 to work in a field that gave so little scope for his genius. But +the public seemed to want operas, and, if opera had no scope for his +genius, at all events he could supply better operas with greater +rapidity and ease than any three other living composers working +together. And this he naturally continued to do so long as it seemed to +be the best way to keep up his reputation. But with all this artistic +opportunism he was not a man of tact, and there are numerous stories of +the type of his holding the great primadonna donna Cuzzoni at +arm's-length out of a window and threatening to drop her unless she +consented to sing a song which she had declared unsuitable to her style. + +Already before his last opera, _Deidamia_, produced in 1741, Handel had +been making a growing impression with his oratorios. In these, freed +from the restrictions of the stage, he was able to give scope to his +genius for choral writing, and so to develop, or rather revive, that art +of chorus singing which is the normal outlet for English musical talent. +In 1726 Handel had become a naturalized Englishman, and in 1733 he began +his public career as a composer of English texts by producing the second +and larger version of _Esther_ at the King's theatre. This was followed +early in the same year by _Deborah_, in which the share of the chorus is +much greater. In July he produced _Athalia_ at Oxford, the first work in +which his characteristic double choruses appear. The share of the chorus +increases in _Saul_ (1738); and _Israel in Egypt_ (also 1738) is +practically entirely a choral work, the solo movements, in spite of +their fame, being as perfunctory in character as they are few in number. +It was not unnatural that the public, who still considered Italian opera +the highest, because the most modern form of musical art, obliged Handel +at subsequent performances of this gigantic work to insert more solos. + +The _Messiah_ was produced at Dublin on the 13th of April 1742. _Samson_ +(which Handel preferred to the _Messiah_) appeared at Covent Garden on +the 2nd of March 1744; _Belshazzar_ at the King's theatre, 27th of March +1745; the _Occasional Oratorio_ (chiefly a compilation of the earlier +oratorios, but with a few important new numbers), on the 14th of +February 1746 at Covent Garden, where all his later oratorios were +produced; _Judas Maccabaeus_ on the 1st of April 1747; _Joshua_ on the +9th of March 1748; _Alexander Balus_ on the 23rd of March 1748; Solomon +on the 17th of March 1749; _Susanna_, spring of 1749; _Theodora_, a +great favourite of Handel's, who was much disappointed by its cold +reception, on the 16th of March 1750; _Jephtha_ (strictly speaking, his +last work) on the 26th of February 1752, and _The Triumph of Time and +Truth_ (transcribed from _Il Trionfo del tempo_ with the addition of +many later favourite numbers), 1757. Other important works, +indistinguishable in artistic form from oratorios, but on secular +subjects, are _Alexander's Feast_, 1736; _Ode for St Cecilia's Day_ +(words by Dryden); _L'Allegro, il pensieroso ed il moderato_ (the words +of the third part by Jennens), 1740; _Semele_, 1744; _Hercules_, 1745; +and _The Choice of Hercules_, 1751. + +By degrees the enmity against Handel died away, though he had many +troubles. In 1745 he had again become bankrupt; for, although he had no +rival as a composer of choral music it was possible for his enemies to +give balls and banquets on the nights of his oratorio performances. As +with his first bankruptcy, so in his later years, he showed scrupulous +sense of honour in discharging his debts, and he continued to work hard +to the end of his life. He had not only completely recovered his +financial position by the year 1750, but he must have made a good deal +of money, for he then presented an organ to the Foundling Hospital, and +opened it with a performance of the _Messiah_ on the 15th of May. In +1751 his sight began to trouble him; and the autograph of _Jephtha_, +published in facsimile by the _Handelgesellschaft_, shows pathetic +traces of this in his handwriting,[2] and so affords a most valuable +evidence of his methods of composition, all the accompaniments, +recitatives, and less essential portions of the work being evidently +filled in long after the rest. He underwent unsuccessful operations, one +of them by the same surgeon who had operated on Bach's eyes. There is +evidence that he was able to see at intervals during his last years, but +his sight practically never returned after May 1752. He continued +superintending performances of his works and writing new arias for them, +or inserting revised old ones, and he attended a performance of the +_Messiah_ a week before his death, which took place, according to the +_Public Advertiser_ of the 16th of April, not on Good Friday, the 13th +of April, according to his own pious wish and according to common +report, but on the 14th of April 1759. He was buried in Westminster +Abbey; and his monument is by L. F. Roubilliac, the same sculptor who +modelled the marble statue erected in 1739 in Vauxhall Gardens, where +his works had been frequently performed. + + Handel was a man of high character and intelligence, and his interest + was not confined to his own art exclusively. He liked the society of + politicians and literary men, and he was also a collector of pictures + and articles of _vertu_. His power of work was enormous, and the + _Handelgesellschaft's_ edition of his complete works fills one hundred + volumes, forming a total bulk almost equal to the works of Bach and + Beethoven together. (F. H.; D. F. T.) + + + Handel as composer. + +No one has more successfully popularized the greatest artistic ideals +than Handel; no artist is more disconcerting to critics who imagine that +a great man's mental development is easy to follow. Not even Wagner +effected a greater transformation in the possibilities of dramatic music +than Handel effected in oratorio, yet we have seen that Handel was the +very opposite of a reformer. He was not even conservative, and he hardly +took the pains to ascertain what an art-form was, so long as something +externally like it would convey his idea. But he never failed to convey +his idea, and, if the hybrid forms in which he conveyed it had no +historic influence and no typical character, they were none the less +accurate in each individual case. The same aptness and the same absence +of method are conspicuous in his style. The popular idea that Handel's +style is easily recognizable comes from the fact that he overshadows all +his predecessors and contemporaries, except Bach, and so makes us regard +typical 18th-century Italian and English style as Handelian, instead of +regarding Handel's style as typical Italian 18th-century. Nothing in +music requires more minute expert knowledge than the sifting of the real +peculiarities of Handel's style from the mass of contemporary formulae +which in his inspired pages he absorbed, and which in his uninspired +pages absorbed him. + +His easy mastery was acquired, like Mozart's, in childhood. The later +sonatas for two oboes and bass which he wrote in his eleventh year are, +except in their diffuseness and an occasional slip in grammar, +indistinguishable from his later works, and they show a boyish +inventiveness worthy of Mozart's work at the same age. Such early choral +works, as the _Dixit Dominus_ (1707), show the ill-regulated power of +his choral writing before he assimilated Italian influences. Its +practical difficulties are at least as extravagant as Bach's, while they +are not accounted for by any corresponding originality and necessity of +idea; but the grandeur of the scheme and nobility of thought is already +that for which Handel so often in later years found the simplest and +easiest adequate means of expression that music has ever attained. His +eminently practical genius soon formed his vocal style, and long before +the period of his great oratorios, such works as _The Birthday Ode for +Queen Anne_ (1713) and the _Utrecht Te Deum_ show not a trace of German +extravagance. The only drawback to his practical genius was that it led +him to bury perhaps half of his finest melodies, and nearly all the +secular features of interest in his treatment of instruments and of the +aria forms, in that deplorable limbo of vanity, the 18th-century Italian +opera. It is not true, as has been alleged against him, that his operas +are in no way superior to those of his contemporaries; but neither is it +true that he stirred a finger to improve the condition of dramatic +musical art. He was no slave to singers, as is amply testified by many +anecdotes. Nor was he bound by the operatic conventions of the time. In +_Teseo_ he not only wrote an opera in five acts when custom prescribed +three, but also broke a much more plausible rule in arranging that each +character should have two arias in succession. He also showed a feeling +for expression and style which led him to write arias of types which +singers might not expect. But he never made any innovation which had the +slightest bearing upon the stage-craft of opera, for he never concerned +himself with any artistic question beyond the matter in hand; and the +matter in hand was not to make dramatic music, or to make the story +interesting or intelligible, but simply to provide a concert of between +some twenty and thirty Italian arias and duets, wherein singers could +display their abilities and spectators find distraction from the +monotony of so large a dose of the aria form (which was then the only +possibility for solo vocal music) in the gorgeousness of the dresses and +scenery. + +When the question arose how a musical entertainment of this kind could +be managed in Lent without protests from the bishop of London, Handelian +oratorio came into being as a matter of course. But though Handel was an +opportunist he was not shallow. His artistic sense seized upon the +natural possibilities which arose as soon as the music was transferred +from the stage to the concert platform; and his first English oratorio, +_Esther_ (1720), beautifully shows the transition. The subject is as +nearly secular as any that can be extracted from the Bible, and the +treatment was based on Racine's _Esther_, which was much discussed at +the time. Handel's oratorio was reproduced in an enlarged version in +1732 at the King's theatre: the princess royal wished for scenery and +action, but the bishop of London protested. And the choruses, of which +in the first version there are already no less than ten, are on the one +hand operatic and unecclesiastical in expression, until the last, where +polyphonic work on a large scale first appears; but on the other hand +they are all much too long to be sung by heart, as is necessary in +operas. In fact, the turning-point in Handel's development is the +emancipation of the chorus from theatrical limitations. This had as +great effect upon his few but important secular English works as upon +his other oratorios. _Acis and Galatea_, _Semele_ and _Hercules_, are in +fact secular oratorios; the choral music in them is not ecclesiastical, +but it is large, independent and polyphonic. + +We must remember, then, that Handel's scheme of oratorio is operatic in +its origin and has no historic connexion with such principles as might +have been generalized from the practice of the German Passion music of +the time; and it is sufficiently astonishing that the chorus should have +so readily assumed its proper place in a scheme which the public +certainly regarded as a sort of Lenten biblical opera. And, although the +chorus owes its freedom of development to the disappearance of +theatrical necessities, it becomes no less powerful as a means of +dramatic expression (as opposed to dramatic action) than as a purely +musical resource. Already in _Athalia_ the "Hallelujah" chorus at the +end of the first act is a marvel of dramatic truth. It is sung by +Israelites almost in despair beneath usurping tyranny; and accordingly +it is a severe double fugue in a minor key, expressive of devout courage +at a moment of depression. On purely musical grounds it is no less +powerful in throwing into the highest possible relief the ecstatic +solemnity of the psalm with which the second act opens. Now this sombre +"Hallelujah" chorus is a very convenient illustration of Handel's +originality, and the point in which his creative power really lies. It +was not originally written for its situation in _Athalia_, but it was +chosen for it. It was originally the last chorus of the second version +of the anthem, _As pants the Hart_, from the autograph of which it is +missing because Handel cut out the last pages in order to insert them +into the manuscript of _Athalia_. The inspiration in _Athalia_ thus lies +not in the creation of the chorus itself, but in the choice of it. + +In choral music Handel made no more innovation than he made in arias. +His sense of fitness in expression was of little use to him in opera, +because opera could not become dramatic until musical form became +capable of developing and blending emotions in all degrees of climax in +a way that may be described as pictorial and not merely decorative (see +MUSIC; SONATA-FORMS; and INSTRUMENTATION). But in oratorio there was not +the least necessity for reforming any art-forms. The ordinary choral +resources of the time had perfect expressive possibilities where there +were no actors to keep waiting, and where no dresses and scenery need +distract the attention of the listener. When lastly, ordinary decorum +dictated an attitude of reverent attention towards the subject of the +oratorio, then the man of genius could find such a scope for his real +sense of dramatic fitness as would make his work immortal. + +In estimating Handel's greatness we must think away all orthodox musical +and progressive prejudices, and learn to apply the lessons critics of +architecture and some critics of literature seem to know by nature. +Originality, in music as in other arts, lies in the whole, and in a +sense of the true meaning of every part. When Handel wrote a normal +double fugue in a minor key on the word "Hallelujah" he showed that he +at all events knew what a vigorous and dignified thing an 18th-century +double fugue could be. In putting it at the end of a melancholy psalm he +showed his sense of the value of the minor mode. When he put it in its +situation in _Athalia_ he showed as perfect a sense of dramatic and +musical fitness as could well be found in art. Now it is obvious that in +works like oratorios (which are dramatic schemes vigorously but loosely +organized by the putting together of some twenty or thirty complete +pieces of music) the proper conception of originality will be very +different from that which animates the composer of modern lyric, +operatic or symphonic music. When we add to this the characteristics of +a method like Handel's, in which musical technique has become a masterly +automatism, it becomes evident that our conception of originality must +be at least as broad as that which we would apply in the criticism of +architecture. The disadvantages of the want of such a conception have +been aggravated by the dearth of general knowledge of the structure of +musical art; a knowledge which shows that the parallel we have suggested +between music and architecture, as regards the nature of originality, is +no mere figure of speech. + +In every art there is an antithesis between form and matter, which +becomes reconciled only when the work of art is perfect in its +execution. And, whatever this perfection, the antithesis must always +remain in the mind of the artist and critic to this extent, that some +part of the material seems to be the special subject of technical rule +rather than another. In the plastic and literary arts one type of this +antithesis is more or less permanently maintained in the relation +between subject and treatment. The mere fact that these arts express +themselves by representing things that have some previous independent +existence, helps us to look for originality rather in the things that +make for perfection of treatment than in novelty of subject. But in +music we have no permanent means of deciding which of many aspects we +shall call the subject and which the treatment. In the 16th century the +a priori form existed mainly in the practice of basing almost every +melodic detail of the work on phrases of Gregorian chant or popular +song, treated for the most part in terms of very definitely regulated +polyphonic design, and on harmonic principles regulated in almost every +detail by the relation between the melodic aspects of the church modes +and the necessity for occasional alterations of the strict mode to +secure finality at the close. In modern music such a relation between +form and matter, prescribing as it does for every aspect at every moment +both of the shape and the texture of the music, would exclude the +element of invention altogether. In 16th-century music it by no means +had that effect. An inventive 16th-century composer is as clearly +distinguishable from a dull one as a good architect from a bad. The +originality of the composer resides, in 16th-century music as in all +art, in his whole work; but naturally his conception of property and +ideas will not extend to themes or isolated passages. That man is +entitled to an idea who can show what it means, or who can make it mean +what he likes. Let him wear the giant's robe if it fits him. And it is +merely a local difference in point of view which makes us think that +there is property in themes and no property in forms. Nowadays we happen +to regard the shape of a whole composition as its form, and its theme as +its matter. And, as artistic organization becomes more complex and +heterogeneous, the need of the broadest and most forcible possible +outline of design is more pressingly felt; so that in what we choose to +call form we are willing to sacrifice all conception of originality for +the sake of general intelligibility, while we insist upon complete +originality in those thematic details which we are pleased to call +matter. But, if this explains, it does not excuse our setting up a +criterion for musical originality which can be accepted by no +intelligent critics of other arts, and which is completely upset by the +study of any music earlier than the beginning of the 19th century. + +The difficulty many writers have found in explaining the subject of +Handel's "plagiarisms" is not entirely accounted for by mere lack of +these considerations; but the grossest confusion of ideas as to the +difference between cases in point prevails to this day, and many +discussions which have been raised in regard to the ethical aspect of +the question are frankly absurd.[3] It has been argued, for instance, +that great injustice was done to Buononcini over his unfortunate affair +with the prize madrigal, while his great rival was allowed the credit of +_Israel in Egypt_, which contains a considerable number of entire +choruses (besides hosts of themes) by earlier Italian and German +writers. But the very idea of Handelian oratorio is that of some three +hours of music, religious or secular, arranged, like opera, in the form +of a colossal entertainment, and with high dramatic and emotional +interest imparted to it, if not by the telling of a story, at all events +by the nature and development of the subject. It seems, moreover, to be +entirely overlooked that the age was an age of _pasticcios_. Nothing was +more common than the organization of some such solemn entertainment by +the skilful grouping of favourite pieces. Handel himself never revived +one of his oratorios without inserting in it favourite pieces from his +other works as well as several new numbers; and the story is well known +that the turning point in Gluck's career was his perception of the true +possibilities of dramatic music from the failure of a _pasticcio_ in +which he had reset some rather definitely expressive music to situations +for which it was not originally designed. The success of an oratorio was +due to the appropriateness of its contrasts, together of course with the +mastery of its detail, whether that detail were new or old; and there +are many gradations between a rechauffe of an early work like _The +Triumph of Time and Truth_, or a _pasticcio_ with a few original numbers +like the _Occasional Oratorio_, and such works as _Samson_, which was +entirely new except that the "Dead March" first written for it was +immediately replaced by the more famous one imported from _Saul_. That +the idea of the _pasticcio_ was extremely familiar to the age is shown +by the practice of announcing an oratorio as "new and original," a term +which would obviously be meaningless if it were as much a matter of +course as it is at the present day, and which, if used at all, must +obviously so apply to the whole work without forbidding the composer +from gratifying the public with the reproduction of one or two favourite +arias. But of course the question of originality becomes more serious +when the imported numbers are not the composer's own. And here it is +very noticeable that Handel derived no credit, either with his own +public or with us, from whole movements that are not of his own +designing. In _Israel in Egypt_, the choruses "Egypt was glad when they +departed," "And I will exalt Him," "Thou sentest forth Thy Wrath" and +"The Earth swallowed them," are without exception the most colourless +and unattractive pieces of severe counterpoint to be found among +Handel's works; and it is very difficult to fathom his motive in copying +them from obscure pieces by Erba and Kaspar Kerl, unless it be that he +wished to train his audiences to a better understanding of a polyphonic +style. He certainly felt that the greatest possibilities of music lay in +the higher choral polyphony, and so in _Israel in Egypt_ he designed a +work consisting almost entirely of choruses, and may have wished in +these instances for severe contrapuntal movements which he had not time +to write, though he could have done them far better himself. Be this as +it may, these choruses have certainly added nothing to the popularity +of a work of which the public from the outset complained that there was +not enough solo music; and what effect they have is merely to throw +Handel's own style into relief. To draw any parallel between the theft +of such unattractive details in the grand and intensely Handelian scheme +of _Israel in Egypt_ and Buononcini's alleged theft of a prize madrigal +is merely ridiculous. Handel himself, if he had any suspicion that +contemporaries did not take a sane architect's view of the originality +of large musical schemes,[4] probably gave himself no more trouble about +their scruples on this matter than about other forms of musical +banality. + +The _History of Music_ by Burney, the cleverest and most refined musical +critic of the age, shows in the very freshness of its musical +scholarship how completely unscholarly were the musical ideas of the +time. Burney was incapable of regarding choral music as other than a +highly improving academic exercise in which he himself was proficient; +and for him Handel is the great opera-writer whose choral music will +reward the study of the curious. If Handel had attempted to explain his +methods to the musicians of his age, he would probably have found +himself alone in his opinions as to the property of musical ideas. He +did not trouble to explain, but he made no concealment of his sources. +He left his whole musical library to his copyist, and it was from this +that the sources of his work were discovered. And when the whole series +of plagiarisms is studied, the fact forces itself upon us that nothing +except themes and forms which are common property in all 18th-century +music, has yet been discovered as the source of any work of Handel's +which is not felt as part of a larger design. Operatic arias were never +felt as parts of a whole. The opera was a concert on the stage, and it +stood or fell, not by a dramatic propriety which it notoriously +neglected to consider at all, but by the popularity of its arias. There +is no aria in Handel's operas which is traceable to another composer. +Even in the oratorios there is no solo number in which more than the +themes are pilfered, for in oratorios the solo work still appealed to +the popular criterion of novelty and individual attractiveness. And when +we leave the question of copying of whole movements and come to that of +the adaptation of passages, and still more of themes, Handel shows +himself to be simply on a line with Mozart. Jahn compares the opening of +Mozart's _Requiem_ with that of the first chorus in Handel's _Funeral +Anthem_. Mozart recreates at least as much from Handel's already perfect +framework as Handel ever idealized from the inorganic fragments of +earlier writers. The double counterpoint of the Kyrie in Mozart's +_Requiem_ is still more indisputably identical with that of the last +chorus of Handel's _Joseph_, and if the themes are common property their +combination certainly is not. But the true plagiarist is the man who +does not know the meaning of the ideas he copies, and the true creator +is he in whose hands they remain or become true ideas. The theme "He led +them forth like sheep" in the chorus "But as for his people" is one of +the most beautiful in Handel's works, and the bare statement that it +comes from a serenata by Stradella seems at first rather shocking. But, +to any one who knew Stradella's treatment of it first, Handel's would +come as a revelation actually greater than if he had never heard the +theme before. Stradella makes nothing more of it, and therefore +presumably sees nothing more in it than an agreeable and essentially +frivolous little tune which lends itself to comic dramatic purpose by a +wearisome repetition throughout eight pages of patchy aria and +instrumental ritornello at an ever-increasing pace. What Handel sees in +it is what he makes of it, one of the most solemn and poetic things in +music. Again, it may be very shocking to discover that the famous +opening of the "Hailstone chorus" comes from the patchy and facetious +overture to this same serenata, with which it is identical for ten bars +all in the tonic chord (representing, according to Stradella, someone +knocking at a door). And it is no doubt yet more shocking that the +chorus "He spake the word, and there came all manner of flies" contains +no idea of Handel's own except the realistic swarming violin-passages, +the general structure, and the vocal colouring; whereas the rhythmic and +melodic figures of the voice parts come from an equally patchy _sinfonia +concertata_ in Stradella's work. The real interest of these things ought +not to be denied either by the misstatement that the materials adapted +are mere common property, nor by the calumny that Handel was +uninventive. + +The effects of Handel's original inspiration upon foreign material are +really the best indication of the range of his style. The comic meaning +of the broken rhythm of Stradella's overture becomes indeed Handel's +inspiration in the light of the gigantic tone-picture of the "Hailstone +chorus." In the theme of "He led them forth like sheep" we have already +cited a particular case where Handel perceived great solemnity in a +theme originally intended to be frivolous. The converse process is +equally instructive. In the short Carillon choruses in Saul where the +Israelitish women welcome David after his victory over Goliath, Handel +uses a delightful instrumental tune which stands at the beginning of a +_Te Deum_ by Urio, from which he borrowed an enormous amount of material +in _Saul, L'Allegro_, the _Dettingen Te Deum_ and other works. Urio's +idea is first to make a jubilant and melodious noise from the lower +register of the strings, and then to bring out a flourish of high +trumpets as a contrast. He has no other use for his beautiful tune, +which indeed would not bear more elaborate treatment than he gives it. +The ritornello falls into statement and counterstatement, and the +counterstatement secures one repetition of the tune, after which no more +is heard of it. It has none of the solemnity of church music, and its +value as a contrast to the flourish of trumpets depends, not upon +itself, but upon its position in the orchestra. Handel did not see in it +a fine opening for a great ecclesiastical work, but he saw in it an +admirable expression of popular jubilation, and he understood how to +bring out its character with the liveliest sense of climax and dramatic +interest by taking it at its own value as a popular tune. So he uses it +as an instrumental interlude accompanied with a jingle of carillons, +while the daughters of Israel sing to a square-cut tune those praises of +David which aroused the jealousy of Saul. But now turn to the opening of +the _Dettingen Te Deum_ and see what splendid use is made of the other +side of Urio's idea, the contrast between a jubilant noise in the lowest +part of the scale and the blaze of trumpets at an extreme height. In the +fourth bar of the _Dettingen Te Deum_ we find the same florid trumpet +figures as we find in the fifth bar of Urio's, but at the first moment +they are on oboes. The first four bars beat a tattoo on the tonic and +dominant, with the whole orchestra, including trumpets and drums, in the +lowest possible position and in a stirring rhythm with a boldness and +simplicity characteristic only of a stroke of genius. Then the oboes +appear with Urio's trumpet flourishes; the momentary contrast is at +least as brilliant as Urio's; and as the oboes are immediately followed +by the same figures on the trumpets themselves the contrast gains +incalculably in subtlety and climax. Moreover, these flourishes are more +melodious than the broad and massive opening, instead of being, as in +Urio's scheme, incomparably less so. Lastly, Handel's primitive opening +rhythmic figures inevitably underlie every subsequent inner part and +bass that occurs at every half close and full close throughout the +movement, especially where the trumpets are used. And thus every detail +of his scheme is rendered alive with a rhythmic significance which the +elementary nature of the theme prevents from ever becoming obtrusive. + +No other great composer has ever so overcrowded his life with occasional +and mechanical work as Handel, and in no other artist are the qualities +that make the difference between inspired and uninspired pages more +difficult to analyse. The libretti of his oratorios are full of +absurdities, except when they are derived in every detail from +Scripture, as in the _Messiah_ and _Israel in Egypt_, or from the +classics of English literature, as in _Samson_ and _L'Allegro_. These +absurdities, and the obvious fact that in every oratorio Handel writes +many more numbers than are desirable for one performance, and that he +was continually in later performances adding, transferring and cutting +out solo numbers and often choruses as well--all this may seem at first +sight to militate seriously against the view that Handel's originality +and greatness consists in his grasp of the works as wholes, but in +reality it strengthens that view. These things militate against the +perfection of the whole, but they would have been absolutely fatal to a +work of which the whole is not (as in all true art) greater than the sum +of its parts. That they are felt as absurdities and defects already +shows that Handel created in English oratorio a true art-form on the +largest possible scale. + +There never has been a time when Handel has been overrated, except in so +far as other composers have been neglected. But no composer has suffered +so much from pious misinterpretation and the popular admiration of +misleading externals. It is not the place here to dilate upon the burial +of Handel's art beneath the "mammoth" performances of the Handel +Festivals at the Crystal Palace; nor can we give more than a passing +reference to the effects of "additional accompaniments" in the style of +an altogether later age, started most unfortunately by Mozart (whose +share in the work has been very much misinterpreted and corrupted) and +continued in the middle of the 19th century by musicians of every degree +of intelligence and refinement, until all sense of unity of style has +been lost and does not seem likely to be recovered as a general element +in the popular appreciation of Handel for some time to come. But in +spite of this, Handel will never cease to be revered and loved as one of +the greatest of composers, if we value the criteria of architectonic +power, a perfect sense of style, and the power to rise to the most +sublime height of musical climax by the simplest means. + + Handel's important works have all been mentioned above with their + dates, and a separate detailed list does not seem necessary. He was an + extremely rapid worker, and his later works are dated almost day by + day as they proceed. From this we learn that the _Messiah_ was + sketched and scored within twenty-one days, and that even _Jephtha_, + with an interruption of nearly four months besides several other + delays caused by Handel's failing sight, was begun and finished within + seven months, representing hardly five weeks' actual writing. Handel's + extant works may be roughly summarized from the edition of the + _Handelgesellschaft_ as 41 Italian operas, 2 Italian oratorios, 2 + German Passions, 18 English oratorios, 4 English secular oratorios, 4 + English secular cantatas, and a few other small works, English and + Italian, of the type of oratorio or incidental dramatic music; 3 Latin + settings of the _Te Deum_; the (English) _Dettingen Te Deum_ and + _Utrecht Te Deum and Jubilate_; 4 coronation anthems; 3 volumes of + English anthems (_Chandos Anthems_); 1 volume of Latin church music; 3 + volumes of Italian vocal chamber-music; 1 volume of clavier works; 37 + instrumental duets and trios (sonatas), and 4 volumes of orchestral + music and organ concertos (about 40 works). Precise figures are + impossible as there is no means of drawing the line between + _pasticcios_ and original works. The instrumental pieces especially + are used again and again as overtures to operas and oratorios and + anthems. + + The complete edition of the German _Handelgesellschaft_ suffers from + being the work of one man who would not recognize that his task was + beyond any single man's power. The best arrangements of the vocal + scores are undoubtedly those published by Novello that are not based + on "additional accompaniments." None is absolutely trustworthy, and + those of the editor of the German _Handelgesellschaft_ are sad proofs + of the uselessness of expert library-scholarship without a sound + musical training. Yet Chrysander's services in the restoration of + Handel are beyond praise. We need only mention his discovery of + authentic trombone parts in _Israel in Egypt_ as one among many of his + priceless contributions to musical history and aesthetics. + (D. F. T.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Chrysander says Mattei instead of Ariosti. + + [2] By a dramatic coincidence Handel's blindness interrupted him + during the writing of the chorus, "How dark, oh Lord, are Thy + decrees, ... all our joys to sorrow turning ... as the night succeeds + the day." + + [3] The "moral" question has been raised afresh in reviews of Mr + Sedley Taylor's admirable volume of analysed illustrations (_The + Indebtedness of Handel to works of other Composers_, Cambridge, + 1906). The latest argument is that Handel shows moral obliquity in + borrowing "regrettably" from sources no one could know at the time. + This reasoning makes it mysterious that a man of such moral obliquity + should ever have written a note of his own music in England when he + could have stolen the complete choral works of Bach and most of the + hundred operas of Alessandro Scarlatti with the certainty that the + sources would not be printed for a century after his death, even if + his own name did not then check curiosity among antiquarians. Of + course Handel's plagiarisms would have damaged his reputation if + contemporaries had known of them. His polyphonic scholarship was more + "antiquated" in the 18th century than it is in the 20th. + + [4] Much light would be thrown on the subject if some one + sufficiently ignorant of architecture were to make researches into + Sir Christopher Wren's indebtedness to Italian architects! + + + + +HANDFASTING (A.S. _handfaestnung_, pledging one's hand), primarily the O. +Eng. synonym for _betrothal_ (q.v.), and later a peculiar form of +temporary marriage at one time common in Scotland, the only necessary +ceremony being the verbal pledge of the couple while holding hands. The +pair thus handfasted were, in accordance with Scotch law, entitled to +live together for a year and a day. If then they so wished, the +temporary marriage could be made permanent: if not, they could go their +several ways without reproach, the child, if any, being supported by the +party who objected to further cohabitation. + + + + +HANDICAP (from the expression _hand in cap_, referring to drawing lots), +a disadvantageous condition imposed upon the superior competitor in +sports and games, or an advantage allowed the inferior, in order to +equalize the chances of both. The character of the handicap depends upon +the nature of the sport. Thus in horse-racing the better horse must +carry the heavier weight. In foot races the inferior runners are allowed +to start at certain distances in advance of the best (or "scratch") man, +according to their previous records. In distance competitions (weights, +fly-casting, jumping, &c.) the inferior contestants add certain +distances to their scores. In time contests (yachting, canoe-racing, +&c.) the weaker or smaller competitors subtract certain periods of time +from that actually made, reckoned by the mile. In stroke contests (e.g. +golf) a certain number of strokes are subtracted from or added to the +scores, according to the strength of the players. In chess and draughts +the stronger competitor may play without one or more pieces. In court +games (tennis, lawn-tennis, racquets, &c.) and in billiards certain +points, or percentage of points, are accorded the weaker players. + +Handicapping was applied to horse-racing as early as 1680, though the +word was not used in this connexion much before the middle of the 18th +century. A "Post and Handy-Cap Match" is described in _Pond's Racing +Calendar_ for 1754. A reference to something similar in Germany and +Scandinavia, called _Freimarkt_, may be found in _Germania_, vol. xix. + +Competitions in which handicaps are given are called _handicap-events_ +or _handicaps_. There are many systems which depend upon the whim of the +individual competitors. Thus a tennis player may offer to play against +his inferior with a selzer-bottle instead of a racquet; or a golfer to +play with only one club; or a chess-player to make his moves without +seeing the board. + +The name "handicap" was taken from an ancient English game, to which +Pepys, in his _Diary_ under the date of the 18th of September 1660, thus +refers: "Here some of us fell to handicap, a sport that I never knew +before, which was very good." This game, which became obsolete in the +19th century, was described as early as the 14th in _Piers the Plowman_ +under the name of "New Faire." It was originally played by three +persons, one of whom proposed to "challenge," or exchange, some piece of +property belonging to another for something of his own. The challenge +being accepted an umpire was chosen, and all three put up a sum of money +as a forfeit. The two players then placed their right hands in a cap, or +in their pockets, in which there was loose money, while the umpire +proceeded to describe the two objects of exchange, and to declare what +sum of money the owner of the inferior article should pay as a bonus to +the other. This declaration was made as rapidly as possible and ended +with the invitation, "Draw, gentlemen!" Each player then withdrew and +held out his hand, which he opened. If both hands contained money the +exchange was effected according to the conditions laid down by the +umpire, who then took the forfeit money for himself. If neither hand +contained money the exchange was declined and the umpire took the +forfeit money. If only one player signified his acceptance of the +exchange by holding money in his hand, he was entitled to the +forfeit-money, though the exchange was not made. + +Handicap was also the name of an old game at cards, now obsolete. It +resembled the game of Loo, and probably derived its name from the +ancient sport described above. + + + + +HANDSEL, the O. Eng. term for earnest money; especially in Scotland the +first money taken at a market or fair. The termination _sel_ is the +modern "sell." "Hand" indicates, not a bargain by shaking hands, but the +actual putting of the money into the hand. Handsels were also presents +or earnests of goodwill in the North; thus Handsel Monday, the first +Monday in the year, an occasion for universal tipping, is the equivalent +of the English Boxing day. + + + + +HANDSWORTH. (1) An urban district in the Handsworth parliamentary +division of Staffordshire, England, suburban to Birmingham on the +north-west. Pop. (1891), 32,756; (1901) 52,921. (See BIRMINGHAM.) (2) An +urban district in the Hallamshire parliamentary division of Yorkshire, 4 +m. S.E. of Sheffield. Pop. (1901), 13,404. In this neighbourhood are +extensive collieries and quarries. + + + + +HANDWRITING. Under PALAEOGRAPHY and WRITING, the history of handwriting +is dealt with. Questions of handwriting come before legal tribunals +mainly in connexion with the law of evidence. In Roman law, the +authenticity of documents was proved first by the attesting witnesses; +in the second place, if they were dead, by comparison of handwritings. +It was necessary, however, that the document to be used for purposes of +comparison either should have been executed with the formalities of a +public document, or should have its genuineness proved by three +attesting witnesses. The determination was apparently, in the latter +case, left to experts, who were sworn to give an impartial opinion (Code +4, 21. 20). Proof by comparison of handwritings, with a reference if +necessary to three experts as to the handwriting which is to be used for +the purposes of comparison, is provided for in the French Code of Civil +Procedure (arts. 193 et seq.); and in Quebec (Code Proc. Civ. arts. 392 +et seq.) and St Lucia (Code Civ. Proc. arts. 286 et seq.), the French +system has been adopted with modifications. Comparison by witnesses of +disputed writings with any writing proved to the satisfaction of the +judge to be genuine is accepted in England and Ireland in all legal +proceedings whether criminal or civil, including proceedings before +arbitrators (Denman Act, 28 & 29 Vict. c. 18, 55. 1, 8); and such +writings and the evidence of witnesses respecting the same may be +submitted to the court and jury as evidence of the genuineness or +otherwise of the writing in dispute. It is admitted in Scotland (where +the term _comparatio literarum_ is in use) and in most of the American +states, subject to the same conditions. In England, prior to the Common +Law Procedure Act of 1854 (now superseded by the act of 1866), documents +irrelevant to the matter in issue were not admissible for the sole +purpose of comparison, and this rule has been adopted, and is still +adhered to, in some of the states in America. In England, as in the +United States, and in most legal systems, the primary and best evidence +of handwriting is that of the writer himself. Witnesses who saw him +write the writing in question, or who are familiar with his handwriting +either from having seen him write or from having corresponded with him, +or otherwise, may be called. In cases of disputed handwriting the court +will accept the evidence of experts in handwriting, i.e. persons who +have an adequate knowledge of handwriting, whether acquired in the way +of their business or not, such as solicitors or bank cashiers (_R._ v. +_Silverlock_, 1894, 2 Q.B. 766). In such cases the witness is required +to compare the admitted handwriting of the person whose writing is in +question with the disputed document, and to state in detail the +similarities or differences as to the formation of words and letters, on +which he bases his opinion as to the genuineness or otherwise of the +disputed document. By the use of the magnifying glass, or, as in the +Parnell case, by enlarged photographs of the letters alleged to have +been written by Mr Parnell, the court and jury are much assisted to +appreciate the grounds on which the conclusions of the expert are +founded. Evidence of this kind, being based on opinion and theory, needs +to be very carefully weighed, and the dangers of implicit reliance on it +have been illustrated in many cases (e.g. the Beck case in 1904; and see +_Seaman_ v. _Netherclift_, 1876, 1 C.P.D. 540). Evidence by comparison +of handwriting comes in principally either in default, or in +corroboration, of the other modes of proof. + +Where attestation is necessary to the validity of a document, e.g. wills +and bills of sale, the execution must be proved by one or more of the +attesting witnesses, unless they are dead or cannot be produced, when it +is sufficient to prove the signature of one of them to the attesting +clause (28 & 29 Vict. c. 18, s. 7). Signatures to certain public and +official documents need not in general be proved (see e.g. Evidence Act, +1845, ss. 1, 2). + + See Taylor, _Law of Evidence_ (10th ed., London, 1906); Erskine + _Principles of the Law of Scotland_ (20th ed., Edinburgh, 1903); + Bouvier, _Law Dicty._ (Boston and London, 1897); Harris, + _Identification_ (Albany, 1892); Hagan, _Disputed Handwriting_ (New + York, 1894); also the article IDENTIFICATION. (A. W. R.) + + + + +HANG-CHOW-FU, a city of China, in the province of Cheh-Kiang, 2 m. N.W. +of the Tsien-tang-Kiang, at the southern terminus of the Grand canal, by +which it communicates with Peking. It lies about 100 m. S.W. of +Shanghai, in 30 deg. 20' 20" N., 120 deg. 7' 27" E. Towards the west is +the Si-hu or Western Lake, a beautiful sheet of water, with its banks +and islands studded with villas, monuments and gardens, and its surface +traversed by gaily-painted pleasure boats. Exclusive of extensive and +flourishing suburbs, the city has a circuit, of 12 m.; its streets are +well paved and clean; and it possesses a large number of arches, public +monuments, temples, hospitals and colleges. It has long ranked as one of +the great centres of Chinese commerce and Chinese learning. In 1869 the +silk manufactures alone were said to give employment to 60,000 persons +within its walls, and it has an extensive production of gold and silver +work and tinsel paper. On one of the islands in the lake is the great +Wen-lan-ko or pavilion of literary assemblies, and it is said that at +the examinations for the second degree, twice every three years, from +10,000 to 15,000 candidates come together. In the north-east corner of +the city is the Nestorian church which was noted by Marco Polo, the +facade being "elaborately carved and the gates covered with elegantly +wrought iron." There is a Roman Catholic mission in Hangchow, and the +Church Missionary Society, the American Presbyterians, and the Baptists +have stations. The local dialect differs from the Mandarin mainly in +pronunciation. The population, which is remarkable for gaiety of +clothing, was formerly reckoned at 2,000,000, but is now variously +estimated at 300,000, 400,000 or 800,000. Hang-chow-fu was declared open +to foreign trade in 1896, in pursuance of the Japanese treaty of +Shimonoseki. It is connected with Shanghai by inland canal, which is +navigable for boats drawing up to 4 ft. of water, and which might be +greatly improved by dredging. The cities of Shanghai, Hangchow and +Suchow form the three points of a triangle, each being connected with +the other by canal, and trade is now open by steam between all three +under the inland navigation rules. These canals pass through the richest +and most populous districts of China, and in particular lead into the +great silk-producing districts. They have for many centuries been the +highway of commerce, and afford a cheap and economical means of +transport. Hangchow lies at the head of the large estuary of that name, +which is, however, too shallow for navigation by steamers. The estuary +or bay is funnel-shaped, and its configuration produces at spring tides +a "bore" or tidal wave, which at its maximum reaches a height of 15 to +20 ft. The value of trade passing through the customs in 1899 was +L1,729,000; in 1904 these figures had risen to L2,543,831. + +Hang-chow-fu is the Kinsai of Marco Polo, who describes it as the finest +and noblest city in the world, and speaks enthusiastically of the number +and splendour of its mansions and the wealth and luxuriance of its +inhabitants. According to this authority it had a circuit of 100 m., and +no fewer than 12,000 bridges and 3000 baths. The name Kinsai, which +appears in Wassaf as Khanzai, in Ibn Batuta as Khansa, in Odoric of +Pordenone as Camsay, and elsewhere as Campsay and Cassay, is really a +corruption of the Chinese _King-sze_, capital, the same word which is +still applied to Peking. From the 10th to the 13th century (960-1272) +the city, whose real name was then Ling-nan, was the capital of southern +China and the seat of the Sung dynasty, which was dethroned by the +Mongolians shortly before Marco Polo's visit. Up to 1861, when it was +laid in ruins by the T'aip'ings, Hangchow continued to maintain its +position as one of the most flourishing cities in the empire. + + + + +HANGING, one of the modes of execution under Roman law (_ad furcam +domnatio_), and in England and some other countries the usual form of +capital punishment. It was derived by the Anglo-Saxons from their German +ancestors (Tacitus, _Germ._ 12). Under William the Conqueror this mode +of punishment is said to have been disused in favour of mutilation: but +Henry I. decreed that all thieves taken should be hanged (i.e. summarily +without trial), and by the time of Henry II. hanging was fully +established as a punishment for homicide; the "right of pit and +gallows" was ordinarily included in the royal grants of jurisdiction to +lords of manors and to ecclesiastical[1] and municipal corporations. In +the middle ages every town, abbey, and nearly all the more important +manorial lords had the right of hanging. The clergy had rights, too, in +respect to the gallows. Thus William the Conqueror invested the abbot of +Battle Abbey with authority to save the life of any criminal. From the +end of the 12th century the jurisdiction of the royal courts gradually +became exclusive; as early as 1212 the king's justices sentenced +offenders to be hanged (_Seld. Soc. Publ._ vol. i.; _Select Pleas of the +Crown_, p. 111), and in the Gloucester eyre of 1221 instances of this +sentence are numerous (Maitland, pl. 72, 101, 228). In 1241 a nobleman's +son, William Marise, was hanged for piracy. In the reign of Edward I. +the abbot of Peterborough set up a gallows at Collingham, Notts, and +hanged a thief. In 1279 two hundred and eighty Jews were hanged for +clipping coin. The mayor and the porter of the South Gate of Exeter were +hanged for their neglect in leaving the city gate open at night, thereby +aiding the escape of a murderer. Hanging in time superseded all other +forms of capital punishment for felony. It was substituted in 1790 for +burning as a punishment of female traitors and in 1814 for beheading as +a punishment for male traitors. The older and more primitive modes of +carrying out the sentence were by hanging from the bough of a tree ("the +father to the bough, the son to the plough") or from a gallows. Formerly +in the worst cases of murder it was customary after execution to hang +the criminal's body in chains near the scene of his crime. This was +known as "gibbeting," and, though by no means rare in the earliest +times, was, according to Blackstone, no part of the legal sentence. +Holinshed is the authority for the statement that sometimes culprits +were gibbeted alive, but this is doubtful. It was not until 1752 that +gibbeting was recognized by statute. The act (25 Geo. II. c. 37) +empowered the judges to direct that the dead body of a murderer should +be hung in chains, in the manner practised for the most atrocious +offences, or given over to surgeons to be dissected and anatomized, and +forbade burial except after dissection (see Foster, Crown Law, 107, Earl +Ferrers' case, 1760). The hanging in chains was usually on the spot +where the murder took place. Pirates were gibbeted on the sea shore or +river bank. The act of 1752 was repealed in 1828, but the alternatives +of dissection or hanging in chains were re-enacted and continued in use +until abolished as to dissection by the Anatomy Act in 1832, and as to +hanging in chains in 1834. The last murderer hung in chains seems to +have been James Cook, executed at Leicester on the 10th of August 1832. +The irons used on that occasion are preserved in Leicester prison. +Instead of chains, gibbet irons, a framework to hold the limbs together, +were sometimes used. At the town hall, Rye, Sussex, are preserved the +irons used in 1742 for one John Breeds who murdered the mayor. + +The earlier modes of hanging were gradually disused, and the present +system of hanging by use of the drop is said to have been inaugurated at +the execution of the fourth Earl Ferrers in 1760. The form of scaffold +now in use[2] has under the gallows a drop constructed on the principle +of the trap-doors on a theatrical stage, upon which the convict is +placed under the gallows, a white cap is placed over his head, and when +the halter has been properly adjusted the drop is withdrawn by a +mechanical contrivance worked by a lever, much like those in use on +railways for moving points and signals. The convict falls into a pit, +the length of the fall being regulated by his height and weight. Death +results not from real hanging and strangulation, but from a fracture of +the cervical vertebrae. Compression of the windpipe by the rope and the +obstruction of the circulation aid in the fatal result. Recently the +noose has had imbedded in its fibre a metal eyelet which is adjusted +tightly beneath the ear and considerably expedites death. The convict is +left hanging until life is extinct. + +It was long considered essential that executions, like trials, should be +public, and be carried out in a manner calculated to impress evil-doers. +Partly to this idea, partly to notions of revenge and temporal +punishment of sin, is probably due the rigour of the administration of +the English law. But the methods of execution were unseemly, as +delineated in Hogarth's print of the execution of the idle apprentice, +and were ineffectual in reducing the bulk of crime, which was augmented +by the inefficiency of the police and the uncertainty and severity of +the law, which rendered persons tempted to commit crime either reckless +or confident of escape. The scandals attending public executions led to +an attempt to alter the law in 1841, although many protests had been +made long before, among them those of the novelist Fielding. But perhaps +the most forcible and effectual was that of Charles Dickens in his +letters to _The Times_ written after mixing in the crowd gathered to +witness the execution of the Mannings at Horsemonger Lane gaol in 1849. +After his experiences he came to the conclusion that public executions +attracted the depraved and those affected by morbid curiosity; and that +the spectacle had neither the solemnity nor the salutary effect which +should attend the execution of public justice. His views were strongly +resisted in some quarters; and it was not until 1868 (31 & 32 Vict. c. +24) that they were accepted. The last public hanging in England was that +of Michael Barrett for murder by causing an explosion at Clerkenwell +prison with the object of releasing persons confined there for treason +and felony (Ann. Reg., 1868, p. 63). Under the act of 1868 (31 & 32 +Vict. c. 24), which was adapted from similar legislation already in +force in the Australian colonies convicted murderers are hanged within +the walls of a prison. The sentence of the court is that the convict "be +hanged by the neck until he is dead." The execution of the sentence +devolves on the sheriff of the county (Sheriffs Act 1887, s. 13). As a +general rule the sentence is carried out in England and Ireland at 8 +A.M. on a week-day (not being Monday), in the week following the third +Sunday after sentence was passed. In old times prisoners were often +hanged on the day after sentence was passed; and under the act of 1752 +this was made the rule in cases of murder. A public notice of the date +and hour of execution must be posted on the prison walls not less than +twelve hours before the execution and must remain until the inquest is +over. The persons required to be present are the sheriff, the gaoler, +chaplain and surgeon of the prison, and such other officers of the +prison as the sheriff requires; justices of the peace for the +jurisdiction to which the prison belongs, and such of the relatives, or +such other persons as the sheriff or visiting justices allow, may also +attend. It is usual to allow the attendance of some representatives of +the press. The death of the prisoner is certified by the prison surgeon, +and a declaration that judgment of death has been executed is signed by +the sheriff. An inquest is then held on the body by the coroner for the +jurisdiction and a jury from which prison officers are excluded. The +certificate and declaration, and a duplicate of the coroner's inquiry +also, are sent to the home office, or in Ireland to the lord-lieutenant, +and the body of the prisoner is interred in quicklime within the prison +walls if space is available. It is also the practice to toll the bell of +the parish or other neighbouring church, for fifteen minutes before and +fifteen minutes after the execution. The hoisting of the black flag at +the moment of execution was abolished in 1902. The regulations as to +execution are printed in the Statutory Rules and Orders, Revised ed. +1904, vol. x. (tits. Prison E. and Prison I). The act of 1868 applies +only to executions for murder; but since the passing of the act there +have been no executions for any other crime within the United Kingdom. +(See further CAPITAL PUNISHMENT.) + +In Scotland execution by hanging is carried out in the same manner as in +England and Ireland, but under the supervision of the magistrates of the +burgh in which it is decreed to take place, and in lieu of the inquest +required in England and Ireland an inquiry is held at the instance of +the procurator-fiscal before a sheriff or sheriff substitute (act of +1868, s. 13). The procedure at the execution is governed by the act of +1868 and the Scottish Prison Rules, rr. 465-469 (Stat. Rules and Orders, +Revised ed. 1904, tit. Prison S). + +_British Dominions beyond the Seas._--Throughout the King's dominions +hanging is the regular method of executing sentence of death. In India +the Penal Code superseded the modes of punishment under Mahommedan law, +and s. 368 of the Criminal Procedure Code of 1898 provides that sentence +of death is to be executed by hanging by the neck. + +In Canada the sentence is executed within a prison under conditions very +similar to those in England (Criminal Code, 1892; ss. 936-945). In +Australia the execution takes place within the prison walls, at a time +and place appointed by the governor of the state. See Queensland Code, +1899, s. 664; Western Australia Code, 1901, s. 663; in these states no +inquest is held. In Western Australia the governor may cause an +aboriginal native to be executed outside a prison. In New Zealand the +only mode of execution is by hanging within a prison (Act of 1883). + +_United States._---In all the states except New York, Massachusetts, New +Jersey, North Carolina, Mississippi, Virginia, and Ohio (see +ELECTROCUTION) persons sentenced to death are hanged. In Utah the +criminal may elect to be shot instead. + + The only countries, whose law is not of direct English origin, which + inflict capital punishment by hanging are Japan, Austria, Hungary and + Russia. (W. F. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See Pollock and Maitland vol. i. 563. The sole survival of these + grants is the jurisdiction of the justices of the Soke of + Peterborough to try for capital offences at their quarter sessions. + + [2] In most counties in Ireland the scaffold used (in 1852) to + consist in an iron balcony permanently fixed outside the gaol wall. + There was a small door in the wall commanding the balcony and opening + out upon it. The bottom of the iron balcony or cage was so + constructed that on the withdrawal of a pin or bolt which could be + managed from within the gaol, the trap-door upon which the culprit + stood dropped from under his feet. The upper end of the rope was + fastened to a strong iron bar, which projected over the trap-door. + There were usually two or three trap-doors on the same balcony, so + that, if required, two or more men could be hanged simultaneously. + (Trench, _Realities of Irish Life_ (1869), 280.) + + + + +HANGO, a port and sea-bathing resort situated on the promontory of +Hangoudd, to the extreme south-west of Finland. Hango owes its +commercial importance to the fact that it is practically the only winter +ice-free port in Finland, and is thus of value both to the Finnish and +the Russian sea-borne trade. When incorporated in 1874 it had only a few +hundred inhabitants; in 1900 it had 2501 and it has now over six +thousand (5986 in 1904). It is connected by railway with Helsingfors and +Tammerfors, and is the centre of the Finnish butter export, which now +amounts to over L1,000,000 yearly. There is a considerable import of +coal, cotton, iron and breadstuffs, the chief exports being butter, +fish, timber and wood pulp. During the period of emigration, owing to +political troubles with Russia, over 12,000 Finns sailed from Hango in a +single year (1901), mostly for the United States and Canada. Hango now +takes front rank as a fashionable watering-place, especially for wealthy +Russians, having a dry climate and a fine strand. + + + + +HANKA, WENCESLAUS (1791-1861), Bohemian philologist, was born at +Horeniowes, a hamlet of eastern Bohemia, on the 10th of June 1791. He +was sent in 1807 to school at Koniggratz, to escape the conscription, +then to the university of Prague, where he founded a society for the +cultivation of the Czech language. At Vienna, where he afterwards +studied law, he established a Czech periodical; and in 1813 he made the +acquaintance of Joseph Dobrowsky, the eminent philologist. On the 16th +of September 1817 Hanka alleged that he had discovered some ancient +Bohemian manuscript poems (the Koniginhof MS.) of the 13th and 14th +century in the church tower of the village of Kralodwor, or Koniginhof. +These were published in 1818, under the title _Kralodworsky Rukopis_, +with a German translation by Swoboda. Great doubt, however, was felt as +to their genuineness, and Dobrowsky, by pronouncing _The Judgment of +Libussa_, another manuscript found by Hanka, an "obvious fraud," +confirmed the suspicion. Some years afterwards Dobrowsky saw fit to +modify his decision, but by modern Czech scholars the MS. is regarded as +a forgery. A translation into English, _The Manuscript of the Queen's +Court_, was made by Wratislaw in 1852. The originals were presented by +the discoverer to the Bohemian museum at Prague, of which he was +appointed librarian in 1818. In 1848 Hanka, who was an ardent +Panslavist, took part in the Slavonic congress and other peaceful +national demonstrations, being the founder of the political society +Slovanska Lipa. He was elected to the imperial diet at Vienna, but +declined to take his seat. In the winter of 1848 he became lecturer and +in 1849 professor of Slavonic languages in the university of Prague, +where he died on the 12th of January 1861. + + His chief works and editions are the following: _Hankowy Pjsne_ + (Prague, 1815), a volume of poems; _Starobyla Skladani_ (1817-1826), + in 5 vols.--a collection of old Bohemian poems, chiefly from + unpublished manuscripts; _A Short History of the Slavonic Peoples_ + (1818); _A Bohemian Grammar_ (1822) and _A Polish Grammar_ + (1839)--these grammars were composed on a plan suggested by Dobrowsky; + _Igor_ (1821), an ancient Russian epic, with a translation into + Bohemian; a part of the Gospels from the Reims manuscript in the + Glagolitic character (1846); the old Bohemian Chronicles of _Dalimil_ + (1848) and the _History of Charles IV._, by Procop Lupac (1848); + _Evangelium Ostromis_ (1853). + + + + +HANKOW ("Mouth of the Han"), the great commercial centre of the middle +portion of the Chinese empire, and since 1858 one of the principal +places opened to foreign trade. It is situated on the northern side of +the Yangtsze-kiang at its junction with the Han river, about 600 m. W. +of Shanghai in 30 deg. 32' 51" N., 114 deg. 19' 55" E., at a height of +150 ft. By the Chinese it is not considered a separate city, but as a +suburb of the now decadent city of Hanyang; and it may almost be said to +stand in a similar relation to Wu-chang the capital of the province of +Hupeh, which lies immediately opposite on the southern bank of the +Yangtsze-kiang. Hankow extends for about a mile along the main river and +about two and a half along the Han. It is protected by a wall 18 ft. +high, which was erected in 1863 and has a circuit of about 4 m. Within +recent years the port has made rapid advance in wealth and importance. +The opening up of the upper waters of the Yangtsze to steam navigation +has made it a commercial _entrepot_ second only to Shanghai. It is the +terminus of a railway between Peking and the Yangtsze, the northern half +of the trunk line from Peking to Canton. There is daily communication by +regular lines of steamers with Shanghai, and smaller steamers ply on the +upper section of the river between Hankow and Ich'ang. The principal +article of export continues to be black tea, of which staple Hankow has +always been the central market. The bulk of the leaf tea, however, now +goes to Russia by direct steamers to Odessa instead of to London as +formerly, and a large quantity goes overland via Tientsin and Siberia in +the form of brick tea. The quantity of brick tea thus exported in 1904 +was upwards of 10 million lb. The exports which come next in value are +opium, wood-oil, hides, beans, cotton yarn and raw silk. The population +of Hankow, together with the city of Wu-chang on the opposite bank, is +estimated at 800,000, and the number of foreign residents is about 500. +Large iron-works have been erected by the Chinese authorities at +Hanyang, a couple of miles higher up the river, and at Wuchang there are +two official cotton mills. The British concession, on which the business +part of the foreign settlement is built, was obtained in 1861 by a lease +in perpetuity from the Chinese authorities in favour of the crown. By +1863 a great embankment and a roadway were completed along the river, +which may rise as much as 50 ft. or more above its ordinary levels, and +not infrequently, as in 1849 and 1866, lays a large part of the town +under water. On the former occasion little was left uncovered but the +roofs of the houses. In 1864 a public assay office was established. +Sub-leases for a term of years are granted by the crown to private +individuals; local control, including the policing of the settlement, is +managed by a municipal council elected under regulations promulgated by +the British minister in China, acting by authority of the sovereign's +orders in council. Foreigners, i.e. non-British, are admitted to become +lease-holders on their submitting to be bound by the municipal +regulations. The concession, however, gives no territorial jurisdiction. +All foreigners, of whatever nationality, are justiciable only before +their own consular authorities by virtue of the extra-territorial +clauses of their treaties with China. In 1895 a concession, on similar +terms to that under which the British is held, was obtained by Germany, +and this was followed by concessions to France and Russia. These three +concessions all lie on the north bank of the river and immediately below +the British. An extension of the British concession backwards was +granted in 1898. The Roman Catholics, the London Missionary Society and +the Wesleyans have all missions in the town; and there are two +missionary hospitals. The total trade in 1904 was valued at L15,401,076 +(L9,042,190 being exports and L6,358,886 imports) as compared with a +total of L17,183,400 in 1891 and L11,628,000 in 1880. + + + + +HANLEY, a market town and parliamentary borough of Staffordshire, +England, in the Potteries district, 148 m. N.W. from London, on the +North Staffordshire railway. Pop. (1891) 54,946; (1901) 61,599. The +parliamentary borough includes the adjoining town of Burslem. The town, +which lies on high ground, has handsome municipal buildings, free +library, technical and art museum, elementary, science and art schools, +and a large park. Its manufactures include porcelain, encaustic tiles, +and earthenware, and give employment to the greater part of the +population, women and children being employed almost as largely as men. +In the neighbourhood coal and iron are obtained. Hanley is of modern +development. Its municipal constitution dates from 1857, the +parliamentary borough from 1885, and the county borough from 1888. +Shelton, Hope, Northwood and Wellington are populous ecclesiastical +parishes included within its boundaries. That of Etruria, adjoining on +the west, originated in the Ridge House pottery works of Josiah Wedgwood +and Thomas Bentley, who founded them in 1769, naming them after the +country of the Etruscans in Italy. Etruria Hall was the scene of +Wedgwood's experiments. The parliamentary borough of Hanley returns one +member. The town was governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen, and 18 councillors +until under the "Potteries federation" scheme (1908) it became part of +the borough of Stoke-on-Trent (q.v.) in 1910. + + + + +HANNA, MARCUS ALONZO (1837-1904), American politician, was born at New +Lisbon (now Lisbon) Columbiana county, Ohio, on the 24th of September +1837. In 1852 he removed with his father to Cleveland, where the latter +established himself in the wholesale grocery business, and the son +received his education in the public schools of that city, and at the +Western Reserve University. Leaving college before the completion of his +course, he became associated with his father in business, and on his +father's death (1862) became a member of the firm. In 1867 he entered +into partnership with his father-in-law, Daniel P. Rhodes, in the coal +and iron business. It was largely due to Hanna's progressive methods +that the business of the firm, which became M. A. Hanna & Company in +1877, was extended to include the ownership of a fleet of lake +steam-ships constructed in their own shipyards, and the control and +operation of valuable coal and iron mines. Subsequently he became +largely interested in street railway properties in Cleveland and +elsewhere, and in various banking institutions. In early life he had +little time for politics, but after 1880 he became prominent in the +affairs of the Republican party in Cleveland, and in 1884 and 1888 was a +delegate to the Republican National Convention, in the latter year being +associated with William McKinley in the management of the John Sherman +canvass. It was not, however, until 1896, when he personally managed the +canvass that resulted in securing the Republican presidential nomination +for William McKinley at the St Louis Convention (at which he was a +delegate), that he became known throughout the United States as a +political manager of great adroitness, tact and resourcefulness. +Subsequently he became chairman of the Republican National Committee, +and managed with consummate skill the campaign of 1896 against William +Jennings Bryan and "free-silver." In March 1897 he was appointed, by +Governor Asa S. Bushnell (1834-1904) United States senator from Ohio, to +succeed John Sherman. In the senate, to which in January 1898 he was +elected for the short term ending on the 3rd of March 1899 and for the +succeeding full term, he took little part in the debates, but was +recognized as one of the principal advisers of the McKinley +administration, and his influence was large in consequence. Apart from +politics he took a deep and active interest in the problems of capital +and labour, was one of the organizers (1901) and the first president of +the National Civic Federation, whose purpose was to solve social and +industrial problems, and in December 1901 became chairman of a permanent +board of conciliation and arbitration established by the Federation. +After President Roosevelt's policies became defined, Senator Hanna came +to be regarded as the leader of the conservative branch of the +Republican party and a possible presidential candidate in 1904. He died +at Washington on the 15th of February 1904. + + + + +HANNAY, JAMES (1827-1873), Scottish critic, novelist and publicist, was +born at Dumfries on the 17th of February 1827. He came of the Hannays of +Sorbie, an ancient Galloway family. He entered the navy in 1840 and +served till 1845, when he adopted literature as his profession. He acted +as reporter on the _Morning Chronicle_ and gradually obtained a +connexion, writing for the quarterly and monthly journals. In 1857 +Hannay contested the Dumfries burghs in the Conservative interest, but +without success. He edited the _Edinburgh Courant_ from 1860 till 1864, +when he removed to London. From 1868 till his death on the 8th of +January 1873 he was British consul at Barcelona. His letters to the +_Pall Mall Gazette_ "From an Englishman in Spain" were highly +appreciated. Hannay's best books are his two naval novels, _Singleton +Fontenoy_ (1850) and _Eustace Conyers_ (1855); _Satire and Satirists_ +(1854); and _Essays from the Quarterly Review_ (1861). _Satire_ not only +shows loving appreciation of the great satirists of the past, but is +itself instinct with wit and fine satiric power. The book sparkles with +epigrams and apposite classical allusions, and contains admirable +critical estimates of Horace (Hannay's favourite author), Juvenal, +Erasmus, Sir David Lindsay, George Buchanan, Boileau, Butler, Dryden, +Swift, Pope, Churchill, Burns, Byron and Moore. + + Among his other works are _Biscuits and Grog, Claret Cup_, and _Hearts + are Trumps_ (1848); _King Dobbs_ (1849); _Sketches in Ultramarine_ + (1853); an edition of the _Poems_ of Edgar Allan Poe, to which he + prefixed an essay on the poet's life and genius (1852); _Characters + and Criticisms_, consisting mainly of his contributions to the + _Edinburgh Courant_ (1865); _A Course of English Literature_ (1866); + _Studies on Thackeray_ (1869); and a family history entitled _Three + Hundred Years of a Norman House_ (the Gurneys) (1867). + + + + +HANNEN, JAMES HANNEN, BARON (1821-1894), English judge, son of a London +merchant, was born at Peckham in 1821. He was educated at St Paul's +school and at Heidelberg University, which was famous as a school of +law. Called to the bar at the Middle Temple in 1848, he joined the home +circuit. At this time he also wrote for the press, and supplied special +reports for the _Morning Chronicle_. Though not eloquent in speech, he +was clear, accurate and painstaking, and soon advanced in his +profession, passing many more brilliant competitors. He appeared for the +claimant in the Shrewsbury peerage case in 1858, when the 3rd Earl +Talbot was declared to be entitled to the earldom of Shrewsbury as the +descendant of the 2nd earl; was principal agent for Great Britain on the +mixed British and American commission for the settlement of outstanding +claims, 1853-1855; and assisted in the prosecution of the Fenian +prisoners at Manchester. In 1868 Hannen was appointed a judge of the +Court of Queen's Bench. In many cases he took a strong position of his +own, notably in that of _Farrar_ v. _Close_ (1869), which materially +affected the legal status of trade unions and was regarded by unionists +as a severe blow to their interests. Hannen became judge of the Probate +and Divorce Court in 1872, and in 1875 he was appointed president of the +probate and admiralty division of the High Court of Justice. Here he +showed himself a worthy successor to Cresswell and Penzance. Many +important causes came before him, but he will chiefly be remembered for +the manner in which he presided over the Parnell special commission. His +influence pervaded the whole proceedings, and it is understood that he +personally penned a large part of the voluminous report. Hannen's last +public service was in connexion with the Bering Sea inquiry at Paris, +when he acted as one of the British arbitrators. In January 1891 he was +appointed a lord of appeal in ordinary (with the dignity of a life +peerage), but in that capacity he had few opportunities for displaying +his powers, and he retired at the close of the session of 1893. He died +in London, after a prolonged illness, on the 29th of March 1894. + + + + +HANNIBAL ("mercy" or "favour of Baal"), Carthaginian general and +statesman, son of Hamilcar Barca (q.v.), was born in 249 or 247 B.C. +Destined by his father to succeed him in the work of vengeance against +Rome, he was taken to Spain, and while yet a boy gave ample evidence of +his military aptitude. Upon the death of his brother-in-law Hasdrubal +(221) he was acclaimed commander-in-chief by the soldiers and confirmed +in his appointment by the Carthaginian government. After two years spent +in completing the conquest of Spain south of the Ebro, he set himself to +begin what he felt to be his life's task, the conquest and humiliation +of Rome. Accordingly in 219 he seized some pretext for attacking the +town of Saguntum (mod. Murviedro), which stood under the special +protection of Rome, and disregarding the protests of Roman envoys, +stormed it after an eight months' siege. As the home government, in view +of Hannibal's great popularity, did not venture to repudiate this +action, the declaration of war which he desired took place at the end of +the year. + +Of the large army of Libyan and Spanish mercenaries which he had at his +disposal Hannibal selected the most trustworthy and devoted contingents, +and with these determined to execute the daring plan of carrying the war +into the heart of Italy by a rapid march through Spain and Gaul. +Starting in the spring of 218 he easily fought his way through the +northern tribes to the Pyrenees, and by conciliating the Gaulish chiefs +on his passage contrived to reach the Rhone before the Romans could take +any measures to bar his advance. After out-manoeuvring the natives, who +endeavoured to prevent his crossing, Hannibal evaded a Roman force sent +to operate against him in Gaul; he proceeded up the valley of one of the +tributaries of the Rhone (Isere or, more probably, Durance), and by +autumn arrived at the foot of the Alps. His passage over the +mountain-chain, at a point which cannot be determined with certainty, +though the balance of the available evidence inclines to the Mt Genevre +pass, and fair cases can be made out for the Col d'Argentiere and for Mt +Cenis, was one of the most memorable achievements of any military force +of ancient times. Though the opposition of the natives and the +difficulties of ground and climate cost Hannibal half his army, his +perilous march brought him directly into Roman territory and entirely +frustrated the attempts of the enemy to fight out the main issue on +foreign ground. His sudden appearance among the Gauls, moreover, enabled +him to detach most of the tribes from their new allegiance to the Romans +before the latter could take steps to check rebellion. After allowing +his soldiers a brief rest to recover from their exertions Hannibal first +secured his rear by subduing the hostile tribe of the Taurini (mod. +Turin), and moving down the Po valley forced the Romans by virtue of his +superior cavalry to evacuate the plain of Lombardy. In December of the +same year he had an opportunity of showing his superior military skill +when the Roman commander attacked him on the river Trebia (near +Placentia); after wearing down the excellent Roman infantry he cut it to +pieces by a surprise attack from an ambush in the flank. Having secured +his position in north Italy by this victory, he quartered his troops for +the winter on the Gauls, whose zeal in his cause thereupon began to +abate. Accordingly in spring 217 Hannibal decided to find a more +trustworthy base of operations farther south; he crossed the Apennines +without opposition, but in the marshy lowlands of the Arno he lost a +large part of his force through disease and himself became blind in one +eye. Advancing through the uplands of Etruria he provoked the main Roman +army to a hasty pursuit, and catching it in a defile on the shore of +Lake Trasimenus destroyed it in the waters or on the adjoining slopes +(see TRASIMENE). He had now disposed of the only field force which could +check his advance upon Rome, but realizing that without siege engines he +could not hope to take the capital, he preferred to utilize his victory +by passing into central and southern Italy and exciting a general revolt +against the sovereign power. Though closely watched by a force under +Fabius Maximus Cunctator, he was able to carry his ravages far and wide +through Italy: on one occasion he was entrapped in the lowlands of +Campania, but set himself free by a stratagem which completely deluded +his opponent. For the winter he found comfortable quarters in the +Apulian plain, into which the enemy dared not descend. In the campaign +of 217 Hannibal had failed to obtain a following among the Italians; in +the following year he had an opportunity of turning the tide in his +favour. A large Roman army advanced into Apulia in order to crush him, +and accepted battle on the site of Cannae. Thanks mainly to brilliant +cavalry tactics, Hannibal, with much inferior numbers, managed to +surround and cut to pieces the whole of this force; moreover, the moral +effect of this victory was such that all the south of Italy joined his +cause. Had Hannibal now received proper material reinforcements from his +countrymen at Carthage he might have made a direct attack upon Rome; for +the present he had to content himself with subduing the fortresses which +still held out against him, and the only other notable event of 216 was +the defection of Capua, the second largest city of Italy, which Hannibal +made his new base. + +In the next few years Hannibal was reduced to minor operations which +centred mainly round the cities of Campania. He failed to draw his +opponents into a pitched battle, and in some slighter engagements +suffered reverses. As the forces detached under his lieutenants were +generally unable to hold their own, and neither his home government nor +his new ally Philip V. of Macedon helped to make good his losses, his +position in south Italy became increasingly difficult and his chance of +ultimately conquering Rome grew ever more remote. In 212 he gained an +important success by capturing Tarentum, but in the same year he lost +his hold upon Campania, where he failed to prevent the concentration of +three Roman armies round Capua. Hannibal attacked the besieging armies +with his full force in 211, and attempted to entice them away by a +sudden march through Samnium which brought him within 3 m. of Rome, but +caused more alarm than real danger to the city. But the siege continued, +and the town fell in the same year. In 210 Hannibal again proved his +superiority in tactics by a severe defeat inflicted at Herdoniae (mod. +Ordona) in Apulia upon a proconsular army, and in 208 destroyed a Roman +force engaged in the siege of Locri Epizephyrii. But with the loss of +Tarentum in 209 and the gradual reconquest by the Romans of Samnium and +Lucania his hold on south Italy was almost lost. In 207 he succeeded in +making his way again into Apulia, where he waited to concert measures +for a combined march upon Rome with his brother Hasdrubal (q.v.). On +hearing, however, of his brother's defeat and death at the Metaurus he +retired into the mountain fastnesses of Bruttium, where he maintained +himself for the ensuing years. With the failure of his brother Mago +(q.v.) in Liguria (205-203) and of his own negotiations with Philip of +Macedon, the last hope of recovering his ascendancy in Italy was lost. +In 203, when Scipio was carrying all before him in Africa and the +Carthaginian peace-party were arranging an armistice, Hannibal was +recalled from Italy by the "patriot" party at Carthage. After leaving a +record of his expedition, engraved in Punic and Greek upon brazen +tablets, in the temple of Juno at Crotona, he sailed back to Africa. His +arrival immediately restored the predominance of the war-party, who +placed him in command of a combined force of African levies and of his +mercenaries from Italy. In 202 Hannibal, after meeting Scipio in a +fruitless peace conference, engaged him in a decisive battle at Zama. +Unable to cope with his indifferent troops against the well-trained and +confident Roman soldiers, he experienced a crushing defeat which put an +end to all resistance on the part of Carthage. + +Hannibal was still only in his forty-sixth year. He soon showed that he +could be a statesman as well as a soldier. Peace having been concluded, +he was appointed chief magistrate (_suffetes, sofet_). The office had +become rather insignificant, but Hannibal restored its power and +authority. The oligarchy, always jealous of him, had even charged him +with having betrayed the interests of his country while in Italy, and +neglected to take Rome when he might have done so. The dishonesty and +incompetence of these men had brought the finances of Carthage into +grievous disorder. So effectively did Hannibal reform abuses that the +heavy tribute imposed by Rome could be paid by instalments without +additional and extraordinary taxation. + +Seven years after the victory of Zama, the Romans, alarmed at this new +prosperity, demanded Hannibal's surrender. Hannibal thereupon went into +voluntary exile. First he journeyed to Tyre, the mother-city of +Carthage, and thence to Ephesus, where he was honourably received by +Antiochus III. of Syria, who was then preparing for war with Rome. +Hannibal soon saw that the king's army was no match for the Romans. He +advised him to equip a fleet and throw a body of troops on the south of +Italy, adding that he would himself take the command. But he could not +make much impression on Antiochus, who listened more willingly to +courtiers and flatterers, and would not entrust Hannibal with any +important charge. In 190 he was placed in command of a Phoenician fleet, +but was defeated in a battle off the river Eurymedon. + +From the court of Antiochus, who seemed prepared to surrender him to the +Romans, Hannibal fled to Crete, but he soon went back to Asia, and +sought refuge with Prusias, king of Bithynia. Once more the Romans were +determined to hunt him out, and they sent Flaminius to insist on his +surrender. Prusias agreed to give him up, but Hannibal did not choose to +fall into his enemies' hands. At Libyssa, on the eastern shore of the +Sea of Marmora, he took poison, which, it was said, he had long carried +about with him in a ring. The precise year of his death was a matter of +controversy. If, as Livy seems to imply, it was 183, he died in the same +year as Scipio Africanus. + +As to the transcendent military genius of Hannibal there cannot be two +opinions. The man who for fifteen years could hold his ground in a +hostile country against several powerful armies and a succession of able +generals must have been a commander and a tactician of supreme capacity. +In the use of stratagems and ambuscades he certainly surpassed all other +generals of antiquity. Wonderful as his achievements were, we must +marvel the more when we take into account the grudging support he +received from Carthage. As his veterans melted away, he had to organize +fresh levies on the spot. We never hear of a mutiny in his army, +composed though it was of Africans, Spaniards and Gauls. Again, all we +know of him comes for the most part from hostile sources. The Romans +feared and hated him so much that they could not do him justice. Livy +speaks of his great qualities, but he adds that his vices were equally +great, among which he singles out his "more than Punic perfidy" and "an +inhuman cruelty." For the first there would seem to be no further +justification than that he was consummately skilful in the use of +ambuscades. For the latter there is, we believe, no more ground than +that at certain crises he acted in the general spirit of ancient +warfare. Sometimes he contrasts most favourably with his enemy. No such +brutality stains his name as that perpetrated by Claudius Nero on the +vanquished Hasdrubal. Polybius merely says that he was accused of +cruelty by the Romans and of avarice by the Carthaginians. He had indeed +bitter enemies, and his life was one continuous struggle against +destiny. For steadfastness of purpose, for organizing capacity and a +mastery of military science he has perhaps never had an equal. + + AUTHORITIES.--Polybius iii.-xv., xxi.-ii., xxiv.; Livy xxi.-xxx.; + Cornelius Nepos, _Vita Hannibalis_; Appian, _Bellum Hannibalicum_; E. + Hennebert, _Histoire d'Annibal_ (Paris, 1870-1891, 3 vols.); F. A. + Dodge, _Great Captains, Hannibal_ (Boston and New York, 1891); D. + Grassi, _Annibale giudicato da Polibio e Tito Livio_ (Vicenza, 1896); + W. How, _Hannibal and the Great War between Rome and Carthage_ + (London, 1899); Te Montanari, _Annibale_, down to 217 B.C. (Rovigo, + 1901); K. Lehmann, _Die Angriffe der drei Barkiden auf Italien_ + (Leipzig, 1905), with bibliography. See also PUNIC WARS and articles + on the chief battle sites. On Hannibal's passage through Gaul and the + Alps see T. Arnold, _The Second Punic War_ (ed. W. T. Arnold, London, + 1886), Appendix B, pp. 362-373, with bibliography; D. Freshfield in + _Alpine Journal_ (1883), pp. 267-300; L. Montlahuc, _Le Vrai Chemin + d'Annibal a travers les Alpes_ (Paris, 1896); J. Fuchs, _Hannibals + Alpenubergang_ (Vienna, 1897); G. E. Marindin in _Classical Review_ + (1899), pp. 238-249; W. Osiander, _Der Hannibalweg neu untersucht_ + (Berlin, 1900); P. Azan, _Annibal dans les Alpes_ (Paris, 1902); J. L. + Colin, _Annibal en Gaule_ (Paris, 1904); E. Hesselmeyer, _Hannibals + Alpenubergang im Lichte der neueren Kriegsgeschichte_, (1906); + Kromyer, in _N. Jahrb. f. kl. Alt._ (1907). (M. O. B. C.) + + + + +HANNIBAL, a city of Marion county, Missouri, U.S.A., on the Mississippi +river, about 120 m. N.W. of Saint Louis. Pop. (1890), 12,857; (1900), +12,780, including 920 foreign-born and 1836 negroes; (1910) 18,341. It +is served by the Wabash, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the Chicago, +Burlington & Quincy, and the St Louis & Hannibal railways, and by boat +lines to Saint Louis, Saint Paul and intermediate points. The business +section is in the level bottom-lands of the river, while the residential +portion spreads up the banks, which afford fine building sites with +beautiful views. Mark Twain's boyhood was spent at Hannibal, which is +the setting of _Life on the Mississippi_, _Huckleberry Finn_ and _Tom +Sawyer_; Hannibal Cave, described in _Tom Sawyer_, extends for miles +beneath the river and its bluffs. Hannibal has a good public library +(1889; the first in Missouri); other prominent buildings are the Federal +building, the court house, a city hospital and the high school. The +river is here spanned by a long iron and steel bridge connecting with +East Hannibal, Ill. Hannibal is the trade centre of a rich agricultural +region, and has an important lumber trade, railway shops, and +manufactories of lumber, shoes, stoves, flour, cigars, lime, Portland +cement and pearl buttons (made from mussel shells); the value of the +city's factory products increased from $2,698,720 in 1900 to $4,442,099 +in 1905, or 64.6%. In the vicinity are valuable deposits of crinoid +limestone, a coarse white building stone which takes a good polish. The +electric-lighting plant is owned and operated by the municipality. +Hannibal was laid out as a town in 1819 (its origin going back to +Spanish land grants, which gave rise to much litigation) and was first +chartered as a city in 1839. The town of South Hannibal was annexed to +it in 1843. + + + + +HANNINGTON, JAMES (1847-1885), English missionary, was born at +Hurstpierpoint, in Sussex, on the 3rd of September 1847. From earliest +childhood he displayed a love of adventure and natural history. At +school he made little progress, and left at the age of fifteen for his +father's counting-house at Brighton. He had no taste for office work, +and much of his time was occupied in commanding a battery of volunteers +and in charge of a steam launch. At twenty-one he decided on a clerical +career and entered St Mary's Hall, Oxford, where he exercised a +remarkable influence over his fellow-undergraduates. He was, however, a +desultory student, and in 1870 was advised to go to the little village +of Martinhoe, in Devon, for quiet reading, but distinguished himself +more by his daring climbs after sea-gulls' eggs and his engineering +skill in cutting a pathway along precipitous cliffs to some caves. In +1872 the death of his mother made a deep impression upon him. He began +to read hard, took his B.A. degree, and in 1873 was ordained deacon and +placed in charge of the small country parish of Trentishoe in Devon. +Whilst curate in charge at Hurstpierpoint, his thoughts were turned by +the murder of two missionaries on the shores of Victoria Nyanza to +mission work. He offered himself to the Church Missionary Society and +sailed on the 17th of May 1882, at the head of a party of six, for +Zanzibar, and thence set out for Uganda; but, prostrated by fever and +dysentery, he was obliged to return to England in 1883. On his recovery +he was consecrated bishop of Eastern Equatorial Africa (June 1884), and +in January 1885 started again for the scene of his mission, and visited +Palestine on the way. On his arrival at Freretown, near Mombasa, he +visited many stations in the neighbourhood. Then, filled with the idea +of opening a new route to Uganda, he set out and reached a spot near +Victoria Nyanza in safety. His arrival, however, roused the suspicion of +the natives, and under King Mwanga's orders he was lodged in a filthy +hut swarming with rats and vermin. After eight days his men were +murdered, and on the 29th of October 1885 he himself was speared in both +sides, his last words to the soldiers appointed to kill him being, "Go, +tell Mwanga I have purchased the road to Uganda with my blood." + + His _Last Journals_ were edited in 1888. See also _Life_ by E. C. + Dawson (1887); and W. G. Berry, _Bishop Hannington_ (1908). + + + + + +HANNINGTON, a lake of British East Africa in the eastern rift-valley +just south of the equator and in the shadow of the Laikipia escarpment. +It is 7 m. long by 2 m. broad. The water is shallow and brackish. +Standing in the lake and along its shores are numbers of dead trees, the +remains of an ancient forest, which serve as eyries for storks, herons +and eagles. The banks and flats at the north end of the lake are the +resort of hundreds of thousands of flamingoes. The places where they +cluster are dazzling white with guano deposits. The lake is named after +Bishop James Hannington. + + + + +HANNO, the name of a large number of Carthaginian soldiers and +statesmen. Of the majority little is known; the most important are the +following[1]:-- + +1. HANNO, Carthaginian navigator, who probably flourished about 500 B.C. +It has been conjectured that he was the son of the Hamilcar who was +killed at Himera (480), but there is nothing to prove this. He was the +author of an account of a coasting voyage on the west coast of Africa, +undertaken for the purpose of exploration and colonization. The +original, inscribed on a tablet in the Phoenician language, was hung up +in the temple of Melkarth on his return to Carthage. What is generally +supposed to be a Greek translation of this is still extant, under the +title of _Periplus_, although its authenticity has been questioned. +Hanno appears to have advanced beyond Sierra Leone as far as Cape +Palmas. On the island which formed the terminus of his voyage the +explorer found a number of hairy women, whom the interpreters called +Gorillas ([Greek: Gorillas]). + + Valuable editions by T. Falconer (1797, with translation and defence + of its authenticity) and C. W. Muller in _Geographici Graeci minores_, + i.; see also E. H. Bunbury, _History of Ancient Geography_, i., and + treatise by C. T. Fischer (1893), with bibliography. + +2. HANNO (3rd century B.C.), called "the Great," Carthaginian statesman +and general, leader of the aristocratic party and the chief opponent of +Hamilcar and Hannibal. He appears to have gained his title from military +successes in Africa, but of these nothing is known. In 240 B.C. he drove +Hamilcar's veteran mercenaries to rebellion by withholding their pay, +and when invested with the command against them was so unsuccessful that +Carthage might have been lost but for the exertions of his enemy +Hamilcar (q.v.). Hanno subsequently remained at Carthage, exerting all +his influence against the democratic party, which, however, had now +definitely won the upper hand. During the Second Punic War he advocated +peace with Rome, and according to Livy even advised that Hannibal should +be given up to the Romans. After the battle of Zama (202) he was one of +the ambassadors sent to Scipio to sue for peace. Remarkably little is +known of him, considering the great influence he undoubtedly exercised +amongst his countrymen. + + Livy xxi. 3 ff., xxiii. 12; Polybius i. 67 ff.; Appian, _Res + Hispanicae_, 4, 5, _Res Punicae_, 34, 49, 68. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] For others of the name see CARTHAGE; HANNIBAL; PUNIC WARS. + Smith's _Classical Dictionary_ has notices of some thirty of the + name. + + + + +HANOI, capital of Tongking and of French Indo-China, on the right bank +of the Song-koi or Red river, about 80 m. from its mouth in the Gulf of +Tongking. Taking in the suburban population the inhabitants numbered in +1905 about 110,000, including 103,000 Annamese, 2289 Chinese and 2665 +French, exclusive of troops. Hanoi resembles a European city in the +possession of wide well-paved streets and promenades, systems of +electric light and drainage and a good water-supply. A crowded native +quarter built round a picturesque lake lies close to the river with the +European quarter to the south of it. The public buildings include the +palace of the governor-general, situated in a spacious botanical and +zoological garden, the large military hospital, the cathedral of St +Joseph, the Paul Bert college, and the theatre. The barracks and other +military buildings occupy the site of the old citadel, an area of over +300 acres, to the west of the native town. The so-called pagoda of the +Great Buddha is the chief native building. The river is embanked and is +crossed by the Pont Doumer, a fine railway bridge over 1 m. long. +Vessels drawing 8 or 9 ft. can reach the town. Hanoi is the seat of the +general government of Indo-China, of the resident-superior of Tongking, +and of a bishop, who is vicar-apostolic of central Tongking. It is +administered by an elective municipal council with a civil service +administrator as mayor. It has a chamber of commerce, the president of +which has a seat on the superior council of Indo-China; a chamber of the +court of appeal of Indo-China, a civil tribunal of the first order, and +is the seat of the chamber of agriculture of Tongking. Its industries +include cotton-spinning, brewing, distilling, and the manufacture of +tobacco, earthenware and matches; native industry produces carved and +inlaid furniture, bronzes and artistic metal-work, silk embroidery, &c. +Hanoi is the junction of railways to Hai-Phong, its seaport, Lao-Kay, +Vinh, and the Chinese frontier via Lang-Son. It is in frequent +communication with Hai-Phong by steamboat. + + See C. Madrolle, _Tonkin du sud: Hanoi_ (Paris, 1907). + + + + +HANOTAUX, ALBERT AUGUSTE GABRIEL (1853- ), French statesman and +historian, was born at Beaurevoir in the department of Aisne. He +received his historical training in the Ecole des Chartes, and became +_maitre de conferences_ in the Ecole des Hautes Etudes. His political +career was rather that of a civil servant than of a party politician. In +1879 he entered the ministry of foreign affairs as a secretary, and rose +step by step through the diplomatic service. In 1886 he was elected +deputy for Aisne, but, defeated in 1889, he returned to his diplomatic +career, and on the 31st of May 1894 was chosen by Charles Dupuy to be +minister of foreign affairs. With one interruption (during the Ribot +ministry, from the 26th of January to the 2nd of November 1895) he held +this portfolio until the 14th of June 1898. During his ministry he +developed the _rapprochement_ of France with Russia--visiting St +Petersburg with the president, Felix Faure--and sent expeditions to +delimit the French colonies in Africa. The Fashoda incident of July 1898 +was a result of this policy, and Hanotaux's distrust of England is +frankly stated in his literary works. As an historian he published +_Origines de l'institution des intendants de provinces_ (1884), which is +the authoritative study on the intendants; _Etudes historiques sur les +XVI^e et XVII^e siecles en France_ (1886); _Histoire de Richelieu_ (2 +vols., 1888); and _Histoire de la Troisieme Republique (1904, &c.), the +standard history of contemporary France._ He also edited the +_Instructions des ambassadeurs de France a Rome, depuis les traites de +Westphalie_ (1888). He was elected a member of the French Academy on the +1st of April 1897. + + + + +HANOVER (Ger. _Hannover_), formerly an independent kingdom of Germany, +but since 1866 a province of Prussia. It is bounded on the N. by the +North Sea, Holstein, Hamburg and Mecklenburg-Schwerin, E. and S.E. by +Prussian Saxony and the duchy of Brunswick, S.W. by the Prussian +provinces of Hesse-Nassau and Westphalia, and W. by Holland. These +boundaries include the grand-duchy of Oldenburg and the free state of +Bremen, the former stretching southward from the North Sea nearly to the +southern boundary of Hanover. A small portion of the province in the +south is separated from Hanover proper by the interposition of part of +Brunswick. On the 23rd of March 1873 the province was increased by the +addition of the Jade territory (purchased by Prussia from Oldenburg), +lying south-west of the Elbe and containing the great naval station and +arsenal of Wilhelmshaven. The area of the province is 14,870 sq. m. + + _Physical Features._--The greater part of Hanover is a plain with + sandhills, heath and moor. The most fertile districts lie on the banks + of the Elbe and near the North Sea, where, as in Holland, rich meadows + are preserved from encroachment of the sea by broad dikes and deep + ditches, kept in repair at great expense. The main feature of the + northern plain is the so-called _Luneburger Heide_, a vast expanse of + moor and fen, mainly covered with low brushwood (though here and there + are oases of fine beech and oak woods) and intersected by shallow + valleys, and extending almost due north from the city of Hanover to + the southern arm of the Elbe at Harburg. The southern portion of the + province is hilly, and in the district of Klausenburg, containing the + Harz, mountainous. The higher elevations are covered by dense forests + of fir and larch, and the lower slopes with deciduous trees. The + eastern portion of the northern plain is covered with forests of fir. + The whole of Hanover dips from the Harz Mountains to the north, and + the rivers consequently flow in that direction. The three chief rivers + of the province are the Elbe in the north-east, where it mainly forms + the boundary and receives the navigable tributaries Jeetze, Ilmenau, + Seve, Este, Luhe, Schwinge and Medem; the Weser in the centre, with + its important tributary the Aller (navigable from Celle downwards); + and in the west the Ems, with its tributaries the Aa and the Leda. + Still farther West is the Vecht, which, rising in Westphalia, flows to + the Zuider Zee. Canals are numerous and connect the various river + systems. + + The principal lakes are the Steinhuder Meer, about 4 m. long and 2 m. + broad, and 20 fathoms deep, on the borders of Schaumburg-Lippe; the + Dummersee, on the borders of Oldenburg, about 12 m. in circuit; the + lakes of Bederkesa and some others in the moorlands of the north; the + Seeburger See, near Duderstadt; and the Oderteich, in the Harz, 2100 + ft. above the level of the sea. + + _Climate._--The climate in the low-lying districts near the coast is + moist and foggy, in the plains mild, on the Harz mountains severe and + variable. In spring the prevailing winds blow from the N.E. and E., in + summer from the S.W. The mean annual temperature is about 46 deg. + Fahr.; in the town of Hanover it is higher. The average annual + rainfall is about 23.5 in.; but this varies greatly in different + districts. In the west the Herauch, a thick fog arising from the + burning of the moors, is a plague of frequent occurrence. + + _Population; Divisions._--The province contains an area of 14,869 sq. + m., and the total population, according to the census of 1905, was + 2,759,699 (1,384,161 males and 1,375,538 females). In this connexion + it is noticeable that in Hanover, almost alone among German states and + provinces, there is a considerable proportion of male births over + female. The density of the population is 175 to the sq. m. (English), + and the proportion of urban to rural population, roughly, as 1 to 3 of + the inhabitants. The province is divided into the six + _Regierungsbezirke_ (or departments) of Hanover, Hildesheim, Luneburg, + Stade, Osnabruck and Aurich, and these again into Kreise (circles, or + local government districts)--76 in all. The chief towns--containing + more than 10,000 inhabitants--are Hanover, Linden, Osnabruck, + Hildesheim, Geestemunde, Wilhelmshaven, Harburg, Luneburg, Celle, + Gottingen and Emden. Religious statistics show that 84% of the + inhabitants belong to the Evangelical-Lutheran Church, 17 to the Roman + Catholic and less than 1% to the Jewish communities. The Roman + Catholics are mostly gathered around the episcopal sees of Hildesheim + and Osnabruck and close to Munster (in Westphalia) on the western + border, and the Jews in the towns. A court of appeal for the whole + province sits at Celle, and there are eight superior courts. Hanover + returns 19 members to the _Reichstag_ (imperial diet) and 36 to the + _Abgeordnetenhaus_ (lower house) of the Prussian parliament + (_Landtag_). + + _Education._--Among the educational institutions of the province the + university of Gottingen stands first, with an average yearly + attendance of 1500 students. There are, besides, a technical college + in Hanover, an academy of forestry in Munden, a mining college in + Clausthal, a military school and a veterinary college (both in + Hanover), 26 gymnasia (classical schools), 18 semi-classical, and 14 + commercial schools. There are also two naval academies, asylums for + the deaf and dumb, and numerous charitable institutions. + + _Agriculture._--Though agriculture constitutes the most important + branch of industry in the province, it is still in a very backward + state. The greater part of the soil is of inferior quality, and much + that is susceptible of cultivation is still lying waste. Of the entire + area of the country 28.6% is arable, 16.2 in meadow or pasture land, + 14% in forests, 37.2% in uncultivated moors, heaths, &c.; from 17 to + 18% is in possession of the state. The best agriculture is to be found + in the districts of Hildesheim, Calenberg, Gottingen and Grubenhagen, + on the banks of the Weser and Elbe, and in East Friesland. Rye is + generally grown for bread. Flax, for which much of the soil is + admirably adapted, is extensively cultivated, and forms an important + article of export, chiefly, however, in the form of yarn. Potatoes, + hemp, turnips, hops, tobacco and beet are also extensively grown, the + latter, in connexion with the sugar industry, showing each year a + larger return. Apples, pears, plums and cherries are the principal + kinds of fruit cultivated, while the wild red cranberries from the + Harz and the black bilberries from the Luneburger Heide form an + important article of export. + + _Live Stock._--Hanover is renowned for its cattle and live stock + generally. Of these there were counted in 1900 1,115,022 head of + horned cattle, 824,000 sheep, 1,556,000 pigs, and 230,000 goats. The + Luneburger Heide yields an excellent breed of sheep, the + _Heidschnucken_, which equal the Southdowns of England in delicacy of + flavour. Horses famous for their size and quality are reared in the + marshes of Aurich and Stade, in Hildesheim and Hanover; and, for + breeding purposes, in the stud farm of Celle. Bees are principally + kept on the Luneburger Heide, and the annual yield of honey is very + considerable. Large flocks of geese are kept in the moist lowlands; + their flesh is salted for domestic consumption during the winter, and + their feathers are prepared for sale. The rivers yield trout, salmon + (in the Weser) and crayfish. The sea fisheries are important and have + their chief centre at Geestemunde. + + _Mining._--Minerals occur in great variety and abundance. The Harz + Mountains are rich in silver, lead, iron and copper; coal is found + around Osnabruck, on the Deister, at Osterwald, &c., lignite in + various places; salt-springs of great richness exist at Egestorfshall + and Neuhall near Hanover, and at Luneburg; and petroleum may be + obtained south of Celle. In the cold regions of the northern lowlands + peat occurs in beds of immense thickness. + + _Manufactures._--Works for the manufacture of iron, copper, silver, + lead, vitriol and sulphur are carried on to a large extent. The iron + works are very important: smelting is carried on in the Harz and near + Osnabruck; there are extensive foundries and machine factories at + Hanover, Linden, Osnabruck, Hameln, Geestemunde, Harburg, Osterode, + &c., and manufactories of arms at Herzberg, and of cutlery in the + towns of the Harz and in the Sollinger Forest. The textile industries + are prosecuted chiefly in the towns. Linen yarn and cloth are largely + manufactured, especially in the south about Osnabruck and Hildesheim, + and bleaching is engaged in extensively; woollen cloths are made to a + considerable extent in the south about Einbeck, Gottingen and Hameln; + cotton-spinning and weaving have their principal seats at Hanover and + Linden. Glass houses, paper-mills, potteries, tile works and + tobacco-pipe works are numerous. Wax is bleached to a considerable + extent, and there are numerous tobacco factories, tanneries, + breweries, vinegar works and brandy distilleries. Shipbuilding is an + important industry, especially at Wilhelmshaven, Papenburg, Leer, + Stade and Harburg; and at Munden river-barges are built. + + _Commerce._--Although the carrying trade of Hanover is to a great + extent absorbed by Hamburg and Bremen, the shipping of the province + counted, in 1903, 750 sailing vessels and 86 steamers of, together, + 55,498 registered tons. The natural port is Bremen-Geestemunde and to + it is directed the river traffic down the Weser, which practically + forms the chief commercial artery of the province. + + _Communications._--The roads throughout are, on the whole, well laid, + and those connecting the principal towns macadamized. Hanover is + intersected by important trunk lines of railway; notably the lines + from Berlin to Cologne, from Hamburg to Frankfort-on-Main, from + Hamburg to Bremen and Cologne, and from Berlin to Amsterdam. + +_History._--The name Hanover (_Hohenufer_ = high bank), originally +confined to the town which became the capital of the duchy of +Luneburg-Calenberg, came gradually into use to designate, first, the +duchy itself, and secondly, the electorate of Brunswick-Luneburg; and it +was officially recognized as the name of the state when in 1814 the +electorate was raised to the rank of a kingdom. + +The early history of Hanover is merged in that of the duchy of Brunswick +(q.v.), from which the duchy of Brunswick-Luneburg and its offshoots, +the duchies of Luneburg-Celle and Luneburg-Calenberg have sprung. Ernest +I. (1497-1546), duke of Brunswick-Luneburg, who introduced the reformed +doctrines into Luneburg, obtained the whole of this duchy in 1539; and +in 1569 his two surviving sons made an arrangement which was afterwards +responsible for the birth of the kingdom of Hanover. By this agreement +the greater part of the duchy, with its capital at Celle, came to +William (1535-1592), the younger of the brothers, who gave laws to his +land and added to its area; and this duchy of Luneburg-Celle was +subsequently ruled in turn by four of his sons: Ernest II. (1564-1611), +Christian (1566-1633), Augustus (d. 1636) and Frederick (d. 1648). In +addition to these four princes Duke William left three other sons, and +in 1610 the seven brothers entered into a compact that the duchy should +not be divided, and that only one of them should marry and continue the +family. Casting lots to determine this question, the lot fell upon the +sixth brother, George (1582-1641), who was a prominent soldier during +the period of the Thirty Years' War and saw service in almost all parts +of Europe, fighting successively for Christian IV. of Denmark, the +emperor Ferdinand II., and for the Swedes both before and after the +death of Gustavus Adolphus. In 1617 he aided his brother, Duke +Christian, to add Grubenhagen to Luneburg, and after the extinction of +the family of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel in 1634, he obtained Calenberg for +himself, making Hanover the capital of his small dukedom. In 1648, on +Duke Frederick's death, George's eldest son, Christian Louis (d. 1665), +became duke of Luneburg-Celle; and at this time he handed over +Calenberg, which he had ruled since his father's death, to his second +brother, George William (d. 1705). When Christian Louis died George +William succeeded him in Luneburg-Celle; but the duchy was also claimed +by a younger brother, John Frederick, a cultured and enlightened prince +who had forsaken the Lutheran faith of his family and had become a Roman +Catholic. Soon, however, by an arrangement John Frederick received +Calenberg and Grubenhagen, which he ruled in absolute fashion, creating +a standing army and modelling his court after that of Louis XIV., and +which came on his death in 1679 to his youngest brother, Ernest Augustus +(1630-1698), the Protestant bishop of Osnabruck. During the French wars +of aggression the Luneburg princes were eagerly courted by Louis XIV. +and by his opponents; and after some hesitation George William, +influenced by Ernest Augustus, fought among the Imperialists, while John +Frederick was ranged on the side of France. In 1689 George William was +one of the claimants for the duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg, which was left +without a ruler in that year; and after a struggle with John George +III., elector of Saxony, and other rivals, he was invested with the +duchy by the emperor Leopold I. It was, however, his more ambitious +brother, Ernest Augustus, who did most for the prestige and advancement +of the house. Having introduced the principle of primogeniture into +Calenberg in 1682, Ernest determined to secure for himself the position +of an elector, and the condition of Europe and the exigencies of the +emperor favoured his pretensions. He made skilful use of Leopold's +difficulties; and in 1692, in return for lavish promises of assistance +to the Empire and the Habsburgs, the emperor granted him the rank and +title of elector of Brunswick-Luneburg with the office of +standard-bearer in the Holy Roman Empire. Indignant protests followed +this proceeding. A league was formed to prevent any addition to the +electoral college; France and Sweden were called upon for assistance; +and the constitution of the Empire was reduced to a state of chaos. This +agitation, however, soon died away; and in 1708 George Louis, the son +and successor of Ernest Augustus, was recognized as an elector by the +imperial diet. George Louis married his cousin Sophia Dorothea, the only +child of George William of Luneburg-Celle; and on his uncle's death in +1705 he united this duchy, together with Saxe-Lauenburg, with his +paternal inheritance of Calenberg or Hanover. His father, Ernest +Augustus, had taken a step of great importance in the history of Hanover +when he married Sophia, daughter of the elector palatine, Frederick V., +and grand-daughter of James I. of England, for, through his mother, the +elector George Louis became, by the terms of the Act of Settlement of +1701, king of Great Britain and Ireland in 1714. + +From this time until the death of William IV. in 1837, Luneburg or +Hanover, was ruled by the same sovereign as Great Britain, and this +personal union was not without important results for both countries. +Under George I. Hanover joined the alliance against Charles XII. of +Sweden in 1715; and by the peace of Stockholm in November 1719 the +elector received the duchies of Bremen and Verden, which formed an +important addition to the electorate. His son and successor, George II., +who founded the university of Gottingen in 1737, was on bad terms with +his brother-in-law Frederick William I. of Prussia, and his nephew +Frederick the Great; and in 1729 war between Prussia and Hanover was +only just avoided. In 1743 George took up arms on behalf of the empress +Maria Theresa; but in August 1745 the danger in England from the +Jacobites led him to sign the convention of Hanover with Frederick the +Great, although the struggle with France raged around his electorate +until the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748. Induced by political +exigencies George allied himself with Frederick the Great when the Seven +Years' War broke out in 1756; but in September 1757 his son William +Augustus, duke of Cumberland, was compelled after his defeat at +Hastenbeck to sign the convention of Klosterzeven and to abandon Hanover +to the French. English money, however, came to the rescue; in 1758 +Ferdinand, duke of Brunswick, cleared the electorate of the invader; and +Hanover suffered no loss of territory at the peace of 1763. Both George +I. and George II. preferred Hanover to England as a place of residence, +and it was a frequent and perhaps justifiable cause of complaint that +the interests of Great Britain were sacrificed to those of the smaller +country. But George III. was more British than either his grandfather or +his great-grandfather, and owing to a variety of causes the foreign +policies of the two countries began to diverge in the later years of his +reign. Two main considerations dominated the fortunes of Hanover during +the period of the Napoleonic wars, the jealousy felt by Prussia at the +increasing strength and prestige of the electorate, and its position as +a vulnerable outpost of Great Britain. From 1793 the Hanoverian troops +fought for the Allies against France, until the treaty of Basel between +France and Prussia in 1795 imposed a forced neutrality upon Hanover. At +the instigation of Bonaparte Hanover was occupied by the Prussians for a +few months in 1801, but at the settlement which followed the peace of +Luneville the secularized bishopric of Osnabruck was added to the +electorate. Again tempting the fortune of war after the rupture of the +peace of Amiens, the Hanoverians found that the odds against them were +too great; and in June 1803 by the convention of Sulingen their +territory was occupied by the French. The formation of the third +coalition against France in 1805 induced Napoleon to purchase the +support of Prussia by allowing her troops to seize Hanover; but in 1807, +after the defeat of Prussia at Jena, he incorporated the southern part +of the electorate in the kingdom of Westphalia, adding the northern +portion to France in 1810. The French occupation was costly and +aggressive; and the Hanoverians, many of whom were found in the allied +armies, welcomed the fall of Napoleon and the return of the old order. +Represented at the congress of Vienna by Ernest, Count Munster, the +elector was granted the title of king; but the British ministers wished +to keep the interests of Great Britain distinct from those of Hanover. +The result of the congress, however, was not unfavourable to the new +kingdom, which received East Friesland, the secularized bishopric of +Hildesheim, the city of Goslar, and some smaller additions of territory, +in return for the surrender of the greater part of the duchy of +Saxe-Lauenburg to Prussia. + +Like those of the other districts of Germany, the estates of the +different provinces which formed the kingdom of Hanover had met for many +years in an irregular fashion to exercise their varying and ill-defined +authority; and, although the elector Ernest Augustus introduced a system +of administrative councils into Celle, these estates, consisting of the +three orders of prelates, nobles and towns, together with a body +somewhat resembling the English privy council, were the only +constitution which the country possessed, and the only check upon the +power of its ruler. When the elector George Louis became king of Great +Britain in 1714 he appointed a representative, or _Statthalter_, to +govern the electorate, and thus the union of the two countries was +attended with constitutional changes in Hanover as well as in Great +Britain. Responsible of course to the elector, the Statthalter, aided by +the privy council, conducted the internal affairs of the electorate, +generally in a peaceful and satisfactory fashion, until the welter of +the Napoleonic wars. On the conclusion of peace in 1814 the estates of +the several provinces of the kingdom were fused into one body, +consisting of eighty-five members, but the chief power was exercised as +before by the members of a few noble families. In 1819, however, this +feudal relic was supplanted by a new constitution. Two chambers were +established, the one formed of nobles and the other of elected +representatives; but although they were authorized to control the +finances, their power with regard to legislation was very circumscribed. +This constitution was sanctioned by the prince regent, afterwards King +George IV.; but it was out of harmony with the new and liberal ideas +which prevailed in Europe, and it hardly survived George's decease in +1830. The revolution of that year compelled George's brother and +successor, William, to dismiss Count Munster, who had been the actual +ruler of the country, and to name his own brother, Adolphus Frederick, +duke of Cambridge, a viceroy of Hanover; one of the viceroy's earliest +duties being to appoint a commission to draw up a new constitution. This +was done, and after William had insisted upon certain alterations, it +was accepted and promulgated in 1833. Representation was granted to the +peasants; the two chambers were empowered to initiate legislation; +ministers were made responsible for all acts of government; a civil list +was given to the king in return for the surrender of the crown lands; +and, in short, the new constitution was similar to that of Great +Britain. These liberal arrangements, however, did not entirely allay +the discontent. A strong and energetic party endeavoured to thwart the +working of the new order, and matters came to a climax on the death of +William IV. in 1837. + +By the law of Hanover a woman could not ascend the throne, and +accordingly Ernest Augustus, duke of Cumberland, the fifth son of George +III., and not Victoria, succeeded William as sovereign in 1837, thus +separating the crowns of Great Britain and Hanover after a union of 123 +years. Ernest, a prince with very autocratic ideas, had disapproved of +the constitution of 1833, and his first important act as king was to +declare it invalid. He appears to have been especially chagrined because +the crown lands were not his personal property, but the whole of the new +arrangements were repugnant to him. Seven Gottingen professors who +protested against this proceeding were deprived of their chairs; and +some of them, including F. C. Dahlmann and Jakob Grimm, were banished +from the country for publishing their protest. To save the constitution +an appeal was made to the German Confederation, which Hanover had joined +in 1815; but the federal diet declined to interfere, and in 1840 Ernest +altered the constitution to suit his own illiberal views. Recovering the +crown lands, he abolished the principle of ministerial responsibility, +the legislative power of the two chambers, and other reforms, virtually +restoring affairs to their condition before 1833. The inevitable crisis +was delayed until the stormy year 1848, when the king probably saved his +crown by hastily giving back the constitution of 1833. Order, however, +having been restored, in 1850 he dismissed the Liberal ministry and +attempted to evade his concessions; a bitter struggle had just broken +out when Ernest Augustus died in November 1851. During this reign the +foreign policy of Hanover both within and without Germany had been +coloured by jealousy of Prussia and by the king's autocratic ideas. +Refusing to join the Prussian _Zollverein_, Hanover had become a member +of the rival commercial union, the _Steuerverein_, three years before +Ernest's accession; but as this union was not a great success the +_Zollverein_ was joined in 1851. In 1849, after the failure of the +German parliament at Frankfort, the king had joined with the sovereigns +of Prussia and Saxony to form the "three kings' alliance"; but this +union with Prussia was unreal, and with the king of Saxony he soon +transferred his support to Austria and became a member of the "four +kings' alliance." + +George V., the new king of Hanover, who was unfortunately blind, sharing +his father's political ideas, at once appointed a ministry whose aim was +to sweep away the constitution of 1848. This project, however, was +resisted by the second chamber of the _Landtag_, or parliament; and +after several changes of government a new ministry advised the king in +1855 to appeal to the diet of the German Confederation. This was done, +and the diet declared the constitution of 1848 to be invalid. Acting on +this verdict, not only was a ministry formed to restore the constitution +of 1840, but after some trouble a body of members fully in sympathy with +this object was returned to parliament in 1857. But these members were +so far from representing the opinions of the people that popular +resentment compelled George to dismiss his advisers in 1862. But the +more liberal government which succeeded did not enjoy his complete +confidence, and in 1865 a ministry was once more formed which was more +in accord with his own ideas. This contest soon lost both interest and +importance owing to the condition of affairs in Germany. Bismarck, the +director of the policy of Prussia, was devising methods for the +realization of his schemes, and it became clear after the war over the +duchies of Schleswig and Holstein that the smaller German states would +soon be obliged to decide definitely between Austria and Prussia. After +a period of vacillation Hanover threw in her lot with Austria, the +decisive step being taken when the question of the mobilization of the +federal army was voted upon in the diet on the 14th of June 1866. At +once Prussia requested Hanover to remain unarmed and neutral during the +war, and with equal promptness King George refused to assent to these +demands. Prussian troops then crossed his frontier and took possession +of his capital. The Hanoverians, however, were victorious at the battle +of Langensalza on the 27th of June 1866, but the advance of fresh bodies +of the enemy compelled them to capitulate two days later. By the terms +of this surrender the king was not to reside in Hanover, his officers +were to take no further part in the war, and his ammunition and stores +became the property of Prussia. The decree of the 20th of September 1866 +formally annexed Hanover to Prussia, when it became a province of that +kingdom, while King George from his retreat at Hietzing appealed in vain +to the powers of Europe. Many of the Hanoverians remained loyal to their +sovereign; some of them serving in the Guelph Legion, which was +maintained largely at his expense in France, where a paper, _La +Situation_, was founded by Oskar Meding (1829-1903) and conducted in his +interests. These and other elaborate efforts, however, failed to bring +about the return of the king to Hanover, though the Guelph party +continued to agitate and to hope even after the Franco-German War had +immensely increased the power and the prestige of Prussia. George died +in June 1878. His son, Ernest Augustus, duke of Cumberland, continued to +maintain his claim to the crown of Hanover, and refused to be reconciled +with Prussia. Owing to this attitude the German imperial government +refused to allow him to take possession of the duchy of Brunswick, which +he inherited on the extinction of the elder branch of his family in +1884, and again in 1906 when the same subject came up for settlement on +the death of the regent, Prince Albert of Prussia. + +In 1867 King George had agreed to accept Prussian bonds to the value of +about L1,600,000 as compensation for the confiscation of his estates in +Hanover. In 1868, however, on account of his continued hostility to +Prussia, the Prussian government sequestrated this property; and, known +as the _Welfenfonds_, or _Reptilienfonds_, it was employed as a secret +service fund to combat the intrigues of the Guelphs in various parts of +Europe; until in 1892 it was arranged that the interest should be paid +to the duke of Cumberland. In 1885 measures were taken to incorporate +the province of Hanover more thoroughly in the kingdom of Prussia, and +there is little doubt but that the great majority of the Hanoverians +have submitted to the inevitable, and are loyal subjects of the king of +Prussia. + + AUTHORITIES.--A. Hune, _Geschichte des Konigreichs Hannover und des + Herzogtums Braunschweig_ (Hanover, 1824-1830); A. F. H. Schaumann, + _Handbuch der Geschichte der Lande Hannover und Braunschweig_ + (Hanover, 1864); G. A. Grotefend, _Geschichte der allgemeinen + landstandischen Verfassung des Konigreichs Hannover, 1814-1848_ + (Hanover, 1857); H. A. Oppermann, _Zur Geschichte des Konigreichs + Hannover_, 1832-1860 (Berlin, 1868); E. von Meier, _Hannoversche + Verfassungs- und Verwaltungsgeschichte_ (Leipzig, 1898-1899); W. von + Hassell, _Das Kurfurstentum Hannover vom Baseler Frieden bis zur + preussischen Okkupation_ (Hanover, 1894); and _Geschichte des + Konigreichs_ Hannover (Leipzig, 1898-1901); H. von Treitschke, _Der + Herzog von Cumberland und das hannoversche Staatsgrundgesetz von 1833_ + (Leipzig, 1888); M. Bar, _Ubersicht uber die Bestande des koniglichen + Staatsarchivs zu Hannover_ (Leipzig, 1900); _Hannoversches Portfolio_ + (Stuttgart, 1839-1841); and the authorities given for the history of + Brunswick. + + + + +HANOVER, the capital of the Prussian province of the same name, situated +in a sandy but fertile plain on the Leine, which here receives the Ihme, +38 m. N.W. from Brunswick, 78 S.E. of Bremen, and at the crossing of the +main lines of railway, Berlin to Cologne and Hamburg to +Frankfort-on-Main. Pop. (1885) 139,731; (1900) 235,666; (1905) 250,032. +On the north and east the town is half encircled by the beautiful woods +and groves of the Eilenriede and the List which form the public park. +The Leine flows through the city, having the old town on its right and +the quaint Calenberger quarter between its left bank and the Ihme. The +old town is irregularly built, with narrow streets and old-fashioned +gabled houses. In its centre lies the Markt Kirche, a red-brick edifice +of the 14th century, containing interesting monuments and some fine +stained-glass windows, and with a steeple 310 ft. in height (the highest +in Hanover). Its interior was restored in 1855. Close by, on the market +square, is the red-brick medieval town-hall (Rathaus), with an +historical wine cellar beneath. It has been superseded for municipal +business by a new building, and now contains the civic archives and +museum. The new town, surrounding the old on the north and east, and +lying between it and the woods referred to, has wide streets, handsome +buildings and beautiful squares. Among the last-mentioned are the square +at the railway station--the Ernst August-Platz--with an equestrian +statue of King Ernest Augustus in bronze; the triangular Theater-Platz, +with statues of the composer Marschner and others; and the Georgs-Platz, +with a statue of Schiller. To the south of the old town, on the banks of +the Ihme, lies the Waterloo-Platz, with a column of victory, 154 ft. +high, having inscribed on it the names of 800 Hanoverians who fell at +Waterloo. In the adjacent gardens an open rotunda encloses a marble bust +of the philosopher Leibnitz, and near it is a monument to General Count +von Alten, the commander of the Hanoverian troops at Waterloo. Among the +other churches the most noticeable are the Neustadterkirche, with a +graceful shrine containing the tomb of Leibnitz, the Kreuzkirche, built +about 1300, with a curious steeple, and the Aegidienkirche among ancient +edifices, and among modern ones the Christuskirche, a gift of King +George V., the Lukaskirche, the Lutherkirche, and the Roman Catholic +church of St Mary, with a tower 300 ft. high, containing the grave of +Ludwig Windthorst, "his little excellency," for many years leader of the +Ultramontane (Centre) party in the imperial diet. Of secular buildings +the most remarkable is the royal palace--Schloss--built 1636-1640, with +a grand portal and handsome quadrangle. In its chapel are preserved the +relics of saints which Henry the Lion brought from Palestine. The new +provincial museum built in 1897-1902 contains the Cumberland Gallery and +the Guelph Museum; and the Kestner Museum also contains interesting and +valuable collections of works of art. The other principal public +buildings are the royal archives and library, containing a library of +200,000 volumes and 3500 manuscripts; the old provincial museum, which +houses a variety of collections, such as natural, historical and +ethnographical, and a collection of modern paintings; the theatre (built +1845-1852), one of the largest in Germany, the archaeological museum, +the railway station, and, in the west, close to Herrenhausen (see +below), the magnificent Welfenschloss (Guelph-palace). The last, begun +in 1859, was almost completed in 1866, but was never occupied by the +Hanoverian royal family. Since 1875 it has been occupied by the +technical high school, an academy with university privileges. Close to +it lies the famous Herrenhausen, the summer palace of the former kings +of Hanover, with fine gardens, an open-air theatre, a museum and an +orangery, and approached by a grand avenue over a mile in length. + +Hanover has a number of colleges and schools, and is the seat of several +learned societies. It is largely frequented by foreign students, +especially English, attracted by the educational facilities it offers +and by the reputed purity of the German spoken. Hanover is the +headquarters of the X. Prussian army corps, has a large garrison of +nearly all arms and a famous military riding school. It occupies a +leading position among the industrial and commercial towns of the +empire, and of recent years has made rapid progress in prosperity. It is +connected by railway with Berlin, Hamburg, Bremen, Hameln, Cologne, +Altenbeken and Cassel, and the facilities of intercourse have, under the +fostering care of the Prussian government, enormously developed its +trade and manufactures. Almost all industries are represented; chief +among them are machine-building, the manufacture of india-rubber, linen, +cloth, hardware, chemicals, tobacco, pianos, furniture and groceries. +The commerce consists principally in wine, hides, horses, coal, wood and +cereals. There are extensive printing establishments. Hanover was the +first German town that was lighted with gas. It is the birthplace of Sir +William Herschel, the astronomer, of the brothers Schlegel, of Iffland +and of the historian Pertz. The philosopher Leibnitz died there in 1716. + + Close by, on the left bank of the Leine, lies the manufacturing town + of Linden, which, though practically forming one town with Hanover, is + treated under a separate heading. + +The town of Hanover is first mentioned during the 12th century. It +belonged to the family of Welf, then to the bishops of Hildesheim, and +then, in 1369, it came again into the possession of the Welfs, now +dukes of Brunswick. It joined the Hanseatic League, and was later the +residence of the branch of the ducal house, which received the title of +elector of Hanover and ascended the British throne in the person of +George I. One or two important treaties were signed in Hanover, which +from 1810 to 1813 was part of the kingdom of Westphalia, and in 1866 was +annexed by Prussia, after having been the capital of the kingdom of +Hanover since its foundation in 1815. + + See O. Ulrich, _Bilder aus Hannovers Vergangenheit_ (1891); Hoppe, + _Geschichte der Stadt Hannover_ (1845); Hirschfeld, _Hannovers + Grossindustrie und Grosshandel_ (Leipzig, 1891); Frensdorff, _Die + Stadtverfassung Hannovers in alter und neuer Zeit_ (Leipzig, 1883); W. + Bahrdt, _Geschichte der Reformation der Stadt Hannover_ (1891); + Hartmann, _Geschichte von Hannover mit besonderer Rucksichtnahme auf + die Entwickelung der Residenzstadt Hannover_ (1886); _Hannover und + Umgegend, Entwickelung und Zustande seiner Industrie und Gewerbe_ + (1874); and the _Urkundenbuch der Stadt Hannover_ (1860, fol.). + + + + +HANOVER, a town of Jefferson county, Indiana, U.S.A., on the Ohio river, +about 5 m. below Madison. Pop. (1900) 377; (1910) 356. It is served by +boats on the Ohio river and by stages to Madison, the nearest railway +station. Along the border of the town and on a bluff rising about 500 +ft. above the river is Hanover College, an institution under +Presbyterian control, embracing a college and a preparatory department, +and offering classical and scientific courses and instruction in music; +there is no charge for tuition. In 1908-1909 there were 211 students, 75 +being in the Academy. The institution was opened in a log cabin in 1827, +was incorporated as Hanover Academy in 1828, was adopted as a synodical +school by the Presbyterian Synod of Indiana in 1829 on condition that a +Theological department be added, and in 1833 was incorporated under its +present name. In 1840, however, the theological department became a +separate institution and was removed to New Albany, whence in 1859 it +was removed to Chicago, where it was named, first, the Presbyterian +Theological Seminary of the North-west, and, in 1886, the McCormick +Theological Seminary. In the years immediately after its incorporation +in 1833 Hanover College introduced the "manual labor system" and was for +a time very prosperous, but the system was not a success, the college +ran into debt, and in 1843 the trustees attempted to surrender the +charter and to acquire the charter of a university at Madison. This +effort was opposed by a strong party, which secured a more liberal +charter for the college. In 1880 the college became coeducational. + + + + +HANOVER, a township of Grafton county, New Hampshire, U.S.A., on the +Connecticut river, 75 m. by rail N.W. of Concord. Pop. (1900) 1884; +(1910) 2075. No railway enters this township; the Ledyard Free Bridge +(the first free bridge across the Connecticut) connects it with Norwich, +Vt., which is served by the Boston & Maine railway. Ranges of rugged +hills, broken by deep narrow gorges and by the wider valley of Mink +Brook, rise near the river and culminate in the E. section in Moose +Mountain, 2326 ft. above the sea. Near the foot of Moose Mountain is the +birthplace of Laura D. Bridgman. Agriculture, dairying and lumbering are +the chief pursuits of the inhabitants. The village of Hanover, the +principal settlement of the township, occupies Hanover Plain in the S.W. +corner, and is the seat of Dartmouth College (q.v.), which has a +strikingly beautiful campus, and among its buildings several excellent +examples of the colonial style, notably Dartmouth Hall. The Mary +Hitchcock memorial hospital, a cottage hospital of 36 beds, was erected +in 1890-1893 by Hiram Hitchcock in memory of his wife. The charter of +the township was granted by Gov. Benning Wentworth on the 4th of July +1761, and the first settlement was made in May 1765. The records of the +town meetings and selectmen, 1761-1818, have been published by E. P. +Storrs (Hanover, 1905). + + See Frederick Chase, _A History of Dartmouth College and the Town of + Hanover_ (Cambridge, 1891). + + + + +HANOVER, a borough of York county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., 36 m. S. by W. +of Harrisburg, and 6 m. from the S. border of the state. Pop. (1890) +3746; (1900) 5302, (133 foreign-born); (1910) 7057. It is served by the +Northern Central and the Western Maryland railways. The borough is built +on nearly level ground in the fertile valley of the Conewago, at the +point of intersection of the turnpike roads leading to Baltimore, +Carlisle, York and Frederick, from which places the principal +streets--sections of these roads--are named. Among its manufactures are +foundry and machine-shop products, flour, silk, waggons, shoes, gloves, +furniture, wire cloth and cigars. The settlement of the place was begun +mostly by Germans during the middle of the 18th century. Hanover was +laid out in 1763 or 1764 by Col. Richard MacAllister; and in 1815 it was +incorporated. On the 30th of June 1863 there was a cavalry engagement in +and near Hanover between the forces of Generals H. J. Kilpatrick (Union) +and J. E. B. Stuart (Confederate) preliminary to the battle of +Gettysburg. This engagement is commemorated by an equestrian statue +erected in Hanover by the state. + + + + +HANRIOT, FRANCOIS (1761-1794), French revolutionist, was born at +Nanterre (Seine) of poor parentage. Having lost his first +employment--with a _procureur_--through dishonesty, he obtained a +clerkship in the Paris octroi in 1789, but was dismissed for abandoning +his post when the Parisians burned the _octroi_ barriers on the night of +the 12th-13th of July 1789. After leading a hand-to-mouth existence for +some time, he became one of the orators of the section of the +_sans-culottes_, and commanded the armed force of that section during +the insurrection on the 10th of August 1792 and the massacres of +September. But he did not come into prominence until the night of the +30th-31st of May 1793, when he was provisionally appointed +commandant-general of the armed forces of Paris by the council general +of the Commune. On the 31st of May he was one of the delegates from the +Commune to the Convention demanding the dissolution of the Commission of +Twelve and the proscription of the Girondists (q.v.), and he was in +command of the insurrectionary forces of the Commune during the _emeute_ +of the 2nd of June (see FRENCH REVOLUTION). On the 11th of June he +resigned his command, declaring that order had been restored. On the +13th he was impeached in the Convention; but the motion was not carried, +and on the 1st of July he was elected by the Commune permanent commander +of the armed forces of Paris. This position, which gave him enormous +power, he retained until the revolution of the 9th Thermidor (July 27, +1794). His arrest was decreed; but he had the _generale_ sounded and the +tocsin rung, and tried to rescue Robespierre, who was under arrest in +the hall of the _Comite de Surete Generale_. Hanriot was himself +arrested, but was rescued by his adherents, and hastened to the Hotel de +Ville. After a vain attempt to organize resistance he fled and hid in a +secluded yard, where he was discovered the next day. He was arrested, +sentenced to death, and guillotined with Robespierre and his friends on +the 10th Thermidor of the year II. (the 28th of July 1794). + + + + +HANSARD, LUKE (1752-1828), English printer, was born on the 5th of July +1752 in St Mary's parish, Norwich. He was educated at Boston grammar +school, and was apprenticed to Stephen White, a Norwich printer. As soon +as his apprenticeship had expired Hansard started for London with only a +guinea in his pocket, and became a compositor in the office of John +Hughs (1703-1771), printer to the House of Commons. In 1774 he was made +a partner, and undertook almost the entire conduct of the business, +which in 1800 came completely into his hands. On the admission of his +sons the firm became Luke Hansard & Sons. Among those whose friendship +Hansard won in the exercise of his profession were Robert Orme, Burke +and Dr Johnson; while Porson praised him as the most accurate printer of +Greek. He printed the _Journals of the House of Commons_ from 1774 till +his death. The promptitude and accuracy with which Hansard printed +parliamentary papers were often of the greatest service to +government--notably on one occasion when the proof-sheets of the report +of the Secret Committee on the French Revolution were submitted to Pitt +twenty-four hours after the draft had left his hands. On the union with +Ireland in 1801, the increase of parliamentary printing compelled +Hansard to give up all private printing except when parliament was not +sitting. He devised numerous expedients for reducing the expense of +publishing the reports; and in 1805, when his workmen struck at a time +of great pressure, he and his sons themselves set to work as +compositors. Luke Hansard died on the 29th of October 1828. + +His son, THOMAS CURSON HANSARD (1776-1833), established a press of his +own in Paternoster Row, and began in 1803 to print the _Parliamentary +Debates_, which were not at first independent reports, but were taken +from the newspapers. After 1889 the debates were published by the +Hansard Publishing Union Limited. T. C. Hansard was the author of +_Typographia, an Historical Sketch of the Origin and Progress of the Art +of Printing_ (1825). The original business remained in the hands of his +younger brothers, James and Luke Graves Hansard (1777-1851). The firm +was prosecuted in 1837 by John Joseph Stockwell for printing by order of +the House of Commons, in an official report of the inspector of prisons, +statements regarded by the plaintiff as libellous. Hansard sheltered +himself on the ground of privilege, but it was not until after much +litigation that the security of the printers of government reports was +guaranteed by statute in 1840. + + + + +HANSEATIC LEAGUE. It is impossible to assign any precise date for the +beginning of the Hanseatic League or to name any single factor which +explains the origin of that loose but effective federation of North +German towns. Associated action and partial union among these towns can +be traced back to the 13th century. In 1241 we find Lubeck and Hamburg +agreeing to safeguard the important road connecting the Baltic and the +North Sea. The first known meeting of the "maritime towns," later known +as the Wendish group and including Lubeck, Hamburg, Luneburg, Wismar, +Rostock and Stralsund, took place in 1256. The Saxon towns, during the +following century, were joining to protect their common interests, and +indeed at this period town confederacies in Germany, both North and +South, were so considerable as to call for the declaration against them +in the Golden Bull of 1356. The decline of the imperial power and the +growing opposition between the towns and the territorial princes +justified these defensive town alliances, which in South Germany took on +a peculiarly political character. The relative weakness of territorial +power in the North, after the fall of Henry the Lion of Saxony, +diminished without however removing this motive for union, but the +comparative immunity from princely aggression on land left the towns +freer to combine in a stronger and more permanent union for the defence +of their commerce by sea and for the control of the Baltic. + +While the political element in the development of the Hanseatic League +must not be underestimated, it was not so formative as the economic. The +foundation was laid for the growth of German towns along the southern +shore of the Baltic by the great movement of German colonization of +Slavic territory east of the Elbe. This movement, extending in time from +about the middle of the 11th to the middle of the 13th century and +carrying a stream of settlers and traders from the North-west, resulted +not only in the Germanization of a wide territory but in the extension +of German influence along the sea-coast far to the east of actual +territorial settlement. The German trading towns, at the mouths of the +numerous streams which drain the North European plain, were stimulated +or created by the unifying impulse of a common and long-continued +advance of conquest and colonization. + +The impetus of this remarkable movement of expansion not only carried +German trade to the East and North within the Baltic basin, but +reanimated the older trade from the lower Rhine region to Flanders and +England in the West. Cologne and the Westphalian towns, the most +important of which were Dortmund, Soest and Munster, had long controlled +this commerce but now began to feel the competition of the active +traders of the Baltic, opening up that direct communication by sea from +the Baltic to western Europe which became the essential feature in the +history of the League. The necessity of seeking protection from the +sea-rovers and pirates who infested these waters during the whole period +of Hanseatic supremacy, the legal customs, substantially alike in the +towns of North Germany, which governed the groups of traders in the +outlying trading posts, the establishment of common factories, or +"counters" (Komtors) at these points, with aldermen to administer +justice and to secure trading privileges for the community of German +merchants--such were some of the unifying influences which preceded the +gradual formation of the League. In the century of energetic commercial +development before 1350 the German merchants abroad led the way. + +Germans were early pushing as permanent settlers into the Scandinavian +towns, and in Wisby, on the island of Gothland, the Scandinavian centre +of Baltic trade, equal rights as citizens in the town government were +possessed by the German settlers as early as the beginning of the 13th +century. There also came into existence at Wisby the first association +of German traders abroad, which united the merchants of over thirty +towns, from Cologne and Utrecht in the West to Reval in the East. We +find the Gothland association making in 1229 a treaty with a Russian +prince and securing privileges for their branch trading station at +Novgorod. According to the "Skra," the by-laws of the Novgorod branch, +the four aldermen of the community of Germans, who among other duties +held the keys of the common chest, deposited in Wisby, were to be chosen +from the merchants of the Gothland association and of the towns of +Lubeck, Soest and Dortmund. The Gothland association received in 1237 +trading rights in England, and shortly after the middle of the century +it also secured privileges in Flanders. It legislated on matters +relating to common trade interests, and, in the case of the regulation +of 1287 concerning shipwrecked goods, we find it imposing this +legislation on the towns under the penalty of exclusion from the +association. But with the extension of the East and West trade beyond +the confines of the Baltic, this association by the end of the century +was losing its position of leadership. Its inheritance passed to the +gradually forming union of towns, chiefly those known as Wendish, which +looked to Lubeck as their head. In 1293 the Saxon and Wendish merchants +at Rostock decided that all appeals from Novgorod be taken to Lubeck +instead of to Wisby, and six years later the Wendish and Westphalian +towns, meeting at Lubeck, ordered that the Gothland association should +no longer use a common seal. Though Lubeck's right as court of appeal +from the Hanseatic counter at Novgorod was not recognized by the general +assembly of the League until 1373, the long-existing practice had simply +accorded with the actual shifting of commercial power. The union of +merchants abroad was beginning to come under the control of the partial +union of towns at home. + +A similar and contemporary extension of the influence of the Baltic +traders under Lubeck's leadership may be witnessed in the West. As a +consequence of the close commercial relations early existing between +England and the Rhenish-Westphalian towns, the merchants of Cologne were +the first to possess a gild-hall in London and to form a "hansa" with +the right of admitting other German merchants on payment of a fee. The +charter of 1226, however, by which Emperor Frederick II. created Lubeck +a free imperial city, expressly declared that Lubeck citizens trading in +England should be free from the dues imposed by the merchants of Cologne +and should enjoy equal rights and privileges. In 1266 and 1267 the +merchants of Hamburg and Lubeck received from Henry III. the right to +establish their own hansas in London, like that of Cologne. The +situation thus created led by 1282 to the coalescence of the rival +associations in the "Gild-hall of the Germans," but though the Baltic +traders had secured a recognized foothold in the enlarged and unified +organization, Cologne retained the controlling interest in the London +settlement until 1476. Lubeck and Hamburg, however, dominated the German +trade in the ports of the east coast, notably in Lynn and Boston, while +they were strong in the organized trading settlements at York, Hull, +Ipswich, Norwich, Yarmouth and Bristol. The counter at London, first +called the Steelyard in a parliamentary petition of 1422, claimed +jurisdiction over the other factories in England. + +In Flanders, also, the German merchants from the West had long been +trading, but here had later to endure not only the rivalry but the +pre-eminence of those from the East. In 1252 the first treaty privileges +for German trade in Flanders show two men of Lubeck and Hamburg heading +the "Merchants of the Roman Empire," and in the later organization of +the counter at Bruges four or five of the six aldermen were chosen from +towns east of the Elbe, with Lubeck steadily predominant. The Germans +recognized the staple rights of Bruges for a number of commodities, such +as wool, wax, furs, copper and grain, and in return for this material +contribution to the growing commercial importance of the town, they +received in 1309 freedom from the compulsory brokerage which Bruges +imposed on foreign merchants. The importance and independence of the +German trading settlements abroad was exemplified in the statutes of the +"Company of German merchants at Bruges," drawn up in 1347, where for the +first time appears the grouping of towns in three sections (the +"Drittel"), the Wendish-Saxon, the Prussian-Westphalian, and those of +Gothland and Livland. Even more important than the assistance which the +concentration of the German trade at Bruges gave to that leading mart of +European commerce was the service rendered by the German counter of +Bruges to the cause of Hanseatic unity. Not merely because of its +central commercial position, but because of its width of view, its +political insight, and its constant insistence on the necessity of +union, this counter played a leading part in Hanseatic policy. It was +more Hanse than the Hanse towns. + +The last of the chief trading settlements, both in importance and in +date of organization, was that at Bergen in Norway, where in 1343 the +Hanseatics obtained special trade privileges. Scandinavia had early been +sought for its copper and iron, its forest products and its valuable +fisheries, especially of herring at Schonen, but it was backward in its +industrial development and its own commerce had seriously declined in +the 14th century. It had come to depend largely upon the Germans for the +importation of all its luxuries and of many of its necessities, as well +as for the exportation of its products, but regular trade with the three +kingdoms was confined for the most part to the Wendish towns, with +Lubeck steadily asserting an exclusive ascendancy. The fishing centre at +Schonen was important as a market, though, like Novgorod, its trade was +seasonal, but it did not acquire the position of a regularly organized +counter, reserved alone, in the North, for Bergen. The commercial +relations with the North cannot be regarded as an important element in +the union of the Hanse towns, but the geographical position of the +Scandinavian countries, especially that of Denmark, commanding the Sound +which gives access to the Baltic, compelled a close attention to +Scandinavian politics on the part of Lubeck and the League and thus by +necessitating combined political action in defence of Hanseatic +sea-power exercised a unifying influence. + +Energetic and successful though the scattered trading settlements had +been in establishing German trade connexions and in securing valuable +trade privileges, the middle of the 14th century found them powerless to +meet difficulties arising from internal dissension and still more from +the political rivalries and trade jealousies of nascent nationalities. +Flanders became a battle-field in the great struggle between France and +England, and the war of trade prohibitions led to infractions of the +German privileges in Bruges. An embargo on trade with Flanders, voted in +1358 by a general assembly, resulted by 1360 in the full restoration of +German privileges in Flanders, but reduced the counter at Bruges to an +executive organ of a united town policy. It is worth noting that in a +document connected with this action the union of towns, borrowing the +term from English usage, was first called the "German Hansa." In 1361 +representatives from Lubeck and Wisby visited Novgorod to recodify the +by-laws of the counter and to admonish it that new statutes required the +consent of Lubeck, Wisby, Riga, Dorpat and Reval. This action was +confirmed in 1366 by an assembly of the Hansa which at the same time, on +the occasion of a regulation made by the Bruges counter and of statutes +drawn up by the young Bergen counter, ordered that in future the +approval of the towns must be obtained for all new regulations. + +The counter at London was soon forced to follow the example of the other +counters at Bruges, Novgorod and Bergen. After the failure of the +Italians, the Hanseatics remained the strongest group of alien +merchants in England, and, as such, claimed the exclusive enjoyment of +the privileges granted by the _Carta Mercatoria_ of 1303. Their highly +favoured position in England, contrasting markedly with their refusal of +trade facilities to the English in some of the Baltic towns and their +evident policy of monopoly in the Baltic trade, incensed the English +mercantile classes, and doubtless influenced the increases in +customs-duties which were regarded by the Germans as contrary to their +treaty rights. Unsuccessful in obtaining redress from the English +government, the German merchants finally, in 1374, appealed for aid to +the home towns, especially to Lubeck. The result of Hanseatic +representations was the confirmation by Richard II. in 1377 of all their +privileges, which accorded them the preferential treatment they had +claimed and became the foundation of the Hanseatic position in England. + +In the meanwhile, the conquest of Wisby by Waldemar IV. of Denmark in +1361 had disclosed his ambition for the political control of the Baltic. +He was promptly opposed by an alliance of Hanse towns, led by Lubeck. +The defeat of the Germans at Helsingborg only called into being the +stronger town and territorial alliance of 1367, known as the Cologne +Confederation, and its final victory, with the peace of Stralsund in +1370, which gave for a limited period the four chief castles on the +Sound into the hands of the Hanseatic towns, greatly enhanced the +prestige of the League. + +The assertion of Hanseatic influence in the two decades, 1356 to 1377, +marks the zenith of the League's power and the completion of the long +process of unification. Under the pressure of commercial and political +necessity, authority was definitely transferred from the Hansas of +merchants abroad to the Hansa of towns at home, and the sense of unity +had become such that in 1380 a Lubeck official could declare that +"whatever touches one town touches all." But even at the time when union +was most important, this statement went further than the facts would +warrant, and in the course of the following century it became less and +less true. Dortmund held aloof from the Cologne Confederation on the +ground that it had no concern in Scandinavian politics. It became, +indeed, increasingly difficult to obtain the support of the inland towns +for a policy of sea-power in the Baltic. Cologne sent no representatives +to the regular Hanseatic assemblies until 1383, and during the 15th +century its independence was frequently manifested. It rebelled at the +authority of the counter at Bruges, and at the time of the war with +England (1469-1474) openly defied the League. In the East, the German +Order, while enjoying Hanseatic privileges, frequently opposed the +policy of the League abroad, and was only prevented by domestic troubles +and its Hinterland enemies from playing its own hand in the Baltic. +After the fall of the order in 1467, the towns of Prussia and Livland, +especially Dantzig and Riga, pursued an exclusive trade policy even +against their Hanseatic confederates. Lubeck, however, supported by the +Bruges counter, despite the disaffection and jealousy on all sides +hampering and sometimes thwarting its efforts, stood steadfastly for +union and the necessity of obedience to the decrees of the assemblies. +Its headship of the League, hitherto tacitly accepted, was definitely +recognized in 1418. + +The governing body of the Hansa was the assembly of town +representatives, the "Hansetage," held irregularly as occasion required +at the summons of Lubeck, and, with few exceptions, attended but +scantily. The delegates were bound by instructions from their towns and +had to report home the decisions of the assembly for acceptance or +rejection. In 1469 the League declared that the English use of the terms +"societas," "collegium" and "universitas" was inappropriate to so loose +an organization. It preferred to call itself a "firma confederatio" for +trade purposes only. It had no common seal, though that of Lubeck was +accepted, particularly by foreigners, in behalf of the League. Disputes +between the confederate towns were brought for adjudication before the +general assembly, but the League had no recognized federal judiciary. +Lubeck, with the counters abroad, watched over the execution of the +measures voted by the assembly, but there was no regular administrative +organization. Money for common purposes was raised from time to time, +as necessity demanded, by the imposition on Hanse merchandise of +poundage dues, introduced in 1361, while the counters relied upon a +small levy of like nature and upon fines to meet current needs. Even +this slender financial provision met with opposition. The German Order +in 1398 converted the Hanseatic poundage to a territorial tax for its +own purposes, and one of the chief causes for Cologne's disaffection a +half-century later was the extension from Flanders to other parts of the +Netherlands of the levy made by the counter at Bruges. Since the +authority of the League rested primarily on the moral support of its +members, allied in common trade interests and acquiescing in the able +leadership of Lubeck, its only means of compulsion was the "Verhansung," +or exclusion of a recalcitrant town from the benefits of the trade +privileges of the League. A conspicuous instance was the exclusion of +Cologne from 1471 until its obedience in 1476, but the penalty had been +earlier imposed, as in the case of Brunswick, on towns which overthrew +their patrician governments. It was obviously, however, a measure to be +used only in the last resort and with extreme reluctance. + +The decisive factor in determining membership in the League was the +historical right of the citizens of a town to participate in Hanseatic +privileges abroad. At first the merchant Hansas had shared these +privileges with almost any German merchant, and thus many little +villages, notably those in Westphalia, ultimately claimed membership. +Later, under the Hansa of the towns, the struggle for the maintenance of +a coveted position abroad led to a more exclusive policy. A few new +members were admitted, mainly from the westernmost sphere of Hanseatic +influence, but membership was refused to some important applicants. In +1447 it was voted that admission be granted only by unanimous consent. +No complete list of members was ever drawn up, despite frequent requests +from foreign powers. Contemporaries usually spoke of 70, 72, 73 or 77 +members, and perhaps the list is complete with Daenell's recent count of +72, but the obscurity on so vital a point is significant of the +amorphous character of the organization. + +The towns of the League, stretching from Thorn and Krakow on the East to +the towns of the Zuider Zee on the West, and from Wisby and Reval in the +North to Gottingen in the South, were arranged in groups, following in +the main the territorial divisions. Separate assemblies were held in the +groups for the discussion both of local and Hanseatic affairs, and +gradually, but not fully until the 16th century, the groups became +recognized as the lowest stage of Hanse organization. The further +grouping into "Thirds," later "Quarters," under head-towns, was also +more emphasized in that century. + +In the 15th century the League, with increasing difficulty, held a +defensive position against the competition of strong rivals and new +trade-routes. In England the inevitable conflict of interests between +the new mercantile power, growing conscious of its national strength, +and the old, standing insistant on the letter of its privileges, was +postponed by the factional discord out of which the Hansa in 1474 +dexterously snatched a renewal of its rights. Under Elizabeth, however, +the English Merchant Adventurers could finally rejoice at the withdrawal +of privileges from the Hanseatics and their concession to England, in +return for the retention of the Steelyard, of a factory in Hamburg. In +the Netherlands the Hanseatics clung to their position in Bruges until +1540, while trade was migrating to the ports of Antwerp and Amsterdam. +By the peace of Copenhagen in 1441, after the unsuccessful war of the +League with Holland, the attempted monopoly of the Baltic was broken, +and, though the Hanseatic trade regulations were maintained on paper, +the Dutch with their larger ships increased their hold on the herring +fisheries, the French salt trade, and the Baltic grain trade. For the +Russian trade new competitors were emerging in southern Germany. The +Hanseatic embargo against Bruges from 1451 to 1457, its later war and +embargo against England, the Turkish advance closing the Italian Black +Sea trade with southern Russia, all were utilized by Nuremberg and its +fellows to secure a land-trade outside the sphere of Hanseatic +influence. The fairs of Leipzig and Frankfort-on-Main rose in +importance as Novgorod, the stronghold of Hanse trade in the East, was +weakened by the attacks of Ivan III. The closing of the Novgorod counter +in 1494 was due not only to the development of the Russian state but to +the exclusive Hanseatic policy which had stimulated the opening of +competing trade routes. + +Within the League itself increasing restiveness was shown under the +restrictions of its trade policy. At the Hanseatic assembly of 1469, +Dantzig, Hamburg and Breslau opposed the maintenance of a compulsory +staple at Bruges in the face of the new conditions produced by a +widening commerce and more advantageous markets. Complaint was made of +South German competition in the Netherlands. "Those in the Hansa," +protested Breslau, "are fettered and must decline and those outside the +Hansa are free and prosper." By 1477 even Lubeck had become convinced +that a continuance of the effort to maintain the compulsory staple +against Holland was futile and should be abandoned. But while it was +found impossible to enforce the staple or to close the Sound against the +Dutch, other features of the monopolistic system of trade regulations +were still upheld. It was forbidden to admit an outsider to partnership +or to co-ownership of ships, to trade in non-Hanseatic goods, to buy or +sell on credit in a foreign mart or to enter into contracts for future +delivery. The trade of foreigners outside the gates of Hanse towns or +with others than Hanseatics was forbidden in 1417, and in the Eastern +towns the retail trade of strangers was strictly limited. The whole +system was designed to suppress the competition of outsiders, but the +divergent interests of individuals and towns, the pressure of +competition and changing commercial conditions, in part the reactionary +character of the legislation, made enforcement difficult. The measures +were those of the late-medieval town economy applied to the wide region +of the German Baltic trade, but not supported, as was the analogous +mercantilist system, by a strong central government. + +Among the factors, economic, geographic, political and social, which +combined to bring about the decline of the Hanseatic League, none was +probably more influential than the absence of a German political power +comparable in unity and energy with those of France and England, which +could quell particularism at home, and abroad maintain in its vigour the +trade which these towns had developed and defended with their imperfect +union. Nothing was to be expected from the declining Empire. Still less +was any co-operation possible between the towns and the territorial +princes. The fatal result of conflict between town autonomy and +territorial power had been taught in Flanders. The Hanseatics regarded +the princes with a growing and exaggerated fear and found some relief in +the formation in 1418 of a thrice-renewed alliance, known as the +"Tohopesate," against princely aggression. But no territorial power had +as yet arisen in North Germany capable of subjugating and utilizing the +towns, though it could detach the inland towns from the League. The last +wars of the League with the Scandinavian powers in the 16th century, +which left it shorn of many of its privileges and of any pretension to +control of the Baltic basin eliminated it as a factor in the later +struggle of the Thirty Years' War for that control. At an assembly of +1629, Lubeck, Bremen and Hamburg were entrusted with the task of +safeguarding the general welfare, and after an effort to revive the +League in the last general assembly of 1669, these three towns were left +alone to preserve the name and small inheritance of the Hansa which in +Germany's disunion had upheld the honour of her commerce. Under their +protection, the three remaining counters lingered on until their +buildings were sold at Bergen in 1775, at London in 1852 and at Antwerp +in 1863. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Hansisches Urkundenbuch_, bearbeitet von K. Hohlbaum, + K. Kunze und W. Stein (10 vols., Halle und Leipzig, 1876-1907); + _Hanserecesse_, erste Abtheilung, 1256-1430 (8 vols., Leipzig, + 1870-1897), zweite Abtheilung, 1431-1476 (7 vols., 1876-1892); dritte + Abtheilung, 1477-1530 (7 vols., 1881-1905); _Hansische + Geschichtsquellen_ (7 vols., 1875-1894; 3 vols., 1897-1906); + _Inventare hansischer Archive des sechzehnten Jahrhunderts_ (vols. 1 + and 2, 1896-1903); _Hansische Geschictsblatter_ (14 vols., 1871-1908). + All the above-mentioned chief sources have been issued by the Verein + fur hansische Geschichte. Of the secondary literature, the following + histories and monographs should be named. G. F. Sartorius, _Geschichte + des hanseatischen Bundes_ (3 vols., Gottingen, 1802-1808), + _Urkundliche Geschichte des Ursprunges der deutschen Hanse_, + herausgegeben von J. M. Lappenberg (2 vols., Hamburg, 1830); F. W. + Barthold, _Geschichte der deutschen Hansa_ (3 vols., 2nd ed., Leipzig, + 1862); D. Schafer, _Die Hansestadte und Konig Waldemar von Danemark_ + (Jena, 1879); W. Stein, _Beitrage zur Geschichte der deutschen Hanse + bis um die Mitte des funfzehnten Jahrhunderts_ (Giessen, 1900); E. + Daenell, _Die Blutezeit der deutschen Hanse. Hansische Geschichte von + der zweiten Halfte des XIV. bis zum letzten Viertel des XV. + Jahrhunderts_ (2 vols., Berlin, 1905-1906); J. M. Lappenberg, + _Urkundliche Geschichte des hansischen Stahlhofes zu London_ (Hamburg, + 1851); F. Keutgen, _Die Beziehungen der Hanse zu England im letzten + Drittel des vierzehnten Jahrhunderts_ (Giessen, 1890); R. Ehrenberg, + _Hamburg und England im Zeitalter der Konigin Elisabeth_ (Jena, 1896); + W. Stein, _Die Genossenschaft der deutschen Kaufleute zu Brugge in + Flandern_ (Berlin, 1890); H. Rogge, _Der Stapelzwang des hansischen + Kontors zu Brugge im funfzehnten Jahrhundert_ (Kiel, 1903); A. + Winckler, _Die deutsche Hansa in Russland_ (Berlin, 1886). + (E. F. G.) + + + + +HANSEN, PETER ANDREAS (1795-1874), Danish astronomer, was born on the +8th of December 1795, at Tondern, in the duchy of Schleswig. The son of +a goldsmith, he learned the trade of a watchmaker at Flensburg, and +exercised it at Berlin and Tondern, 1818-1820. He had, however, long +been a student of science; and Dr Dircks, a physician practising at +Tondern, prevailed with his father to send him in 1820 to Copenhagen, +where he won the patronage of H. C. Schumacher, and attracted the +personal notice of King Frederick VI. The Danish survey was then in +progress, and he acted as Schumacher's assistant in work connected with +it, chiefly at the new observatory of Altona, 1821-1825. Thence he +passed on to Gotha as director of the Seeberg observatory; nor could he +be tempted to relinquish the post by successive invitations to replace +F. G. W. Struve at Dorpat in 1829, and F. W. Bessel at Konigsberg in +1847. The problems of gravitational astronomy engaged the chief part of +Hansen's attention. A research into the mutual perturbations of Jupiter +and Saturn secured for him the prize of the Berlin Academy in 1830, and +a memoir on cometary disturbances was crowned by the Paris Academy in +1850. In 1838 he published a revision of the lunar theory, entitled +_Fundamenta nova investigationis_, &c., and the improved Tables of the +Moon based upon it were printed in 1857, at the expense of the British +government, their merit being further recognized by a grant of L1000, +and by their immediate adoption in the _Nautical Almanac_, and other +Ephemerides. A theoretical discussion of the disturbances embodied in +them (still familiarly known to lunar experts as the _Darlegung_) +appeared in the _Abhandlungen_ of the Saxon Academy of Sciences in +1862-1864. Hansen twice visited England and was twice (in 1842 and 1860) +the recipient of the Royal Astronomical Society's gold medal. He +communicated to that society in 1847 an able paper on a long-period +lunar inequality (_Memoirs Roy. Astr. Society_, xvi. 465), and in 1854 +one on the moon's figure, advocating the mistaken hypothesis of its +deformation by a huge elevation directed towards the earth (Ib. xxiv. +29). He was awarded the Copley medal by the Royal Society in 1850, and +his Solar Tables, compiled with the assistance of Christian Olufsen, +appeared in 1854. Hansen gave in 1854 the first intimation that the +accepted distance of the sun was too great by some millions of miles +(_Month. Notices Roy. Astr. Soc._ xv. 9), the error of J. F. Encke's +result having been rendered evident through his investigation of a lunar +inequality. He died on the 28th of March 1874, at the new observatory in +the town of Gotha, erected under his care in 1857. + + See _Vierteljahrsschrift astr. Gesellschaft_, x. 133; _Month. Notices + Roy. Astr. Society_, xxxv. 168; _Proc. Roy. Society_, xxv. p. v.; R. + Wolf, _Geschichte der Astronomie_, p. 526; _Wochenschrift fur + Astronomie_, xvii. 207 (account of early years by E. Heis); + _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_ (C. Bruhns). (A. M. C.) + + + + +HANSI, a town of British India, in the Hissar district of the Punjab, on +a branch of the Western Jumna canal, with a station on the +Rewari-Ferozepore railway, 16 m. E. of Hissar. Pop. (1901) 16,523. Hansi +is one of the most ancient towns in northern India, the former capital +of the tract called Hariana. At the end of the 18th century it was the +headquarters of the famous Irish adventurer George Thomas; from 1803 to +1857 it was a British cantonment, and it became the scene of a murderous +outbreak during the Mutiny. A ruined fort overlooks the town, which is +still surrounded by a high brick wall, with bastions and loop holes. It +is a centre of local trade, with factories for ginning and pressing +cotton. + + + + +HANSOM, JOSEPH ALOYSIUS (1803-1882), English architect and inventor, was +born in York on the 26th of October 1803. Showing an aptitude for +designing and construction, he was taken from his father's joinery shop +and apprenticed to an architect in York, and, by 1831, his designs for +the Birmingham town hall were accepted and followed--to his financial +undoing, as he had become bond for the builders. In 1834 he registered +the design of a "Patent Safety Cab," and subsequently sold the patent to +a company for L10,000, which, however, owing to the company's financial +difficulties, was never paid. The hansom cab as improved by subsequent +alterations, nevertheless, took and held the fancy of the public. There +was no back seat for the driver in the original design, and there is +little beside the suspended axle and large wheels in the modern hansom +to recall the early ones. In 1834 Hansom founded the _Builder_ +newspaper, but was compelled to retire from this enterprise owing to +insufficient capital. Between 1854 and 1879 he devoted himself to +architecture, designing and erecting a great number of important +buildings, private and public, including churches, schools and convents +for the Roman Catholic church to which he belonged. Buildings from his +designs are scattered all over the United Kingdom, and were even erected +in Australia and South America. He died in London on the 29th of June +1882. + + + + +HANSON, SIR RICHARD DAVIES (1805-1876), chief justice of South +Australia, was born in London on the 6th of December 1805. Admitted a +solicitor in 1828, he practised for some time in London. In 1838 he went +with Lord Durham to Canada as assistant-commissioner of inquiry into +crown lands and immigration. In 1840, on the death of Lord Durham, whose +private secretary he had been, he settled in Wellington, New Zealand. He +there acted as crown prosecutor, but in 1846 removed to South Australia. +In 1851 he was appointed advocate-general of that colony and took an +active share in the passing of many important measures, such as the +first Education Act, the District Councils Act of 1852, and the Act of +1856 which granted constitutional government to the colony. In 1856 and +again from 1857 to 1860 he was attorney-general and leader of the +government. In 1861 he was appointed chief justice of the supreme court +of South Australia and was knighted in 1869. He died in Australia on the +4th of March 1876. + + + + +HANSTEEN, CHRISTOPHER (1784-1873), Norwegian astronomer and physicist, +was born at Christiania, on the 26th of September 1784. From the +cathedral school he went to the university at Copenhagen, where first +law and afterwards mathematics formed his main study. In 1806 he taught +mathematics in the gymnasium of Frederiksborg, Zeeland, and in the +following year he began the inquiries in terrestrial magnetism with +which his name is especially associated. He took in 1812 the prize of +the Danish Royal Academy of Sciences for his reply to a question on the +magnetic axes. Appointed lecturer in 1814, he was in 1816 raised to the +chair of astronomy and applied mathematics in the university of +Christiania. In 1819 he published a volume of researches on terrestrial +magnetism, which was translated into German by P. T. Hanson, under the +title of _Untersuchungen uber den Magnetismus der Erde_, with a +supplement containing _Beobachtungen der Abweichung und Neigung der +Magnetnadel_ and an atlas. By the rules there framed for the observation +of magnetical phenomena Hansteen hoped to accumulate analyses for +determining the number and position of the magnetic poles of the earth. +In prosecution of his researches he travelled over Finland and the +greater part of his own country; and in 1828-1830 he undertook, in +company with G. A. Erman, and with the co-operation of Russia, a +government mission to Western Siberia. A narrative of the expedition +soon appeared (_Reise-Erinnerungen aus Sibirien_, 1854; _Souvenirs_ +_d'un voyage en Siberie_, 1857); but the chief work was not issued till +1863 (_Resultate magnetischer Beobachtungen_, &c.). Shortly after the +return of the mission, an observatory was erected in the park of +Christiania (1833), and Hansteen was appointed director. On his +representation a magnetic observatory was added in 1839. In 1835-1838 he +published text-books on geometry and mechanics; and in 1842 he wrote his +_Disquisitiones de mutationibus quas patitur momentum acus magneticae_, +&c. He also contributed various papers to different scientific journals, +especially the _Magazin for Naturvidenskaberne_, of which he became +joint-editor in 1823. He superintended the trigonometrical and +topographical survey of Norway, begun in 1837. In 1861 he retired from +active work, but still pursued his studies, his _Observations de +l'inclination magnetique_ and _Sur les variations seculaires du +magnetisme_ appearing in 1865. He died at Christiania on the 11th of +April 1873. + + + + +HANTHAWADDY, a district in the Pegu division of Lower Burma, the home +district of Rangoon, from which the town was detached to make a separate +district in 1880. It has an area of 3023 sq. m., with a population in +1901 of 484,811, showing an increase of 22% in the decade. Hanthawaddy +and Henzada are the two most densely populated districts in the +province. It consists of a vast plain stretching up from the sea between +the To or China Bakir mouth of the Irrawaddy and the Pegu Yomas. Except +the tract lying between the Pegu Yomas on the east and the Hlaing river, +the country is intersected by numerous tidal creeks, many navigable by +large boats and some by steamers. The headquarters of the district are +in Rangoon, which is also the sub-divisional headquarters. The second +sub-division has its headquarters at Insein, where there are large +railway works. Cultivation is almost wholly confined to rice, but there +are many vegetable and fruit gardens. + + + + +HANUKKAH, a Jewish festival, the "Feast of Dedication" (cf. John x. 22) +or the "Feast of the Maccabees," beginning on the 25th day of the ninth +month _Kislev_ (December), of the Hebrew ecclesiastical year, and +lasting eight days. It was instituted in 165 B.C. in commemoration of, +and thanksgiving for, the purification of the temple at Jerusalem on +this day by Judas Maccabaeus after its pollution by Antiochus Epiphanes, +king of Syria, who in 168 B.C. set up a pagan altar to Zeus Olympius. +The Talmudic sources say that when the perpetual lamp of the temple was +to be relighted only one flask of holy oil sufficient for the day +remained, but this miraculously lasted for the eight days (cf. the +legend in 2 Macc. i. 18). In memory of this the Jews burn both in +synagogues and in houses on the first night of the festival one light, +on the second two, and so on to the end (so the Hillelites), or vice +versa eight lights on the first, and one less on each succeeding night +(so the Shammaites). From the prominence of the lights the festival is +also known as the "Festival of Lights" or "Illumination" (_Talmud_). It +is said that the day chosen by Judas for the setting up of the new altar +was the anniversary of that on which Antiochus had set up the pagan +altar; hence it is suggested (e.g. by Wellhausen) that the 25th of +Kislev was an old pagan festival, perhaps the day of the winter +solstice. + + For further details and illustrations of Hanukkah lamps see _Jewish + Encyc._, s.v. + + + + +HANUMAN, in Hindu mythology, a monkey-god, who forms a central figure in +the _Ramayana_. He was the child of a nymph by the god of the wind. His +exploits, as the ally of Rama (incarnation of Vishnu) in the latter's +recovery of his wife Sita from the clutches of the demon Ravana, include +the bridging of the straits between India and Ceylon with huge boulders +carried away from the Himalayas. He is the leader of a host of monkeys +who aid in these supernatural deeds. Temples in his honour are frequent +throughout India. + + + + +HANWAY, JONAS (1712-1786), English traveller and philanthropist, was +born at Portsmouth in 1712. While still a child, his father, a +victualler, died, and the family moved to London. In 1729 Jonas was +apprenticed to a merchant in Lisbon. In 1743, after he had been some +time in business for himself in London, he became a partner with Mr +Dingley, a merchant in St Petersburg, and in this way was led to travel +in Russia and Persia. Leaving St Petersburg on the 10th of September +1743, and passing south by Moscow, Tsaritsyn and Astrakhan, he embarked +on the Caspian on the 22nd of November, and arrived at Astrabad on the +18th of December. Here his goods were seized by Mohammed Hassan Beg, and +it was only after great privations that he reached the camp of Nadir +Shah, under whose protection he recovered most (85%) of his property. +His return journey was embarrassed by sickness (at Resht), by attacks +from pirates, and by six weeks' quarantine; and he only reappeared at St +Petersburg on the 1st of January 1745. He again left the Russian capital +on the 9th of July 1750 and travelled through Germany and Holland to +England (28th of October). The rest of his life was mostly spent in +London, where the narrative of his travels (published in 1753) soon made +him a man of note, and where he devoted himself to philanthropy and good +citizenship. In 1756 he founded the Marine Society, to keep up the +supply of British seamen; in 1758 he became a governor of the Foundling, +and established the Magdalen, hospital; in 1761 he procured a better +system of parochial birth-registration in London; and in 1762 he was +appointed a commissioner for victualling the navy (10th of July); this +office he held till October 1783. He died, unmarried, on the 5th of +September 1786. He was the first Londoner, it is said, to carry an +umbrella, and he lived to triumph over all the hackney coachmen who +tried to hoot and hustle him down. He attacked "vail-giving," or +tipping, with some temporary success; by his onslaught upon tea-drinking +he became involved in controversy with Johnson and Goldsmith. His last +efforts were on behalf of little chimney-sweeps. His advocacy of +solitary confinement for prisoners and opposition to Jewish +naturalization were more questionable instances of his activity in +social matters. + + Hanway left seventy-four printed works, mostly pamphlets; the only one + of literary importance is the _Historical Account of British Trade + over the Caspian Sea, with a Journal of Travels_, &c. (London, 1753). + On his life, see also Pugh, _Remarkable Occurrences in the Life of + Jonas Hanway_ (London, 1787); _Gentleman's Magazine_, vol. xxxii. p. + 342; vol. lvi. pt. ii. pp. 812-814, 1090, 1143-1144; vol. lxv. pt. ii. + pp. 721-722, 834-835; _Notes and Queries_, 1st series, i. 436, ii. 25; + 3rd series, vii. 311; 4th series, viii. 416. + + + + +HANWELL, an urban district in the Brentford parliamentary division of +Middlesex, England, 10-1/2 m. W. of St Paul's cathedral, London, on the +river Brent and the Great Western railway. Pop. (1891) 6139; (1901) +10,438. It ranks as an outer residential suburb of London. The Hanwell +lunatic asylum of the county of London has been greatly extended since +its erection 1831, and can accommodate over 2500 inmates. The extensive +cemeteries of St Mary Abbots, Kensington, and St George, Hanover Square, +London, are here. In the churchyard of St Mary's church was buried Jonas +Hanway (d. 1786), traveller, philanthropist, and by repute, introducer +of the umbrella into England. The Roman Catholic Convalescent Home for +women and children was erected in 1865. Before the Norman period the +manor of Hanwell belonged to Westminster Abbey. + + + + +HAPARANDA (Finnish _Haaparanta_, "Aspen Shore"), a town of Sweden in the +district (_lan_) of Norbotten, at the head of the Gulf of Bothnia. Pop. +(1900) 1568. It lies about 1-1/2 m. from the mouth of the Torne river, +on the frontier with Russia (Finland), opposite the town of Tornea which +has belonged to Russia since 1809. The towns are divided by a marshy +channel, formerly the bed of the Torne, but the main stream is now east +of the Russian town. Haparanda was founded in 1812, and at first bore +the name of Karljohannstad. It received its municipal constitution in +1842. Shipbuilding is prosecuted. Sea-going vessels load and unload at +Salmio, 7 m. from Haparanda. Since 1859 the town has been the seat of an +important meteorological station. Annual mean temperature, 32.4 deg. +Fahr.; February 10.5 deg.; July 58.8 deg. Rainfall, 16.5 in. annually. +Up the Torne valley (54 m.) is the hill Avasaxa, whither pilgrimages +were formerly made in order to stand in the light of the sun at midnight +on St John's day (June 24). + + + + +HAPLODRILI (so called by Lankester), often called Archiannelida +(Hatschek), the name provisionally given to a number of interesting +lowly-organized marine worms, whose affinities are very doubtful (see +CHAETOPODA.) _Polygordius_ and _Protodrilus_ live in sand, but while +the former moves by means of the contraction of its body-wall muscles, +_Protodrilus_ can progress by the action of the bands of cilia +surrounding its segments, and of the longitudinal ciliated ventral +groove. _Saccocirrus_, which also lives in sand, and more closely +resembles the Polychaeta, has throughout the greater length of its body +on each segment a pair of small uniramous parapodia bearing a bunch of +simple setae. No other member of the group is known to have any trace of +setae or parapodia at any stage of development. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1. + + A, _Polygordius neapolitanus_. (From Fraipont.) + B, Transverse section of _Polygordius_. (From Fraipont.) + C, Trochophore of _Polygordius_. and D, later stage of the same, + showing the development of the trunk. (From Hatschek.) + E, Dorsal view of _Dinophilus taeniatus_. + F, Male apparatus of the same (From Harmer.) + a, Anus. + ap, Apical organ. + c, Coelom. + c.o, Ciliated pit. + c.t, Cuticle. + d.v, Dorsal vessel. + e, Eye. + ep, Epidermis. + g.f, Genital funnel. + h, "Head kidney," with second nephridium just below it. + i, Intestine. + l.m, Longitudinal muscles. + m, Mouth. + m.o, Muscular pharyngeal organ. + m.p, Male pore. + n, Nephridium. + o.m, Oblique muscles. + ov, Ovary. + p, Penis. + pr, Prototroch. + pt, Prostomial tentacle. + sp, Sperm-sac. + spd, Sperm-duct. + st, Stomach. + t, Testes. + tr, Trunk segment. + tt, Telotroch. + v.n, Ventral nerve cord. + v.v, Ventral vessel.] + + These three genera have the following characters in common. The body + is composed of a large number of segments; the prostomium bears a pair + of tentacles; the nervous system consists of a brain and longitudinal + ventral nerve cords closely connected with the epidermis (without + distinct ganglia), widely separated in _Saccocirrus_, closely + approximated in _Protodrilus_, fused together in _Polygordius_; the + coelom is well developed, the septa are distinct, and the dorsal and + ventral longitudinal mesenteries are complete; the nephridia are + simple, and open into the coelom. Polygordius differs from + _Protodrilus_ and _Saccocirrus_ in the absence of a distinct + suboesophageal muscular pouch, and in the absence of a peculiar closed + cavity in the head region, which is especially well developed in + _Saccocirrus_, and probably represents the specialized coelom of the + first segment. Moreover, in _Saccocirrus_ the genital organs, present + in the majority of the trunk segments, have become much complicated + (fig. 2). In the female there is in every fertile segment a pair of + spermathecae opening at the nephridiopores. In the male there are a + right and a left protrusible penis in every genital segment, into + which opens the nephridium and a sperm-sac. The wide funnels of the + nephridia of this region are possibly of coelomic origin. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Diagram of a transverse section of + _Saccocirrus_ showing on the left side the organs in a genital segment + of a male, and on the right side the organs in a genital segment of a + female. (From Goodrich.)] + + _Dinophilus_ is a free-swimming form without tentacles, and with + segmental bands of cilia (fig. 1). The parasitic _Histriodritus_ + (Histriobdella) feeds on the eggs of the lobster. It resembles + _Dinophilus_ in the possession of a ventral pharyngeal pouch (which + bears teeth in _Histriodrilus_ only), the small number of segments, + and absence of distinct septa, the absence of a vascular system, the + presence of distinct ganglia on the ventral nerve cords, and of small + nephridia which do not appear to open internally. _Histriodrilus_ + resembles _Saccocirrus_ in the possession of two posterior adhesive + processes, and to some extent in the structure of the complex genital + organs, which, however, are restricted to a single segment. In + _Dinophilus_, there is also only a single pair of genital ducts + behind; and in the male there are sperm-sacs and a median penis. In + some species of _Dinophilus_ there is pronounced sexual dimorphism + (the male being small and without gut) as in the Rotifera. The + resemblance of _Dinophilus_ to the Rotifera is, however, quite + superficial, and the general structure of this genus with distinct + traces of segmentation, especially in the embryo, points to its close + affinity, if not to _Polygordius_ in particular, at all events to the + Annelida. + + That _Polygordius_, _Protodrilus_ and _Saccocirrus_ are on the whole + primitive forms, and related to each other, there can be little doubt, + but their place amongst the Annelida is difficult to determine. The + development of _Polygordius_ alone is well known, having been studied + by Hatschek, Fraipont and others. The larva (fig. 1, C and D) is a + typical but very specialized form of trochophore, provided with a + branching nephridium bearing solenocytes. The trunk develops on the + lower surface of the disk-like larva, which undergoes a more or less + sudden metamorphosis into the young worm (fig. 1). There appears to be + little either in the development or in the structure of the Haplodrili + to warrant the view held by Hatschek and Fraipont that _Polygordius_ + and _Protodrilus_ are exceedingly primitive forms, ancestral to the + whole group of seta-bearing Annelids (Oligochaeta, Polychaeta, + Hirudinea and Echiuroidea). Whatever may be the conclusion as to the + position of _Dinophilus_ and _Histriodrilus_, it seems only reasonable + to suppose that _Polygordius_ and _Protodrilus_, so far from + representing a stage in the phylogeny of the Annelida before setae + were developed, have lost the setae, which are already in a reduced + state in _Saccocirrus_. + + AUTHORITIES.--Hatschek, "Studien z. Entw. der Anneliden," _Arb. Zool. + Inst. Wien_, vol. i., 1878; "Protodrilus," ibid. vol. iii. (1881); + Fraipont, "Le Genre Polygordius," _Fauna u. Flora d. Golfes v. + Neapel._, xiv., 1887; Weldon, "Dinophilus gigas," _Quart. Journ. Micr. + Sci._ vol. xxvii., 1886; Harmer, "Dinophilus," _Journ. Mar. Biol._ + N.S. vol. i., 1889; Schimkewitsch, "Entwickl. des _Dinophilus," Zeit. + f. wiss. Zool._ vol. lix., 1895; Korschelt, "Uber Bau u. Entw. des + _Dinophilus," Zeit. f. wiss. Zool._ vol. xxxvii., 1882; Foettinger, + "Histriobdella," _Arch. Biol._ vol. v., 1884; Goodrich, "On + Saccocirrus," _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ vol. xliv., 1901. + (E. S. G.) + + + + +HAPTARA (lit. _conclusion_), the Hebrew title given to the prophetic +lessons with which the ancient Synagogue service concluded. In the time +of Christ these prophetic lessons were already in vogue, and Christ +himself read the lessons and discoursed on them in the synagogues of +Galilee. In the modern synagogue these readings from the prophets are +regularly included in the ritual of Sabbaths, festivals and some other +occasions. + + A list of the current lessons is given in the _Jewish Encyclopedia_, + vol. vi. pp. 136-137. (I. A.) + + + + +HAPUR, a town of British India in the Meerut district of the United +Provinces, 18 m. S. of Meerut. Pop. (1901) 17,796. It is said to have +been founded in the 10th century, and was granted by Sindhia to his +French general Perron at the end of the 18th century. Several fine +groves surround the town, but the wall and ditch have fallen out of +repair, and only the names of the five gates remain. Considerable trade +is carried on in sugar, grain, cotton, timber, bamboos and brass +utensils. + + + + +HARA-KIRI (Japanese _hara_, belly, and _kiri_, cutting), +self-disembowelment, primarily the method of suicide permitted to +offenders of the noble class in feudal Japan, and later the national +form of honourable suicide. Hara-kiri has been often translated as "the +happy dispatch" in confusion with a native euphemism for the act. More +usually the Japanese themselves speak of hara-kiri by its Chinese +synonym, _Seppuku_. Hara-kiri is not an aboriginal Japanese custom. It +was a growth of medieval militarism, the act probably at first being +prompted by the desire of the noble to escape the humiliation of falling +into an enemy's hands. By the end of the 14th century the custom had +become a much valued privilege, being formally established as such under +the Ashi-Kaga dynasty. Hara-kiri was of two kinds, obligatory and +voluntary. The first is the more ancient. An official or noble, who had +broken the law or been disloyal, received a message from the emperor, +couched always in sympathetic and gracious tones, courteously intimating +that he must die. The mikado usually sent a jewelled dagger with which +the deed might be done. The suicide had so many days allotted to him by +immemorial custom in which to make dignified preparations for the +ceremony, which was attended by the utmost formality. In his own +baronial hall or in a temple a dais 3 or 4 in. from the ground was +constructed. Upon this was laid a rug of red felt. The suicide, clothed +in his ceremonial dress as an hereditary noble, and accompanied by his +second or "Kaishaku," took his place on the mat, the officials and his +friends ranging themselves in a semicircle round the dais. After a +minute's prayer the weapon was handed to him with many obeisances by the +mikado's representative, and he then made a public confession of his +fault. He then stripped to the waist. Every movement in the grim +ceremony was governed by precedent, and he had to tuck his wide sleeves +under his knees to prevent himself falling backwards, for a Japanese +noble must die falling forward. A moment later he plunged the dagger +into his stomach below the waist on the left side, drew it across to the +right and, turning it, gave a slight cut upward. At the same moment the +Kaishaku who crouched at his friend's side, leaping up, brought his +sword down on the outstretched neck. At the conclusion of the ceremony +the bloodstained dagger was taken to the mikado as a proof of the +consummation of the heroic act. The performance of hara-kiri carried +with it certain privileges. If it was by order of the mikado half only +of a traitor's property was forfeited to the state. If the gnawings of +conscience drove the disloyal noble to voluntary suicide, his dishonour +was wiped out, and his family inherited all his fortune. + +Voluntary hara-kiri was the refuge of men rendered desperate by private +misfortunes, or was committed from loyalty to a dead superior, or as a +protest against what was deemed a false national policy. This voluntary +suicide still survives, a characteristic case being that of Lieutenant +Takeyoshi who in 1891 gave himself the "belly-cut" in front of the +graves of his ancestors at Tokyo as a protest against what he considered +the criminal lethargy of the government in not taking precautions +against possible Russian encroachments to the north of Japan. In the +Russo-Japanese War, when faced by defeat at Vladivostock, the officer in +command of the troops on the transport "Kinshu Maru" committed +hara-kiri. Hara-kiri has not been uncommon among women, but in their +case the mode is by cutting the throat. The popularity of this +self-immolation is testified to by the fact that for centuries no fewer +than 1500 hara-kiris are said to have taken place annually, at least +half being entirely voluntary. Stories of amazing heroism are told in +connexion with the performance of the act. One noble, barely out of his +teens, not content with giving himself the customary cuts, slashed +himself thrice horizontally and twice vertically. Then he stabbed +himself in the throat until the dirk protruded on the other side with +the sharp edge to the front, and with a supreme effort drove the knife +forward with both hands through his neck. Obligatory hara-kiri was +obsolete in the middle of the 19th century, and was actually abolished +in 1868. + + See A. B. Mitford, _Tales of Old Japan_; Basil Hall Chamberlain, + _Things Japanese_ (1898). + + + + +HARALD, the name of four kings of Norway. + +HARALD I. (850-933), surnamed Haarfager (of the beautiful hair), first +king over Norway, succeeded on the death or his father Halfdan the Black +in A.D. 860 to the sovereignty of several small and somewhat scattered +kingdoms, which had come into his father's hands through conquest and +inheritance and lay chiefly in south-east Norway (see NORWAY). The tale +goes that the scorn of the daughter of a neighbouring king induced +Harald to take a vow not to cut nor comb his hair until he was sole king +of Norway, and that ten years later he was justified in trimming it; +whereupon he exchanged the epithet "Shockhead" for the one by which he +is usually known. In 866 he made the first of a series of conquests over +the many petty kingdoms which then composed Norway; and in 872, after a +great victory at Hafrsfjord near Stavanger, he found himself king over +the whole country. His realm was, however, threatened by dangers from +without, as large numbers of his opponents had taken refuge, not only in +Iceland, then recently discovered, but also in the Orkneys, Shetlands, +Hebrides and Faeroes, and in Scotland itself; and from these winter +quarters sallied forth to harry Norway as well as the rest of northern +Europe. Their numbers were increased by malcontents from Norway, who +resented Harald's claim of rights of taxation over lands which the +possessors appear to have previously held in absolute ownership. At last +Harald was forced to make an expedition to the west to clear the islands +and Scottish mainland of Vikings. Numbers of them fled to Iceland, which +grew into an independent commonwealth, while the Scottish isles fell +under Norwegian rule. The latter part of Harald's reign was disturbed by +the strife of his many sons. He gave them all the royal title and +assigned lands to them which they were to govern as his representatives; +but this arrangement did not put an end to the discord, which continued +into the next reign. When he grew old he handed over the supreme power +to his favourite son Erik "Bloody Axe," whom he intended to be his +successor. Harald died in 933, in his eighty-fourth year. + +HARALD II., surnamed Graafeld, a grandson of Harald I., became, with his +brothers, ruler of the western part of Norway in 961; he was murdered in +Denmark in 969. + +HARALD III. (1015-1066), king of Norway, surnamed Haardraade, which +might be translated "ruthless," was the son of King Sigurd and +half-brother of King Olaf the Saint. At the age of fifteen he was +obliged to flee from Norway, having taken part in the battle of +Stiklestad (1030), at which King Olaf met his death. He took refuge for +a short time with Prince Yaroslav of Novgorod (a kingdom founded by +Scandinavians), and thence went to Constantinople, where he took service +under the empress Zoe, whose Varangian guard he led to frequent victory +in Italy, Sicily and North Africa, also penetrating to Jerusalem. In the +year 1042 he left Constantinople, the story says because he was refused +the hand of a princess, and on his way back to his own country he +married Ellisif or Elizabeth, daughter of Yaroslav of Novgorod. In +Sweden he allied himself with the defeated Sven of Denmark against his +nephew Magnus, now king of Norway, but soon broke faith with Sven and +accepted an offer from Magnus of half his kingdom. In return for this +gift Harald is said to have shared with Magnus the enormous treasure +which he had amassed in the East. The death of Magnus in 1047 put an end +to the growing jealousies between the two kings, and Harald turned all +his attention to the task of subjugating Denmark, which he ravaged year +after year; but he met with such stubborn resistance from Sven that in +1064 he gave up the attempt and made peace. Two years afterwards, +possibly instigated by the banished Earl Tostig of Northumbria, he +attempted the conquest of England, to the sovereignty of which his +predecessor had advanced a claim as successor of Harthacnut. In +September 1066 he landed in Yorkshire with a large army, reinforced from +Scotland, Ireland and the Orkneys; took Scarborough by casting flaming +brands into the town from the high ground above it; defeated the +Northumbrian forces at Fulford; and entered York on the 24th of +September. But the following day the English Harold arrived from the +south, and the end of the long day's fight at Stamford Bridge saw the +rout of the Norwegian forces after the fall of their king (25th of +September 1066). He was only fifty years old, but he was the first of +the six kings who had ruled Norway since the death of Harald Haarfager +to reach that age. As a king he was unpopular on account of his +harshness and want of good faith, but his many victories in the face of +great odds prove him to have been a remarkable general, of never-failing +resourcefulness and indomitable courage. + +HARALD IV. (d. 1136), king of Norway, surnamed Gylle (probably from +_Gylle Krist_, i.e. servant of Christ), was born in Ireland about 1103. +About 1127 he went to Norway and declared he was a son of King Magnus +III. (Barefoot), who had visited Ireland just before his death in 1103, +and consequently a half-brother of the reigning king, Sigurd. He appears +to have submitted successfully to the ordeal of fire, and the alleged +relationship was acknowledged by Sigurd on condition that Harald did not +claim any share in the government of the kingdom during his lifetime or +that of his son Magnus. Living on friendly terms with the king, Harald +kept this agreement until Sigurd's death in 1130. Then war broke out +between himself and Magnus, and after several battles the latter was +captured in 1134, his eyes were put out, and he was thrown into prison. +Harald now ruled the country until 1136, when he was murdered by Sigurd +Slembi-Diakn, another bastard son of Magnus Barefoot. Four of Harald's +sons, Sigurd, Ingi, Eysteinn and Magnus, were subsequently kings of +Norway. + + + + +HARBIN, or KHARBIN, town of Manchuria, on the right bank of the river +Sungari. Pop. about 20,000. Till 1896 there was only a small village +here, but in that year the town was founded in connexion with surveys +for the Chinese Eastern railway company, at a point which subsequently +became the junction of the main line of the Manchurian railway with the +branch line southward to Port Arthur. Occupying such a position, Harbin +became an important Russian military centre during the Russo-Japanese +War. The portion of the town founded in 1896 is called Old Harbin, but +the centre has shifted to New Harbin, where the chief public buildings +and offices of the railway administration are situated. The river-port +forms a third division of the town, industrially the most important; +here are railway workshops, factories and mercantile establishments. +Trade is chiefly in the hands of the Chinese. + + + + +HARBINGER, originally one who provides a shelter or lodging for an army. +The word is derived from the M. E. and O. Fr. _herbergere_, through the +Late Lat. _heribergator_, formed from the O. H. Ger. _heri_, mod. Ger. +_Heer_, an army, and _bergen_, shelter or defence, cf. "harbour." The +meaning was soon enlarged to include any place where travellers could be +lodged or entertained, and also by transference the person who provided +lodgings, and so one who goes on before a party to secure suitable +lodgings in advance. A herald sent forward to announce the coming of a +king. A Knight Harbinger was an officer in the royal household till +1846. In these senses the word is now obsolete. It is used chiefly in +poetry and literature for one who announces the immediate approach of +something, a forerunner. This is illustrated in the "harbinger of +spring," a name given to a small plant belonging to the Umbelliferae, +which has a tuberous root, and small white flowers; it is found in the +central states of North America, and blossoms in March. + + + + +HARBOUR (from M. E. _hereberge_, _here_, an army; cf. Ger. _Heer_ and +-_beorg_, protection or shelter. Other early forms in English were +_herberwe_ and _harborow_, as seen in various place names, such as +Market Harborough. The French _auberge_, an inn, derived through +_heberger_, is thus the same word), a place of refuge or shelter. It is +thus used for an asylum for criminals, and particularly for a place of +shelter for ships. + +Sheltered sites along exposed sea-coasts are essential for purposes of +trade, and very valuable as refuges for vessels from storms. In a few +places, natural shelter is found in combination with ample depth, as in +the Bay of Rio de Janeiro, New York Harbour (protected by Long Island), +Portsmouth Harbour and Southampton Water (sheltered by the Isle of +Wight), and the land-locked creeks of Milford Haven and Kiel Harbour. At +various places there are large enclosed areas which have openings into +the sea; but these lagoons for the most part are very shallow except in +the main channels and at their outlets. Access to them is generally +obstructed by a bar as at the lagoon harbour of Venice (fig. 1), and +similar harbours, like those of Poole and Wexford; and such harbours +usually require works to prevent their deterioration, and to increase +the depth near their outlet. Generally, however, harbours are formed +where shelter is provided to a certain extent by a bay, creek or +projecting headland, but requires to be rendered complete by one or more +breakwaters (see BREAKWATER), or where the approach to a river, a +ship-canal or a seaport, needs protection. A refuge harbour is +occasionally constructed where a long length of stormy coast, near the +ordinary track of vessels, is entirely devoid of natural shelter. Naval +harbours are required by maritime powers as stations for their fleets, +and dockyards for construction and repairs, and also in some cases as +places of shelter from the night attacks of torpedoes. Commercial +harbours have to be provided for the formation of ports within their +shelter on important trade routes, or for the protection of the +approaches from the sea of ports near the sea-coast, or maritime +waterways running inland, in some cases at points on the coast devoid of +all natural shelter. A greater latitude in the selection of suitable +sites is, indeed, possible for refuge and naval harbours than for +commercial harbours; but these three classes of harbours are very +similar in their general outline and the works protecting them, only +differing in size and internal arrangements according to the purpose for +which they have been constructed, the chief differences being due to the +local conditions. + +Harbours may be divided into three distinct groups, namely, lagoon +harbours, jetty harbours and sea-coast harbours, protected by +breakwaters, including refuge, naval and commercial harbours. + + _Lagoon Harbours._--A lagoon, consisting of a sort of large shallow + lake separated from the sea by a narrow belt of coast, formed of + deposit from a deltaic river or of sand dunes heaped up by on-shore + winds along a sandy shore, possesses good natural shelter; and, owing + to the large expanse which is filled and emptied at each tide, even + when the tidal range is quite small, together with the discharge from + any rivers flowing into the lagoon, one or more fairly deep outlets + are maintained through the fringe of coast, which afford navigable + access to the lagoon; whilst channels formed inside by the currents + lead to ports on its banks. Lagoons, however, are liable to be + gradually silted up, if rivers flowing into them bring down + considerable quantities of alluvium, which is readily deposited in + their fairly still waters; and their outlet channels are in danger of + becoming shallower, by the sea in storms forming additional outlets by + breaking through the narrow barrier separating them from the sea. + Moreover, the approach from the sea to these channels through the + fringe of coast is generally impeded by a bar, owing to the scour of + the issuing current through these outlet channels becoming gradually + too enfeebled, on entering the open sea, to overcome the heaping-up + action of the waves along the shore, which tends to form a continuous + beach across these openings. Rivers, accordingly, whose discharge is + very valuable in maintaining a lagoon if their waters are free from + sediment, must, if possible, be diverted from a lagoon if they bring + down large amounts of silt; whilst the narrow belt of land in front of + the lagoon must be protected from erosion by the waves, on its sea + face, by groynes or revetments. The depth over the bar in front of an + outlet can be improved by concentrating the current through the outlet + by jetties on each side, and prolonging the jetties, and consequently + the scour, out to the bar so as to lower it, and by supplementing the + scouring action, if necessary, by dredging. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Venetian Lagoon Harbour.] + + _Jetty Harbours._--Several small ports were formed on the sea-coast + long ago at points where flat marshy ground lying below the level of + high-water, and shut off from the sandy beach by dikes or sand dunes, + was connected with the sea by a small creek or river. Such ports + presented in their original condition a slight resemblance to lagoons + on a very small scale. Several examples are to be found on the sandy + shores of the English Channel and North Sea, such as Dieppe, Boulogne, + Calais, Dunkirk, Nieuport and Ostend, where the influx and efflux of + the water from these enclosed tide-covered areas, through a narrow + opening, sufficed to maintain a shallow channel to the sea across the + beach, deep enough near high-water for vessels of small draught. When + the increase in draught necessitated the provision of an improved + channel, the scour of the issuing current was concentrated and + prolonged by erecting parallel jetties across the beach, raised solid + to a little above low water of neap tides, with open timber-work above + to indicate the channel and guide the vessels. Even this low + obstruction, however, to the littoral drift of sand caused an advance + of the low water line as the jetties were carried out, so that further + extensions of the jetties had eventually to be abandoned, as occurred + at Dunkirk (see DOCK). Moreover, reclamation of the low-lying areas + was gradually effected, thus reducing the tidal scour; and sluicing + basins were excavated in part of the low ground, into which the tide + flowed through the entrance channel, and the water being shut in at + high tide by gates at the outlet of the basin, was released at low + water, producing a rapid current through the channel as a compensation + for the loss of the former natural scour. The current, however, from + the sluicing basin gradually lost its velocity in passing down the + channel, and besides, being most effective near the outlet of the + basin, could only scour the channel down to a moderate depth below low + water, on account of the increase in the volume of still water in the + channel at low tide as its deepening progressed. Lastly, about 1880, + improvements in suction dredgers (see DREDGE and DREDGING) led to the + adoption of sand-pump dredging in the outer part of the channel, and + across the foreshore in front to deep water; and at Dunkirk, docks + were formed on the site of the sluicing basin; whilst at Calais + sluicing was abandoned in favour of dredging. Ostend is the only jetty + harbour in which a large sluicing basin has been recently constructed, + but it can only provide for the maintenance of deep-water quays in its + vicinity; and dredging is relied upon to an increasing extent, both + for the maintenance and further deepening of the outer portion of the + approach channel, and for maintaining the direct channel dredged to + deep water across the Stroombank extending in front of Ostend (fig. + 2). + + Similar methods of improving the entrance channel to ports possessing + an extensive backwater have been adopted on a large scale in the + United States. For instance at Charleston, converging jetties, about + 2-3/4 m. long, have been extended across the bar to concentrate the + scour due to a small tidal range expanding over the enclosed + backwater, 15 sq. m. in extent, and to protect the channel from + littoral drift; but these jetties have caused an advance of the + foreshore, and a progression seawards of the bar, necessitating + dredging beyond the ends of the jetties to maintain the requisite + depth. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Ostend Harbour and Jetty Channel.] + + Parallel jetties, moreover, across the beach, combined with extensive + sand-pump dredging, have been employed with success at some of the + ports situated at the outlet of rivers, enclosed bays, or lagoons, on + the sandy shores of south-east Africa, for improving the access to + them across encumbering shoals, where the littoral drift is too great + to allow of the projection of breakwaters from the shore to shelter an + approach channel. + + _Harbours Protected by Breakwaters._--The design for a harbour on the + sea-coast must depend on the configuration of the adjacent coast-line, + the extent and direction of the exposure, the amount of sheltered area + required and the depth obtainable, the prospect of the accumulation of + drift or the occurrence of scour from the proposed works, and the best + position for an entrance in respect of shelter and depth of approach. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Genoa Harbour and Extensions.] + + _Completion of Shelter of Harbours in Bays._--In the case of a deep, + fairly land-locked bay, a detached breakwater across the outlet + completes the necessary shelter, leaving an entrance between each + extremity and the shore, provided there is deep enough water near the + shore, as effected at Plymouth harbour, and also across the wider but + shallower bay forming Cherbourg harbour. A breakwater may instead be + extended across the outlet from each shore, leaving a single central + entrance between the ends of the breakwaters; and if one breakwater + placed somewhat farther out is made to overlap an inner one, a more + sheltered entrance is obtained. This arrangement has been adopted at + the existing Genoa harbour within the bay (fig. 3), and for the + harbour at the mouth of the Nervion (see RIVER ENGINEERING). The + adoption of a bay with deep water for a harbour does not merely reduce + the shelter to be provided artificially, but it also secures a site + not exposed to silting up, and where the sheltering works do not + interfere with any littoral drift along the open coast. A third method + of sheltering a deep bay is that adopted for forming a refuge harbour + at Peterhead (fig. 4), where a single breakwater is extended out from + one shore for 3250 ft. across the outlet of the bay, leaving a single + entrance between its extremity and the opposite shore and enclosing an + area of about 250 acres at low tide, half of which has a depth of over + 5 fathoms. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Peterhead Harbour of Refuge.] + + _Harbours possessing partial Natural Shelter._--The most common form + of harbour is that in which one or more breakwaters supplement a + certain amount of natural shelter. Sometimes, where the exposure is + from one direction only, approximately parallel with the coast-line at + the site, and there is more or less shelter from a projecting headland + or a curve of the coast in the opposite direction, a single breakwater + extending out at right angles to the shore, with a slight curve or + bend inwards near its outer end, suffices to afford the necessary + shelter. As examples of this form of harbour construction may be + mentioned Newhaven breakwater, protecting the approach to the port + from the west, and somewhat sheltered from the moderate easterly + storms by Beachy Head, and Table Bay breakwater, which shelters the + harbour from the north-east, and is somewhat protected on the opposite + side by the wide sweep of the coast-line known as Table Bay. + Generally, however, some partial embayment, or abrupt projection from + the coast, is utilized as providing shelter from one quarter, which is + completed by breakwaters enclosing the site, of which Dover and + Colombo (fig. 5) harbours furnish typical and somewhat similar + examples. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Colombo Harbour.] + + _Harbours formed on quite Open Seacoasts._--Occasionally harbours have + to be constructed for some special purpose where no natural shelter + exists, and where on an open, sandy shore considerable littoral drift + may occur. Breakwaters, carried out from the shore at some distance + apart, and converging to a central entrance of suitable width, provide + the requisite shelter, as for instance the harbour constructed to form + a sheltered approach to the river Wear and the Sunderland docks (fig. + 6). If there is little littoral drift from the most exposed quarter, + the amount of sand brought in during storms, which is smaller in + proportion to the depth into which the entrance is carried, can be + readily removed by dredging; whilst the scour across the projecting + ends of the breakwaters tends to keep the outlet free from deposit. + Where there is littoral drift in both directions on an open, sandy + coast, due to winds blowing alternately from opposite quarters, sand + accumulates in the sheltered angles outside the harbour between each + converging breakwater and the shore. This has happened at Ymuiden + harbour at the entrance to the Amsterdam ship-canal on the North Sea, + but there the advance of the shore appears to have reached its limit + only a short distance out from the old shore-line on each side; and + the only evidence of drift consists in the advance seawards of the + lines of soundings alongside, and in the considerable amount of sand + which enters the harbour and has to be removed by dredging. The worst + results occur where the littoral drift is almost wholly in one + direction, so that the projection of a solid breakwater out from the + shore causes a very large accretion on the side facing the exposed + quarter; whilst owing to the arrest of the travel of sand, erosion of + the beach occurs beyond the second breakwater enclosing the harbour on + its comparatively sheltered side. These effects have been produced at + Port Said harbour at the entrance to the Suez Canal from the + Mediterranean, formed by two converging breakwaters, where, owing to + the prevalent north-westerly winds, the drift is from west to east, + and is augmented by the alluvium issuing from the Nile. Accordingly, + the shore has advanced considerably against the outer face of the + western breakwater; and erosion of the beach has occurred at the shore + end of the eastern breakwater, cutting it off from the land. The + advance of the shore-line, however, has been much slower during recent + years; and though the progress seawards of the lines of soundings + close to and in front of the harbour continues, the advance is checked + by the sand and silt coming from the west passing through some + apertures purposely left in the western breakwater, and falling into + the approach channel, from which it is readily dredged and taken away. + Madras harbour, begun in 1875, consists of two breakwaters, 3000 ft. + apart, carried straight out to sea at right angles to the shore for + 3000 ft., and completed by two return arms inclined slightly + seawards, enclosing an area of 220 acres and leaving a central + entrance, 550 ft. wide, facing the Indian Ocean in a depth of about 8 + fathoms. The great drift, however, of sand along the coast from south + to north soon produced an advance of the shore against the outside of + the south breakwater, and erosion beyond the north breakwater; and the + progression of the foreshore has extended so far seawards as to + produce shoaling at the entrance. Accordingly, the closing of the + entrance, and the formation of a new entrance through the outer part + of the main north breakwater, facing north and sheltered by an arm + starting from the angle of the northern return arm and running north + parallel to the shore, round the end of which vessels would turn to + enter, have been recommended, to provide a deep entrance beyond the + influence of the advancing foreshore. + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Sunderland Harbour.] + + Proposals have been made from time to time to evade this advance of + the foreshore against a solid obstacle, by extending an open viaduct + across the zone of littoral drift, and forming a closed harbour, or a + sheltering breakwater against which vessels can lie, beyond the + influence of accretion. This principle was carried out on a large + scale at the port of call and sheltering breakwater constructed in + front of the entrance to the Bruges ship-canal, at Zeebrugge on the + sandy North Sea coast, where a solid breakwater, provided with a wide + quay furnished with sidings and sheds, and curving round so as to + overlap thoroughly the entrance to the canal and shelter a certain + water-area, is approached by an open metal viaduct extending out 1007 + ft. from low water into a depth of 20 ft. (fig. 7). It is hoped that + by thus avoiding interference with the littoral drift close to the + shore, coming mainly from the west, the accumulation of silt to the + west of the harbour, and also in the harbour itself, will be + prevented; and though it appears probable that some accretion will + occur within the area sheltered by the breakwater, it will to some + extent be disturbed by the wash of the steamers approaching and + leaving the quays, and can readily be removed under shelter by + dredging. + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Zeebrugge Harbour.] + + _Entrances to Harbours._--Though captains of vessels always wish for + wide entrances to harbours as affording greater facility of safe + access, it is important to keep the width as narrow as practicable, + consistent with easy access, to exclude waves and swell as much as + possible and secure tranquillity inside. At Madras, the width of 550 + ft. proved excessive for the great exposure of the entrance, and + moderate size of the harbour, which does not allow of the adequate + expansion of the entering swell. Where an adequately easy and safe + approach can be secured, it is advantageous to make the entrance face + a somewhat sheltered quarter by the overlapping of the end of one of + the breakwaters, as accomplished at Bilbao and Genoa harbours (fig. + 3), and at the southern entrance to Dover harbour. Occasionally, owing + to the comparative shelter afforded by a bend in the adjacent + coast-line, a very wide entrance can be left between a breakwater and + the shore; typical examples are furnished by the former open northern + entrance to Portland harbour, now closed against torpedoes, and the + wide entrances at Holyhead and Zeebrugge (fig. 7). With a large + harbour and the adoption of a detached breakwater, it is possible to + gain the advantage of two entrances facing different quarters, as + effected at Dover and Colombo, which enables vessels to select their + entrance according to the state of the wind and weather; where there + is a large tidal rise they reduce the current through the entrances, + and they may, under favourable conditions, create a circulation of the + water in the harbour, tending to check the deposit of silt. + (L. F. V.-*H.) + + + + +HARBURG, a seaport town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover, +on the left bank of the southern arm of the Elbe, 6 m. by rail S. of +Hamburg. Pop. (1885), 26,320; (1905)--the area of the town having been +increased since 1895--55,676. It is pleasantly situated at the foot of a +lofty range of hills, which here dip down to the river, at the junction +of the main lines of railway from Bremen and Hanover to Hamburg, which +are carried to the latter city over two grand bridges crossing the +southern and the northern arms of the Elbe. It possesses a Roman +Catholic and two Protestant churches, a palace, which from 1524 to 1642 +was the residence of the Harburg line of the house of Brunswick, a +high-grade modern school, a commercial school and a theatre. The leading +industries are the crushing of palm-kernels and linseed and the +manufacture of india-rubber, phosphates, starch, nitrate and jute. +Machines are manufactured here; beer is brewed, and shipbuilding is +carried on. The port is accessible to vessels drawing 18 ft. of water, +and, despite its proximity to Hamburg, its trade has of late years shown +a remarkable development. It is the chief mart in the empire for resin +and palm-oil. The Prussian government proposes establishing here a free +port, on the lines of the _Freihafen_ in Hamburg. + +Harburg belonged originally to the bishopric of Bremen, and received +municipal rights in 1297. In 1376 it was united to the principality of +Luneburg, along with which it fell in 1705 to Hanover, and in 1806 to +Prussia. In 1813 and 1814 it suffered considerably from the French, who +then held Hamburg, and who built a bridge between the two towns, which +remained standing till 1816. + + See Ludewig, _Geschichte des Schlosses und der Stadt Harburg_ + (Harburg, 1845); and Hoffmeyer, _Harburg und die nachste Umgegend_ + (1885). + + + + +HARCOURT, a village in Normandy, now a commune in the department of +Eure, arrondissement of Bernay and canton of Brionne, which gives its +name to a noble family distinguished in French history, a branch of +which was early established in England. Of the lords of Harcourt, whose +genealogy can be traced back to the 11th century, the first to +distinguish himself was Jean II. (d. 1302) who was marshal and admiral +of France. Godefroi d'Harcourt, seigneur of Saint Sauveur le Vicomte, +surnamed "Le boiteux" (the lame), was a marshal in the English army and +was killed near Coutances in 1356. The fief of Harcourt was raised to +the rank of a countship by Philip of Valois, in favour of Jean IV., who +was killed at the battle of Crecy (1346). His son, Jean V. (d. 1355) +married Blanche, heiress of Jean II., count of Aumale, and the countship +of Harcourt passed with that of Aumale until, in 1424, Jean VIII., count +of Aumale and Mortain and lieutenant-general of Normandy, was killed at +the battle of Verneuil, and with him the elder branch became extinct in +the male line. The heiress, Marie, by her marriage with Anthony of +Lorraine, count of Vaudemont, brought the countship of Harcourt into the +house of Lorraine. The title of count of Harcourt was borne by several +princes of this house. The most famous instance was Henry of Lorraine, +count of Harcourt, Brionne, and Armagnac, and nicknamed "Cadet la perle" +(1601-1666). He distinguished himself in several campaigns against +Spain, and later played an active part in the civil wars of the Fronde. +He took the side of the princes, and fought against the government in +Alsace; but was defeated by Marshal de la Ferte, and made his submission +in 1654. + +The most distinguished among the younger branches of the family are +those of Montgomery and of Beuvron. To the former belonged Jean +d'Harcourt, bishop of Amiens and Tournai, archbishop of Narbonne and +patriarch of Antioch, who died in 1452; and Guillaume d'Harcourt, count +of Tancarville, and viscount of Melun, who was head of the +administration of the woods and forests in the royal domain (_souverain +maitre et reformateur des eaux et forets de France_) and died in 1487. + +From the branch of the marquises of Beuvron sprang Henri d'Harcourt, +marshal of France, and ambassador at the Spanish court, who was made +duke of Harcourt (1700) and a peer of France (1709); also Francois +Eugene Gabriel, count, and afterwards duke, of Harcourt, who was +ambassador first in Spain, and later at Rome, and died in 1865. This +branch of the family is still in existence. + + See G. A. de la Rogne, _Histoire genealogique de la maison d'Harcourt_ + (4 vols., Paris, 1662); P. Anselme, _Histoire genealogique de la + maison de France_, v. 114, &c.; and Dom le Noir, _Preuves + genealogiques et historiques de la maison de Harcourt_ (Paris, 1907). + (M. P.*) + + + + +HARCOURT, SIMON HARCOURT, 1ST VISCOUNT (c. 1661-1727), lord chancellor +of England, only son of Sir Philip Harcourt of Stanton Harcourt, +Oxfordshire, by his first wife, Anne, daughter of Sir William Waller, +was born about 1661 at Stanton Harcourt, and was educated at a school at +Shilton, Oxfordshire, and at Pembroke College, Oxford. He was called to +the bar in 1683, and soon afterwards was appointed recorder of Abingdon, +which borough he represented as a Tory in parliament from 1690 to 1705. +In 1701 he was nominated by the Commons to conduct the impeachment of +Lord Somers; and in 1702 he became solicitor-general and was knighted by +Queen Anne. He was elected member for Bossiney in 1705, and as +commissioner for arranging the union with Scotland was largely +instrumental in promoting that measure. Harcourt was appointed +attorney-general in 1707, but resigned office in the following year when +his friend Robert Harley, afterwards earl of Oxford, was dismissed. He +defended Sacheverell at the bar of the House of Lords in 1710, being +then without a seat in parliament; but in the same year was returned for +Cardigan, and in September again became attorney-general. In October he +was appointed lord keeper of the great seal, and in virtue of this +office he presided in the House of Lords for some months without a +peerage, until, on the 3rd of September 1711, he was created Baron +Harcourt of Stanton Harcourt; but it was not till April 1713 that he +received the appointment of lord chancellor. In 1710 he had purchased +the Nuneham-Courtney estate in Oxfordshire, but his usual place of +residence continued to be at Cokethorpe near Stanton Harcourt, where he +received a visit in state from Queen Anne. In the negotiations preceding +the peace of Utrecht, Harcourt took an important part. There is no +sufficient evidence for the allegations of the Whigs that Harcourt +entered into treasonable relations with the Pretender. On the accession +of George I. he was deprived of office and retired to Cokethorpe, where +he enjoyed the society of men of letters, Swift, Pope, Prior and other +famous writers being among his frequent guests. With Swift, however, he +had occasional quarrels, during one of which the great satirist bestowed +on him the sobriquet of "Trimming Harcourt." He exerted himself to +defeat the impeachment of Lord Oxford in 1717, and in 1723 he was active +in obtaining a pardon for another old political friend, Lord +Bolingbroke. In 1721 Harcourt was created a viscount and returned to the +privy councils; and on several occasions during the king's absences from +England he was on the council of regency. He died in London on the 23rd +of July 1727. Harcourt was not a great lawyer, but he enjoyed the +reputation of being a brilliant orator; Speaker Onslow going so far as +to say that Harcourt "had the greatest skill and power of speech of any +man I ever knew in a public assembly." He was a member of the famous +Saturday Club, frequented by the chief _literati_ and wits of the +period, with several of whom he corresponded. Some letters to him from +Pope are preserved in the _Harcourt Papers_. His portrait by Kneller is +at Nuneham. + +Harcourt married, first, Rebecca, daughter of Thomas Clark, his father's +chaplain, by whom he had five children; secondly, Elizabeth, daughter of +Richard Spencer; and thirdly, Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Thomas Vernon. +He left issue by his first wife only. His son, Simon (1684-1720), +married Elizabeth, sister of Sir John Evelyn of Wotton, by whom he had +one son and four daughters, one of whom married George Venables Vernon, +afterwards Lord Vernon (see HARCOURT, SIR WILLIAM--footnote). Simon +Harcourt predeceased his father, the lord chancellor, in 1720, leaving a +son SIMON HARCOURT (1714-1777), 1st Earl Harcourt, who succeeded his +grandfather in the title of viscount in 1727. He was educated at +Westminster school. In 1745, having raised a regiment, he received a +commission as a colonel in the army; and in 1749 he was created Earl +Harcourt of Stanton Harcourt. He was appointed governor to the prince of +Wales, afterwards George III., in 1751; and after the accession of the +latter to the throne he was appointed, in 1761, special ambassador to +Mecklenburg-Strelitz to negotiate a marriage between King George and the +princess Charlotte, whom he conducted to England. After holding a number +of appointments at court and in the diplomatic service, he was promoted +to the rank of general in 1772; and in October of the same year he +succeeded Lord Townsend as lord lieutenant of Ireland, an office which +he held till 1777. His proposal to impose a tax of 10% on the rents of +absentee landlords had to be abandoned owing to opposition in England; +but he succeeded in conciliating the leaders of Opposition in Ireland, +and he persuaded Henry Flood to accept office in the government. +Resigning in January 1777, he retired to Nuneham, where he died in the +following September. He married, in 1735, Rebecca, daughter and heiress +of Charles Samborne Le Bas, of Pipewell Abbey, Northamptonshire, by whom +he had two daughters and two sons, George Simon and William, who +succeeded him as 2nd and 3rd earl respectively. + + See Lord Campbell, _Lives of the Lord Chancellors_, vol. v. (London, + 1846); Edward Foss, _The Judges of England_, vol. viii. (London, + 1848); Gilbert Burnet, _Hist. of his own Time_ (with notes by earls of + Dartmouth and Hardwicke, &c., Oxford, 1833); Earl Stanhope, _Hist. of + England, comprising the reign of Queen Anne until the Peace of + Utrecht_ (London, 1870). In addition to the above-mentioned + authorities many particulars concerning the 1st Viscount Harcourt, and + also of his grandson, the 1st earl, will be found in the _Harcourt + Papers_. For the earl, see also Horace Walpole, _Memoirs of the Reign + of George II._ (3 vols., 2nd ed., London, 1847), _Memoirs of the Reign + of George III._ (4 vols., London, 1845, 1894); also, for his + vice-royalty of Ireland, see Henry Grattan, _Memoirs of the Life and + Times of the Right Hon. H. Grattan_ (5 vols., London, 1839-1846); + Francis Hardy, _Memoirs of J. Caulfield, Earl of Charlemont_ (2 vols., + London, 1812); and for his genealogy, see Sir John Bernard Burke, + _Genealogical History of Dormant and Extinct Peerages_ (London, 1883). + (R. J. M.) + + + + +HARCOURT, SIR WILLIAM GEORGE GRANVILLE VENABLES VERNON (1827-1904). +English statesman, second son of the Rev. Canon William Vernon Harcourt +(q.v.), of Nuneham Park, Oxford, was born on the 14th of October 1827. +Canon Harcourt was the fourth son and eventually heir of Edward Harcourt +(1757-1847), archbishop of York, who was the son of the 1st Lord Vernon +(d. 1780), and who took the name of Harcourt alone instead of Vernon on +succeeding to the property of his cousin, the last Earl Harcourt, in +1831.[1] The subject of this biography was therefore born a Vernon, and +by his connexion with the old families of Vernon and Harcourt was +related to many of the great English houses, a fact which gave him no +little pride. Indeed, in later life his descent from the Plantagenets[2] +was a subject of some banter on the part of his political opponents. He +was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, graduating with first-class +honours in the classical tripos in 1851. He was called to the bar in +1854, became a Q.C. in 1866, and was appointed Whewell professor of +international law, Cambridge, 1869. He quickly made his mark in London +society as a brilliant talker; he contributed largely to the _Saturday +Review_, and wrote some famous letters (1862) to _The Times_ over the +signature of "Historicus," in opposition to the recognition of the +Southern States as belligerents in the American Civil War. He entered +parliament as Liberal member for Oxford, and sat from 1868 to 1880, +when, upon seeking re-election after acceptance of office, he was +defeated by Mr Hall. A seat was, however, found for him at Derby, by the +voluntary retirement of Mr Plimsoll, and he continued to represent that +constituency until 1895, when, having been defeated at the general +election, he found a seat in West Monmouthshire. He was appointed +solicitor-general and knighted in 1873; and, although he had not shown +himself a very strenuous supporter of Mr Gladstone during that +statesman's exclusion from power, he became secretary of state for the +home department on the return of the Liberals to office in 1880. His +name was connected at that time with the passing of the Ground Game Act +(1880), the Arms (Ireland) Act (1881), and the Explosives Act (1883). As +home secretary at the time of the dynamite outrages he had to take up a +firm attitude, and the Explosives Act was passed through all its stages +in the shortest time on record. Moreover, as champion of law and order +against the attacks of the Parnellites, his vigorous speeches brought +him constantly into conflict with the Irish members. In 1884 he +introduced an abortive bill for unifying the municipal administration of +London. He was indeed at that time recognized as one of the ablest and +most effective leaders of the Liberal party; and when, after a brief +interval in 1885, Mr Gladstone returned to office in 1886, he was made +chancellor of the exchequer, an office which he again filled from 1892 +to 1895. + +Between 1880 and 1892 Sir William Harcourt acted as Mr Gladstone's loyal +and indefatigable lieutenant in political life. A first-rate party +fighter, his services were of inestimable value; but in spite of his +great success as a platform speaker, he was generally felt to be +speaking from an advocate's brief, and did not impress the country as +possessing much depth of conviction. It was he who coined the phrase +about "stewing in Parnellite juice," and, when the split came in the +Liberal party on the Irish question, even those who gave Mr Gladstone +and Mr Morley the credit of being convinced Home Rulers could not be +persuaded that Sir William had followed anything but the line of party +expediency. In 1894 he introduced and carried a memorable budget, which +equalized the death duties on real and personal property. After Mr +Gladstone's retirement in 1894 and Lord Rosebery's selection as prime +minister Sir William became the leader of the Liberal party in the House +of Commons, but it was never probable that he would work comfortably in +the new conditions. His title to be regarded as Mr Gladstone's successor +had been too lightly ignored, and from the first it was evident that +Lord Rosebery's ideas of Liberalism and of the policy of the Liberal +party were not those of Sir William Harcourt. Their differences were +patched up from time to time, but the combination could not last. At +the general election of 1895 it was clear that there were divisions as +to what issue the Liberals were fighting for, and the effect of Sir +William Harcourt's abortive Local Veto Bill on the election was seen not +only in his defeat at Derby, which gave the signal for the Liberal rout, +but in the set-back it gave to temperance legislation. Though returned +for West Monmouthshire (1895, 1900), his speeches in debate only +occasionally showed his characteristic spirit, and it was evident that +for the hard work of Opposition he no longer had the same motive as of +old. In December 1898 the crisis arrived, and with Mr John Morley he +definitely retired from the counsels of the party and resigned his +leadership of the Opposition, alleging as his reason, in letters +exchanged between Mr Morley and himself, the cross-currents of opinion +among his old supporters and former colleagues. The split excited +considerable comment, and resulted in much heart-burning and a more or +less open division between the section of the Liberal party following +Lord Rosebery (q.v.) and those who disliked that statesman's +Imperialistic views. + +Though now a private member, Sir William Harcourt still continued to +vindicate his opinions in his independent position, and his attacks on +the government were no longer restrained by even the semblance of +deference to Liberal Imperialism. He actively intervened in 1899 and +1900, strongly condemning the government's financial policy and their +attitude towards the Transvaal; and throughout the Boer War he lost no +opportunity of criticizing the South African developments in a +pessimistic vein. One of the readiest parliamentary debaters, he +savoured his speeches with humour of that broad and familiar order which +appeals particularly to political audiences. In 1898-1900 he was +conspicuous, both on the platform and in letters written to The _Times_, +in demanding active measures against the Ritualistic party in the Church +of England; but his attitude on that subject could not be dissociated +from his political advocacy of Disestablishment. In March 1904, just +after he had announced his intention not to seek election again to +parliament, he succeeded, by the death of his nephew, to the family +estates at Nuneham. But he died suddenly there on the 1st of October in +the same year. He married, first, in 1859, Therese (d. 1863), daughter +of Mr T. H. Lister, by whom he had one son, Lewis Vernon Harcourt (b. +1863), afterwards first commissioner of works both in Sir Henry +Campbell-Bannerman's 1905 ministry (included in the cabinet in 1907) and +in Mr Asquith's cabinet (1908); and secondly, in 1876, Elizabeth, widow +of Mr T. Ives and daughter of Mr. J. L. Motley, the historian, by whom +he had another son, Robert (b. 1878). + +Sir William Harcourt was one of the great parliamentary figures of the +Gladstonian Liberal period. He was essentially an aristocratic type of +late 19th century Whig, with a remarkable capacity for popular campaign +fighting. He had been, and remained, a brilliant journalist in the +non-professional sense. He was one of those who really made the +_Saturday Review_ in its palmy days, and in the period of his own most +ebullient vigour, while Mr Gladstone was alive, his sense of political +expediency and platform effectiveness in controversy was very acute. But +though he played the game of public life with keen zest, he never really +touched either the country or his own party with the faith which creates +a personal following, and in later years he found himself somewhat +isolated and disappointed, though he was free to express his deeper +objections to the new developments in church and state. A tall, fine +man, with the grand manner, he was, throughout a long career, a great +personality in the life of his time. (H. Ch.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] William, 3rd and last Earl Harcourt (1743-1830), who succeeded + his brother in the title, was a soldier who distinguished himself in + the American War of Independence by capturing General Charles Lee, + and commanded the British forces in Flanders in 1794, eventually + becoming a field-marshal. He was a son of Simon, 1st earl + (1714-1777), created viscount and earl in 1749, a soldier, and from + 1772 to 1777 viceroy of Ireland, who was grandson and heir of Simon, + Viscount Harcourt (1661-1727), lord chancellor--the "trimming + Harcourt" of Swift--the purchaser of the Nuneham-Courtney estates in + Oxfordshire, and son of Sir Philip Harcourt of Stanton Harcourt. The + knights of Stanton Harcourt, from the 13th century onwards, traced + their descent to the Norman de Harcourts, a branch of that family + having come over with the Conqueror; and the pedigree claims to go + back to Bernard of Saxony, who in 876 acquired the lordships of + Harcourt, Castleville and Beauficel in Normandy. Viscount Harcourt's + second son Simon, who was father of the 1st earl, was also father of + Martha, who married George Venables Vernon, of Sudbury, created 1st + Baron Vernon in 1762. The latter was a descendant of Sir Richard + Vernon (d. 1451), speaker of the Leicester parliament (1425) and + treasurer of Calais, a member of a Norman family which came over with + the Conqueror. + + [2] The Plantagenet descent (see _The Blood Royal of Britain_, by the + marquis of Ruvigny, 1903, for tables) could be traced through Lady + Anna Leveson Gower (wife of Archbishop Harcourt) to Lady Frances + Stanley, the wife of the 1st earl of Bridgewater (1579-1649), and so + to Lady Eleanor Brandon, wife of the earl of Cumberland (1517-1570), + and daughter of Mary Tudor (wife of Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk, + 1484-1545), the daughter of Henry VII. and grand-daughter of Edward + IV. + + + + +HARCOURT, WILLIAM VERNON (1789-1871), founder of the British +Association, was born at Sudbury, Derbyshire, in 1789, a younger son of +Edward Vernon [Harcourt], archbishop of York (see above). Having served +for five years in the navy he went up to Christ Church, Oxford, with a +view to taking holy orders. He began his clerical duties at +Bishopthorpe, Yorkshire, in 1811, and having developed a great interest +in science while at the university, he took an active part in the +foundation of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society, of which he was the +first president. The laws and the plan of proceedings for the British +Association for the Advancement of Science were drawn up by him; and +Harcourt was elected president in 1839. In 1824 he became canon of York +and rector of Wheldrake in Yorkshire, and in 1837 rector of Bolton +Percy. The Yorkshire school for the blind and the Castle Howard +reformatory both owe their existence to his energies. His spare time +until quite late in life was occupied with scientific experiments. +Inheriting the Harcourt estates in Oxfordshire from his brother in 1861, +he removed to Nuneham, where he died in April 1871. + + + + +HARDANGER FJORD, an inlet on the west coast of Norway, penetrating the +mainland for 70 m. apart from the deep fringe of islands off its mouth, +the total distance from the open sea to the head of the fjord being 114 +m. Its extreme depth is about 350 fathoms. The entrance at Toro is 50 m. +by water south of Bergen, 60 deg. N., and the general direction is N.E. +from that point. The fjord is flanked by magnificent mountains, from +which many waterfalls pour into it. The main fjord is divided into parts +under different names, and there are many fine branch fjords. The fjord +is frequented by tourists, and the principal stations have hotels. The +outer fjord is called the Kvindherredsfjord, flanked by the Melderskin +(4680 ft.); then follow Sildefjord and Bonde Sund, separated by Varalds +island. Here Mauranger-fjord opens on the east; from Sundal on this +inlet the great Folgefond snowfield may be crossed, and a fine glacier +(Bondhusbrae) visited. Bakke and Vikingnaes are stations on Hisfjord, +Nordheimsund and Ostenso on Ytre Samlen, which throws off a fine narrow +branch northward, the Fiksensund. There follow Indre Samlen and +Utnefjord, with the station of Utne opposite Oxen (4120 ft.), and its +northward branch, Gravenfjord, with the beautiful station of Eide at its +head, whence a road runs north-west to Vossevangen. From the Utne +terminal branches of the fjord run south and east; the Sorfjord, steeply +walled by the heights of the Folgefond, with the frequented resort of +Odde at its head; and the Eidfjord, with its branch Osefjord, +terminating beneath a tremendous rampart of mountains, through which the +sombre Simodal penetrates, the river flowing from Daemmevand, a +beautiful lake among the fields, and forming with its tributaries the +fine falls of Skykje and Rembesdal. Vik is the principal station on +Eidfjord, and Ulvik on a branch of the Ose, with a road to Vossevangen. +At Vik is the mouth of the Bjoreia river, which, in forming the +Voringfos, plunges 520 ft. into a magnificent rock-bound basin. A small +stream entering Sorfjord forms in its upper course the Skjaeggedalsfos, +of equal height with the Voringfos, and hardly less beautiful. The +natives of Hardanger have an especially picturesque local costume. + + + + +HARDEE, WILLIAM JOSEPH (1815-1873), American soldier, was born in +Savannah, Georgia, on the 10th of November 1815 and graduated from West +Point in 1838. As a subaltern of cavalry he was employed on a special +mission to Europe to study the cavalry methods in vogue (1839). He was +promoted captain in 1844 and served under Generals Taylor and Scott in +the Mexican War, winning the brevet of major for gallantry in action in +March 1847 and subsequently that of lieut.-colonel. After the war he +served as a substantive major under Colonel Sidney Johnston and +Lieut.-Colonel Robert Lee in the 2nd U.S. cavalry, and for some time +before 1856 he was engaged in compiling the official manual of infantry +drill and tactics which, familiarly called "Hardee's Tactics," +afterwards formed the text-book for the infantry arm in both the Federal +and the Confederate armies. From 1856 to 1861 he was commandant of West +Point, resigning his commission on the secession of his state in the +latter year. Entering the Confederate service as a colonel, he was +shortly promoted brigadier-general. He distinguished himself very +greatly by his tactical leadership on the field of Shiloh, and was +immediately promoted major-general. As a corps commander he fought under +General Bragg at Perryville and Stone River, and for his distinguished +services in these battles was promoted lieutenant-general. He served in +the latter part of the campaign of 1863 under Bragg and in that of 1864 +under J. E. Johnston. When the latter officer was superseded by Hood, +Hardee was relieved at his own request, and for the remainder of the war +he served in the Carolinas. When the Civil War came to an end in 1865 he +retired to his plantation near Selma, Alabama. He died at Wytheville, +Virginia, on the 6th of November 1873. + + + + +HARDENBERG, KARL AUGUST VON, PRINCE (1750-1822), Prussian statesman, was +born at Essenroda in Hanover on the 31st of May 1750. After studying at +Leipzig and Gottingen he entered the Hanoverian civil service in 1770 as +councillor of the board of domains (_Kammerrat_); but, finding his +advancement slow, he set out--on the advice of King George III.--on a +course of travels, spending some time at Wetzlar, Regensburg (where he +studied the mechanism of the Imperial government), Vienna and Berlin. He +also visited France, Holland and England, where he was kindly received +by the king. On his return he married, by his father's desire, the +countess Reventlow. In 1778 he was raised to the rank of privy +councillor and created a count. He now again went to England, in the +hope of obtaining the post of Hanoverian envoy in London; but, his wife +becoming entangled in an _amour_ with the prince of Wales, so great a +scandal was created that he was forced to leave the Hanoverian service. +In 1782 he entered that of the duke of Brunswick, and as president of +the board of domains displayed a zeal for reform, in the manner approved +by the enlightened despots of the century, that rendered him very +unpopular with the orthodox clergy and the conservative estates. In +Brunswick, too, his position was in the end made untenable by the +conduct of his wife, whom he now divorced; he himself, shortly +afterwards, marrying a divorced woman. Fortunately for him, this +coincided with the lapsing of the principalities of Ansbach and Bayreuth +to Prussia, owing to the resignation of the last margrave, Charles +Alexander, in 1791. Hardenberg, who happened to be in Berlin at the +time, was on the recommendation of Herzberg appointed administrator of +the principalities (1792). The position, owing to the singular +overlapping of territorial claims in the old Empire, was one of +considerable delicacy, and Hardenberg filled it with great skill, doing +much to reform traditional anomalies and to develop the country, and at +the same time labouring to expand the influence of Prussia in South +Germany. After the outbreak of the revolutionary wars his diplomatic +ability led to his appointment as Prussian envoy, with a roving +commission to visit the Rhenish courts and win them over to Prussia's +views; and ultimately, when the necessity for making peace with the +French Republic had been recognized, he was appointed to succeed Count +Goltz as Prussian plenipotentiary at Basel (February 28, 1795), where he +signed the treaty of peace. + +In 1797, on the accession of King Frederick William III., Hardenberg was +summoned to Berlin, where he received an important position in the +cabinet and was appointed chief of the departments of Magdeburg and +Halberstadt, for Westphalia, and for the principality of Neuchatel. In +1793 Hardenberg had struck up a friendship with Count Haugwitz, the +influential minister for foreign affairs, and when in 1803 the latter +went away on leave (August-October) he appointed Hardenberg his _locum +tenens_. It was a critical period. Napoleon had just occupied Hanover, +and Haugwitz had urged upon the king the necessity for strong measures +and the expediency of a Russian alliance. During his absence, however, +the king's irresolution continued; he clung to the policy of neutrality +which had so far seemed to have served Prussia so well; and Hardenberg +contented himself with adapting himself to the royal will. By the time +Haugwitz returned, the unyielding attitude of Napoleon had caused the +king to make advances to Russia; but the mutual declarations of the 3rd +and 25th of May 1804 only pledged the two powers to take up arms in the +event of a French attack upon Prussia or of further aggressions in North +Germany. Finally, Haugwitz, unable to persuade the cabinet to a more +vigorous policy, resigned, and on the 14th of April 1804 Hardenberg +succeeded him as foreign minister. + +If there was to be war, Hardenberg would have preferred the French +alliance, which was the price Napoleon demanded for the cession of +Hanover to Prussia; for the Eastern powers would scarcely have +conceded, of their free will, so great an augmentation of Prussian +power. But he still hoped to gain the coveted prize by diplomacy, backed +by the veiled threat of an armed neutrality. Then occurred Napoleon's +contemptuous violation of Prussian territory by marching three French +corps through Ansbach; King Frederick William's pride overcame his +weakness, and on the 3rd of November he signed with the tsar Alexander +the terms of an ultimatum to be laid before the French emperor. Haugwitz +was despatched to Vienna with the document; but before he arrived the +battle of Austerlitz had been fought, and the Prussian plenipotentiary +had to make the best terms he could with the conqueror. Prussia, indeed, +by the treaty signed at Schonbrunn on the 15th of December 1805, +received Hanover, but in return for all her territories in South +Germany. One condition of the arrangement was the retirement of +Hardenberg, whom Napoleon disliked. He was again foreign minister for a +few months after the crisis of 1806 (April-July 1807); but Napoleon's +resentment was implacable, and one of the conditions of the terms +granted to Prussia by the treaty of Tilsit was Hardenberg's dismissal. + +After the enforced retirement of Stein in 1810 and the unsatisfactory +interlude of the feeble Altenstein ministry, Hardenberg was again +summoned to Berlin, this time as chancellor (June 6, 1810). The campaign +of Jena and its consequences had had a profound effect upon him; and in +his mind the traditions of the old diplomacy had given place to the new +sentiment of nationality characteristic of the coming age, which in him +found expression in a passionate desire to restore the position of +Prussia and crush her oppressors. During his retirement at Riga he had +worked out an elaborate plan for reconstructing the monarchy on Liberal +lines; and when he came into power, though the circumstances of the time +did not admit of his pursuing an independent foreign policy, he steadily +prepared for the struggle with France by carrying out Stein's +far-reaching schemes of social and political reorganization. The +military system was completely reformed, serfdom was abolished, +municipal institutions were fostered, the civil service was thrown open +to all classes, and great attention was devoted to the educational needs +of every section of the community. + +When at last the time came to put these reforms to the test, after the +Moscow campaign of 1812, it was Hardenberg who, supported by the +influence of the noble Queen Louise, determined Frederick William to +take advantage of General Yorck's loyal disloyalty and declare against +France. He was rightly regarded by German patriots as the statesman who +had done most to encourage the spirit of national independence; and +immediately after he had signed the first peace of Paris he was raised +to the rank of prince (June 3, 1814) in recognition of the part he had +played in the War of Liberation. + +Hardenberg now had an assured position in that close corporation of +sovereigns and statesmen by whom Europe, during the next few years, was +to be governed. He accompanied the allied sovereigns to England, and at +the congress of Vienna (1814-1815) was the chief plenipotentiary of +Prussia. But from this time the zenith of his influence, if not of his +fame, was passed. In diplomacy he was no match for Metternich, whose +influence soon overshadowed his own in the councils of Europe, of +Germany, and ultimately even of Prussia itself. At Vienna, in spite of +the powerful backing of Alexander of Russia, he failed to secure the +annexation of the whole of Saxony to Prussia; at Paris, after Waterloo, +he failed to carry through his views as to the further dismemberment of +France; he had weakly allowed Metternich to forestall him in making +terms with the states of the Confederation of the Rhine, which secured +to Austria the preponderance in the German federal diet; on the eve of +the conference of Carlsbad (1819) he signed a convention with +Metternich, by which--to quote the historian Treitschke--"like a +penitent sinner, without any formal _quid pro quo_, the monarchy of +Frederick the Great yielded to a foreign power a voice in her internal +affairs." At the congresses of Aix-la-Chapelle, Troppau, Laibach and +Verona the voice of Hardenberg was but an echo of that of Metternich. + +The cause lay partly in the difficult circumstances of the loosely-knit +Prussian monarchy, but partly in Hardenberg's character, which, never +well balanced, had deteriorated with age. He continued amiable, charming +and enlightened as ever; but the excesses which had been pardonable in a +young diplomatist were a scandal in an elderly chancellor, and could not +but weaken his influence with so pious a _Landesvater_ as Frederick +William III. To overcome the king's terror of Liberal experiments would +have needed all the powers of an adviser at once wise and in character +wholly trustworthy. Hardenberg was wise enough; he saw the necessity for +constitutional reform; but he clung with almost senile tenacity to the +sweets of office, and when the tide turned strongly against Liberalism +he allowed himself to drift with it. In the privacy of royal commissions +he continued to elaborate schemes for constitutions that never saw the +light; but Germany, disillusioned, saw only the faithful henchman of +Metternich, an accomplice in the policy of the Carlsbad Decrees and the +Troppau Protocol. He died, soon after the closing of the congress of +Verona, at Genoa, on the 26th of November 1822. + + See L. v. Ranke, _Denkwurdigkeiten des Staatskanzlers Fursten von + Hardenberg_ (5 vols., Leipzig, 1877); J. R. Seeley, _The Life and + Times of Stein_ (3 vols., Cambridge, 1878); E. Meier, _Reform der + Verwaltungsorganisation unter Stein und Hardenberg_ (ib., 1881); Chr. + Meyer, _Hardenberg und seine Verwaltung der Furstentumer Ansbach und + Bayreuth_ (Breslau, 1892); Koser, _Die Neuordnung des preussischen + Archivwesens durch den Staatskanzler Fursten v. Hardenberg_ (Leipzig, + 1904). + + + + +HARDERWYK, a seaport in the province of Gelderland, Holland, on the +shores of the Zuider Zee, 17 m. by rail N.N.E. of Amersfoort. Pop. +(1900) 7425. It is a quaint old town, approached by a fine avenue of +trees, and standing in the midst of a patch of fertile ground. Harderwyk +is chiefly important as being the depot for recruits for the Dutch +colonial army. It contains a small fort and large barracks. The +principal buildings are the town hall, with some ancient furniture, a +large 15th century church with a notable square tower, a municipal +orphanage, and the Nassau-Veluwe gymnasium. Agriculture, fishing, and a +few domestic industries form the only employment of the inhabitants. As +a seaport its trade is now confined exclusively to the Zuider Zee. + + + + +HARDICANUTE [more correctly HARDACNUT] (c. 1010-1042), son of Canute, +king of England, by his wife Aelfgifu or Emma, was born about 1019. In +the contest for the English crown which followed the death of Canute in +1035 the claims of Hardicanute were supported by Emma and her ally, +Godwine, earl of the West Saxons, in opposition to those of Harold, +Canute's illegitimate son, who was backed by the Mercian earl Leofric +and the chief men of the north. At a meeting of the witan at Oxford a +compromise was ultimately arranged by which Harold was temporarily +elected regent of all England, pending the final settlement of the +question on the return of Hardicanute from Denmark. The compromise was +strongly opposed by Godwine and Emma, who for a time forcibly held +Wessex in Hardicanute's behalf. But Harold's party rapidly increased; +and early in 1037 he was definitely elected king. Emma was driven out +and took refuge at Bruges. In 1039 Hardicanute joined her, and together +they concerted an attack on England. But next year Harold died; and +Hardicanute peacefully succeeded. His short reign was marked by great +oppression and cruelty. He caused the dead body of Harold to be dug up +and thrown into a fen; he exacted so heavy a geld for the support of his +foreign fleet that great discontent was created throughout the kingdom, +and in Worcestershire a general uprising took place against those sent +to collect the tax, whereupon he burned the city of Worcester to the +ground and devastated the surrounding country; in 1041 he permitted +Edwulf, earl of Northumbria, to be treacherously murdered after having +granted him a safe-conduct. While "he stood at his drink" at the +marriage feast of one of his flegns he was suddenly seized with a fit, +from which he died a few days afterwards on the 8th of June 1042. + + + + +HARDING, CHESTER (1792-1866), American portrait painter, was born at +Conway, Massachusetts, on the 1st of September 1792. Brought up in the +wilderness of New York state, Harding, as a lad of splendid physique, +standing over 6 ft. 3 in., marched as a drummer with the militia to the +St Lawrence in 1813. He became subsequently chairmaker, peddler, +inn-keeper, and house-painter, painting signs in Pittsburg, Pa., and +eventually going on the road, self-taught, as an itinerant portrait +painter. He made enough money to take him to the schools at the +Philadelphia Academy of Design, and he soon became proficient enough to +gain a competency, so that later he went to England and set up a studio +in London. There he met with great success, painting royalty and the +nobility, and, despite the lackings of an early education and social +experience, he became a favourite in all circles. Returning to the +United States, he settled in Boston and painted portraits of many of the +prominent men and women of his time. He died on the 1st of April 1866. + + + + +HARDING, JAMES DUFFIELD (1798-1863), English landscape painter, was the +son of an artist, and took to the same vocation at an early age, +although he had originally been destined for the law. He was in the main +a water-colour painter and a lithographer, but he produced various +oil-paintings both at the beginning and towards the end of his career. +He frequently contributed to the exhibitions of the Water-Colour +Society, of which he became an associate in 1821, and a full member in +1822. He was also very largely engaged in teaching, and published +several books developing his views of art--amongst others, _The Tourist +in Italy_ (1831); _The Tourist in France_ (1834); _The Park and the +Forest_ (1841); _The Principles and the Practice of Art_ (1845); +_Elementary Art_ (1846); _Scotland Delineated in a Series of Views_ +(1847); _Lessons on Art_ (1849). He died at Barnes on the 4th of +December 1863. Harding was noted for facility, sureness of hand, nicety +of touch, and the various qualities which go to make up an elegant, +highly trained, and accomplished sketcher from nature, and composer of +picturesque landscape material; he was particularly skilful in the +treatment of foliage. + + + + +HARDINGE, HENRY HARDINGE, VISCOUNT (1785-1856), British field marshal +and governor-general of India, was born at Wrotham in Kent on the 30th +of March 1785. After being at Eton, he entered the army in 1799 as an +ensign in the Queen's Rangers, a corps then stationed in Upper Canada. +His first active service was at the battle of Vimiera, where he was +wounded; and at Corunna he was by the side of Sir John Moore when he +received his death-wound. Subsequently he received an appointment as +deputy-quartermaster-general in the Portuguese army from Marshal +Beresford, and was present at nearly all the battles of the Peninsular +War, being wounded again at Vittoria. At Albuera he saved the day for +the British by taking the responsibility at a critical moment of +strongly urging General Cole's division to advance. When peace was again +broken in 1815 by Napoleon's escape from Elba, Hardinge hastened into +active service, and was appointed to the important post of commissioner +at the Prussian headquarters. In this capacity he was present at the +battle of Ligny on the 16th of June 1815, where he lost his left hand by +a shot, and thus was not present at Waterloo, fought two days later. For +the loss of his hand he received a pension of L300; he had already been +made a K.C.B., and Wellington presented him with a sword that had +belonged to Napoleon. In 1820 and 1826 Sir Henry Hardinge was returned +to parliament as member for Durham; and in 1828 he accepted the office +of secretary at war in Wellington's ministry, a post which he also +filled in Peel's cabinet in 1841-1844. In 1830 and 1834-1835 he was +chief secretary for Ireland. In 1844 he succeeded Lord Ellenborough as +governor-general of India. During his term of office the first Sikh War +broke out; and Hardinge, waiving his right to the supreme command, +magnanimously offered to serve as second in command under Sir Hugh +Gough; but disagreeing with the latter's plan of campaign at Ferozeshah, +he temporarily reasserted his authority as governor-general (see SIKH +WARS). After the successful termination of the campaign at Sobraon he +was created Viscount Hardinge of Lahore and of King's Newton in +Derbyshire, with a pension of L3000 for three lives; while the East +India Company voted him an annuity of L5000, which he declined to +accept. Hardinge's term of office in India was marked by many social and +educational reforms. He returned to England in 1848, and in 1852 +succeeded the duke of Wellington as commander-in-chief of the British +army. While in this position he had the home management of the Crimean +War, which he endeavoured to conduct on Wellington's principles--a +system not altogether suited to the changed mode of warfare. In 1855 he +was promoted to the rank of field marshal. Viscount Hardinge resigned +his office of commander-in-chief in July 1856, owing to failing health, +and died on the 24th of September of the same year at South Park near +Tunbridge Wells. His elder son, Charles Stewart (1822-1894), who had +been his private secretary in India, was the 2nd Viscount Hardinge; and +the latter's eldest son succeeded to the title. The younger son of the +2nd Viscount, Charles Hardinge (b. 1858), became a prominent diplomatist +(see Edward VII.), and was appointed governor-general of India in 1910, +being created Baron Hardinge of Penshurst. + + See C. Hardinge, _Viscount Hardinge_ (Rulers of India series, 1891); + and R. S. Rait, _Life and Campaigns of Viscount Gough_ (1903). + + + + +HARDOI, a town and district of British India, in the Lucknow division of +the United Provinces. The town is 63 m. N.E. of Lucknow by rail. Pop. +(1901) 12,174. It has a wood-carving industry, saltpetre works, and an +export trade in grain. + +The DISTRICT OF HARDOI has an area of 2331 sq. m. It is a level district +watered by the Ganges, Ramganga, Deoha or Garra, Sukheta, Sai, Baita and +Gumti--the three rivers first named being navigable by country boats. +Towards the Ganges the land is uneven, and often rises in hillocks of +sand cultivated at the base, and their slopes covered with lofty _munj_ +grass. Several large _jhils_ or swamps are scattered throughout the +district, the largest being that of Sandi, which is 3 m. long by from 1 +to 2 m. broad. These _jhils_ are largely used for irrigation. Large +tracts of forest jungle still exist. Leopards, black buck, spotted deer, +and _nilgai_ are common; the mallard, teal, grey duck, common goose, and +all kinds of waterfowl abound. In 1901 the population of the district +was 1,092,834, showing a decrease of nearly 2% in the decade. The +district contains a larger urban population than any other in Oudh, the +largest town being Shahabad, 20,036 in 1901. It is traversed by the Oudh +and Rohilkhand railway from Lucknow to Shahjahanpur, and its branches. +The chief exports are grain, sugar, hides, tobacco and saltpetre. + +The first authentic records of Hardoi are connected with the Mussulman +colonization. Bawan was occupied by Sayyid Salar Masaud in 1028, but the +permanent Moslem occupation did not begin till 1217. Owing to the +situation of the district, Hardoi formed the scene of many sanguinary +battles between the rival Afghan and Mogul empires. Between Bilgram and +Sandi was fought the great battle between Humayun and Sher Shah, in +which the former was utterly defeated. Hardoi, along with the rest of +Oudh, became British territory under Lord Dalhousie's proclamation of +February 1856. + + + + +HARDOUIN, JEAN (1646-1729), French classical scholar, was born at +Quimper in Brittany. Having acquired a taste for literature in his +father's book-shop, he sought and obtained about his sixteenth year +admission into the order of the Jesuits. In Paris, where he went to +study theology, he ultimately became librarian of the College Louis le +Grand in 1683, and he died there on the 3rd of September 1729. His first +published work was an edition of Themistius (1684), which included no +fewer than thirteen new orations. On the advice of Jean Garnier +(1612-1681) he undertook to edit the _Natural History_ of Pliny for the +Delphin series, a task which he completed in five years. His attention +having been turned to numismatics as auxiliary to his great editorial +labours, he published several learned works in that department, marred, +however, as almost everything he did was marred, by a determination to +be at all hazards different from other interpreters. It is sufficient to +mention his _Nummi antiqui populorum et urbium illustrati_ (1684), +_Antirrheticus de nummis antiquis coloniarum et municipiorum_ (1689), +and _Chronologia Veteris Testamenti ad vulgatam versionem exacta et +nummis illustrata_ (1696). By the ecclesiastical authorities Hardouin +was appointed to supervise the _Conciliorum collectio regia maxima_ +(1715); but he was accused of suppressing important documents and +foisting in apocryphal matter, and by the order of the parlement of +Paris (then at war with the Jesuits) the publication of the work was +delayed. It is really a valuable collection, much cited by scholars. +Hardouin declared that all the councils supposed to have taken place +before the council of Trent were fictitious. It is, however, as the +originator of a variety of paradoxical theories that Hardouin is now +best remembered. The most remarkable, contained in his _Chronologiae ex +nummis antiquis restitutae_ (1696) and _Prolegomena ad censuram veterum +scriptorum_, was to the effect that, with the exception of the works of +Homer, Herodotus and Cicero, the _Natural History_ of Pliny, the +_Georgics_ of _Virgil_, and the _Satires and Epistles of Horace_, all +the ancient classics of Greece and Rome were spurious, having been +manufactured by monks of the 13th century, under the direction of a +certain Severus Archontius. He denied the genuineness of most ancient +works of art, coins and inscriptions, and declared that the New +Testament was originally written in Latin. + + See A. Debacker, _Bibliotheque des ecrivains de la Compagnie de Jesus_ + (1853). + + + + +HARDT, HERMANN VON DER (1660-1746), German historian and orientalist, +was born at Melle, in Westphalia, on the 15th of November 1660. He +studied oriental languages in Jena and in Leipzig, and in 1690 he was +called to the chair of oriental languages at Helmstedt. He resigned his +position in 1727, but lived at Helmstedt until his death on the 28th of +February 1746. Among his numerous writings the following deserve +mention: _Autographa Lutheri aliorumque celebrium virorum, ab anno 1517 +ad annum 1546_, _Reformationis aetatem et historiam egregie +illustrantia_ (1690-1691); _Magnum oecumenicum Constantiense concilium_ +(1697-1700); _Hebraeae linguae fundamenta_ (1694); _Syriacae linguae +fundamenta_ (1694); _Elementa Chaldaica_ (1693); _Historia litteraria +reformationis_ (1717); _Enigmata prisci orbis_ (1723). Hardt left in +manuscript a history of the Reformation which is preserved in the +Helmstedt Juleum. + + See F. Lamey, _Hermann von der Hardt in seinen Briefen_ (Karlsruhe, + 1891). + + + + +HARDT, THE, a mountainous district of Germany, in the Bavarian +palatinate, forming the northern end of the Vosges range. It is, in the +main, an undulating high plateau of sandstone formation, of a mean +elevation of 1300 ft., and reaching its highest point in the Donnersberg +(2254 ft.). The eastern slope, which descends gently towards the Rhine, +is diversified by deep and well-wooded valleys, such as those of the +Lauter and the Queich, and by conical hills surmounted by the ruins of +frequent feudal castles and monasteries. Noticeable among these are the +Madenburg near Eschbach, the Trifels (long the dungeon of Richard I. of +England), and the Maxburg near Neustadt. Three-fifths of the whole area +is occupied by forests, principally oak, beech and fir. The lower +eastern slope is highly cultivated and produces excellent wine. + + + + +HARDWAR, or HURDWAR, an ancient town of British India, and Hindu place +of pilgrimage, in the Saharanpur district of the United Provinces, on +the right bank of the Ganges, 17 m. N.E. of Rurki, with a railway +station. The Ganges canal here takes off from the river. A branch +railway to Dehra was opened in 1900. Pop. (1901), 25,597. The town is of +great antiquity, and has borne many names. It was originally known as +Kapila from the sage Kapila. Hsuan Tsang, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, +in the 7th century visited a city which he calls Mo-yu-lo, the remains +of which still exist at Mayapur, a little to the south of the modern +town. Among the ruins are a fort and three temples, decorated with +broken stone sculptures. The great object of attraction at present is +the Hari-ka-charan, or bathing _ghat_, with the adjoining temple of +Gangadwara. The _charan_ or foot-mark of Vishnu, imprinted on a stone +let into the upper wall of the _ghat_, forms an object of special +reverence. A great assemblage of people takes place annually, at the +beginning of the Hindu solar year, when the sun enters Aries; and every +twelfth year a feast of peculiar sanctity occurs, known as a +_Kumbh-mela_. The ordinary number of pilgrims at the annual fair +amounts to 100,000, and at the Kumbh-mela to 300,000; in 1903 there +were 400,000 present. Since 1892 many sanitary improvements have been +made for the benefit of the annual concourse of pilgrims. In early days +riots and also outbreaks of cholera were of common occurrence. The +Hardwar meeting also possesses mercantile importance, being one of the +principal horse-fairs in Upper India. Commodities of all kinds, Indian +and European, find a ready sale, and the trade in grain and food-stuffs +forms a lucrative traffic. + + + + +HARDWICKE, PHILIP YORKE, 1ST EARL OF (1690-1764), English lord +chancellor, son of Philip Yorke, an attorney, was born at Dover, on the +1st of December 1690. Through his mother, Elizabeth, daughter and +co-heiress of Richard Gibbon of Rolvenden, Kent, he was connected with +the family of Gibbon the historian. At the age of fourteen, after a not +very thorough education at a private school at Bethnal Green, where, +however, he showed exceptional promise, he entered an attorney's office +in London. Here he gave some attention to literature and the classics as +well as to law; but in the latter he made such progress that his +employer, Salkeld, impressed by Yorke's powers, entered him at the +Middle Temple in November 1708; and soon afterwards recommended him to +Lord Chief Justice Parker (afterwards earl of Macclesfield) as law tutor +to his sons. In 1715 he was called to the bar, where his progress was, +says Lord Campbell, "more rapid than that of any other debutant in the +annals of our profession," his advancement being greatly furthered by +the patronage of Macclesfield, who became lord chancellor in 1718, when +Yorke transferred his practice from the king's bench to the court of +chancery, though he continued to go on the western circuit. In the +following year he established his reputation as an equity lawyer in a +case in which Sir Robert Walpole's family was interested, by an argument +displaying profound learning and research concerning the jurisdiction of +the chancellor, on lines which he afterwards more fully developed in a +celebrated letter to Lord Kames on the distinction between law and +equity. Through Macclesfield's influence with the duke of Newcastle +Yorke entered parliament in 1719 as member for Lewes, and was appointed +solicitor-general, with a knighthood, in 1720, although he was then a +barrister of only four years' standing. His conduct of the prosecution +of Christopher Layer in that year for treason as a Jacobite further +raised Sir Philip Yorke's reputation as a forensic orator; and in 1723, +having already become attorney-general, he passed through the House of +Commons the bill of pains and penalties against Bishop Atterbury. He was +excused, on the ground of his personal friendship, from acting for the +crown in the impeachment of Macclesfield in 1725, though he did not +exert himself to save his patron from disgrace largely brought about by +Macclesfield's partiality for Yorke himself. He soon found a new and +still more influential patron in the duke of Newcastle, to whom he +henceforth gave his political support. He rendered valuable service to +Walpole's government by his support of the bill for prohibiting loans to +foreign powers (1730), of the increase of the army (1732) and of the +excise bill (1733). In 1733 Yorke was appointed lord chief justice of +the king's bench, with the title of Lord Hardwicke, and was sworn of the +privy council; and in 1737 he succeeded Talbot as lord chancellor, thus +becoming a member of Sir Robert Walpole's cabinet. One of his first +official acts was to deprive the poet Thomson of a small office +conferred on him by Talbot. + +Hardwicke's political importance was greatly increased by his removal to +the House of Lords, where the incompetency of Newcastle threw on the +chancellor the duty of defending the measures of the government. He +resisted Carteret's motion to reduce the army in 1738, and the +resolutions hostile to Spain over the affair of Captain Jenkins's ears. +But when Walpole bent before the storm and declared war against Spain, +Hardwicke advocated energetic measures for its conduct; and he tried to +keep the peace between Newcastle and Walpole. There is no sufficient +ground for Horace Walpole's charge that the fall of Sir Robert was +brought about by Hardwicke's treachery. No one was more surprised than +himself when he retained the chancellorship in the following +administration, and he resisted the proposal to indemnify witnesses +against Walpole in one of his finest speeches in May 1742. He exercised +a leading influence in the Wilmington Cabinet; and when Wilmington died +in August 1743, it was Hardwicke who put forward Henry Pelham for the +vacant office against the claims of Pulteney. For many years from this +time he was the controlling power in the government. During the king's +absences on the continent Hardwicke was left at the head of the council +of regency; it thus fell to him to concert measures for dealing with the +Jacobite rising in 1745. He took a just view of the crisis, and his +policy for meeting it was on the whole statesmanlike. After Culloden he +presided at the trial of the Scottish Jacobite peers, his conduct of +which, though judicially impartial, was neither dignified nor generous; +and he must be held partly responsible for the unnecessary severity +meted out to the rebels, and especially for the cruel, though not +illegal, executions on obsolete attainders of Charles Radcliffe and (in +1753) of Archibald Cameron. He carried, however, a great reform in 1746, +of incalculable benefit to Scotland, which swept away the grave abuses +of feudal power surviving in that country in the form of private +heritable jurisdictions in the hands of the landed gentry. On the other +hand his legislation in 1748 for disarming the Highlanders and +prohibiting the use of the tartan in their dress was vexatious without +being effective. Hardwicke supported Chesterfield's reform of the +calendar in 1751; in 1753 his bill for legalizing the naturalization of +Jews in England had to be dropped on account of the popular clamour it +excited; but he successfully carried a salutary reform of the marriage +law, which became the basis of all subsequent legislation on the +subject. + +On the death of Pelham in 1754 Hardwicke obtained for Newcastle the post +of prime minister, and for reward was created earl of Hardwicke and +Viscount Royston; and when in November 1756 the weakness of the ministry +and the threatening aspect of foreign affairs compelled Newcastle to +resign, Hardwicke retired with him. He played an important and +disinterested part in negotiating the coalition between Newcastle and +Pitt in 1757, when he accepted a seat in Pitt's cabinet without +returning to the woolsack. After the accession of George III. Hardwicke +opposed the ministry of Lord Bute on the peace with France in 1762, and +on the cider tax in the following year. In the Wilkes case Hardwicke +condemned general warrants, and also the doctrine that seditious libels +published by members of parliament were protected by parliamentary +privilege. He died in London on the 6th of March 1764. + +Although for a lengthy period Hardwicke was an influential minister, he +was not a statesman of the first rank. On the other hand he was one of +the greatest judges who ever sat on the English bench. He did not, +indeed, by his three years' tenure of the chief-justiceship of the +king's bench leave any impress on the common law; but Lord Campbell +pronounces him "the most consummate judge who ever sat in the court of +chancery, being distinguished not only for his rapid and satisfactory +decision of the causes which came before him, but for the profound and +enlightened principles which he laid down, and for perfecting English +equity into a systematic science." He held the office of lord chancellor +longer than any of his predecessors, with a single exception; and the +same high authority quoted above asserts that as an equity judge Lord +Hardwicke's fame "has not been exceeded by that of any man in ancient or +modern times. His decisions have been, and ever will continue to be, +appealed to as fixing the limits and establishing the principles of the +great juridical system called Equity, which now not only in this country +and in our colonies, but over the whole extent of the United States of +America, regulates property and personal rights more than the ancient +common law."[1] Hardwicke had prepared himself for this great and +enduring service to English jurisprudence by study of the historical +foundations of the chancellor's equitable jurisdiction, combined with +profound insight into legal principle, and a thorough knowledge of the +Roman civil law, the principles of which he scientifically incorporated +into his administration of English equity in the absence of precedents +bearing on the causes submitted to his judgment. His decisions on +particular points in dispute were based on general principles, which +were neither so wide as to prove inapplicable to future circumstances, +nor too restricted to serve as the foundation for a coherent and +scientific system. His recorded judgments--which, as Lord Campbell +observes, "certainly do come up to every idea we can form of judicial +excellence"--combine luminous method of arrangement with elegance and +lucidity of language. + +Nor was the creation of modern English equity Lord Hardwicke's only +service to the administration of justice. Born within two years of the +death of Judge Jeffreys his influence was powerful in obliterating the +evil traditions of the judicial bench under the Stuart monarchy, and in +establishing the modern conception of the duties and demeanour of +English judges. While still at the bar Lord Chesterfield praised his +conduct of crown prosecutions as a contrast to the former "bloodhounds +of the crown"; and he described Sir Philip Yorke as "naturally humane, +moderate and decent." On the bench he had complete control over his +temper; he was always urbane and decorous and usually dignified. His +exercise of legal patronage deserves unmixed praise. As a public man he +was upright and, in comparison with most of his contemporaries, +consistent. His domestic life was happy and virtuous. His chief fault +was avarice, which perhaps makes it the more creditable that, though a +colleague of Walpole, he was never suspected of corruption. But he had a +keen and steady eye to his own advantage, and he was said to be jealous +of all who might become his rivals for power. His manners, too, were +arrogant. Lord Waldegrave said of Hardwicke that "he might have been +thought a great man had he been less avaricious, less proud, less unlike +a gentleman." Although in his youth he contributed to the _Spectator_ +over the signature "Philip Homebred," he seems early to have abandoned +all care for literature, and he has been reproached by Lord Campbell and +others with his neglect of art and letters. He married, on the 16th of +May 1719, Margaret, daughter of Charles Cocks (by his wife Mary, sister +of Lord Chancellor Somers), and widow of John Lygon, by whom he had five +sons and two daughters. His eldest daughter, Elizabeth, married Lord +Anson; and the second, Margaret, married Sir Gilbert Heathcote. Three of +his younger sons attained some distinction. Charles Yorke (q.v.), the +second son, became like his father lord chancellor; the third, Joseph, +was a diplomatist, and was created Lord Dover; while James, the fifth +son, became bishop of Ely. + +Hardwicke was succeeded in the earldom by his eldest son, PHILIP YORKE +(1720-1795), 2nd earl of Hardwicke, born on the 19th of March 1720, and +educated at Cambridge. In 1741 he became a fellow of the Royal Society. +With his brother, Charles Yorke, he was one of the chief contributors to +_Athenian Letters; or the Epistolary Correspondence of an agent of the +King of Persia residing at Athens during the Peloponnesian War_ (4 +vols., London, 1741), a work that for many years had a considerable +vogue and went through several editions. He sat in the House of Commons +as member for Reigate (1741-1747), and afterwards for Cambridgeshire; +and he kept notes of the debates which were afterwards embodied in +Cobbett's _Parliamentary History_. He was styled Viscount Royston from +1754 till 1764, when he succeeded to the earldom. In politics he +supported the Rockingham Whigs. He held the office of teller of the +exchequer, and was lord-lieutenant of Cambridgeshire and high steward of +Cambridge University. He edited a quantity of miscellaneous state papers +and correspondence, to be found in MSS. collections in the British +Museum. He died in London, on the 16th of May 1790. He married Jemima +Campbell, only daughter of John, 3rd earl of Breadalbane, and +grand-daughter and heiress of Henry de Grey, duke of Kent, who became in +her own right marchioness de Grey. + +In default of sons, the title devolved on his nephew, PHILIP YORKE +(1757-1834), 3rd earl of Hardwicke, eldest son of Charles Yorke, lord +chancellor, by his first wife, Catherine Freman, who was born on the +31st of May 1757 and was educated at Cambridge. He was M.P. for +Cambridgeshire, following the Whig traditions of his family; but after +his succession to the earldom in 1790 he supported Pitt, and took office +in 1801 as lord lieutenant of Ireland (1801-1806), where he supported +Catholic emancipation. He was created K.G. in 1803, and was a fellow of +the Royal Society. He married Elizabeth, daughter of James Lindsay, 5th +earl of Balcarres, in 1782, but left no son. + +He was succeeded in the peerage by his nephew, CHARLES PHILIP YORKE +(1799-1873), 4th earl of Hardwicke, English admiral, eldest son of +Admiral Sir Joseph Sydney Yorke (1768-1831), who was second son of +Charles Yorke, lord chancellor, by his second wife, Agneta Johnson. +Charles Philip was born at Southampton on the 2nd of April 1799 and was +educated at Harrow. He entered the royal navy in 1815, and served on the +North American station and in the Mediterranean, attaining the rank of +captain in 1825. He represented Reigate (1831) and Cambridgeshire +(1832-1834) in the House of Commons; and after succeeding to the earldom +in 1834, was appointed a lord in waiting by Sir Robert Peel in 1841. In +1858 he retired from the active list with the rank of rear-admiral, +becoming vice-admiral in the same year, and admiral in 1863. He was a +member of Lord Derby's cabinet in 1852 as postmaster-general and lord +privy seal in 1858. In 1833 he married Susan, daughter of the 1st Lord +Ravensworth, by whom he had five sons and three daughters. His eldest +son, CHARLES PHILIP YORKE (1836-1897), 5th earl of Hardwicke, was +comptroller of the household of Queen Victoria (1866-1868) and master of +the buckhounds (1874-1880). He married in 1863, Sophia Georgiana, +daughter of the 1st Earl Cowley. He was succeeded by his only son ALBERT +EDWARD PHILIP HENRY YORKE (1867-1904), 6th earl of Hardwicke, who, after +holding the posts of under-secretary of state for India (1900-1902) and +for war (1902-1903), died unmarried on the 29th of November 1904; the +title then went to his uncle, JOHN MANNERS YORKE (1840-1909), 7th earl +of Hardwicke, second son of Charles Philip, the 4th earl, who joined the +royal navy and served in the Baltic and in the Crimea (1854-1855). This +earl died on the 13th of March 1909 and was succeeded by his son Charles +Alexander (b. 1869) as 8th earl. + + The contemporary authorities for the life of Lord Chancellor Hardwicke + are voluminous, being contained in the memoirs of the period and in + numerous collections of correspondence in the British Museum. See, + especially, the _Hardwicke Papers_; the _Stowe MSS.; Hist. MSS. + Commission_ (Reports 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 11); Horace Walpole, _Letters_ + (ed. by P. Cunningham, 9 vols., London, 1857-1859); _Letters to Sir H. + Mann_ (ed. by Lord Dover, 4 vols., London, 1843-1844); _Memoirs of the + Reign of George II._ (ed. by Lord Holland, 2nd ed. revised, London, + 1847); _Memoirs of the Reign of George III._ (ed. by G. F. R. Barker, + 4 vols., London, 1894); _Catalogue of Royal and Noble Authors of + England, Scotland and Ireland_ (ed. by T. Park, 5 vols., London, + 1806). Horace Walpole was violently hostile to Hardwicke, and his + criticism, therefore, must be taken with extreme reserve. See also the + earl Waldegrave, _Memoirs 1754-1758_ (London, 1821); Lord + Chesterfield, _Letters_ (ed. by Lord Mahon, 5 vols., London, 1892); + Richard Cooksey, _Essay on John, Lord Somers, and Philip, Earl of + Hardwicke_ (Worcester, 1791); William Coxe, _Memoirs of Sir R. + Walpole_ (4 vols., London, 1816); _Memoirs of the Administration of + Henry Pelham_ (2 vols., London, 1829); Lord Campbell, _Lives of the + Lord Chancellors_, vol. v. (8 vols., London, 1845); Edward Foss, _The + Judges of England_, vols. vii. and viii. (9 vols., London, 1848-1864); + George Harris, _Life of Lord Chancellor Hardwicke; with Selections + from his Correspondence, Diaries, Speeches and Judgments_ (3 vols., + London, 1847). The last-named work may be consulted for the lives of + the 2nd and 3rd earls. For the 3rd earl see also the duke of + Buckingham, _Memoirs of the Court and Cabinets of George III._ (4 + vols., London, 1853-1855). For the 4th earl see _Charles Philip + Yorke_, by his daughter, Lady Biddulph of Ledbury (1910). + (R. J. M.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Lord Campbell, _Lives of the Lord Chancellors_, v. 43 (London, + 1846). + + + + +HARDY, ALEXANDRE (1569?-1631), French dramatist, was born in Paris. He +was one of the most fertile of all dramatic authors, and himself claimed +to have written some six hundred plays, of which, however, only +thirty-four are preserved. He seems to have been connected all his life +with a troupe of actors headed by a clever comedian named +Valleran-Lecomte, whom he provided with plays. Hardy toured the +provinces with this company, which gave some representations in Paris +in 1599 at the Hotel de Bourgogne. Valleran-Lecomte occupied the same +theatre in 1600-1603, and again in 1607, apparently for some years. In +consequence of disputes with the Confrerie de la Passion, who owned the +privilege of the theatre, they played elsewhere in Paris and in the +provinces for some years; but in 1628, when they had long borne the +title of "royal," they were definitely established at the Hotel de +Bourgogne. Hardy's numerous dedications never seem to have brought him +riches or patrons. His most powerful friend was Isaac de Laffemas (d. +1657), one of Richelieu's most unscrupulous agents, and he was on +friendly terms with the poet Theophile, who addressed him in some verses +placed at the head of his _Theatre_ (1632), and Tristan l'Hermite had a +similar admiration for him. Hardy's plays were written for the stage, +not to be read; and it was in the interest of the company that they +should not be printed and thus fall into the common stock. But in 1623 +he published _Les Chastes et loyales amours de Theagene et Cariclee_, a +tragi-comedy in eight "days" or dramatic poems; and in 1624 he began a +collected edition of his works, _Le Theatre d'Alexandre Hardy, +parisien_, of which five volumes (1624-1628) were published, one at +Rouen and the rest in Paris. These comprise eleven tragedies: _Didon se +sacrifiant_, _Scedase ou l'hospitalite violee_, _Panthee_, _Meleagre_, +_La Mort d'Achille_, _Coriolan_, _Marianne_, a trilogy on the history of +Alexander, _Alcmeon, ou la vengeance feminine_; five mythological +pieces; thirteen tragi-comedies, among them _Gesippe_, drawn from +Boccaccio; _Phraarte_, taken from Giraldi's _Cent excellentes nouvelles_ +(Paris, 1584); _Cornelie_, _La Force du sang_, _Felismene_, _La Belle +Egyptienne_, taken from Spanish subjects; and five pastorals, of which +the best is _Alphee, ou la justice d'amour_. Hardy's importance in the +history of the French theatre can hardly be over-estimated. Up to the +end of the 16th century medieval farce and spectacle kept their hold on +the stage in Paris. The French classical tragedy of Etienne Jodelle and +his followers had been written for the learned, and in 1628 when Hardy's +work was nearly over and Rotrou was on the threshold of his career, very +few literary dramas by any other author are known to have been publicly +represented. Hardy educated the popular taste, and made possible the +dramatic activity of the 17th century. He had abundant practical +experience of the stage, and modified tragedy accordingly, suppressing +chorus and monologue, and providing the action and variety which was +denied to the literary drama. He was the father in France of +tragi-comedy, but cannot fairly be called a disciple of the romantic +school of England and Spain. It is impossible to know how much later +dramatists were indebted to him in detail, since only a fraction of his +work is preserved, but their general obligation is amply established. He +died in 1631 or 1632. + + The sources for Hardy's biography are extremely limited. The account + given by the brothers Parfaict in their _Hist. du theatre francais_ + (1745, &c., vol. iv. pp. 2-4) must be received with caution, and no + documents are forthcoming. Many writers have identified him with the + provincial playwright picturesquely described in chap. xi. of _Le Page + disgracie_ (1643), the autobiography of Tristan l'Hermite, but if the + portrait is drawn from life at all, it is more probably drawn from + Theophile. See _Le Theatre d'Alexandre Hardy_, edited by E. Stengel + (Marburg and Paris, 1883-1884, 5 vols.); E. Lombard, "Etude sur + Alexandre Hardy," in _Zeitschr. fur neufranz. Spr. u. Lit._ (Oppeln + and Leipzig, vols. i. and ii., 1880-1881); K. Nagel, _A. Hardy's + Einfluss auf Pierre Corneille_ (Marburg, 1884); and especially E. + Rigal, _Alexandre Hardy ..._ (Paris, 1889) and _Le Theatre francais + avant la periode classique_ (Paris, 1901.) + + + + +HARDY, THOMAS (1840- ), English novelist, was born in Dorsetshire on +the 2nd of June 1840. His family was one of the branches of the Dorset +Hardys, formerly of influence in and near the valley of the Frome, +claiming descent from John Le Hardy of Jersey (son of Clement Le Hardy, +lieutenant-governor of that island in 1488), who settled in the west of +England. His maternal ancestors were the Swetman, Childs or Child, and +kindred families, who before and after 1635 were small landed +proprietors in Melbury Osmond, Dorset, and adjoining parishes. He was +educated at local schools, 1848-1854, and afterwards privately, and in +1856 was articled to Mr John Hicks, an ecclesiastical architect of +Dorchester. In 1859 he began writing verse and essays, but in 1861 was +compelled to apply himself more strictly to architecture, sketching and +measuring many old Dorset churches with a view to their restoration. In +1862 he went to London (which he had first visited at the age of nine) +and became assistant to the late Sir Arthur Blomfield, R.A. In 1863 he +won the medal of the Royal Institute of British Architects for an essay +on _Coloured Brick and Terra-cotta Architecture_, and in the same year +won the prize of the Architectural Association for design. In March 1865 +his first short story was published in _Chambers's Journal_, and during +the next two or three years he wrote a good deal of verse, being +somewhat uncertain whether to take to architecture or to literature as a +profession. In 1867 he left London for Weymouth, and during that and the +following year wrote a "purpose" story, which in 1869 was accepted by +Messrs Chapman and Hall. The manuscript had been read by Mr George +Meredith, who asked the writer to call on him, and advised him not to +print it, but to try another, with more plot. The manuscript was +withdrawn and re-written, but never published. In 1870 Mr Hardy took Mr +Meredith's advice too literally, and constructed a novel that was all +plot, which was published in 1871 under the title _Desperate Remedies_. +In 1872 appeared _Under the Greenwood Tree_, a "rural painting of the +Dutch school," in which Mr Hardy had already "found himself," and which +he has never surpassed in happy and delicate perfection of art. _A Pair +of Blue Eyes_, in which tragedy and irony come into his work together, +was published in 1873. In 1874 Mr Hardy married Emma Lavinia, daughter +of the late T. Attersoll Gifford of Plymouth. His first popular success +was made by _Far from the Madding Crowd_ (1874), which, on its +appearance anonymously in the _Cornhill Magazine_, was attributed by +many to George Eliot. Then came _The Hand of Ethelberta_ (1876), +described, not inaptly, as "a comedy in chapters"; _The Return of the +Native_ (1878), the most sombre and, in some ways, the most powerful and +characteristic of Mr Hardy's novels; _The Trumpet-Major_ (1880); _A +Laodicean_ (1881); _Two on a Tower_ (1882), a long excursion in +constructive irony; _The Mayor of Casterbridge_ (1886); _The +Woodlanders_ (1887); _Wessex Tales_ (1888); _A Group of Noble Dames_ +(1891); _Tess of the D'Urbervilles_ (1891), Mr Hardy's most famous +novel; _Life's Little Ironies_ (1894); _Jude the Obscure_ (1895), his +most thoughtful and least popular book; _The Well-Beloved_, a reprint, +with some revision, of a story originally published in the _Illustrated +London News_ in 1892 (1897); _Wessex Poems_, written during the previous +thirty years, with illustrations by the author (1898); and _The Dynasts_ +(2 parts, 1904-1906). In 1909 appeared _Time's Laughing-stocks and other +Verses_. In all his work Mr Hardy is concerned with one thing, seen +under two aspects; not civilization, nor manners, but the principle of +life itself, invisibly realized in humanity as sex, seen visibly in the +world as what we call nature. He is a fatalist, perhaps rather a +determinist, and he studies the workings of fate or law (ruling through +inexorable moods or humours), in the chief vivifying and disturbing +influence in life, women. His view of women is more French than English; +it is subtle, a little cruel, not as tolerant as it seems, thoroughly a +man's point of view, and not, as with Mr Meredith, man's and woman's at +once. He sees all that is irresponsible for good and evil in a woman's +character, all that is untrustworthy in her brain and will, all that is +alluring in her variability. He is her apologist, but always with a +reserve of private judgment. No one has created more attractive women of +a certain class, women whom a man would have been more likely to love or +to regret loving. In his earlier books he is somewhat careful over the +reputation of his heroines; gradually he allows them more liberty, with +a franker treatment of instinct and its consequences. _Jude the Obscure_ +is perhaps the most unbiassed consideration in English fiction of the +more complicated questions of sex. There is almost no passion in his +work, neither the author nor his characters ever seeming able to pass +beyond the state of curiosity, the most intellectually interesting of +limitations, under the influence of any emotion. In his feeling for +nature, curiosity sometimes seems to broaden into a more intimate +communion. The heath, the village with its peasants, the change of every +hour among the fields and on the roads of that English countryside which +he has made his own--the Dorsetshire and Wiltshire "Wessex"--mean more +to him, in a sense, than even the spectacle of man and woman in their +blind and painful and absorbing struggle for existence. His knowledge of +woman confirms him in a suspension of judgment; his knowledge of nature +brings him nearer to the unchanging and consoling element in the world. +All the entertainment which he gets out of life comes to him from his +contemplation of the peasant, as himself a rooted part of the earth, +translating the dumbness of the fields into humour. His peasants have +been compared with Shakespeare's; he has the Shakespearean sense of +their placid vegetation by the side of hurrying animal life, to which +they act the part of chorus, with an unconscious wisdom in their close, +narrow and undistracted view of things. The order of merit was conferred +upon Mr Hardy in July 1910. + + See Annie Macdonell, _Thomas Hardy_ (London, 1894); Lionel P. Johnson, + _The Art of Thomas Hardy_ (London, 1894). (A. Sy.) + + + + +HARDY, SIR THOMAS DUFFUS (1804-1878), English antiquary, was the third +son of Major Thomas Bartholomew Price Hardy, and belonged to a family +several members of which had distinguished themselves in the British +navy. Born at Port Royal in Jamaica on the 22nd of May 1804, he crossed +over to England and in 1819 entered the Record Office in the Tower of +London. Trained under Henry Petrie (1768-1842) he gained a sound +knowledge of palaeography, and soon began to edit selections of the +public records. From 1861 until his death on the 15th of June 1878 he +was deputy-keeper of the Record Office, which just before his +appointment had been transferred to its new London headquarters in +Chancery Lane. Hardy, who was knighted in 1873, had much to do with the +appointment of the Historical Manuscripts Commission in 1869. + + Sir T. Hardy edited the Close Rolls, _Rotuli litterarum clausarum, + 1204-1227_ (2 vols., 1833-1844), with an introduction entitled "A + Description of the Close Rolls, with an Account of the early Courts of + Law and Equity"; and the Patent Rolls, _Rotuli litterarum patentium, + 1201-1216_ (1835), with introduction, "A Description of the Patent + Rolls, to which is added an Itinerary of King John." He also edited + the _Rotuli de oblatis et finibus_ (1835), which deal also with the + time of King John; the _Rotuli Normanniae, 1200-1205_, and _1417-1418_ + (1835), containing letters and grants of the English kings concerning + the duchy of Normandy; the Charter Rolls, _Rotuli chartarum, + 1199-1216_ (1837), giving with this work an account of the structure + of charters; the Liberate Rolls, _Rotuli de liberate ac de misis et + praestitis regnante Johanne_ (1844); and the _Modus tenendi + parliamentum_, with a translation (1846). He wrote _A Catalogue of + Lords Chancellors, Keepers of the Great Seal, Masters of the Rolls and + Officers of the Court of Chancery_ (1843); the preface to Henry + Petrie's _Monumenta historica Britannica_ (1848); and _Descriptive + Catalogue of Materials relating to the History of Great Britain and + Ireland_ (3 vols., 1862-1871). He edited William of Malmesbury's _De + gestis regum anglorum_ (2 vols., 1840); he continued and corrected + John le Neve's _Fasti ecclesiae Anglicanae_ (3 vols., Oxford, 1854); + and with C. T. Martin he edited and translated _L'Estorie des Engles_ + of Geoffrey Gaimar (1888-1889). He wrote _Syllabus in English of + Documents in Rymer's Foedera_ (3 vols., 1869-1885), and gave an + account of the history of the public records from 1837 to 1851 in his + _Memoirs of the Life of Henry, Lord Langdale_ (1852), Lord Langdale + (1783-1851), master of the rolls from 1836 to 1851, being largely + responsible for the erection of the new Record Office. Hardy took part + in the controversy about the date of the Athanasian creed, writing + _The Athanasian Creed in connection with the Utrecht Psalter_ (1872); + and _Further Report on the Utrecht Psalter_ (1874). + +His younger brother, SIR WILLIAM HARDY (1807-1887), was also an +antiquary. He entered the Record Office in 1823, leaving it in 1830 to +become keeper of the records of the duchy of Lancaster. In 1868, when +these records were presented by Queen Victoria to the nation, he +returned to the Record Office as an assistant keeper, and in 1878 he +succeeded his brother Sir Thomas as deputy-keeper, resigning in 1886. He +died on the 17th of March 1887. + + Sir W. Hardy edited Jehan de Waurin's _Recueil des croniques et + anchiennes istories de la Grant Bretaigne_ (5 vols., 1864-1891); and + he translated and edited the _Charters of the Duchy of Lancaster_ + (1845). + + + + +HARDY, SIR THOMAS MASTERMAN, Bart. (1769-1839), British vice-admiral, of +the Portisham (Dorsetshire) family of Hardy, was born on the 5th of +April 1769, and in 1781 began his career as a sailor. He became +lieutenant in 1793, and in 1796, being then attached to the "Minerve" +frigate, attracted the attention of Nelson by his gallant conduct. He +continued to serve with distinction, and in 1798 was promoted to be +captain of the "Vanguard," Nelson's flagship. In the "St George" he did +valuable work before the battle of Copenhagen in 1801, and his +association with Nelson was crowned by his appointment in 1803 to the +"Victory" as flag-captain, in which capacity he was engaged at the +battle of Trafalgar in 1805, witnessed Nelson's will, and was in close +attendance on him at his death. Hardy was created a baronet in 1806. He +was then employed on the North American station, and later (1819), was +made commodore and commander-in-chief on the South American station, +where his able conduct came prominently into notice. In 1825 he became +rear-admiral, and in December 1826 escorted the expeditionary force to +Lisbon. In 1830 he was made first sea lord of the admiralty, being +created G.C.B. in 1831. In 1834 he was appointed governor of Greenwich +hospital, where thenceforward he devoted himself with conspicuous +success to the charge of the naval pensioners; in 1837 he became +vice-admiral. He died at Greenwich on the 20th of September 1839. In +1807 he had married Anne Louisa Emily, daughter of Sir George Cranfield +Berkeley, under whom he had served on the North American station, and by +her he had three daughters, the baronetcy becoming extinct. + + See Marshall, _Royal Naval Biography_, ii. and iii.; Nicolas, + _Despatches of Lord Nelson_; Broadley and Bartelot, _The Three Dorset + Captains at Trafalgar_ (1906), and _Nelson's Hardy, his Life, Letters + and Friends_ (1909). + + + + +HARDYNG or HARDING, JOHN (1378-1465), English chronicler, was born in +the north, and as a boy entered the service of Sir Henry Percy +(Hotspur), with whom he was present at the battle of Shrewsbury (1403). +He then passed into the service of Sir Robert Umfraville, under whom he +was constable of Warkworth Castle, and served in the campaign of +Agincourt in 1415 and in the sea-fight before Harfleur in 1416. In 1424 +he was on a diplomatic mission at Rome, where at the instance of +Cardinal Beaufort he consulted the chronicle of Trogus Pompeius. +Umfraville, who died in 1436, had made Hardyng constable of Kyme in +Lincolnshire, where he probably lived till his death about 1465. Hardyng +was a man of antiquarian knowledge, and under Henry V. was employed to +investigate the feudal relations of Scotland to the English crown. For +this purpose he visited Scotland, at much expense and hardship. For his +services he says that Henry V. promised him the manor of Geddington in +Northamptonshire. Many years after, in 1439, he had a grant of L10 a +year for similar services. In 1457 there is a record of the delivery of +documents relating to Scotland by Hardyng to the earl of Shrewsbury, and +his reward by a further pension of L20. It is clear that Hardyng was +well acquainted with Scotland, and James I. is said to have offered him +a bribe to surrender his papers. But the documents, which are still +preserved in the Record Office, have been shown to be forgeries, and +were probably manufactured by Hardyng himself. Hardyng spent many years +on the composition of a rhyming chronicle of England. His services under +the Percies and Umfravilles gave him opportunity to obtain much +information of value for 15th century history. As literature the +chronicle has no merit. It was written and rewritten to suit his various +patrons. The original edition ending in 1436 had a Lancastrian bias and +was dedicated to Henry VI. Afterwards he prepared a version for Richard, +duke of York (d. 1460), and the chronicle in its final form was +presented to Edward IV. after his marriage to Elizabeth Woodville in +1464. + + The version of 1436 is preserved in Lansdowne MS. 204, and the best of + the later versions in Harley MS. 661, both in the British Museum. + Richard Grafton printed two editions in January 1543, which differ + much from one another and from the now extant manuscripts. Stow, who + was acquainted with a different version, censured Grafton on this + point somewhat unjustly. Sir Henry Ellis published the longer version + of Grafton with some additions from the Harley MS. in 1812. + + See Ellis' preface to Hardyng's _Chronicle_, and Sir F. Palgrave's + _Documents illustrating the History of Scotland_ (for an account of + Hardyng's forgeries). (C. L. K.) + + + + + +HARE, AUGUSTUS JOHN CUTHBERT (1834-1903), English writer and traveller, +was born at Rome in 1834. He was educated at Harrow school and at +University College, Oxford. His name is familiar as the author of a +large number of guide-books to the principal countries and towns of +Europe, most of which were written to order for John Murray. They were +made up partly of the author's own notes of travel, partly of quotations +from others' books taken with a frankness of appropriation that disarmed +criticism. He also wrote _Memorials of a Quiet Life_--that of his aunt +by whom he had been adopted when a baby (1872), and a tediously long +autobiography in six volumes, _The Story of My Life_. He died at St +Leonards-on-Sea on the 22nd of January 1903. + + + + +HARE, SIR JOHN (1844- ), English actor and manager, was born in +Yorkshire on the 16th of May 1844, and was educated at Giggleswick +school, Yorkshire. He made his first appearance on the stage at +Liverpool in 1864, coming to London in 1865, and acting for ten years +with the Bancrofts. He soon made his mark, particularly in T. W. +Robertson's comedies, and in 1875 became manager of the Court theatre. +But it was in association with Mr and Mrs Kendal at the St James's +theatre from 1879 to 1888 that he established his popularity in London, +in important "character" and "men of the world" parts, the joint +management of Hare and Kendal making this theatre one of the chief +centres of the dramatic world for a decade. In 1889 he became lessee and +manager of the Garrick theatre, where (though he was often out of the +cast) he produced several important plays, such as Pinero's _The +Profligate_ and _The Notorious Mrs Ebbsmith_, and had a remarkable +personal success in the chief part in Sydney Grundy's _A Pair of +Spectacles_. In 1897 he took the Globe theatre, where his acting in +Pinero's _Gay Lord Quex_ was another personal triumph. He became almost +as well known in the United States as in England, his last tour in +America being in 1900 and 1901. He was knighted in 1907. + + + + +HARE, JULIUS CHARLES (1795-1855), English theological writer, was born +at Valdagno, near Vicenza, in Italy, on the 13th of September 1795. He +came to England with his parents in 1799, but in 1804-1805 spent a +winter with them at Weimar, where he met Goethe and Schiller, and +received a bias to German literature which influenced his style and +sentiments throughout his whole career. On the death of his mother in +1806, Julius was sent home to the Charterhouse in London, where he +remained till 1812, when he entered Trinity College, Cambridge. There he +became fellow in 1818, and after some time spent abroad he began to read +law in London in the following year. From 1822 to 1832 he was +assistant-tutor at Trinity College. Turning his attention from law to +divinity, Hare took priest's orders in 1826; and, on the death of his +uncle in 1832, he succeeded to the rich family living of Hurstmonceaux +in Sussex, where he accumulated a library of some 12,000 volumes, +especially rich in German literature. Before taking up residence in his +parish he once more went abroad, and made in Rome the acquaintance of +the Chevalier Bunsen, who afterwards dedicated to him part of his work, +_Hippolytus and his Age_. In 1840 Hare was appointed archdeacon of +Lewes, and in the same year preached a course of sermons at Cambridge +(_The Victory of Faith_), followed in 1846 by a second, _The Mission of +the Comforter_. Neither series when published attained any great +popularity. Archdeacon Hare married in 1844 Esther, a sister of his +friend Frederick Maurice. In 1851 he was collated to a prebend in +Chichester; and in 1853 he became one of Queen Victoria's chaplains. He +died on the 23rd of January 1855. + + Julius Hare belonged to what has been called the "Broad Church party," + though some of his opinions approach very closely to those of the + Evangelical Arminian school, while others again seem vague and + undecided. He was one of the first of his countrymen to recognize and + come under the influence of German thought and speculation, and, + amidst an exaggerated alarm of German heresy, did much to vindicate + the authority of the sounder German critics. His writings, which are + chiefly theological and controversial, are largely formed of charges + to his clergy, and sermons on different topics; but, though valuable + and full of thought, they lose some of their force by the cumbrous + German structure of the sentences, and by certain orthographical + peculiarities in which the author indulged. In 1827 _Guesses at Truth + by Two Brothers_[1] appeared. Hare assisted Thirlwall, afterwards + bishop of St David's, in the translation of the 1st and 2nd volumes of + Niebuhr's _History of Rome_ (1828 and 1832), and published a + _Vindication of Niebuhr's History_ in 1829. He wrote many similar + works, among which is a _Vindication of Luther against his recent + English Assailants_ (1854). In 1848 he edited the _Remains of John + Sterling_, who had formerly been his curate. Carlyle's _Life of John + Sterling_ was written through dissatisfaction with the "Life" prefixed + to Archdeacon Hare's book. _Memorials of a Quiet Life_, published in + 1872, contain accounts of the Hare family. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Julius Hare's co-worker in this book was his brother Augustus + William Hare (1792-1834), who, after a distinguished career at + Oxford, was appointed rector of Alton Barnes, Wiltshire. He died + prematurely at Rome in 1834. He was the author of _Sermons to a + Country Congregation_, published in 1837. + + + + +HARE, the name of the well-known English rodent now designated _Lepus +europaeus_ (although formerly termed, incorrectly, _L. timidus_). In a +wider sense the name includes all the numerous allied species which do +not come under the designation of rabbits (see RABBIT). Over the greater +part of Europe, where the ordinary species (fig. 1) does not occur, its +place is taken by the closely allied Alpine, or mountain hare (fig. 2), +the true _L. timidus_ of Linnaeus, and the type of the genus _Lepus_ and +the family _Leporidae_ (see RODENTIA). The second is a smaller animal +than the first, with a more rounded and relatively smaller head, and the +ears, hind-legs and tail shorter. In Ireland and the southern districts +of Sweden it is permanently of a light fulvous grey colour, with black +tips to the ears, but in more northerly districts the fur--except the +black ear-tips--changes to white in winter, and still farther north the +animal appears to be white at all seasons of the year. The range of the +common or brown hare, inclusive of its local races, extends from England +across southern and central Europe to the Caucasus; while that of the +blue or mountain species, likewise inclusive of local races, reaches +from Ireland, Scotland and Scandinavia through northern Europe and Asia +to Japan and Kamchatka, and thence to Alaska. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--The Hare (_Lepus europaeus_).] + +The brown hare is a night-feeding animal, remaining during the day on +its "form," as the slight depression is called which it makes in the +open field, usually among grass. This it leaves at nightfall to seek +fields of young wheat and other cereals whose tender herbage forms its +favourite food. It is also fond of gnawing the bark of young trees, and +thus often does great damage to plantations. In the morning it returns +to its form, where it finds protection in the close approach which the +colour of its fur makes to that of its surroundings; should it thus +fail, however, to elude observation it depends for safety on its +extraordinary fleetness. On the first alarm of danger it sits erect to +reconnoitre, when it either seeks concealment by clapping close to the +ground, or takes to flight. In the latter case its great speed, and the +cunning endeavours it makes to outwit its canine pursuers, form the +chief attractions of coursing. The hare takes readily to the water, +where it swims well; an instance having been recorded in which one was +observed crossing an arm of the sea about a mile in width. Hares are +remarkably prolific, pairing when scarcely a year old, and the female +bringing forth several broods in the year, each consisting of from two +to five leverets (from the Fr. _lievre_), as the young are called. These +are born covered with hair and with the eyes open, and after being +suckled for a month are able to look after themselves. In Europe this +species has seldom bred in confinement, although an instance has +recently been recorded. It will interbreed with the blue hare. Hares +(and rabbits) have a cosmopolitan distribution with the exception of +Madagascar and Australasia; and are now divided into numerous genera and +subgenera, mentioned in the article RODENTIA. Reference may here be made +to a few species. Asia is the home of numerous species, of which the +Common Indian _L. ruficaudatus_ and the black-necked hare _L. +nigricollis_, are inhabitants of the plains of India; the latter taking +its name from a black patch on the neck. In Assam there is a small spiny +hare (_Caprolagus hispidus_), with the habits of a rabbit; and an allied +species (_Nesolagus nitscheri_) inhabits Sumatra, and a third +(_Pentalagus furnessi_) the Liu-kiu Islands. The plateau of Tibet is +very rich in species, among which _L. hypsibius_ is very common. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--The Blue or Mountain Hare (_Lepus timidus_) in +winter dress.] + +Of African species, the Egyptian Hare (_L. aegyptius_) is a small +animal, with long ears and pale fur; and in the south there are the Cape +hare (_L. capensis_), the long-eared rock-hare (_L. saxatilis_) and the +diminutive _Pronolagus crassicaudatus_, characterized by its thick red +tail. + +North America is the home of numerous hares, some of which are locally +known as "cotton-tails" and others as "jack-rabbits." The most northern +are the Polar hare (_L. arcticus_), the Greenland hare (_L. +groenlandicus_) and the Alaska hare (_L. timidus tschuktschorum_), all +allied to the blue hare. Of the others, two, namely the large +prairie-hare (_L. campestris_) and the smaller varying hare (_L. +[Poecilolagus] americanus_), turn white in winter; the former having +long ears and the whole tail white, whereas in the latter the ears are +shorter and the upper surface of the tail is dark. Of those which do not +change colour, the wood-hare, grey-rabbit or cotton-tail, _Sylvilagus +floridanus_, is a southern form, with numerous allied kinds. Distantly +allied to the prairie-hare or white-tailed jack-rabbit, are several +forms distinguished by having a more or less distinct black stripe on +the upper surface of the tail. These include a buff-bellied species +found in California, N. Mexico and S.W. Oregon (_L. [Macrotolagus] +californicus_), a large, long-legged form from S. Arizona and Sonora +(_L. M alleni_), the Texan jack-rabbit (_L. M texanus_) and the +black-eared hare (_L. M melanotis_) of the Great Plains, which differs +from the third only by its shorter ears and richer coloration. In S. +America, the small tapiti or Brazilian hare (_Sylvilagus brasiliensis_) +is nearly allied to the wood-hare, but has a yellowish brown under +surface to the tail. + + See also COURSING. (R. L.*) + + + + +HAREBELL (sometimes wrongly written HAIRBELL), known also as the +blue-bell of Scotland, and witches' thimbles, a well-known perennial +wild flower, _Campanula rotundifolia_, a member of the natural order +Campanulaceae. The harebell has a very slender slightly creeping +root-stock, and a wiry, erect stem. The radical leaves, that is, those +at the base of the stem, to which the specific name _rotundifolia_ +refers, have long stalks, and are roundish or heart-shaped with crenate +or serrate margin; the lower stem leaves are ovate or lanceolate, and +the upper ones linear, subsessile, acute and entire, rarely pubescent. +The flowers are slightly drooping, arranged in a panicle, or in small +specimens single, having a smooth calyx, with narrow pointed erect +segments, the corolla bell-shaped, with slightly recurved segments, and +the capsule nodding, and opening by pores at the base. There are two +varieties:--(a) _genuina_, with slender stem leaves, and (b) +_montana_, in which the lower stem-leaves are broader and somewhat +elliptical in shape. The plant is found on heaths and pastures +throughout Great Britain and flowers in late summer and in autumn; it is +widely spread in the north temperate zone. The harebell has ever been a +great favourite with poets, and on account of its delicate blue colour +has been considered as an emblem of purity. + +[Illustration: Harebell (_Campanula rotundifolia_).] + + + + +HAREM, less frequently HARAM or HARIM (Arab _harim_--commonly but +wrongly pronounced harem--"that which is illegal or prohibited"), the +name generally applied to that part of a house in Oriental countries +which is set apart for the women; it is also used collectively for the +women themselves. Strictly the women's quarters are the _haremlik_ +(_lik_, belonging to), as opposed to _selamlik_ the men's quarters, from +which they are in large houses separated by the _mabein_, the private +apartments of the householder. The word _harem_ is strictly applicable +to Mahommedan households only, but the system is common in greater or +less degree to all Oriental communities, especially where polygamy is +permitted. Other names for the women's quarters are Seraglio (Ital. +_serraglio_, literally an enclosure, from Lat. _sera_, a bar; wrongly +narrowed down to the sense of harem through confusion with Turkish +_serai_ or _sarai_, palace or large building, cf. _caravanserai_); +Zenana (strictly _zanana_, from Persian _zan_, woman, allied with Gr. +[Greek: gyne]), used specifically of Hindu harems; Andarun (or +Anderoon), the Persian word for the "inner part" (_sc._ of a house). The +Indian harem system is also commonly known as _pardah_ or _purdah_, +literally the name of the thick curtains or blinds which are used +instead of doors to separate the women's quarters from the rest of the +house. A male doctor attending a zenana lady would put his hand between +the _purdah_ to feel her pulse. + +The seclusion of women in the household is fundamental to the Oriental +conception of the sex relation, and its origin must, therefore, be +sought far earlier than the precepts of Islam as set forth in the Koran, +which merely regulate a practically universal Eastern custom.[1] It is +inferred from the remains of many ancient Oriental palaces (Babylonian, +Persian, &c.) that kings and wealthy nobles devoted a special part of +the palace to their womankind. Though in comparatively early times there +were not wanting men who regarded polygamy as wrong (e.g. the prophets +of Israel), nevertheless in the East generally there has never been any +real movement against the conception of woman as a chattel of her male +relatives. A man may have as many wives and concubines as he can +support, but each of these women must be his exclusive property. The +object of this insistence upon female chastity is partly the maintenance +of the purity of the family with special reference to property, and +partly to protect women from marauders, as was the case with the people +of India when the Mahommedans invaded the country and sought for women +to fill their harems. In Mahommedan countries theoretically a woman must +veil her face to all men except her father, her brother and her husband; +any violation of this rule is still regarded by strict Mahommedans as +the gravest possible offence, though among certain Moslem communities +(e.g. in parts of Albania) women of the poorer classes may appear in +public unveiled. If any other man make his way into a harem he may lose +his life; the attempted escape of a harem woman is a capital offence, +the husband having absolute power of life and death, to such an extent +that, especially in the less civilized parts of the Moslem world, no one +would think of questioning a man's right to mutilate or kill a +disobedient wife or concubine. + +_Turkish Harems._--A good deal of misapprehension, due to ignorance +combined with strong prejudice against the whole system, exists in +regard to the system in Turkey. It is often assumed, for example, that +the sultan's seraglio is typical, though on a uniquely large scale, of +all Turkish households, and as a consequence that every Turk is a +polygamist. This is far from being the case, for though the Koran +permits four wives, and etiquette allows the sultan seven, the man of +average possessions is perforce content with one, and a small number of +female servants. It is, therefore, necessary to take the imperial +seraglio separately. + +Though the sultan's household in modern times is by no means as numerous +as it used to be, it is said that the harem of Abdul Hamid contained +about 1000 women, all of whom were of slave origin. This body of women +form an elaborately organized community with a complete system of +officers, disciplinary and administrative, and strict distinctions of +status. The real ruler of this society is the sultan's mother, the +_Sultana Valide_, who exercises her authority through a female +superintendent, the _Kyahya Khatun_. She has also a large retinue of +subordinate officials (_Kalfas_) ranging downwards from the _Hasnadar +ousta_ ("Lady of the Treasury") to the "Mistress of the Sherbets" and +the "Chief Coffee Server." Each of these officials has under her a +number of pupil-slaves (_alaiks_), whom she trains to succeed her if +need be, and from whom the service is recruited. After the sultana +valide (who frequently enjoys considerable political power and is a +mistress of intrigue) ranks the mother of the heir-apparent; she is +called the _Bash Kadin Effendi_ ("Her excellency the Chief Lady"), and +also _hasseki_ or _kasseky_, and is distinguished from the other three +chief wives who only bear the title _Kadin Effendi_. Next come the +ladies who have borne the younger children of the sultan, the _Hanum +Effendis_, and after them the so-called Odalisks or Odalisques (a +perversion of _odalik_, from _odah_, chamber). These are subdivided, +according to the degree of favour in which they stand with the sultan or +padishah, into _Ikbals_ ("Favourites") and _Geuzdes_ (literally the +"Eyed" ones), those whom the sultan has favourably noticed in the course +of his visits to the apartments of his wives or his mother. All the +women are at the disposal of the sultan, though it is contrary to +etiquette for him actually to select recruits for his harem. The numbers +are kept up by his female relatives and state officials, the latter of +whom present girls annually on the evening before the 15th of Ramadan. + +Every odalisk who has been promoted to the royal couch receives a +_daira_, consisting of an allowance of money, a suite of apartments, and +a retinue, in proportion to her status. It should be noted that, since +all the harem women are slaves, the sultans, with practically no +exceptions, have never entered into legal marriage contracts. Any slave, +in however menial a position, may be promoted to the position of a kadin +effendi. Hence all the slaves who have any pretension to beauty are +carefully trained, from the time they enter the harem, in deportment, +dancing, music and the arts of the toilette: they are instructed in the +Moslem religion and learn the daily prayers (_namaz_); a certain number +are specially trained in reading and writing for secretarial work. +Discipline is strict, and continued disobedience leads to corporal +punishment by the eunuchs. All the women of the harem are absolutely +under the control of the sultana valide (who alone of the harem of her +dead husband is not sent away to an older palace when her son succeeds), +and owe her the most profound respect, even to the point of having to +obtain permission to leave their own apartments. Her financial +secretary, the _Haznadar Ousta_, succeeds to her power if she dies. The +sultan's foster-mother also is a person of importance, and is known as +the _Taia Kadin_. + +The security of the harem is in the hands of a body of eunuchs both +black and white. The white eunuchs have charge of the outer gates of the +seraglio, but they are not allowed to approach the women's apartments, +and obtain no posts of distinction. Their chief, however, the _kapu +aghasi_ ("master of the gates") has part control over the ecclesiastical +possessions, and even the vizier cannot enter the royal apartments +without his permission. The black eunuchs have the right of entering the +gardens and chambers of the harem. Their chief, usually called the +_kislar aghasi_ ("master of the maidens"), though his true title is +_darus skadet aga_ ("chief of the abode of felicity"), is an official of +high importance. His appointment is for life. If he is deprived of his +post he receives his freedom; and if he resigns of his own accord he is +generally sent to Egypt with a pension of 100 francs a day. His +secretary keeps count of the revenues of the mosques built by the +sultans. He is usually succeeded by the second eunuch, who bears the +title of treasurer, and has charge of the jewels, &c., of the women. The +number of eunuchs is always a large one. The sultana valide and the +sultana hasseki have each fifty at their service, and others are +assigned to the kadins and the favourite odalisks. + +The ordinary middle-class household is naturally on a very different +scale. The _selamlik_ is on the ground floor with a separate entrance, +and there the master of the house receives his male guests; the rest of +the ground floor is occupied by the kitchen and perhaps the stables. The +_haremlik_ is generally (in towns at least) on the upper floor fronting +on and slightly overhanging the street; it has a separate entrance, +courtyard and garden. The windows are guarded by lattices pierced with +circular holes through which the women may watch without being seen. +Communication with the _haremlik_ is effected by a locked door, of which +the Effendi keeps the key and also by a sort of revolving cupboard +(_dutap_) for the conveyance of meals. The furniture, of the +old-fashioned harems at least, is confined to divans, rugs, carpets and +mirrors. For heating purposes the old brass tray of charcoal and wood +ash is giving way to American stoves, and there is a tendency to import +French furniture and decoration without regard to their suitability. + +The presence of a second wife is the exception, and is generally +attributable to the absence of children by the first wife. The expense +of marrying a free woman leads many Turks to prefer a slave woman who is +much more likely to be an amenable partner. If a slave woman bears a +child she is often set free and then the marriage ceremony is gone +through. + +The harem system is, of course, wholly inconsistent with any high ideal +of womanhood. Certain misapprehensions, however, should be noticed. The +depravity of the system and the vapid idleness of harem life are much +exaggerated by observers whose sympathies are wholly against the system. +In point of fact much depends on the individuals. In many households +there exists a very high degree of mutual consideration and the standard +of conduct is by no means degraded. Though a woman may not be seen in +the streets without the _yashmak_ which covers her face except for her +eyes, and does not leave her house except by her husband's permission, +none the less in ordinary households the harem ladies frequently drive +into the country and visit the shops and public baths. Their seclusion +has very considerable compensations, and legally they stand on a far +better basis in relation to their husbands than do the women of +monogamous Christian communities. From the moment when a woman, free or +slave, enters into any kind of wifely relation with a man, she has a +legally enforceable right against him both for her own and for her +children's maintenance. She has absolute control over her personal +property whether in money, slaves or goods; and, if divorce is far +easier in Islam than in Christendom, still the marriage settlement must +be of such amount as will provide suitable maintenance in that event. + +On the other hand, of course, the system is open to the gravest abuse, +and in countries like Persia, Morocco and India, the life of Moslem +women and slaves is often far different from that of middle class women +of European Turkey, where law is strict and culture advanced. The early +age at which girls are secluded, the dulness of their surroundings, and +the low moral standard which the system produces react unfavourably not +only upon their moral and intellectual growth but also upon their +capacity for motherhood and their general physique. A harem woman is +soon passee, and the lot of a woman past her youth, if she is divorced +or a widow, is monotonous and empty. This is true especially of +child-widows. + +Since the middle of the 19th century familiarity with European customs +and the direct influence of European administrators has brought about a +certain change in the attitude of Orientals to the harem system. This +movement is, however, only in its infancy, and the impression is still +strong that the time is not ripe for reform. The Oriental women are in +general so accustomed to their condition that few have any inclination +to change it, while men as a rule are emphatically opposed to any +alteration of the system. The Young Turkish party, the upper classes in +Egypt, as also the Babists in Persia, have to some extent progressed +beyond the orthodox conception of the status of women, but no radical +reform has been set on foot. + +_In India_ various attempts have been made by societies, missionary and +other, as well as by private individuals, to improve the lot of the +zenana women. Zenana schools and hospitals have been founded, and a few +women have been trained as doctors and lawyers for the special purposes +of protecting the women against their own ignorance and inertia. Thus in +1905 a Parsee Christian lady, Cornelia Sorabjee, was appointed by the +Bengal government as legal adviser to the court of wards, so that she +might give advice to the widowed mothers of minors within the harem +walls. Similarly trained medical women are introduced into zenanas and +harems by the Lady Dufferin Association for medical aid to Indian women. +Gradually native Christian churches are making provision for the +attendance of women at their services, though the sexes are rigorously +kept apart. In India, as in Turkey, the introduction of Western dress +and education has begun to create new ideas and ambitions, and not a few +Eastern women have induced English women to enter the harems as +companions, nurses and governesses. But training and environment are +extremely powerful, and in some parts of the Mahommedan world, the +supply of Asiatic, European and even American girls is so steady, that +reform has touched only the fringe of the system. + +Among the principal societies which have been formed to better the +condition of Indian and Chinese women in general with special reference +to the zenana system are the Church of England Zenana Missionary Society +and the Zenana Bible and Medical Mission. Much information as to the +medical, industrial and educational work done by these societies will be +found in their annual reports and other publications. Among these are J. +K. H. Denny's _Toward the Uprising_; Irene H. Barnes, _Behind the +Pardah_ (1897), an account of the former society's work; the general +condition of Indian women is described in Mrs Marcus B. Fuller's _Wrongs +of Indian Womanhood_ (1900), and Maud Dover's _The Englishwoman in +India_ (1909); see also article MISSIONS. + + AUTHORITIES.--The literature of the subject is very large, though a + great deal of it is naturally based on insufficient evidence, and + coloured by Western prepossessions. Among useful works are A. van + Sommer and Zwerner, _Our Moslem Sisters_ (1907), a collection of + essays by authors acquainted with various parts of the Mahommedan + world and strongly opposed to the whole harem system; Mrs W. M. + Ramsay, _Everyday Life in Turkey_ (1897), cc. iv. and v., containing + an account of a day in a harem near Afium-Kara-Hissar; cf. e.g. art. + "Harem" in Hughes, _Dictionary of Islam_; Mrs S. Harvey's _Turkish + Harems and Circassian Homes_ (1871); for Mahomet's regulations, see + R. Bosworth Smith's _Mohammed and Mohammedanism_ (1889); for Egypt, + Lane, _Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians_ (1837); and E. + Lott, _Harem Life in Egypt and Constantinople_ (1869); for the + sultan's household in the 18th century, Lady Wortley Montagu's + _Letters_, with which may be compared S. Lane-Poole, _Turkey_ (ed. + 1909); G. Dorys, _La Femme turque_ (1902); especially Lucy M. J. + Garnett (with J. S. Stuart-Glennie), _The Women of Turkey_ (London, + 1901), and _The Turkish People_ (London, 1909). For the attempts which + have been made to modify and improve the Indian zenana system, see + e.g. the reports of the Dufferin Association and other official + publications. Other information will be found in Hoffman's article in + Ersch and Gruber's _Encyclopadie_; Flandin in _Revue des deux mondes_ + (1852) on the harem of the Persian prince Malik Kasim Mirza; the count + de Beauvoir, in _Voyage round the World_ (1870), on Javanese and + Siamese harems; Hantzsche in _Zeitschrift fur allgemeine Erdkunde_ + (Berlin, 1864). (J. M. M.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] In Africa also, among the non-Mahommedan negroes of the west + coast and the Bahima of the Victoria Nyanza, the seclusion of women + of the upper classes has been practised in states (e.g. Ashanti and + Buganda) possessing a considerable degree of civilization. + + + + +HARFLEUR, a port of France in the department of Seine-Inferieure, about +6 m. E. of Havre by rail. Pop. (1906) 2864. It lies in the fertile +valley of the Lezarde, at the foot of wooded hills not far from the +north bank of the estuary of the Seine. The port, which had been +rendered almost inaccessible owing to the deposits of the Lezarde, again +became available on the opening of the Tancarville canal (1887) +connecting it with the port of Havre and with the Seine. Vessels drawing +18 ft. can moor alongside the quays of the new port, which is on a +branch of the canal, has some trade in coal and timber, and carries on +fishing. The church of St Martin is the most remarkable building in the +town, and its lofty stone steeple forms a landmark for the pilots of the +river. It dates from the 15th and 16th centuries, but the great portal +is the work of the 17th, and the whole has undergone modern restoration. +Of the old castle there are only insignificant ruins, near which, in a +fine park, stands the present castle, a building of the 17th century. +The old ramparts of the town are now replaced by manufactories, and the +fosses are transformed into vegetable gardens. There is a statue of Jean +de Grouchy, lord of Monterollier, under whose leadership the English +were expelled from the town in 1435. The industries include distilling, +metal founding and the manufacture of oil and grease. + +Harfleur is identified with _Caracotinum_, the principal port of the +ancient Calates. In the middle ages, when its name, Herosfloth, +Harofluet or Hareflot, was still sufficiently uncorrupted to indicate +its Norman derivation, it was the principal seaport of north-western +France. In 1415 it was captured by Henry V. of England, but when in 1435 +the people of the district of Caux rose against the English, 104 of the +inhabitants opened the gates of the town to the insurgents, and thus got +rid of the foreign yoke. The memory of the deed was long perpetuated by +the bells of St Martin's tolling 104 strokes. Between 1445 and 1449 the +English were again in possession; but the town was recovered for the +French by Dunois. In the 16th century the port began to dwindle in +importance owing to the silting up of the Seine estuary and the rise of +Havre. In 1562 the Huguenots put Harfleur to pillage, and its registers +and charters perished in the confusion; but its privileges were restored +by Charles IX. in 1568, and it was not till 1710 that it was subjected +to the "taille." + + + + +HARIANA, a tract of country in the Punjab, India, once the seat of a +flourishing Hindu civilization. It consists of a level upland plain, +interspersed with patches of sandy soil, and largely overgrown with +brushwood. The Western Jumna canal irrigates the fields of a large +number of its villages. Since the 14th century Hissar has been the local +capital. During the troubled period which followed on the decline of the +Mogul empire, Hariana formed the battlefield where the Mahrattas, +Bhattis and Sikhs met to settle their territorial quarrels. The whole +country was devastated by the famine of 1783. In 1797-1798 Hariana was +overrun by the famous Irish adventurer George Thomas, who established +his capital at Hansi; in 1801 he was dispossessed by Sindhia's French +general Perron; in 1803 Hariana passed under British rule. On the +conquest of the Punjab Hariana was broken up into the districts of +Hissar, Rohtak and Sirsa, which last has in its turn been divided +between Hissar and Ferozepore. + + + + +HARINGTON, SIR JOHN (1561-1612), English writer, was born at Kelston, +near Bath, in 1561. His father, John Harington, acquired considerable +estates by marrying Etheldreda, a natural daughter of Henry VIII., and +after his wife's death he was attached to the service of the Princess +Elizabeth. He married Isabella Markham, one of her ladies, and on Mary's +accession he and his wife were imprisoned in the Tower with the +princess. John, the son of the second marriage, was Elizabeth's godson. +He studied at Eton and at Christ's College, Cambridge, where he took the +degree of M.A., his tutor being John Still, afterwards bishop of Bath +and Wells, formerly reputed to be the author of _Gammer Gurton's +Needle_. He came up to London about 1583 and was entered at Lincoln's +Inn, but his talents marked him out for success at court rather than for +a legal career. Tradition relates that he translated the story of +Giocondo from Ariosto and was reproved by the queen for acquainting her +ladies with so indiscreet a selection. He was to retire to his seat at +Kelston until he completed the translation of the entire work. _Orlando +Furioso_ in English heroical verse was published in 1591 and reprinted +in 1607 and 1634. Harington was high sheriff of Somerset in 1592 and +received Elizabeth at his house during her western progress of 1591. In +1596 he published in succession _The Metamorphosis of Ajax_, _An +Anatomie of the Metamorphosed Ajax_, and _Ulysses upon Ajax_, the three +forming collectively a very absurd and indecorous work of a +Pantagruelistic kind. An allusion to Leicester in this book threw the +writer into temporary disgrace, but in 1598 he received a commission to +serve in Ireland under Essex. He was knighted on the field, to the +annoyance of Elizabeth. Harington saved himself from being involved in +Essex's disgrace by writing an account of the Irish campaign which +increased Elizabeth's anger against the unfortunate earl. Among some +papers found in the chapter library at York was a _Tract on the +Succession to the Crown_ (1602), written by Harington to secure the +favour of the new king, to whom he sent the gift of a lantern +constructed to symbolize the waning glory of the late queen and James's +own splendour. This pamphlet, which contains many details of great +interest about Elizabeth and gives an unprejudiced sketch of the +religious question, was edited for the Roxburghe Club in 1880 by Sir +Clements Markham. Harington's efforts to win favour at the new court +were unsuccessful. In 1605 he even asked for the office of chancellor of +Ireland and proposed himself as archbishop. The document in which he +preferred this extraordinary request was published in 1879 with the +title of _A Short View of the State of Ireland written in 1605_. +Harington was before his time in advocating a policy of generosity and +conciliation towards that country. He eventually succeeded in obtaining +a position as one of the tutors of Prince Henry, for whom he annotated +Francis Godwin's _De praesulibus Angliae_. Harington's grandson, John +Chetwind, found in this somewhat scandalous production an argument for +the Presbyterian side, and published it in 1653, under the title of _A +Briefe View of the State of the Church, &c._ + +Harington died at Kelston on the 20th of November 1612. His _Epigrams_ +were printed in a collection entitled _Alcilia_ in 1613, and separately +in 1615. The translation of the _Orlando Furioso_ was carried out with +skill and perseverance. It is not to be supposed that Harington failed +to realize the ironic quality of his original, but he treated it as a +serious allegory to suit the temper of Queen Elizabeth's court. He was +neither a very exact scholar nor a very poetical translator, and he +cannot be named in the same breath with Fairfax. The _Orlando Furioso_ +was sumptuously illustrated, and to it was prefixed an _Apologie of +Poetrie_, justifying the subject matter of the poem, and, among other +technical matters, the author's use of disyllabic and trisyllabic +rhymes, also a life of Ariosto compiled by Harington from various +Italian sources. Harington's Rabelaisian pamphlets show that he was +almost equally endowed with wit and indelicacy, and his epigrams are +sometimes smart and always easy. His works include _The Englishman's +Doctor, Or the School of Salerne_ (1608), and _Nugae antiquae_, +miscellaneous papers collected in 1779. + +_A biographical account of Harington is prefixed to the Roxburghe Club +edition of his tract on the succession mentioned above._ + + + + +HARIRI [Abu Mahommed ul-Qasim ibn 'Ali ibn Mahommed al-Hariri,] i.e. +"the manufacturer or seller of silk"] (1054-1122), Arabian writer, was +born at Basra. He owned a large estate with 18,000 date-palms at Mashan, +a village near Basra. He is said to have occupied a government position, +but devoted his life to the study of the niceties of the Arabic +language. On this subject he wrote a grammatical poem the _Mulhat +ul-'Irab_ (French trans. _Les Recreations grammaticales_ with notes by +L. Pinto, Paris 1885-1889; extracts in S. de Sacy's _Anthologie arabe_, +pp. 145-151, Paris, 1829); a work on the faults of the educated called +_Durrat ul-Ghawwas_ (ed. H. Thorbecke, Leipzig, 1871), and some smaller +treatises such as the two letters on words containing the letters _sin_ +and _shin_ (ed. in Arnold's _Chrestomathy_, pp. 202-9). But his fame +rests chiefly on his fifty _maqamas_ (see ARABIA: _Literature_, section +"Belles Lettres"). These were written in rhymed prose like those of +Hamadhani, and are full of allusions to Arabian history, poetry and +tradition, and discussions of difficult points of Arabic grammar and +rhetoric. + + The Maqamas have been edited with Arabic commentary by S. de Sacy + (Paris, 1822, 2nd ed. with French notes by Reinaud and J. Derenbourg, + Paris, 1853); with English notes by F. Steingass (London, 1896). An + English translation with notes was made by T. Preston (London, 1850), + and another by T. Chenery and F. Steingass (London, 1867 and 1898). + Many editions have been published in the East with commentaries, + especially with that of Sharishi (d. 1222). (G. W. T.) + + + + +HARI-RUD, a river of Afghanistan. It rises in the northern slopes of the +Koh-i-Baba to the west of Kabul, and finally loses itself in the Tejend +oasis north of the Trans-Caspian railway and west of Merv. It runs a +remarkably straight course westward through a narrow trough from +Daolatyar to Obeh, amidst the bleak wind-swept uplands of the highest +central elevations in Afghanistan. From Obeh to Kuhsan 50 m. west of +Herat, it forms a valley of great fertility, densely populated and +highly cultivated; practically all its waters being drawn off for +purposes of irrigation. It is the contrast between the cultivated aspect +of the valley of Herat and the surrounding desert that has given Herat +its great reputation for fertility. Three miles to the south of Herat +the Kandahar road crosses the river by a masonry bridge of 26 arches now +in ruins. A few miles below Herat the river begins to turn north-west, +and after passing through a rich country to Kuhsan, it turns due north +and breaks through the Paropamisan hills. Below Kuhsan it receives fresh +tributaries from the west. Between Kuhsan and Zulfikar it forms the +boundary between Afghanistan and Persia, and from Zulfikar to Sarakhs +between Russia and Persia. North of Sarakhs it diminishes rapidly in +volume till it is lost in the sands of the Turkman desert. The Hari-Rud +marks the only important break existing in the continuity of the great +central water-parting of Asia. It is the ancient Arius. (T. H. H.*) + + + + +HARISCHANDRA, in Hindu mythology, the 28th king of the Solar race. He +was renowned for his piety and justice. He is the central figure of +legends in the Aitareyabrahmana, Mahabharata and the Markandeyapurana. +In the first he is represented as so desirous of a son that he vows to +Varuna that if his prayer is granted the boy shall be eventually +sacrificed to the latter. The child is born, but Harischandra, after +many delays, arranges to purchase another's son and make a vicarious +sacrifice. According to the Mahabharata he is at last promoted to +Paradise as the reward for his munificent charity. + + + + +HARITH IBN HILLIZA UL-YASHKURI, pre-Islamic Arabian poet of the tribe of +Bakr, famous as the author of one of the poems generally received among +the Mo'allakat (q.v.). Nothing is known of the details of his life. + + + + +HARIZI, JUDAH BEN SOLOMON (13th cent.), called also al-Harizi, a Spanish +Hebrew poet and traveller. He translated from the Arabic to Hebrew some +of the works of Maimonides (q.v.) and also of the Arab poet Hariri. His +own most considerable work was the _Tahkemoni_, composed between 1218 +and 1220. This is written in Hebrew in unmetrical rhymes, in what is +commonly termed "rhymed prose." It is a series of humorous episodes, +witty verses, and quaint applications of Scriptural texts. The episodes +are bound together by the presence of the hero and of the narrator, who +is also the author. Harizi not only brought to perfection the art of +applying Hebrew to secular satire, but he was also a brilliant literary +critic and his _makame_ on the Andalusian Hebrew poets is a fruitful +source of information. + + See, on the _Tahkemoni_, Kaempf, _Nicht-andalusische Poesie + andalusischer Dichter_ (Prague, 1858). In that work a considerable + section of the _Tahkemoni_ is translated into German. (I. A.) + + + + +HARKNESS, ALBERT (1822-1907), American classical scholar, was born at +Mendon, Massachusetts, on the 6th of October 1822. He graduated at Brown +University in 1842, taught in the Providence high school in 1843-1853, +studied in Berlin, Bonn (where in 1854 he was the first American to +receive the degree of Ph.D.) and Gottingen, and was professor of Greek +language and literature in Brown University from 1855 to 1892, when he +became professor emeritus. He was one of the founders in 1869 of the +American Philological Association, of which he was president in +1875-1876, and to whose _Transactions_ he made various contributions; +was a member of the Archaeological Institute's committee on founding the +American School of Classical Studies at Athens, and served as the second +director of that school in 1883-1884. He studied English and German +university methods during trips to Europe in 1870 and 1883, and +introduced a new scholarly spirit into American teaching of Latin in +secondary schools with a series of Latin text-books, which began in 1851 +with a _First Latin Book_ and continued for more than fifty years. His +_Latin Grammar_ (1864, 1881) and _Complete Latin Grammar_ (1898) are his +best-known books. He was a member of the board of fellows of Brown +University from 1904 until his death, and in 1904-1905 was president of +the Rhode Island Historical Society. He died in Providence, Rhode +Island, on the 27th of May 1907. + +His son, ALBERT GRANGER HARKNESS (1857- ), also a classical scholar, +was born in Providence, Rhode Island, on the 19th of November 1857. He +graduated at Brown University in 1879, studied in Germany in 1879-1883, +and was professor of German and Latin at Madison (now Colgate) +University from 1883 to 1889, and associate professor of Latin at Brown +from 1889 to 1893, when he was appointed to the chair of Roman +literature and history there. He was director of the American School of +Classical Studies in Rome in 1902-1903. + + + + +HARKNESS, ROBERT (1816-1878), English geologist, was born at Ormskirk, +Lancashire, on the 28th of July 1816. He was educated at the high +school, Dumfries, and afterwards (1833-1834) at the university of +Edinburgh where he acquired an interest in geology from the teachings of +Robert Jameson and J. D. Forbes. Returning to Ormskirk he worked +zealously at the local geology, especially on the Coal-measures and New +Red Sandstone, his first paper (read before the Manchester Geol. Soc. in +1843) being on _The Climate of the Coal Epoch_. In 1848 his family went +to reside in Dumfries and there he commenced to work on the Silurian +rocks of the S.W. of Scotland, and in 1849 he carried his investigations +into Cumberland. In these regions during the next few years he added +much to our knowledge of the strata and their fossils, especially +graptolites, in papers read before the Geological Society of London. He +wrote also on the New Red rocks of the north of England and Scotland. In +1853 he was appointed professor of geology in Queen's College, Cork, and +in 1856 he was elected F.R.S. During this period he wrote some articles +on the geology of parts of Ireland, and exercised much influence as a +teacher, but he returned to England during his vacations and devoted +himself assiduously to the geology of the Lake district. He was also a +constant attendant at the meetings of the British Association. In 1876 +the syllabus for the Queen's Colleges in Ireland was altered, and +Professor Harkness was required to lecture not only on geology, +palaeontology, mineralogy and physical geography, but also on zoology +and botany. The strain of the extra work proved too much, he decided to +relinquish his post, and had retired but a short time when he died, on +the 4th of October 1878. + + "Memoir," by J. G. Goodchild, in _Trans. Cumberland Assoc._ No. viii. + (with portrait). In memory of Professor Harkness his sister + established two Harkness scholarships. One scholarship (of the value + of about L35 a year, tenable for three years) for women, tenable at + either Girton or Newnham College, Cambridge, is awarded triennially to + the best candidate in an examination in geology and palaeontology, + provided that proficiency be shown; the other, for men, is vested in + the hands of the university of Cambridge, and is awarded annually, any + member of the university being eligible who has graduated as a B.A., + "provided that not more than three years have elapsed since the 19th + day of December next following his final examination for the degree of + bachelor of arts." + + + + +HARLAN, JAMES (1820-1899), American politician, was born in Clark +county, Illinois, on the 26th of August 1820. He graduated from Indiana +Asbury (now De Pauw) University in 1845, was president (1846-1847) of +the newly founded and short-lived Iowa City College, studied law, was +first superintendent of public instruction in Iowa in 1847-1848, and was +president of Iowa Wesleyan University in 1853-1855. He took a prominent +part in organizing the Republican party in Iowa, and was a member of the +United States Senate from 1855 to 1865, when he became secretary of the +interior. He had been a delegate to the peace convention in 1861, and +from 1861 to 1865 was chairman of the Senate committee on public lands. +He disapproved of President Johnson's conservative reconstruction +policy, retired from the cabinet in August 1866, and from 1867 to 1873 +was again a member of the United States Senate. In 1866 he was a +delegate to the loyalists' convention at Philadelphia. One of his +principal speeches in the Senate was that which he made in March 1871 in +reply to Sumner's and Schurz's attack on President Grant's Santo +Domingan policy. He was presiding judge of the court of commissioners of +Alabama claims (1882-1885). He died in Mount Pleasant, Iowa, on the 5th +of October 1899. + + + + +HARLAN, JOHN MARSHALL (1833- ), American jurist, was born in Boyle +county, Kentucky, on the 1st of June 1833. He graduated at Centre +College, Danville, Ky., in 1850, and at the law department of +Transylvania University, Lexington, in 1853. He was county judge of +Franklin county in 1858-1859, was an unsuccessful candidate for Congress +on the Whig ticket in 1859, and was elector on the Constitutional Union +ticket in 1860. On the outbreak of the Civil War he recruited and +organized the Tenth Kentucky United States Volunteer Infantry, and in +1861-1863 served as colonel. Retiring from the army in 1863, he was +elected by the Union party attorney-general of the state, and was +re-elected in 1865, serving from 1863 to 1867, when he removed to +Louisville to practise law. He was the Republican candidate for governor +in 1871 and in 1875, and was a member of the commission which was +appointed by President Hayes early in 1877 to accomplish the recognition +of one or other of the existing state governments of Louisiana (q.v.); +and he was a member of the Bering Sea tribunal which met in Paris in +1893. On the 29th of November 1877 he became an associate justice of the +United States Supreme Court. In this position he showed himself a +liberal constructionist. In opinions on the Civil Rights cases and in +the interpretation of the 13th, 14th and 15th Amendments to the +Constitution, he dissented from the majority of the court and advocated +increasing the power of the Federal government. He supported the +constitutionality of the income tax clause in the Wilson Tariff Bill of +1894, and he drafted the decision of the court in the Northern +Securities Company Case, which applied to railways the provisions of the +Sherman Anti-Trust Law. In 1889 he became a professor in the Law School +of the Columbian University (afterwards George Washington University) in +Washington, D.C. + + + + +HARLAND, HENRY (1861-1905), American novelist, was born in St +Petersburg, Russia, in March 1861, and was educated in New York and at +Harvard. He went to Europe as a journalist, and, after publishing +several novels, mainly of American-Jewish life (under the name of Sidney +Luska), first made his literary reputation in London as editor of the +_Yellow Book_ in 1894. His association with this clever publication, and +his own contributions to it, brought his name into prominence, but it +was not till he published _The Cardinal's Snuff-box_ (1900), followed +by _The Lady Paramount_ (1902), that his lightly humorous touch and +picturesque style as a novelist brought him any real success. His health +was always delicate, and he died at San Remo on the 20th of December +1905. + + + + +HARLAY DE CHAMPVALLON, FRANCOIS DE (1625-1695), 5th archbishop of Paris, +was born in that city on the 14th of August 1625. Nephew of Francois de +Harlay, archbishop of Rouen, he was presented to the abbey of Jumieges +immediately on leaving the College de Navarre, and he was only +twenty-six when he succeeded his uncle in the archiepiscopal see. He was +transferred to the see of Paris in 1671, he was nominated by the king +for the cardinalate in 1690, and the domain of St Cloud was erected into +a duchy in his favour. He was commander of the order of the Saint Esprit +and a member of the French Academy. During the early part of his +political career he was a firm adherent of Mazarin, and is said to have +helped to procure his return from exile. His private life gave rise to +much scandal, but he had a great capacity for business, considerable +learning, and was an eloquent and persuasive speaker. He definitely +secured the favour of Louis XIV. by his support of the claims of the +Gallican Church formulated by the declaration made by the clergy in +assembly on the 19th of March 1682, when Bossuet accused him of +truckling to the court like a valet. One of the three witnesses of the +king's marriage with Madame de Maintenon, he was hated by her for using +his influence with the king to keep the matter secret. He had a weekly +audience of Louis XIV. in company with Pere la Chaise on the affairs of +the Church in Paris, but his influence gradually declined, and +Saint-Simon, who bore him no good will for his harsh attitude to the +Jansenists, says that his friends deserted him as the royal favour +waned, until at last most of his time was spent at Conflans in company +with the duchess of Lesdiguieres, who alone was faithful to him. He +urged the revocation of the edict of Nantes, and showed great severity +to the Huguenots at Dieppe, of which he was temporal and spiritual lord. +He died suddenly, without having received the sacraments, on the 6th of +August 1695. His funeral discourse was delivered by the Pere Gaillard, +and Mme de Sevigne made on the occasion the severe comment that there +were only two trifles to make this a difficult matter--his life and his +death. + + See Abbe Legendre, _Vita Francisci de Harlay_ (Paris, 1720) and _Eloge + de Harlay_ (1695); Saint-Simon, _Memoires_ (vol. ii., ed. A. de + Boislisle, 1879), and numerous references in the _Lettres_ of Mme de + Sevigne. + + + + +HARLECH (perhaps for _Hardd lech_, fair slate, or _Harleigh_, an +Anglicized variant), a town of Merionethshire, Wales, 38 m. from +Aberystwyth, and 29 from Carnarvon on the Cambrian railway. Pop. 900. +Ruins of a fortress crown the rock of Harlech, about half a mile from +the sea. Discovery of Roman coins makes it probable that it was once +occupied by the Romans. In the 3rd century Bronwen (white bosom), +daughter of Bran Fendigaid (the blessed), is said to have stayed here, +perhaps by force; and there was here a tower, called Twr Bronwen, and +replaced about A.D. 550 by the building of Maelgwyn Gwynedd, prince of +North Wales. In the early 10th century, Harlech castle was, apparently, +repaired by Colwyn, lord of Ardudwy, founder of one of the fifteen North +Wales tribes, and thence called Caer Colwyn. The present structure +dates, like many others in the principality, from Edward I., perhaps +even from the plans of the architect of Carnarvon and Conway castles, +but with the retention of old portions. It is thought to have been +square, each side measuring some 210 ft., with towers and turrets. +Glendower held it for four years. Here, in 1460, Margaret, wife of Henry +VI., defeated at Northampton, took refuge. Dafydd ap Ieuan ap Einion +held it for the Lancastrians, until famine, rather than Edward IV., made +him surrender. From this time is said to date the air "March of the men +of Harlech" (_Rhyfelgerdd gwyr Harlech_). The castle was alternately +Roundhead and Cavalier in the civil war. Edward I. made Harlech a free +borough, and it was formerly the county town. It is in the parish of +Llandanwg (pop. in 1901, 931). Though interesting from an antiquarian +point of view, the district around, especially Dyffryn Ardudwy (the +valley), is dreary and desolate, e.g. Drws (the door of) Ardudwy, +Rhinog fawr and Rhinog fach (cliffs); an exception is the verdant Cwm +bychan (little combe or hollow). The Meini gwyr Ardudwy (stones of the +men of Ardudwy) possibly mark the site of a fight. + + + + +HARLEQUIN, in modern pantomime, the posturing and acrobatic character +who gives his name to the "harlequinade," attired in mask and +parti-coloured and spangled tights, and provided with a sword like a +bat, by which, himself invisible, he works wonders. It has generally +been assumed that Harlequin was transferred to France from the +"Arlecchino" of Italian medieval and Renaissance popular comedy; but Dr +Driesen in his _Ursprung des Harlekins_ (Berlin, 1904) shows that this +is incorrect. An old French "Harlekin" (Herlekin, Hellequin and other +variants) is found in folk-literature as early as 1100; he had already +become proverbial as a ragamuffin of a demoniacal appearance and +character; in 1262 a number of harlekins appear in a play by Adam de la +Halle as the intermediaries of King Hellekin, prince of Fairyland, in +courting Morgan le Fay; and it was not till much later that the French +Harlekin was transformed into the Italian Arlecchino. In his typical +French form down to the time of Gottsched, he was a spirit of the air, +deriving thence his invisibility and his characteristically light and +aery whirlings. Subsequently he returned from the Italian to the French +stage, being imported by Marivaux into light comedy; and his various +attributes gradually became amalgamated into the latter form taken in +pantomime. + + + + +HARLESS (originally HARLES), GOTTLIEB CHRISTOPH (1738-1815), German +classical scholar and bibliographer, was born at Culmbach in Bavaria on +the 21st of June 1738. He studied at Halle, Erlangen and Jena. In 1765 +he was appointed professor of oriental languages and eloquence at the +Gymnasium Casimirianum in Coburg, in 1770 professor of poetry and +eloquence at Erlangen, and in 1776 librarian of the university. He held +his professorship for forty-five years till his death on the 2nd of +November 1815. Harless was an extremely prolific writer. His numerous +editions of classical authors, deficient in originality and critical +judgment, although valuable at the time as giving the student the +results of the labours of earlier scholars, are now entirely superseded. +But he will always be remembered for his meritorious work in connexion +with the great _Bibliotheca Graeca_ of J. A. Fabricius, of which he +published a new and revised edition (12 vols., 1790-1809, not quite +completed),--a task for which he was peculiarly qualified. He also wrote +much on the history and bibliography of Greek and Latin literature. + + His life was written by his son, Johann Christian Friedrich Harless + (1818). + + + + +HARLESS, GOTTLIEB CHRISTOPH ADOLF VON (1806-1879), German divine, was +born at Nuremberg on the 21st of November 1806, and was educated at the +universities of Erlangen and Halle. He was appointed professor of +theology at Erlangen in 1836 and at Leipzig in 1845. He was a strong +Lutheran and exercised a powerful influence in that direction as court +preacher in Dresden and as president of the Protestant consistory at +Munich. His chief works were _Theologische Encyklopadie und +Methodologie_ (1837) and _Die christliche Ethik_ (1842, Eng. trans. +1868). He died on the 5th of September 1879, having, a few years +earlier, written an autobiography under the title _Bruchstucke aus dem +Leben eines suddeutschen Theologen_. + + + + +HARLINGEN, a seaport in the province of Friesland, Holland, on the +Zuider Zee, and the terminus of the railway and canal from Leeuwarden +(15-1/2 m. E.). It is connected by steam tramway by way of Bolswaard +with Sneek. Pop. (1900) 10,448. Harlingen has become the most +considerable seaport of Friesland since the construction of the large +outer harbour in 1870-1877, and in addition to railway and steamship +connexion with Bremen, Amsterdam, and the southern provinces there are +regular sailings to Hull and London. Powerful sluices protect the inner +harbour from the high tides. The only noteworthy buildings are the town +hall (1730-1733), the West church, which consists of a part of the +former castle of Harlingen, the Roman Catholic church, the Jewish +synagogue and the schools of navigation and of design. The chief trade +of Harlingen is the exportation of Frisian produce, namely, butter and +cheese, cattle, sheep, fish, potatoes, flax, &c. There is also a +considerable import trade in timber, coal, raw cotton, hemp and jute for +the Twente factories. The local industries are unimportant, consisting +of saw-mills, rope-yards, salt refineries, and sail-cloth and margarine +factories. + + + + +HARMATTAN, the name of a hot dry parching wind that blows during +December, January and February on the coast of Upper Guinea, bringing a +high dense haze of red dust which darkens the air. The natives smear +their bodies with oil or fat while this parching wind is blowing. + + + + +HARMODIUS, a handsome Athenian youth, and the intimate friend of +Aristogeiton. Hipparchus, the younger brother of the tyrant Hippias, +endeavoured to supplant Aristogeiton in the good graces of Harmodius, +but, failing in the attempt, revenged himself by putting a public +affront on Harmodius's sister at a solemn festival. Thereupon the two +friends conspired with a few others to murder both the tyrants during +the armed procession at the Panathenaic festival (514 B.C.), when the +people were allowed to carry arms (this licence is denied by Aristotle +in _Ath. Pol._). Seeing one of their accomplices speaking to Hippias, +and imagining that they were being betrayed, they prematurely attacked +and slew Hipparchus alone. Harmodius was cut down on the spot by the +guards, and Aristogeiton was soon captured and tortured to death. When +Hippias was expelled (510), Harmodius and Aristogeiton became the most +popular of Athenian heroes; their descendants were exempted from public +burdens, and had the right of public entertainment in the Prytaneum, and +their names were celebrated in popular songs and scolia (after-dinner +songs) as the deliverers of Athens. One of these songs, attributed to a +certain Callistratus, is preserved in Athenaeus (p. 695). Their statues +by Antenor in the agora were carried off by Xerxes and replaced by new +ones by Critius and Nesiotes. Alexander the Great afterwards sent back +the originals to Athens. It is not agreed which of these was the +original of the marble tyrannicide group in the museum at Naples, for +which see article GREEK ART, Pl. I. fig. 50. + + See Kopp in _Neue Jahrb. f. klass. Altert._ (1902), p. 609. + + + + +HARMONIA, in Greek mythology, according to one account the daughter of +Ares and Aphrodite, and wife of Cadmus. When the government of Thebes +was bestowed upon Cadmus by Athena, Zeus gave him Harmonia to wife. All +the gods honoured the wedding with their presence. Cadmus (or one of the +gods) presented the bride with a robe and necklace, the work of +Hephaestus. This necklace brought misfortune to all who possessed it. +With it Polyneices bribed Eriphyle to persuade her husband Amphiaraus to +undertake the expedition against Thebes. It led to the death of +Eriphyle, of Alcmaeon, of Phegeus and his sons. Even after it had been +deposited in the temple of Athena Pronoia at Delphi, its baleful +influence continued. Phayllus, one of the Phocian leaders in the Sacred +War (352 B.C.) carried it off and gave it to his mistress. After she had +worn it for a time, her son was seized with madness and set fire to the +house, and she perished in the flames. According to another account, +Harmonia belonged to Samothrace and was the daughter of Zeus and +Electra, her brother Iasion being the founder of the mystic rites +celebrated on the island (Diod. Sic. v. 48). Finally, Harmonia is +rationalized as closely allied to Aphrodite Pandemos, the love that +unites all people, the personification of order and civic unity, +corresponding to the Roman Concordia. + + Apollodorus iii. 4-7; Diod. Sic. iv. 65, 66; Parthenius, _Erotica_, + 25; L. Preller, _Griech. Mythol._; Crusius in Roscher's _Lexikon_. + + + + +HARMONIC. In acoustics, a harmonic is a secondary tone which accompanies +the fundamental or primary tone of a vibrating string, reed, &c.; the +more important are the 3rd, 5th, 7th, and octave (see SOUND; HARMONY). A +harmonic proportion in arithmetic and algebra is such that the +reciprocals of the proportionals are in arithmetical proportion; thus, +if a, b, c be in harmonic proportion then 1/a, 1/b, 1/c are in +arithmetical proportion; this leads to the relation 2/b = ac/(a + c). A +harmonic progression or series consists of terms whose reciprocals form +an arithmetical progression; the simplest example is: 1 + 1/2 + 1/3 + +1/4 + ... (see ALGEBRA and ARITHMETIC). The occurrence of a similar +proportion between segments of lines is the foundation of such phrases +as harmonic section, harmonic ratio, harmonic conjugates, &c. (see +GEOMETRY: II. _Projective_). The connexion between acoustical and +mathematical harmonicals is most probably to be found in the Pythagorean +discovery that a vibrating string when stopped at 1/2 and 2/3 of its +length yielded the octave and 5th of the original tone, the numbers, +1-2/3, 1/2 being said to be, probably first by Archytas, in harmonic +proportion. The mathematical investigation of the form of a vibrating +string led to such phrases as harmonic curve, harmonic motion, harmonic +function, harmonic analysis, &c. (see MECHANICS and SPHERICAL +HARMONICS). + + + + +HARMONICA, a generic term applied to musical instruments in which sound +is produced by friction upon glass bells. The word is also used to +designate instruments of percussion of the Glockenspiel type, made of +steel and struck by hammers (Ger. _Stahlharmonika_). + +The origin of the glass-harmonica tribe is to be found in the +fashionable 18th century instrument known as musical glasses (Fr. +_verrillon_), the principle of which was known already in the 17th +century.[1] The invention of musical glasses is generally ascribed to an +Irishman, Richard Pockrich, who first played the instrument in public in +Dublin in 1743 and the next year in England, but Eisel[2] described the +_verrillon_ and gave an illustration of it in 1738. The _verrillon_ or +_Glassspiel_ consisted of 18 beer glasses arranged on a board covered +with cloth, water being poured in when necessary to alter the pitch. The +glasses were struck on both sides gently with two long wooden sticks in +the shape of a spoon, the bowl being covered with silk or cloth. Eisel +states that the instrument was used for church and other solemn music. +Gluck gave a concert at the "little theatre in the Haymarket" (London) +in April 1746, at which he performed on musical glasses a concerto of +his composition with full orchestral accompaniment. E. H. Delaval is +also credited with the invention. When Benjamin Franklin visited London +in 1757, he was so much struck by the beauty of tone elicited by Delaval +and Pockrich, and with the possibilities of the glasses as musical +instruments, that he set to work on a mechanical application of the +principle involved, the eminently successful result being the glass +harmonica finished in 1762. In this the glass bowls were mounted on a +rotating spindle, the largest to the left, and their under-edges passed +during each revolution through a water-trough. By applying the fingers +to the moistened edges, sound was produced varying in intensity with the +pressure, so that a certain amount of expression was at the command of a +good player. It is said that the timbre was extremely enervating, and, +together with the vibration caused by the friction on the finger-tips, +exercised a highly deleterious effect on the nervous system. The +instrument was for many years in great vogue, not only in England but on +the Continent of Europe, and more especially in Saxony, where it was +accorded a place in the court orchestra. Mozart, Beethoven, Naumann and +Hasse composed music for it. Marianne Davies and Marianna Kirchgessner +were celebrated virtuosi on it. The curious vogue of the instrument, as +sudden as it was ephemeral, produced emulation in a generation +unsurpassed for zeal in the invention of musical instruments. The most +notable of its offspring were Carl Leopold Rollig's improved harmonica +with a keyboard in 1786, Chladni's euphon in 1791 and clavicylinder in +1799, Ruffelsen's melodicon in 1800 and 1803, Franz Leppich's +panmelodicon in 1810, Buschmann's uranion in the same year, &c. Of most +of these nothing now remains but the name and a description in the +_Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung_, but there are numerous specimens of +the Franklin type in the museums for musical instruments of Europe. One +specimen by Emanuel Pohl, a Bohemian maker, is preserved in the Victoria +and Albert Museum, London. + + For the steel harmonica see GLOCKENSPIEL. (K. S.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See G. P. Harsdorfer, _Math. und philos. Erquickstunden_ + (Nuremberg, 1677), ii. 147. + + [2] _Musicus_ [Greek: autodidaktos] (Erfurt, 1738), p. 70. + + + + +HARMONIC ANALYSIS, in mathematics, the name given by Sir William Thomson +(Lord Kelvin) and P. G. Tait in their treatise on _Natural Philosophy_ +to a general method of investigating physical questions, the earliest +applications of which seem to have been suggested by the study of the +vibrations of strings and the analysis of these vibrations into their +fundamental tone and its harmonics or overtones. + +The motion of a uniform stretched string fixed at both ends is a +periodic motion; that is to say, after a certain interval of time, +called the fundamental period of the motion, the form of the string and +the velocity of every part of it are the same as before, provided that +the energy of the motion has not been sensibly dissipated during the +period. + + There are two distinct methods of investigating the motion of a + uniform stretched string. One of these may be called the wave method, + and the other the harmonic method. The wave method is founded on the + theorem that in a stretched string of infinite length a wave of any + form may be propagated in either direction with a certain velocity, V, + which we may define as the "velocity of propagation." If a wave of any + form travelling in the positive direction meets another travelling in + the opposite direction, the form of which is such that the lines + joining corresponding points of the two waves are all bisected in a + fixed point in the line of the string, then the point of the string + corresponding to this point will remain fixed, while the two waves + pass it in opposite directions. If we now suppose that the form of the + waves travelling in the positive direction is periodic, that is to + say, that after the wave has travelled forward a distance l, the + position of every particle of the string is the same as it was at + first, then l is called the wave-length, and the time of travelling a + wave-length is called the periodic time, which we shall denote by T, + so that l = VT. + + If we now suppose a set of waves similar to these, but reversed in + position, to be travelling in the opposite direction, there will be a + series of points, distant 1/2l from each other, at which there will be + no motion of the string; it will therefore make no difference to the + motion of the string if we suppose the string fastened to fixed + supports at any two of these points, and we may then suppose the parts + of the string beyond these points to be removed, as it cannot affect + the motion of the part which is between them. We have thus arrived at + the case of a uniform string stretched between two fixed supports, and + we conclude that the motion of the string may be completely + represented as the resultant of two sets of periodic waves travelling + in opposite directions, their wave-lengths being either twice the + distance between the fixed points or a submultiple of this + wave-length, and the form of these waves, subject to this condition, + being perfectly arbitrary. + + To make the problem a definite one, we may suppose the initial + displacement and velocity of every particle of the string given in + terms of its distance from one end of the string, and from these data + it is easy to calculate the form which is common to all the travelling + waves. The form of the string at any subsequent time may then be + deduced by calculating the positions of the two sets of waves at that + time, and compounding their displacements. + + Thus in the wave method the actual motion of the string is considered + as the resultant of two wave motions, neither of which is of itself, + and without the other, consistent with the condition that the ends of + the string are fixed. Each of the wave motions is periodic with a + wave-length equal to twice the distance between the fixed points, and + the one set of waves is the reverse of the other in respect of + displacement and velocity and direction of propagation; but, subject + to these conditions, the form of the wave is perfectly arbitrary. The + motion of a particle of the string, being determined by the two waves + which pass over it in opposite directions, is of an equally arbitrary + type. + + In the harmonic method, on the other hand, the motion of the string is + regarded as compounded of a series of vibratory motions (_normal + modes_ of vibration), which may be infinite in number, but each of + which is perfectly definite in type, and is in fact a particular + solution of the problem of the motion of a string with its ends fixed. + + A simple harmonic motion is thus defined by Thomson and Tait (S + 53):--When a point Q moves uniformly in a circle, the perpendicular + QP, drawn from its position at any instant to a fixed diameter AA' of + the circle, intersects the diameter in a point P whose position + changes by a _simple harmonic motion_. + + The amplitude of a simple harmonic motion is the range on one side or + the other of the middle point of the course. + + The period of a simple harmonic motion is the time which elapses from + any instant until the moving-point again moves in the same direction + through the same position. + + The phase of a simple harmonic motion at any instant is the fraction + of the whole period which has elapsed since the moving-point last + passed through its middle position in the positive direction. + + In the case of the stretched string, it is only in certain particular + cases that the motion of a particle of the string is a simple harmonic + motion. In these particular cases the form of the string at any + instant is that of a curve of sines having the line joining the fixed + points for its axis, and passing through these two points, and + therefore having for its wave-length either twice the length of the + string or some submultiple of this wave-length. The amplitude of the + curve of sines is a simple harmonic function of the time, the period + being either the fundamental period or some submultiple of the + fundamental period. Every one of these modes of vibration is + dynamically possible by itself, and any number of them may coexist + independently of each other. + + By a proper adjustment of the initial amplitude and phase of each of + these modes of vibration, so that their resultant shall represent the + initial state of the string, we obtain a new representation of the + whole motion of the string, in which it is seen to be the resultant of + a series of simple harmonic vibrations whose periods are the + fundamental period and its submultiples. The determination of the + amplitudes and phases of the several simple harmonic vibrations so as + to satisfy the initial conditions is an example of harmonic analysis. + + We have thus two methods of solving the partial differential equation + of the motion of a string. The first, which we have called the wave + method, exhibits the solution in the form containing an arbitrary + function, the nature of which must be determined from the initial + conditions. The second, or harmonic method, leads to a series of terms + involving sines and cosines, the coefficients of which have to be + determined. The harmonic method may be defined in a more general + manner as a method by which the solution of any actual problem may be + obtained as the sum or resultant of a number of terms, each of which + is a solution of a particular case of the problem. The nature of these + particular cases is defined by the condition that any one of them must + be conjugate to any other. + + The mathematical test of conjugacy is that the energy of the system + arising from two of the harmonics existing together is equal to the + sum of the energy arising from the two harmonics taken separately. In + other words, no part of the energy depends on the product of the + amplitudes of two different harmonics. When two modes of motion of the + same system are conjugate to each other, the existence of one of them + does not affect the other. + + The simplest case of harmonic analysis, that of which the treatment of + the vibrating string is an example, is completely investigated in what + is known as Fourier's theorem. + + Fourier's theorem asserts that any periodic function of a single + variable period p, which does not become infinite at any phase, can be + expanded in the form of a series consisting of a constant term, + together with a double series of terms, one set involving cosines and + the other sines of multiples of the phase. + + Thus if [phi]([xi]) is a periodic function of the variable [xi] having + a period p, then it may be expanded as follows: + + __[oo] 2i[pi][xi] __[oo] 2i[pi][xi] + [phi]([xi]) = A0 + \ ^i A_i cos ---------- + \ ^i B_i sin ----------. (1) + /__1 p /__1 p + + + The part of the theorem which is most frequently required, and which + also is the easiest to investigate, is the determination of the values + of the coefficients A0, A_i, B_i. These are + _ _ + 1 /p 2 /p 2i[pi][xi] + A0 = -- | [phi]([xi])d[xi]; A_i = -- | [phi]([xi]) cos ---------- d[xi]; + p _/0 p _/0 p + _ + 2 /p 2i[pi][xi] + B_i = -- | [phi]([xi]) sin ---------- d[xi]. + p _/0 p + + This part of the theorem may be verified at once by multiplying both + sides of (1) by d[xi], by cos (2i[pi][xi]/p)/d[xi] or by sin + (2i[pi][xi]/p)/d[xi], and in each case integrating from 0 to p. + + The series is evidently single-valued for any given value of [xi]. It + cannot therefore represent a function of [xi] which has more than one + value, or which becomes imaginary for any value of [xi]. It is + convergent, approaching to the true value of [phi]([xi]) for all + values of [xi] such that if [xi] varies infinitesimally the function + also varies infinitesimally. + + Lord Kelvin, availing himself of the disk, globe and cylinder + integrating machine invented by his brother, Professor James Thomson, + constructed a machine by which eight of the integrals required for the + expression of Fourier's series can be obtained simultaneously from the + recorded trace of any periodically variable quantity, such as the + height of the tide, the temperature or pressure of the atmosphere, or + the intensity of the different components of terrestrial magnetism. If + it were not on account of the waste of time, instead of having a curve + drawn by the action of the tide, and the curve afterwards acted on by + the machine, the time axis of the machine itself might be driven by a + clock, and the tide itself might work the second variable of the + machine, but this would involve the constant presence of an expensive + machine at every tidal station. (J. C. M.) + + For a discussion of the restrictions under which the expansion of a + periodic function of [xi] in the form (1) is valid, see FOURIER'S + SERIES. An account of the contrivances for mechanical calculation of + the coefficients A_i, B_i ... is given under CALCULATING MACHINES. + + A more general form of the problem of harmonic analysis presents + itself in astronomy, in the theory of the tides, and in various + magnetic and meteorological investigations. It may happen, for + instance, that a variable quantity [f](t) is known theoretically to be + of the form + + [f](t) = A0 + A1 cos n1t + B1 sin n1t + A2 cos n2t + B2 sin n2t + ... (2) + + where the periods 2[pi]/n1, 2[pi]/n2, ... of the various + simple-harmonic constituents are already known with sufficient + accuracy, although they may have no very simple relations to one + another. The problem of determining the most probable values of the + constants A0, A1, B1, A2, B2, ... by means of a series of recorded + values of the function [f](t) is then in principle a fairly simple + one, although the actual numerical work may be laborious (see TIDE). A + much more difficult and delicate question arises when, as in various + questions of meteorology and terrestrial magnetism, the periods + 2[pi]/n1, 2[pi]/n2, ... are themselves unknown to begin with, or are + at most conjectural. Thus, it may be desired to ascertain whether the + magnetic declination contains a periodic element synchronous with the + sun's rotation on its axis, whether any periodicities can be detected + in the records of the prevalence of sun-spots, and so on. From a + strictly mathematical standpoint the problem is, indeed, + indeterminate, for when all the symbols are at our disposal, the + representation of the observed values of a function, over a finite + range of time, by means of a series of the type (2), can be effected + in an infinite variety of ways. Plausible inferences can, however, be + drawn, provided the proper precautions are observed. This question has + been treated most systematically by Professor A. Schuster, who has + devised a remarkable mathematical method, in which the action of a + diffraction-grating in sorting out the various periodic constituents + of a heterogeneous beam of light is closely imitated. He has further + applied the method to the study of the variations of the magnetic + declination, and of sun-spot records. + + The question so far chiefly considered has been that of the + representation of an arbitrary function of the _time_ in terms of + functions of a special type, viz. the circular functions cos nt, sin + nt. This is important on dynamical grounds; but when we proceed to + consider the problem of expressing an arbitrary function of + _space-co-ordinates_ in terms of functions of specified types, it + appears that the preceding is only one out of an infinite variety of + modes of representation which are equally entitled to consideration. + Every problem of mathematical physics which leads to a linear + differential equation supplies an instance. For purposes of + illustration we will here take the simplest of all, viz. that of the + transversal vibrations of a tense string. The equation of motion is of + the form + + [dP]^2y [dP]^2y + [rho] ------- = T -------, (3) + [dP]t^2 [dP]x^2 + + where T is the tension, and [rho] the line-density. In a "normal mode" + of vibration y will vary as e^(int), so that + + [dP]^2y + ------- + k^2y = 0, (4) + [dP]x^2 + + where + + k^2 = n^2[rho]/T. (5) + + If [rho], and therefore k, is constant, the solution of (4) subject to + the condition that y = 0 for x = 0 and x = l is + + y = B sin kx (6) + + provided + + kl = s[pi], [s = 1, 2, 3, ...]. (7) + + This determines the various _normal modes_ of free vibration, the + corresponding periods (2[pi]/n) being given by (5) and (7). By analogy + with the theory of the free vibrations of a system of _finite_ freedom + it is inferred that the most general free motions of the string can be + obtained by superposition of the various normal modes, with suitable + amplitudes and phases; and in particular that any arbitrary initial + form of the string, say y = [f](x), can be reproduced by a series of + the type + + [pi]x 2[pi]x 3[pi]x + [f](x) = B1 sin ----- + B2 sin ------ + B3 sin ------ + ... (8) + l l l + + So far, this is merely a restatement, in mathematical language, of an + argument given in the first part of this article. The series (8) may, + moreover, be arrived at otherwise, as a particular case of Fourier's + theorem. But if we no longer assume the density [rho] of the string to + be uniform, we obtain an endless variety of new expansions, + corresponding to the various laws of density which may be prescribed. + The normal modes are in any case of the type + + y = Cu(x) e^(int) (9) + + where u is a solution of the equation + + d^2u n^2[rho] + ---- + -------- u = 0. (10) + dx^2 T + + The condition that u(x) is to vanish for x = 0 and x = l leads to a + transcendental equation in n (corresponding to sin kl = 0 in the + previous case). If the forms of u(x) which correspond to the various + roots of this be distinguished by suffixes, we infer, on physical + grounds alone, the possibility of the expansion of an arbitrary + initial form of the string in a series + + [f](x) = C1u1(x) + C2u2(x) + C3u3(x)+ ... (11) + + It may be shown further that if r and s are different we have the + _conjugate_ or _orthogonal_ relation + _ + /l + | [rho] u_r(x) u_s(x) dx = 0. (12) + _/0 + + This enables us to determine the coefficients, thus + _ _ + /l / /l + C_r = | [rho][f](x)u_r(x) dx / | [rho] {u_r(x)}^2 dx. (13) + _/0 / _/0 + + The extension to spaces of two or three dimensions, or to cases where + there is more than one dependent variable, must be passed over. The + mathematical theories of acoustics, heat-conduction, elasticity, + induction of electric currents, and so on, furnish an indefinite + supply of examples, and have suggested in some cases methods which + have a very wide application. Thus the transverse vibrations of a + circular membrane lead to the theory of Bessel's Functions; the + oscillations of a spherical sheet of air suggest the theory of + expansions in spherical harmonics, and so forth. The physical, or + intuitional, theory of such methods has naturally always been in + advance of the mathematical. From the latter point of view only a few + isolated questions of the kind had, until quite recently, been treated + in a rigorous and satisfactory manner. A more general and + comprehensive method, which seems to derive some of its inspiration + from physical considerations, has, however, at length been + inaugurated, and has been vigorously cultivated in recent years by D. + Hilbert, H. Poincare, I. Fredholm, E. Picard and others. + + REFERENCES.--Schuster's method for detecting hidden periodicities is + explained in _Terrestrial Magnetism_ (Chicago, 1898), 3, p. 13; _Camb. + Trans._ (1900), 18, p. 107; _Proc. Roy. Soc._ (1906), 77, p. 136. The + general question of expanding an arbitrary function in a series of + functions of special types is treated most fully from the physical + point of view in Lord Rayleigh's _Theory of Sound_ (2nd ed., London, + 1894-1896). An excellent detailed historical account of the matter + from the mathematical side is given by H. Burkhardt, _Entwicklungen + nach oscillierenden Funktionen_ (Leipzig, 1901). A sketch of the more + recent mathematical developments is given by H. Bateman, _Proc. Lond. + Math. Soc._ (2), 4, p. 90, with copious references. (H. Lb.) + + + + +HARMONICHORD, an ingenious kind of upright piano, in which the strings +were set in vibration not by the blow of the hammer but by indirectly +transmitted friction. The harmonichord, one of the many attempts to fuse +piano and violin, was invented by Johann Gottfried and Johann Friedrich +Kaufmann (father and son) in Saxony at the beginning of the 19th +century, when the craze for new and ingenious musical instruments was at +its height. The case was of the variety known as _giraffe_. The space +under the keyboard was enclosed, a knee-hold being left in which were +two pedals used to set in rotation a large wooden cylinder fixed just +behind the keyboard over the levers, and covered with a roll-top similar +to those of modern office desks. The cylinder (in some specimens covered +with chamois leather) tapered towards the treble-end. When a key was +depressed, a little tongue of wood, one end of which stopped the string, +was pressed against the revolving cylinder, and the vibrations produced +by friction were transmitted to the string and reinforced as in piano +and violin by the soundboard. The adjustment of the parts and the +velocity of the cylinder required delicacy and great nicety, for if the +little wooden tongues rested too lightly upon the cylinder or the +strings, harmonics were produced, and the note jumped to the octave or +twelfth. Sometimes when chords were played the touch became so heavy +that two performers were required, as in the early medieval organistrum, +the prototype of the harmonichord. Carl Maria von Weber must have had +some opinion of the possibilities of the harmonichord, which in tone +resembled the glass harmonica, since he composed for it a concerto with +orchestral accompaniment. (K. S.) + + + + +HARMONIUM (Fr. _harmonium_, _orgue expressif_; Ger. _Physharmonika_, +_Harmonium_), a wind keyboard instrument, a small organ without pipes, +furnished with free reeds. Both the harmonium and its later development, +the American organ, are known as free-reed instruments, the musical +tones being produced by tongues of brass, technically termed "vibrators" +(Fr. _anche libre_; Ger. _durchschlagende Zunge_; Ital. _ancia_ or +_lingua libera_). The vibrator is fixed over an oblong, rectangular +frame, through which it swings freely backwards and forwards like a +pendulum while vibrating, whereas the beating reeds (similar to those of +the clarinet family), used in church organs, cover the entire orifice, +beating against the sides at each vibration. A reed or vibrator, set in +periodic motion by impact of a current of air, produces a corresponding +succession of air puffs, the rapidity of which determines the pitch of +the musical note. There is an essential difference between the harmonium +and the American organ in the direction of this current; in the former +the wind apparatus forces the current upwards, and in the latter sucks +it downwards, whence it becomes desirable to separate in description +these varieties of free-reed instruments. + +[Illustration: By courtesy of Metzler & Co. + +FIG. 1.--Free Reed Vibrator, Alexandre Harmonium.] + + The _harmonium_ has a keyboard of five octaves compass when complete, + [musical notes], and a simple action controlling the valves, &c. The + necessary pressure of wind is generated by bellows worked by the feet + of the performer upon foot-boards or treadles. The air is thus forced + up the wind-trunks into an air-chamber called the wind-chest, the + pressure of it being equalized by a reservoir, which receives the + excess of wind through an aperture, and permits escape, when above a + certain pressure, by a discharge valve or pallet. The aperture + admitting air to the reservoir may be closed by a drawstop named + "expression." The air being thus cut off, the performer depends for + his supply entirely upon the management of the bellows worked by the + treadles, whereby he regulates the compression of the wind. The + character of the instrument is then entirely changed from a mechanical + response to the player's touch to an expressive one, rendering what + emotion may be communicated from the player by increase or diminution + of sound through the greater or less pressure of wind to which the + reeds may be submitted. The drawstops bearing the names of the + different registers in imitation of the organ, admit, when drawn, the + wind from the wind-chest to the corresponding reed compartments, + shutting them off when closed. These compartments are of about two + octaves and a half each, there being a division in the middle of the + keyboard scale dividing the stops into bass and treble. A stop being + drawn and a key pressed down, wind is admitted by a corresponding + valve to a reed or vibrator (fig. 1). Above each reed in the so-called + sound-board or pan is a channel, a small air-chamber or cavity, the + shape and capacity of which have greatly to do with the colour of tone + of the note it reinforces. The air in this resonator is highly + compressed at an even or a varying pressure as the expression-stop may + not be or may be drawn. The wind finally escapes by a small + pallet-hole opened by pressing down the corresponding key. In Mustel + and other good harmoniums, the reed compartments that form the scheme + of the instrument are eight in number, four bass and four treble, of + three different pitches of octave and double octave distance. The + front bass and treble rows are the "diapason" of the pitch known as 8 + ft., and the bourdon (double diapason), 16 ft. These may be regarded + as the foundation stops, and are technically the front organ. The back + organ has solo and combination stops, the principal of 4 ft. (octave + higher than diapason), and bassoon (bass) and oboe (treble), 8 ft. + These may be mechanically combined by a stop called full organ. The + French maker, Mustel, added other registers for much-admired effects + of tone, viz. "harpe eolienne," two bass rows of 2 ft. pitch, the one + tuned a beat too sharp, the other a beat too flat, to produce a waving + tremulous tone that has a certain charm; "musette" and "voix celeste," + 16 ft.; and "baryton," a treble stop 32 ft., or two octaves lower than + the normal note of the key. The "back organ" is usually covered by a + swell box, containing louvres or shutters similar to a Venetian blind, + and divided into fortes corresponding with the bass and treble + division of the registers. The fortes are governed by knee pedals + which act by pneumatic pressure. Tuning the reeds is effected by + scraping them at the point to sharpen them, or near the shoulder or + heel to flatten them in pitch. Air pressure affects the pitch but + slightly, being noticeable only in the larger reeds, and harmoniums + long retain their tuning, a decided advantage over the organ and the + pianoforte. Mechanical contrivances in the harmonium, of frequent or + occasional employment, besides those already referred to, are the + "percussion," a small pianoforte action of hammer and escapement + which, acting upon the reeds of the diapason rows at the moment air is + admitted to them, gives prompter response to the depression of the + key, or quicker speech; the "double expression," a pneumatic balance + of great delicacy in the wind reservoir, exactly maintaining by + gradation equal pressure of the wind; and the "double touch," by which + the back organ registers speak sooner than those of the front that are + called upon by deeper pressure of the key, thus allowing prominence or + accentuation of certain parts by an expert performer. "Prolongement" + permits selected notes to be sustained after the fingers have quitted + their keys. Dawes's "melody attachment" is to give prominence to an + air or treble part by shutting off in certain registers all notes + below it. This notion has been adapted by inversion to a "pedal + substitute" to strengthen the lowest bass notes. The "tremolo" affects + the wind in the vicinity of the reeds by means of small bellows which + increase the velocity of the pulsation according to pressure; and the + "sourdine" diminishes the supply of wind by controlling its admission + to the reeds. + + [Illustration: By courtesy of Metzler & Co. + + FIG. 2.--Free Reed Vibrator, Mason & Hamlin American Organ.] + + _The American Organ_ acts by wind exhaustion. A vacuum is practically + created in the air-chamber by the exhausting power of the footboards, + and a current of air thus drawn downwards passes through any reeds + that are left open, setting them in vibration. This instrument has + therefore exhaust instead of force bellows. Valves in the board above + the air-chamber give communication to reeds (fig. 2) made more slender + than those of the harmonium and more or less bent, while the frames in + which they are fixed are also differently shaped, being hollowed + rather in spoon fashion. The channels, the resonators above the reeds, + are not varied in size or shape as in the harmonium; they exactly + correspond with the reeds, and are collectively known as the + "tube-board." The swell "fortes" are in front of the openings of these + tubes, rails that open or close by the action of the knees upon what + may be called knee pedals. The American organ has a softer tone than + the harmonium; this is sometimes aided by the use of extra resonators, + termed pipes or qualifying tubes, as, for instance, in Clough & + Warren's (of Detroit, Michigan, U.S.). The blowing being also easier, + ladies find it much less fatiguing. The expression stop can have + little power in the American organ, and is generally absent; the + "automatic swell" in the instruments of Mason & Hamlin (of Boston, + U.S.) is a contrivance that comes the nearest to it, though far + inferior. By it a swell shutter or rail is kept in constant movement, + proportioned to the force of the air-current. Another very clever + improvement introduced by these makers, who were the originators of + the instrument itself, is the "vox humana," a smaller rail or fan, + made to revolve rapidly by wind pressure; its rotation, disturbing the + air near the reeds, causes interferences of vibration that produce a + tremulous effect, not unlike the beatings heard from combined voices, + whence the name. The arrangement of reed compartments in American + organs does not essentially differ from that of harmoniums; but there + are often two keyboards, and then the solo and combination stops are + found on the upper manual. The diapason treble register is known as + "melodia"; different makers occasionally vary the use of fancy names + for other stops. The "sub-bass," however, an octave of 16 ft. pitch + and always apart from the other reeds, is used with great advantage + for pedal effects on the manual, the compass of American organs being + usually down to F (FF, 5 octaves). In large instruments there are + sometimes foot pedals as in an organ, with their own reed boxes of 8 + and 16 ft. the lowest note being then CC. Blowing for pedal + instruments has to be done by hand, a lever being attached for that + purpose. The "celeste" stop is managed as in the harmonium, by rows of + reeds tuned not quite in unison, or by a shade valve that alters the + air-current and flattens one row of reeds thereby. + + Harmoniums and American organs are the result of many experiments in + the application of free reeds to keyboard instruments. The principle + of the free reed became widely known in Europe through the + introduction of the Chinese cheng[1] during the second half of the + 18th century, and culminated in the invention of the harmonium and + kindred instruments. The first step in the invention of the harmonium + is due to Professor Christian Gottlieb Kratzenstein of Copenhagen, who + had had the opportunity of examining a cheng sent to his native city + and of testing its merits.[2] In 1779 the Academy of Science of St + Petersburg had offered a prize for an essay on the formation of the + vowel sounds on an instrument similar to the "vox humana" in the + organ, which should be capable of reproducing these sounds faithfully. + Kratzenstein made as a demonstration of his invention a small + pneumatic organ fitted with free reeds, and presented it to the + Academy of St Petersburg.[3] His essay was crowned and was republished + with diagrams in Paris[4] in 1782. Meanwhile, in 1780, a countryman + of Kratzenstein's, an organ-builder named Kirsnick, established in St + Petersburg, adapted these reed pipes to some of his organs and to an + instrument of his invention called organochordium, an organ combined + with piano. When Abt Vogler visited St Petersburg in 1788, he was so + delighted with these reeds that in 1790 he induced Rackwitz, an + assistant of Kirsnick's, to come to him and adapt some to an organ he + was having built in Rotterdam. Three years later Abt Vogler's + orchestrion, a chamber organ containing some 900 pipes, was completed, + and, according to Rackwitz,[5] was fitted with free-reed pipes. Vogler + himself, however, does not mention the free reed when describing this + wonderful instrument and his system of "simplification" for church + organs.[6] To Abt Vogler, who travelled all over Germany, Scandinavia + and the Netherlands, exhibiting his skill on his orchestrion and + reconstructing many organs, is due the credit of making Kratzenstein's + invention known and inducing the musical world to appreciate the + capabilities of the free reed. The introduction of free-reed stops + into the organ, however, took a secondary place in his scheme for + reform.[7] Friedrich Kaufmann[8] of Dresden states that Vogler told + him he had imparted to J. N. Malzel of Vienna particulars as to the + construction of free-reed pipes, and that the latter used them in his + panharmonicon,[9] which he exhibited during his stay in Paris from + 1805 to 1807. Kaufmann suggests that it was through him that G. J. + Grenie obtained the knowledge which led to his experiments with free + reeds in organs. It is more likely that Grenie had read Kratzenstein's + essay and had experimented independently with free reeds. In 1812 his + first _orgue expressif_ was finished. It was a small organ with one + register of free reeds--the expression stop, in fact, added to the + pipe organ and having a separate wind-chest and bellows. It would seem + from his description of the orchestrion in _Data zur Akustik_ that + Vogler knew of no such device. He used the swell shutter borrowed from + England and a threefold screen of canvas covered with a blanket + arranged _outside the instrument_, neither of which is capable of + increasing the volume of sound from the organ, or at least only after + having first damped the sound to a pianissimo. Vogler explains + minutely the apparatus used to conceal the working of the screen from + the eyes of the public.[10] The credit of discovering in the free reed + the capability of dynamic expression was undoubtedly due to Grenie, + although Abt Vogler claims to have used compression in 1796,[11] and + Kaufmann in his choraulodion in 1816. A larger _orgue expressif_ was + begun by Grenie for the Conservatoire of Paris in 1812, the + construction of which was interrupted and then continued in 1816. + Descriptions of Grenie's instrument have been published in French and + German.[12] The organ of the Conservatoire had a pedal free-reed stop + of 16 ft., with vibrators 0.240 m. long, 0.035 m. wide, and 0.003 m. + thick.[13] Two compressors, one for the treble and the other for the + bass, worked by treadles, enabled the performer to regulate the + pressure of wind on the reeds and therefore to obtain the gradations + of forte and piano which gained for his instrument the name of _orgue + expressif_. Grenie's instrument was a pipe organ, the pipes + terminating in a cone with a hemispherical cap in the top of which was + a small hole. There were eight registers including the pedal, and the + positive on the first keyboard had reed stops furnished with beating + reeds. Biot insists on the Importance of the regulating wires (Fr. + _rasettes_; Ger. _Krucken_) for determining the vibrating length of + the reed tongue and maintaining it invariable. These are clearly shown + in his diagram (see article FREE REED VIBRATOR, fig. 1); they do not + essentially differ from those used with the beating-reed stops in his + organ (fig. 76, pl. II.), or indeed from those figured by Praetorius. + + Isolated specimens of the cheng must have found their way to Europe + during the 15th and 16th centuries, for Mersenne[14] depicts part of + one showing the free reed. It would seem that still earlier in the + 17th century there was an organ in a monastery in Hesse with free + reeds for the _Posaune_ stop, for Praetorius gives a description of + the "extraordinary" reed (p. 169); there is no record of the inventor + in this case. + + During the first half of the 19th century various tentative efforts in + France and Germany, and subsequently in England, were made to produce + new keyboard instruments with free reeds, the most notable of these + being the physharmonica[15] of Anton Hackel, invented in Vienna in + 1818, which, improved and enlarged, has retained its hold on the + German people. The modern physharmonica is a harmonium without stops + or percussion action; it does not therefore speak readily or clearly. + It has a range of five to six octaves. Other instruments of similar + type are the French melophone and the English seraphine, a keyboard + harmonica with bellows but no channels for the tongues, for which a + patent was granted to Myers and Storer in 1839; the aeoline or + aelodicon[16] of Eschenbach; the melodicon[17] of Dietz; the + melodica[18] of Rieffelson; the apollonicon;[19] the new cheng[20] of + Reichstein; the terpodion[21] of Buschmann, &c. None of these has + survived to the present day. + + The inventor of the harmonium was indubitably Alexandre Debain, who + took out a patent for it in Paris in 1840. He produced varied timbre + registers by modifying reed channels, and brought these registers on + to one keyboard. Unfortunately he patented too much, for he secured + even the name _harmonium_, obliging contemporary and future + experimenters to shelter their improvements under other names, and the + venerable name of organ becoming impressed into connexion with an + inferior instrument, we have now to distinguish between reed and pipe + organs. The compromise of reed organ for the harmonium class of + instruments must therefore be accepted. Debain's harmonium was at + first quite mechanical; it gained expression by the expression-stop + already described. The Alexandres, well-known French makers, by the + ingenuity of one of their workmen, P. A. Martin, added the percussion + and the prolongement. The melody attachment was the invention of an + English engineer; the introduction of the double touch, now used in + the harmoniums of Mustel, Bauer and others--also in American + organs--was due to Tamplin, an English professor. + + The principle of the American organ originated with the Alexandres, + whose earliest experiments are said to have been made with the view of + constructing an instrument to exhaust air. The realization of the idea + proving to be more in consonance with the genius of the American + people, to whom what we may call the devotional tone of the instrument + appealed, the introduction of it by Messrs Mason and Hamlin in 1861 + was followed by remarkable success. They made it generally known in + Europe by exhibiting it at Paris in 1867, and from that time + instruments have been exported in large numbers by different makers. + (A. J. H.; K. S.) + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See _Allg. musik. Ztg._ (Leipzig, 1821), Bd. xxiii. pp. 369-374. + The cheng was made known in France by Pere Amiot, who published a + careful description of the instrument in _Memoire sur la musique des + Chinois_, p. 80 seq., with excellent diagrams. + + [2] Ib., Bd. xxv. p. 152. + + [3] The essay was published in _Acta Acad. Petrop._ (1780). + + [4] "Essai sur la naissance et sur la formation des voyelles" in + Rozier's _Observations sur la physique_ (Paris, 1782), _Supplement_, + xxi. 358 seq.,, with two plates. The description of the instrument + begins on p. 374, S xxii. + + [5] See "Uber die Erfindung der Rohrwerke mit durchschlagenden + Zungen," by Wilke, in _Allg. musik. Ztg._ (Leipzig, 1823), Bd. xxv. + pp. 152-153 and Bd. xxvii. p. 263; also Thos. Ant. Kunz, + "Orchestrion," id., Bd. i. p. 88 and Bd. ii. pp. 514, 542; and Dr + Karl Emil von Schafhautl, _Abt Georg Joseph Vogler_ (Augsburg, 1888), + p. 37. + + [6] _Data zur Akustik, eine Abhandlung vorgelesen bey der Sitzung der + naturforschenden Freunde in Berlin, den 15ten Dezember 1800_ + (Offenbach, 1801); also published in _Allg. musik. Ztg._ (1801), Bd. + iii. pp. 517, 533, 565. See also an excellent article by the Rev. J. + H. Mee on Vogler in Grove's _Dictionary of Music and Musicians_. + + [7] See _Data zur Akustik_, and a pamphlet by Vogler, "Uber die + Umschaffung der St Marien Orgel in Berlin nach dem Voglerschen + Simplifikations-System, eine Nachahmung des Orchestrion" (Berlin); + also "Kurze Beschreibung der in der Stadtpfarrkirche zu St Peter zu + Munchen nach dem Voglerschen Simplifikations-System neuerbauten + Orgel" (Munich, 1809). + + [8] See _Allg. musik. Ztg._ (1823), Bd. xxv. pp. 153 and 154 note, + and 117-118 note. + + [9] A description of Malzel's panharmonicon before the addition of + the clarinet and oboe stops with free reeds is to be found in the + _Allg. musik. Ztg._ (1800), Bd. ii. pp. 414-415. + + [10] In the article in Grove's _Dictionary_ the screen is said to + have been in the wind-trunk. + + [11] See _Allg. musik. Ztg._ Bd. iii. p. 523. + + [12] See J. B. Biot, _Precis elementaire de physique experimentale_ + (Paris, 1817), tome i. p. 386, and his _Traite de physique_ (Paris, + 1816), tome ii. p. 172 et seq., pl. ii.; "Uber die Crescendo und + Diminuendo Zuge an Orgeln," by Wilke and Kaufmann, _Allg. musik. + Ztg._ (1823), Bd. xxv. pp. 113-122; and _Allg. musik. Ztg._ Bd. + xxiii. pp. 133-139 and 149-154, with diagrams on p. 167 which are not + absolutely correct in small details. + + [13] J. B. Biot, _Traite_, tome ii. p. 174. + + [14] _Harmonie universelle_ (Paris, 1636), livre v., prop. xxxv. + + [15] _Wien. musik. Ztg._ Bd. v. Nos. 39 and 87. + + [16] _Allg. musik. Ztg._ Bd. xxii. p. 505, and Bd. xxxv. p. 354. + + [17] Id. Bd. viii. pp. 526 and 715. + + [18] Id. Bd. xi. p. 625. + + [19] _Allg. musik. Ztg._ Bd. ii. p. 767, and _Wien. musik. Ztg._ Bd. + i. No. 501. + + [20] Id. Bd. xxxi. p. 489. + + [21] Id. Bd. xxxiv. pp. 856 and 858; and _Cacilia_, Bd. xiv. p. 259. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 12, Slice 8, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + +***** This file should be named 38454.txt or 38454.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/8/4/5/38454/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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