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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:10:13 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:10:13 -0700 |
| commit | 7669e66f67995f6f87f1ae872f70a2fb26e46920 (patch) | |
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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 12, Slice 7 + "Gyantse" to "Hallel" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: December 24, 2011 [EBook #38401] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 12 SLICE 7 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber’s note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME XII SLICE VII<br /><br /> +Gyantse to Hallel</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">GYANTSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">HAHNEMANN, SAMUEL CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">GYGES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">HAHN-HAHN, IDA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">GYLIPPUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">HAI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">GYLLEMBOURG-EHRENSVÄRD, THOMASINE CHRISTINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">HAIBAK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">GYLLENSTJERNA, JOHAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">HAIDA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">GYMKHANA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">HAIDINGER, WILHELM KARL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">GYMNASTICS AND GYMNASIUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">HAIDUK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">GYMNOSOPHISTS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">HAIFA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">GYMNOSPERMS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">HAIK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">GYMNOSTOMACEAE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">HAIL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">GYMPIE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">HAILES, DAVID DALRYMPLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">GYNAECEUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">HAILSHAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">GYNAECOLOGY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">HAINAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">GYÖNGYÖSI, ISTVÁN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">HAINAU</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">GYÖR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">HAINAUT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">GYP</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">HAINBURG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">GYPSUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">HAINICHEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">GYROSCOPE AND GYROSTAT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">HAI-PHONG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">GYTHIUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">HAIR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">GYULA-FEHÉRVÁR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">HAIR-TAIL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">H</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">HAITI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">HAAG, CARL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">HAJIPUR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">HAAKON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">HAJJ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">HAARLEM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">HĀJJĪ KHALĪFA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">HAARLEM LAKE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">HAKE, EDWARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25a">HAASE, FRIEDRICH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">HAKE, THOMAS GORDON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">HAASE, FRIEDRICH GOTTLOB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">HAKE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">HAAST, SIR JOHANN FRANZ JULIUS VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">HAKKAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">HABABS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">HAKLUYT, RICHARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">HABAKKUK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">HAKODATE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">HABDALA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">HAL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">HABEAS CORPUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">HALA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">HABERDASHER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">HALAESA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">HABINGTON, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">HALAKHA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">HABIT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">HALBERSTADT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">HABITAT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">HALBERT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">HABSBURG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">HALDANE, JAMES ALEXANDER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">HACHETTE, JEAN NICOLAS PIERRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">HALDANE, RICHARD BURDON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">HACHETTE, JEANNE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">HALDANE, ROBERT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">HACHETTE, LOUIS CHRISTOPHE FRANÇOIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">HALDEMAN, SAMUEL STEHMAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">HACHURE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">HALDIMAND, SIR FREDERICK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">HACIENDA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">HALE, EDWARD EVERETT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">HACKBERRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">HALE, HORATIO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">HACKENSACK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">HALE, JOHN PARKER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">HACKET, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">HALE, SIR MATTHEW</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">HACKETT, HORATIO BALCH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">HALE, NATHAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">HACKETT, JAMES HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">HALE, WILLIAM GARDNER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">HACKLÄNDER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">HALEBID</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">HACKNEY</a> (borough of London)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">HALES, JOHN</a> (d. 1571)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">HACKNEY</a> (riding-horse)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">HALES, JOHN</a> (1584-1656)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">HADAD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">HALES, STEPHEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">HADDINGTON, EARL OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">HALESOWEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">HADDINGTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">HALEVI, JUDAH BEN SAMUEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">HADDINGTONSHIRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">HALÉVY, JACQUES FRANÇOIS FROMENTAL ÉLIE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">HADDOCK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">HALÉVY, LUDOVIC</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">HADDON HALL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">HALFPENNY, WILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">HADEN, SIR FRANCIS SEYMOUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">HALF-TIMBER WORK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">HADENDOA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">HALFWAY COVENANT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">HADERSLEBEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">HALHED, NATHANIEL BRASSEY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">HADING, JANE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">HALIBURTON, THOMAS CHANDLER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">HADLEIGH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">HALIBUT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">HADLEY, ARTHUR TWINING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">HALICARNASSUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">HADLEY, JAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">HALICZ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">HADLEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">HALIFAX, CHARLES MONTAGUE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">HADRAMUT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">HALIFAX, GEORGE MONTAGU DUNK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">HADRIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">HALIFAX, GEORGE SAVILE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">HADRIAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">HALIFAX (Canada)</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">HADRIAN'S WALL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">HALIFAX (Yorkshire, England)</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">HADRUMETUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">ḤALIṢAH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">HAECKEL, ERNST HEINRICH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">HALKETT, HUGH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">HAEMATITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">HALL, BASIL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">HAEMATOCELE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">HALL, CARL CHRISTIAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">HAEMOPHILIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">HALL, CHARLES FRANCIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">HAEMORRHAGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">HALL, CHRISTOPHER NEWMAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">HAEMORRHOIDS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">HALL, EDWARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">HAEMOSPORIDIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">HALL, FITZEDWARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">HAETZER, LUDWIG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">HALL, ISAAC HOLLISTER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">HĀFIZ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">HALL, SIR JAMES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">HAG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">HALL, JAMES</a> (American judge)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">HAGEDORN, FRIEDRICH VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">HALL, JAMES</a> (American geologist)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">HAGEN, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH VON DER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">HALL, JOSEPH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">HAGEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">HALL, MARSHALL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">HAGENAU</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">HALL, ROBERT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">HAGENBACH, KARL RUDOLF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">HALL, SAMUEL CARTER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">HAGENBECK, CARL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">HALL, WILLIAM EDWARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">HAGERSTOWN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">HALL</a> (spa of Austria)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">HAG-FISH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">HALL</a> (town of Germany)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">HAGGADA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">HALL</a> (of a mansion)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">HAGGAI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">HALLAM, HENRY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">HAGGARD, HENRY RIDER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">HALLAM, ROBERT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">HAGGIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">HALLÉ, SIR CHARLES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">HAGIOLOGY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">HALLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">HAGIOSCOPE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">HALLECK, FITZ-GREENE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">HAGONOY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">HALLECK, HENRY WAGER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">HAGUE, THE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">HÄLLEFLINTA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">HAHN, AUGUST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">HALLEL</a></td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page750" id="page750"></a>750</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">GYANTSE,<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> one of the large towns of Tibet. It lies S.E. of +Shigatse, 130 m. from the Indian frontier and 145 m. from Lhasa. +Its central position at the junction of the roads from India and +Bhutan with those from Ladakh and Central Asia leading to +Lhasa makes it a considerable distributing trade centre. Its +market is the third largest in Tibet, coming after Lhasa and +Shigatse, and is especially celebrated for its woollen cloth and +carpet manufactures. Here caravans come from Ladakh, +Nepal and upper Tibet, bringing gold, borax, salt, wool, musk +and furs, to exchange for tea, tobacco, sugar, cotton goods, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page751" id="page751"></a>751</span> +broadcloth and hardware. The town is compactly built of stone +houses, with wooden balconies facing the main street, whence +narrow lanes strike off into uninviting slums, and contains a fort +and monastery. In the British expedition of 1904 Gyantse +formed the first objective of the advance, and the force was +besieged here in the mission post of Changlo for some time. The +Tibetans made a night attack on the post, and were beaten off +with some difficulty, but subsequently the British attacked and +stormed the fort or jong. Under the treaty of 1904 a British +trade agent is stationed at Gyantse.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GYGES,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> founder of the third or Mermnad dynasty of Lydian +kings, he reigned 687-652 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> according to H. Geizer, 690-657 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span> according to H. Winckler. The chronology of the Lydian +kings given by Herodotus has been shown by the Assyrian +inscriptions to be about twenty years in excess. Gyges was the +son of Dascylus, who, when recalled from banishment in Cappadocia +by the Lydian king Sadyattes—called Candaules “the +Dog-strangler” (a title of the Lydian Hermes) by the Greeks—sent +his son back to Lydia instead of himself. Gyges soon became +a favourite of Sadyattes and was despatched by him to fetch +Tudo, the daughter of Arnossus of Mysia, whom the Lydian king +wished to make his queen. On the way Gyges fell in love with +Tudo, who complained to Sadyattes of his conduct. Forewarned +that the king intended to punish him with death, Gyges assassinated +Sadyattes in the night and seized the throne with the +help of Arselis of Mylasa, the captain of the Carian bodyguard, +whom he had won over to his cause. Civil war ensued, which +was finally ended by an appeal to the oracle of Delphi and the +confirmation of the right of Gyges to the crown by the Delphian +god. Further to secure his title he married Tudo. Many legends +were told among the Greeks about his rise to power. That +found in Herodotus, which may be traced to the poet Archilochus +of Paros, described how “Candaules” insisted upon showing +Gyges his wife when unrobed, which so enraged her that she gave +Gyges the choice of murdering her husband and making himself +king, or of being put to death himself. Plato made Gyges a +shepherd, who discovered a magic ring by means of which he +murdered his master and won the affection of his wife (Hdt. i. +8-14; Plato, <i>Rep.</i> 359; Justin i. 7; Cicero, <i>De off.</i> iii. 9). +Once established on the throne Gyges devoted himself to consolidating +his kingdom and making it a military power. The +Troad was conquered, Colophon captured from the Greeks, +Smyrna besieged and alliances entered into with Ephesus and +Miletus. The Cimmerii, who had ravaged Asia Minor, were +beaten back, and an embassy was sent to Assur-bani-pal at +Nineveh (about 650 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) in the hope of obtaining his help against +the barbarians. The Assyrians, however, were otherwise +engaged, and Gyges turned to Egypt, sending his faithful Carian +troops along with Ionian mercenaries to assist Psammetichus in +shaking off the Assyrian yoke (660 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). A few years later he +fell in battle against the Cimmerii under Dugdammē (called +Lygdamis by Strabo i. 3. 21), who took the lower town of Sardis. +Gyges was succeeded by his son Ardys.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Nicolaus Damascenus, quoting from the Lydian historian +Xanthus, in C. Müller, <i>Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum</i>, iii.; +R. Schubert, <i>Geschichte der Könige von Lydien</i> (1884); M. G. +Radet, <i>La Lydie et le monde grec au temps de Mermnades</i> (1892-1893): +H. Gelzer, “Das Zeitalter des Gyges” (<i>Rhein. Mus.</i>, 1875); +H. Winckler, <i>Altorientalische Forschungen</i>, i. (1893); Macan’s edition +of Herodotus.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. H. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GYLIPPUS,<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> a Spartan general of the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; he +was the son of Cleandridas, who had been expelled from Sparta +for accepting Athenian bribes (446 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and had settled at Thurii. +His mother was probably a helot, for Gylippus is said to have +been, like Lysander and Callicratidas, a <i>mothax</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Helot</a></span>). +When Alcibiades urged the Spartans to send a general to lead the +Syracusan resistance against the Athenian expedition, Gylippus +was appointed, and his arrival was undoubtedly the turning point +of the struggle (414-413). Though at first his long hair, his threadbare +cloak and his staff furnished the subject of many a jest, and +his harsh and overbearing manner caused grave discontent, +yet the rapidity and decisiveness of his movements, won the +sympathy and respect of the Syracusans. Diodorus (xiii. 28-32), +probably following Timaeus, represents him as inducing the +Syracusans to pass sentence of death on the captive Athenian +generals, but we need have no hesitation in accepting the statement +of Philistus (Plutarch, <i>Nicias</i>, 28), a Syracusan who +himself took part in the defence, and Thucydides (vii. 86), that +he tried, though without success, to save their lives, wishing to +take them to Sparta as a signal proof of his success. Gylippus +fell, as his father had done, through avarice; entrusted by +Lysander with an immense sum which he was to deliver to the +ephors at Sparta, he could not resist the temptation to enrich +himself and, on the discovery of his guilt, went into exile.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Thucydides vi. 93. 104, vii.; Plutarch, <i>Nicias</i>, 19, 21, 27, 28, +<i>Lysander</i>, 16, 17; Diodorus xiii. 7, 8, 28-32; Polyaenus i. 39. 42. +See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Syracuse</a></span> (for the siege operations), commentaries on Thucydides +and the Greek histories.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GYLLEMBOURG-EHRENSVÄRD, THOMASINE CHRISTINE,<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> +Baroness (1773-1856), Danish author, was born on the 9th of +November 1773, at Copenhagen. Her maiden name was Buntzen. +Her great beauty early attracted notice, and before she was +seventeen she married the famous writer Peter Andreas Heiberg. +To him she bore in the following year a son, afterwards illustrious +as the poet and critic Johan Ludvig Heiberg. In 1800 her +husband was exiled, and she obtained a divorce, marrying in +December 1801 the Swedish Baron K. F. Ehrensvärd, himself +a political fugitive. Her second husband, who presently adopted +the name of Gyllembourg, died in 1815. In 1822 she followed +her son to Kiel, where he was appointed professor, and in 1825 +she returned with him to Copenhagen. In 1827 she first appeared +as an author by publishing her romance of <i>The Polonius Family</i> +in her son’s newspaper <i>Flyvende Post</i>. In 1828 the same journal +contained <i>The Magic Ring</i>, which was immediately followed +by <i>En Hverdags historie</i> (<i>An Everyday Story</i>). The success of +this anonymous work was so great that the author adopted +until the end of her career the name of “The Author of <i>An +Everyday Story</i>.” In 1833-1834 she published three volumes +of <i>Old and New Novels</i>. <i>New Stories</i> followed in 1835 and 1836. +In 1839 appeared two novels, <i>Montanus the Younger</i> and <i>Ricida</i>; +in 1840, <i>One in All</i>; in 1841, <i>Near and Far</i>; in 1843, <i>A Correspondence</i>; +in 1844, <i>The Cross Ways</i>; in 1845, <i>Two Generations</i>. +From 1849 to 1851 the Baroness Ehrensvärd-Gyllembourg was +engaged in bringing out a library edition of her collected works +in twelve volumes. On the 2nd of July 1856 she died in her son’s +house at Copenhagen. Not until then did the secret of her +authorship transpire; for throughout her life she had preserved +the closest reticence on the subject even with her nearest friends. +The style of Madame Ehrensvärd-Gyllembourg is clear and +sparkling; for English readers no closer analogy can be found +than between her and Mrs Gaskell, and <i>Cranford</i> might well +have been written by the witty Danish authoress.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. L. Heiberg, <i>Peter Andreas Heiberg og Thomasine Gyllembourg</i> +(Copenhagen, 1882), and L. Kornelius-Hybel, <i>Nogle Bemaerkninger +om P. A. Heiberg og Fru Gyllembourg</i> (Copenhagen, 1883).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GYLLENSTJERNA, JOHAN,<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1635-1680), Swedish +statesman, completed his studies at Upsala and then visited +most of the European states and laid the foundations of that deep +insight into international politics which afterwards distinguished +him. On his return home he met King Charles X. in the Danish +islands and was in close attendance upon him till the monarch’s +death in 1660. He began his political career at the diet which +assembled in the autumn of the same year. An aristocrat by +birth and inclination, he was nevertheless a true patriot and +demanded the greatest sacrifices from his own order in the +national interests. He was therefore one of those who laboured +most zealously for the recovery of the crown lands. In the +Upper House he was the spokesman of the gentry against the +magnates, whose inordinate privileges he would have curtailed +or abolished. His adversaries vainly endeavoured to gain him +by favour, for as court-marshal and senator he was still more +hostile to the dominant patricians who followed the adventurous +policy of Magnus de la Gardie. Thus he opposed the French +alliance which de la Gardie carried through in 1672, and consistently +advocated economy in domestic and neutrality in +foreign affairs. On the outbreak of the war in 1675 he was the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page752" id="page752"></a>752</span> +most loyal and energetic supporter of the young Charles XI., +and finally his indispensable counsellor. Indeed, it may be said, +that the political principles which he instilled into the youthful +monarch were faithfully followed by Charles during the whole +of his reign. In 1679 Gyllenstjerna was appointed the Swedish +plenipotentiary at the peace congress of Lund. The alliance +which he then concluded with Denmark bound the two northern +realms together in a common foreign policy, and he sought +besides to facilitate their harmonious co-operation by every +means in his power. In 1680, after bringing home Charles XI.’s +Danish bride from Copenhagen, he was appointed governor-general +of Scania (Skåne), but expired a few weeks later.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See M. Höjer, <i>Öfversigt af Sveriges yttre politik under åren 1676-1680</i> +(Upsala, 1875).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GYMKHANA,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> a display of miscellaneous sports, originally at +the military stations of India. The word would seem to be +a colloquial remodelling of the Hindustani <i>gend-khana</i>, ball-house +or racquet-court, by substituting for <i>gend</i> the first syllable +of the English word “gymnastics.” The definition given in +Yule’s <i>Glossary</i> is as follows: “A place of public resort at a +station, where the needful facilities for athletics and games ... are +provided.” The name of the place was afterwards +applied to the games themselves, and the word is now used almost +exclusively in this sense. According to Yule the first use of it +that can be traced was, on the authority of Major John Trotter, +at Rurki in the year 1861, when a gymkhana was instituted +there. Gymkhana sports were invented to relieve the monotony +of Indian station life, and both officers and men from the ranks +took part in them. The first meetings consisted of promiscuous +horse and pony races at catch weights. To these were soon +added a second variety, originally called the <i>pāgŏl</i> (funny races), +the one generally known outside India, which consisted of +miscellaneous races and competitions of all kinds, some serious +and some amusing, on horseback, on foot and on bicycles. +Among these may be mentioned the usual military sports; such +as tent-pegging, lemon-cutting and obstacle racing; rickshaw +racing; tilting at the ring sack, pillion, hurdle, egg-and-spoon, +blindfold, threading-the-needle and many other kinds of races +depending upon the inventive powers of the committees in charge.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GYMNASTICS AND GYMNASIUM,<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> terms signifying respectively +a system of physical exercises practised either for recreation +or for the purpose of promoting the health and development +of the body, and the building where such exercises are carried +on. The gymnasium of the Greeks was originally the school +where competitors in the public games received their training, +and was so named from the circumstance that these competitors +exercised naked (<span class="grk" title="gymnos">γυμνός</span>). The gymnasium was a public institution +as distinguished from the palaestra, which was a +private school where boys were trained in physical exercises, +though the term palaestra is also often used for the part of a +gymnasium specially devoted to wrestling and boxing. The +athletic contests for which the gymnasium supplied the means +of training and practice formed part of the social life of the +Greeks from the earliest times. They were held in honour of +heroes and gods; sometimes forming part of a periodic festival, +sometimes of the funeral rites of a deceased chief. In course of +time the Greeks grew more attached to such sports; their free +active life, spent to a great extent in the open air, fostered the +liking almost into a passion. The victor in any athletic contest, +though he gained no money prize, was rewarded with the honour +and respect of his fellow citizens; and a victory in the great +religious festivals was counted an honour for the whole state. +In these circumstances the training of competitors for the +greater contests became a matter of public concern; and +accordingly special buildings were provided by the state, and +their management entrusted to public officials. The regulation +of the gymnasium at Athens is attributed by Pausanias (i. 39. 3) +to Theseus. Solon made several laws on the subject; but +according to Galen it was reduced to a system in the time of +Cleisthenes. Ten <i>gymnasiarchs</i>, one from each tribe, were +appointed annually. These performed in rotation the duties +of their office, which were to maintain and pay the persons who +were training for public contests, to conduct the games at the +great Athenian festivals, to exercise general supervision over +the morals of the youths, and to adorn and keep up the gymnasium. +This office was one of the ordinary <span class="grk" title="leitourgiai">λειτουργίαι</span> (public +services), and great expense was entailed on the holders. Under +them were ten <i>sophronistae</i>, whose duty was to watch the conduct +of the youths at all times, and especially to be present at all +their games. The practical teaching and selecting of the suitable +exercises for each youth were in the hands of the <i>paedotribae</i> and +<i>gymnastae</i>, the latter of whom also superintended the effect on the +constitution of the pupils, and prescribed for them when they were +unwell. The <i>aleiptae</i> oiled and rubbed dust on the bodies of the +youths, acted as surgeons, and administered the drugs prescribed. +According to Galen there was also a teacher of the various +games of ball. The gymnasia built to suit these various purposes +were large buildings, which contained not merely places for each +kind of exercise, but also a stadium, baths, covered porticos for +practice in bad weather, and outer porticos where the philosophers +and men of letters read public lectures and held disputations.</p> + +<p>The gymnasium of the Greeks did not long remain an institution +exclusively devoted to athletic exercises. It soon began +to be applied to other uses even more important. The development +arose naturally through the recognition by the Greeks of +the important place in education occupied by physical culture, +and of the relation between exercise and health. The gymnasium +accordingly became connected with education on the one hand +and with medicine on the other. Due training of the body and +maintenance of the health and strength of children were the +chief part of earlier Greek education. Except the time devoted +to letters and music, the education of boys was conducted in +the gymnasia, where provision was made, as already mentioned, +for their moral as well as their physical training. As they grew +older, conversation and social intercourse took the place of the +more systematic discipline. Philosophers and sophists assembled +to talk and to lecture in the gymnasia, which thus became places +of general resort for the purpose of all less systematic intellectual +pursuits, as well as for physical exercises. In Athens there were +three great public gymnasia—Academy, Lyceum and Cynosarges—each +of which was consecrated to a special deity with whose +statue it was adorned; and each was rendered famous by +association with a celebrated school of philosophy. Plato’s +teaching in the Academy has given immortality to that gymnasium; +Aristotle conferred lustre on the Lyceum; and the +Cynosarges was the resort of the Cynics. Plato when treating +of education devotes much consideration to gymnastics (see +especially <i>Rep.</i> iii. and various parts of <i>Laws</i>); and according +to Plato it was the sophist Prodicus who first pointed out the +connexion between gymnastics and health. Having found such +exercises beneficial to his own weak health, he formulated a +method which was adopted generally, and which was improved by +Hippocrates. Galen lays the greatest stress on the proper use of +gymnastics, and throughout ancient medical writers we find that +special exercises are prescribed as the cure for special diseases.</p> + +<p>The Greek institution of the gymnasium never became popular +with the Romans, who regarded the training of boys in gymnastics +with contempt as conducive to idleness and immorality, and of +little use from a military point of view; though at Sparta +gymnastic training had been chiefly valued as encouraging +warlike tastes and promoting the bodily strength needed for the +use of weapons and the endurance of hardship. Among the +Romans of the republic, the games in the Campus Martius, the +duties of camp life, and the enforced marches and other hardships +of actual warfare, served to take the place of the gymnastic +exercises required by the Greeks. The first public gymnasium +at Rome was built by Nero and another by Commodus. In the +middle ages, though jousts and feats of horsemanship and field +sports of various kinds were popular, the more systematic training +of the body which the Greeks had associated with the gymnasium +fell into neglect; while the therapeutic value of special exercises +as understood by Hippocrates and Galen appears to have been +lost sight of. Rousseau, in his <i>Émile</i>, was the first in modern +times to call attention to the injurious consequences of such +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page753" id="page753"></a>753</span> +indifference, and he insisted on the importance of physical +culture as an essential part of education. It was probably due +in some measure to his influence that F. L. Jahn and his followers +in Germany, encouraged by the Prussian minister Stein, established +the <i>Turnplätze</i>, or gymnastic schools, which played an +important part during the War of Liberation, and in the political +agitations which followed the establishment of the German +confederation by the Congress of Vienna. The educational +reformers Pestalozzi and Froebel emphasized the need for +systematic physical training in any complete scheme of education.</p> + +<p>The later development of the classical gymnasium (when it had +become the school of Intellectual culture rather than of exclusively +physical exercise), and not the original idea, has been +perpetuated in the modern use of the word in Germany, where +the name “gymnasium” is given to the highest grade of secondary +school, and the association of the word with athleticism has +been entirely abandoned. On the other hand, in England, +France and elsewhere in Europe, as well as in America, the +history of the word has been precisely the reverse; the connexion +of the gymnasium with philosophy and mental culture +has been dropped, and it indicates a building exclusively intended +for the practice of physical exercises. But whereas the Greeks +received training in the gymnasium for contests which are now +designated as <i>athletic sports</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), gymnastics in the modern +sense is a term restricted to such exercises as are usually practised +indoors, with or without the aid of mechanical appliances, as +distinguished from sports or games practised in the open air.</p> + +<p>It was not until near the end of the 19th century that gymnastics +were recognized in England as anything more than a +recreation; their value as a specifically therapeutic agent, or as +an article in the curriculum of elementary schools, was not +realized. More recently, however, educationists have urged with +increasing insistence the need for systematic physical training, +and their views received greater attention when evidence of +deterioration in the physique of the people began to accumulate. +During the first decade of the 20th century more than one commission +reported to parliament in England in favour of more +systematic and general physical training being encouraged or +even made compulsory by public authority. Voluntary associations +were formed for encouraging such training and providing +facilities for it. Gymnastics had already for several years been +an essential part of the training of army recruits with exceedingly +beneficial results, and gymnasia had been established at Aldershot +and other military centres. Physical exercises, although +not compulsory, obtained a permanent place in the code for +elementary schools in Great Britain; and much care has been +taken to provide a syllabus of exercises adapted for the improvement +of the physique of the children. These exercises are partly +gymnastic and partly of the nature of drill; they do not in most +cases require the use of appliances, and are on that account +known as “free movements,” which numbers of children go +through together, accompanied whenever possible by music. +On the other hand at the larger public schools and universities +there are elaborate gymnasia equipped with a great variety of +apparatus, the skilful use of which demands assiduous practice; +and this is encouraged by annual contests between teams of +gymnasts representing rival institutions.</p> + +<p>The appliances vary to some extent in different gymnasia, +some of the more complicated requiring a greater amount of +space and involving a larger cost than is often practicable. +But where these considerations are negligible, +substantial uniformity is to be found in the equipment +<span class="sidenote">Gymnastic apparatus.</span> +of gymnasia not designed for specifically medical +purposes. The simplest, and in many respects the most generally +useful, of all gymnastic apparatus is the dumb-bell. It was in +use in England as early as the time of Elizabeth, and it has the +advantage that it admits of being exactly proportioned to the +individual strength of each learner, and can be adjusted in +weight as his strength increases. The exercises that may be +performed with the dumb-bell, combined with a few simple +drill-like movements, give employment to all parts of the body +and to both sides equally. Dumb-bell exercises, therefore, when +arranged judiciously and with knowledge, are admirably suited +for developing the physique, and are extensively employed in +schools both for boys and girls. The bar-bell is merely a two-handed +dumb-bell, and its use is similar in principle. The +Indian club is also in use in most gymnasia; but the risk of +overstraining the body by its unskilful handling makes it less +generally popular than the dumb-bell. All these appliances +may be, and often are, used either in ordinary schoolrooms or +elsewhere outside the gymnasium. The usual fixed sorts of +apparatus, the presence of which (or of some of them) in a building +may be said to constitute it a gymnasium, are the following: a +leaping-rope; a leaping-pole; a vaulting-horse; a horizontal +bar, so mounted between two upright posts that its height from +the ground may be adjusted as desired; parallel bars, used for +exercises to develop the muscles of the trunk and arms; the +trapeze consisting of a horizontal bar suspended by ropes at a +height of 4 to 5 ft. from the ground; the bridge ladder; the +plank; the inclined plane; the mast; swinging rings; the +prepared wall; the horizontal beam.</p> + +<p>Before the end of the 19th century the therapeutic value of +gymnastics was fully realized by the medical profession; and a +number of medical or surgical gymnasia came into existence, +provided with specially devised apparatus for the treatment of +different physical defects or weaknesses. The exercises practised +in them are arranged upon scientific principles based on +anatomical and physiological knowledge; and these principles +have spread thence to influence largely the practice of gymnastics +in schools and in the army. A French medical writer +enumerates seven distinct groups of maladies, each including a +number of different complaints, for which gymnastic exercises +are a recognized form of treatment; and there are many malformations +of the human body, formerly believed to be incurable, +which are capable of being greatly remedied if not entirely +corrected by regular gymnastic exercises practised under medical +direction.</p> + +<p>The value of gymnastics both for curing defects, and still more +for promoting health and the development of normal physique, +is recognized even more clearly on the continent of Europe than +in Great Britain. In Germany the government not only controls +the practice of gymnastics but makes it compulsory for every +child and adult to undergo a prescribed amount of such +physical training. In France also, physical training by gymnastics +is under state control; in Sweden, Denmark, Switzerland, +Italy, Russia, systems more or less distinct enjoy +a wide popularity; and in Finland gymnastics are practised +on lines that exhibit national peculiarities. The Finns introduce +an exceptional degree of variety into their exercises as +well as into the appliances devised to assist them; women are +scarcely less expert than men in the performance of them; and +the enthusiasm with which the system is supported produces +the most beneficial results in the physique of the people. International +gymnastic contests have become a feature of the revived +Olympic Games (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Athletic Sports</a></span>), and in those held at +Athens in 1906 a team of Danish ladies took part in the competition +and proved by their skilful performance that gymnastics +may be practised with as much success by women as by men.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The chief work on the ancient gymnastics is Krause, <i>Gymnastik +und Agonistik der Hellenen</i> (1841); of more recent works mention +may be made of Jäger, <i>Gymnastik der Hellenen</i> (1881); L. Grasberger, +<i>Erziehung und Unterricht im klassischen Altertum</i> (1881); J. P. +Mahaffy, <i>Old Greek Education</i> (1883); A. S. Wilkins, <i>National +Education in Greece</i> (1873); E. Paz, <i>Histoire de la gymnastique</i> +(1886); Wickenhagen, <i>Antike und moderne Gymnastik</i> (1891); Becker-Göll, +<i>Charicles</i> ii.; Brugsma, <i>Gymnasiorum apud Graecos descriptio</i> +(1855); Petersen, <i>Das Gymnasium der Griechen</i> (1858). See also +N. Laisné, <i>Gymnastique pratique</i> (Paris, 1879); Collineau, <i>La +Gymnastique</i> (Paris, 1884); <i>L’Hygiène à l’école</i> (Paris, 1889); P. de +Coubertin, <i>La Gymnastique utilitaire</i> (Paris, 1905); H. Nissen, +<i>Rational Home Gymnastics</i> (Boston, 1903).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. J. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GYMNOSOPHISTS<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (Lat. <i>gymnosophistae</i>, from Gr. <span class="grk" title="gymnos, +sophistês">γυμνός, σοφιστής</span>, “naked philosophers”), the name given by the +Greeks to certain ancient Hindu philosophers who pursued +asceticism to the point of regarding food and clothing as detrimental +to purity of thought. From the fact that they often +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page754" id="page754"></a>754</span> +lived as hermits in forests, the Greeks also called them <i>Hylobioi</i> +(cf. the <i>Vāna-prasthās</i> in Sanskrit writings). Diogenes Laërtius +(ix. 61 and 63) refers to them, and asserts that Pyrrho of Elis, +the founder of pure scepticism, came under their influence, and +on his return to Elis imitated their habits of life, to what extent +does not appear. Strabo (xv. 711, 714) divides them into +Brahmans and Sarmans (or Shamans). See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jains</a></span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GYMNOSPERMS,<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> in Botany. The Gymnosperms, with the +Angiosperms, constitute the existing groups of seed-bearing +plants or Phanerogams: the importance of the seed as a distinguishing +feature in the plant kingdom may be emphasized +by the use of the designation Spermophyta for these two groups, +in contrast to the Pteridophyta and Bryophyta in which true +seeds are unknown. Recent discoveries have, however, established +the fact that there existed in the Palaeozoic era fern-like +plants which produced true seeds of a highly specialized +type; this group, for which Oliver and Scott proposed the term +Pteridospermae in 1904, must also be included in the Spermophyta. +Another instance of the production of seeds in an +extinct plant which further reduces the importance of this +character as a distinguishing feature is afforded by the Palaeozoic +genus <i>Lepidocarpon</i> described by Scott in 1901; this lycopodiaceous +type possessed an integumented megaspore, to which +the designation seed may be legitimately applied (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palaeobotany</a></span>: +<i>Palaeozoic</i>).</p> + +<p>As the name Gymnosperm (Gr. <span class="grk" title="gymnos">γυμνός</span>, naked, <span class="grk" title="sperma">σπέρμα</span>, seed) +implies, one characteristic of this group is the absence of an ovary +or closed chamber containing the ovules. It was the English +botanist Robert Brown who first recognized this important +distinguishing feature in conifers and cycads in 1825; he established +the gymnospermy of these seed-bearing classes as distinct +from the angiospermy of the monocotyledons and dicotyledons. +As Sachs says in his history of botany, “no more important +discovery was ever made in the domain of comparative morphology +and systematic botany.” As Coulter and Chamberlain +express it, “the habitats of the Gymnosperms to-day indicate +that they either are not at home in the more genial conditions +affected by Angiosperms, or have not been able to maintain +themselves in competition with this group of plants.”</p> + +<p>These naked-seeded plants are of special interest on account +of their great antiquity, which far exceeds that of the Angiosperms, +and as comprising different types which carry us back +to the Palaeozoic era and to the forests of the coal period. The +best known and by far the largest division of the Gymnosperms +is that of the cone-bearing trees (pines, firs, cedars, larches, +&c.), which play a prominent part in the vegetation of the present +day, especially in the higher latitudes of the northern hemisphere; +certain members of this class are of considerable antiquity, but +the conifers as a whole are still vigorous and show but little +sign of decadence. The division known as the Cycadophyta +is represented by a few living genera of limited geographical +range and by a large number of extinct types which in the +Mesozoic era (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palaeobotany</a></span>: <i>Mesozoic</i>) played a conspicuous +part in the vegetation of the world. Among existing Cycadophyta +we find surviving types which, in their present isolation, +their close resemblance to fossil forms, and in certain morphological +features, constitute links with the past that not only +connect the present with former periods in the earth’s history, +but serve as sign-posts pointing the way back along one of the +many lines which evolution has followed.</p> + +<p>It is needless to discuss at length the origin of the Gymnosperms. +The two views which find most favour in regard to +the Coniferales and Cycadophyta are: (1) that both have been +derived from remote filicinean ancestors; (2) that the cycads +are the descendants of a fern-like stock, while conifers have been +evolved from lycopodiaceous ancestors. The line of descent +of recent cycads is comparatively clear in so far as they have +undoubted affinity with Palaeozoic plants which combined +cycadean and filicinean features; but opinion is much more +divided as to the nature of the phylum from which the conifers +are derived. The Cordaitales (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palaeobotany</a></span>: <i>Palaeozoic</i>) +are represented by extinct forms only, which occupied a prominent +position in the Palaeozoic period; these plants exhibit certain +features in common with the living Araucarias, and others which +invite a comparison with the maidenhair tree (<i>Ginkgo biloba</i>), +the solitary survivor of another class of Gymnosperms, the +Ginkgoales (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palaeobotany</a></span>: <i>Mesozoic</i>). The Gnetales are +a class apart, including three living genera, of which we know +next to nothing as regards their past history or line of descent. +Although there are several morphological features in the three +genera of Gnetales which might seem to bring them into line +with the Angiosperms, it is usual to regard these resemblances +as parallel developments along distinct lines rather than to +interpret them as evidence of direct relationship.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Gymnospermae.</i>—Trees or shrubs; leaves vary considerably in +size and form. Flowers unisexual, except in a few cases (Gnetales) +without a perianth. Monoecious or dioecious. Ovules naked, +rarely without carpellary leaves, usually borne on carpophylls, +which assume various forms. The single megaspore enclosed in the +nucellus is filled with tissue (prothallus) before fertilization, and +contains two or more archegonia, consisting usually of a large egg-cell +and a small neck, rarely of an egg-cell only and no neck (<i>Gnetum</i> and +<i>Welwitschia</i>). Microspore spherical or oval, with or without a +bladder-like extension of the exine, containing a prothallus of two +or more cells, one of which produces two non-motile or motile male +cells. Cotyledons two or several. Secondary xylem and phloem +produced by a single cambium, or by successive cambial zones; no +true vessels (except in the Gnetales) in the wood, and no companion-cells +in the phloem.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcr">I.</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Pteridospermae</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palaeobotany</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palaeozoic</a></span>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">II.</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Cycadophyta</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcl">    A. Cycadales (recent and extinct).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcl">    B. Bennettitales (see Palaeobotany: <i>Mesozoic</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">III.</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Cordaitales</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palaeobotany</a></span>: <i>Palaeozoic</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">IV.</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Ginkgoales</i> (recent and extinct).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">V.</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Coniferales</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcl">    A. Taxaceae.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcl">    B. Pinaceae.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>There is no doubt that the result of recent research and of work +now in progress will be to modify considerably the grouping of the +conifers. The family <i>Araucarieae</i>, represented by <i>Araucaria</i> and +<i>Agathis</i>, should perhaps be separated as a special class and a rearrangement +of other genera more in accord with a natural system of +classification will soon be possible; but for the present its twofold +subdivision may be retained.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcr">VI.</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Gnetales</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcl">    A. Ephedroideae.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcl">    B. Gnetoideae.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcl">    C. Welwitschioideae (Tumboideae).</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="sc">Cycadophyta.</span>—A. <i>Cycadales</i>.—Stems tuberous or columnar, not +infrequently branched, rarely epiphytic (Peruvian species of <i>Zamia</i>); +fronds pinnate, bi-pinnate in the Australian genus <i>Bowenia</i>. Dioecious; +flowers in the form of cones, except the female flowers of <i>Cycas</i>, +which consist of a rosette of leaf-like carpels at the apex of the stem. +Seeds albuminous, with one integument; the single embryo, usually +bearing two partially fused cotyledons, is attached to a long tangled +suspensor. Stems and roots increase in diameter by secondary +thickening, the secondary wood being produced by one cambium or +developed from successive cambium-rings.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:162px; height:265px" src="images/img754.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Stem of +<i>Cycas</i>. <i>F</i>, foliage-leaf +bases; <i>S</i>, scale-leaf +bases.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:298px; height:319px" src="images/img755a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—<i>Cycas siamensis.</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The cycads constitute a homogeneous group of a few living +members confined to tropical and sub-tropical regions. As a fairly +typical and well-known example of the Cycadaceae, +a species of the genus <i>Cycas</i> (<i>e.g.</i> <i>C. +circinalis</i>, <i>C. revoluta</i>, &c.) is briefly described. +The stout columnar stem may +reach a height of 20 metres, and a diameter +of half a metre; it remains either unbranched +or divides near the summit into several short +and thick branches, each branch terminating +in a crown of long pinnate leaves. The surface +of the stem is covered with rhomboidal +areas, which represent the persistent bases +of foliage- and scale-leaves. In some species +of <i>Cycas</i> there is a well-defined alternation of +transverse zones on the stem, consisting of +larger areas representing foliage-leaf bases, +and similar but smaller areas formed by the +bases of scale-leaves (<i>F</i> and <i>S</i>, fig. 1). The +scale-leaves clothing the terminal bud are +linear-lanceolate in form, and of a brown or +yellow colour; they are pushed aside as the +stem-axis elongates and becomes shrivelled, +finally falling off, leaving projecting bases +which are eventually cut off at a still lower +level. Similarly, the dead fronds fall off, leaving a ragged petiole, which +is afterwards separated from the stem by an absciss-layer a short +distance above the base. In some species of <i>Cycas</i> the leaf-bases +do not persist as a permanent covering to the stem, but the surface +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page755" id="page755"></a>755</span> +is covered with a wrinkled bark, as in <i>Cycas siamensis</i>, which has a +stem of unusual form (fig. 2). Small tuberous shoots, comparable on +a large scale with the bulbils of <i>Lycopodium Selago</i>, are occasionally +produced in the axils of some of the persistent leaf-bases; these are +characteristic of sickly plants, and serve as a means of vegetative +reproduction. In the genus <i>Cycas</i> the female flower is peculiar +among cycads in consisting of a terminal crown of separate leaf-like +carpels several inches in length; the apical portion of each carpellary +leaf may be broadly triangular in form, and deeply dissected on the +margins into narrow woolly appendages like rudimentary pinnae. +From the lower part of a +carpel are produced several +laterally placed ovules, +which become bright red +or orange on ripening; the +bright fleshy seeds, which +in some species are as large +as a goose’s egg, and the +tawny spreading carpels +produce a pleasing combination +of colour in the +midst of the long dark-green +fronds, which curve gracefully +upwards and outwards +from the summit of the +columnar stem. In <i>Cycas</i> +the stem apex, after producing +a cluster of carpellary +leaves, continues to elongate +and produces more bud-scales, +which are afterwards +pushed aside as a fresh +crown of fronds is developed. +The young leaves of <i>Cycas</i> consist of a straight rachis bearing numerous +linear pinnae, traversed by a single midrib; the pinnae are +circinately coiled like the leaf of a fern (fig. 3). The male flower of +<i>Cycas</i> conforms to the type of structure characteristic of the cycads, +and consists of a long cone of numerous sporophylls bearing many +oval pollen-sacs on their lower faces. The type described serves as a +convenient representative of its class. There are eight other living +genera, which may be classified as follows:—</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:63px; height:456px" src="images/img755b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—<i>Cycas.</i> +Young Frond.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Classification.</i>—A. <i>Cycadeae</i>.—Characterized by (<i>a</i>) the alternation +of scale- and foliage-leaves (fig. 1) on the branched or unbranched +stem; (<i>b</i>) the growth of the main stem through the female flower; +(<i>c</i>) the presence of a prominent single vein in the linear pinnae; (<i>d</i>) +the structure of the female flower, which is peculiar +in not having the form of a cone, but consists of +numerous independent carpels, each of which bears +two or more lateral ovules. Represented by a single +genus, <i>Cycas</i>. (Tropical Asia, Australia, &c.).</p> + +<p>B. <i>Zamieae.</i>—The stem does not grow through +the female flower; both male and female flowers +are in the form of cones. (<i>a</i>) <i>Stangerieae</i>.—Characterized +by the fern-like venation of the +pinnae, which have a prominent midrib, giving +off at a wide angle simple or forked and +occasionally anastomosing lateral veins. A single +genus, <i>Stangeria</i>, confined to South Africa, (<i>b</i>) +<i>Euzamieae</i>.—The pinnae are traversed by several +parallel veins. <i>Bowenia</i>, an Australian cycad, is +peculiar in having bi-pinnate fronds (fig. 5). The +various genera are distinguished from one another +by the shape and manner of attachment of the +pinnae, the form of the carpellary scales, and to +some extent by anatomical characters. <i>Encephalartos</i> +(South and Tropical Africa).—Large cones; +the carpellary scales terminate in a peltate distal +expansion. <i>Macrozamia</i> (Australia).—Similar to +<i>Encephalartos</i> except in the presence of a spinous +projection from the swollen distal end of the carpels. +<i>Zamia</i> (South America, Florida, &c.).—Stem short +and often divided into several columnar branches. +Each carpel terminates in a peltate head. <i>Ceratozamia</i> +(Mexico).—Similar in habit to <i>Macrozamia</i>, +but distinguished by the presence of two horn-like +spinous processes on the apex of the carpels. +<i>Microcycas</i> (Cuba).—Like <i>Zamia</i>, except that the +ends of the stamens are flat, while the apices of the carpels are +peltate. <i>Dioon</i> (Mexico) (fig. 4).—Characterized by the woolly scale-leaves +and carpels; the latter terminate in a thick laminar expansion +of triangular form, bearing two placental cushions, on which +the ovules are situated. <i>Bowenia</i> (Australia).—Bi-pinnate fronds; +stem short and tuberous (fig. 5).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:290px; height:269px" src="images/img755c.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:447px; height:450px" src="images/img755d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From a photograph of a plant in Peradeniya +Gardens, Ceylon, by Professor R. H. Yapp.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>—<i>Bowenia spectabilis</i>: frond.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>—<i>Dioon edule.</i></td> +<td class="caption"> </td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:189px; height:258px" src="images/img755e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>—<i>Macrozamia +heteromera</i>. <i>A</i>, part of +frond; <i>B</i>, single pinna.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The stems of cycads are often described as unbranched; it is true +that in comparison with conifers, in which the numerous branches, +springing from the main stem, give a characteristic form +to the tree, the tuberous or columnar stem of the Cycadaceae +<span class="sidenote">Stem and leaf.</span> +constitutes a striking distinguishing feature. +Branching, however, occurs not infrequently: in <i>Cycas</i> +the tall stem often produces several candelabra-like arms; in <i>Zamia</i> +the main axis may break up near the base into several cylindrical +branches; in species of <i>Dioon</i> (fig. 4) lateral branches are occasionally +produced. The South African <i>Encephalartos</i> frequently produces +several branches. Probably the oldest example of this genus in +cultivation is in the Botanic +Garden of Amsterdam, its +age is considered by Professor +de Vries to be about +two thousand years: +although an accurate determination +of age is impossible, +there is no doubt that +many cycads grow very +slowly and are remarkable +for longevity. The thick +armour of petiole-bases enveloping +the stem is a +characteristic Cycadean +feature; in <i>Cycas</i> the alternation +of scale-leaves and +fronds is more clearly shown +than in other cycads; in +<i>Encephalartos</i>, <i>Dioon</i>, &c., +the persistent scale-leaf +bases are almost equal in +size to those of the foliage-leaves, +and there is no +regular alternation of zones such as characterizes some species of +<i>Cycas</i>. Another type of stem is illustrated by <i>Stangeria</i> and <i>Zamia</i>, +also by a few forms of <i>Cycas</i> (fig. 2), in which the fronds fall off +completely, leaving a comparatively smooth stem. The <i>Cyas</i> type of +frond, except as regards the presence of a midrib in each pinna, +characterizes the cycads generally, except <i>Bowenia</i> and <i>Stangeria</i>. +In the monotypic genus <i>Bowenia</i> the large +fronds, borne singly on the short and thick +stem, are bi-pinnate (fig. 5); the segments, +which are broadly ovate or rhomboidal, +have several forked spreading veins, and +resemble the large pinnules of some species +of <i>Adiantum</i>. In <i>Stangeria</i>, also a genus +represented by one species (<i>S. paradoxa</i> of +South Africa), the long and comparatively +broad pinnae, with an entire or irregularly +incised margin, are very fern-like, a circumstance +which led Kunze to describe the +plant in 1835 as a species of the fern +<i>Lomaria</i>. In rare cases the pinnae of cycads +are lobed or branched: in <i>Dioon spinulosum</i> +(Central America) the margin of the +segments bears numerous spinous processes; +in some species of <i>Encephalartos</i>, +<i>e.g.</i> <i>E. horridus</i>, the lamina is deeply lobed; +and in a species of the Australian genus +<i>Macrozamia</i>, <i>M. heteromera</i>, the narrow +pinnae are dichotomously branched almost to the base (fig. 6), and resemble +the frond of some species of the fern <i>Schizaea</i>, or the fossil genus +<i>Baiera</i> (Ginkgoales). An interesting species of <i>Cycas</i>, <i>C. Micholitzii</i>, has +recently been described by Sir William Thiselton-Dyer from Annam, +where it was collected by one of Messrs Sanders & Son’s collectors, +in which the pinnae instead of being of the usual simple type are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page756" id="page756"></a>756</span> +dichotomously branched as in <i>Macrozamia heteromera</i>. In <i>Ceratozamia</i> +the broad petiole-base is characterized by the presence of two +lateral spinous processes, suggesting stipular appendages, comparable, +on a reduced scale, with the large stipules of the Marattiaceae +among Ferns. The vernation varies in different genera; in <i>Cycas</i> +the rachis is straight and the pinnae circinately coiled (fig. 3); in +<i>Encephalartos</i>, <i>Dioon</i>, &c., both rachis and segments are straight; in +<i>Zamia</i> the rachis is bent or slightly coiled, bearing straight pinnae. +The young leaves arise on the stem-apex as conical protuberances +with winged borders on which the pinnae appear as rounded humps, +usually in basipetal order; the scale-leaves in their young condition +resemble fronds, but the lamina remains undeveloped. A feature of +interest in connexion with the phylogeny of cycads is the presence of +long hairs clothing the scale-leaves, and forming a cap on the summit +of the stem-apex or attached to the bases of petioles; on some fossil +cycadean plants these outgrowths have the form of scales, and are +identical in structure with the ramenta (paleae) of the majority of ferns.</p> + +<p>The male flowers of cycads are constructed on a uniform plan, +and in all cases consist of an axis bearing crowded, spirally disposed +sporophylls. These are often wedge-shaped and +angular; in some cases they consist of a short, thick +<span class="sidenote">Flower.</span> +stalk, terminating in a peltate expansion, or prolonged upwards in +the form of a triangular lamina. The sporangia (pollen-sacs), which +occur on the under-side of the stamens, are often arranged in more or +less definite groups or sori, interspersed with hairs (paraphyses); +dehiscence takes place along a line marked out by the occurrence of +smaller and thinner-walled cells bounded by larger and thicker-walled +elements, which form a fairly prominent cap-like “annulus” +near the apex of the sporangium, not unlike the annulus characteristic +of the Schizaeaceae among ferns. The sporangial wall, consisting +of several layers of cells, encloses a cavity containing numerous oval +spores (pollen-grains). In structure a cycadean sporangium recalls +those of certain ferns (Marattiaceae, Osmundaceae and Schizaeaceae), +but in the development of the spores there are certain peculiarities +not met with among the Vascular Cryptogams. With the exception +of <i>Cycas</i>, the female flowers are also in the form of cones, bearing +numerous carpellary scales. In <i>Cycas revoluta</i> and <i>C. circinalis</i> each +leaf-like carpel may produce several laterally attached ovules, but +in <i>C. Normanbyana</i> the carpel is shorter and the ovules are reduced +to two; this latter type brings us nearer to the carpels of <i>Dioon</i>, in +which the flower has the form of a cone, and the distal end of the +carpels is longer and more leaf-like than in the other genera of the +<i>Zamieae</i>, which are characterized by shorter carpels with thick +peltate heads bearing two ovules on the morphologically lower +surface. The cones of cycads attain in some cases (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Encephalartos</i>) +a considerable size, reaching a length of more than a foot. Cases have +been recorded (by Thiselton-Dyer in <i>Encephalartos</i> and by Wieland +in <i>Zamia</i>) in which the short carpellary cone-scales exhibit a foliaceous +form. It is interesting that no monstrous cycadean cone has +been described in which ovuliferous and staminate appendages are +borne on the same axis: in the Bennettitales (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palaeobotany</a></span>: +<i>Mesozoic</i>) flowers were produced bearing on the same axis both +androecium and gynoecium.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:299px; height:219px" src="images/img756a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="center" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>—<i>Zamia.</i> Part of Ovule in longitudinal +section. (After Webber.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>P</i>, Prothallus.</p> +<p><i>A</i>, Archegonia.</p> +<p><i>N</i>, Nucellus.</p> +<p><i>C</i>, Pollen-chamber.</p></td> +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>Pt</i>, Pollen-tube.</p> +<p><i>Pg</i>, Pollen-grain.</p> +<p><i>G</i>, Generative cell (second cell of pollen-tube).</p></td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:127px; height:273px" src="images/img756b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>—<i>Zamia.</i> +Proximal end of +Pollen-tube, <i>a</i>, +<i>a</i>, Spermatozoids +from <i>G</i> of fig. 7; +<i>Pg</i>, pollen-grain; +<i>c</i>, proximal cell +(first cell). (After +Webber.)</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The pollen-grains when mature consist of three cells, two small +and one large cell; the latter grows into the pollen-tube, as in the +Coniferales, and from one of the small cells two large +ciliated spermatozoids are eventually produced. A +<span class="sidenote">Microspores and megaspores.</span> +remarkable exception to this rule has recently been +recorded by Caldwell, who found that in <i>Microcycas +Calocoma</i> the body-cells may be eight or even ten in +number and the sperm-cells twice as numerous. One of +the most important discoveries made during the latter part of the +19th century was that by Ikeno, a Japanese botanist, who first +demonstrated the existence of motile male cells in the genus <i>Cycas</i>. +Similar spermatozoids were observed in some species of <i>Zamia</i> by +H. J. Webber, and more recent work enables us to assume that all +cycads produce ciliated male gametes. Before following the growth +of the pollen-grain after pollination, we will briefly describe the +structure of a cycadean ovule. An ovule consists of a conical nucellus +surrounded by a single integument. At an early stage of development +a large cell makes its appearance in the central region of the +nucellus; this increases in size and eventually forms three cells; the +lowest of these grows vigorously and constitutes the megaspore +(embryo-sac), which ultimately absorbs the greater part of the nucellus. +The megaspore-nucleus divides repeatedly, and cells are produced +from the peripheral region inwards, which eventually fill the spore-cavity +with a homogeneous tissue (prothallus); some of the superficial +cells at the micropylar end of the megaspore increase in size and +divide by a tangential wall into two, an upper cell which gives rise +to the short two-celled neck of the archegonium, and a lower cell +which develops into a large egg-cell. Each megaspore may contain +2 to 6 archegonia. During the growth of the ovum nourishment is +supplied from the contents of the cells immediately surrounding the +egg-cell, as in the development of the ovum of <i>Pinus</i> and other +conifers. Meanwhile the tissue in the apical region of the nucellus +has been undergoing disorganization, which results in the formation +of a pollen-chamber (fig. 7, <i>C</i>) immediately above the megaspore. +Pollination in cycads has always been described as +anemophilous, but according to recent observations by Pearson +on South African species it seems probable that, at least in some +cases, the pollen is conveyed to the ovules by animal agency. +The pollen-grains find their way between the carpophylls, which at +the time of pollination are slightly apart owing to the elongation of +the internodes of the flower-axis, and pass into the pollen-chamber; +the large cell of the pollen-grain grows out into a tube (<i>Pt</i>), which +penetrates the nucellar tissue and often branches repeatedly; the +pollen-grain itself, with the prothallus-cells, projects freely into the +pollen-chamber (fig. 7). The nucleus of the outermost (second) +small cell (fig. 7, <i>G</i>) divides, and one of the daughter-nuclei passes +out of the cell, and may enter the lowest (first) small cell. The +outermost cell, by the division of the remaining nucleus, produces +two large spermatozoids +(fig. 8, <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>). In <i>Microcycas</i> +16 sperm-cells are +produced. In the course +of division two bodies appear +in the cytoplasm, +and behave as centrosomes +during the karyokinesis; +they gradually +become threadlike and +coil round each daughter +nucleus. This thread +gives rise to a spiral ciliated +band lying in a depression +on the body of +each spermatozoid; the +large spermatozoids +eventually escape from +the pollen-tube, and are +able to perform ciliary +movements in the watery +liquid which occurs between +the thin papery +remnant of nucellar tissue +and the archegonial necks. Before fertilization a neck-canal cell is +formed by the division of the ovum-nucleus. After the body of a +spermatozoid has coalesced with the egg-nucleus the latter divides +repeatedly and forms a mass of tissue which grows more vigorously +in the lower part of the fertilized ovum, and extends upwards +towards the apex of the ovum as a peripheral layer of parenchyma +surrounding a central space. By further growth this +tissue gives rise to a proembryo, which consists, at the micropylar +end, of a sac; the tissue at the chalazal end grows into a long +and tangled suspensor, terminating in a mass of cells, which is +eventually differentiated into a radicle, plumule and two cotyledons. +In the ripe seed the integument assumes the form of a fleshy envelope, +succeeded internally by a hard woody shell, internal to which is +a thin papery membrane—the apical portion of the nucellus—which +is easily dissected out as a conical cap covering the apex of the +endosperm. A thorough examination of cycadean +seeds has recently been made by Miss Stopes, +more particularly with a view to a comparison of +their vascular supply with that in Palaeozoic +gymnospermous seeds (<i>Flora</i>, 1904). The first +leaves borne on the seedling axis are often scale-like, +and these are followed by two or more larger +laminae, which foreshadow the pinnae of the adult +frond.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:224px; height:333px" src="images/img757a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>—<i>Macrozamia.</i> +Diagrammatic transverse +section of part of Stem. +(After Worsdell.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>pd</i>, Periderm in leaf-bases.</p> +<p><i>lt</i>, Leaf-traces in cortex.</p> +<p><i>ph</i>, Phloem.</p> +<p><i>x</i>, Xylem.</p> +<p><i>m</i>, Medullary bundles.</p> +<p><i>c</i>, Cortical bundles.</p></td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:301px; height:255px" src="images/img757b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span>—<i>Ginkgo biloba.</i> Leaves.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:220px; height:164px" src="images/img757c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span>—<i>Ginkgo adiantoides.</i> +Fossil (Eocene) leaf from the +Island of Mull.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The anatomical structure of the vegetative +organs of recent cycads is of special interest as +affording important evidence of relationship +with extinct types, and with +other groups of recent plants. Brongniart, who +<span class="sidenote">Anatomy.</span> +was the first to investigate in detail the anatomy +of a cycadean stem, recognized an agreement, as +regards the secondary wood, with Dicotyledons +and Gymnosperms, rather than with Monocotyledons. +He drew attention also to certain +structural similarities between <i>Cycas</i> and <i>Ginkgo</i>. +The main anatomical features of a cycad stem +may be summarized as follows: the centre is +occupied by a large parenchymatous pith traversed +by numerous secretory canals, and in some genera +by cauline vascular bundles (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Encephalartos</i> +and <i>Macrozamia</i>). In addition to these cauline +strands (confined to the stem and not connected +with the leaves), collateral bundles are often met with in the +pith, which form the vascular supply of terminal flowers borne at +intervals on the apex of the stem. These latter bundles may be seen +in sections of old stems to pursue a more or less horizontal course, +passing outwards through the main woody cylinder. This lateral +course is due to the more vigorous growth of the axillary branch +formed near the base of each flower, which is a terminal structure, +and, except in the female flower of <i>Cycas</i>, puts a limit to the +apical growth of the stem. The vigorous lateral branch therefore +continues the line of the main axis. The pith is encircled by a +cylinder of secondary wood, consisting of single or multiple radial +rows of tracheids separated by broad medullary rays composed of +large parenchymatous cells; the tracheids bear numerous bordered +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page757" id="page757"></a>757</span> +pits on the radial walls. The large medullary rays give to the wood +a characteristic parenchymatous or lax appearance, which is in +marked contrast to the more compact wood of a conifer. The +protoxylem-elements are situated at the extreme inner edge of the +secondary wood, and may occur as small groups of narrow, spirally-pitted +elements scattered among the parenchyma which abuts on the +main mass of wood. Short and reticulately-pitted tracheal cells, +similar to tracheids, often occur in the circummedullary region of +cycadean stems. In an old stem of <i>Cycas</i>, <i>Encephalartos</i> or <i>Macrozamia</i> +the secondary wood consists of +several rather unevenly concentric +zones, while in some other genera it +forms a continuous mass as in conifers +and normal dicotyledons. These +concentric rings of secondary xylem +and phloem (fig. 9) afford a characteristic +cycadean feature. After the +cambium has been active for some +time producing secondary xylem and +phloem, the latter consisting of sieve-tubes, +phloem-parenchyma and frequently +thick-walled fibres, a second +cambium is developed in the pericycle; +this produces a second vascular +zone, which is in turn followed by a +third cambium, and so on, until several +hollow cylinders are developed. It +has been recently shown that several +cambium-zones may remain in a state +of activity, so that the formation of a +new cambium does not necessarily +mark a cessation of growth in the +more internal meristematic rings. It +occasionally happens that groups of +xylem and phloem are developed +internally to some of the vascular +rings; these are characterized by an +inverse orientation of the tissues, +the xylem being centrifugal and the +phloem centripetal in its development. +The broad cortical region, which contains +many secretory canals, is traversed +by numerous vascular bundles (fig. 9, <i>c</i>) some of which pursue +a more or less vertical course, and by frequent anastomoses with one +another form a loose reticulum of vascular strands; others are leaf-traces +on their way from the stele of the stem to the leaves. Most of +these cortical bundles are collateral in structure, but in some the xylem +and phloem are concentrically arranged; the secondary origin of +these bundles from procambium-strands was described by Mettenius +in his classical paper of 1860. During the increase in thickness of a +cycadean stem successive layers of cork-tissue are formed by phellogens +in the persistent bases of leaves (fig. 9, <i>pd</i>), which increase in size +to adapt themselves to the growth of the vascular zones. The leaf-traces +of cycads are remarkable both on account of their course and +their anatomy. In a transverse section of a stem (fig. 9) one sees +some vascular bundles following a horizontal or slightly oblique +course in the cortex, stretching +for a longer or shorter +distance in a direction concentric +with the woody +cylinder. From each leaf-base +two main bundles +spread right and left +through the cortex of the +stem (fig. 9, <i>lt</i>), and as they +curve gradually towards the +vascular ring they present +the appearance of two +rather flat ogee curves, +usually spoken of as the +leaf-trace girdles (fig. 9, <i>lt</i>). +The distal ends of these +girdles give off several +branches, which traverse +the petiole and rachis as +numerous collateral bundles. The complicated girdle-like course is +characteristic of the leaf-traces of most recent cycads, but in some +cases, <i>e.g.</i> in <i>Zamia floridana</i>, the traces are described by Wieland +in his recent monograph on American fossil cycads (<i>Carnegie Institution +Publications</i>, 1906) as possessing a more direct course similar to +that in Mesozoic genera. A leaf-trace, as it passes through the cortex, +has a collateral structure, the protoxylem being situated at the inner +edge of the xylem; when it reaches the leaf-base the position of the +spiral tracheids is gradually altered, and the endarch arrangement +(protoxylem internal) gives place to a mesarch structure (protoxylem +more or less central and not on the edge of the xylem strand). In a +bundle examined in the basal portion of a leaf the bulk of the xylem +is found to be centrifugal in position, but internally to the protoxylem +there is a group of centripetal tracheids; higher up in the petiole the +xylem is mainly centripetal, the centrifugal wood being represented +by a small arc of tracheids external to the protoxylem and separated +from it by a few parenchymatous elements. Finally, in the pinnae of +the frond the centrifugal xylem may disappear, the protoxylem being +now exarch in position and abutting on the phloem. Similarly in +the sporophylls of some cycads the bundles are endarch near the base +and mesarch near the distal end of the stamen or carpel. The +vascular system of cycadean seedlings presents some features worthy +of note; centripetal xylem occurs in the cotyledonary bundles +associated with transfusion-tracheids. The bundles from the +cotyledons pursue a direct course to the stele of the main axis, and +do not assume the girdle-form characteristic +of the adult plant. This +is of interest from the point of view +of the comparison of recent cycads +with extinct species (<i>Bennettites</i>), in +which the leaf-traces follow a much +more direct course than in modern +cycads. The mesarch structure of +the leaf-bundles is met with in a less +pronounced form in the flower peduncles +of some cycads. This fact is +of importance as showing that the +type of vascular structure, which +characterized the stems of many +Palaeozoic genera, has not entirely +disappeared from the stems of modern cycads; but the mesarch bundle +is now confined to the leaves and peduncles. The roots of some cycads +<span class="sidenote">Roots.</span> +resemble the stems in producing several cambium-rings; +they possess 2 to 8 protoxylem-groups, and are +characterized by a broad pericyclic zone. A common phenomenon in +cycads is the production of roots which grow upwards (apogeotropic), +and appear as coralline branched structures above the level of the +ground; some of the cortical cells of these roots are hypertrophied, +and contain numerous filaments of blue-green Algae (Nostocaceae), +which live as endoparasites in the cell-cavities.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:300px; height:352px" src="images/img757d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span>—<i>Ginkgo biloba.</i> <i>A</i>, Male +flower; <i>B</i>, <i>C</i>, single stamens; <i>D</i>, +female flower.</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="sc">Ginkgoales.</span>—This class-designation has been recently proposed +to give emphasis to the isolated position of the genus <i>Ginkgo</i> +(<i>Salisburia</i>) among the Gymnosperms. <i>Ginkgo biloba</i>, the maidenhair +tree, has usually been placed by botanists in the Taxeae in the +neighbourhood of the yew (<i>Taxus</i>), but the proposal by Eichler in +1852 to institute a special family, the <i>Salisburieae</i>, indicated a +recognition of the existence of special characteristics which distinguish +the genus from other members of the Coniferae. The +discovery by the Japanese botanist Hirase of the development of +ciliated spermatozoids in the pollen-tube of <i>Ginkgo</i>, in place of the +non-motile male cells of typical conifers, served as a cogent argument +in favour of separating the genus from the Coniferales and placing it +in a class of its own. In 1712 Kaempfer published a drawing of a +Japanese tree, which he described under the name <i>Ginkgo</i>; this term +was adopted in 1771 by Linnaeus, who spoke of Kaempfer’s plant as +<i>Ginkgo biloba</i>. In 1797 +Smith proposed to use the +name <i>Salisburia adiantifolia</i> +in preference to the “uncouth” +genus <i>Ginkgo</i> and +“incorrect” specific term +<i>biloba</i>. Both names are still +in common use. On account +of the resemblance of the +leaves to those of some +species of <i>Adiantum</i>, the +appellation maidenhair tree +has long been given to +<i>Ginkgo biloba</i>. <i>Ginkgo</i> is of +special interest on account +of its isolated position among +existing plants, its restricted +geographical distribution, +and its great antiquity (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palaeobotany</a></span>: <i>Mesozoic</i>). +This solitary survivor of an +ancient stock is almost extinct, +but a few old and presumably +wild trees are recorded +by travellers in parts +of China. <i>Ginkgo</i> is common +as a sacred tree in the gardens +of temples in the Far East, and often cultivated in North America and +Europe. <i>Ginkgo biloba</i>, which may reach a height of over 30 metres, +forms a tree of pyramidal shape with a smooth grey bark. The leaves +(figs. 10 and 11) have a long, slender petiole terminating in a fan-shaped +lamina, which may be entire, divided by a median incision into +two wedge-shaped lobes, or subdivided into several narrow segments. +The venation is like that of many ferns, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Adiantum</i>; the lowest +vein in each half of the lamina follows a course parallel to the edge, +and gives off numerous branches, which fork repeatedly as they +spread in a palmate manner towards the leaf margin. The foliage-leaves +occur either scattered on long shoots of unlimited growth, or at +the apex of short shoots (spurs), which may eventually elongate into +long shoots.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page758" id="page758"></a>758</span></p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:304px; height:293px" src="images/img758a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>—<i>Ginkgo.</i> Apex of Ovule, and +Pollen-grain. (After Hirase.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>p</i>, Pollen-tube (proximal end).</p> +<p><i>c</i>, Pollen-chamber.</p> +<p><i>e</i>, Upward prolongation of megaspore.</p> +<p><i>a</i>, Archegonia.</p> +<p><i>Pg</i>, Pollen-grain.</p> +<p><i>Ex</i>, Exine.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>The flowers are dioecious. The male flowers (fig. 12), borne in the +axil of scale-leaves, consist of a stalked central axis bearing loosely +disposed stamens; each stamen consists of a slender +filament terminating in a small apical scale, which bears +<span class="sidenote">Flowers.</span> +usually two, but not infrequently three or four pollen-sacs (fig. 12, <i>C</i>). +The axis of the flower is a shoot bearing leaves in the form of stamens. +A mature pollen-grain contains a prothallus of 3 to 5 cells (Fig. 13, +Pg); the exine extends over two-thirds of the circumference, leaving +a thin portion of the wall, +which on collapsing produces +a longitudinal +groove similar to the +median depression on the +pollen-grain of a cycad. +The ordinary type of +female flower has the form +of a long, naked peduncle +bearing a single ovule on +either side of the apex +(fig. 12), the base of each +being enclosed by a small, +collar-like rim, the nature +of which has been variously +interpreted. A +young ovule consists of a +conical nucellus surrounded +by a single integument +terminating as a +two-lipped micropyle. A +large pollen-chamber +occupies the apex of the +nucellus; immediately +below this, two or more +archegonia (fig. 13, <i>a</i>) are +developed in the upper +region of the megaspore, +each consisting of a large +egg-cell surmounted by two neck-cells and a canal-cell which is +cut off shortly before fertilization. After the entrance of the pollen-grain +the pollen-chamber becomes roofed over by a blunt protuberance +of nucellar tissue. The megaspore (embryo-sac) continues +to grow after pollination until the greater part of the nucellus +is gradually destroyed; it also gives rise to a vertical outgrowth, +which projects from the apex of the megaspore as a short, thick +column (fig. 13, <i>e</i>) supporting the remains of the nucellar tissue +which forms the roof of the pollen-chamber (fig. 13, <i>c</i>). Surrounding +the pitted wall of the ovum there is a definite layer of large +cells, no doubt representing a tapetum, which, as in cycads and +conifers, plays an important part in nourishing the growing egg-cell. +The endosperm detached from a large <i>Ginkgo</i> ovule after fertilization +bears a close resemblance to that of a cycad; the apex is occupied by +a depression, on the floor of which two small holes mark the position +of the archegonia, and the outgrowth from the megaspore apex +projects from the centre as a short peg. After pollination the pollen-tube +grows into the nucellar tissue, as in cycads, and the pollen-grain +itself (fig. 13, <i>Pg</i>) hangs down into the pollen-chamber; two large +spirally ciliated spermatozoids are produced, their manner of development +agreeing very closely with that of the corresponding cells +in <i>Cycas</i> and <i>Zamia</i>. After fertilization the ovum-nucleus divides +and cell-formation proceeds rapidly, especially in the lower part of +the ovum, in which the cotyledon and axis of the embryo are differentiated; +the long, tangled suspensor of the cycadean embryo is not +found in <i>Ginkgo</i>. It is often stated that fertilization occurs after the +ovules have fallen, but it has been demonstrated by Hirase that this +occurs while the ovules are still attached to the tree. The ripe seed, +which grows as large as a rather small plum, is enclosed by a thick, +fleshy envelope covering a hard woody shell with two or rarely three +longitudinal keels. A papery remnant of nucellus lines the inner face +of the woody shell, and, as in cycadean seeds, the apical portion is +readily separated as a cap covering the summit of the endosperm.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:310px; height:274px" src="images/img758b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span>—<i>Ginkgo</i>. Abnormal female +Flowers. <i>A</i>, Peduncle; <i>b</i>, scaly bud; +<i>B</i>, leaf bearing marginal ovule. (After +Fujii.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>The morphology of the female flowers has been variously interpreted +by botanists; the peduncle bearing the ovules has been +described as homologous with the petiole of a foliage-leaf and as a +shoot-structure, the collar-like envelope at the base of the ovules +being referred to as a second integument or arillus, or as the representative +of a carpel. The evidence afforded by normal and abnormal +flowers appears to be in favour of the following interpretation: The +peduncle is a shoot bearing two or more carpels. Each ovule is +enclosed at the base by an envelope or collar homologous with the +lamina of a leaf; the fleshy and hard coats of the nucellus constitute +a single integument. The stalk of an ovule, considerably reduced in +normal flowers and much larger in some abnormal flowers, is homologous +with a leaf-stalk, with which it agrees in the structure and +number of vascular bundles. The facts on which this description is +based are derived partly from anatomical evidence, and in part from +an account given by a Japanese botanist, Fujii, of several abnormal +female flowers; in some cases the collar at the base of an ovule, +often described as an arillus, is found to pass gradually into the +lamina of a leaf bearing marginal ovules (fig. 14, <i>B</i>). The occurrence +of more than two ovules on one peduncle is by no means rare; a +particularly striking example is described by Fujii, in which an +unusually thick peduncle bearing several stalked ovules terminates +in a scaly bud (fig. 14, <i>A</i>, <i>b</i>). The frequent occurrence of more than +two pollen-sacs and the equally common occurrence of additional +ovules have been regarded by some authors as evidence in favour of +the view that ancestral types normally possessed a greater number +of these organs than are usually found in the recent species. This +<span class="sidenote">Anatomy.</span> +view receives support from fossil evidence. Close to the +apex of a shoot the vascular bundles of a leaf make their +appearance as double strands, and the leaf-traces in the upper part +of a shoot have the form of distinct bundles, which in the older part of +the shoot form a continuous ring. Each double leaf-trace passes +through four internodes +before becoming a part of +the stele; the double +nature of the trace is a +characteristic feature. +Secretory sacs occur +abundantly in the leaf-lamina, +where they appear +as short lines between the +veins; they are abundant +also in the cortex and pith +of the shoot, in the fleshy +integument of the ovule, +and elsewhere. The +secondary wood of the +shoot and root conforms +in the main to the coniferous +type; in the short +shoots the greater breadth +of the medullary rays in +the more internal part of +the xylem recalls the +cycadean type. The +secondary phloem contains numerous thick-walled fibres, parenchymatous +cells, and large sieve-tubes with plates on the radial +walls; swollen parenchymatous cells containing crystals are +commonly met with in the cortex, pith and medullary-ray tissues. +The wood consists of tracheids, with circular bordered pits on +their radial walls, and in the late summer wood pits are unusually +abundant on the tangential walls. A point of anatomical +interest is the occurrence in the vascular bundles of the cotyledons, +scale-leaves, and elsewhere of a few centripetally developed tracheids, +which give to the xylem-strands a mesarch structure such as characterizes +the foliar bundles of cycads. The root is diarch in structure, +but additional protoxylem-strands may be present at the base of the +main root; the pericycle consists of several layers of cells.</p> + +<p>This is not the place to discuss in detail the past history of <i>Ginkgo</i> +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palaeobotany</a></span>: <i>Mesozoic</i>). Among Palaeozoic genera there are +some which bear a close resemblance to the recent type in +the form of the leaves; and petrified Palaeozoic seeds, +<span class="sidenote">Geological history.</span> +almost identical with those of the maidenhair tree, have +been described from French and English localities. During the +Triassic and Jurassic periods the genus <i>Baiera</i>—no doubt a representative +of the Ginkgoales—was widely spread throughout Europe +and in other regions; <i>Ginkgo</i> itself occurs abundantly in Mesozoic +and Tertiary rocks, and was a common plant in the Arctic regions as +elsewhere during the Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous periods. Some +unusually perfect <i>Ginkgo</i> leaves have been found in the Eocene leaf-beds +between the lava-flows exposed in the cliffs of Mull (fig. 11). +From an evolutionary point of view, it is of interest to note the +occurrence of filicinean and cycadean characters in the maidenhair tree. +The leaves at once invite a comparison with ferns; the numerous +long hairs which form a delicate woolly covering on young leaves recall +the hairs of certain ferns, but agree more closely with the long +filamentous hairs of recent cycads. The spermatozoids constitute +the most striking link with both cycads and ferns. The structure of +the seed, the presence of two neck-cells in the archegonia, the late +development of the embryo, the partially-fused cotyledons and +certain anatomical characters, are features common to <i>Ginkgo</i> and +the cycads. The maidenhair tree is one of the most interesting +survivals from the past; it represents a type which, in the Palaeozoic +era, may have been merged into the extinct class Cordaitales. +Through the succeeding ages the Ginkgoales were represented by +numerous forms, which gradually became more restricted in their +distribution and fewer in number during the Cretaceous and Tertiary +periods, terminating at the present day in one solitary survivor.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Coniferales.</span>—Trees and shrubs characterized by a copious +branching of the stem and frequently by a regular pyramidal form. +Leaves simple, small, linear or short and scale-like, usually persisting +for more than one year. Flowers monoecious or dioecious, unisexual, +without a perianth, often in the form of cones, but never terminal +on the main stem.</p> + +<p>The plants usually included in the Coniferae constitute a less +homogeneous class than the Cycadaceae. Some authors use the +term Coniferae in a restricted sense as including those +genera which have the female flowers in the form of cones, +<span class="sidenote">External features.</span> +the other genera, characterized by flowers of a different +type, being placed in the Taxaceae, and often spoken of as Taxads. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page759" id="page759"></a>759</span> +In order to avoid confusion in the use of the term Coniferae, we may +adopt as a class-designation the name Coniferales, including both the +Coniferae—using the term in a restricted sense—and the Taxaceae. +The most striking characteristic of the majority of the Coniferales is +the regular manner of the monopodial branching and the pyramidal +shape. <i>Araucaria imbricata</i>, the Monkey-puzzle tree, <i>A. excelsa</i>, the +Norfolk Island pine, many pines and firs, cedars and other genera +illustrate the pyramidal form. The mammoth redwood tree of +California, <i>Sequoia</i> (<i>Wellingtonia</i>) <i>gigantea</i>, which represents the tallest +Gymnosperm, is a good example of the regular tapering main stem +and narrow pyramidal form. The cypresses afford instances of tall +and narrow trees similar in habit to Lombardy poplars. The common +cypress (<i>Cupressus sempervirens</i>), as found wild in the mountains of +Crete and Cyprus, is characterized by long and spreading branches, +which give it a cedar-like habit. A pendulous or weeping habit is +assumed by some conifers, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Picea excelsa</i> var. <i>virgata</i> represents +a form in which the main branches attain a considerable horizontal +extension, and trail themselves like snakes along the ground. Certain +species of <i>Pinus</i>, the yews (<i>Taxus</i>) and some other genera grow as +bushes, which in place of a main mast-like stem possess several +repeatedly-branched leading shoots. The unfavourable conditions +in Arctic regions have produced a dwarf form, in which the main +shoots grow close to the ground. Artificially induced dwarfed plants +of <i>Pinus</i>, <i>Cupressus</i>, <i>Sciadopitys</i> (umbrella pine) and other genera +are commonly cultivated by the Japanese. The dying off of older +branches and the vigorous growth of shoots nearer the apex of the +stem produce a form of tree illustrated by the stone pine of the +Mediterranean region (<i>Pinus Pinea</i>), which Turner has rendered +familiar in his “Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage” and other pictures of +Italian scenery. Conifers are not infrequently seen in which a lateral +branch has bent sharply upwards to take the place of the injured +main trunk. An upward tendency of all the main lateral branches, +known as fastigiation, is common in some species, producing well-marked +varieties, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Cephalotaxus pedunculata</i> var. <i>fastigiata</i>; this +fastigiate habit may arise as a sport on a tree with spreading branches. +Another departure from the normal is that in which the juvenile or +seedling form of shoot persists in the adult tree; the numerous +coniferous plants known as species of <i>Retinospora</i> are examples of +this. The name <i>Retinospora</i>, therefore, does not stand for a true +genus, but denotes persistent young forms of <i>Juniperus</i>, <i>Thuja</i>, +<i>Cupressus</i>, &c., in which the small scaly leaves of ordinary species are +replaced by the slender, needle-like leaves, which stand out more or +less at right angles from the branches. The flat branchlets of +<i>Cupressus</i>, <i>Thuja</i> (arbor vitae), <i>Thujopsis dolabrata</i> (Japanese arbor +vitae) are characteristic of certain types of conifers; in some cases +the horizontal extension of the branches induces a dorsiventral +structure. A characteristic feature of the genus <i>Agathis</i> (<i>Dammara</i>) +the Kauri pine of New Zealand, is the deciduous habit of the +branches; these become detached from the main trunk leaving a +well-defined absciss-surface, which appears as a depressed circular +scar on the stem. A new genus of conifers, <i>Taiwania</i>, has recently +been described from the island of Formosa; it is said to agree in +habit with the Japanese <i>Cryptomeria</i>, but the cones appear to have a +structure which distinguishes them from those of any other genus.</p> + +<p>With a few exceptions conifers are evergreen, and retain the leaves +for several years (10 years in <i>Araucaria imbricata</i>, 8 to 10 in <i>Picea +excelsa</i>, 5 in <i>Taxus baccata</i>; in <i>Pinus</i> the needles usually +fall in October of their third year). The larch (<i>Larix</i>) +<span class="sidenote">Leaves.</span> +sheds its leaves in the autumn, in the Chinese larch (<i>Pseudolarix +Kaempferi</i>) the leaves turn a bright yellow colour before +falling. In the swamp cypress (<i>Taxodium distichum</i>) the tree +assumes a rich brown colour in the autumn, and sheds its leaves +together with the branchlets which bear them; deciduous branches +occur also in some other species, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Sequoia sempervirens</i> (redwood), +<i>Thuja occidentalis</i>, &c. The leaves of conifers are characterized by +their small size, <i>e.g.</i> the needle-form represented by <i>Pinus</i>, <i>Cedrus</i>, +<i>Larix</i>, &c., the linear flat or angular leaves, appressed to the branches, +of <i>Thuja</i>, <i>Cupressus</i>, <i>Libocedrus</i>, &c. The flat and comparatively +broad leaves of <i>Araucaria imbricata</i>, <i>A. Bidwillii</i>, and some species +of the southern genus <i>Podocarpus</i> are traversed by several parallel +veins, as are also the still larger leaves of <i>Agathis</i>, which may reach a +length of several inches. In addition to the foliage-leaves several +genera also possess scale-leaves of various kinds, represented by bud-scales +in <i>Pinus</i>, <i>Picea</i>, &c., which frequently persist for a time at the +base of a young shoot which has pushed its way through the yielding +cap of protecting scales, while in some conifers the bud-scales adhere +together, and after being torn near the base are carried up by the +growing axis as a thin brown cap. The cypresses, araucarias and +some other genera have no true bud-scales; in some species, <i>e.g.</i> +<i>Araucaria Bidwillii</i>, the occurrence of small foliage-leaves, which have +functioned as bud-scales, at intervals on the shoots affords a measure +of seasonal growth. The occurrence of long and short shoots is a +characteristic feature of many conifers. In <i>Pinus</i> the needles occur +in pairs, or in clusters of 3 or 5 at the apex of a small and inconspicuous +short shoot of limited growth (spur), which is enclosed at +its base by a few scale-leaves, and borne on a branch of unlimited +growth in the axil of a scale-leaf. In the Californian <i>Pinus monophylla</i> +each spur bears usually one needle, but two are not uncommon; +it would seem that rudiments of two needles are always +produced, but, as a rule, only one develops into a needle. In +<i>Sciadopitys</i> similar spurs occur, each bearing a single needle, which +in its grooved surface and in the possession of a double vascular +bundle bears traces of an origin from two needle-leaves. A peculiarity +of these leaves is the inverse orientation of the vascular tissue; each +of the two veins has its phloem next the upper and the xylem towards +the lower surface of the leaf; this unusual position of the xylem and +phloem may be explained by regarding the needle of <i>Sciadopitys</i> as +being composed of a pair of leaves borne on a short axillary shoot and +fused by their margins (fig. 15, A). Long and short shoots occur also +in <i>Cedrus</i> and <i>Larix</i>, but in these genera the spurs are longer and +stouter, and are not shed with the leaves; this kind of short shoot, by +accelerated apical growth, often passes into the condition of a long +shoot on which the leaves are scattered and separated by comparatively +long internodes, instead of being crowded into tufts such as +are borne on the ends of the spurs. In the genus <i>Phyllocladus</i> (New +Zealand, &c.) there are no green foliage-leaves, but in their place +flattened branches (phylloclades) borne in the axils of small scale-leaves. +The cotyledons are often two in number, but sometimes (<i>e.g.</i> +<i>Pinus</i>) as many as fifteen; these leaves are usually succeeded by +foliage-leaves in the form of delicate spreading needles, and these +primordial leaves are followed, sooner or later, by the adult type +of leaf, except in Retinosporas, which retain the juvenile foliage. +In addition to the first foliage-leaves and the adult type of leaf, +there are often produced leaves which are intermediate both in shape +and structure between the seedling and adult foliage. Dimorphism +or heterophylly is fairly common. One of the best known examples +is the Chinese juniper (<i>Juniperus chinensis</i>), in which branches with +spinous leaves, longer and more spreading than the ordinary adult +leaf, are often found associated with the normal type of branch. In +some cases, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Sequoia sempervirens</i>, the fertile branches bear leaves +which are less spreading than those on the vegetative shoots. Certain +species of the southern hemisphere genus <i>Dacrydium</i> afford particularly +striking instances of heterophylly, <i>e.g.</i> <i>D. Kirkii</i> of New Zealand, +in which some branches bear small and appressed leaves, while in +others the leaves are much longer and more spreading. A well-known +fossil conifer from Triassic strata—<i>Voltzia heterophylla</i>—also +illustrates a marked dissimilarity in the leaves of the same shoot. +The variation in leaf-form and the tendency of leaves to arrange +themselves in various ways on different branches of the same plant +are features which it is important to bear in mind in the identification +of fossil conifers. In this connexion we may note the striking +resemblance between some of the New Zealand Alpine Veronicas, +<i>e.g.</i> <i>Veronica Hectori</i>, <i>V. cupressoides</i>, &c. (also <i>Polycladus cupressinus</i>, +a Composite), and some of the cypresses and other conifers with +small appressed leaves. The long linear leaves of some species of +<i>Podocarpus</i>, in which the lamina is traversed by a single vein, recall +the pinnae of Cycas; the branches of some Dacrydiums and other +forms closely resemble those of lycopods; these superficial resemblances, +both between different genera of conifers and between +conifers and other plants, coupled with the usual occurrence of fossil +coniferous twigs without cones attached to them, render the determination +of extinct types a very unsatisfactory and frequently an +impossible task.</p> + +<p>A typical male flower consists of a central axis bearing numerous +spirally-arranged sporophylls (stamens), each of which consists of +a slender stalk (filament) terminating distally in a more +or less prominent knob or triangular scale, and bearing +<span class="sidenote">Flowers.</span> +two or more pollen-sacs (microsporangia) on its lower surface. The +pollen-grains of some genera (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Pinus</i>) are furnished with bladder-like +extensions of the outer wall, which serve as aids to wind-dispersal. +The stamens of <i>Araucaria</i> and <i>Agathis</i> are peculiar in bearing several +long, and narrow free pollen-sacs; these may be compared with the +sporangiophores of the horsetails (<i>Equisetum</i>); in <i>Taxus</i> (yew) the +filament is attached to the centre of a large circular distal expansion, +which bears several pollen-sacs on its under surface. In the conifers +proper the female reproductive organs have the form of cones, which +may be styled flowers or inflorescences according to different interpretations +of their morphology. In the Taxaceae the flowers have +a simpler structure. The female flowers of the <i>Abietineae</i> may be +taken as representing a common type. A pine cone reaches maturity +in two years; a single year suffices for the full development in <i>Larix</i> +and several other genera. The axis of the cone bears numerous +spirally disposed flat scales (cone-scales), each of which, if examined +in a young cone, is found to be double, and to consist of a lower and +an upper portion. The latter is a thin flat scale bearing a median +ridge or keel (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Abies</i>), on each side of which is situated an inverted +ovule, consisting of a nucellus surrounded by a single integument. +As the cone grows in size and becomes woody the lower half of the +cone-scale, which we may call the carpellary scale, may remain small, +and is so far outgrown by the upper half (seminiferous scale) that it is +hardly recognizable in the mature cone. In many species of <i>Abies</i> +(<i>e.g.</i> <i>Abies pectinata</i>, &c.) the ripe cone differs from those of <i>Pinus</i>, +<i>Picea</i> and <i>Cedrus</i> in the large size of the carpellary scales, which +project as conspicuous thin appendages beyond the distal margins of +the broader and more woody seminiferous scales; the long carpellary +scale is a prominent feature also in the cone of the Douglas pine +(<i>Pseudotsuga Douglasii</i>). The female flowers (cones) vary considerably +in size; the largest are the more or less spherical cones of +<i>Araucaria</i>—a single cone of <i>A. imbricata</i> may produce as many as +300 seeds, one seed to each fertile cone-scale—and the long pendent +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page760" id="page760"></a>760</span> +cones, 1 to 2 ft. in length, of the sugar pine of California (<i>Pinus +Lambertiana</i>) and other species. Smaller cones, less than an inch +long, occur in the larch, <i>Athrotaxis</i> (Tasmania), <i>Fitzroya</i> (Patagonia +and Tasmania), &c. In the <i>Taxodieae</i> and <i>Araucarieae</i> the cones are +similar in appearance to those of the <i>Abietineae</i>, but they differ in +the fact that the scales appear to be single, even in the young condition; +each cone-scale in a genus of the <i>Taxodiinae</i> (<i>Sequoia</i>, &c.) +bears several seeds, while in the <i>Araucariinae</i> (<i>Araucaria</i> and <i>Agathis</i>) +each scale has one seed. The <i>Cupressineae</i> have cones composed of +a few scales arranged in alternate whorls; each scale bears two or +more seeds, and shows no external sign of being composed of two +distinct portions. In the junipers the scales become fleshy as the +seeds ripen, and the individual scales fuse together in the form of +a berry. The female flowers of the Taxaceae assume another form; +in <i>Microcachrys</i> (Tasmania) the reproductive structures are spirally +disposed, and form small globular cones made up of red fleshy scales, +to each of which is attached a single ovule enclosed by an integument +and partially invested by an arillus; in <i>Dacrydium</i> the carpellary +leaves are very similar to the foliage leaves—each bears one ovule +with two integuments, the outer of which constitutes an arillus. +Finally in the yew, as a type of the family Taxeae, the ovules occur +singly at the apex of a lateral branch, enclosed when ripe by a conspicuous +red or yellow fleshy arillus, which serves as an attraction to +animals, and thus aids in the dispersal of the seeds.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:454px; height:237px" src="images/img760a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">(C and D after Worsdell.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><p><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span>—Diagrammatic treatment of:</p> + +<p>A, Double needle of <i>Sciadopitys</i> (<i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, leaves; <i>b</i>, shoot; <i>Br</i>, bract).</p> +<p>B, seminiferous scale as leaf of axillary shoot (<i>b</i>, shoot; <i>Sc</i>, seminiferous +scale; <i>Br</i>, bract).</p> +<p>C, seminiferous scale as fused pair of leaves (<i>l</i><span class="sp">1</span>, <i>l</i><span class="sp">2</span>, <i>l</i><span class="sp">3</span>, first, second +and third leaves; <i>b</i>, shoot; <i>Br</i>, bract).</p> +<p>D, cone-scale of <i>Araucaria</i> (<i>n</i>, nucellus; <i>i</i>, integument; <i>x</i>, +xylem).</p></td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:121px; height:221px" src="images/img760b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span>—Abnormal +Cone of +<i>Pinus rigida</i>. +(After Masters.)</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">It is important to draw attention to some structural features +exhibited by certain cone-scales, in which there is no external sign +indicative of the presence of a carpellary and a seminiferous +scale. In <i>Araucaria Cookii</i> and some allied species each +<span class="sidenote">Morphology of female flower.</span> +scale has a small pointed projection from its upper face +near the distal end; the scales of <i>Cunninghamia</i> (China) +are characterized by a somewhat ragged membranous +projection extending across the upper face between the seeds and the +distal end of the scale; in the scales of <i>Athrotaxis</i> (Tasmania) a +prominent rounded ridge occupies a corresponding position. These +projections and ridges may be homologous with the seminiferous +scale of the pines, firs, cedars, &c. The simplest interpretation of the +cone of the <i>Abietineae</i> is that which regards it as a flower consisting +of an axis bearing several open carpels, which in the adult cone may +be large and prominent or very small, the scale bearing the ovules +being regarded as a placental outgrowth from the flat and open carpel. +In <i>Araucaria</i> the cone-scale is regarded as consisting of a flat carpel, +of which the placenta has not grown out into the scale-like structure. +The seminiferous scale of <i>Pinus</i>, &c., is also spoken of sometimes as a +ligular outgrowth from the carpellary leaf. Robert Brown was the +first to give a clear description of the morphology of the Abietineous +cone in which carpels bear naked ovules; he recognized gymnospermy +as an important distinguishing feature in conifers as well as in +cycads. Another view is to regard the cone as an inflorescence, +each carpellary scale being a bract bearing in its axil a shoot the +axis of which has not been developed; the seminiferous scale is +believed to represent either a single leaf or a fused pair of leaves +belonging to the partially suppressed axillary shoot. In 1869 van +Tieghem laid stress on anatomical evidence as a key to the morphology +of the cone-scales; he drew attention to the fact that the collateral +vascular bundles of the seminiferous scale are inversely orientated as +compared with those of the carpellary scale; in the latter the xylem +of each bundle is next the upper surface, while in the seminiferous +scale the phloem occupies that position. The conclusion drawn from +this was that the seminiferous scale (fig. 15, B, <i>Sc</i>) is the first and only +leaf of an axillary shoot (<i>b</i>) borne on that side of the shoot, the axis +of which is suppressed, opposite the subtending bract (fig. 15, A, B, C, +<i>Br</i>). Another view is to apply to the seminiferous scale an explanation +similar to that suggested by von Mohl in the case of the double +needle of <i>Sciadopitys</i>, and to consider the seed-bearing scale as being +made up of a pair of leaves (fig. 15, A, <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>) of an axillary shoot (<i>b</i>) +fused into one by their posterior margins (fig. 15, A). The latter view +receives support from abnormal cones in which carpellary scales +subtend axillary shoots, of which the first two leaves (fig. 15, C, <i>l</i><span class="sp">1</span>, <i>l</i><span class="sp">1</span>) +are often harder and browner than the others; forms have been +described transitional between axillary shoots, in which the leaves are +separate, and others in which two of the leaves are more or less +completely fused. In a young cone the seminiferous scale appears as +a hump of tissue at the base or in the axil of the carpellary scale, but +Celakovský, a strong supporter of the axillary-bud theory, attaches +little or no importance to this kind of evidence, regarding the present +manner of development as being merely an example of a short cut +adopted in the course of evolution, and replacing the original production +of a branch in the axil of each carpellary scale. Eichler, one +of the chief supporters of the simpler view, does not recognize in the +inverse orientation of the vascular bundles an argument in support +of the axillary-bud theory, but points out that the seminiferous scale, +being an outgrowth from the surface of the carpellary scale, would, +like outgrowths from an ordinary leaf, naturally have its bundles +inversely orientated. In such cone-scales as show little or no +external indication of being double in origin, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Araucaria</i> (fig. 15, D) +Sequoia, &c., there are always two sets of bundles; the upper set, +having the phloem uppermost, as in the seminiferous scale of <i>Abies</i> +or <i>Pinus</i>, are regarded as belonging to the outgrowth from the +carpellary scale and specially developed to supply the ovules. +Monstrous cones are fairly common; these in some instances lend +support to the axillary-bud theory, and it has been said that this +theory owes its existence to evidence furnished by abnormal cones. +It is difficult to estimate the value of abnormalities as evidence +bearing on morphological interpretation; the chief danger lies +perhaps in attaching undue weight to them, but there is also a risk +of minimizing their importance. Monstrosities at least demonstrate +possible lines of development, but when the abnormal forms of growth +in various directions are fairly evenly balanced, trustworthy deductions +become difficult. The occurrence of buds in the axils of +carpellary scales may, however, simply mean that buds, which are +usually undeveloped in the axils of sporophylls, occasionally afford +evidence of their existence. Some monstrous cones lend no support +to the axillary-bud theory. In <i>Larix</i> the axis of the cone often +continues its growth; similarly in <i>Cephalotaxus</i> the cones are often +proliferous. (In rare cases the proliferated portion produces male +flowers in the leaf-axils.) In <i>Larix</i> the carpellary scale may become +leafy, and the seminiferous scale may disappear. Androgynous +cones may be produced, as in the cone of <i>Pinus rigida</i> (fig. 16), in +which the lower part bears stamens and the upper portion carpellary +and seminiferous scales. An interesting case has been figured by +Masters, in which scales of a cone of <i>Cupressus Lawsoniana</i> bear +ovules on the upper surface and stamens on the lower face. One +argument that has been adduced in support of the axillary bud theory +is derived from the Palaeozoic type <i>Cordaites</i>, in +which each ovule occurs on an axis borne in the +axil of a bract. The whole question is still unsolved, +and perhaps insoluble. It may be that +the interpretation of the female cone of the +<i>Abietineae</i> as an inflorescence, which finds favour +with many botanists, cannot be applied to the +cones of <i>Agathis</i> and <i>Araucaria</i>. Without expressing +any decided opinion as to the morphology +of the double cone-scale of the <i>Abietineae</i>, +preference may be felt in favour of regarding +the cone-scale of the <i>Araucarieae</i> as a +simple carpellary leaf bearing a single ovule. A +discussion of this question may be found in a +paper on the <i>Araucarieae</i> by Seward and Ford, +published in the Transactions of the Royal Society +of London (1906). <i>Cordaites</i> is an extinct type +which in certain respects resembles <i>Ginkgo</i>, cycads +and the <i>Araucarieae</i>, but its agreement with true +conifers is probably too remote to justify our attributing +much weight to the bearing of the morphology of its +female flowers on the interpretation of that of the Coniferae. The +greater simplicity of the Eichler theory may prejudice us in its +favour; but, on the other hand, the arguments advanced in favour +of the axillary-bud theories are perhaps not sufficiently cogent to +lead us to accept an explanation based chiefly on the uncertain +evidence of monstrosities.</p> + +<p>A pollen-grain when first formed from its mother-cell consists of +a single cell; in this condition it may be carried to the nucellus of +the ovule (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Taxus</i>, <i>Cupressus</i>, &c.), or more usually +(<i>Pinus</i>, <i>Larix</i>, &c.) it reaches maturity before the dehiscence +<span class="sidenote">Micro-spores and megaspores.</span> +of the microsporangium. The nucleus of the +microspore divides and gives rise to a small cell within +the large cell, a second small cell is then produced; this +is the structure of the ripe pollen-grain in some conifers (<i>Taxus</i>, &c.). +The large cell grows out as a pollen-tube; the second of the two +small cells (body-cell) wanders into the tube, followed by the nucleus +of the first small cell (stalk-cell). In <i>Taxus</i> the body-cell eventually +divides into two, in which the products of division are of unequal size, +the larger constituting the male generative cell, which fuses with the +nucleus of the egg-cell. In <i>Juniperus</i> the products of division of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page761" id="page761"></a>761</span> +body-cell are equal, and both function as male generative cells. In +the <i>Abietineae</i> cell-formation in the pollen-grain is carried farther. +Three small cells occur inside the cavity of the microspore; two of +them collapse and the third divides into two, forming a stalk-cell and +a larger body-cell. The latter ultimately divides in the apex of the +pollen-tube into two non-motile generative cells. Evidence has lately +been adduced of the existence of numerous nuclei in the pollen-tubes +of the <i>Araucarieae</i>, and it seems probable that in this as in several +other respects this family is distinguished from other members of the +Coniferales. The precise method of fertilization in the Scots Pine +was followed by V. H. Blackman, who also succeeded in showing that +the nuclei of the sporophyte generation contain twice as many +chromosomes as the nuclei of the gametophyte. Other observers +have in recent years demonstrated a similar relation in other genera +between the number of chromosomes in the nuclei of the two generations. +The ovule is usually surrounded by one integument, which +projects beyond the tip of the nucellus as a wide-open lobed funnel, +which at the time of pollination folds inwards, and so assists in bringing +the pollen-grains on to the nucellus. In some conifers (<i>e.g.</i> +<i>Taxus</i>, <i>Cephalotaxus</i>, <i>Dacrydium</i>, &c.) the ordinary integument is +partially enclosed by an arillus or second integument. It is held by +some botanists (Celakovský) that the seminiferous scale of the +<i>Abietineae</i> is homologous with the arillus or second integument of the +Taxaceae, but this view is too strained to gain general acceptance. +In <i>Araucaria</i> and <i>Saxegothaea</i> the nucellus itself projects beyond the +open micropyle and receives the pollen-grains direct. During the +growth of the cell which forms the megaspore the greater part of the +nucellus is absorbed, except the apical portion, which persists as a +cone above the megaspore; the partial disorganization of some of the +cells in the centre of the nucellar cone forms an irregular cavity, which +may be compared with the larger pollen-chamber of <i>Ginkgo</i> and the +cycads. In each ovule one megaspore comes to maturity, but, +exceptionally, two may be present (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Pinus sylvestris</i>). It has been +shown by Lawson that in <i>Sequoia sempervirens</i> (<i>Annals of Botany</i>, +1904) and by other workers in the genera that several megaspores +may attain a fairly large size in one prothallus. The megaspore +becomes filled with tissue (prothallus), and from some of the superficial +cells archegonia are produced, usually three to five in number, +but in rare cases ten to twenty or even sixty may be present. In the +genus <i>Sequoia</i> there may be as many as sixty archegonia (Arnoldi and +Lawson) in one megaspore; these occur either separately or in some +parts of the prothallus they may form groups as in the <i>Cupressineae</i>; +they are scattered through the prothallus instead of being confined +to the apical region as in the majority of conifers. Similarly in the +<i>Araucarieae</i> and in <i>Widdringtonia</i> the archegonia are numerous and +scattered and often sunk in the prothallus tissue. In <i>Libocedrus +decurrens</i> (Cupressineae) Lawson describes the archegonia as varying +in number from 6 to 24 (<i>Annals of Botany</i> xxi., 1907). An archegonium +consists of a large oval egg-cell surmounted by a short neck composed +of one or more tiers of cells, six to eight cells in each tier. Before +fertilization the nucleus of the egg-cell divides and cuts off a ventral +canal-cell; this cell may represent a second egg-cell. The egg-cells +of the archegonia may be in lateral contact (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Cupressineae</i>) or +separated from one another by a few cells of the prothallus, each +ovum being immediately surrounded by a layer of cells distinguished +by their granular contents and large nuclei. During the development +of the egg-cell, food material is transferred from these cells +through the pitted wall of the ovum. The tissue at the apex of the +megaspore grows slightly above the level of the archegonia, so that +the latter come to lie in a shallow depression. In the process of +fertilization the two male generative nuclei, accompanied by the +pollen-tube nucleus and that of the stalk-cell, pass through an open +pit at the apex of the pollen-tube into the protoplasm of the ovum. +After fertilization the nucleus of the egg divides, the first stages of +karyokinesis being apparent even before complete fusion of the male +and female nuclei has occurred. The result of this is the production +of four nuclei, which eventually take up a position at the bottom of +the ovum and become separated from one another by vertical cell-walls; +these nuclei divide again, and finally three tiers of cells are +produced, four in each tier. In the <i>Abietineae</i> the cells of the middle +tier elongate and push the lowest tier deeper into the endosperm; +the cells of the bottom tier may remain in lateral contact and produce +together one embryo, or they may separate (<i>Pinus</i>, <i>Juniperus</i>, &c.) +and form four potential embryos. The ripe albuminous seed contains +a single embryo with two or more cotyledons. The seeds of many +conifers are provided with large thin wings, consisting in some genera +(<i>e.g.</i> <i>Pinus</i>) of the upper cell-layers of the seminiferous scale, which +have become detached and, in some cases, adhere loosely to the seed +as a thin membrane; the loose attachment may be of use to the seeds +when they are blown against the branches of trees, in enabling them to +fall away from the wing and drop to the ground. The seeds of some +genera depend on animals for dispersal, the carpellary scale (<i>Microcachrys</i>) +or the outer integument being brightly coloured and +attractive. In some <i>Abietineae</i> (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Pinus</i> and <i>Picea</i>)—in which the +cone-scales persist for some time after the seeds are ripe—the cones +hang down and so facilitate the fall of the seeds; in <i>Cedrus</i>, <i>Araucaria</i> +and <i>Abies</i> the scales become detached and fall with the seeds, +leaving the bare vertical axis of the cone on the tree. In all cases, +except some species of <i>Araucaria</i> (sect. <i>Colymbea</i>) the germination is +epigean. The seedling plants of some Conifers (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Araucaria +imbricata</i>) are characterized by a carrot-shaped hypocotyl, which +doubtless serves as a food-reservoir.</p> + +<p>The roots of many conifers possess a narrow band of primary +xylem-tracheids with a group of narrow spiral protoxylem-elements +at each end (diarch). A striking feature in the roots of +several genera, excluding the <i>Abietineae</i>, is the occurrence +<span class="sidenote">Anatomy.</span> +of thick and somewhat irregular bands of thickening on the +cell-walls of the cortical layer next to the endodermis. These bands, +which may serve to strengthen the central cylinder, have been compared +with the netting surrounding the delicate wall of an inflated +balloon. It is not always easy to distinguish a root from a stem; +in some cases (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Sequoia</i>) the primary tetrarch structure is easily +identified in the centre of an old root, but in other cases the primary +elements are very difficult to recognize. The sudden termination of +the secondary tracheids against the pith-cells may afford evidence +of root-structure as distinct from stem-structure, in which the radial +rows of secondary tracheids pass into the irregularly-arranged +primary elements next the pith. The annual rings in a root are often +less clearly marked than in the stem, and the xylem-elements are +frequently larger and thinner. The primary vascular bundles in a +young conifer stem are collateral, and, like those of a Dicotyledon, +they are arranged in a circle round a central pith and enclosed by a +common endodermis. It is in the nature of the secondary xylem that +the Coniferales are most readily distinguished from the Dicotyledons +and Cycadaceae; the wood is homogeneous in structure, consisting +almost entirely of tracheids with circular or polygonal bordered +pits on the radial walls, more particularly in the late summer wood. +In many genera xylem-parenchyma is present, but never in great +abundance. A few Dicotyledons, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Drimys</i> (Magnoliaceae) closely +resemble conifers in the homogeneous character of the wood, but in +most cases the presence of large spring vessels, wood-fibres and +abundant parenchyma affords an obvious distinguishing feature.</p> + +<p>The abundance of petrified coniferous wood in rocks of various +ages has led many botanists to investigate the structure of modern +genera with a view to determining how far anatomical characters +may be used as evidence of generic distinctions. There are a few +well-marked types of wood which serve as convenient standards of +comparison, but these cannot be used except in a few cases to distinguish +individual genera. The genus <i>Pinus</i> serves as an illustration +of wood of a distinct type characterized by the absence of xylem-parenchyma, +except such as is associated with the numerous resin-canals +that occur abundantly in the wood, cortex and medullary +rays; the medullary rays are composed of parenchyma and of +horizontal tracheids with irregular ingrowths from their walls. In +a radial section of a pine stem each ray is seen to consist in the +median part of a few rows of parenchymatous cells with large oval +simple pits in their walls, accompanied above and below by horizontal +tracheids with bordered pits. The pits in the radial walls of the +ordinary xylem-tracheids occur in a single row or in a double row, +of which the pits are not in contact, and those of the two rows are +placed on the same level. The medullary rays usually consist of a +single tier of cells, but in the <i>Pinus</i> type of wood broader medullary +rays also occur and are traversed by horizontal resin-canals. In the +wood of <i>Cypressus</i>, <i>Cedrus</i>, <i>Abies</i> and several other genera, parenchymatous +cells occur in association with the xylem-tracheids and take +the place of the resin-canals of other types. In the Araucarian type +of wood (<i>Araucaria</i> and <i>Agathis</i>) the bordered pits, which occur in +two or three rows on the radial walls of the tracheids, are in mutual +contact and polygonal in shape, the pits of the different rows are +alternate and not on the same level; in this type of wood the annual +rings are often much less distinct than in <i>Cupressus</i>, <i>Pinus</i> and other +genera. In <i>Taxus</i>, <i>Torreya</i> (California and the Far East) and <i>Cephalotaxus</i> +the absence of resin-canals and the presence of spiral thickening-bands +on the tracheids constitute well-marked characteristics. An +examination of the wood of branches, stems and roots of the +same species or individual usually reveals a fairly wide variation in +some of the characters, such as the abundance and size of the +medullary rays, the size and arrangement of pits, the presence of +wood-parenchyma—characters to which undue importance has often +been attached in systematic anatomical work. The phloem consists +of sieve-tubes, with pitted areas on the lateral as well as on the +inclined terminal walls, phloem-parenchyma and, in some genera, +fibres. In the <i>Abietineae</i> the phloem consists of parenchyma and +sieve-tubes only, but in most other forms tangential rows of fibres +occur in regular alternation with the parenchyma and sieve-tubes. +The characteristic companion-cells of Angiosperms are represented by +phloem-parenchyma cells with albuminous contents; other parenchymatous +elements of the bast contain starch or crystals of calcium +oxalate. When tracheids occur in the medullary rays of the xylem +these are replaced in the phloem-region by irregular parenchymatous +cells known as albuminous cells. Resin-canals, which occur abundantly +in the xylem, phloem or cortex, are not found in the wood +of the yew. <i>Cephalotaxus</i> (<i>Taxeae</i>) is also peculiar in having resin-canals +in the pith (cf. <i>Ginkgo</i>). One form of <i>Cephalotaxus</i> is +characterized by the presence of short tracheids in the pith, in shape +like ordinary parenchyma, but in the possession of bordered pits and +lignified walls agreeing with ordinary xylem-tracheids; it is probable +that these short tracheids serve as reservoirs for storing rather than +for conducting water. The vascular bundle entering the stem from a +leaf with a single vein passes by a more or less direct course into the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page762" id="page762"></a>762</span> +central cylinder of the stem, and does not assume the girdle-like form +characteristic of the cycadean leaf-trace. In species of which the +leaves have more than one vein (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Araucaria imbricata</i>, &c.) the +leaf-trace leaves the stele of the stem as a single bundle which splits +up into several strands in its course through the cortex. In the wood +of some conifers, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Araucaria</i>, the leaf-traces persist for a considerable +time, perhaps indefinitely, and may be seen in tangential +sections of the wood of old stems. The leaf-trace in the Coniferales +is simple in its course through the stem, differing in this respect from +the double leaf-trace of <i>Ginkgo</i>. A detailed account of the anatomical +characters of conifers has been published by Professor +D. P. Penhallow of Montreal and Dr. Gothan of Berlin which +will be found useful for diagnostic purposes. The characters of +leaves most useful for diagnostic purposes are the position of the +stomata, the presence and arrangement of resin-canals, the structure +of the mesophyll and vascular bundles. The presence of hypodermal +fibres is another feature worthy of note, but the occurrence of these +elements is too closely connected with external conditions to be of +much systematic value. A pine needle grown in continuous light +differs from one grown under ordinary conditions in the absence of +hypodermal fibres, in the absence of the characteristic infoldings of +the mesophyll cell-walls, in the smaller size of the resin-canals, &c. +The endodermis in <i>Pinus</i>, <i>Picea</i> and many other genera is usually +a well-defined layer of cells enclosing the vascular bundles, and +separated from them by a tissue consisting in part of ordinary parenchyma +and to some extent of isodiametric tracheids; but this +tissue, usually spoken of as the pericycle, is in direct continuity with +other stem-tissues as well as the pericycle. The occurrence of short +tracheids in close proximity to the veins is a characteristic of coniferous +leaves; these elements assume two distinct forms—(1) the short +isodiametric tracheids (transfusion-tracheids) closely associated with +the veins; (2) longer tracheids extending across the mesophyll at +right angles to the veins, and no doubt functioning as representatives +of lateral veins. It has been suggested that transfusion-tracheids +represent, in part at least, the centripetal xylem, which forms a +distinctive feature of cycadean leaf-bundles; these short tracheids +form conspicuous groups laterally attached to the veins in <i>Cunninghamia</i>, +abundantly represented in a similar position in the leaves of +<i>Sequoia</i>, and scattered through the so-called pericycle in <i>Pinus</i>, +<i>Picea</i>, &c. It is of interest to note the occurrence of precisely similar +elements in the mesophyll of <i>Lepidodendron</i> leaves. An anatomical +peculiarity in the veins of <i>Pinus</i> and several other genera is the continuity +of the medullary rays, which extend as continuous plates from +one end of the leaf to the other. The mesophyll of <i>Pinus</i> and <i>Cedrus</i> +is characterized by its homogeneous character and by the presence +of infoldings of the cell-walls. In many leaves, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Abies</i>, <i>Tsuga</i>, +<i>Larix</i>, &c., the mesophyll is heterogeneous, consisting of palisade and +spongy parenchyma. In the leaves of <i>Araucaria imbricata</i>, in which +palisade-tissue occurs in both the upper and lower part of the +mesophyll, the resin-canals are placed between the veins; in some +species of <i>Podocarpus</i> (sect. <i>Nageia</i>) a canal occurs below each vein; +in <i>Tsuga</i>, <i>Torreya</i>, <i>Cephalotaxus</i>, <i>Sequoia</i>, &c., a single canal occurs +below the midrib; in <i>Larix</i>, <i>Abies</i>, &c., two canals run through the +leaf parallel to the margins. The stomata are frequently arranged in +rows, their position being marked by two white bands of wax on the +leaf-surface.</p> + +<p>The chief home of the Coniferales is in the northern hemisphere, +where certain species occasionally extend into the Arctic circle +and penetrate beyond the northern limit of dicotyledonous +trees. Wide areas are often exclusively occupied by +<span class="sidenote">Distribution.</span> +conifers, which give the landscape a sombre aspect, +suggesting a comparison with the forest vegetation of the Coal +period. South of the tree-limit a belt of conifers stretches across +north Europe, Siberia and Canada. In northern Europe this belt +is characterized by such species as <i>Picea excelsa</i> (spruce), which +extends south to the mountains of the Mediterranean region; <i>Pinus +sylvestris</i> (Scottish fir), reaching from the far north to western Spain, +Persia and Asia Minor; <i>Juniperus communis</i>, &c. In north Siberia +<i>Pinus Cembra</i> (Cembra or Arolla Pine) has a wide range; also <i>Abies +sibirica</i> (Siberian silver fir), <i>Larix sibirica</i> and <i>Juniperus Sabina</i> (savin). +In the North American area <i>Picea alba</i>, <i>P. nigra</i>, <i>Larix americana</i>, +<i>Abies balsamea</i> (balsam fir), <i>Tsuga canadensis</i> (hemlock spruce), +<i>Pinus Strobus</i> (Weymouth pine), <i>Thuja occidentalis</i> (white cedar), +<i>Taxus canadensis</i> are characteristic species. In the Mediterranean +region occur <i>Cupressus sempervirens</i>, <i>Pinus Pinea</i> (stone pine), +species of juniper, <i>Cedrus atlantica</i>, <i>C. Libani</i>, <i>Callitris quadrivalvis</i>, +<i>Pinus montana</i>, &c. Several conifers of economic importance are +abundant on the Atlantic side of North America—<i>Juniperus virginiana</i> +(red cedar, used in the manufacture of lead pencils, and extending +as far south as Florida), <i>Taxodium distichum</i> (swamp cypress), +<i>Pinus rigida</i> (pitch pine), <i>P. mitis</i> (yellow pine), <i>P. taeda</i>, <i>P. palustris</i>, +&c. On the west side of the American continent conifers play a still +more striking rôle; among them are <i>Chamaecyparis nutkaensis</i>, +<i>Picea sitchensis</i>, <i>Libocedrus decurrens</i>, <i>Pseudotsuga Douglasii</i> (Douglas +fir), <i>Sequoia sempervirens</i>, <i>S. gigantea</i> (the only two surviving species +of this generic type are now confined to a few localities in California, +but were formerly widely spread in Europe and elsewhere), <i>Pinus +Coulteri</i>, <i>P. Lambertiana</i>, &c. Farther south, a few representatives +of such genera as <i>Abies</i>, <i>Cupressus</i>, <i>Pinus</i> and juniper are found in +the Mexican Highlands, tropical America and the West Indies. In +the far East conifers are richly represented; among them occur +<i>Pinus densiflora</i>, <i>Cryptomeria japonica</i>, <i>Cephalotaxus</i>, species of <i>Abies</i>, +<i>Larix</i>, <i>Thujopsis</i>, <i>Sciadopitys verticillata</i>, <i>Pseudolarix Kaempferi</i>, +&c. In the Himalaya occur <i>Cedrus deodara</i>, <i>Taxus</i>, species of +<i>Cupressus</i>, <i>Pinus excelsa</i>, <i>Abies Webbiana</i>, &c. The continent of +Africa is singularly poor in conifers. <i>Cedrus atlantica</i>, a variety of +<i>Abies Pinsapo</i>, <i>Juniperus thurifera</i>, <i>Callitris quadrivalvis</i>, occur in +the north-west region, which may be regarded as the southern limit +of the Mediterranean region. The greater part of Africa north of the +equator is without any representatives of the conifers; <i>Juniperus +procera</i> flourishes in Somaliland and on the mountains of Abyssinia; +a species of <i>Podocarpus</i> occurs on the Cameroon mountains, and +<i>P. milanjiana</i> is widely distributed in east tropical Africa. <i>Widdringtonia +Whytei</i>, a species closely allied to <i>W. juniperoides</i> of the Cedarberg +mountains of Cape Colony, is recorded from Nyassaland and from +N.E. Rhodesia; while a third species, <i>W. cupressoides</i>, occurs in +Cape Colony. <i>Podocarpus elongata</i> and <i>P. Thunbergii</i> (yellow wood) +form the principal timber trees in the belt of forest which stretches +from the coast mountains of Cape Colony to the north-east of the +Transvaal. <i>Libocedrus tetragona</i>, <i>Fitzroya patagonica</i>, <i>Araucaria +brasiliensis</i>, <i>A. imbricata</i>, <i>Saxegothaea</i> and others are met with in +the Andes and other regions in South America. <i>Athrotaxis</i> and +<i>Microcachrys</i> are characteristic Australian types. <i>Phyllocladus</i> +occurs also in New Zealand, and species of <i>Dacrydium</i>, <i>Araucaria</i>, +<i>Agathis</i> and <i>Podocarpus</i> are represented in Australia, New Zealand +and the Malay regions.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Gnetales.</span>—These are trees or shrubs with simple leaves. The +flowers are dioecious, rarely monoecious, provided with one or two +perianths. The wood is characterized by the presence of vessels in +addition to tracheids. There are no resin-canals. The three existing +genera, usually spoken of as members of the Gnetales, differ from one +another more than is consistent with their inclusion in a single +family; we may therefore better express their diverse characters by +regarding them as types of three separate families—(1) <i>Ephedroideae</i>, +genus <i>Ephedra</i>; (2) <i>Welwitschioideae</i>, genus <i>Welwitschia</i>; (3) +<i>Gnetoideae</i>, genus <i>Gnetum</i>. Our knowledge of the Gnetales leaves +much to be desired, but such facts as we possess would seem to +indicate that this group is of special importance as foreshadowing, +more than any other Gymnosperms, the Angiospermous type. In +the more heterogeneous structure of the wood and in the possession +of true vessels the Gnetales agree closely with the higher flowering +plants. It is of interest to note that the leaves of <i>Gnetum</i>, while +typically Dicotyledonous in appearance, possess a Gymnospermous +character in the continuous and plate-like medullary rays of their +vascular bundles. The presence of a perianth is a feature suggestive +of an approach to the floral structure of Angiosperms; the prolongation +of the integument furnishes the flowers with a substitute for a +stigma and style. The genus <i>Ephedra</i>, with its prothallus and archegonia, +which are similar to those of other Gymnosperms, may be +safely regarded as the most primitive of the Gnetales. In <i>Welwitschia</i> +also the megaspore is filled with prothallus-tissue, but single egg-cells +take the place of archegonia. In certain species of <i>Gnetum</i> described +by Karsten the megaspore contains a peripheral layer of protoplasm, +in which scattered nuclei represent the female reproductive cells; +in <i>Gnetum Gnemon</i> a similar state of things exists in the upper half +of the megaspore, while the lower half agrees with the megaspore of +<i>Welwitschia</i> in being full of prothallus-tissue, which serves merely as +a reservoir of food. Lotsy has described the occurrence of special +cells at the apex of the prothallus of <i>Gnetum Gnemon</i>, which he regards +as imperfect archegonia (fig. 17, C, <i>a</i>); he suggests they may represent +vestigial structures pointing back to some ancestral form beyond the +limits of the present group. The Gnetales probably had a separate +origin from the other Gymnosperms; they carry us nearer to the +Angiosperms, but we have as yet no satisfactory evidence that they +represent a stage in the direct line of Angiospermic evolution. It is +not improbable that the three genera of this ancient phylum survive +as types of a blindly-ending branch of the Gymnosperms; but be +that as it may, it is in the Gnetales more than in any other Gymnosperms +that we find features which help us to obtain a dim prospect +of the lines along which the Angiosperms may have been evolved.</p> + +<p><i>Ephedra.</i>—This genus is the only member of the Gnetales represented +in Europe. Its species, which are characteristic of warm +temperate latitudes, are usually much-branched shrubs. The finer +branches are green, and bear a close resemblance to the stems of +Equisetum and to the slender twigs of <i>Casuarina</i>; the surface of the +long internodes is marked by fine longitudinal ribs, and at the nodes +are borne pairs of inconspicuous scale-leaves. The flowers are small, +and borne on axillary shoots. A single male flower consists of an +axis enclosed at the base by an inconspicuous perianth formed of two +concrescent leaves and terminating in two, or as many as eight, +shortly stalked or sessile anthers. The female flower is enveloped in +a closely fitting sac-like investment, which must be regarded as a +perianth; within this is an orthotropous ovule surrounded by a single +integument prolonged upwards as a beak-like micropyle. The flower +may be described as a bud bearing a pair of leaves which become +fused and constitute a perianth, the apex of the shoot forming an +ovule. In function the perianth may be compared with a unilocular +ovary containing a single ovule; the projecting integument, which +at the time of pollination secretes a drop of liquid, serves the same +purpose as the style and stigma of an angiosperm. The megaspore +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page763" id="page763"></a>763</span> +is filled with tissue as in typical Gymnosperms, and from some of the +superficial cells 3 to 5 archegonia are developed, characterized by +long multicellular necks. The archegonia are separated from one +another, as in <i>Pinus</i>, by some of the prothallus-tissue, and the cells +next the egg-cells (tapetal layer) contribute food-material to their +development. After fertilization, some of the uppermost bracts +below each flower become red and fleshy; the perianth develops into +a woody shell, while the integument remains membranous. In some +species of <i>Ephedra</i>, <i>e.g.</i> <i>E. altissima</i>, the fertilized eggs grow into +tubular proembryos, from the tip of each of which embryos begin to +be developed, but one only comes to maturity. In <i>Ephedra helvetica</i>, +as described by Jaccard, no proembryo or suspensor is formed; but +the most vigorous fertilized egg, after undergoing several divisions, +becomes attached to a tissue, termed the columella, which serves the +purpose of a primary suspensor; the columella appears to be formed +by the lignification of certain cells in the central region of the embryo-sac. +At a later stage some of the cells in the upper (micropylar) +end of the embryo divide and undergo considerable elongation, +serving the purpose of a secondary suspensor. The secondary wood +of <i>Ephedra</i> consists of tracheids, vessels and parenchyma; the +vessels are characterized by their wide lumen and by the large simple +or slightly-bordered pits on their oblique end-walls.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:454px; height:344px" src="images/img763.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span>—<i>Gnetum Gnemon.</i> (After Lotsy.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>A, Female Flower. a, Imperfect Archegonia.</p> +<p><i>n</i>, Nucellus. e, Partially developed Megaspore.</p> +<p><i>pc</i>, Pollen-chamber. F, Fertile half.</p> +<p><i>i</i>, Integument. S, Sterile half.</p> +<p><i>p</i>′, Inner Perianth. pt, Pollen-tube.</p> +<p><i>p</i>″, Outer Perianth. z, Zygote.</p> +<p>B, C, Megaspore. z′, Prothallus.</p></td> +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>a</i>, Imperfect Archegonia.</p> +<p><i>e</i>, Partially developed Megaspore.</p> +<p><i>F</i>, Fertile half.</p> +<p><i>S</i>, Sterile half.</p> +<p><i>pt</i>, Pollen-tube.</p> +<p><i>z</i>, Zygote.</p> +<p><i>z</i>′, Prothallus.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2"><i>Gnetum.</i>—This genus is represented by several species, most of +which are climbing plants, both in tropical America and in warm +regions of the Old World. The leaves, which are borne in pairs at +the tumid nodes, are oval in form and have a Dicotyledonous type +of venation. The male and female inflorescences have the form of +simple or paniculate spikes. The spike of an inflorescence bears +whorls of flowers at each node in the axils of concrescent bracts +accompanied by numerous sterile hairs (paraphyses); in a male +inflorescence numerous flowers occur at each node, while in a female +inflorescence the number of flowers at each node is much smaller. +A male flower consists of a single angular perianth, through the open +apex of which the flower-axis projects as a slender column terminating +in two anthers. The female flowers, which are more complex in +structure, are of two types, complete and incomplete; the latter +occur in association with male flowers in a male inflorescence. A +complete female flower consists of a nucellus (fig. 17, A, <i>n</i>), surrounded +by a single integument (fig. 17, A, <i>i</i>), prolonged upwards as a narrow +tube and succeeded by an inner and an outer perianth (fig. 17, A, +<i>p</i>′ and <i>p</i>″). The whole flower may be looked upon as an adventitious +bud bearing two pairs of leaves; each pair becomes concrescent and +forms a perianth, the apex of the shoot being converted into an +orthotropous ovule. The incomplete female flowers are characterized +by the almost complete suppression of the inner perianth. +Several embryo-sacs (megaspores) are present in the nucellus of a +young ovule, but one only attains full size, the smaller and partially +developed megaspores (fig. 17, B and C, <i>e</i>) being usually found in close +association with the surviving and fully-grown megaspore. In +<i>Gnetum Gnemon</i>, as described by Lotsy, a mature embryo-sac contains +in the upper part a large central vacuole and a peripheral layer +of protoplasm, including several nuclei, which take the place of the +archegonia of <i>Ephedra</i>; the lower part of the embryo-sac, separated +from the upper by a constriction, is full of parenchyma. The upper +part of the megaspore may be spoken of as the fertile half (fig. 17, B +and C, <i>F</i>) and the lower part, which serves only as food-reservoir +for the growing embryo, may be termed the sterile half (fig. 17, B and +C, <i>S</i>). (Coulter, <i>Bot. Gazette</i>, xlvi., 1908, regards this tissue as belonging +to the nucellus.) At the time of pollination the long tubular +integument secretes a drop of fluid at its apex, which holds the +pollen-grains, brought by the wind, or possibly to some extent by +insect agency, and by evaporation these are drawn on to the top of +the nucellus, where partial disorganization of the cells has given rise +to an irregular pollen-chamber (fig. 17, A, <i>pc</i>). The pollen-tube, +containing two generative and one vegetative nucleus, pierces the +wall of the megaspore and then becomes swollen (fig. 17, B and C, +<i>pt</i>); finally the two generative nuclei pass out of the tube and fuse +with two of the nuclei in the fertile half of the megaspore. As the +result of fertilization, the fertilized nuclei of the megaspore become +surrounded by a cell-wall, and constitute zygotes, which may attach +themselves either to the wall of the megaspore or to the end of a +pollen-tube (fig. 17, C, <i>z</i> and <i>z</i>′); they then grow into long tubes or +proembryos, which make their way towards the prothallus (C, <i>z</i>′), +and eventually embryos are formed from the ends of the proembryo +tubes. One embryo only comes to maturity. The embryo of +<i>Gnetum</i> forms an out-growth from the hypocotyl, which serves as a +feeder and draws nourishment from the prothallus. The fleshy outer +portion of the seed is formed from the outer perianth, the woody +shell being derived from the inner perianth. The climbing species +of <i>Gnetum</i> are characterized by the production of several concentric +cylinders of secondary wood and bast, the additional cambium-rings +being products of the pericycle, as in <i>Cycas</i> and <i>Macrozamia</i>. The +structure of the wood agrees in the main with that of <i>Ephedra</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Welwitschia</i> (<i>Tumboa</i>).—This is by far the most remarkable +member of the Gnetales, both as regards habit and the form of its +flowers. In a supplement to the systematic work of Engler and +Prantl the well-known name <i>Welwitschia</i>, instituted by Hooker in +1864 in honour of Welwitsch, the discoverer of the plant, is superseded +by that of <i>Tumboa</i>, originally suggested by Welwitsch. The +genus is confined to certain localities in Damaraland and adjoining +territory on the west coast of tropical South Africa. A well-grown +plant projects less than a foot above the surface of the ground; the +stem, which may have a circumference of more than 12 ft., terminates +in a depressed crown resembling a circular table with a median groove +across the centre and prominent broad ridges concentric with the +margin. The thick tuberous stem becomes rapidly narrower, and +passes gradually downwards into a tap-root. A pair of small strap-shaped +leaves succeed the two cotyledons of the seedling, and persist +as the only leaves during the life of the plant; they retain the power +of growth in their basal portion, which is sunk in a narrow groove near +the edge of the crown, and the tough lamina, 6 ft. in length, becomes +split into narrow strap-shaped or thong-like strips which trail on the +ground. Numerous circular pits occur on the concentric ridges of the +depressed and wrinkled crown, marking the position of former +inflorescences borne in the leaf-axil at different stages in the growth +of the plant. An inflorescence has the form of a dichotomously-branched +cyme bearing small erect cones; those containing the +female flowers attain the size of a fir-cone, and are scarlet in colour. +Each cone consists of an axis, on which numerous broad and thin +bracts are arranged in regular rows; in the axil of each bract occurs +a single flower; a male flower is enclosed by two opposite pairs of +leaves, forming a perianth surrounding a central sterile ovule encircled +by a ring of stamens united below, but free distally as short +filaments, each of which terminates in a trilocular anther. The +integument of the sterile ovule is prolonged above the nucellus as a +spirally-twisted tube expanded at its apex into a flat stigma-like +organ. A complete and functional female flower consists of a single +ovule with two integuments, the inner of which is prolonged into a +narrow tubular micropyle, like that in the flower of <i>Gnetum</i>. The +megaspore of <i>Welwitschia</i> is filled with a prothallus-tissue before +fertilization, and some of the prothallus-cells function as egg-cells; +these grow upwards as long tubes into the apical region of the +nucellus, where they come into contact with the pollen-tubes. +After the egg-cells have been fertilized by the non-motile male cells +they grow into tubular proembryos, producing terminal embryos. +The stem is traversed by numerous collateral bundles, which have a +limited growth, and are constantly replaced by new bundles developed +from strands of secondary meristem. One of the best-known +anatomical characteristics of the genus is the occurrence of +numerous spindle-shaped or branched fibres with enormously-thickened +walls studded with crystals of calcium oxalate. Additional +information has been published by Professor Pearson of Cape Town +based on material collected in Damaraland in 1904 and 1906-1907. +In 1906 he gave an account of the early stages of development of the +male and female organs and, among other interesting statements in +regard to the general biology of <i>Welwitschia</i>, he expressed the +opinion that, as Hooker suspected, the ovules are pollinated by +insect-agency. In a later paper Pearson considerably extended our +knowledge of the reproduction and gametophyte of this genus.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—<b>General</b>: Bentham and Hooker, <i>Genera Plantarum</i> +(London, 1862-1883); Engler and Prantl, <i>Die natürlichen +Pflanzenfamilien</i> (Leipzig, 1889 and 1897); Strasburger, <i>Die +Coniferen und Gnetaceen</i> (Jena, 1872); <i>Die Angiospermen und die +Gymnospermen</i> (Jena, 1879); <i>Histologische Beiträge</i>, iv. (Jena, 1892); +Coulter and Chamberlain, <i>Morphology of Spermatophytes</i> (New York, +1901); Rendle, <i>The Classification of Flowering Plants</i>, vol. i. (Cambridge, +1904); “The Origin of Gymnosperms” (A discussion at +the Linnean Society; <i>New Phytologist</i>, vol. v., 1906). <b>Cycadales</b>: +Mettenius, “Beiträge zur Anatomie der Cycadeen,” <i>Abh. k. sächs</i>. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page764" id="page764"></a>764</span> +<i>Ges. Wiss.</i> (1860); Treub, “Recherches sur les Cycadées,” <i>Ann. +Bot. Jard. Buitenzorg</i>, ii. (1884); Solms-Laubach, “Die Sprossfolge +der Stangeria, &c.,” <i>Bot. Zeit.</i> xlviii. (1896); Worsdell, “Anatomy +of Macrozamia,” <i>Ann. Bot.</i> x. (1896) (also papers by the same +author, <i>Ann. Bot.</i>, 1898, <i>Trans. Linn. Soc.</i> v., 1900); Scott, “The Anatomical +Characters presented by the Peduncle of Cycadaceae,” Ann. +Bot. xi. (1897); Lang, “Studies in the Development and Morphology +of Cycadean Sporangia, No. I.,” Ann. Bot. xi. (1897); No. II., <i>Ann. +Bot.</i> xiv. (1900); Webber, “Development of the Antherozoids of +Zamia,” Bot. Gaz. (1897); Ikeno, “Untersuchungen über die +Entwickelung, &c., bei Cycas revoluta,” <i>Journ. Coll. Sci. Japan</i>, +xii. (1898); Wieland, “American Fossil Cycads,” Carnegie Institution +Publication (1906); Stopes, “Beiträge zur Kenntnis der +Fortpflanzungsorgane der Cycadeen,” <i>Flora</i> (1904); Caldwell, +“Microcycas Calocoma,” <i>Bot. Gaz.</i> xliv., 1907 (also papers on +this and other Cycads in the <i>Bot. Gaz.</i>, 1907-1909); Matte, <i>Recherches +sur l’appareil libéro-ligneux des Cycadacées</i> (Caen, 1904). +<b>Ginkgoales</b>: Hirase, “Études sur la fécondation, &c., de Ginkgo +biloba,” <i>Journ. Coll. Sci. Japan</i>, xii. (1898); Seward and Gowan, +“Ginkgo biloba,” <i>Ann. Bot.</i> xiv. (1900) (with bibliography); Ikeno, +“Contribution à l’étude de la fécondation chez le Ginkgo biloba,” +<i>Ann. Sci. Nat.</i> xiii. (1901); Sprecher, <i>Le Ginkgo biloba</i> (Geneva, +1907). <b>Coniferales</b>: “Report of the Conifer Conference” (1891) +<i>Journ. R. Hort. Soc.</i> xiv. (1892); Beissner, <i>Handbuch der Nadelholzkunde</i> +(Berlin, 1891); Masters, “Comparative Morphology of the +Coniferae,” <i>Journ. Linn. Soc.</i> xxvii. (1891); ibid. (1896), &c.; +Penhallow, “The Generic Characters of the North American Taxaceae +and Coniferae,” <i>Proc. and Trans. R. Soc. Canada</i>, ii. (1896); Blackman, +“Fertilization in Pinus sylvestris,” <i>Phil. Trans.</i> (1898) (with +bibliography); Worsdell, “Structure of the Female Flowers in +Conifers,” <i>Ann. Bot.</i> xiv. (1900) (with bibliography); ibid. (1899); +Veitch, <i>Manual of the Coniferae</i> (London, 1900); Penhallow, +“Anatomy of North American Coniferales,” <i>American Naturalist</i> +(1904); Engler and Pilger, <i>Das Pflanzenreich, Taxaceae</i> (1903); +Seward and Ford, “The Araucarieae, recent and extinct,” <i>Phil. +Trans. R. Soc.</i> (1906) (with bibliography); Lawson, “Sequoia +sempervirens,” <i>Annals of Botany</i> (1904); Robertson, “Torreya +Californica,” <i>New Phytologist</i> (1904); Coker, “Gametophyte and +Embryo of Taxodium,” <i>Bot. Gazette</i> (1903); E. C. Jeffrey, “The +Comparative Anatomy and Phylogeny of the Coniferales, part i. +The Genus Sequoia,” <i>Mem. Boston Nat. Hist. Soc.</i> v. No. 10 (1903); +Gothan, “Zur Anatomie lebender und fossiler Gymnospermen-Hölzer,” +<i>K. Preuss. Geol. Landes.</i> (Berlin, 1905) (for more recent papers, +see <i>Ann. Bot., New Phytologist</i>, and <i>Bot. Gazette</i>, 1906-1909). <b>Gnetales</b>: +Hooker, “On Welwitschia mirabilis.” <i>Trans. Linn. Soc.</i> xxiv. (1864); +Bower, “Germination, &., in Gnetum,” <i>Journ. Mic. Sci.</i> xxii. (1882); +ibid. (1881); Jaccard, “Recherches embryologiques sur <i>l’Ephedra +helvetica</i>,” <i>Diss. Inaug. Lausanne</i> (1894); Karsten, “Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte +der Gattung Gnetum,” <i>Cohn’s Beiträge</i>, vi. (1893); +Lotsy, “Contributions to the Life-History of the genus Gnetum,” <i>Ann. +Bot. Jard. Buitenzorg</i>, xvi. (1899); Land, “Ephedra trifurca,” <i>Bot. +Gazette</i> (1904); Pearson, “Some observations on Welwitschia mirabilis,” +<i>Phil. Trans. R. Soc.</i> (1906); Pearson, “Further Observations +on Welwitschia,” <i>Phil. Trans. R. Soc.</i> vol. 200 (1909).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. C. Se.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GYMNOSTOMACEAE,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> an order of Ciliate Infusoria (<i>q.v.</i>), +characterized by a closed mouth, which only opens to swallow +food actively, and body cilia forming a general or partial investment +(rarely represented by a girdle of membranellae), but not +differentiated in different regions. With the Aspirotrochaceae +(<i>q.v.</i>) it formed the Holotricha of Stein.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GYMPIE,<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> a mining town of March county, Queensland, +Australia, 107 m. N. of Brisbane, and 61 m. S. of Maryborough +by rail. Pop. (1901) 11,959. Numerous gold mines are worked +in the district, which also abounds in copper, silver, antimony, +cinnabar, bismuth and nickel. Extensive undeveloped coal-beds +lie 40 m. N. at Miva. Gympie became a municipality in 1880.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GYNAECEUM<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="gynaikeion">γυναικεῖον</span>, from <span class="grk" title="gynê">γυνή</span>, woman), that part +in a Greek house which was specially reserved for the women, +in contradistinction to the “andron,” the men’s quarters; +in the larger houses there was an open court with peristyles +round, and as a rule all the rooms were on the same level; in +smaller houses the servants were placed in an upper storey, +and this seems to have been the case to a certain extent in the +Homeric house of the Odyssey. “Gynaeconitis” is the term +given by Procopius to the space reserved for women in the +Eastern Church, and this separation of the sexes was maintained +in the early Christian churches where there were separate +entrances and accommodation for the men and women, the latter +being placed in the triforium gallery, or, in its absence, either +on one side of the church, the men being on the other, or occasionally +in the aisles, the nave being occupied by the men.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GYNAECOLOGY<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="gynê, gynaikos">γυνή, γυναικός</span>, a woman, and +<span class="grk" title="logos">λόγος</span>, discourse), the name given to that branch of medicine +which concerns the pathology and treatment of affections +peculiar to the female sex.</p> + +<p>Gynaecology may be said to be one of the most ancient +branches of medicine. The papyrus of Ebers, which is one of +the oldest known works on medicine and dates from 1550 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +contains references to diseases of women, and it is recorded that +specialism in this branch was known amongst Egyptian medical +practitioners. The Vedas contain a list of therapeutic agents +used in the treatment of gynaecological diseases. The treatises +on gynaecology formerly attributed to Hippocrates (460 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) +are now said to be spurious, but the wording of the famous +oath shows that he was at least familiar with the use of gynaecological +instruments. Diocles Carystius, of the Alexandrian +school (4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), practised this branch, and Praxagoras +of Cos, who lived shortly after, opened the abdomen by +laparotomy. While the Alexandrine school represented Greek +medicine, Greeks began to practise in Rome, and in the first +years of the Christian era gynaecologists were much in demand +(Häser). A speculum for gynaecological purposes has been +found in the ruins of Pompeii, and votive offerings of anatomical +parts found in the temples show that various gynaecological +malformations were known to the ancients. Writers who have +treated of this branch are Celsus (50 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>-<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 7) and Soranus +of Ephesus (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 98-138), who refers in his works to the fact +that the Roman midwives frequently called to their aid practitioners +who made a special study of diseases of women. These +midwives attended the simpler gynaecological ailments. This +was no innovation, as in Athens, as mentioned by Hyginus, +we find one Agnodice, a midwife, disguising herself in man’s +attire so that she might attend lectures on medicine and diseases +of women. After instruction she practised as a gynaecologist. +This being contrary to Athenian law she was prosecuted, but +was saved by the wives of some of the chief men testifying on +her behalf. Besides Agnodice we have Sotira, who wrote a +work on menstruation which is preserved in the library at +Florence, while Aspasia is mentioned by Aetius as the author +of several chapters of his work. It is evident that during the +Roman period much of the gynaecological work was in the +hands of women. Martial alludes to the “<i>feminae medicae</i>” +in his epigram on Leda. These women must not be confounded +with the midwives who on monuments are always described as +“obstetrices.” Galen devotes the sixth chapter of his work +<i>De locis affectis</i> to gynaecological ailments. During the +Byzantine period may be mentioned the work of Oribasius +(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 325) and Moschion (2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>) who wrote a book +in Latin for the use of matrons and midwives ignorant of Greek.</p> + +<p>In modern times James Parsons (1705-1770) published his +<i>Elenchus gynaicopathologicus et obstetricarius</i>, and in 1755 Charles +Perry published his <i>Mechanical account and explication of the +hysterical passion and of all other nervous disorders incident to +the sex, with an appendix on cancers</i>. In the early part of the +19th century fresh interest in diseases of women awakened. +Joseph Récamier (1774-1852) by his writings and teachings +advocated the use of the speculum and sound. This was followed +in 1840 by the writings of Simpson in England and Huguier in +France. In 1845 John Hughes Bennett published his great work +on inflammation of the uterus, and in 1850 Tilt published his +book on ovarian inflammation. The credit of being the first to +perform the operation of ovariotomy is now credited to McDowell +of Kentucky in 1809, and to Robert Lawson Tait (1845-1899) +in 1883 the first operation for ruptured ectopic gestation.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Menstruation.</i>—Normal menstruation comprises the escape of from +4 to 6 oz. of blood together with mucus from the uterus at intervals +of twenty-eight days (more or less). The flow begins at the age of +puberty, the average age of which in England is between fourteen +and sixteen years. It ceases between forty-five and fifty years of +age, and this is called the menopause or climacteric period, commonly +spoken of as “the change of life.” Both the age of puberty and that +of the menopause may supervene earlier or later according to local +conditions. At both times the menstrual flow may be replaced by +haemorrhage from distant organs (epistaxis, haematemesis, haemoptysis); +this is called <i>vicarious menstruation</i>. Menstruation is +usually but not necessarily coincident with ovulation. The usual +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page765" id="page765"></a>765</span> +disorders of menstruation are: (1) <i>amenorrhoea</i> (absence of flow), +(2) <i>dysmenorrhoea</i> (painful flow), (3) <i>menorrhagia</i> (excessive flow), +(4) <i>metrorrhagia</i> (excessive and irregular flow). Amenorrhoea may +arise from physiological causes, such as pregnancy, lactation, the +menopause; constitutional causes, such as phthisis, anaemia and +chlorosis, febrile disorders, some chronic intoxications, such as +morphinomania, and some forms of cerebral disease; local causes, +which include malformations or absence of one or more of the genital +parts, such as absence of ovaries, uterus or vagina, atresia of vagina, +imperforate cervix, disease of the ovaries, or sometimes imperforate +hymen. The treatment of amenorrhoea must be directed towards the +cause. In anaemia and phthisis menstruation often returns after +improvement in the general condition, with good food and good +sanitary conditions, an outdoor life and the administration of iron +or other tonics. In local conditions of imperforate hymen, imperforate +cervix or ovarian disease, surgical interference is necessary. +Amenorrhoea is permanent when due to absence of the genital parts. +The causes of dysmenorrhoea are classified as follows: (1) ovarian, +due to disease of the ovaries or Fallopian tubes; (2) obstructive, +due to some obstacle to the flow, as stenosis, flexions and malpositions +of the uterus, or malformations; (3) congestive, due to +subinvolution, chronic inflammation of the uterus or its lining +membrane, fibroid growths and polypi of the uterus, cardiac or +hepatic disease; (4) neuralgic; (5) membranous. The foremost +place in the treatment of dysmenorrhoea must be given to aperients +and purgatives administered a day or two before the period is expected. +By this means congestion is reduced. Hot baths are useful, +and various drugs such as hyoscyanus, cannabis indica, phenalgin, +ammonol or phenacetin have been prescribed. Medicinal treatment +is, however, only palliative, and flexions and malpositions of the +uterus must be corrected, stenosis treated by dilatation, fibroid +growths if present removed, and endometritis when present treated +by local applications or curetting according to its severity. Menorrhagia +signifies excessive bleeding at the menstrual periods. Constitutional +causes are purpura, haemophilia, excessive food and alcoholic +drinks and warm climates; while local causes are congestion and +displacements of the uterus, endometritis, subinvolution, retention +of the products of conception, new growths in the uterus such as +mucous and fibroid polypi, malignant growths, tubo-ovarian inflammation +and some ovarian tumours. Metrorrhagia is a discharge of +blood from the uterus, independent of menstruation. It always +arises from disease of the uterus or its appendages. Local causes are +polypi, retention of the products of conception, extra uterine gestation, +haemorrhages in connexion with pregnancy, and new growths +in the uterus. In the treatment of both menorrhagia and metrorrhagia +the local condition must be carefully ascertained. When +pregnancy has been excluded, and constitutional causes treated, +efforts should be made to relieve congestion. Uterine haemostatics, +as ergot, ergotin, tincture of hydrastis or hamamelis, are of use, +together with rest in bed. Fibroid polypi and other new growths +must be removed. Irregular bleeding in women over forty years of +age is frequently a sign of early malignant disease, and should on no +account be neglected.</p> + +<p><i>Diseases of the External Genital Organs.</i>—The vulva comprises +several organs and structures grouped together for convenience of +description (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Reproductive System</a></span>). The affections to which +these structures are liable may be classified as follows: (1) Injuries +to the vulva, either accidental or occurring during parturition; +these are generally rupture of the perinaeum. (2) <i>Vulvitis.</i> Simple +Vulvitis is due to want of cleanliness, or irritating discharges, and in +children may result from threadworms. The symptoms are heat, +itching and throbbing, and the parts are red and swollen. The +treatment consists of rest, thorough cleanliness and fomentations. +Infective vulvitis is nearly always due to gonorrhoea. The symptoms +are the same as in simple vulvitis, with the addition of mucopurulent +yellow discharge and scalding pain on micturition; if neglected, +extension of the disease may result. The treatment consists of rest +in bed, warm medicated baths several times a day or fomentations +of boracic acid. The parts must be kept thoroughly clean and +discharges swabbed away. Diphtheritic vulvitis occasionally occurs, +and erysipelas of the vulva may follow wounds, but since the use of +antiseptics is rarely seen. (3) Vascular disturbances may occur in +the vulva, including varix, haematoma, oedema and gangrene; the +treatment is the same as for the same disease in other parts. (4) The +vulva is likely to be affected by a number of cutaneous affections, +the most important being erythema, eczema, herpes, lichen, tubercle, +elephantiasis, vulvitis pruriginosa, syphilis and kraurosis. These +affections present the same characters as in other parts of the body. +<i>Kraurosis vulvae</i>, first described by Lawson Tait in 1875, is an atrophic +change accompanied by pain and a yellowish discharge; the cause +is unknown. Pruritis vulvae is due to parasites, or to irritating +discharges, as leucorrhoea, and is frequent in diabetic subjects. The +hymen may be occasionally imperforate and require incision. Cysts +and painful carunculae may occur on the clitoris. Any part of the +vulva may be the seat of new growths, simple or malignant.</p> + +<p><i>Diseases of the Vagina.</i>—(1) Malformations. The vagina may be +absent in whole or in part or may present a septum. Stenosis of +the vagina may be a barrier to menstruation. (2) Displacements of +the vagina; (<i>a</i>) cystocele, which is a hernia of the bladder into the +vagina; (<i>b</i>) rectocele, a hernia of the rectum into the vagina. The +cause of these conditions is relaxation of the tissues due to parturition. +The palliative treatment consists in keeping up the parts by the +insertion of a pessary; when this fails operative interference is +called for. (3) Fistulae may form between the vagina and bladder or +vagina and rectum; they are generally caused by injuries during +parturition or the late stages of carcinoma. Persistent fistulae +require operative treatment. The vagina normally secretes a thin +opalescent acid fluid derived from the lymph serum and the shedding +of squamous epithelium. This fluid normally contains the vagina +bacillus. In pathological conditions of the vagina this secretion +undergoes changes. For practical purposes three varieties of +<i>vaginitis</i> may be described: (<i>a</i>) simple catarrhal vaginitis is due to +the same causes as simple vulvitis, and occasionally in children is +important from a medico-legal aspect when it is complicated by +vulvitis. The symptoms are heat and discomfort with copious +mucopurulent discharge. The only treatment required is rest, with +vaginal douches of warm unirritating lotions such as boracic acid or +subacetate of lead. (<i>b</i>) Gonorrhoeal vaginitis is most common in +adults. The patient complains of pain and burning, pain on passing +water and discharge which is generally green or yellow. The results +of untreated gonorrhoeal vaginitis are serious and far-reaching. +The disease may spread up the genital passages, causing endometritis, +salpingitis and septic peritonitis, or may extend into the bladder, +causing cystitis. Strict rest should be enjoined, douches of carbolic +acid (1 in 40) or of perchloride of mercury (1 in 2000) should be +ordered morning and evening, the vagina being packed with tampons +of iodoform gauze. Saline purgatives and alkaline diuretics +should be given, (<i>c</i>) Chronic vaginitis (leucorrhoea or “the whites”) +may follow acute conditions and persist indefinitely. The vagina is +rarely the seat of tumours, but cysts are common.</p> + +<p><i>Diseases of the Uterus.</i>—The uterus undergoes important changes +during life, chiefly at puberty and at the menopause. At puberty it +assumes the pear shape characteristic of the mature uterus. At the +menopause it shares in the general atrophy of the reproductive +organs. It is subject to various disorders and misplacements. +(<i>a</i>) <i>Displacements of the Uterus.</i>—The normal position of the uterus, +when the bladder is empty, is that of anteversion. We have therefore +to consider the following conditions as pathological: anteflexion, +retroflexion, retroversion, inversion, prolapse and procidentia. +Slight anteflexion or bending forwards is normal; when +exaggerated it gives rise to dysmenorrhoea, sterility and reflex +nervous phenomena. This condition is usually congenital and is +often associated with under-development of the uterus, from which +the sterility results. The treatment is by dilatation of the canal or +by a plastic operation. Retroflexion is a bending over of the uterus +backwards, and occurs as a complication of retroversion (or displacement +backwards). The causes are (1) any cause tending to +make the fundus or upper part of the uterus extra heavy, such as +tumours or congestion, (2) loss of tone of the uterine walls, (3) adhesions +formed after cellulitis, (4) violent muscular efforts, (5) +weakening of the uterine supports from parturition. The symptoms +are dysmenorrhoea, pain on defaecation and constipation from the +pressure of the fundus on the rectum; the patient is often sterile. +The treatment is the replacing of the uterus in position, where it can +be kept by the insertion of a pessary; failing this, operative treatment +may be required. Retroversion when pathological is rarer +than retroflexion. It may be the result of injury or is associated with +pregnancy or a fibroid. The symptoms are those of retroflexion with +feeling of pain and weight in the pelvis and desire to micturate +followed by retention of urine due to the pressure of the cervix +against the base of the bladder. The uterus must be skilfully replaced +in position; when pessaries fail to keep it there the operation +of hysteropexy gives excellent results.</p> + +<p>Inversion occurs when the uterus is turned inside out. It is only +possible when the cavity is dilated, either after pregnancy or by a +polypus. The greater number of cases follow delivery and are +acute. Chronic inversions are generally due to the weight of a +polypus. The symptoms are menorrhagia, metrorrhagia and bladder +troubles; on examination a tumour-like mass occupies the vagina. +Reduction of the condition is often difficult, particularly when the +condition has lasted for a long time. The tumour which has caused +the inversion must be excised. Prolapse and procidentia are different +degrees of the same variety of displacement. When the uterus lies +in the vagina it is spoken of as prolapse, when it protrudes through +the vulva it is procidentia. The causes are directly due to increased +intra-abdominal pressure, increased weight of the uterus by fibroids, +violent straining, chronic cough and weakening of the supporting +structures of the pelvic floor, such as laceration of the vagina and +perinaeum. Traction on the uterus from below (as a cervical tumour) +may be a cause; advanced age, laborious occupations and frequent +pregnancies are indirect causes. The symptoms are a “bearing +down” feeling, pain and fatigue in walking, trouble with micturition +and defaecation. The condition is generally obvious on examination. +As a rule the uterus is easy to replace in position. A rubber ring +pessary will often serve to keep it there. If the perinaeum is very +much torn it may be necessary to repair it. Various operations for +retaining the uterus in position are described. (<i>b</i>) <i>Enlargements of +the Uterus</i> (hypertrophy or hyperplasia). This condition may sometimes +involve the uterus as a whole or may be most marked in the +body or in the cervix. It follows chronic congestion or inflammatory +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page766" id="page766"></a>766</span> +prolapse, or any condition interfering with the circulation. The +symptoms comprise local discomfort and sometimes dysmenorrhoea, +leucorrhoea or menorrhagia. When the elongation occurs in the +cervical portion the only possible treatment is amputation of the +cervix. Atrophy of the uterus is normal after the menopause. It +may follow the removal of the tubes and ovaries. Some constitutional +diseases produce the same result, as tuberculosis, chlorosis, +chronic morphinism and certain diseases of the central nervous +system.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) <i>Injuries and Diseases resultant from Pregnancy.</i>—The most +frequent of these injuries is laceration of the cervix uteri, which is +frequent in precipitate labour. Once the cervix is torn the raw +surfaces become covered by granulations and later by cicatricial +tissue, but as a rule they do not unite. The torn lips may become +unhealthy, and the congestion and oedema spread to the body of the +uterus. A lacerated cervix does not usually give rise to symptoms; +these depend on the accompanying endometritis, and include +leucorrhoea, aching and a feeling of weight. Lacerations are to be +felt digitally. As lacerations predispose to abortion the operation of +trachelorraphy or repair of the cervix is indicated. Perforation of +the uterus may occur from the use of the sound in diseased conditions +of the uterine walls. Superinvolution means premature atrophy +following parturition. Subinvolution is a condition in which the +uterus fails to return to its normal size and remains enlarged. +Retention of the products of conception may cause irregular +haemorrhages and may lead to a diagnosis of tumour. The uterus +should be carefully explored.</p> + +<p>(<i>d</i>) <i>Inflammations Acute and Chronic.</i>—The mucous membrane +lining the cervical canal and body of the uterus is called the endometrium. +Acute inflammation or endometritis may attack it. +The chief causes are sepsis following labour or abortion, extension of +a gonorrhoeal vaginitis, or gangrene or infection of a uterine myoma. +The puerperal endometritis following labour is an avoidable disease +due to lack of scrupulous aseptic precautions.</p> + +<p>Gonorrhoeal endometritis is an acute form associated with copious +purulent discharge and well-marked constitutional disturbance. +The temperature ranges from 99° to 105° F., associated with pelvic +pain, and rigors are not uncommon. The tendency is to recovery +with more or less protracted convalescence. The most serious complications +are extension of the disease and later sterility. Rest in +bed and intrauterine irrigation, followed by the introduction of +iodoform pencils into the uterine cavity, should be resorted to, +while pain is relieved by hot fomentations and sitz baths. Chronic +endometritis may be the sequela of the acute form, or may be septic +in origin, or the result of chronic congestion, acute retroflection or +subinvolution following delivery or abortion. The varieties are +glandular, interstitial, haemorrhagic and senile. The symptoms are +disturbance of the menstrual function, headache, pain and pelvic +discomfort, and more or less profuse thick leucorrhoeal discharge. +The treatment consists in attention to the general health, with suitable +laxatives and local injections, and in obstinate cases curettage +is the most effectual measure. The disease is frequently associated +with adenomatous disease of the cervix, formerly called erosion. +In this disease there is a new formation of glandular elements, which +enlarge and multiply, forming a soft velvety areola dotted with pink +spots. This was formerly erroneously termed ulceration. The +cause is unknown. It occurs in virgins as well as in mothers, but +it often accompanies lacerations of the cervix. The symptoms are +indefinite pain and leucorrhoea. The condition is visible on inspection +with a speculum. The treatment is swabbing with iodized +phenol or curettage. The body of the uterus may also be the seat of +adenomatous disease. Tuberculosis may attack the uterus; this +usually forms part of a general tuberculosis.</p> + +<p>(<i>e</i>) <i>New Growths in the Uterus.</i>—The uterus is the most common +seat of new growths. From the researches of von Gurlt, compiled +from the Vienna Hospital <i>Reports</i>, embracing 15,880 cases of tumour, +females exceed males in the proportion of seven to three, and of this +large majority uterine growths account for 25%. When we consider +its periodic monthly engorgements and the alternate hypertrophy +and involution it undergoes in connexion with pregnancy, we can +anticipate the special proneness of the uterus to new growths. +Tumours of the uterus are divided into benign and malignant. +The benign tumours known as fibroids or myomata are very common. +They are stated by Bayle to occur in 20% of women over 35 years of +age, but happily in a great number of cases they are small and give +rise to no symptoms. They are definitely associated with the period +of sexual activity and occur more frequently in married women than +in single, in the proportion of two to one (Winckel). It is doubtful if +they ever originate after the menopause. Indeed if uncomplicated +by changes in them they share in the general atrophy of the sexual +organs which then takes place. They are divided according to their +position in the tissues into intramural, subserous and submucous +(the last when it has a pedicle forms a polypus), or as to the part of +the uterus in which they develop into fibroids of the cervix and +fibroids of the body. Intramural and submucous fibroids give +rise to haemorrhage. The menses may be so increased that the +patient is scarcely ever free from haemorrhage. The pressure of the +growth may cause dysmenorrhoea, or pressure on the bladder and +rectum may cause dysuria, retention or rectal tenesmus. The +uterus may be displaced by the weight of the tumour. Secondary +changes take place in fibroids, such as mucous degeneration, fatty +metamorphosis, calcification, septic infection (sloughing fibroid) and +malignant (sarcomatous) degeneration.</p> + +<p>The modes in which fibroids imperil life are haemorrhage (the +commonest of all), septic infection, which is one of the most dangerous, +impaction when it fits the true pelvis so tightly that the tumour +cannot rise, twisting of the pedicle by rotation, leading to sloughing +and intestinal and urinary obstruction. When fibroids are complicated +by pregnancy, impaction and consequent abortion may take +place, or a cervical myoma may offer a mechanical obstacle to +delivery or lead to serious post partem haemorrhage. In the treatment +of fibroids various drugs (ergot, hamamelis, hydrastis canadensis) +may be tried to control the haemorrhage, and repose and the +injection of hot water (120° F.) are sometimes successful, together +with electrical treatment. Surgical measures are needed, however, in +severe recurrent haemorrhage, intestinal obstruction, sloughing and +the co-existence of pregnancy. An endeavour must be made if +possible to enucleate the fibroid, or hysterectomy (removal of the +uterus) may be required. The operation of removal of the ovaries +to precipitate the menopause has fallen into disuse.</p> + +<p>(<i>f</i>) <i>Malignant Disease of the Uterus.</i>—The varieties of malignant +disease met with in the uterus are sarcoma, carcinoma and chorion-epithelioma +malignum. Sarcomata may occur in the body and in the +neck. They occur at an earlier age than carcinomata. Marked +enlargement and haemorrhage are the symptoms. The differential +diagnosis is microscopic. Extirpation of the uterus is the only +chance of prolonging life. The age at which women are most subject +to carcinoma (cancer) of the uterus is towards the decline of sexual +life. Of 3385 collected cases of cancer of the uterus 1169 occurred +between 40 and 50, and 856 between 50 and 60. In contradistinction +to fibroid tumours it frequently arises after the menopause. It may +be divided into cancer of the body and cancer of the neck (cervix). +Cancer of the neck of the uterus is almost exclusively confined to +women who have been pregnant (Bland-Sutton). Predisposing causes +may be injuries during delivery. The symptoms which induce women +to seek medical aid are haemorrhage, foetid discharge, and later pain +and cachexia. An unfortunate belief amongst the public that the +menopause is associated with irregular bleeding and offensive discharges +has prevented many women from seeking medical advice +until too late. It cannot be too widely understood that cancer of +the cervix is in its early stages a purely local disease, and if removed +in this stage usually results in cure. So important is the recognition +of this fact in the saving of human life that at the meeting of the +British Medical Association in April 1909 the council issued for +publication a special appeal to medical practitioners, midwives and +nurses, and directed it to be published in British and colonial medical +and nursing journals. It will be useful to quote here a part of the +appeal directed to midwives and nurses: “Cancer may occur at +any age and in a woman who looks quite well, and who may have no +pain, no wasting, no foul discharge and no profuse bleeding. To +wait for pain, wasting, foul discharge or profuse bleeding is to throw +away the chance of successful treatment. The early symptoms of +cancer of the womb are:—(1) bleeding which occurs after the change +of life, (2) bleeding after sexual intercourse or after a vaginal douche, +(3) bleeding, slight or abundant, even in young women, if occurring +between the usual monthly periods, and especially when accompanied +by a bad-smelling or watery blood-tinged discharge, (4) thin watery +discharge occurring at any age.” On examination the cervix +presents certain characteristic signs, though these may be modified +according to the variety of cancer present. Hard nodules or definite +loss of substance, extreme friability and bleeding after slight manipulation, +are suspicious. Epithelial cancer of the cervix may assume +a proliferating ulcerative type, forming the well-known “cauliflower” +excrescence. The treatment of cancer of the cervix is free removal +at the earliest possible moment. Cancer of the body of the uterus +is rare before the 45th year. It is most frequent at or subsequent to +the menopause. The majority of the patients are nulliparae (Bland-Sutton). +The signs are fitful haemorrhages after the menopause, +followed by profuse and offensive discharges. The uterus on examination +often feels enlarged. The diagnosis being made, hysterectomy +(removal of the uterus) is the only treatment. Cancer of the +body of the uterus may complicate fibroids. Chorion-epithelioma +malignum (deciduoma) was first described in 1889 by Sänger and +Pfeiffer. It is a malignant disease presenting microscopic characters +resembling decidual tissue. It occurs in connexion with recent +pregnancy, and particularly with the variety of abortion termed +hydatid mole. In many cases it destroys life with a rapidity unequalled +by any other kind of growth. It quickly ulcerates and +infiltrates the uterine tissues, forming metastatic growths in the lung +and vagina. Clinically it is recognized by the occurrence after +pregnancy of violent haemorrhages, progressive cachexia and fever +with rigors. Recent suggestions have been made as to chorion-epithelioma +being the result of pathological changes in the lutein +tissue of the ovary. The growth is usually primary in the uterus, +but may be so in the Fallopian tubes and in the vagina. A few cases +have been recorded unconnected with pregnancy. The virulence of +chorion-epithelioma varies, but in the present state of our knowledge +immediate removal of the primary growth along with the affected +organ is the only treatment.</p> + +<p><i>Diseases of the Fallopian Tubes.</i>—The Fallopian tubes or oviducts +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page767" id="page767"></a>767</span> +are liable to inflammatory affections, tuberculosis, sarcomata, +cancer, chorion-epithelioma and tubal pregnancy. Salpingitis +(inflammation of the oviducts) is nearly always secondary to septic +infection of the genital tract. The chief causes are septic endometritis +following labour or abortion, gangrene of a myoma, gonorrhoea, +tuberculosis and cancer of the uterus; it sometimes follows the +specific fevers. When the pus escapes from the tubes into the coelom +it sets up pelvic peritonitis. When the inflammation is adjacent to +the ostium it leads to the matting together of the tubal fimbriae and +glues them to an adjacent organ. This seals the ostium. The +occluded tube may now have an accumulation of pus in it (pyosalpinx). +When in consequence of the sealing of the ostium the tube +becomes distended with serous fluid it is termed hydrosalpinx. +Haematosalpinx is a term applied to the non-gravid tube distended +with blood; later the tubes may become sclerosed. Acute septic +salpingitis is ushered in by a rigor, the temperature rising to 103°, +104° F., with severe pain and constitutional disturbance. The +symptoms may become merged in those of general peritonitis. In +chronic disease there is a history of puerperal trouble followed by +sterility, with excessive and painful menstruation. Acute salpingitis +requires absolute rest, opium suppositories and hot fomentations. +With urgent symptoms removal of the inflamed adnexa must be +resorted to. Chronic salpingitis often renders a woman an invalid. +Permanent relief can only be afforded by surgical intervention. +Tuberculous salpingitis is usually secondary to other tuberculous +infections. The Fallopian tubes may be the seat of malignant +disease. This is rarely primary. By far the most important of the +conditions of the Fallopian tubes is tubal pregnancy (or ectopic +gestation). It is now known that fertilization of the human ovum +by the spermatozoon may take place even when the ovum is in its +follicle in the ovary, for oosperms have been found in the ovary and +Fallopian tubes as well as in the uterus. Belief in ovarian pregnancy +is of old standing, and had been regarded as possible but unproved, +no case of an early embryo in its membranes in the sac of an ovary +being forthcoming, until the remarkable case published by Dr +Catherine van Tussenboek of Amsterdam in 1899 (Bland-Sutton). +Tubal pregnancy is most frequent in the left tube; it sometimes +complicates uterine pregnancy; rarely both tubes are pregnant. +When the oosperm lodges in the ampulla or isthmus it is called tubal +gestation; when it is retained in the portion traversing the uterine +wall it is called tubo-uterine gestation. Wherever the fertilized ovum +remains and implants its villi the tube becomes turgid and swollen, +and the abdominal ostium gradually closes. The ovum in this +situation is liable to apoplexy, forming tubal mole. When the +abdominal ostium remains pervious the ovum may escape into the +coelomic cavity (tubal abortion); death from shock and haemorrhage +into the abdominal cavity may result. When neither of these +occurrences has taken place the ovum continues to grow inside the +tube, the rupture of the distended tube usually taking place between +the sixth and the tenth week. The rupture of the tube may be +intraperitoneal or extraperitoneal. The danger is death from +haemorrhage occurring during the rupture, or adhesions may form, +the retained blood forming a haematocele. The ovum may be destroyed +or may continue to develop. In rare cases rupture may not +occur, the tube bulging into the peritoneal cavity; and the foetus +may break through the membranes and lie free among the intestines, +where it may die, becoming encysted or calcified. The tubal placenta +possesses foetal structures, the true decidua forming in the uterus. +The signs suggestive of tubal pregnancy before rupture are missed +periods, pelvic pains and the presence of an enlarged tube. When +rupture takes place it is attended in both varieties with sudden and +severe pain and more or less marked collapse, and a tumour may or +may not be felt according to the situation of the rupture. There is a +general “feeling of something having given way.” If diagnosed +before rupture, the sac must be removed by abdominal section. In +intraperitoneal rupture immediate operation affords the only chance +of saving life. In extraperitoneal rupture the foetus may occasionally +remain alive until full term and be rescued by abdominal section, +if the condition is recognized, or a false labour may take place, +accompanied by death of the foetus.</p> + +<p><i>Diseases of the Ovaries and Parovarium.</i>—The ovaries undergo +striking changes at puberty, and again at the menopause, after which +there is a gradual shrinkage. One or both may be absent or malformed, +or they are subject to displacements, being either undescended, +contained in a hernia or prolapsed. Either of these +conditions, if a source of pain, may necessitate their removal. The +ovary is also subject to haemorrhage or apoplexy. Acute inflammations +(oöphorites) are constantly associated with salpingitis or +other septic conditions of the genital tract or with an attack of +mumps. The relation of oöphoritis to mumps is at present unknown. +Acute oöphoritis may culminate in abscess but more usually +adhesions are formed. The surgical treatment is that of pyosalpinx. +Chronic inflammation may follow acute or be consequent on pelvic +cellulitis. Its constant features are more or less pain followed by +sterility. The ovary may be the seat of tuberculosis, which is +generally secondary to other lesions. Suppuration and abscess of +the ovary also occur. Perioöphoritis, or chronic inflammation in +the neighbourhood, may also involve the gland. The cause of +cirrhosis of the ovaries is unknown, though it may be associated with +cirrhotic liver. The change is met with in women between 20 and +40 years of age, the ovaries being in a shrunken, hard, wrinkled condition. +Under ovarian neuralgia are grouped indefinite painful +symptoms occurring frequently in neurotic and alcoholic subjects, +and often worse during menstruation. The treatment, whether local +or operative, is usually unsatisfactory. The ovary is frequently the +seat of tumours, dermoids and cysts. Cysts may be simple, unilocular +or multilocular, and may attain an enormous size. The largest on +record was removed by Dr Elizabeth Reifsnyder of Shanghai, and +contained 100 litres of fluid, and the patient recovered. The operation +is termed ovariotomy. Dermoid cysts containing skin, bones, +teeth and hair, are of frequent growth in the ovary, and have attained +the weight of from 20 to 40 kilogrammes. In one case a girl weighed +27 kilogrammes and her tumour 44 kilogrammes (Keen). Papillomatous +cysts also occur in the ovary. Parovarian and Gärtnerian +cysts are found, and adenomata form 20% of all ovarian cysts. +Occasionally the tunic of peritoneum surrounding the ovary becomes +distended with serous fluid. This is termed ovarian hydrocele. +Ovarian fibroids occur, and malignant disease (sarcoma and carcinoma) +is fairly frequent, sarcoma being the most usual ovarian tumour +occurring before puberty. Carcinoma of the ovary is rarely primary, +but it is a common situation for secondary cancer to that of the +breast, gall-bladder or gastro-intestinal tract. The treatment of all +rapidly-growing tumours of the ovary is removal.</p> + +<p><i>Diseases of the Pelvic Peritoneum and Connective Tissue.</i>—Women +are excessively liable to peritoneal infections. (1) Septic infection +often follows acute salpingitis and may give rise to pelvic peritonitis +(perimetritis), which may be adhesive, serous or purulent. It may +follow the rupture of ovarian or dermoid cysts, rupture of the +uterus, extra uterine pregnancy or extension from pyosalpinx. The +symptoms are severe pain, fever, 103° F. and higher, marked constitutional +disturbances, vomiting, restlessness, even delirium. The +abdomen is fixed and tympanitic. Its results are the formation of +adhesions causing abnormal positions of the organs, or chronic +peritonitis may follow. The treatment is rest in bed, opium, hot +stupes to the abdomen and quinine. (2) Epithelial infections take +place in the peritoneum in connexion with other malignant growths. +(3) Hydroperitoneum, a collection of free fluid in the abdominal +cavity, may be due to tumours of the abdominal viscera or to +tuberculosis of the peritoneum. (4) Pelvic cellulitis (parametritis) +signifies the inflammation of the connective tissue between the folds +of the broad ligament (mesometrium). The general causes are septic +changes following abortion, delivery at term (especially instrumental +delivery), following operations on the uterus or salpingitis. The +symptoms are chill followed by severe intrapelvic pain and tension, +fever 100° to 102° F. There may be nausea and vomiting, diarrhoea, +rectal tenseness and dysuria. If consequent on parturition the +lochia cease or become offensive. On examination there is tenderness +and swelling in one flank and the uterus becomes fixed and +immovable in the exudate as if embedded in plaster of Paris. The +illness may go to resolution if treated by rest, opium, hot stupes or +icebags and glycerine tampons, or may go on to suppuration forming +pelvic abscess, which signifies a collection of pus between the layers +of the broad ligament. The pus in a pelvic abscess may point and +escape through the walls of the vagina, rectum or bladder. It +occasionally points in the groin. If the pus can be localized an +incision should be made and the abscess drained. The tumours +which arise in the broad ligament are haematocele, solid tumours (as +myomata, lipomata and sarcomata), and echinnococcus colonies +(hydatids).</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Albutt, Playfair and Eden, <i>System of Gynaecology</i> +(1906); McNaughton Jones, <i>Manual of Diseases of Women</i> +(1904); Bland-Sutton and Giles, <i>Diseases of Women</i> (1906); C. +Lockyer, “Lutein Cysts in association with Chorio-Epithelioma,” +<i>Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology</i> (January, 1905); W. Stewart +McKay, <i>History of Ancient Gynaecology</i>; Hart and Barbour, <i>Diseases +of Women</i>; Howard Kelly, <i>Operative Gynaecology</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. L. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GYÖNGYÖSI, ISTVÁN<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Stephen</span>] (1620-1704), Hungarian +poet, was born of poor but noble parents in 1620. His abilities +early attracted the notice of Count Ferencz Wesselényi, who in +1640 appointed him to a post of confidence in Fülek castle. Here +he remained till 1653, when he married and became an assessor +of the judicial board. In 1681 he was elected as a representative +of his county at the diet held at Soprony (Oedenburg). From +1686 to 1693, and again from 1700 to his death in 1704, he was +deputy lord-lieutenant of the county of Gömör. Of his literary +works the most famous is the epic poem <i>Murányi Venus</i> (Caschau, +1664), in honour of his benefactor’s wife Maria Szécsi, the heroine +of Murány. Among his later productions the best known are +<i>Rózsa-Koszorú</i>, or Rose-Wreath (1690), <i>Kemény-János</i> (1693), +<i>Cupidó</i> (1695), <i>Palinodia</i> (1695) and <i>Chariklia</i> (1700).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The earliest edition of his collected poetical works is by Dugonics +(Pressburg and Pest, 1796); the best modern selection is that of +Toldy, entitled <i>Gyöngyösi István válogatott poétai munkái</i> (Select +poetical works of Stephen Gyöngyösi, 2 vols., 1864-1865).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GYÖR<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Raab</i>), a town of Hungary, capital of a county of +the same name, 88 m. W. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page768" id="page768"></a>768</span> +27,758. It is situated at the confluence of the Raab with the +Danube, and is composed of the inner town and three suburbs. +Györ is a well-built town, and is the seat of a Roman Catholic +bishop. Amongst its principal buildings are the cathedral, +dating from the 12th century, and rebuilt in 1639-1654; the +bishop’s palace; the town hall; the Roman Catholic seminary +for priests and several churches. There are manufactures of +cloth, machinery and tobacco, and an active trade in grain and +horses. Twenty miles by rail W. S. W. of the town is situated +Csorna, a village with a Premonstratensian abbey, whose archives +contain numerous valuable historical documents.</p> + +<p>Györ is one of the oldest towns in Hungary and occupies the +site of the Roman <i>Arabona</i>. It was already a place of some +importance in the 10th century, and its bishopric was created +in the 11th century. It was a strongly fortified town which +resisted successfully the attacks of the Turks, into whose hands +it fell by treachery in 1594, but they retained possession of it +only for four years. Montecucculi made Györ a first-class +fortress, and it remained so until 1783, when it was abandoned. +At the beginning of the 19th century, the fortifications were +re-erected, but were easily taken by the French in 1809, and +were again stormed by the Austrians on the 28th of June 1849.</p> + +<p>About 11 m. S.E. of Györ on a spur of the Bakony Forest +lies the famous Benedictine abbey of Pannonhalma (Ger. <i>St +Martinsberg</i>; Lat. <i>Mons Sancti Martini</i>), one of the oldest and +wealthiest abbeys of Hungary. It was founded by King St +Stephen, and the original deed from 1001 is preserved in the +archives of the abbey. The present building is a block of +palaces, containing a beautiful church, some of its parts dating +from the 12th century, and lies on a hill 1200 ft. high. The +church has a tower 130 ft. high. In the convent there are a +seminary for priests, a normal school, a gymnasium and a +library of 120,000 vols. The chief abbot has the rank of a +bishop, and is a member of the Upper House of the Hungarian +parliament, while in spiritual matters he is subordinate immediately +to the Roman curia.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GYP,<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> the pen name of <span class="sc">Sibylle Gabrielle Marie Antoinette +Riqueti de Mirabeau</span>, Comtesse de Martel de Janville (1850-  ) +French writer, who was born at the château of Koetsal in +the Morbihan. Her father, who was the grandson of the vicomte +de Mirabeau and great-nephew of the orator, served in the Papal +Zouaves, and died during the campaign of 1860. Her mother, +the comtesse de Mirabeau, in addition to some graver compositions, +contributed to the <i>Figaro</i> and the <i>Vie parisienne</i>, under +various pseudonyms, papers in the manner successfully developed +by her daughter. Under the pseudonym of “Gyp” Madame +de Martel, who was married in 1869, sent to the <i>Vie parisienne</i>, +and later to the <i>Revue des deux mondes</i>, a large number of social +sketches and dialogues, afterwards reprinted in volumes. Her +later work includes stories of a more formal sort, essentially +differing but little from the shorter studies. The following list +includes some of the best known of Madame de Martel’s publications, +nearly seventy in number: <i>Petit Bob</i> (1882); <i>Autour du +mariage</i> (1883); <i>Ce que femme veut</i> (1883); <i>Le Monde à +côté</i> (1884), <i>Sans voiles</i> (1885); <i>Autour du divorce</i> (1886); +<i>Dans le train</i> (1886); <i>Mademoiselle Loulou</i> (1888); <i>Bob au salon</i> +(1888-1889); <i>L’Education d’un prince</i> (1890); <i>Passionette</i> +(1891); <i>Ohé! la grande vie</i> (1891); <i>Une Élection à Tigre-sur-mer</i> +(1890), an account of “Gyp’s” experiences in support of a +Boulangist candidate; <i>Mariage civil</i> (1892); <i>Ces bons docteurs</i> +(1892); <i>Du haut en bas</i> (1893); <i>Mariage de chiffon</i> (1894); +<i>Leurs âmes</i> (1895); <i>Le Cœur d’Ariane</i> (1895); <i>Le Bonheur de +Ginette</i> (1896); <i>Totote</i> (1897); <i>Lune de miel</i> (1898); <i>Israël</i> +(1898); <i>L’Entrevue</i> (1899); <i>Le Pays des champs</i> (1900); <i>Trop de +chic</i> (1900); <i>Le Friquet</i> (1901); <i>La Fée</i> (1902); <i>Un Mariage chic</i> +(1903); <i>Un Ménage dernier cri</i> (1903); <i>Maman</i> (1904); <i>Le +Cœur de Pierrette</i> (1905). From the first “Gyp,” writing of a +society to which she belonged, displayed all the qualities which +have given her a distinct, if not pre-eminent, position among +writers of her class. Those qualities included an intense faculty +of observation, much skill in innuendo, a mordant wit combined +with some breadth of humour, and a singular power of animating +ordinary dialogues without destroying the appearance of reality. +Her Parisian types of the spoiled child, of the precocious schoolgirl, +of the young bride, and of various masculine figures in the +gay world, have become almost classical, and may probably +survive as faithful pictures of luxurious manners in the 19th +century. Some later productions, inspired by a violent anti-Semitic +and Nationalist bias, deserve little consideration. An +earlier attempt to dramatize <i>Autour du mariage</i> was a failure, +not owing to the audacities which it shares with most of its +author’s works, but from lack of cohesion and incident. More +successful was <i>Mademoiselle Ève</i> (1895), but indeed “Gyp’s” +successes are all achieved without a trace of dramatic faculty. +In 1901 Madame de Martel furnished a sensational incident in the +Nationalist campaign during the municipal elections in Paris. +She was said to have been the victim of a kidnapping outrage +or piece of horseplay provoked by her political attitude, but +though a most circumstantial account of the outrages committed +on her and of her adventurous escape was published, the affair +was never clearly explained or verified.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GYPSUM,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> a common mineral consisting of hydrous calcium +sulphate, named from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="gypsos">γύψος</span>, a word used by Theophrastus +to denote not only the raw mineral but also the product +of its calcination, which was employed in ancient times, as +it still is, as a plaster. When crystallized, gypsum is often called +selenite, the <span class="grk" title="selênitês">σεληνίτης</span> of Dioscorides, so named from <span class="grk" title="selênê">σελήνη</span>, +“the moon,” probably in allusion to the soft moon-like reflection +of light from some of its faces, or, according to a legend, because +it is found at night when the moon is on the increase. The +granular, marble-like gypsum is termed alabaster (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:250px; height:230px" src="images/img768.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span></td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>Gypsum crystallizes in the monoclinic system, the habit of the +crystals being usually either prismatic or tabular; in the latter +case the broad planes are parallel to the faces of the clinopinacoid. +The crystals may become lenticular by curvature of certain +faces. In the characteristic type represented in fig. 1, <i>f</i> represents +the prism, <i>l</i> the hemi-pyramid and P the clinopinacoid. +Twins are common, as in +fig. 2, forming in some cases +arrow-headed and swallow-tailed +crystals. Cleavage is +perfect parallel to the clinopinacoid, +yielding thin plates, +often diamond-shaped, with +pearly lustre; these flakes +are usually flexible, but may +be brittle, as in the gypsum +of Montmartre. Two other +cleavages are recognized, but +they are imperfect. Crystals +of gypsum, when occurring +in clay, may enclose much muddy matter; in other cases a +large proportion of sand may be mechanically entangled in +the crystals without serious disturbance of form; whilst +certain crystals occasionally enclose cavities with liquid and +an air-bubble. Gypsum not infrequently becomes fibrous. +This variety occurs in veins, often running through gypseous +marls, with the fibres disposed at right angles to the direction +of the vein. Such gypsum when cut and polished has a pearly +opalescence, or satiny sheen, whence it is called satin-spar (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p>Gypsum is so soft as to be scratched even by the finger-nail +(H = 1.5 to 2). Its specific gravity is about 2.3. The mineral is +slightly soluble in water, one part of gypsum being soluble, +according to G. K. Cameron, in 372 parts of pure water at 26° C. +Waters percolating through gypseous strata, like the Keuper +marls, dissolve the calcium sulphate and thus become permanently +hard or “selenitic.” Such water has special value for +brewing pale ale, and the water used by the Burton breweries is +of this character; hence the artificial dissolving of gypsum in +water for brewing purposes is known as “burtonization.” +Deposits of gypsum are formed in boilers using selenitic water.</p> + +<p>Pure gypsum is colourless or white, but it is often tinted, +especially in the alabaster variety, grey, yellow or pink. Gypsum +crystallizes with two molecules of water, equal to about 21% by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page769" id="page769"></a>769</span> +weight, and consequently has the formula CaSO<span class="su">4</span>·2H<span class="su">2</span>O. By +exposure to strong heat all the water may be expelled, and the +substance then has the composition of anhydrite (<i>q.v.</i>). When +the calcination, however, is conducted at such a temperature +that only about 75% of the water is lost, it yields a white +pulverulent substance, known as “plaster of Paris,” which may +readily be caused to recombine with water, forming a hard +cement. The gypsum quarries of Montmartre, in the north of +Paris, were worked in Tertiary strata, rich in fossils. Gypsum is +largely quarried in England for conversion into plaster of Paris, +whence it is sometimes known as “plaster stone,” and since +much is sent to the Staffordshire potteries for making moulds it +is also termed “potter’s stone.” The chief workings are in the +Keuper marls near Newark in Nottinghamshire, Fauld in +Staffordshire and Chellaston in Derbyshire. It is also worked in +Permian beds in Cumberland and Westmorland, and in Purbeck +strata near Battle in Sussex.</p> + +<p>Gypsum frequently occurs in association with rock-salt, having +been deposited in shallow basins of salt water. Much of the +calcium in sea-water exists as sulphate; and on evaporation of a +drop of sea-water under the microscope this sulphate is deposited +as acicular crystals of gypsum. In salt-lagoons the deposition +of the gypsum is probably effected in most cases by means of +micro-organisms. Waters containing sulphuretted hydrogen, on +exposure to the air in the presence of limestone, may yield gypsum +by the formation of sulphuric acid and its interaction with the +calcium carbonate. In volcanic districts gypsum is produced by +the action of sulphuric acid, resulting from the oxidation of +sulphurous vapours, on lime-bearing minerals, like labradorite +and augite, in the volcanic rocks: hence gypsum is common +around solfataras. Again, by the oxidation of iron-pyrites +and the action of the resulting sulphuric acid on limestone or +on shells, gypsum may be formed; whence its origin in most +clays. Gypsum is also formed in some cases by the hydration of +anhydrite, the change being accompanied by an increase of +volume to the extent of about 60%. Conversely gypsum may, +under certain conditions, be dehydrated or reduced to anhydrite.</p> + +<p>Some of the largest known crystals of selenite have been found +in southern Utah, where they occur in huge geodes, or crystal-lined +cavities, in deposits from the old salt-lakes. Fine crystals, +sometimes curiously bent, occur in the Permian rocks of Friedrichroda, +near Gotha, where there is a grotto called the Marienglashöhle, +close to Rheinhardsbrunn. Many of the best localities +for selenite are in the New Red Sandstone formation (Trias and +Permian), notably the salt-mines of Hall and Hallein, near +Salzburg, and of Bex in Switzerland. Excellent crystals, usually +of a brownish colour arranged in groups, are often found in the +brine-chambers and the launders used in salt-works. Selenite +also occurs in fine crystals in the sulphur-bearing marls of +Girgenti and other Sicilian localities; whilst in Britain very bold +crystals are yielded by the Kimeridge clay of Shotover Hill near +Oxford. Twisted crystals and rosettes of gypsum found in the +Mammoth Cave, Kentucky, have been called “oulopholites” +(<span class="grk" title="oulos">οὖλος</span>, “woolly”; <span class="grk" title="phôleos">φωλεός</span>, “cave”).</p> + +<p>In addition to the use of gypsum in cement-making, the +mineral finds application as an agricultural agent in dressing +land, and it has also been used in the manufacture of porcelain +and glass. Formerly it was employed, in the form of thin +cleavage-plates, for glazing windows, and seems to have been, +with mica, called <i>lapis specularis</i>. It is still known in Germany +as <i>Marienglas</i> and <i>Fraueneis</i>. Delicate cleavage-plates of +gypsum are used in microscopic petrography for the determination +of certain optical constants in the rock-forming +minerals.</p> +<div class="author">(F. W. R.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GYROSCOPE AND GYROSTAT.<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> These are scientific models +or instruments designed to illustrate experimentally the +dynamics of a rotating body such as the spinning-top, hoop and +bicycle, and also the precession of the equinox and the rotation of +the earth.</p> + +<p>The gyroscope (Gr. <span class="grk" title="gyros">γῦρος</span>, ring, <span class="grk" title="skopein">σκοπεῖν</span>, to see) may be distinguished +from the gyrostat (<span class="grk" title="gyros">γῦρος</span>, and <span class="grk" title="statikos">στατικός</span>, stationary) +as an instrument in which the rotating wheel or disk is mounted +in gimbals so that the principal axis of rotation always passes +through a fixed point (fig. 1). It can be made to imitate the +motion of a spinning-top of which the point is placed in a smooth +agate cup as in Maxwell’s dynamical top (figs. 2, 3). (<i>Collected +Works</i>, i. 248.) A bicycle wheel, with a prolongation of the +axle placed in a cup, can also be made to serve (fig. 4).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:475px; height:393px" src="images/img769a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span></td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>The gyrostat is an instrument designed by Lord Kelvin +(<i>Natural Philosophy</i>, § 345) to illustrate the more complicated +state of motion of a spinning body when free to wander +about on a horizontal plane, like a top spun on the pavement, or +a hoop or bicycle on the road. It consists essentially of a massive +fly-wheel concealed in a metal casing, and its behaviour on a +table, or with various modes of suspension or support, described +in Thomson and Tait, <i>Natural Philosophy</i>, serves to illustrate +the curious reversal of the ordinary laws of statical equilibrium +due to the <i>gyrostatic domination</i> of the interior invisible fly-wheel, +when rotated rapidly (fig. 5).</p> + +<p>The toy shown in figs. 6 and 7, which can be bought for a +shilling, is acting as a gyroscope +in fig. 6 and a gyrostat +in fig. 7.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:188px; height:186px" src="images/img769b.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:272px; height:391px" src="images/img769c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span></td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>The gyroscope, as represented +in figs. 2 and 3 by Maxwell’s +dynamical top, is provided +with screws by which +the centre of gravity can be +brought into coincidence with +the point of support. It can +then be used to illustrate Poinsot’s theory of the motion of a +body under no force, the gyroscope being made kinetically +unsymmetrical by a setting of the screws. The discussion of +this movement is required for Jacobi’s theorems on the allied +motion of a top and of a body under no force (Poinsot, <i>Théorie +nouvelle de la rotation des corps</i>, Paris, 1857; Jacobi, <i>Werke</i>, ii. +Note B, p. 476).</p> + +<p>To imitate the movement of the top the centre of gravity is +displaced from the point of support so as to give a preponderance. +When the motion takes place in the neighbourhood of the downward +vertical, the bicycle wheel can be made to serve again +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page770" id="page770"></a>770</span> +mounted as in fig. 8 by a stalk in the prolongation of the axle, +suspended from a universal joint at O; it can then be spun by +hand and projected in any manner.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td> +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:302px; height:367px" src="images/img770a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 5.</td></tr></table> +</td> + +<td> +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:151px; height:143px" src="images/img770b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 6.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:121px; height:130px" src="images/img770c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 7.</td></tr></table> +</td></tr> +</table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:357px; height:404px" src="images/img770d.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:199px; height:132px" src="images/img770e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 8.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 9.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The first practical application of the gyroscopic principle was +invented and carried out (1744) by Serson, with a spinning top +with a polished upper plane surface for giving an artificial +horizon at sea, undisturbed by the motion of the ship, when the +real horizon was obscured. The instrument has been perfected +by Admiral Georges Ernest Fleuriais (fig. 9), and is interesting +theoretically as +showing the correction +required +practically for the +rotation of the +earth. Gilbert’s +barogyroscope is +devised for the +same purpose of +showing the earth’s +rotation; a description +of it, and +of the latest form +employed by Föppl, +is given in the +<i>Ency. d. math. +Wiss.</i>, 1904, with +bibliographical +references in the +article “Mechanics +of Physical Apparatus.” +The rotation +of the fly-wheel is maintained here by an electric motor, as +devised by G. M. Hopkins, and described in the <i>Scientific American</i>, +1878. To demonstrate the rotation of the earth by the constancy +in direction of the axis of a gyroscope is a suggestion that has often +been made; by E. Sang in 1836, and +others. The experiment was first +carried out with success by Foucault in +1851, by a simple pendulum swung in +the dome of the Pantheon, Paris, and +it has been repeated frequently +(<i>Mémoires sur le pendule</i>, 1889).</p> + +<p>A gyroscopic fly-wheel will preserve +its original direction in space +only when left absolutely free in all directions, as required +in the experiments above. If employed in steering, as of a +torpedo, the gyroscope must act through the intermediary of a +light relay; but if direct-acting, the reaction will cause precession +of the axis, and the original direction is lost.</p> + +<p>The gyrostatic principle, in which one degree of freedom is +suppressed in the axis, is useful for imparting steadiness and +stability in a moving body; it is employed by Schlick to mitigate +the rolling of a ship and to maintain the upright position of +Brennan’s monorail car.</p> + +<p>Lastly, as an application of gyroscopic theory, a stretched +chain of fly-wheels in rotation was employed by Kelvin as a +mechanical model of the rotary polarization of light in an electromagnetic +field; the apparatus may be constructed of bicycle +wheels connected by short links, and suspended vertically.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Theory of the Symmetrical Top.</i></p> + +<p>1. The physical constants of a given symmetrical top, expressed +in C.G.S. units, which are employed in the subsequent formulae, +are denoted by M, h, C and A. M is the weight in grammes (g) +as given by the number of gramme weights which equilibrate the +top when weighed in a balance; h is the distance OG in centimetres +(cm.) between G the centre of gravity and O the point of support, +and Mh may be called the preponderance in g.-cm.; Mh and M +can be measured by a spring balance holding up in a horizontal +position the axis OC in fig. 8 suspended at O. Then gMh (dyne-cm. +or ergs) is the moment of gravity about O when the axis OG is +horizontal, gMh sin θ being the moment when the axis OG makes +an angle θ with the vertical, and g = 981 (cm./s<span class="sp">2</span>) on the average; +C is the moment of inertia of the top about OG, and A about any +axis through O at right angles to OG, both measured in g-cm.<span class="sp">2</span>.</p> + +<p>To measure A experimentally, swing the top freely about O in +small plane oscillation, and determine the length, l cm., of the +equivalent simple pendulum; then</p> + +<p class="center">l = A/Mh, A = Mhl.</p> + +<div class="ref">(1)</div> + +<p>Next make the top, or this simple pendulum, perform small +conical revolutions, nearly coincident with the downward vertical +position of equilibrium, and measure n, the mean angular velocity +of the conical pendulum in radians / second; and T its period in +seconds; then</p> + +<p class="center">4π<span class="sp">2</span>/T<span class="sp">2</span> = n<span class="sp">2</span> = g/l = gMh/A;</p> +<div class="ref">(2)</div> + +<p class="noind">and f = n/2π is the number of revolutions per second, called the +<i>frequency</i>, T = 2π/n is the period of a revolution, in seconds.</p> + +<p>2. In the popular explanation of the steady movement of the +top at a constant inclination to the vertical, depending on the composition +of angular velocity, such as given in Perry’s +<i>Spinning Tops</i>, or Worthington’s <i>Dynamics of Rotation</i>, +<span class="sidenote">Steady motion of the top.</span> +it is asserted that the moment of gravity is always +generating an angular velocity about an axis OB perpendicular +to the vertical plane COC′ through the axis of the top +OC′; and this angular velocity, compounded with the resultant +angular velocity about an axis OI, nearly coincident with OC′, +causes the axes OI and OC′ to keep taking up a new position by +moving at right angles to the plane COC′, at a constant precessional +angular velocity, say μ rad./sec., round the vertical OC (fig. 4).</p> + +<p>If, however, the axis OC′ is prevented from taking up this precessional +velocity, the top at once falls down; thence all the ingenious +attempts—for instance, in the swinging cabin of the Bessemer +ship—to utilise the gyroscope as a mechanical directive agency +have always resulted in failure (<i>Engineer</i>, October 1874), unless +restricted to actuate a light relay, which guides the mechanism, as +in steering a torpedo.</p> + +<p>An experimental verification can be carried out with the gyroscope +in fig. 1; so long as the vertical spindle is free to rotate in +its socket, the rapidly rotating wheel will resist the impulse of +tapping on the gimbal by moving to one side; but when the pinch +screw prevents the rotation of the vertical spindle in the massive +pedestal, this resistance to the tapping at once disappears, provided +the friction of the table prevents the movement of the pedestal; +and if the wheel has any preponderance, it falls down.</p> + +<p>Familiar instances of the same principles are observable in the +movement of a hoop, or in the steering of a bicycle; it is essential +that the handle of the bicycle should be free to rotate to secure +the stability of the movement.</p> + +<p>The bicycle wheel, employed as a spinning top, in fig. 4, can also +be held by the stalk, and will thus, when rotated rapidly, convey +a distinct muscular impression of resistance to change of direction, +if brandished.</p> + +<p>3. A demonstration, depending on the elementary principles of +dynamics, of the exact conditions required for the +<span class="sidenote">Elementary demonstration of the condition of steady motion.</span> +axis OC′ of a spinning top to spin steadily at a constant +inclination θ to the vertical OC, is given here before proceeding +to the more complicated question of the general +motion, when θ, the inclination of the axis, is varying +by nutation.</p> + +<p>It is a fundamental principle in dynamics that if OH is +a vector representing to scale the angular momentum of a system, +and if Oh is the vector representing the axis of the impressed couple +or torque, then OH will vary so that the velocity of H is represented +to scale by the impressed couple Oh, and if the top is moving freely +about O, Oh is at right angles to the vertical plane COC′, and</p> + +<p class="center">Oh = gMh sin θ.</p> +<div class="ref">(1)</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page771" id="page771"></a>771</span></p> + +<p>In the case of the steady motion of the top, the vector OH lies +in the vertical plane COC′, in OK suppose (fig. 4), and has a component +OC = G about the vertical and a component OC′ = G′, suppose, +about the axis OC; and G′ = CR, if R denotes the angular +velocity of the top with which it is spun about OC′.</p> + +<p>If μ denotes the constant precessional angular velocity of the +vertical plane COC′ the components of angular velocity and momentum +about OA are μ sin θ and Aμ sin θ, OA being perpendicular +to OC′ in the plane COC′; so that the vector OK has the components</p> + +<p class="center">OC′ = G′, and C′K = Aμ sin θ,</p> +<div class="ref">(2)</div> + +<p class="noind">and the horizontal component</p> + + <p class="center">CK = OC′ sin θ − C′K cos θ<br /> += G′ sin θ − Aμ sin θ cos θ.</p> +<div class="ref">(3)</div> + +<p>The velocity of K being equal to the impressed couple Oh,</p> + +<p class="center">gMh sin θ = μ·CK = sin θ (G′μ − Aμ<span class="sp">2</span> cos θ),</p> +<div class="ref">(4)</div> + +<p class="noind">and dropping the factor sin θ,</p> + +<p class="center">Aμ<span class="sp">2</span> cos θ − G′μ + gMh = 0, or Aμ<span class="sp">2</span> cos θ − CRμ + An<span class="sp">2</span> = 0,</p> +<div class="ref">(5)</div> + +<p class="noind">the condition for steady motion.</p> + +<p>Solving this as a quadratic in μ, the roots μ<span class="su">1</span>, μ<span class="su">2</span> are given by</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">μ<span class="su">1</span>, μ<span class="su">2</span> =</td> <td>G′</td> +<td rowspan="2">sec θ <span class="f150">[</span>1 ± √ (1 −</td> <td>4A<span class="sp">2</span>n<span class="sp">2</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">cos θ) <span class="f150">]</span>;</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">2A</td> <td class="denom">G′<span class="sp">2</span></td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(6)</div> + +<p class="noind">and the minimum value of G′ = CR for real values of μ is given by</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>G′<span class="sp">2</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">= cos θ,</td> <td>CR</td> +<td rowspan="2">2√(cos θ);</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">4A<span class="sp">2</span>n<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="denom">An</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(7)</div> + +<p class="noind">for a smaller value of R the top cannot spin steadily at the inclination +θ to the upward vertical.</p> + +<p>Interpreted geometrically in fig. 4</p> + +<p class="center">μ = gMh sin θ/CK = An<span class="sp">2</span>/KN, and μ = C′K/A sin θ = KM/A,</p> +<div class="ref">(8)</div> + +<p class="center">KM·KN = A<span class="sp">2</span> n<span class="sp">2</span>,</p> +<div class="ref">(9)</div> + +<p class="noind">so that K lies on a hyperbola with OC, OC′ as asymptotes.</p> + +<p>4. Suppose the top or gyroscope, instead of moving freely about +the point O, is held in a ring or frame which is compelled +<span class="sidenote">Constrained motion of the gyroscope.</span> +to rotate about the vertical axis OC with constant +angular velocity μ; then if N denotes the couple +of reaction of the frame keeping the top from falling, +acting in the plane COC’, equation (4) § 3 becomes modified +into</p> + +<p class="center" style="clear: both;">gMh sin θ − N = μ·CK = sin θ G′μ − Aμ<span class="sp">2</span> cos θ,</p> +<div class="ref">(1)</div> + +<p class="center">N = sin θ (Aμ<span class="sp">2</span> cos θ − G′μ + gMh)<br /> += A sin θ cos θ (μ − μ<span class="su">1</span>) (μ − μ<span class="su">2</span>);</p> +<div class="ref">(2)</div> + +<p class="noind">and hence, as μ increases through μ<span class="su">2</span> and μ<span class="su">1</span>, the sign of N can be +determined, positive or negative, according as the tendency of the +axis is to fall or rise.</p> + +<p>When G′ = CR is large, μ<span class="su">2</span> is large, and</p> + +<p class="center">μ<span class="su">1</span> ≈ gMh/G′ = An<span class="sp">2</span>/CR,</p> +<div class="ref">(3)</div> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 260px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:209px; height:317px" src="images/img771.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">the same for all inclinations, and this is the precession observed in +the spinning top and centrifugal machine of fig. 10 This is true +accurately when the axis OC′ is +horizontal, and then it agrees with +the result of the popular explanation +of § 2.</p> + +<p>If the axis of the top OC′ is pointing +upward, the precession is in the +same direction as the rotation, and +an increase of μ from μ<span class="su">1</span> makes N +negative, and the top rises; conversely +a decrease of the procession μ +causes the axis to fall (Perry, <i>Spinning +Tops</i>, p. 48).</p> + +<p>If the axis points downward, as in +the centrifugal machine with upper +support, the precession is in the opposite +direction to the rotation, and to +make the axis approach the vertical +position the precession must be reduced.</p> + +<p>This is effected automatically in the +Weston centrifugal machine (fig. 10) +used for the separation of water and +<span class="sidenote">Centrifugal machine.</span> +molasses, by the friction of the indiarubber cushions above the +support; or else the spindle is produced downwards below the +drum a short distance, and turns in a hole in a weight +resting on the bottom of the case, which weight is dragged +round until the spindle is upright; this second arrangement +is more effective when a liquid is treated in the drum, and +wave action is set up (<i>The Centrifugal Machine</i>, C. A. Matthey).</p> + +<p>Similar considerations apply to the stability of the whirling +bowl in a cream-separating machine.</p> + +<p>We can write equation (1)</p> + +<p class="center">N = An<span class="sp">2</span> sin θ − μ·CK = (A<span class="sp">2</span>n<span class="sp">2</span> − KM·KN) sin θ/A,</p> +<div class="ref">(4)</div> + +<p class="noind">so that N is negative or positive, and the axis tends to rise or fall +according as K moves to the inside or outside of the hyperbola of free +motion. Thus a tap on the axis tending to hurry the precession is +equivalent to an impulse couple giving an increase to C′K, and will +make K move to the interior of the hyperbola and cause the axis to +rise; the steering of a bicycle may be explained in this way; but K<span class="su">1</span> +will move to the exterior of the hyperbola, and so the axis will fall +in this second more violent motion.</p> + +<p>Friction on the point of the top may be supposed to act like a tap +in the direction opposite to the precession; and so the axis of a top +spun violently rises at first and up to the vertical position, but falls +away again as the motion dies out. Friction considered as acting in +retarding the rotation may be compared to an impulse couple tending +to reduce OC′, and so make K and K<span class="su">1</span> both move to the exterior of the +hyperbola, and the axis falls in both cases. The axis may rise or fall +according to the direction of the frictional couple, depending on the +shape of the point; an analytical treatment of the varying motion is +very intractable; a memoir by E. G. Gallop may be consulted in the +<i>Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc.</i>, 1903.</p> + +<p>The earth behaves in precession like a large spinning top, of which +the axis describes a circle round the pole of the ecliptic of mean +angular radius θ, about 23½°, in a period of 26,000 years, so that +R/μ = 26000 × 365; and the mean couple producing precession is</p> + +<p class="center">CRμ sin θ = CR<span class="sp">2</span> sin 23½° /26000 × 365,</p> +<div class="ref">(5)</div> + +<p class="noind">one 12 millionth part of ½CR<span class="sp">2</span>, the rotation energy of the earth.</p> + +<p>5. If the preponderance is absent, by making the C·G coincide +with O, and if Aμ is insensible compared with G′,</p> + +<p class="center">N = −G′μ sin θ,</p> +<div class="ref">(1)</div> + +<p class="noind">the formula which suffices to explain most gyroscopic action.</p> + +<p>Thus a carriage running round a curve experiences, in consequence +<span class="sidenote">Gyroscopic action of railway wheels.</span> +of the rotation of the wheels, an increase of pressure Z on the outer +track, and a diminution Z on the inner, giving a couple, +if a is the gauge,</p> + +<p class="center" style="clear: both;">Za = G′μ,</p> +<div class="ref">(2)</div> + +<p class="noind">tending to help the centrifugal force to upset the train; +and if c is the radius of the curve, b of the wheels, C their +moment of inertia, and v the velocity of the train,</p> + +<p class="center">μ = v/c, G′ = Cv/b,</p> +<div class="ref">(3)</div> + +<p class="center">Z = Cv<span class="sp">2</span>/abc (dynes),</p> +<div class="ref">(4)</div> + +<p class="noind">so that Z is the fraction C/M<i>ab</i> of the centrifugal force Mv<span class="sp">2</span>/c, or the +fraction C/Mh of its transference of weight, with h the height of the +centre of gravity of the carriage above the road. A Brennan carriage +on a monorail would lean over to the inside of the curve at an angle α, +given by</p> + +<p class="center">tan α = G′μ/gMh = G′v/gMhc.</p> +<div class="ref">(6)</div> + +<p>The gyroscopic action of a dynamo, turbine, and other rotating +machinery on a steamer, paddle or screw, due to its rolling and pitching, +can be evaluated in a similar elementary manner (Worthington, +<i>Dynamics of Rotation</i>), and Schlick’s gyroscopic apparatus is intended +to mitigate the oscillation.</p> + +<p>6. If the axis OC in fig. 4 is inclined at an angle α to the vertical, +the equation (2) § 4 becomes</p> + +<p class="center">N = sin θ (Aμ<span class="sp">2</span> cos θ − G′μ) + gMh sin (α − θ).</p> +<div class="ref">(1)</div> + +<p>Suppose, for instance, that OC is parallel to the earth’s axis, +and that the frame is fixed in the meridian; then α is the co-latitude, +and μ is the angular velocity of the earth, the square of which may +be neglected; so that, putting N = 0, α − θ = E,</p> + +<p class="center">gMh sin E − G′μ sin (α − E) = 0,</p> +<div class="ref">(2)</div> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">tan E =</td> <td>G′μ sin α</td> +<td rowspan="2">≈</td> <td>G′μ</td> +<td rowspan="2">sin α.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">gMh + G′μ cos α</td> <td class="denom">gMh</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(3)</div> + +<p>This is the theory of Gilbert’s barogyroscope, described in Appell’s +<i>Mécanique rationnelle</i>, ii. 387: it consists essentially of a rapidly +<span class="sidenote">The barogyroscope.</span> +rotated fly-wheel, mounted on knife-edges by an axis +perpendicular to its axis of rotation and pointing east and +west; spun with considerable angular momentum G′, +and provided with a slight preponderance Mh, it should tilt to an +angle E with the vertical, and thus demonstrate experimentally the +rotation of the earth.</p> + +<p>In Foucault’s gyroscope (<i>Comptes rendus</i>, 1852; Perry, p. 105) +<span class="sidenote">Foucault’s gyroscope.</span> +the preponderance is made zero, and the axis points to +the pole, when free to move in the meridian.</p> + +<p>Generally, if constrained to move in any other plane, +the axis seeks the position nearest to the polar axis, like a dipping +needle with respect to the magnetic pole. (<i>A gyrostatic working +model of the magnetic compass</i>, by Sir W. Thomson. British Association +Report, Montreal, 1884. A. S. Chessin, St Louis Academy +of Science, January 1902.)</p> + +<p>A spinning top with a polished upper plane surface will provide +an artificial horizon at sea, when the real horizon is obscured. +The first instrument of this kind was constructed by +Serson, and is described in the <i>Gentleman’s Magazine</i>, +<span class="sidenote">Gyroscopic horizon.</span> +vol. xxiv., 1754; also by Segner in his <i>Specimen theoriae +turbinum</i> (Halae, 1755). The inventor was sent to sea by the Admiralty +to test his instrument, but he was lost in the wreck of the +“Victory,” 1744. A copy of the Serson top, from the royal collection, +is now in the Museum of King’s College, London. Troughton’s +Nautical Top (1819) is intended for the same purpose.</p> + +<p>The instrument is in favour with French navigators, perfected by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page772" id="page772"></a>772</span> +Admiral Fleuriais (fig. 9); but it must be noticed that the horizon +given by the top is inclined to the true horizon at the angle E given +by equation (3) above; and if μ<span class="su">1</span> is the precessional angular velocity +as given by (3) § 4, and T = 2π/μ, its period in seconds,</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">tan E =</td> <td>μ</td> +<td rowspan="2">cos lat =</td> <td>T cos lat</td> +<td rowspan="2">, or E =</td> <td>T cos lat</td> +<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">μ<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="denom">86400</td> +<td class="denom">8π</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(4)</div> + +<p class="noind">if E is expressed in minutes, taking μ = 2π/86400; thus making +the true latitude E nautical miles to the south of that given by +the top (<i>Revue maritime</i>, 1890; <i>Comptes rendus</i>, 1896).</p> + +<p>This can be seen by elementary consideration of the theory above, +for the velocity of the vector OC′ of the top due to the rotation of the +earth is</p> + +<p class="center">μ·OC′ cos lat = gMh sin E = μ<span class="su">1</span>·OC′ sin E,</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">sin E =</td> <td>μ</td> +<td rowspan="2">cos lat, E =</td> <td>T cos lat</td> +<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">μ<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="denom">8π</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(5)</div> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:252px; height:215px" src="images/img772.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">in which 8π can be replaced by 25, in practice; so that the Fleuriais +gyroscopic horizon is an illustration of the influence of the rotation of +the earth and of the need for its +allowance.</p> + +<p>7. In the ordinary treatment of +the general theory of the gyroscope, +the motion is +referred to two sets of +rectangular axes; the +<span class="sidenote">Euler’s coordinate angles.</span> +one Ox, Oy, Oz fixed +in space, with Oz vertically upward +and the other OX, OY, +OZ fixed in the rotating wheel +with OZ in the axis of figure +OC.</p> + +<p>The relative position of the two +sets of axes is given by means of +Euler’s unsymmetrical angles θ, +φ, ψ, such that the successive turning of the axes Ox, Oy, Oz +through the angles (i.) ψ about Oz, (ii.) θ about OE, (iii.) φ about +OZ, brings them into coincidence with OX, OY, OZ, as shown in +fig. 11, representing the <i>concave</i> side of a spherical surface.</p> + +<p>The component angular velocities about OD, OE, OZ are</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ov">ψ</span> sin θ, <span class="ov">θ</span>, <span class="ov">φ</span> + <span class="ov">ψ</span> cos θ;</p> +<div class="ref">(1)</div> + +<p class="noind">so that, denoting the components about OX, OY, OZ by P, Q, R,</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">P =</td> <td class="tcr"><span class="ov">θ</span> cos φ</td> <td class="tcl">+ <span class="ov">ψ</span> sin θ sin φ,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Q =</td> <td class="tcr">−<span class="ov">θ</span> sin φ</td> <td class="tcl">+ <span class="ov">ψ</span> sin θ cos φ,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">R =</td> <td class="tcr"><span class="ov">φ</span></td> <td class="tcl">+ <span class="ov">ψ</span> cos θ.</td></tr> +</table> +<div class="ref">(2)</div> + +<p>Consider, for instance, the motion of a fly-wheel of preponderance +Mh, and equatoreal moment of inertia A, of which the axis OC is +held in a light ring ZCX at a constant angle γ with OZ, while OZ is +held by another ring zZ, which constrains it to move round the +vertical Oz at a constant inclination θ with constant angular velocity +μ, so that</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ov">θ</span> = 0, <span class="ov">ψ</span> = μ;</p> +<div class="ref">(3)</div> + +<p class="center">P = μ sin θ sin φ, Q = μ sin θ cos φ, R = <span class="ov">φ</span> + μ cos θ.</p> +<div class="ref">(4)</div> + +<p>With CXF a quadrant, the components of angular velocity and +momentum about OF, OY, are</p> + +<p class="center">P cos γ − R sin γ, Q, and A (P cos γ − R sin γ), AQ,</p> +<div class="ref">(5)</div> + +<p class="noind">so that, denoting the components of angular momentum of the +fly-wheel about OC, OX, OY, OZ by K or G′, h<span class="su">1</span>, h<span class="su">2</span>, h<span class="su">3</span>,</p> + +<p class="center">h<span class="su">1</span> = A (P cos γ − R sin γ) cos γ + K sin γ,</p> +<div class="ref">(6)</div> + +<p class="center">h<span class="su">2</span> = AQ,</p> +<div class="ref">(7)</div> + +<p class="center">h<span class="su">3</span> = −A (P cos γ − R sin γ) sin γ + K cos γ;</p> +<div class="ref">(8)</div> + +<p class="noind">and the dynamical equation</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>dh<span class="su">3</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">− h<span class="su">1</span>Q + h<span class="su">2</span>P = N,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">dt</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(9)</div> + +<p class="noind">with K constant, and with preponderance downward</p> + +<p class="center">N = gMh cos zY sin γ = gMh sin γ sin θ cos φ,</p> +<div class="ref">(10)</div> + +<p class="noind">reduces to</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">A</td> <td>d<span class="sp">2</span>φ</td> +<td rowspan="2">sin γ + Aμ<span class="sp">2</span> sin γ sin<span class="sp">2</span> θ sin φ cos φ</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">dt<span class="sp">2</span></td></tr></table> + +<p class="center">+ Aμ<span class="sp">2</span> cos γ sin θ cos θ cos φ − (Kμ + gMh) sin θ cos φ = 0.</p> +<div class="ref">(11)</div> + +<p>The position of relative equilibrium is given by</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">cos φ = 0, and sin φ =</td> <td>Kμ + gMh − Aμ<span class="sp">2</span> cos γ cos θ</td> +<td rowspan="2">.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">Aμ<span class="sp">2</span> sin γ sin θ</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(12)</div> + +<p>For small values of μ the equation becomes</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">A</td> <td>d<span class="sp">2</span>φ</td> +<td rowspan="2">sin γ − (Kμ + gMh) sin θ cos φ = 0,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">dt<span class="sp">2</span></td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(13)</div> + +<p class="noind">so that φ = ½π gives the position of stable equilibrium, and the period +of a small oscillation is 2π √{A sin γ/(Kμ + gMh) sin θ}.</p> + +<p>In the general case, denoting the periods of vibration about +φ = ½π, −½π, and the sidelong position of equilibrium by 2π/(n<span class="su">1</span>, n<span class="su">2</span>, or +n<span class="su">3</span>), we shall find</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">n<span class="su">1</span><span class="sp">2</span> =</td> <td>sin θ</td> +<td rowspan="2">{ gMh + Kμ − Aμ<span class="sp">2</span> cos (γ − θ) },</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">A sin γ</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(14)</div> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">n<span class="su">2</span><span class="sp">2</span> =</td> <td>sin θ</td> +<td rowspan="2">{ −gMh − Kμ + Aμ<span class="sp">2</span> cos (γ + θ) },</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">A sin γ</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(15)</div> + +<p class="center">n<span class="su">3</span> = n<span class="su">1</span> n<span class="su">2</span>/μ sin θ.</p> +<div class="ref">(16)</div> + +<p>The first integral of (11) gives</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">½A <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>dφ</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span></td> <td><span class="sp">2</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">sin γ + ½Aμ<span class="sp">2</span> sin γ sin<span class="sp">2</span> θ sin<span class="sp">2</span> φ</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">dt</td> <td> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="center">− Aμ<span class="sp">2</span> cos γ sin θ cos θ sin φ + (Kμ + gMh) sin θ sin φ − H = 0,</p> +<div class="ref">(17)</div> + +<p class="noind">and putting tan (¼π + ½φ) = z, this reduces to</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>dz</td> +<td rowspan="2">n √Z</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">dt</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(18)</div> + +<p class="noind">where Z is a quadratic in z<span class="sp">2</span>, so that z is a Jacobian elliptic function +of t, and we have</p> + +<p class="center">tan (¼π + ½φ) = C (tn, dn, nc, or cn) nt,</p> +<div class="ref">(19)</div> + +<p class="noind">according as the ring ZC performs complete revolutions, or oscillates +about a sidelong position of equilibrium, or oscillates about the +stable position of equilibrium φ = ±½π.</p> + +<p>Suppose Oz is parallel to the earth’s axis, and μ is the diurnal +rotation, the square of which may be neglected, then if Gilbert’s +barogyroscope of § 6 has the knife-edges turned in azimuth to make +an angle β with E. and W., so that OZ lies in the horizon at an +angle E·β·N., we must put γ = ½π, cos θ = sin α sin β; and putting +φ = ½π − δ + E, where δ denotes the angle between Zz and the vertical +plane Zζ through the zenith ζ,</p> + +<p class="center">sin θ cos δ = cos α, sin θ sin δ = sin α cos β;</p> +<div class="ref">(20)</div> + +<p class="noind">so that equations (9) and (10) for relative equilibrium reduce to</p> + +<p class="center">gMh sin E = KQ = Kμ sin θ cos φ = Kμ sin θ sin (δ − E),</p> +<div class="ref">(21)</div> + +<p class="noind">and will change (3) § 6 into</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">tan E =</td> <td>Kμ sin α cos β</td> +<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">gMh + Kμ cos α</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(22)</div> + +<p class="noind">a multiplication of (3) § 6 by cos β (Gilbert, <i>Comptes rendus</i>, 1882).</p> + +<p>Changing the sign of K or h and E and denoting the revolutions/second +of the gyroscope wheel by F, then in the preceding +notation, T denoting the period of vibration as a simple pendulum,</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">tan E =</td> <td>Kμ sin α cos β</td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>F sin α cos β</td> +<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">gMh − Kμ cos α</td> <td class="denom">86400 A/T<span class="sp">2</span>C − F cos α</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(23)</div> + +<p class="noind">so that the gyroscope would reverse if it were possible to make +F cos α > 86400 A/T<span class="sp">2</span>C (Föppl, <i>Münch. Ber</i>, 1904).</p> + +<p>A gyroscopic pendulum is made by the addition to it of a fly-wheel, +balanced and mounted, as in Gilbert’s barogyroscope, in a +ring movable about an axis fixed in the pendulum, in the vertical +plane of motion.</p> + +<p>As the pendulum falls away to an angle θ with the upward vertical, +and the axis of the fly-wheel makes an angle φ with the vertical plane +of motion, the three components of angular momentum are</p> + +<p class="center">h<span class="su">1</span> = K cos φ, h<span class="su">2</span> = A<span class="ov">θ</span> + K sin φ, h<span class="su">3</span> = A<span class="ov">φ</span>,</p> +<div class="ref">(24)</div> + +<p class="noind">where h<span class="su">3</span> is the component about the axis of the ring and K of the +fly-wheel about its axis; and if L, M′, N denote the components of +the couple of reaction of the ring, L may be ignored, while N is zero, +with P = 0, Q = <span class="ov">θ</span>, R = 0, so that</p> + +<p class="center">M′ = h<span class="su">2</span> = A<span class="ov bold">θ</span> + K<span class="ov">φ</span> cos φ,</p> +<div class="ref">(25)</div> + +<p class="center">0 = h<span class="su">3</span> − h<span class="su">1</span><span class="ov">θ</span> = A<span class="ov bold">φ</span> − K<span class="ov">θ</span> cos φ.</p> +<div class="ref">(26)</div> + +<p class="noind">For the motion of the pendulum, including the fly-wheel,</p> + +<p class="center">MK<span class="sp">2</span><span class="ov bold">θ</span> = gMH sin θ − M′ + = gMH sin θ − A<span class="ov bold">θ</span> − K<span class="ov">φ</span> cos φ.</p> +<div class="ref">(27)</div> + +<p>If θ and φ remain small,</p> + +<p class="center">A<span class="ov bold">φ</span> = K<span class="ov">θ</span>, A<span class="ov">φ</span> = K(θ − α),</p> +<div class="ref">(28)</div> + +<p class="center">(MK<span class="sp">2</span> + A) <span class="ov bold">θ</span> + (K<span class="sp">2</span>/A) (θ − α) − gMHθ = 0;</p> +<div class="ref">(29)</div> + +<p class="noind">so that the upright position will be stable if K<span class="sp">2</span> > gMHA, or the +rotation energy of the wheel greater than ½A/C times the energy +acquired by the pendulum in falling between the vertical and +horizontal position; and the vibration will synchronize with a simple +pendulum of length</p> + +<p class="center">(MK<span class="sp">2</span> + A) / [(K<span class="sp">2</span>/gA) − MH].</p> +<div class="ref">(30)</div> + +<p>This gyroscopic pendulum may be supposed to represent a ship +among waves, or a carriage on a monorail, and so affords an explanation +of the gyroscopic action essential in the apparatus of Schlick +and Brennan.</p> + +<p>8. Careful scrutiny shows that the steady motion of a +top is not steady absolutely; it reveals a small nutation +<span class="sidenote">General motion of the top.</span> +superposed, so that a complete investigation requires +a return to the equations of unsteady motion, and for the +small oscillation to consider them in a penultimate form.</p> + +<p>In the general motion of the top the vector OH of resultant angular +momentum is no longer compelled to lie in the vertical plane COC′ +(fig. 4), but since the axis Oh of the gravity couple is always horizontal, +H will describe a curve in a fixed horizontal plane through C. +The vector OC′ of angular momentum about the axis will be constant +in length, but vary in direction; and OK will be the component +angular momentum in the vertical plane COC′, if the planes through +C and C′ perpendicular to the lines OC and OC′ intersect in the line +KH; and if KH is the component angular momentum perpendicular +to the plane COC′, the resultant angular momentum OH has the +three components OC′, C′K, KH, represented in Euler’s angles by</p> + +<p class="center">KH = A dθ/dt, C′K = A sin θd ψ/dt, OC′ = G′.</p> +<div class="ref">(1)</div> + +<p class="noind">Drawing KM vertical and KN parallel to OC′, then</p> + +<p class="center">KM = A dψ/dt, KN = CR − A cos θ dψ/dt = (C − A) R + A dφ/dt</p> +<div class="ref">(2)</div> + +<p class="noind">so that in the spherical top, with C = A, KN = A dφ/dt.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page773" id="page773"></a>773</span></p> + +<p>The velocity of H is in the direction KH perpendicular to the plane +COC′, and equal to gMh sin θ or An<span class="sp">2</span> sin θ, so that if a point in the +axis OC′ at a distance An<span class="sp">2</span> from O is projected on the horizontal plane +through C in the point P on CK, the curve described by P, turned +forwards through a right angle, will be the hodograph of H; this is +expressed by</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">An<span class="sp">2</span> sin θ e<span class="sp">(ψ + 1/2π)i</span> = iAn<span class="sp">2</span> sin θ e<span class="sp">ψi</span> =</td> <td>d</td> +<td rowspan="2">(ρe<span class="sp">ῶi</span>)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">dt</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(3)</div> + +<p class="noind">where ρe<span class="sp">ῶi</span> is the vector CH; and so the curve described by P and +the motion of the axis of the top is derived from the curve described +by H by a differentiation.</p> + +<p>Resolving the velocity of H in the direction CH,</p> + +<p class="center">d·CH/dt = An<span class="sp">2</span> sin θ sin KCH = An<span class="sp">2</span> sin θ KH/CH,</p> +<div class="ref">(4)</div> + +<p class="center">d·½CH<span class="sp">2</span>/dt = A<span class="sp">2</span>n<span class="sp">2</span>sin θ dθ/dt.</p> +<div class="ref">(5)</div> + +<p class="noind">and integrating</p> + +<p class="center">½CH<span class="sp">2</span> = A<span class="sp">2</span>n<span class="sp">2</span> (E − cos θ),</p> +<div class="ref">(6)</div> + +<p class="center">½OH<span class="sp">2</span> = A<span class="sp">2</span>n<span class="sp">2</span> (F − cos θ),</p> +<div class="ref">(7)</div> + +<p class="center">½C′H<span class="sp">2</span> = A<span class="sp">2</span>n<span class="sp">2</span> (D − cos θ),</p> +<div class="ref">(8)</div> + +<p class="noind">where D, E, F are constants, connected by</p> + +<p class="center">F = E + G<span class="sp">2</span>/2A<span class="sp">2</span>n<span class="sp">2</span> = D + G′<span class="sp">2</span>/2A<span class="sp">2</span>n<span class="sp">2</span>.</p> +<div class="ref">(9)</div> + +<p class="noind">Then</p> + +<p class="center">KH<span class="sp">2</span> = OH<span class="sp">2</span> − OK<span class="sp">2</span>,</p> +<div class="ref">(10)</div> + +<p class="center">OK<span class="sp">2</span> sin<span class="sp">2</span> θ = CC′<span class="sp">2</span> = G<span class="sp">2</span> − 2GG′ cos θ + G′<span class="sp">2</span>,</p> +<div class="ref">(11)</div> + +<p class="center">A<span class="sp">2</span> sin<span class="sp">2</span> θ (dθ/dt)<span class="sp">2</span> = 2A<span class="sp">2</span>n<span class="sp">2</span> (F − cos θ) sin<span class="sp">2</span> θ − G<span class="sp">2</span> + 2GG′ cos θ − G′<span class="sp">2</span>;</p> +<div class="ref">(12)</div> + +<p class="noind">and putting cos θ = z,</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>dz</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span> = 2n<span class="sp">2</span> (F − z) (1 − z<span class="sp">2</span>) − (G<span class="sp">2</span> − 2GG′z + G′<span class="sp">2</span>) /A<span class="sp">2</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">dt</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(13)</div> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>= 2n<span class="sp">2</span> (E − z) (1 − z<span class="sp">2</span>) − (G′ − Gz)<span class="sp">2</span> /A<span class="sp">2</span></p> + +<p>= 2n<span class="sp">2</span> (D − z) (1 − z<span class="sp">2</span>) − (G − G′z)<span class="sp">2</span> /A<span class="sp">2</span></p> + +<p>= 2n<span class="sp">2</span> Z suppose.</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p>Denoting the roots of Z = 0 by z<span class="su">1</span>, z<span class="su">2</span>, z<span class="su">3</span>, we shall have them arranged +in the order</p> + +<p class="center">z<span class="su">1</span> > 1 > z<span class="su">2</span> > z > z<span class="su">3</span> > −1.</p> +<div class="ref">(14)</div> + +<p class="center">(dz/dt)<span class="sp">2</span> = 2n<span class="sp">2</span> (z<span class="su">1</span> − z) (z<span class="su">2</span> − z) (z − z<span class="su">3</span>).</p> +<div class="ref">(15)</div> + +<p class="center">nt = <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp1">z</span><span class="su1">z<span class="su">3</span></span> dz/ √(2Z),</p> +<div class="ref">(16)</div> + +<p class="noind">an elliptic integral of the first kind, which with</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">m = n <span class="f200">√</span></td> <td>z<span class="su">1</span> − z<span class="su">3</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">, κ<span class="sp">2</span> =</td> <td>z<span class="su">2</span> − z<span class="su">3</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">2</td> <td class="denom">z<span class="su">1</span> − z<span class="su">2</span></td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(17)</div> + +<p class="noind">can be expressed, when normalized by the factor √(z<span class="su">1</span> − z<span class="su">3</span>)/2, by the +inverse elliptic function in the form</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">mt = <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp1">z</span><span class="su1">z<span class="su">3</span></span></td> <td>√ (z<span class="su">1</span> − z<span class="su">3</span>) dz</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">√ [4 (z<span class="su">1</span> − z) (z<span class="su">2</span> − z) (z − z<span class="su">3</span>)]</td></tr></table> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">= sn<span class="sp">−1</span> <span class="f200">√</span></td> <td>z − z<span class="su">3</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">= cn<span class="sp">−1</span> <span class="f200">√</span></td> <td>z<span class="su">2</span> − z</td> +<td rowspan="2">= dn<span class="sp">−1</span> <span class="f200">√</span></td> <td>z<span class="su">1</span> − z</td> +<td rowspan="2">.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">z<span class="su">2</span> − z<span class="su">3</span></td> <td class="denom">z<span class="su">2</span> − z<span class="su">3</span></td> +<td class="denom">z<span class="su">1</span> − z<span class="su">3</span></td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(18)</div> + +<p class="center">z − z<span class="su">3</span> = (z<span class="su">2</span> − z<span class="su">3</span>) sn<span class="sp">2</span>mt, z<span class="su">2</span> − z = (z<span class="su">2</span> − z<span class="su">3</span>) cn<span class="sp">2</span>mt, +z<span class="su">1</span> − z = (z<span class="su">1</span> − z<span class="su">3</span>) dn<span class="sp">2</span>mt.</p> +<div class="ref">(19)</div> + +<p class="center">z = z<span class="su">2</span>sn<span class="sp">2</span>mt + z<span class="su">3</span>cn<span class="sp">2</span>mt.</p> +<div class="ref">(20)</div> + +<p>Interpreted dynamically, the axis of the top keeps time with the +beats of a simple pendulum of length</p> + +<p class="center">L = l/½ (z<span class="su">1</span> − z<span class="su">3</span>),</p> +<div class="ref">(21)</div> + +<p class="noind">suspended from a point at a height ½ (z<span class="su">1</span> + z<span class="su">3</span>)l above O, in such a +manner that a point on the <span class="correction" title="amended from pedulum">pendulum</span> at a distance</p> + +<p class="center">½ (z<span class="su">1</span> − z<span class="su">3</span>) l = l<span class="sp">2</span>/L</p> +<div class="ref">(22)</div> + +<p class="noind">from the point of suspension moves so as to be always at the same +level as the centre of oscillation of the top.</p> + +<p>The polar co-ordinates of H are denoted by ρ, ῶ in the horizontal +plane through C; and, resolving the velocity of H perpendicular to +CH,</p> + +<p class="center">ρdῶ/dt = An<span class="sp">2</span> sin θ cos KCH.</p> +<div class="ref">(23)</div> + +<p class="center">ρ<span class="sp">2</span>dῶ/dt = An<span class="sp">2</span> sin θ·CK += An<span class="sp">2</span> (G′ − G cos θ)</p> +<div class="ref">(24)</div> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">ῶ = ½ <span class="f150">∫</span></td> <td>G′ − Gz</td> +<td rowspan="2"> </td> <td>dt</td> +<td rowspan="2">= <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="su">z<span class="su">3</span></span></td> <td>(G′ − Gz) / 2An</td> +<td rowspan="2"> </td> <td>dz</td> +<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">E − z</td> <td class="denom">A</td> +<td class="denom">E − z</td> <td class="denom">√ (2Z)</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(25)</div> + +<p class="noind">an elliptic integral, of the third kind, with pole at z = E; and then</p> + +<p class="center">ῶ − ψ = KCH = tan<span class="sp">−1</span> KH/CH</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">= tan<span class="sp">−1</span></td> <td>A sin θ dθ/dt</td> +<td rowspan="2">= tan<span class="sp">−1</span></td> <td>√ (2Z)</td> +<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">G′ − G cos θ</td> <td class="denom">(G′ − Gz) / An</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(26)</div> + +<p class="noind">which determines ψ.</p> + +<p>Otherwise, from the geometry of fig. 4,</p> + +<p class="center">C′K sin θ = OC − OC′ cos θ,</p> +<div class="ref">(27)</div> + +<p class="center">A sin<span class="sp">2</span> θ dψ/dt = G − G′ cos θ,</p> +<div class="ref">(28)</div> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">ψ = <span class="f150">∫</span></td> <td>G − G′z</td> +<td rowspan="2"> </td> <td>dt</td> +<td rowspan="2">= ½ <span class="f150">∫</span></td> <td>G − G′</td> +<td rowspan="2"> </td> <td>dt</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ ½ <span class="f150">∫</span></td> <td>G + G′</td> +<td rowspan="2"> </td> <td>dt</td> +<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">1 − z<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="denom">A</td> +<td class="denom">1 − z</td> <td class="denom">A</td> +<td class="denom">1 + z</td> <td class="denom">A</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(29)</div> + +<p class="noind">the sum of two elliptic integrals of the third kind, with pole at z = ±1; +and the relation in (25) (26) shows the addition of these two integrals +into a single integral, with pole at z = E.</p> + +<p>The motion of a sphere, rolling and spinning in the interior of a +spherical bowl, or on the top of a sphere, is found to be of the same +character as the motion of the axis of a spinning top about a fixed +point.</p> + +<p>The curve described by H can be identified as a Poinsot herpolhode, +that is, the curve traced out by rolling a quadric surface with centre +fixed at O on the horizontal plane through C; and Darboux has +shown also that a deformable hyperboloid made of the generating +lines, with O and H at opposite ends of a diameter and one generator +fixed in OC, can be moved so as to describe the curve H; the tangent +plane of the hyperboloid at H being normal to the curve of H; and +then the other generator through O will coincide in the movement with +OC′, the axis of the top; thus the Poinsot herpolhode curve H is also +the trace made by rolling a line of curvature on an ellipsoid confocal +to the hyperboloid of one sheet, on the plane through C.</p> + +<p>Kirchhoff’s <i>Kinetic Analogue</i> asserts also that the curve of H is +the projection of a tortuous elastica, and that the spherical curve of +C′ is a hodograph of the elastica described with constant velocity.</p> + +<p>Writing the equation of the focal ellipse of the Darboux hyperboloid +through H, enlarged to double scale so that O is the centre,</p> + +<p class="center">x<span class="sp">2</span>/α<span class="sp">2</span> + y<span class="sp">2</span>/β<span class="sp">2</span> + z<span class="sp">2</span>/O = 1,</p> +<div class="ref">(30)</div> + +<p class="noind">with α<span class="sp">2</span> + λ, β<span class="sp">2</span> + λ, λ denoting the squares of the semiaxes of a confocal +ellipsoid, and λ changed into μ and ν for a confocal hyperboloid +of one sheet and of two sheets.</p> + +<p class="center">λ > 0 > μ > −β<span class="sp">2</span> > ν > −α<span class="sp">2</span>,</p> +<div class="ref">(31)</div> + +<p class="noind">then in the deformation of the hyperboloid, λ and ν remain constant +at H; and utilizing the theorems of solid geometry on confocal +quadrics, the magnitudes may be chosen so that</p> + +<p class="center">α<span class="sp">2</span> + λ + β<span class="sp">2</span> + μ + ν = OH<span class="sp">2</span> = ½k<span class="sp">2</span> (F − z) = ρ<span class="sp">2</span> + OC<span class="sp">2</span>.</p> +<div class="ref">(32)</div> + +<p class="center">α<span class="sp">2</span> + μ = ½k<span class="sp">2</span> (z<span class="su">1</span> − z) = ρ<span class="sp">2</span> − ρ<span class="su">1</span><span class="sp">2</span>,</p> +<div class="ref">(33)</div> + +<p class="center">β<span class="sp">2</span> + μ = ½k<span class="sp">2</span> (z<span class="su">2</span> − z) = ρ<span class="sp">2</span> − ρ<span class="su">2</span><span class="sp">2</span>,</p> +<div class="ref">(34)</div> + +<p class="center">μ = ½k<span class="sp">2</span> (z<span class="su">3</span> − z) = ρ<span class="sp">2</span> − ρ<span class="su">3</span><span class="sp">2</span>,</p> +<div class="ref">(35)</div> + +<p class="center">ρ<span class="su">1</span><span class="sp">2</span> < 0 < ρ<span class="su">2</span><span class="sp">2</span> < ρ<span class="sp">2</span> < ρ<span class="su">3</span><span class="sp">2</span>,</p> +<div class="ref">(36)</div> + +<p class="center">F = z<span class="su">1</span> + z<span class="su">2</span> + z<span class="su">3</span>,</p> +<div class="ref">(37)</div> + +<p class="center">λ − 2μ + ν = k<span class="sp">2</span>z, λ − ν = k<span class="sp">2</span>,</p> +<div class="ref">(38)</div> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>λ − μ</td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>1 + z</td> +<td rowspan="2">,</td> <td>μ − ν</td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>1 − z</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">λ − ν</td> <td class="denom">2</td> +<td class="denom">λ − ν</td> <td class="denom">2</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(39)</div> + +<p class="noind">with z = cos θ, θ denoting the angle between the generating lines +through H; and with OC = δ, OC′ = δ′, the length k has been chosen +so that in the preceding equations</p> + +<p class="center">δ/k = G/2An, δ′/k = G′/2An;</p> +<div class="ref">(40)</div> + +<p class="noind">and δ, δ′, k may replace G, G′, 2An; then</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>2Z</td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>1</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>dθ</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span></td> <td><span class="sp">2</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>4KH<span class="sp">2</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">1 − z<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="denom">n<span class="sp">2</span></td> +<td class="denom">dt</td> <td> </td> +<td class="denom">k<span class="sp">2</span></td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(41)</div> + +<p class="noind">while from (33-39)</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>2Z</td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>4 (α<span class="sp">2</span> + μ) (β<span class="sp">2</span> + μ) μ</td> +<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">1 − z<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="denom">k<span class="sp">2</span> (μ − λ) (μ − ν)</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(42)</div> + +<p class="noind">which verifies that KH is the perpendicular from O on the tangent +plane of the hyperboloid at H, and so proves Darboux’s theorem.</p> + +<p>Planes through O perpendicular to the generating lines cut off a +constant length HQ = δ, HQ′ = δ′, so the line of curvature described +by H in the deformation of the hyperboloid, the intersection of the +fixed confocal ellipsoid λ and hyperboloid of two sheets ν, rolls on a +horizontal plane through C and at the same time on a plane through +C′ perpendicular to OC′.</p> + +<p>Produce the generating line HQ to meet the principal planes of the +confocal system in V, T, P; these will also be fixed points on the +generator; and putting</p> + +<p class="center">(HV, HT, HP,)/HQ = D/(A, B, C,),</p> +<div class="ref">(43)</div> + +<p class="noind">then</p> + +<p class="center">Ax<span class="sp">2</span> + By<span class="sp">2</span> + Cz<span class="sp">2</span> = Dδ<span class="sp">2</span></p> +<div class="ref">(44)</div> + +<p class="noind">is a quadric surface with the squares of the semiaxes given by +HV·HQ, HT·HQ, HP·HQ, and with HQ the normal line at H, and +so touching the horizontal plane through C; and the direction +cosines of the normal being</p> + +<p class="center">x/HV, y/HT, z/HP,</p> +<div class="ref">(45)</div> + +<p class="center">A<span class="sp">2</span>x<span class="sp">2</span> + B<span class="sp">2</span>y<span class="sp">2</span> + C<span class="sp">2</span>z<span class="sp">2</span> = D<span class="sp">2</span>δ<span class="sp">2</span>,</p> +<div class="ref">(46)</div> + +<p class="noind">the line of curvature, called the polhode curve by Poinsot, being the +intersection of the quadric surface (44) with the ellipsoid (46).</p> + +<p>There is a second surface associated with (44), which rolls on the +plane through C′, corresponding to the other generating line HQ′ +through H, so that the same line of curvature rolls on two planes at a +constant distance from O, δ and δ′; and the motion of the top is +made up of the combination. This completes the statement of +Jacobi’s theorem (<i>Werke</i>, ii. 480) that the motion of a top can be +resolved into two movements of a body under no force.</p> + +<p>Conversely, starting with Poinsot’s polhode and herpolhode given +in (44) (46), the normal plane is drawn at H, cutting the principal +axes of the rolling quadric in X, Y, Z; and then</p> + +<p class="center">α<span class="sp">2</span> + μ = x·OX, β<span class="sp">2</span> + μ = y·OY, μ = z·OZ,</p> +<div class="ref">(47)</div> + +<p class="noind">this determines the deformable hyperboloid of which one generator +through H is a normal to the plane through C; and the other +generator is inclined at an angle θ, the inclination of the axis of the +top, while the normal plane or the parallel plane through O revolves +with angular velocity dψ/dt.</p> + +<p>The curvature is useful in drawing a curve of H; the diameter of +curvature D is given by</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page774" id="page774"></a>774</span></p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">D =</td> <td>dp<span class="sp">2</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>½k<span class="sp">2</span> sin<span class="sp">3</span> θ</td> +<td rowspan="2">,</td> <td>½D</td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>¼k<span class="sp">2</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">dp</td> <td class="denom">δ − δ′</td> +<td class="denom">p</td> <td class="denom">KM·KN</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(48)</div> + +<p class="noind">The curvature is zero and H passes through a point of inflexion when +C′ comes into the horizontal plane through C; ψ will then be +stationary and the curve described by C′ will be looped.</p> + +<p>In a state of steady motion, z oscillates between two limits z<span class="su">2</span> and z<span class="su">3</span> +which are close together; so putting z<span class="su">2</span> = z<span class="su">3</span> the coefficient of z in Z is</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">2Z<span class="su">1</span>z<span class="su">3</span> + z<span class="sp">2</span><span class="su">3</span> = −1 +</td> <td>GG′</td> +<td rowspan="2">= −1 +</td> <td>(OM cos θ + ON) (OM + ON cos θ)</td> +<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">A<span class="sp">2</span>n<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="denom">OM·ON</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(49)</div> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">2z<span class="su">1</span>z<span class="su">3</span> =</td> <td>OM<span class="sp">2</span> + ON<span class="sp">2</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">cos θ, z<span class="su">1</span> =</td> <td>OM<span class="sp">2</span> + ON<span class="sp">2</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">OM·ON</td> <td class="denom">2OM·ON</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(50)</div> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">2 (z<span class="su">1</span> − z<span class="su">3</span>) =</td> <td>OM<span class="sp">2</span> − 2OM·ON cos θ + ON<span class="sp">2</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>MN<span class="sp">2</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">OM·ON</td> <td class="denom">OM·ON</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(51)</div> + +<p>With z<span class="su">2</span> = z<span class="su">3</span>, κ = 0, K = ½π; and the number of beats per second of +the axis is</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>m</td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>n</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f200">√</span></td> <td>z<span class="su">1</span> − z<span class="su">3</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>MN</td> +<td rowspan="2"> </td> <td>n</td> +<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">π</td> <td class="denom">π</td> +<td class="denom">2</td> <td class="denom">√ (OM·ON)</td> +<td class="denom">2π</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(52)</div> + +<p class="noind">beating time with a pendulum of length</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">L =</td> <td>l</td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>4OM·ON</td> +<td rowspan="2">l.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">½ (z<span class="su">1</span> − z<span class="su">3</span>)</td> <td class="denom">MN<span class="sp">2</span></td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(53)</div> + +<p>The wheel making R/2π revolutions per second,</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>beats/second</td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>MN</td> +<td rowspan="2"> </td> <td>n</td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>C</td> +<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>MN</td> +<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">revolutions/second</td> <td class="denom">√ (OM·ON)</td> +<td class="denom">R</td> <td class="denom">A</td> +<td class="denom">OC′</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(54)</div> + +<p class="noind">from (8) (9) § 3; and the apsidal angle is</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">μ</td> <td>½π</td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>Aμ</td> +<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>n</td> +<td rowspan="2">·½π =</td> <td>ON</td> +<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>2√ (OM·ON)</td> +<td rowspan="2">·½π =</td> <td>ON</td> +<td rowspan="2">π,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">m</td> <td class="denom">An</td> +<td class="denom">m</td> <td class="denom">√ (OM·ON)</td> +<td class="denom">MN</td> <td class="denom">MN</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(55)</div> + +<p class="noind">and the height of the equivalent conical pendulum λ is given by</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>λ</td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>g</td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>n<span class="sp">2</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>OM</td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>KC</td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>OL</td> +<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">lμ<span class="sp">2</span></td> +<td class="denom">μ<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="denom">ON</td> +<td class="denom">KC′</td> <td class="denom">OC′</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(56)</div> + +<p class="noind">if OR drawn at right angles to OK cuts KC′ in R, and RL is drawn +horizontal to cut the vertical CO in L; thus if OC<span class="sp">2</span> represents l to +scale, then OL will represent λ.</p> + +<p>9. The gyroscope motion in fig. 4 comes to a stop when the rim of +the wheel touches the ground; and to realize the motion when the +axis is inclined at a greater angle with the upward vertical, the stalk +is pivoted in fig. 8 in a lug screwed to the axle of a bicycle hub, +fastened vertically in a bracket bolted to a beam. The wheel can +now be spun by hand, and projected in any manner so as to produce +a desired gyroscopic motion, undulating, looped, or with cusps if the +stalk of the wheel is dropped from rest.</p> + +<p>As the principal part of the motion takes place now in the neighbourhood +of the lowest position, it is convenient to measure the angle +θ from the downward vertical, and to change the sign of z and G.</p> + +<p>Equation (18) § 8 must be changed to</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">mt = nt <span class="f200">√</span></td> <td>z<span class="su">3</span> − z<span class="su">1</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">= <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp1">z<span class="su">3</span></span><span class="su1">z</span></td> <td>√ (z<span class="su">3</span> − z<span class="su">1</span>) dz</td> +<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">2</td> <td class="denom">√ (4Z)</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(1)</div> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>Z = (z − F) (1 − z<span class="sp">2</span>) − (G<span class="sp">2</span> − 2GG′z + G′<span class="sp">2</span>) / 2A<span class="sp">2</span>n<span class="sp">2</span></p> +<p class="i1">= (z − D) (1 − z<span class="sp">2</span>) − (G − G′z)<span class="sp">2</span> / 2A<span class="sp">2</span>n<span class="sp">2</span></p> +<p class="i1">= (z − E) (1 − z<span class="sp">2</span>) − (G′ − Gz)<span class="sp">2</span> / 2A<span class="sp">2</span>n<span class="sp">2</span></p> +<p class="i1">= (z<span class="su">3</span> − z) (z − z<span class="su">2</span>) (z − z<span class="su">1</span>),</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(2)</div> + +<p class="center">1 > z<span class="su">3</span> > z > z<span class="su">2</span> > −1, D, E > z<span class="su">1</span>,</p> +<div class="ref">(3)</div> + +<p class="center">z<span class="su">1</span> + z<span class="su">2</span> + z<span class="su">3</span> = F = D − G′<span class="sp">2</span> / 2A<span class="sp">2</span>n<span class="sp">2</span> = E − G<span class="sp">2</span> / 2A<span class="sp">2</span>n<span class="sp">2</span>,</p> +<div class="ref">(4)</div> + +<p class="noind">and expressed by the inverse elliptic function</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">mt = sn<span class="sp">−1</span> <span class="f200">√</span></td> <td>z<span class="su">3</span> − z</td> +<td rowspan="2">= cn<span class="sp">−1</span> <span class="f200">√</span></td> <td>z − z<span class="su">2</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">= dn<span class="sp">−1</span> <span class="f200">√</span></td> <td>z − z<span class="su">1</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">z<span class="su">3</span> − z<span class="su">2</span></td> <td class="denom">z<span class="su">3</span> − z<span class="su">2</span></td> +<td class="denom">z<span class="su">3</span> − z<span class="su">1</span></td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(5)</div> + +<p class="center">z = z<span class="su">2</span>sn<span class="sp">2</span>mt + z<span class="su">3</span>cn<span class="sp">2</span>mt, κ<span class="sp">2</span> = (z<span class="su">3</span> − z<span class="su">2</span>) / (z<span class="su">3</span> − z<span class="su">1</span>).</p> +<div class="ref">(6)</div> + +<p>Equation (25) and (29) § 8 is changed to</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">ῶ = ½ <span class="f150">∫</span></td> <td>G′ − Gz</td> +<td rowspan="2"> </td> <td>dt</td> +<td rowspan="2">= ½ <span class="f150">∫</span></td> <td>G′ − GE</td> +<td rowspan="2"> </td> <td>dt</td> +<td rowspan="2">−</td> <td>Gt</td> +<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">z − E</td> <td class="denom">A</td> +<td class="denom">z − E</td> <td class="denom">A</td> +<td class="denom">2A</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(7)</div> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">ψ = <span class="f150">∫</span></td> <td>G′z − G</td> +<td rowspan="2"> </td> <td>dt</td> +<td rowspan="2">= ½ <span class="f150">∫</span></td> <td>G′ + G</td> +<td rowspan="2"> </td> <td>dt</td> +<td rowspan="2">− ½ <span class="f150">∫</span></td> <td>G′ − G</td> +<td rowspan="2"> </td> <td>dt</td> +<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">1 − z<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="denom">A</td> +<td class="denom">1 − z</td> <td class="denom">A</td> +<td class="denom">1 + z</td> <td class="denom">A</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(8)</div> + +<p class="noind">while ψ and ῶ change places in (26).</p> + +<p>The Jacobian elliptic parameter of the third elliptic integral in (7) +can be given by ν, where</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">v = <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp1">z<span class="su">3</span></span><span class="su1">E</span></td> <td>√ (z<span class="su">3</span> − z<span class="su">1</span>)</td> +<td rowspan="2">dz = <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp1">z<span class="su">3</span></span><span class="su1">z<span class="su">2</span></span> + + <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp1">z<span class="su">2</span></span><span class="su1">E</span> + = K + (1 − f) Ki′,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">√ (4Z)</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(9)</div> + +<p class="noind">where f is a real fraction,</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">(1 − f) K′ = <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp1">z<span class="su">2</span></span><span class="su1">E</span></td> <td>√ (z<span class="su">3</span> − z<span class="su">1</span>)</td> +<td rowspan="2">dz,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">√ (−4Z)</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(10)</div> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">fK′ = <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp1">E</span><span class="su1">z<span class="su">1</span></span></td> <td>√ (z<span class="su">3</span> − z<span class="su">1</span>)</td> +<td rowspan="2">dz,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">√ (−4Z)</td></tr></table> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">= sn<span class="sp">−1</span> <span class="f200">√</span></td> <td>E − z<span class="su">1</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">= cn<span class="sp">−1</span> <span class="f200">√</span></td> <td>z<span class="su">2</span> − E</td> +<td rowspan="2">= dn<span class="sp">−1</span> <span class="f200">√</span></td> <td>z<span class="su">3</span> − E</td> +<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">z<span class="su">2</span> − z<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="denom">z<span class="su">2</span> − z<span class="su">1</span></td> +<td class="denom">z<span class="su">3</span> − z<span class="su">1</span></td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(11)</div> + +<p class="noind">with respect to the comodulus κ′.</p> + +<p>Then, with z = E, and</p> + +<p class="center">2Z<span class="su">E</span> = −{ (G′ − GE) / An}<span class="sp">2</span>,</p> +<div class="ref">(12)</div> + +<p class="noind">if II denotes the apsidal angle of ῶ, and T the time of a single beat +of the axle, up or down,</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">II +</td> <td>GT</td> +<td rowspan="2">= <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp1">z3</span><span class="su1">z2</span></td> <td>√ (−2Z<span class="su">E</span>)</td> +<td rowspan="2"> </td> <td>dz</td> +<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">2A</td> <td class="denom">z − E</td> +<td class="denom">√ (2Z)</td></tr></table> + +<p class="center">= ½πf + Kznf K′,</p> +<div class="ref">(13)</div> + +<p class="noind">in accordance with the theory of the complete elliptic integral of the +third kind.</p> + +<p>Interpreted geometrically on the deformable <span class="correction" title="amended from hyperboloia">hyperboloid</span>, flattened +in the plane of the focal ellipse, if OQ is the perpendicular from the +centre on the tangent HP, AOQ = amfK′, and the eccentric angle of +P, measured from the minor axis, is am(1 − f) K′, the eccentricity of +the focal ellipse being the comodulus κ′.</p> + +<p>A point L is taken in QP such that</p> + +<p class="center">QL/OA = znfK′,</p> +<div class="ref">(14)</div> + +<p class="center">QV, QT, QP = OA (zs, zc, zd) fK′;</p> +<div class="ref">(15)</div> + +<p class="noind">and with</p> + +<p class="center">mT = K, m/n = √ (z<span class="su">3</span> − z<span class="su">1</span>) /2 = OA/k,</p> +<div class="ref">(16)</div> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>GT</td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>G</td> +<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>k</td> +<td rowspan="2">K =</td> <td>QH</td> +<td rowspan="2">K,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">2A</td> <td class="denom">2An</td> +<td class="denom">OA</td> <td class="denom">OA</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(17)</div> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">II = ½πf +</td> <td>QL + QH</td> +<td rowspan="2">K = ½πf +</td> <td>HL</td> +<td rowspan="2">K.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">OA</td> <td class="denom">OA</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(18)</div> + +<p>By choosing for f a simple rational fraction, such as ½, <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>, ¼, <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span>, + ... an algebraical case of motion can be constructed (<i>Annals of +Mathematics</i>, 1904).</p> + +<p>Thus with G′ − GE = 0, we have E = z<span class="su">1</span> or z<span class="su">2</span>, never z<span class="su">3</span>; f = 0 or 1; +and P is at A or B on the focal ellipse; and then</p> + +<p class="center">ῶ = −pt, p = G/2A,</p> +<div class="ref">(19)</div> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">ψ + pt = tan<span class="sp">−1</span></td> <td>n√ (2Z)</td> +<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">2p (z − E)</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(20)</div> + +<p class="center">sin θ exp (ψ + pt) i = i√ [(−z<span class="su">2</span> − z<span class="su">3</span>) (z − z<span class="su">1</span>)] + √ [(z<span class="su">3</span> − z) (z − z<span class="su">2</span>)],</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">z<span class="su">1</span> =</td> <td>1 + z<span class="su">2</span> z<span class="su">3</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">, <span class="f200">√</span></td> <td>−z<span class="su">2</span> − z<span class="su">3</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>G</td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>p</td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>G′</td> +<td rowspan="2">, or</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">z<span class="su">2</span> + z<span class="su">3</span></td> <td class="denom">2</td> +<td class="denom">2An</td> <td class="denom">n</td> +<td class="denom">2Anz<span class="su">1</span></td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(21)</div> + +<p class="center">sin θ exp (ψ + pt)i = i√ [(−z<span class="su">1</span> − z<span class="su">3</span>) (z − z<span class="su">2</span>)] + √ [(z<span class="su">3</span> − z) (z − z<span class="su">1</span>)],</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">z<span class="su">2</span> =</td> <td>1 + z<span class="su">1</span> z<span class="su">3</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">, <span class="f200">√</span></td> <td>−z<span class="su">1</span> − z<span class="su">3</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>G</td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>p</td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>G′</td> +<td rowspan="2">.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">z<span class="su">1</span> + z<span class="su">3</span></td> <td class="denom">2</td> +<td class="denom">2An</td> <td class="denom">n</td> +<td class="denom">2Anz<span class="su">1</span></td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(22)</div> + +<p>Thus z<span class="su">2</span> = 0 in (22) makes G′ = 0; so that if the stalk is held out +horizontally and projected with angular velocity 2p about the vertical +axis OC without giving any spin to the wheel, the resulting motion +of the stalk is like that of a spherical pendulum, and given by</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">sin θ exp (ψ + pt)i = i <span class="f200">√</span> <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>2p<span class="sp">2</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">cos θ <span class="f150">)</span> + <span class="f200">√</span> <span class="f150">(</span> sin<span class="sp">2</span> θ − 2</td> <td>p<span class="sp">2</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">cos θ <span class="f150">)</span>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">n<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="denom">n<span class="sp">2</span></td></tr></table> + +<p class="center"> = i sin α √ (sec α cos θ) + √ [(sec α + cos θ) (cos α − cos θ)],</p> +<div class="ref">(23)</div> + +<p class="noind">if the axis falls in the lowest position to an angle α with the downward +vertical.</p> + +<p>With z<span class="su">3</span> = 0 in (21) and z<span class="su">2</span> = −cos β, and changing to the upward +vertical measurement, the motion is given by</p> + +<p class="center">sin θ e<span class="sp">ψi</span> = e<span class="sp">int</span> √ ½ cos β [√ (1 − cos β cos θ) + i√ (cos β cos θ − cos<span class="sp">2</span> θ)],</p> +<div class="ref">(24)</div> + +<p class="noind">and the axis rises from the horizontal position to a series of cusps; +and the mean precessional motion is the same as in steady motion +with the same rotation and the axis horizontal.</p> + +<p>The special case of f = ½ may be stated here; it is found that</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>p</td> +<td rowspan="2">exp (ῶ − pt) i = <span class="f200">√</span></td> <td>(1 + x) (κ − x)</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ i <span class="f200">√</span></td> <td>(1 − x) (κ + x)</td> +<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">a</td> <td class="denom">2</td> +<td class="denom">2</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(25)</div> + +<p class="center">ρ<span class="sp">2</span> = a<span class="sp">2</span> (κ − x<span class="sp">2</span>),</p> +<div class="ref">(26)</div> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">½λ<span class="sp">2</span> sin θ exp (ψ − pt) i = (L − 1 + κ − x) <span class="f200">√</span></td> <td>(1 − x) (κ + x</td> +</tr> +<tr><td class="denom">2</td></tr></table> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">+ i (L − 1 + κ + x) <span class="f200">√</span></td> <td>(1 + x) (κ − x)</td> +<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">2</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(27)</div> + +<p class="center">L = ½ (1 − κ) + λp/n,</p> +<div class="ref">(28)</div> + +<p class="noind">so that p = 0 and the motion is made algebraical by taking L = ½ (1 − κ).</p> + +<p>The stereoscopic diagram of fig. 12 drawn by T. I. Dewar shows +these curves for κ = <span class="spp">15</span>⁄<span class="suu">17</span>, <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span>, and <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> (cusps).</p> + +<p>10. So far the motion of the axis OC’ of the top has alone been +considered; for the specification of any point of the body, Euler’s +third angle φ must be introduced, representing the angular displacement +of the wheel with respect to the stalk. This is given by</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>dφ</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ cos θ</td> <td>dψ</td> +<td rowspan="2">= R,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">dt</td> <td class="denom">dt</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(1)</div> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>d(φ + ψ)</td> +<td rowspan="2">= <span class="f150">(</span> 1 −</td> <td>C</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span> R +</td> <td>G′ + G</td> +<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">dt</td> <td class="denom">A</td> +<td class="denom">A (1 + cos θ)</td></tr></table> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>d(φ − ψ)</td> +<td rowspan="2">= <span class="f150">(</span> 1 −</td> <td>C</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span> R +</td> <td>G′ − G</td> +<td rowspan="2">.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">dt</td> <td class="denom">A</td> +<td class="denom">A (1 − cos θ)</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(2)</div> + +<p>It will simplify the formulas by cancelling a secular term if we +make C = A, and the top is then called a <i>spherical top</i>; OH becomes +the axis of instantaneous angular velocity, as well as of resultant +angular momentum.</p> + +<p>When this secular term is restored in the general case, the axis +OI of angular velocity is obtained by producing Q′H to I, making</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>HI</td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>A − C</td> +<td rowspan="2">,</td> <td>HI</td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>A − C</td> +<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">Q′H</td> <td class="denom">C</td> +<td class="denom">Q′I</td> <td class="denom">A</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(3)</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page775" id="page775"></a>775</span></p> + +<p>and then the four vector components OC′, C′K, KH, HI give a resultant +vector OI, representing the angular velocity ω, such that</p> + +<p class="center">OI/Q′I = ω/R.</p> +<div class="ref">(4)</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:456px; height:893px" src="images/img775.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>The point I is then fixed on the generating line Q′H of the deformable +hyperboloid, and the other generator through I will cut +the fixed generator OC of the opposite system in a fixed point O′, +such that IO′ is of constant length, and may be joined up by a link, +which constrains I to move on a sphere.</p> + +<p>In the spherical top then,</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">½ (φ + ψ)= <span class="f150">∫</span></td> <td>G′ + G</td> +<td rowspan="2"> </td> <td>dt</td> +<td rowspan="2">,   ½ (φ − ψ)= <span class="f150">∫</span></td> <td>G′ − G</td> +<td rowspan="2"> </td> <td>dt</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">1 + z</td> <td class="denom">2A</td> +<td class="denom">1 − z</td> <td class="denom">2A</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(5)</div> + +<p class="noind">depending on the two elliptic integrals of the third kind, with pole +at z = ±1; and measuring θ from the downward vertical, their +elliptic parameters are:—</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">v<span class="su">1</span> = <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp1">∞</span><span class="su1">1</span></td> <td>√ (z<span class="su">3</span> − z<span class="su">1</span>) dz</td> +<td rowspan="2">= f<span class="su">1</span>K′i,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">√ (4Z)</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(6)</div> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">v<span class="su">2</span> = <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp1">−1</span><span class="su1">−∞</span></td> <td>√ (z<span class="su">3</span> − z<span class="su">1</span>) dz</td> +<td rowspan="2">K + (1 − f<span class="su">2</span>) K′i,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">√ (4Z)</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(7)</div> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">f<span class="su">1</span>K′ = <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp1">∞</span><span class="su1">1</span></td> <td>√ (z<span class="su">3</span> − z<span class="su">1</span>) dz</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">√ ( −4Z)</td></tr></table> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">= sn<span class="sp">−1</span> <span class="f200">√</span></td> <td>z<span class="su">3</span> − z<span class="su">1</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">= cn<span class="sp">−1</span> <span class="f200">√</span></td> <td>1 − z<span class="su">3</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">= dn<span class="sp">−1</span> <span class="f200">√</span></td> <td>1 − z<span class="su">2</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">1 − z<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="denom">1 − z<span class="su">1</span></td> +<td class="denom">1 − z<span class="su">1</span></td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(8)</div> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">(1 − f<span class="su">2</span>) K′ = <span class="f150">∫</span> <span class="sp1">−1</span><span class="su1">z1</span></td> <td>√ (z<span class="su">3</span> − z<span class="su">1</span>) dz</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">√ ( −4Z)</td></tr></table> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">= sn<span class="sp">−1</span> <span class="f200">√</span></td> <td>−1 − z<span class="su">1</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">= cn<span class="sp">−1</span> <span class="f200">√</span></td> <td>1 + z<span class="su">2</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">= dn<span class="sp">−1</span> <span class="f200">√</span></td> <td>1 + z<span class="su">3</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">z<span class="su">2</span> − z<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="denom">z<span class="su">2</span> − z<span class="su">1</span></td> +<td class="denom">z<span class="su">3</span> − z<span class="su">1</span></td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(9)</div> + +<p>Then if v′ = K + (1 − f′)K′i is the parameter corresponding to +z = D, we find</p> + +<p class="center">f = f<span class="su">2</span> − f<span class="su">1</span>, f′ = f<span class="su">2</span> + f<span class="su">1</span>,</p> +<div class="ref">(10)</div> + +<p class="center">v = v<span class="su">1</span> + v<span class="su">2</span>, v′ = v<span class="su">1</span> − v<span class="su">2</span>.</p> +<div class="ref">(11)</div> + +<p>The most symmetrical treatment of the motion of any point fixed +in the top will be found in Klein and Sommerfeld, Theorie des +Kreisels, to which the reader is referred for details; four new +functions, α, β, γ, δ, are introduced, defined in terms of Euler’s +angles, θ, ψ, φ, by</p> + +<p class="center">α = cos ½θ exp ½ (φ + ψ) i,</p> +<div class="ref">(12)</div> + +<p class="center">β = i sin ½θ exp ½ (−φ + ψ) i,</p> +<div class="ref">(13)</div> + +<p class="center">γ = i sin ½θ exp ½ (φ − ψ) i,</p> +<div class="ref">(14)</div> + +<p class="center">δ = cos ½θ exp ½ (−φ − ψ) i.</p> +<div class="ref">(15)</div> + +<p>Next Klein takes two functions or co-ordinates λ and Λ, defined by</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">λ =</td> <td>x + yi</td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>r + z</td> +<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">r − z</td> <td class="denom">x − yi</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(16)</div> + +<p>and Λ the same function of X, Y, Z, so that λ, Λ play the part of +stereographic representations of the same point (x, y, z) or (X, Y, Z) +on a sphere of radius r, with respect to poles in which the sphere +is intersected by Oz and OZ.</p> + +<p>These new functions are shown to be connected by the bilinear +relation</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">λ =</td> <td>αΛ + β</td> +<td rowspan="2">,   αδ − βγ = 1,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">γΛ + δ</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(17)</div> + +<p class="noind">in accordance with the annexed scheme of transformation of +co-ordinates—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb bb">Ξ</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">Η</td> <td class="tcc bb">Ζ</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc rb bb">ξ</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">α<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="tcc rb bb">β<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="tcc bb">2αβ</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc rb bb">η</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">γ<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="tcc rb bb">δ<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="tcc bb">2γδ</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc rb">ζ</td> <td class="tcc rb">αγ</td> <td class="tcc rb">βδ</td> <td class="tcc">αδ + βγ</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">where</p> + +<p class="center">ξ = x + yi,   η = −x + yi,   ζ = −z,<br /> + Ξ = X + Yi,   Η = −X + Yi,   Ζ = −Z;</p> +<div class="ref">(18)</div> + +<p class="noind">and thus the motion in space of any point fixed in the body defined +by Λ is determined completely by means of α, β, γ, δ; and in the +case of the symmetrical top these functions are elliptic transcendants, +to which Klein has given the name of <i>multiplicative elliptic functions</i>; +and</p> + +<p class="center">αδ = cos<span class="sp">2</span> ½θ,   βγ = −sin<span class="sp">2</span> ½θ,<br /> + αδ − βγ = 1,   αδ + βγ = cos θ,<br /> + √ ( −4αβγδ) = sin θ;</p> +<div class="ref">(19)</div> + +<p class="noind">while, for the motion of a point on the axis, putting Λ = 0, or ∞,</p> + +<p class="center">λ = β/δ = i tan ½θe<span class="sp">ψi</span>, or λ = α/γ = −i cot ½θe<span class="sp">ψi</span>,</p> +<div class="ref">(20)</div> + +<p class="noind">and</p> + +<p class="center">αβ = ½i sin θe<span class="sp">ψi</span>, αγ = ½i sin θe<span class="sp">ψi</span>,</p> +<div class="ref">(21)</div> + +<p class="noind">giving orthogonal projections on the planes GKH, CHK; and</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">α</td> <td>dβ</td> +<td rowspan="2">−</td> <td>dα</td> +<td rowspan="2">β = n</td> <td>ρ</td> +<td rowspan="2">e<span class="sp">ῶi</span>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">dt</td> <td class="denom">dt</td> +<td class="denom">k</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(22)</div> + +<p class="noind">the vectorial equation in the plane GKH of the herpolhode of H +for a spherical top.</p> + +<p>When f<span class="su">1</span> and f<span class="su">2</span> in (9) are rational fractions, these multiplicative +elliptic functions can be replaced by algebraical functions, qualified +by factors which are exponential functions of the time t; a series +of quasi-algebraical cases of motion can thus be constructed, which +become purely algebraical when the exponential factors are cancelled +by a suitable arrangement of the constants.</p> + +<p>Thus, for example, with f = 0, f′ = 1, f<span class="su">1</span> = ½, f<span class="su">2</span> = ½, as in (24) § 9, +where P and P′ are at A and B on the focal ellipse, we have for the +spherical top</p> + +<p class="center">(1 + cos θ) exp (φ + ψ − qt) i<br /> += √ (sec β − cos θ) √ (cos β − cos θ) + i (√ sec β + √ cos β) √ cos θ,</p> +<div class="ref">(23)</div> + +<p class="center">(1 − cos θ) exp (φ − ψ − q′t) i<br /> += √ (sec β − cos θ) √ (cos β − cos θ) + i (√sec β − √ cos β) √ cos θ,</p> +<div class="ref">(24)</div> + +<p class="center">q, q′ = n√ (2 sec β) ± n√ (2 cos β);</p> +<div class="ref">(25)</div> + +<p class="noind">and thence α, β, γ, δ can be inferred.</p> + +<p>The physical constants of a given symmetrical top have been +denoted in § 1 by M, h, A, C, and l, n, T; to specify a given state of +general motion we have G, G′ or CR, D, E, or F, which may be +called the dynamical constants; or κ, v, w, v<span class="su">1</span>, v<span class="su">2</span>, or f, f′, f<span class="su">1</span>, f<span class="su">2</span>, the +analytical constants; or the geometrical constants, such as α, β, +δ, δ′, k of a given articulated hyperboloid.</p> + +<p>There is thus a triply infinite series of a state of motion; the +choice of a typical state can be made geometrically on the hyperboloid, +flattened in the plane of the local ellipse, of which κ is the +ratio of the semiaxes α and β, and am(1 − f) K′ is the eccentric angle +from the minor axis of the point of contact P of the generator HQ, +so that two analytical constants are settled thereby; and the point +H may be taken arbitrarily on the tangent line PQ, and HQ′ is then +the other tangent of the focal ellipse; in which case θ<span class="su">3</span> and θ<span class="su">2</span> are +the angles between the tangents HQ, HQ′, and between the focal +distances HS, HS′, and k<span class="sp">2</span> will be HS·HS′, while HQ, HQ′ are δ, δ′. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page776" id="page776"></a>776</span> +As H is moved along the tangent line HQ, a series of states of +motion can be determined, and drawn with accuracy.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 420px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:369px; height:354px" src="images/img776.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>11. Equation (5) § 3 with slight modification will serve with the +same notation for the steady rolling motion at a constant inclination +α to the vertical of a body of revolution, such as a disk, hoop, wheel, +cask, wine-glass, plate, dish, bowl, spinning top, gyrostat, or bicycle, +on a horizontal plane, or a surface of revolution, as a coin in a +conical lamp-shade.</p> + +<p>The point O is now the intersection of the axis GC′ with the +vertical through the centre B of the horizontal circle described by +the centre of gravity, and through the centre M of the horizontal +circle described by P, the point of contact (fig. 13). Collected into +a particle at G, the +body swings round +the vertical OB as +a conical pendulum, +of height AB +or GL equal to +g/μ<span class="sp">2</span> = λ, and GA +would be the direction +of the +thread, of tension +gM(GA/GL) dynes. +The reaction with +the plane at P will +be an equal parallel +force; and its +moment round G +will provide the +couple which +causes the velocity +of the vector of +angular momentum +appropriate +to the steady +motion; and this +moment will be +gM·Gm dyne-cm. or ergs, if the reaction at P cuts GB in m.</p> + +<p>Draw GR perpendicular to GK to meet the horizontal AL in R, and +draw RQC′K perpendicular to the axis Gz, and KC perpendicular +to LG.</p> + +<p>The velocity of the vector GK of angular momentum is μ times +the horizontal component, and</p> + +<p class="center">horizontal component /Aμ sin α = KC/KC′,</p> +<div class="ref">(1)</div> + +<p class="noind">so that</p> + +<p class="center">gM·Gm = Aμ<span class="sp">2</span> sin α(KC/KC′),</p> +<div class="ref">(2)</div> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>A</td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>KC′</td> +<td rowspan="2"> </td> <td>g</td> +<td rowspan="2">Gm = GQ·Gm.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">KC</td> +<td class="denom">μ<span class="sp">2</span> sin α</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(3)</div> + +<p class="noind">The instantaneous axis of rotation of the case of a gyrostat would be +OP; drawing GI parallel to OP, and KK′ parallel to OG, making +tan K′GC′ = (A/C) tan IGC’<span class="su">1</span>; then if GK represents the resultant +angular momentum, K′K will represent the part of it due to the +rotation of the fly-wheel. Thus in the figure for the body rolling +as a solid, with the fly-wheel clamped, the points m and Q move +to the other side of G. The gyrostat may be supposed swung round +the vertical at the end of a thread PA′ fastened at A′ where Pm +produced cuts the vertical AB, and again at the point where it +crosses the axis GO. The discussion of the small oscillation superposed +on the state of steady motion requisite for stability is given +in the next paragraph.</p> + +<p>12. In the theoretical discussion of the general motion +<span class="sidenote">General motion of a gyrostat rolling on a plane.</span> +of a gyrostat rolling on a horizontal plane the safe and +shortest plan apparently is to write down the most general +equations of motion, and afterwards to introduce any +special condition.</p> + +<p>Drawing through G the centre of gravity any three +rectangular axes Gx, Gy, Gz, the notation employed is</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">u, v, w,</td> <td class="tcl">the components of linear velocity of G;</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">p, q, r,</td> <td class="tcl">the components of angular velocity about the axes;</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">h<span class="su">1</span>, h<span class="su">2</span>, h<span class="su">3</span>,</td> <td class="tcl">the components of angular momentum;</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">θ<span class="su">1</span>, θ<span class="su">2</span>, θ<span class="su">3</span>,</td> <td class="tcl">the components of angular velocity of the coordinate axes;</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">x, y, z,</td> <td class="tcl">the co-ordinates of the point of contact with the horizontal plane;</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">X, Y, Z,</td> <td class="tcl">the components of the reaction of the plane;</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">α, β, γ,</td> <td class="tcl">the direction cosines of the downward vertical.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The geometrical equations, expressing that the point of contact is +at rest on the plane, are</p> + +<p class="center">u − ry + qz = 0,</p> +<div class="ref">(1)</div> + +<p class="center">v − pz + rx = 0,</p> +<div class="ref">(2)</div> + +<p class="center">w − qx + py = 0.</p> +<div class="ref">(3)</div> + +<p>The dynamical equations are</p> + +<p class="center">du/dt − θ<span class="su">3</span>v + θ<span class="su">2</span>w = gα + X/M,</p> +<div class="ref">(4)</div> + +<p class="center">dv/dt − θ<span class="su">1</span>w + θ<span class="su">2</span>u = gβ + Y/M,</p> +<div class="ref">(5)</div> + +<p class="center">dw/dt − θ<span class="su">2</span>u + θ<span class="su">1</span>v = gγ + Z/M,</p> +<div class="ref">(6)</div> + +<p class="noind">and</p> + +<p class="center">dh<span class="su">1</span>/dt − θ<span class="su">3</span>h<span class="su">2</span> + θ<span class="su">2</span>h<span class="su">3</span> = yZ − zY,</p> +<div class="ref">(7)</div> + +<p class="center">dh<span class="su">2</span>/dt − θ<span class="su">1</span>h<span class="su">3</span> + θ<span class="su">3</span>h<span class="su">1</span> = zX − xZ,</p> +<div class="ref">(8)</div> + +<p class="center">dh<span class="su">3</span>/dt − θ<span class="su">2</span>h<span class="su">1</span> + θ<span class="su">1</span>h<span class="su">2</span> = xY − yX.</p> +<div class="ref">(9)</div> + +<p>In the special case of the gyrostat where the surface is of revolution +round Gz, and the body is kinetically symmetrical about Gz, +we take Gy horizontal and Gzx through the point of contact so that +y = 0; and denoting the angle between Gz and the downward +vertical by θ (fig. 13)</p> + +<p class="center">α = sin θ,   β = 0,   γ = cos θ.</p> +<div class="ref">(10)</div> + +<p>The components of angular momentum are</p> + +<p class="center">h<span class="su">1</span> = Ap,   h<span class="su">2</span> = Aq,   h<span class="su">3</span> = Cr + K,</p> +<div class="ref">(11)</div> + +<p class="noind">where A, C denote the moment of inertia about Gx, Gz, and K is +the angular momentum of a fly-wheel fixed in the interior with its +axis parallel to Gz; K is taken as constant during the motion.</p> + +<p>The axis Gz being fixed in the body,</p> + +<p class="center">θ<span class="su">1</span> = p,   θ<span class="su">2</span> = q = −dθ/dt,   θ<span class="su">3</span> = p cot θ.</p> +<div class="ref">(12)</div> + +<p>With y = 0, (1), (2), (3) reduce to</p> + +<p class="center">u = −qz,   v = pz − rx,   w = qx;</p> +<div class="ref">(13)</div> + +<p class="noind">and, denoting the radius of curvature of the meridian curve of the +rolling surface by ρ,</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>dx</td> +<td rowspan="2">= ρ cos θ</td> <td>dθ</td> +<td rowspan="2">= −q ρ cos θ,</td> <td>dz</td> +<td rowspan="2">= −ρ sin θ</td> <td>dθ</td> +<td rowspan="2">= q ρ sin θ;</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">dt</td> <td class="denom">dt</td> +<td class="denom">dt</td> <td class="denom">dt</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(14)</div> + +<p class="noind">so that</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>du</td> +<td rowspan="2">= −</td> <td>dq</td> +<td rowspan="2">z − q<span class="sp">2</span>ρ sin θ,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">dt</td> <td class="denom">dt</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(15)</div> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>dv</td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>dp</td> +<td rowspan="2">z −</td> <td>dr</td> +<td rowspan="2">x + pqρ sin θ + qrρ sin θ,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">dt</td> <td class="denom">dt</td> +<td class="denom">dt</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(16)</div> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>dw</td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>dq</td> +<td rowspan="2">x − q<span class="sp">2</span>ρ cos θ.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">dt</td> <td class="denom">dt</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(17)</div> + +<p>The dynamical equations (4)...(9) can now be reduced to</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>X</td> +<td rowspan="2">= −</td> <td>dq</td> +<td rowspan="2">z − p<span class="sp">2</span>z cotθ + q<span class="sp">2</span> (x − ρ sin θ) + prx cot θ − g sin θ,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">dt</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(18)</div> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>Y</td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>dp</td> +<td rowspan="2">z −</td> <td>dr</td> +<td rowspan="2">x − pq (x + z cot θ − ρ sin θ) + qrp cos θ,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">dt</td> +<td class="denom">dt</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(19)</div> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>Z</td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>dq</td> +<td rowspan="2">x + q<span class="sp">2</span> (z − ρ cos θ) + p<span class="sp">2</span>z − prx − g cos θ,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">dt</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(20)</div> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">−zY = A</td> <td>dp</td> +<td rowspan="2">− Apq cot θ + qh<span class="su">3</span>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">dt</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(21)</div> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">−zX − xZ = A</td> <td>dq</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ Ap<span class="sp">2</span> cot θ − ph<span class="su">3</span>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">dt</td></tr></table> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">xY =</td> <td>dh<span class="su">3</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">= C</td> <td>dr</td> +<td rowspan="2">= −Cq</td> <td>d</td> +<td rowspan="2">.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">dt</td> <td class="denom">dt</td> +<td class="denom">dθ</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(23)</div> + +<p>Eliminating Y between (19) and (23),</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>C</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ x<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span></td> <td>dr</td> +<td rowspan="2">− xz</td> <td>dp</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ pqx (x + z cot θ − ρ sin θ) − qrxρ cos θ = 0,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">dt</td> +<td class="denom">dt</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(24)</div> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>C</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ x<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span></td> <td>dr</td> +<td rowspan="2">− xz</td> <td>dp</td> +<td rowspan="2">− px (x + z cot θ − ρ sin θ) + rxρ cos θ = 0.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">dθ</td> +<td class="denom">dθ</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(A)</div> + +<p>Eliminating Y between (19) and (21)</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ z<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span></td> <td>dp</td> +<td rowspan="2">− xz</td> <td>dr</td> +<td rowspan="2">−</td> <td>A</td> +<td rowspan="2">pq cot θ + q</td> <td>h<span class="su">3</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">dt</td> +<td class="denom">dt</td> <td class="denom">M</td> +<td class="denom">M</td></tr></table> + +<p class="center">− pqz (x + z cot θ − ρ sin θ) + qrzρ cos θ = 0,</p> +<div class="ref">(25)</div> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">−xz</td> <td>dr</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ z<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span></td> <td>dp</td> +<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>A</td> +<td rowspan="2">p cot θ −</td> <td>h<span class="su">3</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">dθ</td> <td class="denom">M</td> +<td class="denom">dθ</td> <td class="denom">M</td> +<td class="denom">M</td></tr></table> + +<p class="center">+ pz (x + z cot θ − ρ sin θ) + rzρ cos θ = 0.</p> +<div class="ref">(B)</div> + +<p>In the special case of a gyrostat rolling on the sharp edge of a +circle passing through G, z = 0, ρ = 0, (A) and (B) reduce to</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">p = <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>C</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ 1 <span class="f150">)</span></td> <td>dr</td> +<td rowspan="2">= <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>1</td> +<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>1</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span></td> <td>dh<span class="su">3</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">Mx<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="denom">dθ</td> +<td class="denom">Mx<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="denom">C</td> +<td class="denom">dθ</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(26)</div> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>dp</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ p cot θ =</td> <td>h<span class="su">3</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">,  </td> <td>d·p sin θ</td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>h<span class="su">3</span> sin θ</td> +<td rowspan="2">;</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">dθ</td> <td class="denom">A</td> +<td class="denom">dθ</td> <td class="denom">A</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(27)</div> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>d<span class="sp">2</span>h<span class="su">3</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>dh<span class="su">3</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">cot θ =</td> <td>CMx<span class="sp">2</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">h<span class="su">3</span>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">dθ<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="denom">dθ</td> +<td class="denom">A (Mx<span class="sp">2</span> + C)</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(28)</div> + +<p class="noind">a differential equation of a hypergeometric series, of the form of +Legendre’s zonal harmonic of fractional order n, given by</p> + +<p class="center">n (n + 1) = CMx<span class="sp">2</span> / A (Mx<span class="sp">2</span> + C).</p> +<div class="ref">(29)</div> + +<p>For a sharp point, x = 0, ρ = 0, and the previous equations are +obtained of a spinning top.</p> + +<p>The elimination of X and Z between (18) (20) (22), expressed +symbolically as</p> + +<p class="center">(22) − z(18) + x(20) = 0,</p> +<div class="ref">(30)</div> + +<p class="noind">gives</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ x<span class="sp">2</span> + z<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span></td> <td>dq</td> +<td rowspan="2">− p</td> <td>h<span class="su">3</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">+ <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ z<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span> p<span class="sp">2</span> cot θ + p<span class="sp">2</span>xz</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">dt</td> +<td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">M</td></tr></table> + +<p class="center">+ q<span class="sp">2</span>ρ (x cos θ − z sin θ) − prx (x + z cot θ) − g (x cos θ − z sin θ) = 0,</p> +<div class="ref">(C)</div> + +<p class="noind">and this combined with (A) and (B) will lead to an equation the +integral of which is the equation of energy.</p> + +<p>13. The equations (A) (B) (C) are intractable in this general form; +but the restricted case may be considered when the axis moves in +steady motion at a constant inclination α to the vertical; and the +stability is secured if a small nutation of the axis can be superposed.</p> + +<p>It is convenient to put p = Ω sin θ, so that Ω is the angular +velocity of the plane Gzx about the vertical; (A) (B) (C) become</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page777" id="page777"></a>777</span></p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>C</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ x<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span></td> <td>dr</td> +<td rowspan="2">− xz sin θ</td> <td>dΩ</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">dθ</td> +<td class="denom">dθ</td></tr></table> + +<p class="center">− Ωx (x sin θ − 2z cos θ − ρ sin<span class="sp">2</span> θ) + rxρ cos θ = 0,</p> +<div class="ref">(A*)</div> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">−xz</td> <td>dr</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ z<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span> sin θ</td> <td>dΩ</td> +<td rowspan="2">−</td> <td>h<span class="su">3</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">+ 2Ω <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ z<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span> cos θ</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">dθ</td> <td class="denom">M</td> +<td class="denom">dθ</td> <td class="denom">M</td> +<td class="denom">M</td></tr></table> + +<p class="center">+ Ωz sin θ (x − ρ sin θ) − rzρ cos θ = 0,</p> +<div class="ref">(B*)</div> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ x<span class="sp">2</span> + z<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span></td> <td>dq</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ q<span class="sp">2</span>p (x cos θ − z sin θ) − Ω</td> <td>h<span class="su">3</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">sin θ</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">dt</td> +<td class="denom">M</td></tr></table> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">+ Ω<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ z<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span> sin θ cos θ + Ω<span class="sp">2</span>xz sin<span class="sp">2</span> θ</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">M</td></tr></table> + +<p class="center">− Ωrx (x sin θ + z cos θ) − g (x cos θ − z sin θ) = 0.</p> +<div class="ref">(C*)</div> + +<p>The steady motion and nutation superposed may be expressed by</p> + +<p class="center">θ = α + L, sin θ = sin α + L cos α, cos θ = cos α − L sin α, +Ω = μ + N, r = R + Q,</p> +<div class="ref">(1)</div> + +<p class="noind">where L, N, Q are small terms, involving a factor e<span class="sp">nti</span>, to express +the periodic nature of the nutation; and then if a, c denote the +mean value of x, z, at the point of contact</p> + +<p class="center">x = a + Lρ cos α, z = c − Lρ sin α,</p> +<div class="ref">(2)</div> + +<p class="center">x sin θ + z cos θ = a sin α + c cos α + L (a cos α − c sin α),</p> +<div class="ref">(3)</div> + +<p class="center">x cos θ − z sin θ = a cos α − c sin α − L (a sin α + c cos α − ρ).</p> +<div class="ref">(4)</div> + +<p>Substituting these values in (C*) with dq/dt = −d<span class="sp">2</span>θ/dt<span class="sp">2</span> = n<span class="sp">2</span>L, +and ignoring products of the small terms, such as L<span class="sp">2</span>, LN, ...</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ a<span class="sp">2</span> + c<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span> Ln<span class="sp">2</span> − (μ + N) <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>CR + K</td> +<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>CQ</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span> (sin α + L cos α)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">M</td> +<td class="denom">M</td></tr></table> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>+ (μ<span class="sp">2</span> + 2μN) (A/M + c<span class="sp">2</span> − 2Lρc sin α) (sin α cos α + L cos α)</p> + +<p>+ (μ<span class="sp">2</span> + 2μN) [ac − Lρ (a sin α − c sin α)] (sin<span class="sp">2</span> α + L sin 2α)</p> + +<p>− (μ + N) (R + Q) (a + Lρcos α) [a sin α + c cos α + L (a cos α − c sin α)]</p> + +<p>− g (a cos α − c sin α) + gL (a sin α + c cos α − ρ) = 0,</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(C**)</div> + +<p class="noind">which is equivalent to</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">−μ</td> <td>CR + K</td> +<td rowspan="2">sin α + μ<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ c<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span> sin αcos α</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">M</td></tr></table> + +<p class="center">+ μ<span class="sp">2</span> ac sin<span class="sp">2</span> α − μRa (a sin α + c cos α) − g (a cos α − c sin α) = 0,</p> +<div class="ref">(5)</div> + +<p class="noind">the condition of steady motion; and</p> + +<p class="center">DL + EQ + FN = 0,</p> +<div class="ref">(6)</div> + +<p class="noind">where</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">D = <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ a<span class="sp">2</span> + c<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span> n<span class="sp">2</span> − μ</td> <td>CK + K</td> +<td rowspan="2">cos α − 2μ<span class="sp">2</span>ρc sin<span class="sp">2</span> α cos α</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">M</td></tr></table> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>+ μ<span class="sp">2</span> (A/M + c<span class="sp">2</span>) cos α − μ<span class="sp">2</span>ρ (a sin α − c cos α) sin<span class="sp">2</span> α</p> + +<p>+ μ<span class="sp">2</span>ac sin 2α − μRρ cos α (a sin α + c cos α)</p> + +<p>− μRa (a cos α − c sin α) + g (a sin α + c cos α − ρ),</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(7)</div> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">E = −μ</td> <td>C</td> +<td rowspan="2">sin α − μa (a sin α + c cos α),</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">M</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(8)</div> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">F = −</td> <td>CR + K</td> +<td rowspan="2">sin α + 2μ <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ c<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span> sin α cos α</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">M</td></tr></table> + +<p class="center">+ 2μac sin<span class="sp">2</span> α − Ra (a sin α + c cos α).</p> +<div class="ref">(9)</div> + +<p>With the same approximation (A*) and (B*) are equivalent to</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>C</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ a<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span></td> <td>Q</td> +<td rowspan="2">− ac sin α</td> <td>N</td> +<td rowspan="2">− μa (a sin α + 2c cos α − ρ sin<span class="sp">2</span> α) + + Raρ cos α = 0,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">L</td> +<td class="denom">L</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(A**)</div> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">−ac</td> <td>Q</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ c<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span> sin α</td> <td>N</td> +<td rowspan="2">−</td> <td>CR + K</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ 2μ <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ c<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span> cos α</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">L</td> <td class="denom">M</td> +<td class="denom">L</td> <td class="denom">M</td> +<td class="denom">M</td></tr></table> + +<p class="center">+ μc sin α (a − ρ sin α) − Rcρ cos α = 0.</p> +<div class="ref">(B**)</div> + +<p>The elimination of L, Q, N will lead to an equation for the determination +of n<span class="sp">2</span>, and n<span class="sp">2</span> must be positive for the motion to be stable.</p> + +<p>If b is the radius of the horizontal circle described by G in steady +motion round the centre B,</p> + +<p class="center">b = v/μ = (cP − aR) / μ = c sin α − aR / μ,</p> +<div class="ref">(10)</div> + +<p class="noind">and drawing GL vertically upward of length λ = g/μ<span class="sp">2</span>, the height of the +equivalent conical pendulum, the steady motion condition may be +written</p> + +<p class="center">(CR + K) μ sin α − μ<span class="sp">2</span> sin α cos α = −gM (a cos α − c sin α)</p> + +<p class="center">+ M (μ<span class="sp">2</span>c sin α − μRa) (a sin α + c cos α)</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>= gM [bλ<span class="sp">−1</span> (a sin α + c cos α) − a cos α + c sin α]</p> + +<p>= gM·PT,</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(11)</div> + +<p>LG produced cuts the plane in T.</p> + +<p>Interpreted dynamically, the left-hand side of this equation +represents the velocity of the vector of angular momentum about +G, so that the right-hand side represents the moment of the applied +force about G, in this case the reaction of the plane, which is parallel +to GA, and equal to gM·GA/GL; and so the angle AGL must be +less than the angle of friction, or slipping will take place.</p> + +<p>Spinning upright, with α = 0, a = 0, we find F = 0, Q = 0, and</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">−</td> <td>CR + K</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ 2μ <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ c<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span> − Rcp = 0,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">M</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(12)</div> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ c<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span> n<span class="sp">2</span> = μ</td> <td>CR + K</td> +<td rowspan="2">− μ<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ c<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span> + μRρc − g (c − ρ),</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">M</td> +<td class="denom">M</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(13)</div> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ c<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span></td> <td><span class="sp">2</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">n<span class="sp">2</span> = ¼ <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>CK + R</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ Rcρ <span class="f150">)</span></td> <td><span class="sp">2</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">− g <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ c<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span> (c − ρ).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td> </td> +<td class="denom">M</td> <td> </td> +<td class="denom">M</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(14)</div> + +<p>Thus for a top spinning upright on a rounded point, with K = 0, +the stability requires that</p> + +<p class="center">R > 2k′√ {g (c − ρ)} / (k<span class="sp">2</span> + cρ),</p> +<div class="ref">(15)</div> + +<p class="noind">where k, k′ are the radii of gyration about the axis Gz, and a perpendicular +axis at a distance c from G; this reduces to the preceding +case of § 3 (7) when ρ = 0.</p> + +<p>Generally, with α = 0, but a ± 0, the condition (A) and (B) becomes</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>C</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ a<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span></td> <td>Q</td> +<td rowspan="2">= 2μac − Raρ,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">L</td></tr></table> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">−ac</td> <td>Q</td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>CR + K</td> +<td rowspan="2"> + Rcρ − 2μ <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ a<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">L</td> <td class="denom">M</td> +<td class="denom">M</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(16)</div> + +<p class="noind">so that, eliminating Q/L,</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">2 <span class="f150">[(</span></td> <td>A</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ c<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)(</span></td> <td>C</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ a<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span> − a<span class="sp">2</span>c<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">]</span> μ = <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>C</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ a<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)(</span></td> <td>CR + K</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span> +</td> <td>C</td> +<td rowspan="2">Rcρ,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">M</td> +<td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">M</td> +<td class="denom">M</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(17)</div> + +<p class="noind">the condition when a coin or platter is rolling nearly flat on the table.</p> + +<p>Rolling along in a straight path, with α = ½π, c = 0, μ = 0, E = 0; +and</p> + +<p class="center">N/L = (CR + K)/A,</p> +<div class="ref">(18)</div> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">D = <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ a<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span> n<span class="sp">2</span> + g (a − ρ),</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">M</td></tr></table> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">F = −</td> <td>CR + K</td> +<td rowspan="2">− Ra<span class="sp">2</span>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">M</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(19)</div> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td style="vertical-align: bottom">N</td> +<td rowspan="2">= −</td> <td style="vertical-align: bottom">D</td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> + +<td><table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ a<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span> n<span class="sp">2</span> + g (a − ρ)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">M</td></tr></table></td> + +<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom" style="vertical-align: top">L</td> <td class="denom" style="vertical-align: top">F</td> + +<td class="denom"><table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>C</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ a<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span> R +</td> <td>K</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">M</td></tr></table></td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(20)</div> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ a<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span> n<span class="sp">2</span> =</td> <td>(CR + K)</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">[(</span></td> <td>C</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ a<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span> R +</td> <td>K</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">]</span> − g (a − ρ).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">A</td> +<td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">M</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(21)</div> + +<p>Thus with K = 0, and rolling with velocity V = Ra, stability +requires</p> + + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>V<span class="sp">2</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">></td> <td>a − ρ</td> +<td rowspan="2">> ½</td> <td>A</td> +<td rowspan="2"> </td> <td>a − ρ</td> +<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">2g</td> + <td class="denom"> + 2C/A (C/Ma<span class="sp">2</span> + 1) + </td> +<td class="denom">C</td> + <td class="denom"> + C/Ma<span class="sp">2</span> + 1</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(22)</div> + +<p class="noind">or the body must have acquired velocity greater than attained by +rolling down a plane through a vertical height ½ (a − ρ) A/C.</p> + +<p>On a sharp edge, with ρ = 0, a thin uniform disk or a thin ring +requires</p> + +<p class="center">V<span class="sp">2</span>/2g > a/6 or a/8.</p> +<div class="ref">(23)</div> + +<p>The gyrostat can hold itself upright on the plane without advance +when R = 0, provided</p> + +<p class="center">K<span class="sp">2</span>/AM − g (a − ρ) is positive.</p> +<div class="ref">(24)</div> + +<p>For the stability of the monorail carriage of § 5 (6), ignoring the +rotary inertia of the wheels by putting C = 0, and replacing K by G′ +the theory above would require</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>G′</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span> aV +</td> <td>G′</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span> > gh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">A</td> <td class="denom">A</td></tr></table> + +<p>For further theory and experiments consult Routh, <i>Advanced +Rigid Dynamics</i>, chap. v., and Thomson and Tait, <i>Natural Philosophy</i>, +§ 345; also Bourlet, <i>Traité des bicycles</i> (analysed in Appell, +<i>Mécanique rationnelle</i>, ii. 297, and Carvallo, <i>Journal de l’école polytechnique</i>, +1900); Whipple, <i>Quarterly Journal of Mathematics</i>, vol. +xxx., for mathematical theories of the bicycle, and other bodies.</p> + +<p>14. Lord Kelvin has studied theoretically and experimentally +the vibration of a chain of stretched gyrostats +(<i>Proc. London Math. Soc.</i>, 1875; J. Perry, <i>Spinning Tops</i>, +<span class="sidenote">Gyrostatic chain.</span> +for a diagram). Suppose each gyrostat to be equivalent dynamically +to a fly-wheel of axial length 2a, and that each connecting link is a +light cord or steel wire of length 2l, stretched to a tension T.</p> + +<p>Denote by x, y the components of the slight displacement from the +central straight line of the centre of a fly-wheel; and let p, q, 1 denote +the direction cosines of the axis of a fly-wheel, and r, s, 1 the direction +cosines of a link, distinguishing the different bodies by a suffix.</p> + +<p>Then with the previous notation and to the order of approximation +required,</p> + +<p class="center">θ<span class="su">1</span> = −dq/dt, θ<span class="su">2</span> = dp/dt,</p> +<div class="ref">(1)</div> + +<p class="center">h<span class="su">1</span> = Aθ<span class="su">1</span>, h<span class="su">2</span> = Aθ<span class="su">2</span>, h<span class="su">3</span> = K,</p> +<div class="ref">(2)</div> + +<p class="noind">to be employed in the dynamical equations</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>dh<span class="su">1</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">− θ<span class="su">3</span>h<span class="su">2</span> + θ<span class="su">2</span>h<span class="su">3</span> = L, ...</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">dt</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(3)</div> + +<p class="noind">in which θ<span class="su">3</span>h<span class="su">1</span> and θ<span class="su">3</span>h<span class="su">2</span> can be omitted.</p> + +<p>For the kth fly-wheel</p> + +<p class="center">−A<span class="ov bold">q</span><span class="su">k</span> + K<span class="ov">p</span><span class="su">k</span> = Ta (q<span class="su">k</span> − s<span class="su">k</span>) + Ta (q<span class="su">k</span> − s<span class="su">k+1</span>),</p> +<div class="ref">(4)</div> + +<p class="center"> A<span class="ov bold">p</span><span class="su">k</span> + K<span class="ov">q</span><span class="su">k</span> = −Ta (p<span class="su">k</span> − r<span class="su">k</span>) − Ta (p<span class="su">k</span> − r<span class="su">k+1</span>);</p> +<div class="ref">(5)</div> + +<p class="noind">and for the motion of translation</p> + +<p class="center">M<span class="ov bold">x</span><span class="su">k</span> = T (r<span class="su">k+1</span> − r<span class="su">k</span>), M<span class="ov bold">y</span><span class="su">k</span> = T (s<span class="su">k+1</span> − s<span class="su">k</span>);</p> +<div class="ref">(6)</div> + +<p class="noind">while the geometrical relations are</p> + +<p class="center">x<span class="su">k+1</span> − x<span class="su">k</span> = a (p<span class="su">k+1</span> + p<span class="su">k</span>) + 2lr<span class="su">k+1</span>,</p> +<div class="ref">(7)</div> + +<p class="center">y<span class="su">k+1</span> − y<span class="su">k</span> = a (q<span class="su">k+1</span> + q<span class="su">k</span>) + 2ls<span class="su">k+1</span>.</p> +<div class="ref">(8)</div> + +<p>Putting</p> + +<p class="center">x + yi = w, p + qi = ω, r + si = σ,</p> +<div class="ref">(9)</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page778" id="page778"></a>778</span></p> + +<p class="noind">these three pairs of equations may be replaced by the three equations</p> + +<p class="center">A<span class="ov bold">ῶ</span><span class="su">k</span> − K<span class="ov">ῶ</span><span class="su">k</span>i + 2Taῶ<span class="su">k</span> − Ta (σ<span class="su">k+1</span> + σ<span class="su">k</span>) = 0,</p> +<div class="ref">(10)</div> + +<p class="center">M<span class="ov bold">ῶ</span><span class="su">k</span> − T (σ<span class="su">k+1</span> − σ<span class="su">k</span>) = 0,</p> +<div class="ref">(11)</div> + +<p class="center">ω<span class="su">k+1</span> − ω<span class="su">k</span> − a(ῶ<span class="su">k+1</span> + ῶ<span class="su">k</span> − 2lσ<span class="su">k+1</span>) = 0.</p> +<div class="ref">(12)</div> + +<p>For a vibration of circular polarization assume a solution</p> + +<p class="center">ω<span class="su">k</span>, ῶ<span class="su">k</span>, σ<span class="su">k</span> = (L, P, Q) exp (nt + kc) i,</p> +<div class="ref">(13)</div> + +<p class="noind">so that c/n is the time-lag between the vibration of one fly-wheel +and the next; and the wave velocity is</p> + +<p class="center">U = 2 (a + l) n/c.</p> +<div class="ref">(14)</div> + +<p class="noind">Then</p> + +<p class="center">P (−An<span class="sp">2</span> + Kn + 2Ta) − QTa (e<span class="sp">ci</span> + 1) = 0,</p> +<div class="ref">(15)</div> + +<p class="center">−LMn<span class="sp">2</span> − QT (e<span class="sp">ci</span> − 1) = 0,</p> +<div class="ref">(16)</div> + +<p class="center">L (e<span class="sp">ci</span> − 1) − Pa (e<span class="sp">ci</span> + 1) − 2Qle<span class="sp">ci</span> = 0,</p> +<div class="ref">(17)</div> + +<p class="noind">leading, on elimination of L, P, Q, to</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">cos c =</td> <td>(2 Ta + Kn − An<span class="sp">2</span>) (1 − Mn<span class="sp">2</span>l/T) − Mna<span class="sp">2</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">2Ta + Kn − An<span class="sp">2</span> + Mna<span class="sp">2</span></td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(18)</div> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">2 sin<span class="sp">2</span> ½c =</td> <td>Mn<span class="sp">2</span> 2Ta (a + l) + KNl − An<span class="sp">2</span>l</td> +<td rowspan="2">.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">T 2Ta + Kn − An<span class="sp">2</span> + Mn<span class="sp">2</span>a<span class="sp">2</span></td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(19)</div> + +<p>With K = 0, A = 0, this reduces to Lagrange’s condition in the +vibration of a string of beads.</p> + +<p>Putting</p> + +<p class="center">ρ = M/2 (a + l),   the mass per unit length of the + chain,</p> +<div class="ref">(20)</div> + +<p class="center">κ = K/2 (a + l),   the gyrostatic angular momentum + per unit length,</p> +<div class="ref">(21)</div> + +<p class="center">α = A/2 (a + l),   the transverse moment of inertia + per unit length,</p> +<div class="ref">(22)</div> + +<p class="center">1/2c = (a + l) n/U,</p> +<div class="ref">(23)</div> + +<p class="noind">equation (19) can be written</p> + +<p class="center">{sin (a + l) n/U}<span class="sp">2</span></p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">= (a + l)<span class="sp">2</span>n<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td>ρ</td> +<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>Ta + κnl − αn<span class="sp">2</span>l</td> +<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">T</td> <td class="denom">Ta + κn (a + l) − αn<span class="sp">2</span> (a + l) + ρn<span class="sp">2</span>a<span class="sp">2</span> (a + l)</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(24)</div> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">{</span></td> <td>(a + l) n</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">}</span></td> <td><span class="sp">2</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">sin (a + l) n/U</td> <td> </td></tr></table> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>T</td> +<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>T + (κn − αn<span class="sp">2</span>) (1 + l/a) + ρn<span class="sp">2</span>a (a + l)</td> +<td rowspan="2">.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">ρ</td> <td class="denom">T + (κn − an<span class="sp">2</span>) l/a</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(25)</div> + +<p>In a continuous chain of such gyrostatic links, with a and l infinitesimal,</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">U<span class="sp">2</span> =</td> <td>T</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">{</span> 1 +</td> <td>κn − αn<span class="sp">2</span></td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">}</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">ρ</td> <td class="denom">T + (κn − αn<span class="sp">2</span> l/a)</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(26)</div> + +<p class="noind">for the vibration of helical nature like circular polarization.</p> + +<p>Changing the sign of n for circular polarization in the opposite +direction</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">U′<span class="sp">2</span> =</td> <td>T</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">{</span> 1 −</td> <td>κn + αn<span class="sp">2</span></td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">}</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">ρ</td> <td class="denom">T − (κn + αn<span class="sp">2</span> l/a)</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(27)</div> + +<p class="noind">In this way a mechanical model is obtained of the action of a magnetized +medium on polarized light, κ representing the equivalent of +the magnetic field, while α may be ignored as insensible (J. Larmor, +<i>Proc. Lond. Math. Soc.</i>, 1890; <i>Aether and Matter</i>, Appendix E).</p> + +<p>We notice that U<span class="sp">2</span> in (26) can be positive, and the gyrostatic +chain stable, even when T is negative, and the chain is supporting +a thrust, provided κn is large enough, and the thrust does not +exceed</p> + +<p class="center">(κn − an<span class="sp">2</span>) (1 + l/a);</p> +<div class="ref">(28)</div> + +<p class="noind">while U′<span class="sp">2</span> in (27) will not be positive and the straight chain will be +unstable unless the tension exceeds</p> + +<p class="center">(κn + αn<span class="sp">2</span>) (1 + l/a).</p> +<div class="ref">(29)</div> + +<p>15. <i>Gyrostat suspended by a Thread.</i>—In the discussion of the +small vibration of a single gyrostat fly-wheel about the vertical +position when suspended by a single thread of length 2l = b, the +suffix k can be omitted in the preceding equations of § 14, and we +can write</p> + +<p class="center">A<span class="ov bold">ῶ</span> − K<span class="ov">ῶ</span>i + Taῶ − Taσ = 0,</p> +<div class="ref">(1)</div> + +<p class="center">M<span class="ov bold">w</span> + Tσ = 0, with T = gM,</p> +<div class="ref">(2)</div> + +<p class="center">w − aῶ − bσ = 0.</p> +<div class="ref">(3)</div> + +<p>Assuming a periodic solution of these equations</p> + +<p class="center">w, ῶ, σ, = (L, P, Q) exp nti,</p> +<div class="ref">(4)</div> + +<p class="noind">and eliminating L, P, Q, we obtain</p> + +<p class="center">(−An<span class="sp">2</span> + Kn + gMa) (g − n<span class="sp">2</span>b) − gMn<span class="sp">2</span>a<span class="sp">2</span> = 0,</p> +<div class="ref">(5)</div> + +<p class="noind">and the frequency of a vibration in double beats per second is +n/2π, where n is a root of this quartic equation.</p> + +<p>For upright spinning on a smooth horizontal plane, take b = ∞ and +change the sign of a, then</p> + +<p class="center">An<span class="sp">2</span> − Kn + gMa = 0,</p> +<div class="ref">(6)</div> + +<p class="noind">so that the stability requires</p> + +<p class="center">K<span class="sp">2</span> > 4gAMa.</p> +<div class="ref">(7)</div> + +<p>Here A denotes the moment of inertia about a diametral axis +through the centre of gravity; when the point of the fly-wheel is +held in a small smooth cup, b = 0, and the condition becomes</p> + +<p class="center">(A + Ma<span class="sp">2</span>) n<span class="sp">2</span> − Kn + gMa = 0,</p> +<div class="ref">(8)</div> + +<p class="noind">requiring for stability, as before in § 3,</p> + +<p class="center">K<span class="sp">2</span> > 4g (A + M<span class="sp">2</span>) Ma.</p> +<div class="ref">(9)</div> + +<p>For upright spinning inside a spherical surface of radius b, the +sign of a must be changed to obtain the condition at the lowest +point, as in the gyroscopic horizon of Fleuriais.</p> + +<p>For a gyrostat spinning upright on the summit of a sphere of +radius b, the signs of a and b must be changed in (5), or else the +sign of g, which amounts to the same thing.</p> + +<p>Denoting the components of horizontal displacement of the point +of the fly-wheel by ξ, η, then</p> + +<p class="center">br = ξ, bs = η, bσ = ξ + ηi = λ (suppose),</p> +<div class="ref">(10)</div> + +<p class="center">ω = αῶ + λ.</p> +<div class="ref">(11)</div> + +<p>If the point is forced to take the motion (ξ, η, ζ) by components +of force X, Y, Z, the equations of motion become</p> + +<p class="center">−A<span class="ov bold">q</span> + K<span class="ov">p</span> =    Ya − Zaq,</p> +<div class="ref">(12)</div> + +<p class="center"> A<span class="ov bold">p</span> + K<span class="ov">q</span> =    −Xa + Zap,</p> +<div class="ref">(13)</div> + +<p class="center"> M<span class="ov bold">ῶ</span> = X + Yi, M (<span class="ov bold">ζ</span> − g) = Z;</p> +<div class="ref">(14)</div> + +<p class="noind">so that</p> + +<p class="center">A<span class="ov bold">ῶ</span> − K<span class="ov">ῶ</span>i + gMaῶ + Ma<span class="ov bold">w</span> = Maῶ<span class="ov bold">ζ</span>,</p> +<div class="ref">(15)</div> + +<p class="noind">or</p> + +<p class="center">(A + Ma<span class="sp">2</span>)<span class="ov bold">ῶ</span> − K<span class="ov">ῶ</span>i + gMaῶ + Maλ = Maῶ<span class="ov">ζ</span>.</p> +<div class="ref">(16)</div> + +<p>Thus if the point of the gyrostat is made to take the periodic +motion given by λ = R exp nti, ζ = 0, the forced vibration of the axis +is given by ῶ = P exp nti, where</p> + +<p class="center">P { −(A + Ma<span class="sp">2</span>) n<span class="sp">2</span> + Kn + gMa} − RMn<span class="sp">2</span>a = 0;</p> +<div class="ref">(17)</div> + +<p class="noind">and so the effect may be investigated on the Fleuriais gyroscopic +horizon of the motion of the ship.</p> + +<p>Suppose the motion λ is due to the suspension of the gyrostat from +a point on the axis of a second gyrostat suspended from a fixed point.</p> + +<p>Distinguishing the second gyrostat by a suffix, then λ = bῶ<span class="su">1</span>, if b +denotes the distance between the points of suspension of the two +gyrostats; and the motion of the second gyrostat influenced by the +reaction of the first, is given by</p> + +<p class="center">(A<span class="su">1</span> + M<span class="su">1</span>h<span class="su">1</span><span class="sp">2</span>)<span class="ov bold">ῶ</span>1 − K<span class="su">1</span><span class="ov">ῶ</span><span class="su">1</span><span class="sp">i</span></p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>= −g (M<span class="su">1</span>h<span class="su">1</span> + Mb) ῶ<span class="su">1</span> − b (X + Yi)</p> +<p>= −g (M<span class="su">1</span>h<span class="su">1</span> + Mb) ῶ<span class="su">1</span> − Mb(a<span class="ov bold">ῶ</span> + <span class="ov bold">λ</span>);</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(18)</div> + +<p class="noind">so that, in the small vibration,</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>R</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">{</span> −(A<span class="su">1</span> + M<span class="su">1</span>h<span class="su">1</span><span class="sp">2</span>) n<span class="sp">2</span> + K<span class="su">1</span>n + g (M<span class="su">1</span>h<span class="su">1</span> + Mb) <span class="f150">}</span> = Mn<span class="sp">2</span>b (aP + R),</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">b</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(19)</div> + +<p class="center">R { −(A<span class="su">1</span> + M<span class="su">1</span>h<span class="su">1</span><span class="sp">2</span> + Mb<span class="sp">2</span>) n<span class="sp">2</span> + K<span class="su">1</span>n + g (M<span class="su">1</span>h<span class="su">1</span> + Mb)} − PMn<span class="sp">2</span>ab<span class="sp">2</span> = 0.</p> +<div class="ref">(20)</div> + +<p>Eliminating the ratio of P to R, we obtain</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p class="i1">{ −(A + Ma<span class="sp">2</span>) n<span class="sp">2</span> + Kn + gMa}</p> +<p>× { −(A<span class="su">1</span> + M<span class="su">1</span>h<span class="su">1</span><span class="sp">2</span> + Mb<span class="sp">2</span>) n<span class="sp">2</span> + K<span class="su">1</span>n + g (M<span class="su">1</span>h<span class="su">1</span> + Mb)} − M<span class="sp">2</span>n<span class="sp">4</span>a<span class="sp">2</span>b<span class="sp">2</span> = 0,</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(21)</div> + +<p class="noind">a quartic for n, giving the frequency n/2π of a fundamental vibration.</p> + +<p>Change the sign of g for the case of the gyrostats spinning upright, +one on the top of the other, and so realize the gyrostat on the top of a +gyrostat described by Maxwell.</p> + +<p>In the gyrostatic chain of § 14, the tension T may change to a +limited pressure, and U<span class="sp">2</span> may still be positive, and the motion +stable; and so a motion is realized of a number of spinning tops, +superposed in a column.</p> + +<p>16. <i>The Flexure Joint.</i>—In Lord Kelvin’s experiment the gyrostats +are joined up by equal light rods and short lengths of elastic wire +with rigid attachment to the rod and case of a gyrostat, so as to keep +the system still, and free from entanglement and twisting due to +pivot friction of the fly-wheels.</p> + +<p>When this gyrostatic chain is made to revolve with angular +velocity n in relative equilibrium as a plane polygon passing through +Oz the axis of rotation, each gyrostatic case moves as if its axis +produced was attached to Oz by a flexure joint. The instantaneous +axis of resultant angular velocity bisects the angle π − θ, if the axis +of the case makes an angle θ with Oz, and, the components of +angular velocity being n about Oz, and −n about the axis, the resultant +angular velocity is 2n cos½ (π − θ) =2n sin½θ; and the components +of this angular velocity are</p> + +<p>(1) −2n sin ½θ sin ½θ = −n (1 − cos θ), along the axis, and</p> + +<p>(2) −2n sin ½θ cos ½θ = −n sin θ, perpendicular to the axis of the +case. The flexure joint behaves like a pair of equal bevel wheels +engaging.</p> + +<p>The component angular momentum in the direction Ox is therefore</p> + +<p class="center"> L = −An sin θ cos θ − Cn (1 − cos θ) sin θ + K sin θ,</p> +<div class="ref">(3)</div> + +<p class="noind">and Ln is therefore the couple acting on the gyrostat.</p> + +<p>If α denotes the angle which a connecting link makes with Oz, and +T denotes the constant component of the tension of a link parallel to +Oz, the couple acting is</p> + +<p class="center">Ta cos θ<span class="su">k</span> (tan α<span class="su">k+1</span> + tan α<span class="su">k</span>) − 2Tα sin θ<span class="su">k</span>,</p> +<div class="ref">(4)</div> + +<p class="noind">which is to be equated to Ln, so that</p> + +<p class="center"> −An<span class="sp">2</span> sin θ<span class="su">k</span> cos θ<span class="su">k</span> − Cn (1 − cos θ<span class="su">k</span>) sin θ<span class="su">k</span> + Kn sin θ<span class="su">k</span><br /> +−Ta cos θ<span class="su">k</span> (tan α<span class="su">k+1</span> + tan α<span class="su">k</span>) + 2Tα sin θ<span class="su">k</span> = 0.</p> +<div class="ref">(5)</div> + +<p>In addition</p> + +<p class="center">Mn<span class="sp">2</span>x<span class="su">k</span> + T (tan α<span class="su">k+1</span> − tan α<span class="su">k</span>) = 0,</p> +<div class="ref">(6)</div> + +<p class="noind">with the geometrical relation</p> + +<p class="center"> x<span class="su">k+1</span> − x<span class="su">k</span> − a (sin θ<span class="su">k+1</span> + sin θ<span class="su">k</span>) − 2l sin α<span class="su">k+1</span> = 0.</p> +<div class="ref">(7)</div> + +<p>When the polygon is nearly coincident with Oz, these equations +can be replaced by</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page779" id="page779"></a>779</span></p> + +<p class="center">(−An<span class="sp">2</span> + Kn + 2Ta) θ<span class="su">k</span> − Ta (α<span class="su">k+1</span> + α<span class="su">k</span>) = 0,</p> +<div class="ref">(8)</div> + +<p class="center">Mn<span class="sp">2</span>x<span class="su">k</span> + T (α<span class="su">k+1</span> − α<span class="su">k</span>) = 0,</p> +<div class="ref">(9)</div> + +<p class="center">x<span class="su">k+1</span> − x<span class="su">k</span> − a (θ<span class="su">k+1</span> + θ<span class="su">k</span>) − 2la<span class="su">k</span> = 0,</p> +<div class="ref">(10)</div> + +<p class="noind">and the rest of the solution proceeds as before in § 14, putting</p> + +<p class="center">x<span class="su">k</span>, θ<span class="su">k</span>, α<span class="su">k</span> = (L, P, Q) exp cki.</p> +<div class="ref">(11)</div> + +<p>A half wave length of the curve of gyrostats is covered when +ck = π, so that π/c is the number of gyrostats in a half wave, which is +therefore of wave length 2π (a + l)/c.</p> + +<p>A plane polarized wave is given when exp cki is replaced by +exp (nt + ck) i, and a wave circularly polarized when w, ῶ, σ of § 14 +replace this x, θ, α.</p> + +<p><i>Gyroscopic Pendulum.</i>—The elastic flexure joint is useful for +supporting a rod, carrying a fly-wheel, like a gyroscopic pendulum.</p> + +<p>Expressed by Euler’s angles, θ, φ, ψ, the kinetic energy is</p> + +<p class="center">T = ½A (<span class="ov">θ</span><span class="sp">2</span> + sin<span class="sp">2</span> θ<span class="ov">ψ</span><span class="sp">2</span>) + ½C′ (1 − cos θ)<span class="sp">2</span><span class="ov">ψ</span><span class="sp">2</span> + ½C (<span class="ov">φ</span> + <span class="ov">ψ</span> cos θ)<span class="sp">2</span>,</p> +<div class="ref">(12)</div> + +<p class="noind">where A refers to rod and gyroscope about the transverse axis at the +point of support, C′ refers to rod about its axis of length, and C refers +to the revolving fly-wheel.</p> + +<p>The elimination of <span class="ov">ψ</span> between the equation of conservation of +angular momentum about the vertical, viz.</p> + +<p>(13) A sin<span class="sp">2</span> θ<span class="ov">ψ</span> − C′ (1 − cos θ) cos θ<span class="ov">ψ</span> + C(<span class="ov">φ</span> + <span class="ov">ψ</span> cos θ) cos θ = G, a constant, +and the equation of energy, viz.</p> + +<p>(14) T − gMh cos θ = H, a constant, with θ measured from the +downward vertical, and</p> + +<p>(15) <span class="ov">φ</span> + <span class="ov">ψ</span> cos θ = R, a constant, will lead to an equation for +dθ/dt, or dz/dt, in terms of cos θ or z, the integral of which is of hyperelliptic +character, except when A = C′.</p> + +<p>In the suspension of fig. 8, the motion given by <span class="ov">φ</span> is suppressed in +the stalk, and for the fly-wheel <span class="ov">φ</span> gives the rubbing angular velocity +of the wheel on the stalk; the equations are now</p> + +<p class="center">T = ½A (<span class="ov">θ</span><span class="sp">2</span> + sin<span class="sp">2</span> θ<span class="ov">ψ</span><span class="sp">2</span>) + ½C′ cos<span class="sp">2</span> θ<span class="ov">ψ</span><span class="sp">2</span> + ½CR<span class="sp">2</span> = H + gMh cos θ,</p> +<div class="ref">(16)</div> + +<p class="center">A sin<span class="sp">2</span> θ<span class="ov">ψ</span> + C′ cos<span class="sp">2</span> θ<span class="ov">ψ</span> + CR cos θ = G,</p> +<div class="ref">(17)</div> + +<p class="noind">and the motion is again of hyperelliptic character, except when +A = C′, or C′ = 0. To realize a motion given completely by the elliptic +function, the suspension of the stalk must be made by a smooth ball +and socket, or else a Hooke universal joint.</p> + +<p>Finally, there is the case of the general motion of a top with a +spherical rounded point on a smooth plane, in which the centre of +gravity may be supposed to rise and fall in a vertical line. Here</p> + +<p class="center">T = ½ (A + Mh<span class="sp">2</span> sin<span class="sp">2</span> θ) <span class="ov">θ</span><span class="sp">2</span> + ½A sin<span class="sp">2</span> θ<span class="ov">ψ</span><span class="sp">2</span> + ½CR<span class="sp">2</span> = H − gMh cos θ,</p> +<div class="ref">(18)</div> + +<p class="noind">with θ measured from the upward vertical, and</p> + +<p class="center">A sin<span class="sp">2</span> θ<span class="ov">ψ</span> + CR cos θ = G,</p> +<div class="ref">(19)</div> + +<p class="noind">where A now refers to a transverse axis through the centre of gravity. +The elimination of <span class="ov">ψ</span> leads to an equation for z, = cos θ, of the form</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>dz</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span></td> <td><span class="sp">2</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">= 2</td> <td>g</td> +<td rowspan="2"> </td> <td>Z</td> +<td rowspan="2">= 2</td> <td>g</td> +<td rowspan="2"> </td> <td>(z<span class="su">1</span> − z) (z<span class="su">2</span> − z) (z<span class="su">3</span> − z)</td> +<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">dt</td> <td> </td> +<td class="denom">h</td> <td class="denom">1 − z<span class="sp">2</span> + A/Mh<span class="sp">2</span></td> +<td class="denom">h</td> <td class="denom">(z<span class="su">4</span> − z) (z − z<span class="su">5</span>)</td></tr></table> +<div class="ref">(20)</div> + +<p class="noind">with the arrangement</p> + +<p class="center">z<span class="su">1</span>, z<span class="su">4</span> > / > z<span class="su">2</span> > z > z<span class="su">3</span> > − / > z<span class="su">5</span>;</p> +<div class="ref">(21)</div> + +<p class="noind">so that the motion is hyperelliptic.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—In addition to the references in the text the following +will be found useful:—<i>Ast. Notices</i>, vol. i.; <i>Comptes rendus</i>, +Sept. 1852; Paper by Professor Magnus translated in Taylor’s +<i>Foreign Scientific Memoirs</i>, n.s., pt. 3, p. 210; <i>Ast. Notices</i>, xiii. +221-248; <i>Theory of Foucault’s Gyroscope Experiments</i>, by the +Rev. Baden Powell, F.R.S.; <i>Ast. Notices</i>, vol. xv.; articles by +Major J. G. Barnard in <i>Silliman’s Journal</i>, 2nd ser., vols. xxiv. +and xxv.; E. Hunt on “Rotatory Motion,” <i>Proc. Phil. Soc. Glasgow</i>, +vol. iv.; J. Clerk Maxwell, “On a Dynamical Top,” <i>Trans. R.S.E.</i> +vol. xxi.; <i>Phil. Mag.</i> 4th ser. vols. 7, 13, 14; <i>Proc. Royal Irish +Academy</i>, vol. viii.; Sir William Thomson on “Gyrostat,” <i>Nature</i>, +xv. 297; G. T. Walker, “The Motion of a Celt,” <i>Quar. Jour. +Math.</i>, 1896; G. T. Walker, <i>Math. Ency.</i> iv. 1, xi. 1; Gallop, <i>Proc. +Camb. Phil. Soc.</i> xii. 82, pt. 2, 1903, “Rise of a Top”; Price’s +<i>Infinitesimal Calculus</i>, vol. iv.; Worms, <i>The Earth and its Mechanism</i>; +Routh, <i>Rigid Dynamics</i>; A. G. Webster, <i>Dynamics</i> (1904); H. +Crabtree, <i>Spinning Tops and Gyroscopic Motion</i> (1909). For a complete +list of the mathematical works on the subject of the Gyroscope +and Gyrostat from the outset, Professor Cayley’s Report to the +British Association (1862) on the <i>Progress of Dynamics</i> should be consulted. +Modern authors will be found cited in Klein and Sommerfeld, +<i>Theorie des Kreisels</i> (1897), and in the <i>Encyclopädie der mathematischen +Wissenschaften</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GYTHIUM,<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> the harbour and arsenal of Sparta, from which it +was some 30 m. distant. The town lay at the N.W. extremity of +the Laconian Gulf, in a small but fertile plain at the mouth of the +Gythius. Its reputed founders were Heracles and Apollo, who +frequently appear on its coins: the former of these names may +point to the influence of Phoenician traders, who, we know, +visited the Laconian shores at a very early period. In classical +times it was a community of <i>perioeci</i>, politically dependent on +Sparta, though doubtless with a municipal life of its own. In +455 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, during the first Peloponnesian War, it was burned +by the Athenian admiral Tolmides. In 370 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Epaminondas +besieged it unsuccessfully for three days. Its fortifications were +strengthened by the tyrant Nabis, but in 195 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> it was invested +and taken by Titus and Lucius Quintius Flamininus, and, +though recovered by Nabis two or three years later, was recaptured +immediately after his murder (192 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) by Philopoemen +and Aulus Atilius and remained in the Achaean League until its +dissolution in 146 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Subsequently it formed the most important +of the Eleutherolaconian towns, a group of twenty-four, +later eighteen, communities leagued together to maintain their +autonomy against Sparta and declared free by Augustus. The +highest officer of the confederacy was the general (<span class="grk" title="stratêgos">στρατηγός</span>), +who was assisted by a treasurer (<span class="grk" title="tamias">ταμίας</span>), while the chief +magistrates of the several communities bore the title of ephors +(<span class="grk" title="ephoroi">ἔφοροι</span>).</p> + +<p>Pausanias (iii. 21 f.) has left us a description of the town as it +existed in the reign of Marcus Aurelius, the agora, the Acropolis, +the island of Cranae (Marathonisi) where Paris celebrated his +nuptials with Helen, the Migonium or precinct of Aphrodite +Migonitis (occupied by the modern town of Marathonisi or +Gythium), and the hill Larysium (Koumaro) rising above it. +The numerous remains extant, of which the theatre and the +buildings partially submerged by the sea are the most noteworthy, +all belong to the Roman period.</p> + +<p>The modern town is a busy and flourishing port with a good +harbour protected by Cranae, now connected by a mole with the +mainland: it is the capital of the prefecture (<span class="grk" title="nomos">νομός</span>) of <span class="grk" title="Lakônikê">Λακωνική</span> +with a population in 1907 of 61,522.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G. Weber, <i>De Gytheo et Lacedaemoniorum rebus navalibus</i> +(Heidelberg, 1833); W. M. Leake, <i>Travels in the Morea</i>, i. 244 foll.; +E. Curtius, <i>Peloponnesos</i>, ii. 267 foll. Inscriptions: Le Bas-Foucart, +<i>Voyage archéologique</i>, ii. Nos. 238-248 f.; Collitz-Bechtel, <i>Sammlung +d. griech. Dialekt-Inschriften</i>, iii. Nos. 4562-4573; <i>British School +Annual</i>, x. 179 foll. Excavations: <span class="grk" title="A. Skias, Praktika tês Arch. +Hetaireias">Ἀ. Σκιᾶς, Πρακτικὰ τῆς Ἀρχ. Ἑταιρείας</span>, 1891, 69 foll.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(M. N. T.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GYULA-FEHÉRVÁR<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Karlsburg</i>), a town of Hungary, in +Transylvania, in the county of Alsó-Feliér, 73 m. S. of Kolozsvár +by rail. Pop. (1900) 11,507. It is situated on the right bank of +the Maros, on the outskirts of the Transylvanian Erzgebirge or +Ore Mountains, and consists of the upper town, or citadel, and +the lower town. Gyula-Fehérvár is the seat of a Roman Catholic +bishop, and has a fine Roman Catholic cathedral, built in the +11th century in Romanesque style, and rebuilt in 1443 by +John Hunyady in Gothic style. It contains among other tombs +that of John Hunyady. Near the cathedral is the episcopal +palace, and in the same part of the town is the Batthyaneum, +founded by Bishop Count Batthyány in 1794. It contains a +valuable library with many incunabula and old manuscripts, +amongst which is one of the <i>Nibelungenlied</i>, an astronomical +observatory, a collection of antiquities, and a mineral collection. +Gyula-Fehérvár carries on an active trade in cereals, wine and +cattle.</p> + +<p>Gyula-Fehérvár occupies the site of the Roman colony <i>Apulum</i>. +Many Roman relics found here, and in the vicinity, are preserved +in the museum of the town. The bishopric was founded in the +11th century by King Ladislaus I. (1078-1095). In the 16th +century, when Transylvania separated from Hungary, the town +became the residence of the Transylvanian princes. From this +period dates the castle, and also the buildings of the university, +founded by Gabriel Bethlen, and now used as barracks. After +the reversion of Transylvania in 1713 to the Habsburg monarchy +the actual strong fortress was built in 1716-1735 by the emperor +Charles VI., whence the German name of the town.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page780" id="page780"></a>780</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold f200">H<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> The eighth symbol in the Phoenician alphabet, as in its +descendants, has altered less in the course of ages than +most alphabetic symbols. From the beginning of +Phoenician records it has consisted of two uprights +connected by transverse bars, at first either two or three in +number. The uprights are rarely perpendicular and the cross +bars are not so precisely arranged as they are in early Greek and +Latin inscriptions. In these the symbol takes the form of two +rectangles <img style="width:18px; height:18px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img780a.jpg" alt="" /> out of which the ordinary <img style="width:17px; height:18px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img780b.jpg" alt="" /> develops by the +omission of the cross bars at top and bottom. It is very exceptional +for this letter to have more than three cross bars, though +as many as five are occasionally found in N.W. Greece. Within +the same inscription the appearance of the letter often varies +considerably as regards the space between and the length of +the uprights. When only one bar is found it regularly crosses +the uprights about the middle. In a few cases the rectangle +is closed at top and bottom but has no middle cross bar <img style="width:15px; height:18px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img780c.jpg" alt="" />. +The Phoenician name for the letter was Heth (Hēt). According +to Semitic scholars it had two values, (1) a glottal spirant, a very +strong <i>h</i>, (2) an unvoiced velar spirant like the German <i>ch</i> in <i>ach</i>. +The Greeks borrowed it with the value of the ordinary aspirate +and with the name <span class="grk" title="êta">ἧτα</span>. Very early in their history, however, +most of the Greeks of Asia Minor lost the aspirate altogether, +and having then no further use for the symbol with this value +they adopted it to represent the long <i>e</i>-sound, which was not +originally distinguished by a different symbol from the short +sound (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks"><img style="width:16px; height:18px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img780d.jpg" alt="" /></a></span>). With this value its name has always been <span class="grk" title="êta">ἧτα</span> +in Greek. The alphabet of the Asiatic Greeks was gradually +adopted elsewhere. In official documents at Athens H represented +the rough breathing or aspirate ‘ till 403 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; henceforth +it was used for η. The Western Greeks, however, from whom the +Romans obtained their alphabet, retained their aspirate longer +than those of Asia Minor, and hence the symbol came to the +Romans with the value not of a long vowel but of the aspirate, +which it still preserves. The Greek aspirate was itself the first +or left-hand half of this letter <img style="width:16px; height:18px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img780e.jpg" alt="" />, while the smooth breathing ’ +was the right-hand portion <img style="width:13px; height:18px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img780f.jpg" alt="" />. At Tarentum <img style="width:16px; height:18px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img780e.jpg" alt="" /> is found for +<img style="width:17px; height:18px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img780b.jpg" alt="" /> in inscriptions. The Roman aspirate was, however, a very +slight sound which in some words where it was etymologically +correct disappeared at an early date. Thus the cognate words +of kindred languages show that the Lat. <i>anser</i> “goose” ought +to begin with <i>h</i>, but nowhere is it so found. In none of the +Romance languages is there any trace of initial or medial <i>h</i>, +which shows that vulgar Latin had ceased to have the aspirate +by 240 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The Roman grammarians were guided to its +presence by the Sabine forms where <i>f</i> occurred; as the Sabines +said <i>fasena</i> (sand), it was recognised that the Roman form ought +to be <i>harena</i>, and so for <i>haedus</i> (goat), <i>hordeum</i> (barley), &c. +Between vowels <i>h</i> was lost very early, for <i>ne-hemo</i> (no man) is +throughout the literature <i>nēmo</i>, <i>bi-himus</i> (two winters old) +<i>bīmus</i>. In the Ciceronian age greater attention was paid to +reproducing the Greek aspirates in borrowed words, and this +led to absurd mistakes in Latin words, mistakes which were +satirized by Catullus in his epigram (84) upon Arrius, who said +<i>chommoda</i> for <i>commoda</i> and <i>hinsidias</i> for <i>insidias</i>. In Umbrian +<i>h</i> was often lost, and also used without etymological value to +mark length, as in <i>comohota</i> (= Lat. <i>commota</i>), a practice to +which there are some doubtful parallels in Latin.</p> + +<p>In English the history of <i>h</i> is very similar to that in Latin. +While the parts above the glottis are in position to produce a +vowel, an aspirate is produced without vibration of the vocal +chords, sometimes, like the pronunciation of Arrius, with considerable +effort as a reaction against the tendency to “drop the +h’s.” Though <i>h</i> survives in Scotland, Ireland and America as +well as in the speech of cultivated persons, the sound in most of +the vulgar dialects is entirely lost. Where it is not ordinarily +lost, it disappears in unaccented syllables, as “<i>Give it ’im</i>” and +the like. Where it is lost, conscious attempts to restore it on +the part of uneducated speakers lead to absurd misplacements +of <i>h</i> and to its restoration in Romance words when it never was +pronounced, as <i>humble</i> (now recognized as standard English), +<i>humour</i> and even <i>honour</i>.</p> +<div class="author">(P. Gi.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAAG, CARL<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> (1820-  ), a naturalized British painter, +court painter to the duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, was born +in Bavaria, and was trained in the academies at Nuremburg +and Munich. He practised first as an illustrator and as a painter, +in oil, of portraits and architectural subjects; but after he +settled in England, in 1847, he devoted himself to water colours, +and was elected associate of the Royal Society of Painters in +Water Colours in 1850 and member in 1853. He travelled +much, especially in the East, and made a considerable reputation +by his firmly drawn and carefully elaborated paintings of +Eastern subjects. Towards the end of his professional career +Carl Haag quitted England and returned to Germany.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>A History of the “Old Water-Colour” Society, now the Royal +Society of Painters in Water Colours</i>, by John Lewis Roget (2 vols., +London, 1891).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAAKON<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (Old Norse <i>Hákon</i>), the name of several kings of +Norway, of whom the most important are the following:—</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Haakon I.</span>, surnamed “the Good” (d. 961), was the youngest +son of Harald Haarfager. He was fostered by King Aethelstan +of England, who brought him up in the Christian religion, and on +the news of his father’s death in 933 provided him with ships and +men for an expedition against his half-brother Erik, who had +been proclaimed king. On his arrival in Norway Haakon gained +the support of the landowners by promising to give up the rights +of taxation claimed by his father over inherited real property. +Erik fled, and was killed a few years later in England. His sons +allied themselves with the Danes, but were invariably defeated +by Haakon, who was successful in everything he undertook +except in his attempt to introduce Christianity, which aroused +an opposition he did not feel strong enough to face. He was +killed at the battle of Fitje in 961, after a final victory over +Erik’s sons. So entirely did even his immediate circle ignore his +religion that a court skald composed a poem on his death representing +his welcome by the heathen gods into Valhalla.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Haakon IV.</span>, surnamed “the Old” (1204-1263), was declared +to be the son of Haakon III., who died shortly before the former’s +birth in 1204. A year later the child was placed under the +protection of King Inge, after whose death in 1217 he was chosen +king; though until 1223 the church refused to recognize him, +on the ground of illegitimacy, and the Pope’s dispensation for +his coronation was not gained until much later. In the earlier +part of his reign much of the royal power was in the hands of +Earl Skule, who intrigued against the king until 1239, when he +proceeded to open hostility and was put to death. From this +time onward Haakon’s reign was marked by more peace and +prosperity than Norway had known for many years, until in +1263 a dispute with the Scottish king concerning the Hebrides, +a Norwegian possession, induced Haakon to undertake an +expedition to the west of Scotland. A division of his army +seems to have repulsed a large Scottish force at Largs (though +the later Scottish accounts claim this battle as a victory), and, +having won back the Norwegian possessions in Scotland, Haakon +was wintering in the Orkneys, when he was taken ill and died +on the 15th of December 1263. A great part of his fleet had been +scattered and destroyed by storms. The most important event +in his reign was the voluntary submission of the Icelandic +commonwealth. Worn out by internal strife fostered by +Haakon’s emissaries, the Icelandic chiefs acknowledged the +Norwegian king as overlord in 1262. Their example was followed +by the colony of Greenland.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Haakon VII.</span> (1872-  ), the second son of Frederick VIII., +king of Denmark, was born on the 3rd of August 1872, and was +usually known as Prince Charles of Denmark. When in 1905 +Norway decided to separate herself from Sweden the Norwegians +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page781" id="page781"></a>781</span> +offered their crown to Charles, who accepted it and took the name +of Haakon VII., being crowned at Trondhjem in June 1906. +The king married Maud, youngest daughter of Edward VII., +king of Great Britain, their son, Prince Olav, being born in 1903.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAARLEM,<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> a town of Holland in the province of North +Holland, on the Spaarne, having a junction station 11 m. by +rail W. of Amsterdam. It is connected by electric and steam +tramways with Zandvoort, Leiden, Amsterdam and Alkmaar. +Pop. (1900) 65,189. Haarlem is the seat of the governor of the +province of North Holland, and of a Roman Catholic and a +Jansenist bishopric. In appearance it is a typical Dutch town, +with numerous narrow canals and quaintly gabled houses. Of +the ancient city gates the Spaarnewouder or Amsterdam gate +alone remains. Gardens and promenades have taken the place +of the old ramparts, and on the south the city is bounded by the +Frederiks and the Flora parks, between which runs the fine +avenue called the Dreef, leading to the Haarlemmer Hout or +wood. In the Frederiks Park is a pump-room supplied with +a powerful chalybeate water from a spring, the Wilhelminabron, +in the Haarlemmer Polder not far distant, and in connexion +with this there is an orthopaedic institution adjoining. In the +great market place in the centre of the city are gathered together +the larger number of the most interesting buildings, including +the quaint old Fleshers’ Hall, built by Lieven de Key in 1603, +and now containing the archives; the town hall; the old +Stadsdoelen, where the burgesses met in arms; the Groote Kerk, +or Great Church; and the statue erected in 1856 to Laurenz +Janszoon Koster, the printer. The Great Church, dedicated to +St Bavo, with a lofty tower (255 ft.), is one of the most famous +in Holland, and dates from the end of the 15th and the beginning +of the 16th centuries. Its great length (460 ft.) and the height +and steepness of its vaulted cedar-wood roof (1538) are very +impressive. The choir-stalls and screen (1510) are finely carved, +and of further interest are the ancient pulpit sounding-board +(1432), some old stained glass, and the small models of ships, +copies dating from 1638 of yet earlier models originally presented +by the Dutch-Swedish Trading Company. The church organ +was long considered the largest and finest in existence. It was +constructed by Christian Müller in 1738, and has 4 keyboards, +64 registers and 5000 pipes, the largest of which is 15 in. in +diameter and 32 ft. long. Among the monuments in the church +are those of the poet Willem Bilderdyk (d. 1831) and the engineer +Frederik Willem Conrad (d. 1808), who designed the sea-sluices +at Katwyk. In the belfry are the <i>damiaatjes</i>, small bells presented +to the town, according to tradition, by William I., count +of Holland (d. 1222), the crusader. The town hall was originally +a palace of the counts of Holland, begun in the 12th century, +and some old 13th-century beams still remain; but the building +was remodelled in the beginning of the 17th century. It contains +a collection of antiquities (including some beautiful goblets) +and a picture gallery which, though small, is celebrated for its +fine collection of paintings by Frans Hals. The town library +contains several <i>incunabula</i> and an interesting collection of early +Dutch literature. At the head of the scientific institutions of +Haarlem may be placed the Dutch Society of Sciences (<i>Hollandsche +Maatschappij van Wetenschappen</i>), founded in 1752, +which possesses valuable collections in botany, natural history +and geology. Teyler’s Stichting (<i>i.e.</i> foundation), enlarged in +modern times, was instituted by the will of Pieter Teyler van +der Hulst (d. 1778), a wealthy merchant, for the study of theology, +natural science and art, and has lecture-theatres, a large library, +and a museum containing a physical and a geological cabinet, as +well as a collection of paintings, including many modern pictures, +and a valuable collection of drawings and engravings by old +masters. The Dutch Society for the Promotion of Industry +(<i>Nederlaandsche Maatschappij ter Bevordering van Nijverheid</i>), +founded in 1777, has its seat in the Pavilion Welgelegen, a villa +on the south side of the Frederiks Park, built by the Amsterdam +banker John Hope in 1778, and afterwards acquired by Louis +Bonaparte, king of Holland. The colonial museum and the +museum of industrial art were established in this villa by the +society in 1871 and 1877 respectively. Besides these there +are a museum of ecclesiastical antiquities, chiefly relating to +the bishopric of Haarlem; the old weigh-house (1598) and the +orphanage for girls (1608), originally an almshouse for old men, +both built by the architect Lieven de Key of Ghent.</p> + +<p>The staple industries of Haarlem have been greatly modified +in the course of time. Cloth weaving and brewing, which once +flourished exceedingly, declined in the beginning of the 16th +century. A century later, silk, lace and damask weaving were +introduced by French refugees, and became very important +industries. But about the close of the 18th century this remarkable +prosperity had also come to an end, and it was not till after +the Belgian revolution of 1830-1831 that Haarlem began to +develop the manufactures in which it is now chiefly engaged. +Cotton manufacture, dyeing, printing, bleaching, brewing, +type-founding, and the manufacture of tram and railway carriages +are among the more important of its industries. One of the +printing establishments has the reputation of being the oldest +in the Netherlands, and publishes the oldest Dutch paper, <i>De +Opragte Haarlemmer Courant</i>. Market-gardening, especially +horticulture, is extensively practised in the vicinity, so that +Haarlem is the seat of a large trade in Dutch bulbs, especially +hyacinths, tulips, fritillaries, spiraeas and japonicas.</p> + +<p>Haarlem, which was a prosperous place in the middle of the +12th century, received its first town charter from William II., +count of Holland and king of the Romans, in 1245. It played +a considerable part in the wars of Holland with the Frisians. +In 1492 it was captured by the insurgent peasants of North +Holland, was re-taken by the duke of Saxony, the imperial +stadholder, and deprived of its privileges. In 1572 Haarlem +joined the revolt of the Netherlands against Spain, but on the +13th of July 1573, after a seven months’ siege, was forced to +surrender to Alva’s son Frederick, who exacted terrible vengeance. +In 1577 it was again captured by William of Orange and permanently +incorporated in the United Netherlands.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Karl Hegel, <i>Städte und Gilden</i> (Leipzig, 1891); Allan, <i>Geschiedenis +en beschrijving van Haarlem</i> (Haarlem, 1871-1888).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAARLEM LAKE<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (Dutch <i>Harlemmer Meer</i>), a commune of +the province of North Holland, constituted by the law of the +16th of July 1855. It has an area of about 46,000 acres, and +its population increased from 7237 in 1860 to 16,621 in 1900. +As its name indicates, the commune was formerly a lake, which +is said to have been a relic of a northern arm of the Rhine which +passed through the district in the time of the Romans. In 1531 +the Haarlemmer Meer had an area of 6430 acres, and in its +vicinity were three smaller sheets of water—the Leidsche Meer +or Leiden Lake, the Spiering Meer, and the Oude Meer or Old +Lake, with a united area of about 7600 acres. The four lakes +were formed into one by successive inundations, whole villages +disappearing in the process, and by 1647 the new Haarlem Lake +had an area of about 37,000 acres, which a century later had +increased to over 42,000 acres. As early as 1643 Jan Adriaanszoon +Leeghwater proposed to endike and drain the lake; and +similar schemes, among which those of Nikolaas Samuel Cruquius +in 1742 and of Baron van Lijnden van Hemmen in 1820 are +worthy of special mention, were brought forward from time to +time. But it was not till a furious hurricane in November 1836 +drove the waters as far as the gates of Amsterdam, and another +on Christmas Day sent them in the opposite direction to submerge +the streets of Leiden, that the mind of the nation was +seriously turned to the matter. In August 1837 the king appointed +a royal commission of inquiry; the scheme proposed +by the commission received the sanction of the Second Chamber +in March 1839, and in the following May the work was begun. +A canal was first dug round the lake for the reception of the water +and the accommodation of the great traffic which had previously +been carried on. This canal was 38 m. in length, 123-146 ft. +wide, and 8 ft. deep, and the earth which was taken out of it +was used to build a dike from 30 to 54 yds. broad containing +the lake. The area enclosed by the canal was rather more than +70 sq. m., and the average depth of the lake 13 ft. 1½ in., and as +the water had no natural outfall it was calculated that probably +1000 million tons would have to be raised by mechanical means. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page782" id="page782"></a>782</span> +This amount was 200 million tons in excess of that actually +discharged. Pumping by steam-engines began in 1848, and the +lake was dry by the 1st of July 1852. At the first sale of the +highest lands along the banks on the 16th of August 1853, about +£28 per acre was paid; but the average price afterwards was +less. The whole area of 42,096 acres recovered from the waters +brought in 9,400,000 florins, or about £780,000, exactly covering +the cost of the enterprise; so that the actual cost to the nation +was only the amount of the interest on the capital, or about +£368,000. The soil is of various kinds, loam, clay, sand and +peat; most of it is sufficiently fertile, though in the lower +portions there are barren patches where the scanty vegetation +is covered with an ochreous deposit. Mineral springs occur +containing a very high percentage (3.245 grams per litre) of +common salt; and in 1893 a company was formed for working +them. Corn, seeds, cattle, butter and cheese are the principal +produce. The roads which traverse the commune are bordered +by pleasant-looking farm-houses built after the various styles +of Holland, Friesland or Brabant. Hoofddorp, Venneperdorp +or Nieuw Vennep, Abbenes and the vicinities of the pumping-stations +are the spots where the population has clustered most +thickly. The first church was built in 1855; in 1877 there were +seven. In 1854 the city of Leiden laid claim to the possession of +the new territory, but the courts decided in favour of the nation.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAASE, FRIEDRICH<a name="ar25a" id="ar25a"></a></span> (1827-  ), German actor, was born on +the 1st of November 1827, in Berlin, the son of a valet to King +Frederick William IV., who became his godfather. He was +educated for the stage under Ludwig Tieck and made his first +appearance in 1846 in Weimar, afterwards acting at Prague +(1849-1851) and Karlsruhe (1852-1855). From 1860 to 1866 +he played in St Petersburg, then was manager of the court +theatre in Coburg, and in 1869 (and again in 1882-1883) visited +the United States. He was manager of the Stadt Theater in +Leipzig from 1870 to 1876, when he removed to Berlin, where he +devoted his energies to the foundation and management of the +Deutsches Theater. He finally retired from the stage in 1898. +Haase’s aristocratic appearance and elegant manner fitted him +specially to play high comedy parts. His chief rôles were those +of Rocheferrier in the <i>Partie Piquet</i>; Richelieu; Savigny in +<i>Der feiner Diplomat</i>, and der Fürst in <i>Der geheime Agent</i>. He +is the author of <i>Ungeschminkte Briefe and Was ich erlebte 1846-1898</i> +(Berlin, 1898).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Simon, <i>Friedrich Haase</i> (Berlin, 1898).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAASE, FRIEDRICH GOTTLOB<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (1808-1867), German +classical scholar, was born at Magdeburg on the 4th of January +1808. Having studied at Halle, Greifswald and Berlin, he +obtained in 1834 an appointment at Schulpforta, from which +he was suspended and sentenced to six years’ imprisonment for +identifying himself with the <i>Burschenschaften</i> (students’ associations). +Having been released after serving one year of his +sentence, he visited Paris, and on his return in 1840 he was +appointed professor at Breslau, where he remained till his +death on the 16th of August 1867. He was undoubtedly +one of the most successful teachers of his day in Germany, and +exercised great influence upon all his pupils.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>He edited several classic authors: Xenophon (<span class="grk" title="Lakedaimoniôn +politeia">Λακεδαιμονίων πολιτεία</span>, 1833); Thucydides (1840); Velleius Paterculus (1858); +Seneca the philosopher (2nd ed., 1872, not yet superseded); and +Tacitus (1855), the introduction to which is a masterpiece of Latinity. +His <i>Vorlesungen über lateinische Sprachwissenschaft</i> was published +after his death by F. A. Eckstein and H. Peter (1874-1880). See +C Bursian, <i>Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in Deutschland</i> (1883); +G. Fickert, <i>Friderici Haasii memoria</i> (1868), with a list of works; +T. Oelsner in <i>Rübezahl</i> (<i>Schlesische Provinzialblätter</i>), vii. Heft 3 +(Breslau, 1868).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAAST, SIR JOHANN FRANZ JULIUS VON<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (1824-1887), +German and British geologist, was born at Bonn on the 1st of +May 1824. He received his early education partly in that town +and partly in Cologne, and then entered the university at Bonn, +where he made a special study of geology and mineralogy. In +1858 he started for New Zealand to report on the suitability +of the colony for German emigrants. He then became acquainted +with Dr von Hochstetter, and rendered assistance to him in the +preliminary geological survey which von Hochstetter had undertaken. +Afterwards Dr Haast accepted offers from the governments +of Nelson and Canterbury to investigate the geology of +those districts, and the results of his detailed labours greatly +enriched our knowledge with regard to the rocky structure, +the glacial phenomena and the economic products. He discovered +gold and coal in Nelson, and he carried on important +researches with reference to the occurrence of <i>Dinornis</i> and other +extinct wingless birds (Moas). His <i>Geology of the Provinces of +Canterbury and Westland, N.Z.</i>, was published in 1879. He +was the founder of the Canterbury museum at Christchurch, +of which he became director, and which he endeavoured to +render the finest collection in the southern hemisphere. He +was surveyor-general of Canterbury from 1861 to 1871, and +professor of geology at Canterbury College. He was elected +F.R.S. in 1867; and he was knighted for his services at the +time of the colonial exhibition in London in 1887. He died at +Wellington, N.Z., on the 15th of August 1887.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HABABS<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Az-Hibbehs</span>), a nomadic pastoral people of Hamitic +stock, living in the coast region north-west of Massawa. Physically +they are Beja, by language and traditions Abyssinians. +They were Christians until the 19th century, but are now +Mahommedans. Their sole wealth consists in cattle.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HABAKKUK,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> the name borne by the eighth book of the Old +Testament “Minor Prophets.” It occurs twice in the book +itself (i. 1, iii. 1) in titles, but nowhere else in the Old Testament. +The meaning of the name is uncertain. If Hebrew, it might be +derived from the root <span title="habak">חבק</span> (to embrace) as an intensive term +of affection. It has also been connected more plausibly with +an Assyrian plant name, <i>ḫambaḱūḱu</i> (Delitzsch, <i>Assyrisches +Handwörterbuch</i>, p. 281). The Septuagint has <span class="grk" title="Ambakoum">Ἀμβακούμ</span>. Of +the person designated, no more is known than may be inferred +from the writing which bears his name. Various legends are +connected with him, of which the best known is given in the +Apocryphal story of “Bel and the Dragon” (v. 33-39); but +none of these has any historic value.<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<p>The book itself falls into three obvious parts, viz. (1) a dialogue +between the prophet and God (i. 2-ii. 4); (2) a series of five +woes pronounced on wickedness (ii. 5-ii. 20); (3) a poem +describing the triumphant manifestation of God (iii.). There is +considerable difficulty in regard to the interpretation of (1), on +which that of (2) will turn; while (3) forms an independent +section, to be considered separately.</p> + +<p>In the dialogue, the prophet cries to God against continued +violence and injustice, though it is not clear whether this is done +<i>within</i> or <i>to</i> Israel (i. 2-4). The divine answer declares that God +raises up the Chaldaeans, whose formidable resources are invincible +(i. 5-11). The prophet thereupon calls God’s attention to the +tyranny which He apparently allows to triumph, and declares +his purpose to wait till an answer is given to his complaint +(i. 12-ii. 2). God answers by demanding patience, and by +declaring that the righteous shall live by his faithfulness (ii. 3-4).</p> + +<p>The interpretation of this dialogue which first suggests itself +is that the prophet is referring to wickedness <i>within</i> the nation, +which is to be punished by the Chaldaeans as a divine instrument; +in the process, the tyranny of the instrument itself calls for +punishment, which the prophet is bidden to await in patient +fidelity. On this view of the dialogue, the subsequent woes will +be pronounced against the Chaldaeans, and the date assigned to +the prophecy will be about 600 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, <i>i.e.</i> soon after the battle of +Carchemish (605 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), when the Chaldaean victory over Egypt +inaugurated a period of Chaldaean supremacy which lasted till +the Chaldaeans themselves were overthrown by Cyrus in 538 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +Grave objections, however, confront this interpretation, as is +admitted even by such recent defenders of it as Davidson and +Driver. Is it likely that a prophet would begin a complaint +against Chaldaean tyranny (admittedly central in the prophecy) +by complaining of that wickedness of his fellow-countrymen which +seems partly to justify it? Are not the terms of reference in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page783" id="page783"></a>783</span> +i. 2 f. and 1. 12 f. too similar for the supposition that two +distinct, even contradictory, complaints are being made (cf. +“wicked” and “righteous” in i. 4 and i. 13, interchanged +in regard to Israel, on above theory)? And if i. 5-11 is a genuine +<i>prophecy</i> of the raising up of the Chaldaeans, whence comes that +long experience of their rule required to explain the <i>detailed</i> +denunciation of their tyranny? To meet the last objection, +Davidson supposes i. 5-11 to be really a reference to the past, +prophetic in form only, and brings down the whole section to a +later period of Chaldaean rule, “hardly, one would think, before +the deportation of the people under Jehoiachin in 597” (p. 49). +Driver prefers to bisect the dialogue by supposing i. 2-11 to +be written at an earlier period than i. 12 f. (p. 57). The other +objections, however, remain, and have provoked a variety of +theories from Old Testament scholars, of which three call for +special notice. (1) The first of these, represented by Giesebrecht,<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a> +Nowack and Wellhausen, refers i. 2-4 to Chaldaean oppression of +Israel, the same subject being continued in i. 12 f. Obviously, +the reference to the Chaldaeans as a divine instrument could not +then stand in its present place, and it is accordingly regarded as +a misplaced earlier prophecy. This is the minimum of critical +procedure required to do justice to the facts. (2) Budde, followed +by Cornill, also regards i. 2-4 as referring to the oppression of +Israel by a foreign tyrant, whom, however, he holds to be Assyria. +He also removes i. 5-11 from its present place, but makes it +part of the divine answer, following ii. 4. On this view, the +Chaldaeans are the divine instrument for punishing the tyranny +of the Assyrians, to whom the following woes will therefore refer. +The date would fall between Josiah’s reformation (621) and his +death (609). This is a plausible and even attractive theory; +its weakness seems to lie in the absence of any positive evidence +in the prophecy itself, as is illustrated by the fact that even +G. A. Smith, who follows it, suggests “Egypt from 608-605” +as an alternative to Assyria (p. 124). (3) Marti (1904) abandons +the attempt to explain the prophecy as a unity, and analyses +it into three elements, viz. (<i>a</i>) The original prophecy by +Habakkuk, consisting of i. 5-10, 14 f., belonging to the year 605, +and representing the emergent power of the Chaldaeans as a +divine scourge of the faithless people; (<i>b</i>) Woes against the +Chaldaeans, presupposing not only tyrannous rule over many +peoples, but the beginning of their decline and fall, and therefore +of date about 540 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (ii. 5-19); (<i>c</i>) A psalm of post-exilic origin, +whose fragments, i. 2-4, 12 a, 13, ii. 1-4, have been incorporated +into the present text from the margins on which they were +written, its subject being the suffering of the righteous. Each +of these three theories<a name="fa3a" id="fa3a" href="#ft3a"><span class="sp">3</span></a> encounters difficulties of detail; none +can be said to have secured a dominant position. The great +variety of views amongst competent critics is significant of the +difficulty of the problem, which can hardly be regarded as yet +solved; this divergence of opinion perhaps points to the impossibility +of maintaining the unity of chs. i. and ii., and throws +the balance of probability towards some such analysis as that +of Marti, which is therefore accepted in the present article.</p> + +<p>In regard to the poem which forms the third and closing +chapter of the present book of Habakkuk, there is much more +general agreement. Its most striking characteristic lies in +the superscription (“A prayer of Habakkuk the prophet, set +to Shigionoth”), the subscription (“For the chief musician, on +my stringed instruments”), and the insertion of the musical +term “Selah” in three places (v. 3, 9, 13). These liturgical +notes make extremely probable the supposition that the poem +has been taken from some collection like that of our present +book of Psalms, probably on the ground of the authorship +asserted by the superscription there attached to it. It cannot, +however, be said that the poem itself supports this assertion, +which carries no more intrinsic weight than the Davidic titles +of the Psalms. The poem begins with a prayer that God will +renew the historic manifestation of the exodus, which inaugurated +the national history and faith; a thunderstorm moving up from +the south is then described, in which God is revealed (3-7); +it is asked whether this manifestation, whose course is further +described, is against nature only (8-11); the answer is given that +it is for the salvation of Israel against its wicked foes (12-15); +the poet describes the effect in terror upon himself (16) and +declares his confidence in God, even in utter agricultural adversity +(17-19). As Wellhausen says (p. 171): “The poet appears to +believe that in the very act of describing enthusiastically the +ancient deed of deliverance, he brings home to us the new; we +are left sometimes in doubt whether he speaks of the past to +suggest the new by analogy, or whether he is concerned directly +with the future, and simply paints it with the colours of the past.” +In any case, there is nothing in this fine poem to connect it with +the conception of the Chaldaeans as a divine instrument. It is the +nation that speaks through the poet (cf. v. 14), but at what +period of its post-exilic history we have no means of inferring.</p> + +<p>Our estimate of the theological teaching of this book will +naturally be influenced by the particular critical theory which +is adopted. The reduction of the book to four originally independent +sections requires that the point of each be stated +separately. When this is done, it will, however, be found that +there is a broad unity of subject, and of natural development +in its treatment, such as to some extent justifies the instinct or +the judgment of those who were instrumental in effecting the +combination of the separate parts. (1) The poem (iii.), though +possibly latest in date,<a name="fa4a" id="fa4a" href="#ft4a"><span class="sp">4</span></a> claims first consideration, because it +avowedly moves in the circle of primitive ideas, and supplicates +a divine intervention, a direct and immediate manifestation +of the transcendent God. He is conceived as controlling or +overcoming the forces of nature; and though an earlier +mythology has supplied some of the ideas, yet, as with the +opening chapters of Genesis, they are transfigured by the moral +purpose which animates them, the purpose to subdue all things +that could frustrate the destiny of God’s anointed (v. 13). The +closing verses strike that deep note of absolute dependence on +God, which is the glory of the religion of the Old Testament +and its chief contribution to the spirit of the Gospels. (2) The +prophecy of the Chaldaeans as the instruments of the divine +purpose involves a different, yet related, conception of the divine +providence. The philosophy of history, by which Hebrew +prophets could read a deep moral significance into national +disaster and turn the flank of resistless attack, became one of +the most important elements in the nation’s faith. If the world-powers +were hard as flint in their dealings with Israel, the people +of God were steeled to such moral endurance that each clash of +their successive onsets kindled some new flame of devotion. +Through the Chaldaeans God worked a work which required +centuries of life and literature to disclose its fulness (i. 5). (3) +When we turn from this view of the Chaldaeans to the denunciation +of their tyranny in “taunt songs” (ii. 5-20), we have simply +a practical application of the doctrine of divine government. +God being what He is, at once moral and all-powerful, the +immoral life is doomed to overthrow, whether the immorality +consist in grasping rapacity, proud self-aggrandizement, cruel +exaction, exulting triumph or senseless idolatry. (4) Yet, +because the doom so often tarries, there arises the problem of +the suffering of the innocent and the upright. How can God +look down with tolerance that seems favour on so much that +conflicts with His declared will and character? This is the great +problem of Israel, finding its supreme expression for all time in +the book of Job (<i>q.v.</i>). In that book the solution of the problem +of innocent suffering lies hidden from the sufferer, even to the +end, for he is not admitted with the reader to the secret of the +prologue; it is the practical solution of faithfulness resting on +faith which is offered to us. So here, with the principle of ii. 4, +“the righteous shall live by his faithfulness.” The different +application of these words in the New Testament to “faith” +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page784" id="page784"></a>784</span> +is well known (Rom. i. 17; Gal. iii. 11; Heb. x. 38) though the +difference is apt to be exaggerated by those who forget how much +of the element of <span title="emuna">אמונה</span>: lies in Paul’s conception of <span class="grk" title="pistis">πίστις</span>. +In G. A. Smith’s words, “as Paul’s adaptation, ‘the just shall +live by faith,’ has become the motto of evangelical Christianity, +so we may say that Habakkuk’s original of it has been the motto +and the fame of Judaism: ‘the righteous shall live by his +faithfulness.’”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The Hebrew text of this impressive and varied book is unfortunately +corrupt in many places; even so cautious a critic as Driver +accepts or favourably notices eighteen textual emendations in the +three chapters, and suspects the text in at least seven other cases. +For the interpretation of the book in detail, the English reader will +find Driver’s commentary (1906) the most useful.</p> + +<p>References to earlier literature will be found in the following noteworthy +studies of recent date: Davidson, “Nahum, Habakkuk +and Zephaniah,” in <i>Cambridge Bible</i> (1896); Nowack, <i>Die kleinen +Propheten</i> (Hdkr.) (1897); Wellhausen, <i>Die kleinen Propheten</i><span class="sp">3</span> +(1898); G. A. Smith, “The Book of the Twelve Prophets,” in +<i>The Expositor’s Bible</i>, vol. ii. (1898); Driver, article “Habakkuk” +in Hastings’ <i>Dictionary of the Bible</i>, vol. ii. pp. 269-272 (1900); +Budde, article “Habakkuk” in <i>Ency. Biblica</i>, vol. ii., c. 1921-1928 +(1901); Stevenson, “The Interpretation of Habakkuk,” in <i>The +Expositor</i> (1902), pp. 388-401; Peake, <i>The Problem of Suffering in +the Old Testament</i> (1904), pp. 4-11 and app. A, “Recent Criticism of +Habakkuk”; Marti, <i>Dodekapropheton</i> (K. H. C.) (1904); Driver, +“Minor Prophets,” vol. ii., in <i>Century Bible</i> (1906); Duhm, <i>Das +Buch Habakkuk</i> (Text, Übersetzung und Efklärung), 1906 (regards +the book as a unity belonging to the time of Alexander the Great). +Max L. Margolis discusses the anonymous Greek version of Habakkuk +iii. in a volume of <i>Old Test. and Semitic Studies: in Memory of +William Rainey Harper</i> (Chicago, 1908).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. W. R.*)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> These legends are collected in Hastings, D. B. vol. ii. p. 272. +He is the watchman of Is. xxi. 6 (cf. Hab. ii. 1); the son of the +Shunammite (2 Kings iv. 16); and is miraculously lifted by his hair +to carry his own dinner to Daniel in the lions’ den (<i>supra</i>).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Followed by Peake in <i>The Problem of Suffering</i>, pp. 4 f., 151 f., +to whose appendix (A) reference may be made for further details +of recent criticism.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> For the less probable theories of Rothstein, Lauterburg, Happel +and Peiser (amongst others), cf. Marti’s <i>Commentary</i>, pp. 328 f. and +332. Stevenson (<i>The Expositor</i>, 1902) states clearly the difficulties +for those who regard ch. i. as a unity. He sees two independent +sections, 2-4 + 12-13, and 5-11 + 14-17.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4a" id="ft4a" href="#fa4a"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Earlier, however, than Ps. lxxvii. 17-20, which is drawn from it.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HABDALA<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (lit. “separation”), a Hebrew term chiefly +appropriated to ceremonies at the conclusion of Sabbath and +festivals, marking the separation between times sacred and +secular. On the Saturday night the ceremony consists of three +items: (<i>a</i>) benediction over a cup of wine (common to many +other Jewish functions); (<i>b</i>) benediction over a lighted taper, +of which possibly the origin is utilitarian, as no light might be +kindled on the Sabbath day, but the rite may be symbolical; +and (<i>c</i>) benediction over a box of sweet-smelling spices. The +origin of the latter has been traced to the bowl of burning spice +which in Talmudic times was introduced after each meal. But +here too symbolic ideas must be taken into account. Both the +light and the spices would readily fit into the conception of the +Sabbath “Over-soul” of the mystics.</p> +<div class="author">(I. A.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HABEAS CORPUS,<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> in English law, a writ issued out of the +High Court of Justice commanding the person to whom it is +directed to bring the body of a person in his custody before that +or some other court for a specified purpose.</p> + +<p>There are various forms of the writ, of which the most famous +is that known as <i>habeas corpus ad subjiciendum</i>, the well-established +remedy for violation of personal liberty. From the earliest +records of the English law no free man could be detained in +custody except on a criminal charge or conviction or for a civil +debt. That right is expressed in the Great Charter in the +words: “<i>Nullus liber homo capiatur vel imprisonetur aut +dissaisietur aut utlagetur, aut exuletur aut aliquo modo destruatur +nec super eum ibimus nec super eum mittemus, nisi per legale +judicium parium suorum, vel per legem terrae.</i>”<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The writ is a +remedial mandatory writ of right existing by the common law, +<i>i.e.</i> it is one of the extraordinary remedies—such as <i>mandamus</i>, +<i>certiorari</i> and prohibitions, which the superior courts may grant. +While “of right,” it is not “of course,” and is granted only on +application to the High Court or a judge thereof, supported by a +sworn statement of facts setting up at least a probable case of +illegal confinement. It is addressed to the person in whose +custody another is detained, and commands him to bring his +prisoner before the court immediately after the receipt of +the writ, together with the day and cause of his being taken and +detained, to undergo and receive (<i>ad subjiciendum et recipiendum</i>) +whatsoever the court awarding the writ “may consider of +concerning him in that behalf.”</p> + +<p>It is often stated that the writ is founded on the article of +the Great Charter already quoted; but there are extant instances +of the issue of writs of <i>habeas corpus</i> before the charter. Other +writs having somewhat similar effect were in use at an early +date, <i>e.g.</i> the writ <i>de odio et atiâ</i>, used as early as the 12th century +to prevent imprisonment on vexatious appeals of felony, and the +writ of mainprise (<i>de manucaptione</i>), long obsolete if not abolished +in England but which it was attempted to use in India so late +as 1870. In the ease of imprisonment on accusation of crime the +writ issued from the court of king’s bench (or from the chancery), +and on its return the court judged of the legality of the imprisonment, +and discharged the prisoner or admitted him to bail or +remanded him to his former custody according to the result of +the examination.</p> + +<p>By the time of Charles I. the writ was fully established as the +appropriate process for checking illegal imprisonment by inferior +courts or by public officials. But it acquired its full and present +constitutional importance by legislation.</p> + +<p>In Darnel’s case (1627) the judges held that the command +of the king was a sufficient answer to a writ of <i>habeas corpus</i>. +The House of Commons thereupon passed resolutions to the +contrary, and after a conference with the House of Lords the +measure known as the Petition of Right was passed (1627, 3 Car. I. +c. i.) which, inter alia, recited (s. 5) that, contrary to the Great +Charter and the good laws and statutes of the realm, divers of +the king’s subjects had of late been imprisoned without any +cause shown, and when they were brought up on <i>habeas corpus ad +subjiciendum</i>, and no cause was shown other than the special +command of the king signified by the privy council, were nevertheless +remanded to prison, and enacted “that no freeman in +any such manner as is before mentioned be imprisoned or +detained.” The Petition of Right was disregarded in Selden’s +case (1629), when it was successfully returned to a <i>habeas corpus</i> +that Selden and others were committed by the king’s special +command “for notable contempts against the king and his +government and for stirring up sedition against him.”<a name="fa2b" id="fa2b" href="#ft2b"><span class="sp">2</span></a> This +led to legislation in 1640 by which, after abolishing the Star +Chamber, the right to a <i>habeas corpus</i> was given to test the +legality of commitments by command or warrant of the king or +the privy council.<a name="fa3b" id="fa3b" href="#ft3b"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p> + +<p>The reign of Charles II. was marked by further progress +towards securing the freedom of the subject from wrongful +imprisonment. Lord Clarendon was impeached, <i>inter alia</i>, +for causing many persons to be imprisoned against law and to +be conveyed in custody to places outside England. In 1668 +a writ of <i>habeas corpus</i> was issued to test the legality of an +imprisonment in Jersey. Though the authority of the courts +had been strengthened by the Petition of Right and the act of +1640, it was still rendered insufficient by reason of the insecurity +of judicial tenure, the fact that only the chancellor (a political +as well as a legal officer) and the court of king’s bench had +undoubted right to issue the writ, and the inability or hesitation +of the competent judges to issue the writ except during the legal +term, which did not cover more than half the year. A series of +bills was passed through the Commons between 1668 and 1675, +only to be rejected by the other House. In Jenkes’s case (1676) +Lord Chancellor Nottingham refused to issue the writ in vacation +in a case in which a man had been committed by the king in +council for a speech at Guildhall, and could get neither bail nor +trial. In 1679, but rather in consequence of Lord Clarendon’s +arbitrary proceedings<a name="fa4b" id="fa4b" href="#ft4b"><span class="sp">4</span></a> than of Jenkes’s case, a fresh bill was +introduced which passed both Houses (it is said the upper House +by the counting of one stout peer as ten) and became the famous +Habeas Corpus Act of 1679 (31 Car. II. c. 2). The passing of +the act was largely due to the experience and energy of Lord +Shaftesbury, after whom it was for some time called. The act, +while a most important landmark in the constitutional history +of England, in no sense creates any right to personal freedom, +but is essentially a procedure act for improving the legal mechanism +by means of which that acknowledged right may be enforced.<a name="fa5b" id="fa5b" href="#ft5b"><span class="sp">5</span></a> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page785" id="page785"></a>785</span> +It declares no principles and defines no rights, but is for practical +purposes worth a hundred articles guaranteeing constitutional +liberty.<a name="fa6b" id="fa6b" href="#ft6b"><span class="sp">6</span></a></p> + +<p>In the manner characteristic of English legislation the act +is limited to the particular grievances immediately in view and +is limited to imprisonment for criminal or supposed criminal +matters, leaving untouched imprisonment on civil process or by +private persons. It recites that great delays have been used by +sheriffs and gaolers in making returns of writs of <i>habeas corpus</i> +directed to them; and for the prevention thereof, and the more +speedy relief of all persons imprisoned for criminal or supposed +criminal matters, it enacts in substance as follows: (1) When a +writ of <i>habeas corpus</i> is directed to a sheriff or other person in +charge of a prisoner, he must within 3, 10 or 20 days, according +to the distance of the place of commitment, bring the body of his +prisoner to the court, with the true cause of his detainer or +imprisonment—unless the commitment was for treason or felony +plainly expressed in the warrant of commitment. (2) If any +person be committed for any crime—unless for treason or felony +plainly expressed in the warrant—it shall be lawful for such +person or persons (other than persons convicted or in execution +by legal process) <i>in time of vacation</i>, to appeal to the lord chancellor +as a judge, who shall issue a <i>habeas corpus</i> returnable +immediately, and on the return thereof shall discharge the +prisoner on giving security for his appearance before the proper +court—unless the party so committed is detained upon a legal +process or under a justice’s warrant for a non-bailable offence. +Persons neglecting for two terms to pray for a <i>habeas corpus</i> +shall have none in vacation. (3) Persons set at large on <i>habeas +corpus</i> shall not be recommitted for the same offence unless by +the legal order and process of the court having cognizance of +the case. (4) A person committed to prison for treason or felony +shall, if he requires it, in the first week of the next term or the +first day of the next session of oyer and terminer, be indicted +in that term or session or else admitted to bail, unless it appears +on affidavit that the witnesses for the crown are not ready; +and if he is not indicted and tried in the second term or session +after commitment, or if after trial he is acquitted, he shall be +discharged from imprisonment. (5) No inhabitant of England +(except persons contracting, or, after conviction for felony, +electing to be transported) shall be sent prisoner to Scotland, +Ireland, Jersey, &c., or any place beyond the seas. Stringent +penalties are provided for offences against the act. A judge +delaying <i>habeas corpus</i> forfeits £500 to the party aggrieved. +Illegal imprisonment beyond seas renders the offender liable in +an action by the injured party to treble costs and damages to +the extent of not less than £500, besides subjecting him to the +penalties of <i>praemunire</i> and to other disabilities. “The great +rank of those who were likely to offend against this part of the +statute was,” says Hallam, “the cause of this unusual severity.” +Indeed as early as 1591 the judges had complained of the +difficulty of enforcing the writ in the case of imprisonment at +the instance of magnates of the realm. The effect of the act +was to impose upon the judges under severe sanction the duty +of protecting personal liberty in the case of criminal charges +and of securing speedy trial upon such charges when legally +framed; and the improvement of their tenure of office at the +revolution, coupled with the veto put by the Bill of Rights on +excessive bail, gave the judicature the independence and authority +necessary to enable them to keep the executive within the law +and to restrain administrative development of the scope or +penalties of the criminal law; and this power of the judiciary to +control the executive, coupled with the limitations on the right +to set up “act of state” as an excuse for infringing individual +liberty is the special characteristic of English constitutional +law.</p> + +<p>It is to be observed that neither at common law nor under the +act of 1679 was the writ the appropriate remedy in the case of a +person convicted either on indictment or summarily. It properly +applied to persons detained before or without trial or sentence; +and for convicted persons the proper remedy was by writs of +error or <i>certiorari</i> to which a writ of <i>habeas corpus</i> might be used +as ancillary.</p> + +<p>As regards persons imprisoned for debt or on civil process the +writ was available at common law to test the legality of the +detention: but the practice in these cases is unaffected by the +act of 1679, and is of no present interest, since imprisonment +on civil process is almost abolished. As regards persons in +private custody, <i>e.g.</i> persons not <i>sui juris</i> detained by those not +entitled to their guardianship or lunatics, or persons kidnapped, +<i>habeas corpus ad subjiciendum</i> seems not to have been the +ordinary common law remedy. The appropriate writ for such +cases was that known as <i>de homine replegiando</i>. The use of this +writ in most if not all criminal cases was forbidden in 1553; but +it was used in the 17th century in a case of kidnapping (Designy’s +case, 1682), and against Lord Grey for abducting his wife’s +sister (1682), and in the earl of Banbury’s case to recover his +wife (1704). The latest recorded instance of its use is Trebilcock’s +case (1736), in which a ward sought to free himself from the +custody of his guardian.</p> + +<p>Since that date the <i>habeas corpus ad subjiciendum</i> has been used +in cases of illegal detention in private custody. In 1758 questions +arose as to its application to persons in naval or military custody, +including pressed men, which led to the introduction of a bill +in parliament and to the consultation by the House of Lords of +the judges (see Wilmot’s <i>Opinions</i>, p. 77). In the same year the +writ was used to release the wife of Earl Ferrers from his custody +and maltreatment, and was unsuccessfully applied for by John +Wilkes to get back his wife, who was separated from him by +mutual agreement. But perhaps the most interesting instances +of that period are the case of the negro Somerset (1771), who was +released from a claim to hold him as a slave in England: and +that of the Hottentot Venus (1810), where an alien woman on +exhibition in England was brought before the court by Zachary +Macaulay in order to ascertain whether she was detained against +her will.</p> + +<p>The experience of the 18th century disclosed defects in the +procedure for obtaining liberty in cases not covered by the act +of 1679. But it was not till 1816 that further legislation was +passed for more effectually securing the liberty of the subject. +The act of 1816 (56 Geo. III. c. 100), does not touch cases covered +by the act of 1679. It enacts (1) that a writ of <i>habeas corpus</i> +shall be issued in vacation time in favour of a person restrained +of his liberty otherwise than for some criminal or supposed +criminal matter (except persons imprisoned for debt or by civil +process); (2) that though the return to the writ be good and +sufficient in law, the judge shall examine into the truth of the +facts set forth in such return, and if they appear doubtful the +prisoner shall be bailed; (3) that the writ shall run to any port, +harbour, road, creek or bay on the coast of England, although +not within the body of any county. The last clause was intended +to meet doubts on the applicability of <i>habeas corpus</i> in cases of +illegal detention on board ship, which had been raised owing to +a case of detention on a foreign ship in an English port.</p> + +<p>It will appear from the foregoing statement that the issue +and enforcement of the writ rests on the common law as +strengthened by the acts of 1627, 1640, 1679 and 1816, and subject +also to the regulations as to procedure contained in the <i>Crown +Office Rules</i>, 1906. The effect of the statutes is to keep the courts +always open for the issue of the writ. It is available to put an +end to all forms of illegal detention in public or private custody. +In the case of the Canadian prisoners (1839) it was used to obtain +the release of persons sentenced in Canada for participating in +the rebellion of 1837, who were being conveyed throughout +England in custody on their way to imprisonment in another +part of the empire, and it is matter of frequent experience for +the courts to review the legality of commitments under the +Extradition Acts and the Fugitive Offenders Act 1881, of fugitives +from the justice of a foreign state or parts of the king’s dominions +outside the British Islands.</p> + +<p>In times of public danger it has occasionally been thought +necessary to “suspend” the Habeas Corpus Act 1679 by special +and temporary legislation. This was done in 1794 (by an act +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page786" id="page786"></a>786</span> +annually renewed until 1801) and again in 1817, as to persons +arrested and detained by his majesty for conspiring against his +person and government. The same course was adopted in +Ireland in 1866 during a Fenian rising. It has been the practice +to make such acts annual and to follow their expiration by an +act of indemnity. In cases where martial law exists the use of the +writ is <i>ex hypothesi</i> suspended during conditions amounting to a +state of war within the realm or the British possession affected +(<i>e.g.</i> the Cape Colony and Natal during the South African War), +and it would seem that the acts of courts martial during the +period are not the subject of review by the ordinary courts. +The so-called “suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act” bears a +certain similarity to what is called in Europe “suspending the +constitutional guarantees” or “proclaiming a state of siege,” +but “is not in reality more than suspension of one particular +remedy for the protection of personal freedom.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>There are various other forms of the writ according to the purpose +for which it is granted. Thus <i>habeas corpus ad respondendum</i> is used +to bring up a prisoner confined by the process of an inferior court +in order to charge him in another proceeding (civil or criminal) in +the superior court or some other court. As regards civil proceedings, +this form of the writ is now rarely used, owing to the abolition of +arrest on mesne process and the restriction of imprisonment for debt, +or in execution of a civil judgment. The right to issue the writ +depends on the common law, supplemented by an act of 1802. It +is occasionally used for the purpose of bringing a person in custody +for debt or on a criminal charge before a criminal court to be charged +in respect of a criminal proceeding: but the same result may be +obtained by means of an order of a secretary of state, made under +s. 11 of the Prison Act 1898, or by the written order of a court of +criminal jurisdiction before which he is required to take his trial on +indictment (Criminal Law Amendment Act 30 & 31 Vict. c. 35, s. +10.)</p> + +<p>Other forms are <i>ad satisfaciendum</i>; <i>ad faciendum et recipiendum</i>, +to remove into a superior court proceedings under which the defendant +is in custody: <i>ad testificandum</i>, where a prisoner is required as a +witness, issued under an act of 1804 (s. 11), which is in practice +replaced by orders under s. 11 of the Prison Act 1898 (<i>supra</i>) or the +order of a judge under s. 9 of the Criminal Procedure Act 1853: +and <i>ad deliberandum et recipias</i>, to authorize the transfer from one +custody to another for purposes of trial, which is in practice superseded +by the provisions of the Prison Acts 1865, 1871 and 1898, +and the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1867 (<i>supra</i>).</p> + +<p>The above forms are now of little or no importance; but the +procedure for obtaining them and the forms of writ are included in +the <i>Crown Office Rules</i> 1906.</p> + +<p><i>Ireland.</i>—The common law of Ireland as to the writs of <i>habeas +corpus</i> is the same as that in England. The writ has in past times +been issued from the English court of king’s bench into Ireland; +but does not now so issue. The acts of 1803 and 1816 already +mentioned apply to Ireland. The Petition of Right is not in terms +applicable to Ireland. The Habeas Corpus Act 1679 does not apply +to Ireland; but its equivalent is supplied by an act of 1781-1782 +of the Irish parliament (21 & 22 Geo. III. c. 11). Sec. 16 contains a +provision empowering the chief governor and privy council of Ireland +by a proclamation under the great seal of Ireland to suspend the act +during such time only as there shall be an actual invasion or rebellion +in Ireland; and it is enacted that during the currency of the proclamation +no judge or justices shall bail or try any person charged +with being concerned in the rebellion or invasion without an order +from the lord lieutenant or lord deputy and senior of the privy +council. In Ireland by an act of 1881 the Irish executive was given +an absolute power of arbitrary and preventive arrest on suspicion of +treason or of an act tending to interfere with the maintenance of +law and order: but the warrant of arrest was made conclusive. +This act continued by annual renewals until 1906, when it expired.</p> + +<p><i>Scotland.</i>—The writ of <i>habeas corpus</i> is unknown to Scots law, nor +will it issue from English courts into Scotland. Under a Scots act +of 1701 (c. 6) provision is made for preventing wrongous imprisonment +and against undue delay in trials. It was applied to treason +felony in 1848. The right to speedy trial is now regulated by s. 43 +of the Criminal Procedure Scotland Act 1887. These enactments +are as to Scotland equivalent to the English Act of 1679. Under the +Court of Exchequer Scotland Act 1856 (19 & 20 V. c. 56) provision +is made for bringing before the court of session persons and proceedings +before inferior courts and public officers—which is analogous +to the powers to issue <i>habeas corpus</i> in such cases out of the English +court of exchequer (now the revenue side of the king’s bench +division).</p> + +<p><i>British Possessions.</i>—The act of 1679 expressly applies to Wales, +Berwick-on-Tweed, Jersey and Guernsey, and the act of 1816 also +extends to the Isle of Man. The court of king’s bench has also issued +the writ to the king’s foreign dominions beyond seas, <i>e.g.</i> to St +Helena, and so late as 1861 to Canada (Anderson’s case 1861, 30 +L.J.Q.B. 129). In consequence of the last decision it was provided +by the Habeas Corpus Act 1862 that no writ of <i>habeas corpus</i> should +issue out of England by authority of any court or judge “into any +colony or foreign dominion of the crown where the crown has a lawfully +established court of justice having authority to grant or issue +the writ and to ensure its due execution in the ‘colony’ or dominion” +(25 & 26 V. c. 20). The expression “foreign dominion” +is meant to apply to places outside the British Islands, and does not +include the Isle of Man or the Channel Islands (see <i>re Brown</i> [1864], +33 L.J.Q.B. 193).</p> + +<p>In Australasia and Canada and in most if not all the British +possessions whose law is based on the common law, the power to +issue and enforce the writ is possessed and is freely exercised by +colonial courts, under the charters or statutes creating and regulating +the courts. The writ is freely resorted to in Canada, and in 1905, +1906, two appeals came to the privy council from the dominion, one +with reference to an extradition case, the other with respect to the +right to expel aliens.</p> + +<p>Under the Roman-Dutch law as applied in British Guiana the +writ was unknown and no similar process existed (2nd report of +West Indian law commissioners). But by the Supreme Court +Ordinance of 1893 that court possesses (<i>inter alia</i>) all the authorities, +powers and functions belonging to or incident to a superior court of +record in England, which appears to include the power to issue the +writ of <i>habeas corpus</i>. Under the Roman-Dutch law as applied to +South Africa free persons appear to have a right to release under a +writ <i>de libero homine exhibendo</i>, which closely resembles the writ of +<i>habeas corpus</i>, and the procedure described as “manifestation” +used in the kingdom of Aragon (Hallam, <i>Middle Ages</i>, vol. ii., c. iv.). +The writ of <i>habeas corpus</i> has not been formally adopted or the +Habeas Corpus Acts formally extended to South Africa; but in the +Cape Colony, under the charter of justice and colonial legislation, +the supreme court on petition grants a remedy equivalent to that +obtained in England by writ of <i>habeas corpus</i>; and the remedy is +sometimes so described (<i>Koke</i> v. <i>Balie</i>, 1879, 9 Buchanan, 45, 64, +arising out of a rising in Griqualand). During and after the South +African War of 1899-1902 many attempts were made by this procedure +to challenge or review the sentences of courts martial; see +<i>re Fourie</i> (1900). 18 <i>Cape Rep.</i> 8.</p> + +<p>The laws of Ceylon being derived from the Roman-Dutch law, the +writ of <i>habeas corpus</i> is not indigenous: but, under s. 49 of the +Supreme Court Ordinance 1889, the court or a judge has power to +grant and issue “mandates in the nature of writs of <i>habeas corpus</i>.” +The chartered high courts in India have power to issue and enforce +the writ of <i>habeas corpus</i>. The earliest record of its use was in 1775, +when it was directed to Warren Hastings. It has been used to test +the question whether Roman Catholic religious orders could enter +India, and in 1870 an attempt was made thereby to challenge the +validity of a warrant in the nature of a <i>lettre de cachet</i> issued by the +viceroy (Ind. L. Rep. 6 Bengal, 392, 456, 498), and it has also been +applied to settle controversies between Hindus and missionaries as +to the custody of a young convert (<i>R.</i> v. <i>Vaughan</i>, 1870, 5 Bengal, +418), and between a Mahommedan husband and his mother-in-law +as to the custody of a girl-wife (<i>Khatija Bibi</i>, 1870, 5 Bengal, 557).</p> +</div> + +<p><i>United States.</i>—Before the Declaration of Independence some +of the North American colonies had adopted the act of 1679; +and the federal and the other state legislatures of the United +States have founded their procedure on that act. The common +law as to the writ of <i>habeas corpus</i> has been inherited from +England, and has been generally made to apply to commitments +and detentions of all kinds. Difficult questions, unknown to +English law, have arisen from the peculiar features of the +American state-system. Thus the constitution provides that +“the privilege of the writ of <i>habeas corpus</i> shall not be suspended +unless when, in cases of rebellion or invasion, the public safety +may require it”; and it has been the subject of much dispute +whether the power of suspension under this provision is vested +in the president or the congress. The weight of opinion seems +to lean to the latter alternative. Again, conflicts have arisen +between the courts of individual states and the courts of the +union. It seems that a state court has no right to issue a <i>habeas +corpus</i> for the discharge of a person held under the authority +of the federal government. On the other hand, the courts of the +union issue the writ only in those cases in which the power is +expressly conferred on them by the constitution.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Paterson, <i>Liberty of the Subject</i> (1877); Short +and Mellor, <i>Crown Practice</i> (1890); American: Church on <i>Habeas +Corpus</i> (2nd ed. 1893).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. F. C.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See Hallam, <i>Const. Hist.</i> vol. i., c. vii. (12th ed.) p. 384.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2b" id="ft2b" href="#fa2b"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Hallam, <i>Const. Hist.</i> vol. ii., c. viii. (12th ed.) p. 2.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3b" id="ft3b" href="#fa3b"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> c. ix. (12th ed.) p. 98.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4b" id="ft4b" href="#fa4b"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> vol. iii., c. xiii. (12th ed.) p. 12.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5b" id="ft5b" href="#fa5b"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Dicey, <i>Law of the Constitution</i> (6th ed.), p. 217.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6b" id="ft6b" href="#fa6b"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Dicey, Law of the Constitution (6th ed.), p. 195.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HABERDASHER,<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> a name for a tradesman who sells by retail +small articles used in the making or wearing of dress, such as +sewing cottons or silks, tapes, buttons, pins and needles and the +like. The sale of such articles is not generally carried on alone, +and a “haberdashery counter” usually forms a department of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page787" id="page787"></a>787</span> +drapers’ shops. The word, found in Chaucer, and even earlier +(1311), is of obscure origin; the suggestion that it is connected +with an Icelandic <i>haprtask</i>, “haversack,” is, according to the +<i>New English Dictionary</i>, impossible. <i>Haperlas</i> occurs in an early +Anglo-French customs list, which includes articles such as were +sold by haberdashers, but this word may itself have been a +misspelling of “haberdash.” The obscurity of origin has left +room for many conjectures such as that of Minsheu that “haberdasher” +was perhaps merely a corruption of the German <i>Habt +ihr das?</i> “Have you that?” or <i>Habe das, Herr</i>, “Have that, sir,” +used descriptively for a general dealer in miscellaneous wares. +The Haberdashers’ Company is one of the greater Livery +Companies of the City of London. Originally a branch of the +mercers, the fraternity took over the selling of “small wares,” +which included not only articles similar to those sold as “haberdashery” +now, but such things as gloves, daggers, glass, pens, +lanterns, mousetraps and the like. They were thus on this side +connected with the Milliners. On the other hand there was +early a fusion with the old gild of the “Hurers,” or cap makers, +and the hatters, and by the reign of Henry VII. the amalgamation +was complete. There were long recognized two branches of +the haberdashers, the haberdashers of “small wares,” and the +haberdashers of hats (see further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Livery Companies</a></span>). The +haberdashers are named, side by side with the <i>capellarii</i>, in +the White Book (<i>Liber Albus</i>) of the city of London (see <i>Munimenta +Gildhallae Londiniensis</i>, ed. H. T. Riley, Rolls Series, +12, 1859-1862), and a haberdasher forms one of the company of +pilgrims in the <i>Canterbury Tales</i> (Prologue, 361).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HABINGTON, WILLIAM<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (1605-1654), English poet, was born +at Hendlip Hall, Worcestershire, on the 4th of November 1605. +He belonged to a well-known Catholic family. His father, +Thomas Habington (1560-1647), an antiquary and historical +scholar, had been implicated in the plots on behalf of Mary +queen of Scots; his uncle, Edward Habington, was hanged in +1586 on the charge of conspiring against Elizabeth in connexion +with Anthony Babington; while to his mother, Mary Habington, +was attributed the revelation of the Gunpowder Plot. The poet +was sent to the college at St Omer, but, pressure being brought +to bear on him to induce him to become a Jesuit, he removed to +Paris. He married about 1632 Lucy, second daughter of Sir +William Herbert, first Baron Powys. This lady he had addressed +in the volume of lyrical poems arranged in two parts and entitled +<i>Castara</i>, published anonymously in 1634. In 1635 appeared a +second edition enlarged by three prose characters, fourteen new +lyrics and eight touching elegies on his friend and kinsman, +George Talbot. The third edition (1640) contains a third part +consisting of a prose character of “A Holy Man” and twenty-two +devotional poems. Habington’s lyrics are full of the far-fetched +“conceits” which were fashionable at court, but his +verse is quite free from the prevailing looseness of morals. +Indeed his reiterated praises of Castara’s virtue grow wearisome. +He is at his best in his reflective poems on the uncertainty of +human life and kindred topics. He also wrote a <i>Historie of +Edward the Fourth</i> (1640), based on notes provided by his father; +a tragi-comedy, <i>The Queene of Arragon</i> (1640), published without +his consent by his kinsman, the earl of Pembroke, and revived +at the Restoration; and six essays on events in modern history, +<i>Observations upon History</i> (1641). Anthony à Wood insinuated +that during the Commonwealth the poet “did run with the times, +and was not unknown to Oliver the usurper.” He died on the +30th of November 1654.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The works of Habington have not been collected. <i>The Queene of +Arragon</i> was reprinted in Dodsley’s “Old Plays,” vol. ix. (1825); <i>Castara</i> +was edited by Charles Elton (1812), and by E. Arber with a compact +and comprehensive introduction (1870) for his “English Reprints.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HABIT<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> (through the French from Lat. <i>habitus</i>, from <i>habere</i>, +to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; +in many of the English senses the French use <i>habitude</i>, not <i>habit</i>), +condition of body or mind, especially one that has become +permanent or settled by custom or persistent repetition, hence +custom, usage. In botany and zoology the term is used both +in the above sense of instinctive action of animals and tendencies +of plants, and also of the manner of growth or external appearance +of a plant or animal. From the use of the word for external +appearances comes its use for fashion in dress, and hence as a +term for a lady’s riding dress and for the particular form of +garment adopted by the members of a religious order, like +“cowl” applied as the mark of a monk or nun.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HABITAT<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> (a French word derived from <i>habiter</i>, Lat. <i>habitare</i>, +to dwell), in botany and zoology, the term for the locality in +which a particular species of plants or animals thrives.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HABSBURG,<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Hapsburg</span>, the name of the famous family +from which have sprung the dukes and archdukes of Austria +from 1282, kings of Hungary and Bohemia from 1526, and +emperors of Austria from 1804. They were also Roman emperors +and German kings from 1438 to 1806, and kings of Spain from +1516 to 1700, while the minor dignities held by them at different +times are too numerous to mention.</p> + +<p>The name Habsburg, a variant of an older form, Habichtsburg +(hawk’s castle), was taken from the castle of Habsburg, which +was situated on the river Aar not far from its junction with the +Rhine. The castle was built about 1020 by Werner, bishop of +Strassburg, and his brother, Radbot, the founder of the abbey +of Muri. These men were grandsons of a certain Guntram, who, +according to some authorities, is identical with a Count Guntram +who flourished during the reign of the emperor Otto the Great, +and whose ancestry can be traced back to the time of the Merovingian +kings. This conjecture, however, is extremely problematical. +Among Radbot’s sons was one Werner, and Werner +and his son Otto were called counts of Habsburg, Otto being +probably made landgrave of upper Alsace late in the 11th or +early in the 12th century. At all events Otto’s son Werner +(d. 1167), and the latter’s son Albert (d. 1199), held this dignity, +and both landgraves increased the area of the Habsburg lands. +Albert became count of Zürich and protector of the monastery +of Säckingen, and obtained lands in the cantons of Unterwalden +and Lucerne; his son Rudolph, having assisted Frederick of +Hohenstaufen, afterwards the emperor Frederick II., against +the emperor Otto IV., received the county of Aargau. Both +counts largely increased their possessions in the districts now +known as Switzerland and Alsace, and Rudolph held an influential +place among the Swabian nobility. After his death in 1232 his +two sons, Albert and Rudolph, divided his lands and founded +the lines of Habsburg-Habsburg and Habsburg-Laufenburg. +Rudolph’s descendants, counts of Habsburg-Laufenburg, were +soon divided into two branches, one of which became extinct +in 1408 and the other seven years later. Before this date, +however, Laufenburg and some other districts had been sold to +the senior branch of the family, who thus managed to retain +the greater part of the Habsburg lands.</p> + +<p>Rudolph’s brother Albert (d. 1239), landgrave of Alsace, +married Hedwig of Kyburg (d. 1260), and from this union there +was born in 1218 Rudolph, the founder of the greatness of the +house of Habsburg, and the first of the family to ascend the +German throne. Through his mother he inherited a large part +of the lands of the extinct family of Zähringen; he added in +other ways to his possessions, and was chosen German king in +September 1273. Acting vigorously in his new office, he defeated +and killed his most formidable adversary, Ottakar II., king of +Bohemia, in 1278, and in December 1282 he invested his sons, +Albert and Rudolph, with the duchies of Austria and Styria, +which with other lands had been taken from Ottakar. This +was an event of supreme moment in the history of the Habsburgs, +and was the first and most important stage in the process of +transferring the centre of their authority from western to eastern +Europe, from the Rhine to the Danube. On Rudolph’s death +in July 1291 the German crown passed for a time away from the +Habsburgs, but in July 1298 it was secured by his son, Albert, +whose reign, however, was short and uneventful. But before +1308, the year of Albert’s death, the long and troubled connexion +of the Habsburgs with Bohemia had already begun. In 1306 +Wenceslas III., the last Bohemian king of the Přmyslide +dynasty, was murdered. Seizing the opportunity and declaring +that the vacant kingdom was an imperial fief, King Albert +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page788" id="page788"></a>788</span> +bestowed it upon his eldest son, Rudolph, and married this prince +to Elizabeth, widow of Wenceslas II. and stepmother of +Wenceslas III. But Rudolph died in 1307, and his father’s attempt +to keep the country in his own hands was ended by his murder +in 1308.</p> + +<p>Albert’s successor as German king was Henry of Luxemburg +(the emperor Henry VII.), and this election may be said to +initiate the long rivalry between the houses of Habsburg and +Luxemburg. But the immediate enemy of the Habsburgs +was not a Luxemburg but a Wittelsbach. Without making any +definite partition, Albert’s five remaining sons spent their time +in governing their lands until 1314, when one of them, Frederick +called the Fair, forsook this comparatively uneventful occupation +and was chosen by a minority of the electors German king in +succession to Henry VII. At the same time the Wittelsbach +duke of Bavaria, Louis, known to history as the emperor Louis +the Bavarian, was also chosen. War was inevitable, and the +battle of Mühldorf, fought in September 1322, sealed the fate +of Frederick. Louis was victorious: his rival went into an +honourable captivity, and the rising Habsburg sun underwent a +temporary eclipse.</p> + +<p>For more than a century after Frederick’s death in 1330 the +Habsburgs were exiles from the German throne. But they were +not inactive. In 1335 his two surviving brothers, Albert and +Otto, inherited Carinthia and part of Carniola by right of their +mother, Elizabeth; in 1363 Albert’s son Rudolph received +Tirol; and during the same century part of Istria, Trieste and +other districts were acquired. All King Albert’s six sons had +died without leaving male issue save Otto, whose family became +extinct in 1344, and Albert, the ancestor of all the later Habsburgs. +Of Albert’s four sons two also left no male heirs, but +the remaining two, Albert III. and Leopold III., were responsible +for a division of the family which is of some importance. By +virtue of a partition made upon their brother Rudolph’s death +in 1365 Albert and his descendants ruled over Austria, while +Leopold and his sons took Styria, Carinthia and Tirol, Alsace +remaining undivided as heretofore.</p> + +<p>Towards the middle of the 15th century the German throne +had been occupied for nearly a hundred years by members of +the Luxemburg family. The reigning emperor Sigismund, who +was also king of Hungary and Bohemia, was without sons, and +his daughter Elizabeth was the wife of Albert of Habsburg, the +grandson and heir of Duke Albert III., who had died in 1395. +Sigismund died in December 1437, leaving his two kingdoms to +his son-in-law, who was crowned king of Hungary in January +1438 and king of Bohemia in the following June. Albert was +also chosen and crowned German king in succession to Sigismund, +thus beginning the long and uninterrupted connexion of his +family with the imperial throne, a connexion which lasted until +the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806. He did not, +however, enjoy his new dignities for long, as he died in October +1439 while engaged in a struggle with the Turks. Albert left +no sons, but soon after his death one was born to him, called +Ladislaus, who became duke of Austria and king of Hungary and +Bohemia. Under the guardianship of his kinsman, the emperor +Frederick III., the young prince’s reign was a troubled one, and +when he died unmarried in 1457 his branch of the family became +extinct, and Hungary and Bohemia passed away from the +Habsburgs, who managed, however, to retain Austria.</p> + +<p>Leopold III., duke of Carinthia and Styria, who was killed +in 1386 at the battle of Sempach, had four sons, of whom two +only, Frederick and Ernest, left male issue. Frederick and +his only son, Sigismund, confined their attention mainly to Tirol +and Alsace, leaving the larger destinies of the family in the hands +of Ernest of Carinthia and Styria (d. 1424) and his sons, Frederick +and Albert and after the death of King Ladislaus in 1457 these +two princes and their cousin Sigismund were the only representatives +of the Habsburgs. In February 1440 Frederick of +Styria was chosen German king in succession to his kinsman +Albert. He was a weak and incompetent ruler, but a stronger +and abler man might have shrunk from the task of administering +his heterogeneous and unruly realm. Although very important +in the history of the house of Habsburg, Frederick’s long reign +was a period of misfortune, and the motto which he assumed, +A.E.I.O.U. (<i>Austriae est imperare orbi universo</i>), seemed at the +time a particularly foolish boast. He acted as guardian both +to Ladislaus of Hungary, Bohemia and Austria, and to Sigismund +of Tirol, and in all these countries his difficulties were increased +by the hostility of his brother Albert. Having disgusted the +Tirolese he gave up the guardianship of their prince in 1446, +while in Hungary and Bohemia he did absolutely nothing to +establish the authority of his ward; in 1452 the Austrians +besieged him in Vienna Neustadt and compelled him to surrender +the person of Ladislaus, thus ending even his nominal authority. +When the young king died in 1457 the Habsburgs lost Hungary +and Bohemia, but they retained Austria, which, after some +disputing, Frederick and Albert divided between themselves, +the former taking lower and the latter upper Austria. This +arrangement was of short duration. In 1461 Albert made war +upon his brother and forced him to resign lower Austria, which, +however, he recovered after Albert’s death in December 1463. +Still more unfortunate was the German king in Switzerland. For +many years the Swiss had chafed under the rule of the Habsburgs; +during the reign of Rudolph I. they had shown signs of +resentment as the kingly power increased; and the struggle which +had been carried on for nearly two centuries had been almost +uniformly in their favour. It was marked by the victory of +Morgarten over Duke Leopold I. in 1315, and by that of Sempach +over Leopold III. in 1386, by the conquest of Aargau at the +instigation of the emperor Sigismund early in the 15th century, +and by the final struggle for freedom against Frederick III. and +Sigismund of Tirol. Taking advantage of some dissensions +among the Swiss, the king saw an opportunity to recover his +lost lands, and in 1443 war broke out. But his allies, the men +of Zürich, were defeated, and when in August 1444 some French +mercenaries, who had advanced to his aid, suffered the same +fate at St Jakob, he was compelled to give up the struggle. A +few years later Sigismund became involved in a war with the +same formidable foemen; he too was worsted, and the “Perpetual +Peace” of 1474 ended the rule of the Habsburgs in +Switzerland. This humiliation was the second great step in +the process of removing the Habsburgs from western to eastern +Europe. In 1453, just after his coronation as emperor at Rome, +Frederick legalized the use of the title archduke, which had been +claimed spasmodically by the Habsburgs since 1361. This title +is now peculiar to the house of Habsburg.</p> + +<p>The reverses suffered by the Habsburgs during the reign of +Frederick III. were many and serious, but an improvement +was at hand. The emperor died in August 1493, and was followed +on the imperial throne by his son Maximilian I., perhaps the +most versatile and interesting member of the family. Before +his father’s death Maximilian had been chosen German king, +or king of the Romans, and had begun to repair the fortunes of +his house. He had married Mary, daughter and heiress of +Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy; he had driven the Hungarians +from Vienna and the Austrian archduchies, which +Frederick had, perforce, allowed them to occupy; and he had +received Tirol on the abdication of Sigismund in 1490. True +it is that upon Mary’s death in 1482 part of her inheritance, the +rich and prosperous Netherlands, held that her husband’s +authority was at an end, while another part, the two Burgundies +and Artois, had been seized by the king of France; nevertheless, +after a protracted struggle the German king secured almost the +whole of Charles the Bold’s lands for his son, the archduke +Philip, the duchy of Burgundy alone remaining in the power of +France after the conclusion of the peace of Senlis in 1493. +Maximilian completed his work by adding a piece of Bavaria, +Görz and then Gradiska to the Habsburg lands.</p> + +<p>After Sigismund’s death in 1496 Maximilian and Philip were +the only living male members of the family. Philip married +Joanna, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, and died +in 1506 leaving two sons, Charles and Ferdinand. Charles +succeeded his father in the Netherlands; he followed one grandfather, +Ferdinand, as king of Spain in 1516, and when the other, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page789" id="page789"></a>789</span> +Maximilian, died in 1519 he became the emperor Charles V., +and succeeded to all the hereditary lands of the Habsburgs. +But provision had to be made for Ferdinand, and in 1521 this +prince was given the Austrian archduchies, Austria, Styria, +Carinthia and Carniola; in the same year he married Anne, +daughter of Wladislaus, king of Hungary and Bohemia, and +when his childless brother-in-law, King Louis, was killed at the +battle of Mohacs in August 1526 he claimed the two kingdoms, +both by right of his wife and by treaty. After a little trouble +Bohemia passed under his rule, but Hungary was more recalcitrant. +A long war took place between Ferdinand and John +Zapolya, who was also crowned king of Hungary, but in 1538 a +treaty was made and the country was divided, the Habsburg +prince receiving the western and smaller portion. However, he +was soon confronted with a more formidable foe, and he spent +a large part of his subsequent life in defending his lands from the +attacks of the Turks.</p> + +<p>The Habsburgs had now reached the summit of their power. +The prestige which belonged to Charles as head of the Holy +Roman Empire was backed by the wealth and commerce of the +Netherlands and of Spain, and by the riches of the Spanish +colonies in America. In Italy he ruled over Sardinia, Naples +and Sicily, which had passed to him with Spain, and the duchy +of Milan, which he had annexed in 1535; to the Netherlands +he had added Friesland, the bishopric of Utrecht, Gröningen +and Gelderland, and he still possessed Franche-Comté and the +fragments of the Habsburg lands in Alsace and the neighbourhood. +Add to this Ferdinand’s inheritance, the Austrian archduchies +and Tirol, Bohemia with her dependent provinces, and +a strip of Hungary, and the two brothers had under their sway +a part of Europe the extent of which was great, but the wealth +and importance of which were immeasurably greater. Able +to scorn the rivalry of the other princely houses of Germany, the +Habsburgs saw in the kings of the house of Valois the only +foemen worthy of their regard.</p> + +<p>When Charles V. abdicated he was succeeded as emperor, not +by his son Philip, but by his brother Ferdinand. Philip became +king of Spain, ruling also the Netherlands, Franche-Comté, +Naples, Sicily, Milan and Sardinia, and the family was definitely +divided into the Spanish and Austrian branches. For Spain and +the Spanish Habsburgs the 17th century was a period of loss and +decay, the seeds of which were sown during the reign of Philip II. +The northern provinces of the Netherlands were lost practically +in 1609 and definitely by the treaty of Westphalia in 1648; +Roussillon and Artois were annexed to France by the treaty of +the Pyrenees in 1659, while Franche-Comté and a number of +towns in the Spanish Netherlands suffered a similar fate by +the treaty of Nijmwegen in 1678. Finally Charles II., the last +Habsburg king of Spain, died childless in November 1700, and +his lands were the prize of the War of the Spanish Succession. +The Austrian Habsburgs fought long and valiantly for the +kingdom of their kinsman, but Louis XIV. was too strong for +them, and by the peace of Rastatt Spain passed from the +Habsburgs to the Bourbons. However, the Austrian branch of +the family received in 1714 the Italian possessions of Charles II., +except Sicily, which was given to the duke of Savoy, and also +the southern Netherlands, which are thus often referred to as +the Austrian Netherlands; and retained the duchy of Mantua, +which it had seized in 1708.</p> + +<p>Ferdinand I., the founder of the line of the Austrian Habsburgs, +arranged a division of his lands among his three sons before +his death in 1564. The eldest, Maximilian II., received Austria, +Bohemia and Hungary, and succeeded his father as emperor; +he married Maria, a daughter of Charles V., and though +he had a large family his male line became extinct in 1619. +The younger sons were Ferdinand, ruler of Tirol, and Charles, +archduke of Styria. The emperor Maximilian II. left five sons, +two of whom, Rudolph and Matthias, succeeded in turn to the +imperial throne, but, as all the brothers were without male +issue, the family was early in the 17th century threatened with +a serious crisis. Rudolph died in 1612, the reigning emperor +Matthias was old and ill, and the question of the succession to +the Empire, to the kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia, and to +the hereditary lands of the Habsburgs became acute. Turning +to the collateral branches of the family, the sons of the archduke +Ferdinand were debarred from the succession owing to their +father’s morganatic marriage with Philippine Welser, and the +only hope of the house was in the sons of Charles of Styria. +To prevent the Habsburg monarchy from falling to pieces the +emperor’s two surviving brothers renounced their rights, and +it was decided that Ferdinand, a son of Charles of Styria, should +succeed his cousin Matthias. The difficulties which impeded +the completion of this scheme were gradually overcome, and +the result was that when Matthias died in 1619 the whole of +the lands of the Austrian Habsburgs was united under the rule +of the emperor Ferdinand II. Tirol, indeed, a few years later +was separated from the rest of the monarchy and given to the +emperor’s brother, the archduke Leopold, but this separation +was ended when Leopold’s son died in 1665.</p> + +<p>The arbitrary measures which followed Ferdinand’s acquisition +of the Bohemian crown contributed to the outbreak of the +Thirty Years’ War, but in a short time the Bohemians were +subdued, and in 1627, following a precedent set in 1547, the +emperor declared the throne hereditary in the house of Habsburg. +The treaty of Westphalia which ended this war took comparatively +little from the Habsburgs, though they ceded Alsace to +France; but the Empire was greatly weakened, and its ruler was +more than ever compelled to make his hereditary lands in the +east of Europe the base of his authority, finding that he derived +more strength from his position as archduke of Austria than +from that of emperor. Ferdinand III. succeeded his father +Ferdinand II., and during the long reign of the former’s son, +Leopold I., the Austrian, like the Spanish, Habsburgs were on +the defensive against the aggressive policy of Louis XIV., and +in addition they had to withstand the assaults of the Turks. +In two ways they sought to strengthen their position. The +unity of the Austrian lands was strictly maintained, and several +marriages kept up a close and friendly connexion with Spain. +A series of victories over the sultan during the later part of the +17th century rolled back the tide of the Turkish advance, and +the peace of Karlowitz made in 1699 gave nearly the whole of +Hungary to the Habsburgs. Against France Austria was less successful, +and a number of humiliations culminated in 1714 in the +failure to secure Spain, to which reference has already been made.</p> + +<p>The hostility of Austria and France, or rather of Habsburg +and Bourbon, outlived the War of the Spanish Succession. In +1717 Spain conquered Sardinia, which was soon exchanged by +Austria for Sicily; other struggles and other groupings of the +European powers followed, and in 1735, by the treaty of Vienna, +Austria gave up Naples and Sicily and received the duchies of +Parma and Piacenza. These surrenders were doubtless inevitable, +but they shook the position of the house of Habsburg in +Italy. However, a domestic crisis was approaching which threw +Italian affairs into the shade. Charles VI., who had succeeded +his brother, Joseph I., as emperor in 1711, was without sons, and +his prime object in life was to secure the succession of his elder +daughter, Maria Theresa, to the whole of his lands and dignities. +But in 1713, four years before the birth of Maria Theresa, he had +first issued the famous <i>Pragmatic Sanction</i>, which declared that +the Habsburg monarchy was indivisible and that in default of +male heirs a female could succeed to it. Then after the death of +his only son and the birth of Maria Theresa the emperor bent +all his energies to securing the acceptance of the Pragmatic +Sanction. Promulgated anew in 1724, it was formally accepted +by the estates of the different Habsburg lands; in 1731 it was +guaranteed by the imperial diet. By subordinating every other +interest to this, Charles at length procured the assent of the +various powers of Europe to the proposed arrangement; he +married the young princess to Francis Stephen, duke of Lorraine, +afterwards grand-duke of Tuscany, and when he died on the +20th of October 1740 he appeared to have realized his great +ambition. With the emperor’s death the house of Habsburg, +strictly speaking, became extinct, its place being taken by the +house of Habsburg-Lorraine, which sprang from the union of +Maria Theresa and Francis Stephen; and it is interesting to note +that the present Habsburgs are only descended in the female +line from Rudolph I. and Maximilian I.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page790" id="page790"></a>790</span></p> + +<p class="pt2 center">GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE HOUSE OF HABSBURG-LORRAINE.</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:930px; height:633px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img790.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page791" id="page791"></a>791</span></p> + +<p class="pt2">Immediately after the death of Charles the Pragmatic Sanction +was forgotten. A crowd of claimants called for various parts of +the Habsburg lands; Frederick the Great, talking less but acting +more, invaded and conquered Silesia, and it seemed likely that +the dissolution of the Habsburg monarchy would at no long +interval follow the extinction of the Habsburg race. A Wittelsbach +prince, Charles Albert, elector of Bavaria, the emperor +Charles VII., and not Francis Stephen, was chosen emperor in +January 1742, and by the treaty of Breslau, made later in the +same year, nearly all Silesia was formally surrendered to Prussia. +But the worst was now over, and when in 1748 the peace of +Aix-la-Chapelle, which practically confirmed the treaty of +Breslau, had cleared away the dust of war, Maria Theresa and +her consort were found to occupy a strong position in Europe. +In the first place, in September 1745, Francis had been chosen +emperor; then the imperial pair ruled Hungary and Bohemia, +although the latter kingdom was shorn of Silesia; in spite of +French conquests the Austrian Netherlands remained in their +hands; and in Italy Francis had added Tuscany to his wife’s +heritage, although Parma and Piacenza had been surrendered +to Spain and part of Milan to the king of Sardinia. The diplomatic +<i>volte-face</i> and the futile attempts of Maria Theresa to +recover Silesia which followed this treaty belong to the general +history of Europe.</p> + +<p>The emperor Francis I. died in 1765 and was succeeded by his +son Joseph II., an ambitious and able prince, whose aim was +to restore the Habsburgs and the Empire to their former great +positions in Europe, and whose pride did not prevent him from +learning from Frederick the Great, the despoiler of his house. +His projects, however, including one of uniting Bavaria with +Austria, which was especially cherished, failed completely, and +when he died in February 1790 he left his lands in a state of +turbulence which reflected the general condition of Europe. +The Netherlands had risen against the Austrians, and in January +1790 had declared themselves independent; Hungary, angered +by Joseph’s despotic measures, was in revolt, and the other parts +of the monarchy were hardly more contented. But the 18th +century saw a few successes for the Habsburgs. In 1718 a successful +war with Turkey was ended by the peace of Passarowitz, +which advanced the Austrian boundary very considerably to the +east, and although by the treaty of Belgrade, signed twenty-one +years later, a large part of this territory was surrendered, yet a +residuum, the banate of Temesvar, was permanently incorporated +with Hungary. The struggle over the succession to +Bavaria, which was concluded in 1779 by the treaty of Teschen, +was responsible for adding Innviertel, or the quarter of the +Inn, to Austria; the first partition of Poland brought eastern +Galicia and Lodomeria, and in 1777 the sultan ceded Bukovina. +Joseph II. was followed by his brother, Leopold II., who restored +the Austrian authority in the Netherlands, and the latter by his +son Francis II., who resigned the crown of the Holy Roman +Empire in August 1806, having two years before taken the title +of emperor of Austria as Francis I.</p> + +<p>Before the abdication of the emperor Francis in 1806 Austria +had met and suffered from the fury of revolutionary France, +but the cessions of territory made by her at the treaties of +Campo Formio (1797), of Lunéville (1801) and of Pressburg +(1805) were of no enduring importance. This, however, cannot +be said for the treaties of Paris and of Vienna, which in 1814 +and 1815 arranged the map of Europe upon the conclusion of +the Napoleonic wars. These were highly favourable to the +Habsburgs. In eastern and central Europe Austria regained +her former position, the lands ceded to Bavaria and also eastern +Galicia, which had been in the hands of Russia since 1809, being +restored; she gave up the Austrian Netherlands, soon to be +known as Belgium, to the new kingdom of the Netherlands, +and acquiesced in the arrangement which had taken from her +the Breisgau and the remnant of the Habsburg lands upon the +Rhine. In return for these losses Austria became the dominant +power In Italy. A mass of northern Italy, including her former +possessions in Milan and the neighbourhood, and also the lands +recently forming the republic of Venice, was made into the +kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia, and this owned the emperor of +Austria as king. Across the Adriatic Dalmatia was added to +the Habsburg monarchy, the population of which, it has been +estimated, was increased at this time by over four millions.</p> + +<p>The illiberal and oppressive character of the Austrian rule +in Italy made it very unpopular; it was hardly less so in Hungary +and Bohemia, and the advent of the year 1848 found the subject +kingdoms eager to throw off the Habsburg yoke. The whole +monarchy was quickly in a state of revolution, in the midst of +which the emperor Ferdinand, who had succeeded his father +Francis in 1835, abdicated, and his place was taken by his +young nephew Francis Joseph. The position of the Habsburg +monarchy now seemed desperate. But it was strong in its +immemorial tradition, which was enough to make the efforts of +the Frankfort parliament to establish German unity under +Prussian hegemony abortive; it was strong also in the general +loyalty to the throne of the imperial army; and its counsels were +directed by statesmen who knew well how to exploit in the +interests of the central power the national rivalries within the +monarchy. With the crushing of the Hungarian revolt by the +emperor Nicholas I. of Russia in 1849 the monarchy was freed +from the most formidable of its internal troubles; in 1850 the +convention of Olmütz restored its influence in Germany.</p> + +<p>Though the <i>status quo</i> was thus outwardly re-established, the +revolutions of 1848 had really unchained forces which made its +maintenance impossible. In Germany Prussia was steadily preparing +for the inevitable struggle with Austria for the mastery; +in France Napoleon III. was preparing to pose as the champion +of the oppressed nationalities which had once more settled down +sullenly under the Habsburg yoke. The alliance of the French +emperor and the king of Sardinia, and the Italian war of 1859 +ended in the loss of Lombardy to the Habsburgs. Seven years +later the crushing defeat of Königgrätz not only ended their long +rule in Italy, based on the tradition of the medieval empire, by +leading to the cession of Venetia to the new Italian kingdom, +but led to their final exclusion from the German confederation, +soon to become, under the headship of Prussia, the German +empire.</p> + +<p>By the loss of the predominance in Germany conceded to it +by the treaties of Vienna, and by the shifting of its “centre +of gravity” eastward, the Habsburg monarchy, however, +perhaps gained more than it lost. One necessary result, indeed, +was the composition (<i>Ausgleich</i>) with Hungary in 1867, by which +the latter became an independent state (Francis Joseph being +crowned king at Pest in June 1867) bound to the rest of the +monarchy only by the machinery necessary for the carrying out +of a common policy in matters of common interest. This at +least restored the loyalty of the Hungarians to the Habsburg +dynasty; it is too soon yet to say that it secured permanently +the essential unity of the Habsburg monarchy. By the system +of the Dual Monarchy the rest of the Austrian emperor’s +dominions (Cis-Leithan) were consolidated under a single central +government, the history of which has been mainly that of the +rival races within the empire struggling for political predominance. +Since the development of the constitution has been +consistently in a democratic direction and the Slavs are in a +great majority, the tendency has been for the German element—strong +in its social status and tradition of predominance—to +be swamped by what it regards as an inferior race; and a considerable +number of Austrian “Germans” have learned to look +not to their Habsburg rulers, but to the power of the German +empire for political salvation. The tendency eastwards of the +monarchy was increased when in 1878 the congress of Berlin +placed Bosnia and Herzegovina under Austrian rule. Old +ambitions were now revived at the expense of the Ottoman +empire, the goal of which was the port of Salonica; and not the +least menacing aspect of the question of the near East has been +that the rivalry of Italy and the Habsburg monarchy has been +transferred to the Balkan peninsula. Yet, in spite of internal +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page792" id="page792"></a>792</span> +dissensions arising out of questions fundamentally insoluble, and +in spite of the constant threat of external complications that may +lead to war, the Habsburg monarchy as the result of the changes +in the 19th and 20th centuries is seemingly stronger than ever. +The shadow of universal claims to empire and sonorous but +empty titles have vanished, but so have the manifold rivalries +and entanglements which accompanied the Habsburg rule in +Italy and the Netherlands and Habsburg preponderance in +Germany. The monarchy is stronger because its sphere is more +defined; because as preserving the <i>pax Romana</i> among the +jostling races of eastern Europe, it is more than ever recognized +as an essential element in the maintenance of European peace, +and is recognized as necessary and beneficial even by the +ambitious and restless nationalities that chafe under its rule.</p> + +<p>A few words must be said about the cadet branches of the +Habsburg family. When, in 1765, Francis I. died and Joseph II. +became emperor, the grand-duchy of Tuscany passed by special +arrangement not to Joseph, but to his younger brother Leopold. +Then in 1791, after Leopold had succeeded Joseph as emperor, +he handed over the grand-duchy to his second son, Ferdinand +(1769-1824). In 1801 this prince was deposed by Napoleon and +Tuscany was seized by France. Restored to the Habsburgs in +the person of Ferdinand in 1814, it remained under his rule, and +then under that of his son Leopold (1797-1870), until the rising +of 1859, when the Austrians were driven out and the grand-duchy +was added to the kingdom of Sardinia. A similar fate attended +the duchy of Modena, which had passed to the Habsburgs +through the marriage of its heiress Mary Beatrice of Este (d. 1829) +with the archduke Ferdinand (1754-1806), brother of the +emperor Leopold II. From 1814 to 1846 this duchy was governed +by Ferdinand’s son, Duke Francis IV., and from 1846 to 1859 +by his grandson, Francis V. This family became extinct on the +death of Francis V. in 1875.</p> + +<p>In addition to his successor Francis II., and to Ferdinand, +grand-duke of Tuscany, the emperor Leopold II. had eight sons, +five of whom, including the archduke John (1782-1859), who +saw a good deal of service during the Napoleonic Wars and was +chosen regent (<i>Reichsverweser</i>) of Germany in 1848, have now +no living male descendants. Thus the existing branches of the +family are descended from Leopold’s five other sons. The +descendants of Leopold, the dispossessed grand-duke of Tuscany, +were in 1909 represented by his son, Ferdinand (b. 1835), who +still claimed the title of grand-duke of Tuscany, and his son and +grandsons; by the numerous descendants of the archduke +Charles Salvator (1830-1892); and by the archduke Louis +Salvator (b. 1847), a great traveller and a voluminous writer. +The grand-duke’s fourth son was the archduke John Nepomuck +Salvator, who, after serving in the Austrian army, resigned all +his rights and titles and under the name of Johann Orth took +command of a sailing vessel. He is supposed to have been +drowned off the coast of South America in 1891, but reports of +his continued existence were circulated from time to time after +that date. Of the emperor Leopold’s other sons the archduke +Charles, perhaps the most distinguished soldier of the family, +left four sons, including Albert, duke of Teschen (1817-1895), +who inherited some of his father’s military ability. Charles’s +family was in 1909 represented by his grandsons, the sons of the +archduke Charles Ferdinand (1818-1874). The archduke Joseph +(1776-1847), palatine of Hungary, was represented by a grandson, +Joseph Augustus (b. 1872), and the archduke Rainer (1783-1853), +viceroy of Lombardy-Venetia, by a son Rainer (b. 1827), +and by several grandsons.</p> + +<p>The eldest and reigning branch of the family was in 1909 +represented by the emperor Francis Joseph, whose father was +the archduke Francis Charles (1802-1878), and whose grandfather +was the emperor Francis II. Francis Joseph’s only son Rudolph +died in 1889; consequently the heir to the Habsburg monarchy +was the emperor’s nephew Francis Ferdinand (b. 1863), the +eldest of the three sons of his brother Charles Louis (1833-1896). +In 1875 Francis Ferdinand inherited the wealth of the Este +family and took the title of archduke of Austria-Este; in 1900 +he contracted a morganatic marriage with Sophia, countess of +Chotek, renouncing for his sons the succession to the monarchy. +Thus after Francis Ferdinand this would pass to the sons of his +brother, the archduke Otto (1865-1906). One of the emperor’s +three brothers was Maximilian, emperor of Mexico from 1863 +to 1867.</p> + +<p>With the exception of Charles V. the Habsburgs have produced +no statesmen of great ability, while several members of the +family have displayed marked traces of insanity. Nevertheless +they secured, and for over 350 years they kept, the first place +among the potentates of Europe; a dignity in origin and theory +elective becoming in practice hereditary in their house. This +position they owe to some extent to the tenacity with which +they have clung to the various lands and dignities which have +passed into their possession, but they owe it much more to a +series of fortunate marriages and opportune deaths. The union +of Maximilian and Mary of Burgundy, of Philip the Handsome +and Joanna of Spain, of Ferdinand and Anna of Hungary and +Bohemia; the death of Ottakar of Bohemia, of John, the only +son of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, of Louis of Hungary and +Bohemia—these are the corner-stones upon which the Habsburg +monarchy has been built.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For the origin and early history of the Habsburgs see G. de Roo, +<i>Annales rerum ab Austriacis Habsburgicae gentis principibus a +Rudolpho I. usque ad Carolum V. gestarum</i> (Innsbruck, 1592, fol.); +M. Herrgott, <i>Genealogia diplomatica augustae gentis Habsburgicae</i> +(Vienna, 1737-1738); E. M. Fürst von Lichnowsky, <i>Geschichte des +Hauses Habsburg</i> (Vienna, 1836-1844); A. Schulte, <i>Geschichte der +Habsburger in den ersten drei Jahrhunderten</i> (Innsbruck, 1887); +T. von Liebenau, <i>Die Anfänge des Hauses Habsburg</i> (Vienna, 1883); +W. Merz, <i>Die Habsburg</i> (Aarau, 1896); W. Gisi, <i>Der Ursprung der +Häuser Zähringen und Habsburg</i> (1888); and F. Weihrich, <i>Stammtafel +zur Geschichte des Hauses Habsburg</i> (Vienna, 1893). For the history +of the Habsburg monarchy see Langl, <i>Die Habsburg und die denkwürdigen +Stätten ihrer Umgebung</i> (Vienna, 1895); and E. A. Freeman, +<i>Historical Geography of Europe</i> (1881). Two English books on the +subject are J. Gilbart-Smith, <i>The Cradle of the Hapsburgs</i> (1907); +and A. R. and E. Colquhoun, <i>The Whirlpool of Europe, Austria-Hungary +and the Hapsburgs</i> (1906).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. W. H.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HACHETTE, JEAN NICOLAS PIERRE<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (1769-1834), French +mathematician, was born at Mézières, where his father was a +bookseller, on the 6th of May 1769. For his early education +he proceeded first to the college of Charleville, and afterwards +to that of Reims. In 1788 he returned to Mézières, where he +was attached to the school of engineering as draughtsman to +the professors of physics and chemistry. In 1793 he became +professor of hydrography at Collioure and Port-Vendre. While +there he sent several papers, in which some questions of navigation +were treated geometrically, to Gaspard Monge, at that time +minister of marine, through whose influence he obtained an +appointment in Paris. Towards the close of 1794, when the +École Polytechnique was established, he was appointed along +with Monge over the department of descriptive geometry. +There he instructed some of the ablest Frenchmen of the day, +among them S. D. Poisson, F. Arago and A. Fresnel. Accompanying +Guyton de Morveau in his expedition, earlier in the +year, he was present at the battle of Fleurus, and entered +Brussels with the French army. In 1816, on the accession of +Louis XVIII., he was expelled from his chair by government. +He retained, however, till his death the office of professor in the +faculty of sciences in the École Normale, to which he had been +appointed in 1810. The necessary royal assent was in 1823 +refused to the election of Hachette to the Académie des Sciences, +and it was not till 1831, after the Revolution, that he obtained +that honour. He died at Paris on the 16th of January 1834. +Hachette was held in high esteem for his private worth, as well +as for his scientific attainments and great public services. His +labours were chiefly in the field of descriptive geometry, with its +application to the arts and mechanical engineering. It was left +to him to develop the geometry of Monge, and to him also is due +in great measure the rapid advancement which France made soon +after the establishment of the École Polytechnique in the +construction of machinery.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Hachette’s principal works are his <i>Deux Supplements à la Géométrie +descriptive de Monge</i> (1811 and 1818); <i>Éléments de géométrie à +trois dimensions</i> (1817); <i>Collection des épures de géométrie</i>, &c. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page793" id="page793"></a>793</span> +(1795 and 1817); <i>Applications de géométrie descriptive</i> (1817); +<i>Traité de géométrie descriptive</i>, &c. (1822); <i>Traité élémentaire des +machines</i> (1811); <i>Correspondance sur l’École Polytechnique</i> (1804-1815). +He also contributed many valuable papers to the leading +scientific journals of his time.</p> + +<p>For a list of Hachette’s writings see the <i>Catalogue of Scientific +Papers of the Royal Society of London</i>; also F. Arago, <i>Œuvres</i> (1855); +and Silvestre, <i>Notice sur J. N. P. Hachette</i> (Bruxelles, 1836).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HACHETTE, JEANNE<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span>, French heroine. Jeanne Lainé, or +Fourquet, called Jeanne Hachette, was born about 1454. We +have no precise information about her family or origin. She is +known solely for her act of heroism which on the 27th of June +1472 saved Beauvais when it was on the point of being taken +by the troops of Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy. The town +was defended by only 300 men-at-arms, commanded by Louis de +Balagny. The Burgundians were making an assault, and one of +their number had actually planted a flag upon the battlements, +when Jeanne, axe in hand, flung herself upon him, hurled him +into the moat, tore down the flag, and revived the drooping +courage of the garrison. In gratitude for this heroic deed, +Louis XI. instituted a procession in Beauvais called the Procession +of the Assault, and married Jeanne to her chosen lover +Colin Pilon, loading them with favours.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Georges Vallat, <i>Jeanne Hachette</i> (Abbeville, 1898).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HACHETTE, LOUIS CHRISTOPHE FRANÇOIS<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (1800-1864), +French publisher, was born at Rethel in the Ardennes on the +5th of May 1800. After studying three years at a normal school +with the view of becoming a teacher, he was in 1822 on political +grounds expelled from the seminary. He then studied law, but +in 1826 he established in Paris a publishing business for the issue +of works adapted to improve the system of school instruction, +or to promote the general culture of the community. He +published manuals in various departments of knowledge, dictionaries +of modern and ancient languages, educational journals, +and French, Latin and Greek classics annotated with great +care by the most eminent authorities. Subsequently to 1850 he, +in conjunction with other partners, published a cheap railway +library, scientific and miscellaneous libraries, an illustrated +library for the young, libraries of ancient literature, of modern +foreign literature, and of modern foreign romance, a series of +guide-books and a series of dictionaries of universal reference. +In 1855 he also founded <i>Le Journal pour tous</i>, a publication with +a circulation of 150,000 weekly. Hachette also manifested great +interest in the formation of mutual friendly societies among the +working classes, in the establishment of benevolent institutions, +and in other questions relating to the amelioration of the poor, +on which subjects he wrote various pamphlets; and he lent the +weight of his influence towards a just settlement of the question +of international literary copyright. He died on the 31st of +July 1864.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HACHURE<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (French for “hatching”), the term for the conventional +lines used in hill or mountain shading upon a map +(<i>q.v.</i>) to indicate the slope of the surface, the depth of shading +being greatest where the slope is steepest. The method is less +accurate than that of contour lines, but gives an indication of +the trend and extent of a range or mountain system, especially +upon small-scale maps.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HACIENDA<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (O. Span, <i>facienda</i>, from the Latin, meaning +“things to be done”), a Spanish term for a landed estate. +It is commonly applied in Spanish America to a country estate, +on which stock-raising, manufacturing or mining may be carried +on, usually with a dwelling-house for the owner’s residence upon +it. It is thus used loosely for a country house.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HACKBERRY<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span>, a name given to the fruit of <i>Celtis occidentalis</i>, +belonging to the natural botanical order <i>Ulmaceae</i>, to which +also belongs the elm (<i>Ulmus</i>). It is also known under the name +of “sugar-berry,” “beaver-wood” and “nettle-tree.” The +hackberry tree is of middle size, attaining from 60 to 80 ft. in +height (though sometimes reaching 130 ft.), and with the aspect +of an elm. The leaves are ovate in shape, with a very long taper +point, rounded and usually very oblique at the base, usually +glabrous above and soft-pubescent beneath. The soft filmy +flowers appear early in the spring before the expansion of the +leaves. The fruit is oblong, about half to three-quarters of an +inch long, of a reddish or yellowish colour when young, turning +to a dark purple in autumn. This tree is distributed through +the deep shady forests bordering river banks from Canada +(where it is very rare) to the southern states. The fruit has a +sweetish and slightly astringent taste, and is largely eaten in the +United States. The seeds contain an oil like that of almonds. +The bark is tough and fibrous like hemp, and the wood is heavy, +soft, fragile and coarse-grained, and is used for making fences +and furniture. The root has been used as a dye for linens.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HACKENSACK,<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> a town and the county-seat of Bergen county, +New Jersey, U.S.A., on the Hackensack river, 13 m. N. of Jersey +City. Pop. (1890), 6004; (1900), 9443, of whom 2009 were foreign-born +and 515 were negroes; (1905) 11,098; (1910) 14,050. It is +served by the New York, Susquehanna & Western, and the New +Jersey & New York railways, both being controlled by the Erie +Company; and indirectly by the West Shore (at Bogota, ½ m. +S.E.). Electric lines connect Hackensack with Newark, Passaic +and Paterson, and with New York ferries. The town extends +from the low bank of the river W. to the top of a ridge, about +40 ft. higher up, from which there are good views to the S. and +E. Hackensack is principally a residential town, though there +are a number of manufacturing establishments in and near it. +Silk and silk goods and wall-paper are the principal manufactures. +In 1905 the value of the town’s factory product was +$1,488,358, an increase of 90.3% since 1900. There are an +historic mansion-house and an interesting old Dutch church, +both erected during the 18th century; and a monument marks +the grave of General Enoch Poor (1736-1780), an officer in the +War of Independence, who was born at Andover, Mass., entered +the Continental Army from New Hampshire, and took part in +the campaign against Burgoyne, in the battle of Monmouth +and in General Sullivan’s expedition against the Iroquois. +Hackensack was settled by the Dutch about 1640, and was named +after the Hackensack Indians, a division of the Unami Delawares, +who lived in the valleys of the Hackensack and Passaic +rivers, and whose best-known chief was Oritany, a friend of the +whites. Hackensack is coextensive with the township of New +Barbadoes, first incorporated with considerably larger territory +in 1693.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HACKET, JOHN<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> (1592-1670), bishop of Lichfield and Coventry, +was born in London and educated at Westminster and Trinity +College, Cambridge. On taking his degree he was elected a +fellow of his college, and soon afterwards wrote the comedy of +<i>Loiola</i> (London, 1648), which was twice performed before James +I. He was ordained in 1618, and through the influence of John +Williams (1582-1650) became rector in 1621 of Stoke Hammond, +Bucks, and Kirkby Underwood, Lincolnshire. In 1623 he was +chaplain to James, and in 1624 Williams presented him to the +livings of St Andrew’s, Holborn, and Cheam, Surrey. When the +so-called “root-and-branch bill” was before parliament in +1641, Hacket was selected to plead in the House of Commons +for the continuance of cathedral establishments. In 1645 his +living of St Andrew’s was sequestered, but he was allowed to +retain the rectory of Cheam. On the accession of Charles II. his +fortunes improved; he frequently preached before the king, +and in 1661 was consecrated bishop of Lichfield and Coventry. +His best-known book is the excellent biography of his patron, +Archbishop Williams, entitled <i>Scrinia reserata: a Memorial +offered to the great Deservings of John Williams, D.D.</i> (London, +1693).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HACKETT, HORATIO BALCH<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (1808-1875), American biblical +scholar, was born in Salisbury, Massachusetts, on the 27th of +December 1808. He was educated at Phillips-Andover Academy, +at Amherst College, where he graduated as valedictorian in 1830, +and at Andover Theological Seminary, where he graduated in +1834. He was adjunct professor of Latin and Greek Languages +and Literature at Brown University in 1835-1838 and professor +of Hebrew Literature there in 1838-1839, was ordained to the +Baptist ministry in 1839—he had become a Baptist at Andover +as the result of preparing a paper on baptism in the New Testament +and the Fathers—and in 1839-1868 he was professor of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page794" id="page794"></a>794</span> +Biblical literature and interpretation in Newton Theological +Institution where his most important work was the introduction +of the modern German methods of Biblical criticism, which he had +learned from Moses Stuart at Andover and with which he made +himself more familiar in Germany (especially under Tholuck at +Halle) in 1841. He travelled in Egypt and Palestine in 1852, +and in 1858-1859 in Greece, becoming proficient in modern +Greek. From 1870 until his death in Rochester, New York, +on the 2nd of November 1875, he was professor of Biblical +literature and New Testament exegesis in the Rochester Theological +Seminary. He was a great teacher but a greater critical +and exegetical scholar.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>He wrote <i>Christian Memorials of the War</i> (1864); an English +version of Winer’s <i>Grammar of the Chaldee Language</i> (1844); <i>Exercises +in Hebrew Grammar</i> (1847); and various articles on the Semitic +language and literature in periodicals; but his best-known work was +in general commentary on the Bible and translation, and in the special +text study of the New Testament. Under these two headings fall: +<i>Illustrations of Scripture; suggested by a Tour through the Holy Land</i> +(1855); the American revision, with Ezra Abbot, of Smith’s <i>Dictionary +of the Bible</i>, to the British edition of which he had contributed +about thirty articles; <i>Commentary on the Original Text of the Acts +of the Apostles</i> (1852; 2nd edition, 1858), for many years the best +English commentary; <i>Notes on the Greek Text of the Epistle of Paul +to Philemon</i>, and a <i>Revised Version</i> of Philemon, both published in +1860; the English versions, in Schaff’s edition of Lange’s <i>Commentaries</i>, +of Van Oosterzee’s <i>Philemon</i> and Braune’s <i>Philippians</i>; +and for the American Bible Union Version of the Bible he translated +the books of Ruth and Judges, and aided T. J. Conant in editorial +revision; and he was one of the American translators for the English +Bible revision.</p> + +<p>See <i>Memorials of Horatio Batch Hackett</i> (Rochester, N.Y., 1876), +edited by G. H. Whittemore.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HACKETT, JAMES HENRY<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> (1800-1871), American actor, +was born in New York. After an unsuccessful entry into business, +in 1826 he went on the stage, where he soon established +a reputation as a player of eccentric character parts. As Falstaff +he was no less successful in England than in America. At various +times he went into management, and he was the author of <i>Notes +and Comments on Shakespeare</i> (1863).</p> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">James Keteltas Hackett</span> (1869-  ), born at +Wolfe Island, Ontario, and educated at the College of the City +of New York, also became an actor. He came into prominence +at the Lyceum in Daniel Frohman’s company, and afterwards +had considerable success in romantic parts. As a manager he +stood outside the American syndicate of theatres, and organized +several companies to play throughout the United States. In +1897 he married Mary Mannering, the Anglo-American actress.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HACKLÄNDER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM VON<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (1816-1877), +German novelist and dramatist, was born at Burtscheid near +Aix-la-Chapelle on the 1st of November 1816. Having served +an apprenticeship in a commercial house, he entered the Prussian +artillery, but, disappointed at not finding advancement, returned +to business. A soldier’s life had a fascination for him, and he +made his début as an author with <i>Bilder aus dem Soldatenleben +im Frieden</i> (1841). After a journey to the east, he was appointed +secretary to the crown prince of Württemberg, whom he accompanied +on his travels. <i>Wachtstubenabenteuer</i>, a continuation of +his first work, appeared in 1845, and it was followed by <i>Bilder +aus dem Soldatenleben im Kriege</i> (1849-1850). As a result of a +tour in Spain in 1854, appeared <i>Ein Winter in Spanien</i> (1855). +In 1857 he founded, in conjunction with Edmund von Zoller, the +illustrated weekly, <i>Über Land und Meer</i>. In 1859 Hackländer +was appointed director of royal parks and public gardens at +Stuttgart, and in this post did much towards the embellishment +of the city. In 1859 he was attached to the headquarters staff +of the Austrian army during the Italian war; in 1861 he was +raised to an hereditary knighthood in Austria; in 1864 he retired +into private life, and died on the 6th of July 1877. Hackländer’s +literary talent is confined within narrow limits. There is much +in his works of lively, adventurous and even romantic description, +but the character-drawing is feeble and superficial.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Hackländer was a voluminous writer; the most complete edition +of his works is the third, published at Stuttgart in 1876, in 60 volumes. +There is also a good selection in 20 volumes (1881). Among his novels, +<i>Namenlose Geschichten</i> (1851); <i>Eugen Stillfried</i> (1852); <i>Krieg und +Frieden</i> (1859), and the comedies <i>Der geheime Agent</i> (1850) and +<i>Magnetische Kuren</i> (1851) may be specially mentioned. His autobiography +appeared in 1878 under the title, <i>Der Roman meines Lebens</i> +(2 vols.). See H. Morning, <i>Erinnerungen an F. W. Hackländer</i> +(1878).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HACKNEY,<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> a north-eastern metropolitan borough of London, +England, bounded W. by Stoke Newington and Islington, and +S. by Shoreditch, Bethnal Green and Poplar, and extending N. +and E. to the boundary of the county of London. Pop. (1901), +219,272. It is a poor and populous district, in which the main +thoroughfares are Kingsland Road, continued N. as Stoke +Newington Road and Stamford Hill; Mare Street, continued +N.W. as Clapton Road to join Stamford Hill; and Lea Bridge +Road running N.E. towards Walthamstow and Low Leyton. +The borough includes the districts of Clapton in the north, +Homerton in the east, and Dalston and part of Kingsland in +the west. On the east lies the open flat valley of the Lea, which +flows in several branches, and is bordered, immediately outside +the confines of the borough, by the extensive reservoirs of the +East London water-works. In these low lands lie the Hackney +Marshes (338 acres; among several so-called marshes in the Lea +valley), and the borough also contains part of Victoria Park +and a number of open spaces collectively called the Hackney +Commons, including Mill Fields, Hackney Downs, London Fields, +&c. The total area of open spaces exceeds 500 acres. The +tower of the ancient parish church of St Augustine, with the +chapel of the Rowe family, still stands, and is the only historic +building of importance. Among institutions are the German +hospital, Dalston, Metropolitan hospital, Kingsland Road, and +Eastern Fever hospital, Homerton; and the Hackney polytechnic +institute, with which is incorporated the Sir John Cass institute. +Cass (1666-1718), a merchant of the city of London, also a +member of parliament and sheriff, bequeathed £1000 for the +foundation of a free school; in 1732 the bequest was increased +in accordance with an unfinished codicil to his will; and the +income provided from it is now about £6000, some 250 boys and +girls being educated. The parliamentary borough of Hackney +comprises north, central and south divisions, each returning one +member; and the northern division includes the metropolitan +borough of Stoke Newington. The metropolitan borough of +Hackney includes part of the Hornsey parliamentary division of +Middlesex. The borough council consists of a mayor, 10 aldermen +and 60 councillors. Area, 3288.9 acres.</p> + +<p>In the 13th century the name appears as <i>Hackenaye</i> or +<i>Hacquenye</i>, but no certain derivation is advanced. Roman +and other remains have been found in Hackney Marshes. In +1290 the bishop of London was lord of the manor, which was +so held until 1550, when it was granted to Thomas, Lord +Wentworth. In 1697 it came into the hands of the Tyssen family. +Extensive property in the parish also belonged to the priory +of the Knights Hospitallers of St John of Jerusalem at Clerkenwell. +From the 16th to the early 19th century there were many +fine residences in Hackney. The neighbourhood of Hackney +had at one time an evil reputation as the haunt of highwaymen.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HACKNEY<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (from Fr. <i>haquenée</i>, Lat. <i>equus</i>, an ambling horse +or mare, especially for ladies to ride; the English “hack” is +simply an abbreviation), originally a riding-horse. At the +present day, however, the hackney (as opposed to a thoroughbred) +is bred for driving as well as riding (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Horse</a></span>: <i>Breeds</i>). +From the hiring-out of hackneys, the word came to be associated +with employment for hire (so “a hack,” as a general term for +“drudge”), especially in combination, <i>e.g.</i> hackney-chair, +hackney-coach, hackney-boat. The hackney-coach, a coach +with four wheels and two horses, was a form of hired public +conveyance (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Carriage</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HADAD,<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> the name of a Syrian deity, is met with in the Old +Testament as the name of several human persons; it also occurs +in compound forms like Benhadad and Hadadezer. The divinity +primarily denoted by it is the storm-god who was known also +as Ramman, Bir and Dadda. The Syrian kings of Damascus +seem to have habitually assumed the title of Benhadad, or son +of Hadad (three of this name are mentioned in Scripture), just +as a series of Egyptian monarchs are known to have been +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page795" id="page795"></a>795</span> +accustomed to call themselves sons of Amon-Ra. The word +Hadadrimmon, for which the inferior reading Hadarrimmon is +found in some MSS. in the phrase “the mourning of (or at) +Hadadrimmon” (Zech. xii. 11), has been a subject of much +discussion. According to Jerome and all the older Christian +interpreters, the mourning for something that occurred at a +place called Hadadrimmon (Maximianopolis) in the valley of +Megiddo is meant, the event alluded to being generally held to +be the death of Josiah (or, as in the Targum, the death of Ahab +at the hands of Hadadrimmon); but more recently the opinion +has been gaining ground that Hadadrimmon is merely another +name for Adonis (<i>q.v.</i>) or Tammuz, the allusion being to the +mournings by which the Adonis festivals were usually accompanied +(Hitzig on Zech. xii. 11, Isa. xvii. 8; Movers, <i>Phönizier</i>, i. +196). T. K. Cheyne (<i>Encycl. Bibl.</i> s.v.) points out that the +Septuagint reads simply Rimmon, and argues that this may be +a corruption of Migdon (Megiddo), in itself a corruption of +Tammuz-Adon. He would render the verse, “In that day +there shall be a great mourning in Jerusalem, as the mourning +of the women who weep for Tammuz-Adon” (<i>Adon</i> means lord).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HADDINGTON, EARL OF,<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> a Scottish title bestowed in 1627 +upon Thomas Hamilton, earl of Melrose (1563-1637). Thomas, +who was a member of the great family of Hamilton, being a son +of Thomas Hamilton of Priestfield, was a lawyer who became a +lord of session as Lord Drumcairn in 1592. He was on very +friendly terms with James VI., his legal talents being useful to +the king, and he was one of the eight men who, called the Octavians, +were appointed to manage the finances of Scotland in +1596. Having also become king’s advocate in 1596, Hamilton +was entrusted with a large share in the government of his country +when James went to London in 1603; in 1612 he was appointed +secretary of state for Scotland, and in 1613 he was created Lord +Binning and Byres. In 1616 he became lord president of the +court of session, and three years later was created earl of Melrose, +a title which he exchanged in 1627 for that of earl of Haddington. +After the death of James I. the earl resigned his offices of president +of the court of session and secretary of state, but he served +Charles I. as lord privy seal. He died on the 29th of May 1637. +Haddington, who was both scholarly and wealthy, left a large +and valuable collection of papers, which is now in the Advocates’ +library at Edinburgh. James referred familiarly to his friend +as <i>Tam o’ the Cowgate</i>, his Edinburgh residence being in this +street.</p> + +<p>The earl’s eldest son <span class="sc">Thomas</span>, the 2nd earl (1600-1640), was +a covenanter and a soldier, being killed by an explosion at Dunglass +castle on the 30th of August 1640. His sons, <span class="sc">Thomas</span> (d. +1645) and <span class="sc">John</span> (d. 1669), became respectively the 3rd and +4th earls of Haddington, and John’s grandson <span class="sc">Thomas</span> (1679-1735) +succeeded his father <span class="sc">Charles</span> (<i>c.</i> 1650-1685), as 6th earl +in 1685, although he was not the eldest but the second son. +This curious circumstance arose from the fact that when Charles +married Margaret (d. 1700), the heiress of the earldom of Rothes, +it was agreed that the two earldoms should be left separate; +thus the eldest son John became earl of Rothes while Thomas +became earl of Haddington. Thomas was a supporter of George +I. during the rising of 1715, and was a representative peer for +Scotland from 1716 to 1734. He died on the 28th of November +1735.</p> + +<p>The 6th earl was a writer, but in this direction his elder son, +<span class="sc">Charles</span>, Lord Binning (1697-1732), is perhaps more celebrated. +After fighting by his father’s side at Sheriffmuir in 1715 and +serving as member of parliament for St Germans, Binning died +at Naples on the 27th of December 1732. His eldest son, <span class="sc">Thomas</span> +(<i>c.</i> 1720-1794), became the 7th earl in 1735, and the latter’s +grandson <span class="sc">Thomas</span> (1780-1858) became the 9th earl in 1828. +The 9th earl had been a member of parliament from 1802 to +1827, when he was made a peer of the United Kingdom as Baron +Melros of Tyninghame, a title which became extinct upon his +death. In 1834 he became lord-lieutenant of Ireland under +Sir Robert Peel, leaving office in the following year, and in Peel’s +second administration (1841-1846) he served as first lord of the +admiralty and then as lord privy seal. When he died without +sons on the 1st of December 1858 the earldom passed to his +kinsman, <span class="sc">George Baillie</span> (1802-1870), a descendant of the +6th earl. This nobleman took the name of Baillie-Hamilton, +and his son <span class="sc">George</span> (b. 1827) became 11th earl of Haddington +in 1870.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>State Papers of Thomas, Earl of Melrose</i>, published by the +Abbotsford Club in 1837, and Sir W. Fraser, <i>Memorials of the Earls +of Haddington</i> (1889).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HADDINGTON,<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> a royal, municipal and police burgh, and +county town of Haddingtonshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901), 3993. +It is situated on the Tyne, 18 m. E. of Edinburgh by the North +British railway, being the terminus of a branch line from Longniddry +Junction. Five bridges cross the river, on the right bank +of which lies the old and somewhat decayed suburb of Nungate, +interesting as having contained the Giffordgate, where John +Knox was born, and where also are the ruins of the pre-Reformation +chapel of St Martin. The principal building in the town is +St Mary’s church, a cruciform Decorated edifice in red sandstone, +probably dating from the 13th century. It is 210 ft. long, +and is surmounted by a square tower 90 ft. high. The nave, +restored in 1892, is used as the parish church, but the choir and +transepts are roofless, though otherwise kept in repair. In a +vault is a fine monument in alabaster, consisting of the recumbent +figures of John, Lord Maitland of Thirlestane (1545-1595), +chancellor of Scotland, and his wife. The laudatory +sonnet composed by James VI. is inscribed on the tomb. In the +same vault John, duke of Lauderdale (1616-1682), is buried. +In the choir is the tombstone which Carlyle erected over the grave +of his wife, Jane Baillie Welsh (1801-1866), a native of the town. +Other public edifices include the county buildings in the Tudor +style, in front of which stands the monument to George, 8th +marquess of Tweeddale (1787-1876), who was such an expert +and enthusiastic coachman that he once drove the mail from +London to Haddington without taking rest; the corn exchange, +next to that of Edinburgh the largest in Scotland; the town +house, with a spire 150 ft. high, in front of which is a monument +to John Home, the author of <i>Douglas</i>; the district asylum to +the north of the burgh; the western district hospital; the +Tenterfield home for children; the free library and the Knox +Memorial Institute. This last-named building was erected in +1879 to replace the old and famous grammar school, where John +Knox, William Dunbar, John Major and possibly George +Buchanan and Sir David Lindsay were educated. John Brown +(1722-1787), a once celebrated dissenting divine, author of the +<i>Self-Interpreting Bible</i>, ministered in the burgh for 36 years +and is buried there; his son John the theologian (1754-1832), +and his grandson Samuel (1817-1856), the chemist, noted +for his inquiries into the atomic theory, were natives. Samuel +Smiles (1812-1904), author of <i>Character, Self-Help</i> and other +works, was also born there, and Edward Irving was for years +mathematical master in the grammar school. In Hardgate +Street is “Bothwell Castle,” the town house of the earl of Bothwell, +where Mary Queen of Scots rested on her way to Dunbar. +The ancient market cross has been restored. The leading +industries are the making of agricultural implements, manufactures +of woollens and sacking, brewing, tanning and coach-building, +besides corn mills and engineering works.</p> + +<p>The burgh is the retail centre for a large district, and its grain +markets, once the largest in Scotland, are still of considerable +importance. Haddington was created a royal burgh by David I. +It also received charters from Robert Bruce, Robert II. and +James VI. In 1139 it was given as a dowry to Ada, daughter +of William de Warenne, earl of Surrey, on her marriage to Prince +Henry, the only son of David I. It was occasionally the residence +of royalty, and Alexander II. was born there in 1198. Lying in +the direct road of the English invaders, the town was often +ravaged. It was burned by King John in 1216 and by Henry +III. in 1244. Fortified in 1548 by Lord Grey of Wilton, the +English commander, it was besieged next year by the Scots and +French, who forced the garrison to withdraw. So much slaughter +had gone on during that period of storm and stress that it was +long impossible to excavate in any direction without coming +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page796" id="page796"></a>796</span> +on human remains. The town has suffered much periodically +from floods. One of the most memorable of these occurred on +the 4th of October 1775, when the Tyne rose 8 ft. 9 in. above its +bed and inundated a great part of the burgh. An inscription in +the centre of the town records the event and marks the point to +which the water rose.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>There are many interesting places within a few miles of Haddington. +Five miles E. is Whittingehame House, and 5 m. N.E. is the thriving +village of East Linton (pop. 919). About 2½ m. N. lies Athelstaneford +(locally, Elshinford), so named from the victory of Hungus, king of +the Picts, in the 8th century over the Northumbrian Athelstane. +On a hill near Drem, 3½ m. N. by W., are traces of a Romano-British +settlement, and the remains of the priest’s house of the Knights +Templars, to whom the barony once belonged. On the coast is the +pretty village of Aberlady on a fine bay, and in the neighbourhood +are some of the finest golf links in Scotland, such as Luffness, Gullane, +Archerfield and Muirfield. On Gosford Bay is Gosford House, an +18th-century mansion, the seat of the earl of Wemyss. At Gladsmuir, +3½ m. W. of Haddington, alleged by some to have been the birthplace +of George Heriot. Principal Robertson was minister and wrote most +of his <i>History of Scotland</i>. Of the old seat of the Douglases at +Longniddry few traces remain, and in the chapel, now in ruins, at +the eastern end of the village, John Knox is said to have preached occasionally. +At Gifford, 4 m. to the S., John Witherspoon (1722-1794), +president of the College of New Jersey (Princeton), and Charles Nisbet +(1736-1804), president of Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pennsylvania, +were born. A little to the south of Gifford are Yester House, a seat +of the marquess of Tweeddale, finely situated in a park of old trees, +and the ruins of Yester Castle. The cavern locally known as Hobgoblin +Hall is described in <i>Marmion</i>, and is associated with all +kinds of manifestations of the black art. Lennoxlove, 1½ m. to the +S., a seat of Lord Blantyre, was originally called Lethington, and +for a few centuries was associated with the Maitlands. Amisfield, +adjoining Haddington on the N.E., is another seat of the earl of +Wemyss.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HADDINGTONSHIRE,<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> or <i>East Lothian</i>, a south-eastern +county of Scotland, bounded N. by the Firth of Forth, N.E. by +the North Sea, E., S.E. and S. by Berwickshire, and S.W. and +W. by Edinburghshire. It covers an area of 171,011 acres, or +267 sq. m. Its sea-coast measures 41 m. The Bass Rock and +Fidra Isle belong to the shire, and there are numerous rocks and +reefs off the shore, especially between Dunbar and Gullane Bay. +Broadly speaking, the northern half of the shire slopes gently +to the coast, and the southern half is hilly. Several of the peaks +of the Lammermuirs exceed 1500 ft., and the more level tract +is broken by Traprain Law (724) in the parish of Prestonkirk, +North Berwick Law (612), and Garleton Hill (590) to the north +of the county town. The only important river is the Tyne, which +rises to the south-east of Borthwick in Mid-Lothian, and, taking +a generally north-easterly direction, reaches the sea just beyond +the park of Tynninghame House, after a course of 28 m., for the +first 7 m. of which it belongs to its parent shire. It is noted for +a very fine variety of trout, and salmon are sometimes taken +below the linn at East Linton. The Whiteadder rises in the +parish of Whittingehame, but, flowing towards the south-east, +leaves the shire and at last joins the Tweed near Berwick. There +are no natural lakes, but in the parish of Stenton is found +Pressmennan Loch, an artificial sheet of water of somewhat +serpentine shape, about 2 m. in length, with a width of some +400 yds., which was constructed in 1819 by damming up the +ravine in which it lies. The banks are wooded and picturesque, +and the water abounds with trout.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Geology.</i>—The higher ground in the south, including the Lammermuir +Hills, is formed by shales, greywackes and grits of Ordovician +and Silurian age; a narrow belt of the former lying on the north-western +side of the latter, the strike being S.W. to N.E. The granitic +mass of Priestlaw and other felsitic rocks have been intruded into +these strata. The lower Old Red Sandstone has not been observed +in this county, but the younger sandstones and conglomerates fill +up ancient depressions in the Silurian and Ordovician, such as that +running northward from Oldhamstocks towards Dunbar and the +valley of Lauderdale. A faulted-in tract of the same formation, +about 1 m. in breadth, runs westward from Dunbar to near Gifford. +Carboniferous rocks form the remainder of the county. The Calciferous +Sandstone series, shales, thin limestones and sandstones, is +exposed on the south-eastern coast; but between Gifford and North +Berwick and from Aberlady to Dunbar it is represented by a great +thickness of volcanic rocks consisting of tuffs and coarse breccias +in the lower beds, and of porphyritic and andesitic lavas above. +These rocks are well exposed on the coast, in the Garleton Hills +and Traprain Law; the latter and North Berwick Law are volcanic +necks or vents. The Carboniferous Limestone series which succeeds +the Calciferous Sandstone consists of a middle group of sandstones, +shales, coals and ironstones, with a limestone group above and +below. The coal-field is synclinal in structure, Port Seton being +about the centre; it contains ten seams of coal, and the area covered +by it is some 30 sq. m. Glacial boulder clay lies over much of the +lower ground, and ridges of gravel and sand flank the hills and form +extensive sheets. Traces of old raised sea-beaches are found at +several points along the coast. At North Berwick, Tynninghame and +elsewhere there are stretches of blown sand. Limestone is worked +at many places, and hematite was formerly obtained from the +Garleton Hills.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Climate and Agriculture.</i>—Though the county is exposed to +the full sweep of the east wind during March, April and May, +the climate is on the whole mild and equable. The rainfall is +far below the average of Great Britain, the mean for the year +being 25 in., highest in midsummer and lowest in spring. The +average temperature for the year is 47°.5 F., for January 38° +and for July 59°. Throughout nearly the whole of the 19th +century East Lothian agriculture was held to be the best in +Scotland, not so much in consequence of the natural fertility +of the soil as because of the enterprise of the cultivators, several +of whom, like George Hope of Fenton Barns (1811-1876), +brought scientific farming almost to perfection. Mechanical +appliances were adopted with exceptional alacrity, and indeed +some that afterwards came into general use were first employed +in Haddington. Drill sowing of turnips dates from 1734. The +threshing machine was introduced by Andrew Meikle (1719-1811) +in 1787, the steam plough in 1862, and the reaping machine +soon after its invention, while tile draining was first extensively +used in the county. East Lothian is famous for the richness of +its grain and green crops, the size of its holdings (average 200 +acres) and the good housing of its labourers. The soils vary. +Much of the Lammermuirs is necessarily unproductive, though +the lower slopes are cultivated, a considerable tract of the land +being very good. In the centre of the shire occurs a belt of +tenacious yellow clay on a tilly subsoil which is not adapted for +agriculture. Along the coast the soil is sandy, but farther inland +it is composed of rich loam and is very fertile. The land about +Dunbar is the most productive, yielding a potato—the “Dunbar +red”—which is highly esteemed in the markets. Of the grain +crops oats and barley are the principal, and their acreage is +almost a constant, but wheat, after a prolonged decline, has +experienced a revival. Turnips and potatoes are cultivated +extensively, and with marked success, and constitute nearly +all the green crops raised. Although pasture-land is below the +average, live-stock are reared profitably. About one-sixteenth +of the total area is under wood.</p> + +<p><i>Other Industries.</i>—Fisheries are conducted from Dunbar, +North Berwick, Port Seton and Prestonpans, the catch consisting +chiefly of cod, haddock, whiting and shellfish. Fireclay as well +as limestone is worked, and there are some stone quarries, but +the manufactures are mainly agricultural implements, pottery, +woollens, artificial manures, feeding-stuffs and salt, besides +brewing. Coal of a very fair quality is extensively worked at +Tranent, Ormiston, Macmerry and near Prestonpans, the coal-field +having an area of about 30 sq. m. Limestone is found +throughout the greater part of the shire. A vein of hematite +of a peculiarly fine character was discovered in 1866 at Garleton +Hill, and wrought for some years. Ironstone has been mined +at Macmerry.</p> + +<p>The North British Company possess the sole running powers +in the county, through which is laid their main line to Berwick +and the south. Branches are sent off at Drem to North Berwick, +at Longniddry to Haddington and also to Gullane, at Smeaton +(in Mid-Lothian) to Macmerry, and at Ormiston to Gifford.</p> + +<p><i>Population and Government.</i>—The population was 37,377 +in 1891, and 38,665 in 1901, when 459 persons spoke Gaelic and +English, and 7 spoke Gaelic only. The chief towns are Dunbar +(pop. in 1901, 3581), Haddington (3993), North Berwick (2899), +Prestonpans (2614) and Tranent (2584). The county, which +returns one member to Parliament, forms part of the sheriffdom +of the Lothians and Peebles, and there is a resident sheriff-substitute +at Haddington, who sits also at Dunbar, Tranent +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page797" id="page797"></a>797</span> +and North Berwick. The shire is under school-board jurisdiction, +and besides high schools at Haddington and North Berwick, +some of the elementary schools earn grants for higher education. +The county council spends a proportion of the “residue” +grant in supporting short courses of instruction in technical +subjects (chiefly agriculture), in experiments in the feeding of +cattle and the growing of crops, and in defraying the travelling +expenses of technical students.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—Of the Celts, who were probably the earliest inhabitants, +traces are found in a few place names and circular +camps (in the parishes of Garvald and Whittinghame) and hill +forts (in the parish of Bolton). After the Roman occupation, +of which few traces remain, the district formed part of the Saxon +kingdom of Northumbria until 1018, when it was joined to +Scotland by Malcolm II. It was comparatively prosperous till +the wars of Bruce and Baliol, but from that period down to the +union of the kingdoms it suffered from its nearness to the Border +and from civil strife. The last battles fought in the county +were those of Dunbar (1650) and Prestonpans (1745).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. Miller, <i>History of Haddington</i> (1844); D. Croal, <i>Sketches of +East Lothian</i> (Haddington, 1873); John Martine, <i>Reminiscences of +the County of Haddington</i> (Haddington, 1890, 1894); Dr Wallace +James, <i>Writs and Charters of Haddington</i> (Haddington, 1898).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HADDOCK<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (<i>Gadus aeglefinus</i>), a fish which differs from the +cod in having the mental barbel very short, the first anal fin +with 22 to 25 rays, instead of 17 to 20, and the lateral line dark +instead of whitish; it has a large blackish spot above each +pectoral fin—associated in legend with the marks of St Peter’s +finger and thumb, the haddock being supposed to be the fish +from whose mouth he took the tribute-money. It attains to a +weight of 15 ℔ and is one of the most valuable food fishes of +Europe, both fresh and smoked, the “finnan haddie” of Scotland +being famous. It is common round the British and Irish coasts, +and generally distributed along the shores of the North Sea, +extending across the Atlantic to the coast of North America.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HADDON HALL,<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> one of the most famous ancient mansions in +England. It lies on the left bank of the river Wye, 2 m. S.E. of +Bakewell in Derbyshire. It is not now used as a residence, but +the fabric is maintained in order. The building is of stone and +oblong in form, and encloses two quadrangles separated by the +great banqueting-hall and adjoining chambers. The greater part +is of two storeys, and surmounted by battlements. To the south +and south-east lie terraced gardens, and the south front of the +eastern quadrangle is occupied by the splendid ball-room or +long gallery. At the south-west corner of the mansion is the +chapel; at the north-east the Peveril tower. The periods of +building represented are as follows. Norman work appears in +the chapel (which also served as a church for the neighbouring +villagers), also in certain fundamental parts of the fabric, notably +the Peveril tower. There are Early English and later additions +to the chapel; the banqueting-hall, with the great kitchen +adjacent to it, and part of the Peveril tower are of the 14th +century. The eastern range of rooms, including the state-room, +are of the 15th century; the western and north-western parts +were built shortly after 1500. The ball-room is of early 17th-century +construction, and the terraces and gardens were laid +out at this time. A large number of interesting contemporary +fittings are preserved, especially in the banqueting-hall and +kitchen; and many of the rooms are adorned with tapestries +of the 16th and 17th centuries, some of which came from the +famous works at Mortlake in Surrey.</p> + +<p>A Roman altar was found and is preserved here, but no trace +of Roman inhabitants has been discovered. Haddon was a +manor which before the Conquest and at the time of the Domesday +Survey belonged to the king, but was granted by William +the Conqueror to William Peverel, whose son, another William +Peverel, forfeited it for treason on the accession of Henry II. +Before that time, however, the manor of Haddon had been +granted to the family of Avenell, who continued to hold it +until one William Avenell died without male issue and his +property was divided between his two daughters and heirs, one +of whom married Richard Vernon, whose successors acquired +the other half of the manor in the reign of Edward III. Sir +George Vernon, who died in 1561, was known as the “King of +the Peak” on account of his hospitality. His daughter Dorothy +married John Manners, second son of the earl of Rutland, who +is said to have lived for some time in the woods round Haddon +Hall, disguised as a gamekeeper, until he persuaded Dorothy +to elope with him. On Sir George’s death without male issue +Haddon passed to John Manners and Dorothy, who lived in the +Hall. Their grandson John Manners succeeded to the title of +earl of Rutland in 1641, and the duke of Rutland is still lord of +the manor.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Victoria County History, Derbyshire</i>; S. Rayner, <i>History and +Antiquities of Haddon Hall</i> (1836-1837); Haddon Hall, <i>History and +Antiquities of Haddon Hall</i> (1867); G. le Blanc Smith, <i>Haddon, the +Manor, the Hall, its Lords and Traditions</i> (London, 1906).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HADEN, SIR FRANCIS SEYMOUR<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (1818-1910), English +surgeon and etcher, was born in London on the 16th of September +1818, his father, Charles Thomas Haden, being a well-known +doctor and amateur of music. He was educated at University +College school and University College, London, and also studied +at the Sorbonne, Paris, where he took his degree in 1840. He was +admitted as a member of the College of Surgeons in London in +1842. Besides his many-sided activities in the scientific world, +during a busy and distinguished career as a surgeon, he followed +the art of original etching with such vigour that he became not +only the foremost British exponent of that art but was the +principal cause of its revival in England. By his strenuous +efforts and perseverance, aided by the secretarial ability of Sir +W. R. Drake, he founded the Royal Society of Painter-Etchers +and Engravers. As president he ruled the destinies of that +society with a strong hand from its first beginnings in 1880. In +1843-1844, with his friends Duval, Le Cannes and Col. Guibout, +he had travelled in Italy and made his first sketches from nature. +Haden attended no art school and had no art teachers, but in +1845, 1846, 1847 and 1848 he studied portfolios of prints belonging +to an old second-hand dealer named Love, who had a shop in +Bunhill Row, the old Quaker quarter of London. These portfolios +he would carry home, and arranging the prints in chronological +order, he studied the works of the great original engravers, +Dürer, Lucas van Leyden and Rembrandt. These studies, +besides influencing his original work, led to his important monograph +on the etched work of Rembrandt. By lecture and book, +and with the aid of the memorable exhibition at the Burlington +Fine Arts Club in 1877, he endeavoured to give a just idea of +Rembrandt’s work, separating the true from the false, and giving +altogether a nobler idea of the master’s mind by taking away from +the list of his works many dull and unseemly plates that had long +been included in the lists. His reasons are founded upon the +results of a study of the master’s works in chronological order, +and are clearly expressed in his monograph, <i>The Etched Work of +Rembrandt critically reconsidered</i>, privately printed in 1877, +and in <i>The Etched Work of Rembrandt True and False</i> (1895). +Notwithstanding all this study of the old masters of his art, +Haden’s own plates are perhaps more individual than any artist’s, +and are particularly noticeable for a fine original treatment of +landscape subjects, free and open in line, clear and well divided +in mass, and full of a noble and dignified style of his own. Even +when working from a picture his personality dominates the plate, +as for example in the large plate he etched after J. M. W. Turner’s +“Calais Pier,” which is a classical example of what interpretative +work can do in black and white. Of his original plates, more +than 250 in number, one of the most notable was the large +“Breaking up of the Agamemnon.” An early plate, rare and +most beautiful, is “Thames Fisherman.” “Mytton Hall” is +broad in treatment, and a fine rendering of a shady avenue of +yew trees leading to an old manor-house in sunlight. “Sub +Tegmine” was etched in Greenwich Park in 1859; and “Early +Morning—Richmond,” full of the poetry and freshness of the +hour, was done, the artist has said, actually at sunrise. One of +the rarest and most beautiful of his plates is “A By-Road in +Tipperary”; “Combe Bottom” is another; and “Shere Mill +Pond” (both the small study and the larger plate), “Sunset in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page798" id="page798"></a>798</span> +Ireland,” “Penton Hook,” “Grim Spain” and “Evening +Fishing, Longparish,” are also notable examples of his genius. +A catalogue of his works was begun by Sir William Drake and +completed by Mr N. Harrington (1880). During later years +Haden began to practise the sister art of mezzotint engraving, +with a measure of the same success that he had already achieved +in pure etching and in dry-point. Some of his mezzotints are: +“An Early Riser,” a stag seen through the morning mists, +“Grayling Fishing” and “A Salmon Pool on the Spey.” He +also produced some remarkable drawings of trees and park-like +country in charcoal.</p> + +<p>Other books by Haden not already mentioned are—<i>Études à +l’eau forte</i> (Paris, 1865); <i>About Etching</i> (London, 1878-1879); +<i>The Art of the Painter-Etcher</i> (London, 1890); <i>The Relative +Claims of Etching and Engraving to rank as Fine Arts and to +be represented in the Royal Academy</i> (London, 1883); <i>Address +to Students of Winchester School of Art</i> (Winchester, 1888); +<i>Cremation: a Pamphlet</i> (London, 1875); and <i>The Disposal of +the Dead, a Plea for Legislation</i> (London, 1888). As the last +two indicate, he was an ardent champion of a system of “earth +to earth” burial.</p> + +<p>Among numerous distinctions he received the Grand Prix, +Paris, in 1889 and 1900, and was made a member of the Institut +de France, Académie des Beaux-Arts and Société des Artistes +Français. He was knighted in 1894, and died on the 1st of +June 1910. He married in 1847 a sister of the artist J. A. M. +Whistler; and his elder son, Francis Seymour Haden (b. 1850), +had a distinguished career as a member of the government in Natal +from 1881 to 1893, being made a C.M.G. in 1890.</p> +<div class="author">(C. H.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HADENDOA<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (from Beja <i>Hada</i>, chief, and <i>endowa</i>, people), a +nomad tribe of Africans of “Hamitic” origin. They inhabit +that part of the eastern Sudan extending from the Abyssinian +frontier northward nearly to Suakin. They belong to the Beja +people, of which, with the Bisharin and the Ababda, they are +the modern representatives. They are a pastoral people, ruled +by a hereditary chief who is directly responsible to the (Anglo-Egyptian) +Sudan government. Although the official capital of +the Hadendoa country is Miktinab, the town of Fillik on an +affluent of the Atbara is really their headquarters. A third of +the total population is settled in the Suakin country. Osman +Digna, one of the best-known chiefs during the Madhia, was a +Hadendoa, and the tribe contributed some of the fiercest of the +dervish warriors in the wars of 1883-98. So determined were +they in their opposition to the Anglo-Egyptian forces that the +name Hadendoa grew to be nearly synonymous with “rebel.” +But this was the result of Egyptian misgovernment rather than +religious enthusiasm; for the Hadendoa are true Beja, and +Mahommedans only in name. Their elaborate hairdressing +gained them the name of “Fuzzy-wuzzies” among the British +troops. They earned an unenviable reputation during the wars +by their hideous mutilations of the dead on the battlefields. +After the reconquest of the Egyptian Sudan (1896-98) the +Hadendoa accepted the new order without demur.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Anglo-Egyptian Sudan</i>, edited by Count Gleichen (London, +1905); Sir F. R. Wingate, <i>Mahdism and the Egyptian Sudan</i> (London, +1891); G. Sergi, <i>Africa: Anthropology of the Hamitic Race</i> (1897); +A. H. Keane, <i>Ethnology of the Egyptian Sudan</i> (1884).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HADERSLEBEN<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (Dan. <i>Haderslev</i>), a town of Germany, in +the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein, 31 m. N. from +Flensburg. Pop. (1905) 9289. It lies in a pleasant valley on the +Hadersleben fjord, which is about 9 m. in length, and communicates +with the Little Belt, and at the junction of the +main line of railway from Woyens with three vicinal lines. The +principal buildings are the beautiful church of St Mary, dating +from the 13th century, the theological seminary established in +1870, the gymnasium and the hospital. The industries include +iron-founding, tanning, and the manufacture of machines, +tobacco and gloves. The harbour is only accessible to small +vessels.</p> + +<p>Hadersleben is first mentioned in 1228, and received municipal +rights from Duke Waldemar II. in 1292. It suffered considerably +during the wars between Schleswig and Holstein in the 15th +century. In November 1864 it passed with Schleswig to Prussia. +Two Danish kings, Frederick II. and Frederick III., were born +at Hadersleben.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Sach, <i>Der Ursprung der Stadt Hadersleben</i> (Hadersleben, +1892).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HADING, JANE<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (1859-  ), French actress, whose real name +was Jeanne Alfrédine Tréfouret, was born on the 25th of +November 1859 at Marseilles, where her father was an actor at +the Gymnase. She was trained at the local Conservatoire and +was engaged in 1873 for the theatre at Algiers, and afterwards +for the Khedivial theatre at Cairo, where she played, in turn, +coquette, soubrette and <i>ingénue</i> parts. Expectations had been +raised by her voice, and when she returned to Marseilles she sang +in operetta, besides acting in <i>Ruy Blas</i>. Her Paris début was +in <i>La Chaste Suzanne</i> at the Palais Royal, and she was again +heard in operetta at the Renaissance. In 1883 she had a great +success at the Gymnase in <i>Le Maître de forges</i>. In 1884 she +married Victor Koning (1842-1894), the manager of that theatre, +but divorced him in 1887. In 1888 she toured America with +Coquelin, and on her return helped to give success to Lavedan’s +<i>Prince d’Aurec</i>, at the Vaudeville. Her reputation as one of the +leading actresses of the day was now established not only in +France but in America and England. Her later répertoire +included <i>Le Demi-monde</i>, Capus’s <i>La Châtelaine</i>, Maurice +Donnay’s <i>Retour de Jérusalem</i>, <i>La Princesse Georges</i> by Dumas +fils, and Émile Bergerat’s <i>Plus que reine</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HADLEIGH,<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> a market town in the Sudbury parliamentary +division of Suffolk, England; 70 m. N.E. from London, the +terminus of a branch of the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of +Urban district (1901), 3245. It lies pleasantly in a well-wooded +country on the small river Brett, a tributary of the Stour. The +church of St Mary is of good Perpendicular work, with Early +English tower and Decorated spire. The Rectory Tower, a +turreted gate-house of brick, dates from c. 1495. The gild-hall +is a Tudor building, and there are other examples of this period. +There are a town-hall and corn exchange, and an industry in the +manufacture of matting and in malting. Hadleigh was one of +the towns in which the woollen industry was started by Flemings, +and survived until the 18th century. Among the rectors of +Hadleigh several notable names appear, such as Rowland Taylor, +the martyr, who was burned at the stake outside the town in +1555, and Hugh James Rose, during whose tenancy of the rectory +an initiatory meeting of the leaders of the Oxford Movement +took place here in 1833.</p> + +<p>Hadleigh, called by the Saxons Heapde-leag, appears in +Domesday Book as Hetlega. About 885 Æthelflæd, lady of the +Mercians, with the consent of Æthelred her husband, gave +Hadleigh to Christ Church, Canterbury. The dean and chapter +of Canterbury have held possession of it ever since the Dissolution. +In the 17th century Hadleigh was famous for the manufacture +of cloth, and in 1618 was sufficiently important to receive +incorporation. It was constituted a free borough under the title +of the mayor, aldermen and burgesses of Hadleigh. In 1635, in +a list of the corporate towns of Suffolk to be assessed for ship +money, Hadleigh is named as third in importance. In 1636, +owing to a serious visitation of the plague, 200 families were +thrown out of work, and in 1687 so much had its importance +declined that it was deprived of its charter. An unsuccessful +attempt to recover it was made in 1701. There is evidence of +the existence of a market here as early as the 13th century. +James I., in his charter of incorporation, granted fairs on Monday +and Tuesday in Whitsun week, and confirmed an ancient fair +at Michaelmas and a market on Monday.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HADLEY, ARTHUR TWINING<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (1856-  ), American political +economist and educationist, president of Yale University, +was born in New Haven, Connecticut, on the 23rd of April +1856. He was the son of James Hadley, the philologist, from +whom, as from his mother—whose brother, Alexander Catlin +Twining (1801-1884), was an astronomer and authority on constitutional +law—he inherited unusual mathematical ability. +He graduated at Yale in 1876 as valedictorian, having taken +prizes in English, classics and astronomy; studied political +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page799" id="page799"></a>799</span> +science at Yale (1876-1877) and at Berlin (1878-1879); was +a tutor at Yale in 1879-1883, instructor in political science in +1883-1886, professor of political science in 1886-1891, professor +of political economy in 1891-1899, and dean of the Graduate +School in 1892-1895; and in 1899 became president of Yale +University—the first layman to hold that office. He was +commissioner of the Connecticut bureau of labour statistics +in 1885-1887. As an economist he first became widely known +through his investigation of the railway question and his study +of railway rates, which antedated the popular excitement as to +rebates. His <i>Railroad Transportation, its History and Laws</i> +(1885) became a standard work, and appeared in Russian (1886) +and French (1887); he testified as an expert on transportation +before the Senate committee which drew up the Interstate +Commerce Law; and wrote on railways and transportation for +the Ninth and Tenth Editions (of which he was one of the +editors) of the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>, for Lalor’s <i>Cyclopaedia +of Political Science, Political Economy, and Political History of +the United Stales</i> (3 vols., 1881-1884), for <i>The American Railway</i> +(1888), and for <i>The Railroad Gazette</i> in 1884-1891, and for other +periodicals. His idea of the broad scope of economic science, +especially of the place of ethics in relation to political economy +and business, is expressed in his writings and public addresses. +In 1907-1908 he was Theodore Roosevelt professor of American +History and Institutions in the university of Berlin.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Among his other publications are: <i>Economics: an Account of the +Relations between Private Property and Public Welfare</i> (1896); <i>The +Education of the American Citizen</i> (1901); <i>The Relations between +Freedom and Responsibility in the Evolution of Democratic Government</i> +(1903, in Yale Lectures on the Responsibilities of Citizenship); +<i>Baccalaureate Addresses</i> (1907); and <i>Standards of Public Morality</i> +(1907), being the Kennedy Lectures for 1906.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HADLEY, JAMES<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (1821-1872), American scholar, was born +on the 30th of March 1821 in Fairfield, Herkimer county, New +York, where his father was professor of chemistry in Fairfield +Medical College. At the age of nine an accident lamed him for +life. He graduated from Yale in 1842, having entered the +Junior class in 1840; studied in the Theological Department of +Yale, and in 1844-1845 was a tutor in Middlebury College. +He was tutor at Yale in 1845-1848, assistant professor of Greek +in 1848-1851, and professor of Greek, succeeding President +Woolsey, from 1851 until his death in Hew Haven on the 14th +of November 1872. As an undergraduate he showed himself an +able mathematician, but the influence of Edward Elbridge +Salisbury, under whom Hadley and W. D. Whitney studied +Sanskrit together, turned his attention toward the study of +language. He knew Greek, Latin, Sanskrit, Hebrew, Arabic, +Armenian, several Celtic languages and the languages of modern +Europe; but he published little, and his scholarship found scant +outlet in the college class-room. His most original written work +was an essay on Greek accent, published in a German version +in Curtius’s <i>Studien zur griechischen und lateinischen Grammatik</i>. +Hadley’s <i>Greek Grammar</i> (1860; revised by Frederic de Forest +Allen, 1884) was based on Curtius’s <i>Schulgrammatik</i> (1852, 1855, +1857, 1859), and long held its place in American schools. Hadley +was a member of the American Committee for the revision of the +New Testament, was president of the American Oriental Society +(1871-1872), and contributed to Webster’s dictionary an essay +on the <i>History of the English Language</i>. In 1873 were published +his <i>Introduction to Roman Law</i> (edited by T. D. Woolsey) and +his <i>Essays, Philological and Critical</i> (edited by W. D. Whitney).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the memorial by Noah Porter in <i>The New Englander</i>, vol. +xxxii. (Jan. 1873), pp. 35-55; and the sketch by his son, A. T. +Hadley, in <i>Biographical Memoirs</i> of the National Academy of Sciences, +vol. v. (1905), pp. 247-254.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HADLEY,<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> a township of Hampshire county, Massachusetts, +U.S.A., on the Connecticut river, about 20 m. N. of Springfield, +served by the Boston & Maine railway. Pop. (1900), 1789; +(1905, state census), 1895; (1910) 1999. Area, about 20 sq. m. +The principal villages are Hadley (or Hadley Center) and North +Hadley. The level country along the river is well adapted to +tobacco culture, and the villages are engaged in the manufacture +of tobacco and brooms. Hadley was settled in 1659 by members +of the churches in Hartford and Wethersfield, Connecticut, who +were styled “Strict Congregationalists” and withdrew from these +Connecticut congregations because of ecclesiastical and doctrinal +laxity there. At first the town was called Norwottuck, but within +a year or two it was named after Hadleigh in England, and was +incorporated under this name in 1661. Hopkins Academy (1815) +developed from Hopkins school, founded here in 1664. The +English regicides Edward Whalley and his son-in-law William +Goffe found a refuge at Hadley from 1664 apparently until +their deaths, and there is a tradition that Goffe or Whalley in +1675 led the people in repelling an Indian attack. From 1675 +to 1713 Hadley, being in almost constant danger of attack from +the Indians, was protected by a palisade enclosure and by +stockades around the meeting-house. From Hadley, Hatfield +was set apart in 1670, South Hadley in 1753, and Amherst in +1759.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Alice M. Walker, <i>Historic Hadley</i> (New York, 1906); and +Sylvester Judd, <i>History of Hadley</i> (Northampton, 1863; new ed., +1905).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HADRAMUT,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> a district on the south coast of Arabia, bounded +W. by Yemen, E. by Oman and N. by the Dahna desert. The +modern Arabs restrict the name to the coast between Balhāf +and Sihut, and the valley of the Wadi Hadramut in the interior; +in its wider and commonly accepted signification it includes also +the Mahra and Gāra coasts extending eastwards to Mirbat; +thus defined, its limits are between 14° and 18° N. and 47° 30′ +to 55° E., with a total length of 550 m. and a breadth of 150 m.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The coastal plain is narrow, rarely exceeding 10 m. in width, +and in places the hills extend to the seashore. The principal ports +are Mukalla and Shihr, both considerable towns, and Kusair and +Raida, small fishing villages; inland there are a few villages near +the foot of the hills, with a limited area of cultivation irrigated by +springs or wells in the hill torrent beds. Behind the littoral plain a +range of mountains, or rather a high plateau, falling steeply to the +south and more gently to the north, extends continuously from the +Yemen highlands on the west to the mouth of the Hadramut valley, +from which a similar range extends with hardly a break to the border +of Oman. Its crest-line is generally some 30 m. from the coast, and +its average height between 4000 and 5000 ft. A number of wadis or +ravines cutting deeply into the plateau run northward to the main +Wadi Hadramut, a broad valley lying nearly east and west, with a +total length from its extreme western heads on the Yemen highlands +to its mouth near Sihut of over 500 m. Beyond the valley and +steadily encroaching on it lies the great desert extending for 300 m. +to the borders of Nejd. The most westerly village in the main valley +is Shabwa, in ancient days the capital, but now almost buried by +the advancing desert. Lower down the first large villages are Henān +and Ajlania, near which the wadis ’Amd, Duwān and el ’Ain unite, +forming the W. Kasr. In the W. Duwān and its branches are the +villages of Haura, el Hajrēn, Kaidun and al Khurēba. Below Haura +for some 60 m. there is a succession of villages with fields, gardens +and date groves; several tributaries join on either side, among which +the W. bin Ali and W. Adim from the south contain numerous +villages. The principal towns are Shibām, al Ghurfa, Saiyun, +Tariba, el Ghuraf, Tarim, formerly the chief place, ’Ainat and el +Kasm. Below the last-named place there is little cultivation Or +settled population. The shrines of Kabr Sālih and Kabr Hud are +looked on as specially sacred, and are visited by numbers of pilgrims. +The former, which is in the Wadi Ser about 20 m. N.W. of Shibām, +was explored by Theodore Bent in 1894; the tomb itself is of no +interest, but in the neighbourhood there are extensive ruins with +Himyaritic inscriptions on the stones. Kabr Hud is in the main +valley some distance east of Kasm; not far from it is Bir Borhut, +a natural grotto, where fumes of burning sulphur issue from a number +of volcanic vents; al-Masudi mentions it in the 10th century as an +active volcano. Except after heavy rain, there is no running water +in the Hadramut valley, the cultivation therefore depends on +artificial irrigation from wells. The principal crops are wheat, +millet, indigo, dates and tobacco; this latter, known as Hamumi +tobacco, is of excellent quality.</p> +</div> + +<p>Hadramut has preserved its name from the earliest times; +it occurs in Genesis as Hazarmaveth and Hadoram, sons of +Joktan; and the old Greek geographers mention Adramytta and +Chadramotites in their accounts of the frankincense country. +The numerous ruins discovered in the W. Duwān and Adim, as +well as in the main valley, are evidences of its former prosperity +and civilization.</p> + +<p>The people, known as Hadrami (plural Ḣadārim), belong +generally to the south Arabian stock, claiming descent from +Ya‘rab bin Kahtān. There is, however, a large number of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page800" id="page800"></a>800</span> +Seyyids or descendants of the Prophet, and of townsmen of +northern origin, besides a considerable class of African or mixed +descent. Van den Berg estimates the total population of +Hadramut (excluding the Mahra and Gāra) at 150,000, of which +he locates 50,000 in the valley between Shibām and Tarim, +25,000 in the W. Duwān and its tributaries, and 25,000 in +Mukalla, Shihr and the coast villages, leaving 50,000 for the non-agricultural +population scattered over the rest of the country, +probably an excessive estimate.</p> + +<p>The Seyyids, descendants of Ḥosain, grandson of Mahomet, +form a numerous and highly respected aristocracy. They are +divided into families, the chiefs of which are known as Munsibs, +who are looked on as the religious leaders of the people, and +are even in some cases venerated as saints. Among the leading +families are the Sheikh Abu Bakr of Aināt, the el-Aidrus of Shihr +and the Sakkāf of Saiyun. They do not bear arms, nor occupy +themselves in trade or manual labour or even agriculture; +though owning a large proportion of the land, they employ +slaves or hired labourers to cultivate it. As compared with the +other classes, they are well educated, and are strict in their +observance of religious duties, and owing to the respect due to +their descent, they exercise a strong influence both in temporal +and spiritual affairs.</p> + +<p>The tribesmen, as in Arabia generally, are the predominant +class in the population; all the adults carry arms; some of the +tribes have settled towns and villages, others lead a nomadic life, +keeping, however, within the territory which is recognized as +belonging to the tribe. They are divided into sections or families, +each headed by a chief or abu (lit. father), while the head of the +tribe is called the mukaddam or sultan; the authority of the +chief depends largely on his personality: he is the leader in +peace and in war, but the tribesmen are not his subjects; he +can only rule with their support. The most powerful tribe at +present in Hadramut is the Kaiti, a branch of the Yāfa tribe +whose settlements lie farther west. Originally invited by the +Seyyids to protect the settled districts from the attacks of +marauding tribes, they have established themselves as practically +the rulers of the country, and now possess the coast district with +the towns of Shihr and Mukalla, as well as Haura, Hajrēn and +Shibām in the interior. The head of the family has accumulated +great wealth, and risen to the highest position in the service of +the nizam of Hyderabad in India, as Jamadar, or commander +of an Arab levy composed of his tribesmen, numbers of whom go +abroad to seek their fortune. The Kathiri tribe was formerly +the most powerful; they occupy the towns of Saiyun, Tarim +and el-Ghuraf in the richest part of the main Hadramut valley. +The chiefs of both the Kaiti and Kathiri are in political relations +with the British government, through the resident at Aden (<i>q.v.</i>). +The ’Amudi in the W. Duwān, and the Nahdi, Awāmir and +Tamimi in the main valley, are the principal tribes possessing +permanent villages; the Saibān, Hamumi and Manāhil occupy +the mountains between the main valley and coast.</p> + +<p>The townsmen are the free inhabitants of the towns and +villages as distinguished from the Seyyids and the tribesmen: +they do not carry arms, but are the working members of the +community, merchants, artificers, cultivators and servants, +and are entirely dependent on the tribes and chiefs under whose +protection they live. The servile class contains a large African +element, brought over formerly when the slave trade flourished +on this coast; as in all Mahommedan countries they are well +treated, and often rise to positions of trust.</p> + +<p>As already mentioned, a large number of Arabs from Hadramut +go abroad; the Kaiti tribesmen take service in India in the +irregular troops of Hyderabad; emigration on a large scale has +also gone on, to the Dutch colonies in Java and Sumatra, since +the beginning of the 19th century. According to the census of +1885, quoted by Van den Berg in his <i>Report</i> published by the +government of the Dutch East Indies in 1886, the number of +Arabs in those colonies actually born in Arabia was 2500, while +those born in the colonies exceeded 20,000; nearly all of the +former are from the towns in the Hadramut valley between +Shibām and Tarim. Mukalla and Shihr have a considerable +trade with the Red Sea and Persian Gulf ports, as well as with +the ports of Aden, Dhafar and Muscat; a large share of this is +in the hands of Parsee and other British Indian traders who +have established themselves in the Hadramut ports. The +principal imports are wheat, rice, sugar, piece goods and hardware. +The exports are small; the chief items are honey, tobacco +and sharks’ fins. In the towns in the interior the principal +industries are weaving and dyeing.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The Mahra country adjoins the Hadramut proper, and extends +along the coast from Sihut eastwards to the east of Kamar Bay, +where the Gāra coast begins and stretches to Mirbat. The sultan of +the Mahra, to whom Sokotra also belongs, lives at Kishin, a poor +village consisting of a few scattered houses about 30 m. west of Rās +Fartak. Sihut is a similar village 20 m. farther west. The mountains +rise to a height of 4000 ft. within a short distance of the coast, +covered in places with trees, among which are the myrrh- and +frankincense-bearing shrubs. These gums, for which the coast was +celebrated in ancient days, are still produced; the best quality is +obtained in the Gāra country, on the northern slope of the mountains. +Dhafar and the mountains behind it were visited and surveyed by +Mr Bent’s party in 1894. There are several thriving villages on the +coast, of which el-Hafa is the principal port of export for frankincense; +9000 cwt. is exported annually to Bombay.</p> + +<p>Ruins of Sabaean buildings were found by J. T. Bent in the neighbourhood +of Dhafar, and a remarkable cove or small harbour was +discovered at Khor Rori, which he identified with the ancient port +of Moscha.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—L. Van den Berg, <i>Le Hadramut et les colonies +arabes</i> (Batavia, 1885); L. Hirsch, <i>Reise in Südarabien</i> (Leiden, +1897); J. T. Bent, <i>Southern Arabia</i> (London, 1895); A. von Wrede, +<i>Reise in Hadhramut</i> (Brunswick, 1870); H. J. Carter, <i>Trans. Bombay +As. Soc.</i> (1845), 47-51; <i>Journal R.G.S.</i> (1837).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. A. W.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HADRIA<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> [mod. <i>Atri</i> (<i>q.v.</i>)], perhaps the original terminal +point of the Via Caecilia, Italy. It belonged to the Praetutii. +It became a colony of Rome in 290 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and remained faithful +to Rome. The coins which it issued (probably during the Punic +Wars), are remarkable. The crypt of the cathedral of the +modern town was originally a large Roman cistern; another +forms the foundation of the ducal palace; and in the eastern +portion of the town there is a complicated system of underground +passages for collecting and storing water.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Notizie degli scavi</i> (1902), 3.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HADRIAN<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Publius Aelius Hadrianus</span>), Roman emperor +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 117-138, was born on the 24th of January <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 76, at +Italica in Hispania Baetica (according to others, at Rome), +where his ancestors, originally from Hadria in Picenum, had +been settled since the time of the Scipios. On his father’s death +in 85 or 86 he was placed under the guardianship of two fellow-countrymen, +his kinsman Ulpius Trajanus (afterwards the +emperor Trajan), and Caelius Attianus (afterwards prefect of +the praetorian guard). He spent the next five years at Rome, +but at the age of fifteen he returned to his native place and +entered upon a military career. He was soon, however, recalled +to Rome by Trajan, and appointed to the offices of <i>decemvir +stlitibus judicandis</i>, <i>praefectus feriarum Latinarum</i>, and <i>sevir +turmae equitum Romanorum</i>. About 95 he was military tribune +in lower Moesia. In 97 he was sent to upper Germany to convey +the congratulations of the army to Trajan on his adoption by +Nerva; and, in January of the following year, he hastened to +announce the death of Nerva to Trajan at Cologne. Trajan, +who had been set against Hadrian by reports of his extravagance, +soon took him into favour again, chiefly owing to the goodwill +of the empress Plotina, who brought about the marriage of +Hadrian with (Vibia) Sabina, Trajan’s great-niece. In 101 +Hadrian was quaestor, in 105 tribune of the people, in 106 +praetor. He served with distinction in both Dacian campaigns: +in the second Trajan presented him with a valuable ring which +he himself had received from Nerva, a token of regard which +seemed to designate Hadrian as his successor. In 107 Hadrian +was <i>legatus praetorius</i> of lower Pannonia, in 108 <i>consul suffectus</i>, +in 112 <i>archon</i> at Athens, <i>legatus</i> in the Parthian campaign (113-117), +in 117 <i>consul designatus</i> for the following year, in 119 consul +for the third and last time only for four months. When Trajan, +owing to a severe illness, decided to return home from the East, +he left Hadrian in command of the army and governor of Syria. +On the 9th of August 117, Hadrian, at Antioch, was informed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page801" id="page801"></a>801</span> +of his adoption by Trajan, and, on the 11th, of the death of the +latter at Selinus in Cilicia. According to Dio Cassius (lxix. 1) +the adoption was entirely fictitious, the work of Plotina and +Attianus, by whom Trajan’s death was concealed for a few days +in order to facilitate the elevation of Hadrian. Whichever may +have been the truth, his succession was confirmed by the army +and the senate. He hastened to propitiate the former by a +donative of twice the usual amount, and excused his hasty +acceptance of the throne to the senate by alleging the impatient +zeal of the soldiers and the necessity of an imperator for the +welfare of the state.</p> + +<p>Hadrian’s first important act was to abandon as untenable +the conquests of Trajan beyond the Euphrates (Assyria, Mesopotamia +and Armenia), a recurrence to the traditional policy +of Augustus. The provinces were unsettled, the barbarians +on the borders restless and menacing, and Hadrian wisely judged +that the old limits of Augustus afforded the most defensible +frontier. Mesopotamia and Assyria were given back to the +Parthians, and the Armenians were allowed a king of their own. +From Antioch Hadrian set out for Dacia to punish the Roxolani, +who, incensed by a reduction of the tribute hitherto paid them, +had invaded the Danubian provinces. An arrangement was +patched up, and while Hadrian was still in Dacia he received +news of a conspiracy against his life. Four citizens of consular +rank were accused of being concerned in it, and were put to death +by order of the senate before he could interfere. Hurrying back +to Rome, Hadrian endeavoured to remove the unfavourable +impression produced by the whole affair and to gain the goodwill +of senate and people. He threw the responsibility for the +executions upon the prefect of the praetorian guard, and swore +that he would never punish a senator without the assent of the +entire body, to which he expressed the utmost deference and +consideration. Large sums of money and games and shows +were provided for the people, and, in addition, all the arrears +of taxation for the last fifteen years (about £10,000,000) were +cancelled and the bonds burnt in the Forum of Trajan. Trajan’s +scheme for the “alimentation” of poor children was carried out +upon a larger scale under the superintendence of a special official +called <i>praefectus alimentorum</i>.</p> + +<p>The record of Hadrian’s journeys<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> through all parts of the +empire forms the chief authority for the events of his life down +to his final settlement in the capital during his last years. They +can only be briefly touched upon here. His first great journey +probably lasted from 121 to 126. After traversing Gaul he visited +the Germanic provinces on the Rhine, and crossed over to +Britain (spring, 122), where he built the great rampart from +the Tyne to the Solway, which bears his name (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Britain</a></span>: +<i>Roman</i>). He returned through Gaul into Spain, and then +proceeded to Mauretania, where he suppressed an insurrection. +A war with the Parthians was averted by a personal interview +with their king (123). From the Parthian frontier he travelled +through Asia Minor and the islands of the Aegean to Athens +(autumn, 125), where he introduced various political and commercial +changes, was initiated at the Eleusinia, and presided +at the celebration of the greater Dionysia. After visiting Central +Greece and Peloponnesus, he returned by way of Sicily to Rome +(end of 126). The next year was spent at Rome, and, after a +visit to Africa, he set out on his second great journey (September +128). He travelled by way of Athens, where he completed and +dedicated the buildings (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Athens</a></span>) begun during his first +visit, chief of which was the Olympieum or temple of Olympian +Zeus, on which occasion Hadrian himself assumed the name of +Olympius. In the spring of 129 he visited Asia Minor and Syria, +where he invited the kings and princes of the East to a meeting +(probably at Samosata). Having passed the winter at Antioch, +he set out for the south (spring, 130). He ordered Jerusalem +to be rebuilt (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jerusalem</a></span>) under the name of Aelia Capitolina, +and made his way through Arabia to Egypt, where he restored +the tomb of Pompey at Pelusium with great magnificence. +After a short stay at Alexandria he took an excursion up the +Nile, during which he lost his favourite Antinous. On the 21st +of November 130, Hadrian (or at any rate his wife Sabina) +heard the music which issued at sunrise from the statue of +Memnon at Thebes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Memnon</a></span>). From Egypt Hadrian +returned through Syria to Europe (his movements are obscure), +but was obliged to hurry back to Palestine (spring, 133) to give +his personal attention (this is denied by some historians) to the +revolt of the Jews, which had broken out (autumn, 131, or +spring, 132) after he had left Syria. The founding of a Roman +colony on the site of Jerusalem (Dio Cass. lxix. 12) and the +prohibition of circumcision (Spartianus, <i>Hadrianus</i>, 14) are said +to have been the causes of the war, but authorities differ considerably +as to this and as to the measures which followed the +revolt (see art. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>; also E. Schürer, <i>Hist. of the Jewish People</i>, +Eng. tr., div. 1, vol. ii. p. 288; and S. Krauss in <i>Jewish Encyc. +s.v.</i> “Hadrian”), which lasted till 135. Leaving the conduct +of affairs in the hands of his most capable general, Julius Severus, +in the spring of 134 Hadrian returned to Rome. The remaining +years of his life were spent partly in the capital, partly in his +villa at Tibur. His health now began to fail, and it became +necessary for him to choose a successor, as he had no +children of his own. Against the advice of his relatives and +friends he adopted L. Ceionius Commodus under the name of +L. Aelius Caesar, who was in a feeble state of health and +died on the 1st of January 138, before he had an opportunity +of proving his capabilities. Hadrian then adopted Arrius +Antoninus (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Antoninus Pius</a></span>) on condition that he should +adopt M. Annius Verus (afterwards the emperor Marcus Aurelius) +and the son of L. Aelius Caesar, L. Ceionius Commodus (afterwards +the emperor Commodus). Hadrian died at Baiae on the +10th of July 138.</p> + +<p>He was without doubt one of the most capable emperors +who ever occupied the throne, and devoted his great and varied +talents to the interests of the state. One of his chief objects was +the abolition of distinctions between the provinces and the +mother country, finally carried out by Caracalla, while at the +same time he did not neglect reforms that were urgently called +for in Italy. Provincial governors were kept under strict supervision; +extortion was practically unheard of; the <i>jus Latii</i> was +bestowed upon several communities; special officials were +instituted for the control of the finances; and the emperor’s +interest in provincial affairs was shown by bis personal assumption +of various municipal offices. New towns were founded and old +ones restored; new streets were laid out, and aqueducts, temples +and magnificent buildings constructed. In Italy itself the administration +of justice and the finances required special attention. +Four <i>legati juridici</i> (or simply <i>juridici</i>) of consular rank were +appointed for Italy, who took over certain important judicial +functions formerly exercised by local magistrates (cases of +<i>fideicommissa</i>, the nomination of guardians). The judicial +council (<i>consiliarii Augusti</i>, later called <i>consistorium</i>), composed +of persons of the highest rank (especially jurists), became a +permanent body of advisers, although merely consultative. +Roman law owes much to Hadrian, who instructed Salvius +Julianus to draw up an <i>edictum perpetuum</i>, to a great extent the +basis of Justinian’s <i>Corpus juris</i> (see M. Schanz, <i>Geschichte der +römischen Literatur</i>, iii. p. 167). In the administration of +finance, in addition to the remission of arrears already mentioned, +a revision of claims was ordered to be made every fifteen years, +thereby anticipating the “indictions” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Calendar</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chronology</a></span>). +Direct collection of taxes by imperial procurators was +substituted for the system of farming, and a special official +(<i>advocatus fisci</i>) was instituted to look after the interests of the +imperial treasury. The gift of “coronary gold” (<i>aurum coronarium</i>), +presented to the emperor on certain occasions, was +entirely remitted in the case of Italy, and partly in the case of the +provinces. The administration of the postal service throughout +the empire was taken over by the state, and municipal officials +were relieved from the burden of maintaining the imperial posts. +Humane regulations as to the treatment of slaves were strictly +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page802" id="page802"></a>802</span> +enforced; the master was forbidden to put his slave to death, +but was obliged to bring him before a court of justice; if he +ill-treated him it was a penal offence. The sale of slaves (male +and female) for immoral and gladiatorial purposes was forbidden; +the custom of putting all the household to death when their +master was murdered was modified. The public baths were kept +under strict supervision; the toga was ordered to be worn in +public by senators and equites on solemn occasions; extravagant +banquets were prohibited; rules were made to prevent the +congestion of traffic in the streets. In military matters Hadrian +was a strict disciplinarian, but his generosity and readiness to +share their hardships endeared him to the soldiers. He effected +a material and moral improvement in the conditions of service +and mode of life, but in other respects he does not appear to +have introduced any important military reforms. During his +reign an advance was made in the direction of creating an organized +body of servants at the disposal of the emperor by the +appointment of equites to important administrative posts, +without their having performed the <i>militiae equestres</i> (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Equites</a></span>). Among these posts were various procuratorships +(chief of which was that of the imperial fisc), and the offices <i>ab +epistulis</i>, <i>a rationibus</i> and <i>a libellis</i> (secretary, accountant, +receiver of petitions). The prefect of the praetorian guard was +now the most important person in the state next to the emperor, +and subsequently became a supreme judge of appeal. Among the +magnificent buildings erected by Hadrian mention may be made +of the following: In the capital, the temple of Venus and Roma; +his splendid mausoleum, which formed the groundwork of the +castle of St Angelo; the pantheon of Agrippa; the Basilica +Neptuni; at Tibur the great villa 8 m. in extent, a kind of epitome +of the world, with miniatures of the most celebrated places +in the provinces. Athens, however, was the favourite site of +his architectural labours; here he built the temple of Olympian +Zeus, the Panhellenion, the Pantheon, the library, a gymnasium +and a temple of Hera.</p> + +<p>Hadrian was fond of the society of learned men—poets, +scholars, rhetoricians and philosophers—whom he alternately +humoured and ridiculed. In painting, sculpture and music he +considered himself the equal of specialists. The architect +Apollodorus of Damascus owed his banishment and death to his +outspoken criticism of the emperor’s plans. The sophist +Favorinus was more politic; when reproached for yielding too +readily to the emperor in some grammatical discussion, he replied +that it was unwise to contradict the master of thirty legions. +The Athenaeum (<i>q.v.</i>) owed its foundation to Hadrian. He was +a man of considerable intellectual attainments, of prodigious +memory, master of both Latin and Greek, and wrote prose and +verse with equal facility. His taste, however, was curious; he +preferred Cato the elder, Ennius and Caelius Antipater to Cicero, +Virgil and Sallust, the obscure poet Antimachus to Homer and +Plato. As a writer he displayed great versatility. He composed +an autobiography, published under the name of his freedman +Phlegon; wrote speeches, fragments of two of which are preserved +in inscriptions (a panegyric on his mother-in-law Matidia, and +an address to the soldiers at Lambaesis in Africa). In imitation +of Antimachus he wrote a work called <i>Catachannae</i>, probably a +kind of miscellanea. The Latin and Greek anthologies contain +about a dozen epigrams under his name. The letter of Hadrian +to the consul Servianus (in Vopiscus, <i>Vita Saturnini</i>, 8) is no +longer considered genuine. Hadrian’s celebrated dying address +to his soul may here be quoted:—</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Animula vagula, blandula,</p> +<p class="i05">Hospes comesque corporis,</p> +<p class="i05">Quae nunc abibis in loca</p> +<p class="i05">Pallidula, rigida, nudula;</p> +<p class="i05">Nec, ut soles, dabis iocos?”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p>The character of Hadrian exhibits a mass of contradictions, +well summed up by Spartianus (14, 11). He was grave and gay, +affable and dignified, cruel and gentle, mean and generous, eager +for fame yet not vain, impulsive and cautious, secretive and open. +He hated eminent qualities in others, but gathered round him the +most distinguished men of the state; at one time affectionate +towards his friends, at another he mistrusted and put them to +death. In fact, he was only consistent in his inconsistency +(<i>semper in omnibus varius</i>). Although he endeavoured to win +the popular favour, he was more feared than loved. A man of +unnatural passions and grossly superstitious, he was an ardent +lover of nature. But, with all his faults, he devoted himself so +indefatigably to the service of the state, that the period of his +reign could be characterized as a “golden age.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The chief ancient authorities for the reign of Hadrian are: the +life by Aelius Spartianus in the <i>Scriptores historiae Augustae</i> (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Augustan History</a></span> and bibliography); the epitome of Dio Cassius +(lxix.) by Xiphilinus; Aurelius Victor, Epit. 14, probably based on +Marius Maximus; Eutropius viii. 6; Zonaras xi. 23; Suidas, <i>s.v.</i> +<span class="grk" title="Adrianos">Ἀδριανός</span>: and numerous inscriptions and coins. The autobiography +was used by both Dio Cassius and Marius Maximus. Modern +authorities: C. Merivale, <i>Hist. of the Romans under the Empire</i>, ch. +lxvi.; H. Schiller, <i>Geschichte der römischen Kaiserzeit</i>, i. 2, p. 602 +(1883); J. B. Bury, <i>The Student’s Roman Empire</i> (1893), where a +concise table of the journeys is given; P. von Rohden, <i>s.v.</i> “Aelius” +(No. 64) in Pauly-Wissowa’s <i>Realencyclopädie</i>, i. 1 (1894); J. Dürr, +<i>Die Reisen des Kaisers Hadrian</i> (1881); F. Gregorovius, <i>The Emperor +Hadrian</i> (Eng. tr. by Mary E. Robinson, 1898); A. Hausrath, +<i>Neutestamentliche Zeitgeschichte</i>, iii. (1874); W. Schurz, <i>De mutationibus +in imperio ordinando ab imp. Hadr. factis</i>, i. (Bonn, 1883); +J. Plew, <i>Quellenuntersuchungen zur Geschichte des Kaisers Hadrian</i> +(Strassburg, 1890); O. T. Schulz, “Leben des Kaisers Hadrian,” +<i>Quellenanalysen</i> [of Spartianus’ <i>Vita</i>] (1904); E. Kornemann, +<i>Kaiser Hadrian und der letzte grosse Historiker von Rom</i> (1905); +W. Weber, <i>Untersuchungen zur Geschichte des Kaisers Hadrianus</i> +(1908); H. F. Hitzig, <i>Die Stellung Kaiser Hadrians in der römischen +Rechtsgeschichte</i> (1892); C. Schultess, <i>Bauten des Kaisers Hadrian</i> +(1898); G. Doublet, <i>Notes sur les œuvres littéraires de l’empéreur +Hadrien</i> (Toulouse, 1893); J. B. Lightfoot, <i>Apostolic Fathers</i>, ii. 1, +476 seq.; Sir W. M. Ramsay, <i>Church in the Roman Empire</i>, pp. 320 +seq.; V. Schultze, in Herzog-Hauck’s <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, vii. 315; +histories of Roman literature by Teuffel-Schwabe and Schanz. On +Aelius Caesar, see <i>Class. Quart.</i>, 1908, i.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. K.; J. H. F.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The chronology of Hadrian’s journeys—indeed, of the whole +reign—is confused and obscure. In the above the article by von +Rohden in Pauly-Wissowa’s <i>Realencyclopädie</i> has been followed. +Weber’s (see Bibliog.) is the most important discussion.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HADRIAN’S WALL,<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> the name usually given to the remains of +the Roman fortifications which defended the northern frontier of +the Roman province of Britain, between the Tyne and the Solway. +The works consisted of (1) a continuous defensive rampart with a +ditch in front and a road behind; (2) various forts, blockhouses +and towers along the rampart; and (3) an earthwork to the south +of it, generally called the Vallum, of uncertain use. The defensive +wall was probably first erected by Hadrian about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 122 as a +turf wall, and rebuilt in stone by Septimius Severus about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> +208. See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Britain</a></span>: <i>Roman</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HADRUMETUM,<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> a town of ancient Africa on the southern +extremity of the <i>sinus Neapolitanus</i> (mod. Gulf of Hammamet) +on the east coast of Tunisia. The site is partly occupied by the +modern town of Susa (<i>q.v.</i>). The form of the name Hadrumetum +varied much in antiquity; the Greeks called it <span class="grk" title="Adrymês, +Adrymêtos, Adramytês, Adramêtos">Ἀδρύμης, Ἀδρύμητος, Ἀδραμύτης, Ἀδράμητος</span>: the Romans <i>Adrumetum</i>, +<i>Adrimetum</i>, <i>Hadrumetum</i>, <i>Hadrymetum</i>, &c.; inscriptions and +coins gave <i>Hadrumetum</i>. The town was originally a Phoenician +colony founded by Tyrians long before Carthage (Sallust, +<i>Jug.</i> 19). It became subject to Carthage, but lost none of its +prosperity. Often mentioned during the Punic Wars, it was +captured by Agathocles in 310, and was the refuge of Hannibal +and the remnants of his army after the battle of Zama in 202. +During the last Punic War it gave assistance to the Romans; +after the fall of Carthage in 146 it received an accession of +territory and the title of <i>civitas libera</i> (Appian, <i>Punica</i>, xciv.; +<i>C.I.L.</i> i. p. 84). Caesar landed there in 46 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> on his way to +the victory of Thapsus (<i>De bello Afric.</i> iii.; Suetonius, <i>Div. +Jul.</i> lix.).</p> + +<p>In the organization of the African provinces Hadrumetum +became a capital of the province of Byzacena. Its harbour was +extremely busy and the surrounding country unusually fertile. +Trajan made it a Latin colony under the title of <i>Colonia +Concordia Ulpia Trajana Augusta Frugifera Hadrumetina</i>; a +dedication to the emperor Gordian the Good, found by M. +Cagnat at Susa in 1883 gives these titles to the town, and at +the same time identifies it with Susa. Quarrels arose between +Hadrumetum and its neighbour Thysdrus in connexion with +the temple of Minerva situated on the borders of their respective +territories (Frontinus, <i>Gromatici</i>, ed. Lachmannus, p. 57); Vespasian +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page803" id="page803"></a>803</span> +when pro-consul of Africa had to repress a sedition among its +inhabitants (Suetonius, <i>Vesp.</i> iv.; Tissot, <i>Fastes de la prov. +d’Afrique</i>, p. 66); it was the birthplace of the emperor Albinus. +At this period the metropolis of Byzacena was after Carthage +the most important town in Roman Africa. It was the seat of a +bishopric, and its bishops are mentioned at the councils of 258, +348, 393 and even later. Destroyed by the Vandals in 434 it was +rebuilt by Justinian and renamed Justinianopolis (Procop. <i>De +aedif.</i> vi. 6). The Arabic invasion at the end of the 7th century +destroyed the Byzantine towns, and the place became the haunt +of pirates, protected by the Kasbah (citadel); it was built on +the substructions of the Punic, Roman and Byzantine acropolis, +and is used by the French for military purposes. The Arabic +geographer Bakri gave a description of the chief Roman +buildings which were standing in his time (Bakri, <i>Descr. de +l’Afrique</i>, tr. by de Slane, p. 83 et seq.). The modern town of +Susa, despite its commercial prosperity, occupies only a third of +the old site.</p> + +<p>In 1863 the French engineer, A. Daux, discovered the jetties +and the moles of the commercial harbour, and the line of the +military harbour (Cothon); both harbours, which were mainly +artificial, are entirely silted up. There remains a fragment of +the fortifications of the Punic town, which had a total length +of 6410 metres, and remains of the substructions of the Byzantine +acropolis, of the circus, the theatre, the water cisterns, and of +other buildings, notably the interesting Byzantine basilica +which is now used as an Arab café (Kahwat-el-Kubba). In the +ruins there have been found numerous columns of Punic inscriptions, +Roman inscriptions and mosaic, among which is one +representing Virgil seated, holding the <i>Aeneid</i> in his hand; +another represents the Cretan labyrinth with Theseus and the +Minotaur (Héron de Villefosse, <i>Revue de l’Afrique française</i>, +v., December 1887, pp. 384 and 394; <i>Comptes rendus de l’Acad. +des Inscr. et Belles-Lettres</i>, 1892, p. 318; other mosaics, <i>ibid.</i>, +1896, p. 578; <i>Revue archéol.</i>, 1897). In 1904 Dr Carton and the +abbé Leynaud discovered huge Christian catacombs with several +miles of subterranean galleries to which access is obtained by a +small vaulted chamber. In these catacombs we find numerous +sarcophagi and inscriptions painted or engraved of the Roman +and Byzantine periods (<i>Comptes rendus de l’Acad. des Inscr. et +Belles-Lettres</i>, 1904-1907; Carton and Leynaud, <i>Les Catacombes +d’Hadrumète</i>, Susa, 1905). We can recognize also the Punic and +Pagan-Roman cemeteries (<i>C. R. de l’Acad. des Inscr. et Belles-Lettres</i>, +1887; <i>Bull. archéol. du Comité</i>, 1885, p. 149; 1903, +p. 157). The town had no Punic coins, but under the Roman +domination there were coins from the time of the Republic. +These are of bronze and bear the name of the city in abbreviations, +<span class="sc">Hadr</span> or <span class="sc">Hadrvm</span> accompanying the head of Neptune +or the Sun. We find also the names of local duumvirs. Under +Augustus the coins have on the obverse the imperial effigy, and +on the reverse the names and often the effigies of the pro-consuls +who governed the province, P. Quintilius Varus, L. Volusius +Saturninus and Q. Fabius Maximus Africanus. After Augustus +the mint was finally closed.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—A. Daux, <i>Recherches sur l’origine et l’emplacement +des emporia phéniciens dans le Zeugis et le Byzacium</i> (Paris, 1869); +Ch. Tissot, <i>Géographie comparée de la province romaine d’Afrique</i>, ii. +p. 149; Cagnat, <i>Explorations archéol. en Tunisie</i> (2nd and 3rd fasc., +1885); Lud. Müller, <i>Numismatique de l’Afrique ancienne</i>, ii p. 51; +M. Palat, in the <i>Bulletin arch. du Comité des travaux historiques</i> +(1885), pp. 121 and 150; <i>Revue archéologique</i> (1884 and 1897); <i>Bulletin +des antiquités africaines</i> (1884 and 1885); <i>Bulletin de la Société +archéologique de Sousse</i> (first published in 1903); <i>Atlas archéol. de +Tunisie</i> (4th fascicule, with the plan of Hadrumetum).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. B.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAECKEL, ERNST HEINRICH<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> (1834-  ), German biologist, +was born at Potsdam on the 16th of February 1834. He studied +medicine and science at Würzburg, Berlin and Vienna, having +for his masters such men as Johannes Müller, R. Virchow and +R. A. Kölliker, and in 1857 graduated at Berlin as M.D. and +M.Ch. At the wish of his father he began to practise as a doctor +in that city, but his patients were few in number, one reason +being that he did not wish them to be many, and after a short +time he turned to more congenial pursuits. In 1861, at the +instance of Carl Gegenbaur, he became <i>Privatdozent</i> at Jena; +in the succeeding year he was chosen extraordinary professor +of comparative anatomy and director of the Zoological Institute +in the same university; in 1865 he was appointed to a chair +of zoology which was specially established for his benefit. This +last position he retained for 43 years, in spite of repeated invitations +to migrate to more important centres, such as Strassburg +or Vienna, and at Jena he spent his life, with the exception of +the time he devoted to travelling in various parts of the world, +whence in every case he brought back a rich zoological harvest.</p> + +<p>As a field naturalist Haeckel displayed extraordinary power +and industry. Among his monographs may be mentioned those +on <i>Radiolaria</i> (1862), <i>Siphonophora</i> (1869), <i>Monera</i> (1870) and +<i>Calcareous Sponges</i> (1872), as well as several <i>Challenger</i> reports, +viz. <i>Deep-Sea Medusae</i> (1881), <i>Siphonophora</i> (1888), <i>Deep-Sea +Keratosa</i> (1889) and <i>Radiolaria</i> (1887), the last being accompanied +by 140 plates and enumerating over four thousand new species. +This output of systematic and descriptive work would alone have +constituted a good life’s work, but Haeckel in addition wrote +copiously on biological theory. It happened that just when he +was beginning his scientific career Darwin’s <i>Origin of Species</i> +was published (1859), and such was the influence it exercised +over him that he became the apostle of Darwinism in Germany. +He was, indeed, the first German biologist to give a whole-hearted +adherence to the doctrine of organic evolution and to +treat it as the cardinal conception of modern biology. It was he +who first brought it prominently before the notice of German men +of science in his first memoir on the <i>Radiolaria</i>, which was completely +pervaded with its spirit, and later at the congress of +naturalists at Stettin in 1863. Darwin himself has placed on +record the conviction that Haeckel’s enthusiastic propagandism +of the doctrine was the chief factor of its success in Germany. +His book on <i>General Morphology</i> (1866), published when he was +only thirty-two years old, was called by Huxley a suggestive +attempt to work out the practical application of evolution to +its final results; and if it does not take rank as a classic, it will +at least stand out as a landmark in the history of biological +doctrine in the 19th century. Although it contains a statement +of most of the views with which Haeckel’s name is associated, +it did not attract much attention on its first appearance, and +accordingly its author rewrote much of its substance in a more +popular style and published it a year or two later as the <i>Natural +History of Creation</i> (<i>Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte</i>), which was +far more successful. In it he divided morphology into two +sections—tectology, the science of organic individuality; and +promorphology, which aims at establishing a crystallography of +organic forms. Among other matters, he laid particular stress +on the “fundamental biogenetic law” that ontogeny recapitulates +phylogeny, that the individual organism in its +development is to a great extent an epitome of the form-modifications +undergone by the successive ancestors of the species in the +course of their historic evolution. His well-known “gastraea” +theory is an outcome of this generalization. He divided the +whole animal creation into two categories—the Protozoa or +unicellular animals, and the Metazoa or multicellular animals, +and he pointed out that while the former remain single-celled +throughout their existence, the latter are only so at the beginning, +and are subsequently built up of innumerable cells, the single +primitive egg-cell (<i>ovum</i>) being transformed by cleavage into a +globular mass of cells (<i>morula</i>), which first becomes a hollow +vesicle and then changes into the <i>gastrula</i>. The simplest multicellular +animal he conceived to resemble this gastrula with its +two primary layers, ectoderm and endoderm, and the earliest +hypothetical form of this kind, from which the higher animals +might be supposed to be actually descended, he called the +“gastraea.” This theory was first put forward in the memoir +on the calcareous sponges, which in its sub-title was described as +an attempt at an analytical solution of the problem of the origin +of species, and was subsequently elaborated in various <i>Studies +on the Gastraea Theory</i> (1873-1884). Haeckel, again, was the +first to attempt to draw up a genealogical tree (<i>Stammbaum</i>) +exhibiting the relationship between the various orders of animals +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page804" id="page804"></a>804</span> +with regard both to one another and their common origin. His +earliest attempt in the <i>General Morphology</i> was succeeded by +many others, and his efforts in this direction may perhaps be +held to culminate in the paper he read before the fourth International +Zoological Congress, held at Cambridge in 1898, when +he traced the descent of the human race in twenty-six stages +from organisms like the still-existing <i>Monera</i>, simple structureless +masses of protoplasm, and the unicellular <i>Protista</i>, through the +chimpanzees and the <i>Pithecanthropus erectus</i>, of which a few fossil +bones were discovered in Java in 1894, and which he held to be +undoubtedly an intermediate form connecting primitive man +with the anthropoid apes.</p> + +<p>Not content with the study of the doctrine of evolution in its +zoological aspects, Haeckel also applied it to some of the oldest +problems of philosophy and religion. What he termed the integration +of his views on these subjects he published under the +title of <i>Die Welträtsel</i> (1899), which in 1901 appeared in English +as <i>The Riddle of the Universe</i>. In this book, adopting an uncompromising +monistic attitude, he asserted the essential unity +of organic and inorganic nature. According to his “carbon-theory,” +which has been far from achieving general acceptance, +the chemico-physical properties of carbon in its complex albuminoid +compounds are the sole and the mechanical cause of the +specific phenomena of movement which distinguish organic from +inorganic substances, and the first development of living protoplasm, +as seen in the <i>Monera</i>, arises from such nitrogenous +carbon-compounds by a process of spontaneous generation. +Psychology he regarded as merely a branch of physiology, and +psychical activity as a group of vital phenomena which depend +solely on physiological actions and material changes taking place +in the protoplasm of the organism in which it is manifested. +Every living cell has psychic properties, and the psychic life +of multicellular organisms is the sum-total of the psychic +functions of the cells of which they are composed. Moreover, +just as the highest animals have been evolved from the simplest +forms of life, so the highest faculties of the human mind have been +evolved from the soul of the brute-beasts, and more remotely +from the simple cell-soul of the unicellular Protozoa. As a +consequence of these views Haeckel was led to deny the immortality +of the soul, the freedom of the will, and the existence +of a personal God.</p> + +<p>Haeckel’s literary output was enormous, and at the time of the +celebration of his sixtieth birthday at Jena in 1894 he had +produced 42 works with 13,000 pages, besides numerous scientific +memoirs. In addition to the works already mentioned, he +wrote <i>Freie Wissenschaft und freie Lehre</i> (1877) in reply to a +speech in which Virchow objected to the teaching of the doctrine +of evolution in schools, on the ground that it was an unproved +hypothesis; <i>Die systematische Phylogenie</i> (1894), which has been +pronounced his best book; <i>Anthropogenie</i> (1874, 5th and enlarged +edition 1903), dealing with the evolution of man; <i>Über unsere +gegenwärtige Kenntnis vom Ursprung des Menschen</i> (1898, +translated into English as <i>The Last Link</i>, 1898); <i>Der Kampf +um den Entwickelungsgedanken</i> (1905, English version, <i>Last +Words on Evolution</i>, 1906); <i>Die Lebenswunder</i> (1904), a supplement +to the <i>Riddle of the Universe</i>; books of travel, such as +<i>Indische Reisebriefe</i> (1882) and <i>Aus Insulinde</i> (1901), the fruits +of journeys to Ceylon and to Java; <i>Kunstformen der Natur</i> +(1904), with plates representing beautiful marine animal forms; +and <i>Wanderbilder</i> (1905), reproductions of his oil-paintings and +water-colour landscapes.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>There are biographies by W. Bölsche (Dresden, 1900, translated +into English by Joseph McCabe, with additions, London, 1906) and +by Breitenbach (Odenkirchen, 1904). See also Walther May, <i>Ernst +Haeckel</i>; <i>Versuch einer Chronik seines Lebens und Werkens</i> (Leipzig, +1909).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:199px; height:151px" src="images/img804a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:190px; height:54px" src="images/img804b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="bold">HAEMATITE,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Hematite</span>, a mineral consisting of ferric +oxide (Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>), named from the Greek word <span class="grk" title="haima">αἷμα</span> “blood,” in +allusion to its typical colour, whence it is called also red iron ore. +When crystallized, however, haematite often presents a dark +colour, even iron-black; but on scratching the surface, the +powder of the streak shows the colour of dried blood. Haematite +crystallizes in the rhombohedral system, and is isomorphous +with corundum (Al<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>). The habit of the crystals may be +rhombohedral, pyramidal or tabular, rarely prismatic. In fig. 1 +the crystal, from Elba, shows a combination of the fundamental +rhombohedron (R), an obtuse rhombohedron +(<i>s</i>), and the hexagonal bi-pyramid +(<i>n</i>). Fig. 2 is a tabular +crystal in which the basal pinacoid +(<i>o</i>) predominates. Haematite has no +distinct cleavage, but may show, in +consequence of a lamellar structure, +a tendency to parting along certain +planes.</p> + +<p>Crystallized haematite, such as +that from the iron-mines of Elba, presents a steel-grey or iron-black +colour, with a brilliant metallic lustre, sometimes beautifully +iridescent. The splendent surface has suggested for this +mineral such names as specular iron ore, looking-glass ore, and +iron glance (<i>fer oligiste</i> of French writers). The hardness of the +crystallized haematite is about 6, and the specific gravity 5.2. +The so-called “iron roses” (<i>Eisenrosen</i>) of Switzerland are +rosette-like aggregates of hexagonal +tabular crystals, from fissures in the +gneissose rocks of the Alps. Specular +iron ore occurs in the form of brilliant +metallic scales on many lavas, as at +Vesuvius and Etna, in the Auvergne and the Eifel, and notably +in the Island of Ascension, where the mineral forms beautiful +tabular crystals. It seems to be a sublimation-product formed +in volcanoes by the interaction of the vapour of ferric chloride +and steam.</p> + +<p>Specular haematite forms a constituent of certain schistose +rocks, such as the Brazilian itabirite. In the Marquette district +of Michigan (Lake Superior) schistose specular ore occurs in +important deposits, associated with a jasper rock, in which the +ore alternates with bands of red quartzite. Micaceous iron ore +consists of delicate steel-grey scales of specular haematite, +unctuous to the touch, used as a lubricant and also as a pigment. +It is worked in Devonshire under the name of shining ore. Very +thin laminae of haematite, blood-red by transmitted light, +occur as microscopic enclosures in certain minerals, such as +carnallite and sun-stone, to which they impart colour and lustre.</p> + +<p>Much haematite occurs in a compact or massive form, often +mammillary, and presenting on fracture a fibrous structure. +The reniform masses are known as kidney ore. Such red ore is +generally neither so dense nor so hard as the crystals. It often +passes into an earthy form, termed soft red ore, and when mixed +with more or less clay constitutes red ochre, ruddle or reddle +(Ger. <i>Rötel</i>).</p> + +<p>The hard haematite is occasionally cut and polished as an +ornamental stone, and certain kinds have been made into beads +simulating black pearls. It was worked by the Assyrians for +their engraved cylinder-seals, and was used by the gnostics for +amulets. Some of the native tribes in the Congo basin employ +it as a material for axes. The hard fibrous ore of Cumberland +is known as pencil ore, and is employed for the burnishers used +by bookbinders and others. Santiago de Compostela in Spain +furnishes a considerable supply of haematite burnishers.</p> + +<p>Haematite is an important ore of iron (<i>q.v.</i>), and is extensively +worked in Elba, Spain (Bilbao), Scandinavia, the Lake Superior +region and elsewhere. In England valuable deposits occur in +the Carboniferous Limestone of west Cumberland (Whitehaven +district) and north Lancashire (Ulverston district). The hard +ore is siliceous, and fine crystallized specimens occur in association +with smoky quartz. The ore is remarkably free from +phosphorus, and is consequently valued for the production of pig-iron +to be converted into Bessemer steel.</p> +<div class="author">(F. W. R.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAEMATOCELE<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="haima">αἷμα</span>, blood, and <span class="grk" title="kêlê">κήλη</span>, tumour), the +medical term for a localized collection of blood in the tunica +vaginalis or cord. It is usually the result of a sudden blow or +severe strain, but may arise from disease. At first it forms a +smooth, fluctuating, opaque swelling, but later becomes hard +and firm. In chronic cases the walls of the tunica vaginalis +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page805" id="page805"></a>805</span> +undergo changes. The treatment of a case seen soon after the +injury is directed towards keeping the patient at rest, elevating +the parts, and applying an evaporating lotion or ice-bag. In +chronic cases it may be necessary to lay open the cavity and +remove the coagulum.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAEMOPHILIA,<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> the medical term for a condition of the +vascular system, often running in families, the members of which +are known as “bleeders,” characterized by a disposition towards +bleeding, whether with or without the provocation of an injury +to the tissue. When this bleeding is spontaneous it comes from +the mucous membranes, especially from the nose, but also from +the mouth, bowel and bronchial tubes. Slight bruises are apt +to be followed by extravasations of blood into the tissues; the +swollen joints (knee especially) of a bleeder are probably due, +in the first instance, to the escape of blood into the joint cavity +or synovial membrane. It is always from the smallest vessels +that the blood escapes, and may do so in such quantities as to +cause death in a few hours.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAEMORRHAGE<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="haima">αἷμα</span>, blood, and <span class="grk" title="rhêgnynai">ῥηγνύναι</span>, to burst), +a general term for any escape of blood from a blood-vessel (see +Blood). It commonly results from injury, as the tearing or +cutting of a blood-vessel, but certain forms result from disease, +as in scurvy and purpura. The chief varieties of haemorrhage +are <i>arterial</i>, <i>venous</i> and <i>capillary</i>. Bleeding from an artery is +of a bright red colour, and escapes from the end of the vessel +nearest the heart in jets synchronous with the heart’s beat. +Bleeding from a vein is of a darker colour; the flow is steady, +and the bleeding is from the distal end of the vessel. Capillary +bleeding is a general oozing from a raw surface. By <i>extravasation +of blood</i> is meant the pouring out of blood into the areolar tissues, +which become boggy. This is termed a <i>bruise</i> or <i>ecchymosis</i>. +<i>Epistaxis</i> is a term given to bleeding from the nose. <i>Haematemesis</i> +is vomiting of blood, the colour of which may be altered +by digestion, as is also the case in <i>melaena</i>, or passage of blood +with the faeces, in which the blood becomes dark and tarry-looking +from the action of the intestinal fluids. <i>Haemoptysis</i> +denotes an escape of blood from the air-passages, which is usually +bright red and frothy from admixture with air. <i>Haematuria</i> +means passage of blood with the urine.</p> + +<p>Cessation of bleeding may take place from natural or from +artificial means. Natural arrest of haemorrhage arises from +(1) the coagulation of the blood itself, (2) the diminution of the +heart’s action as in fainting, (3) changes taking place in the cut +vessel causing its retraction and contraction. In the surgical +treatment of haemorrhage minor means of arresting bleeding +are: cold, which is most valuable in general oozing and local +extravasations; very hot water, 130° to 160° F., a powerful +haemostatic; position, such as elevation of the limb, valuable +in bleeding from the extremities; styptics or astringents, +applied locally, as perchloride of iron, tannic acid and others, +the most valuable being suprarenal extract. In arresting +haemorrhage temporarily the chief thing is to press directly +on the bleeding part. The pressure to be effectual need not be +severe, but must be accurately applied. If the bleeding point +cannot be reached, the pressure should be applied to the main +artery between the bleeding point and the heart. In small +blood-vessels pressure will be sufficient to arrest haemorrhage +permanently. In large vessels it is usual to pass a ligature round +the vessel and tie it with a reef-knot. Apply the ligature, if +possible, at the bleeding point, tying both ends of the cut vessel. +If this cannot be done, the main artery of the limb must be +exposed by dissection at the most accessible point between the +wound and the heart, and there ligatured.</p> + +<p>Haemorrhage has been classified as—(1) primary, occurring +at the time of the injury; (2) reactionary, or within twenty-four +hours of the accident, during the stage of reaction; (3) secondary, +occurring at a later period and caused by faulty application of a +ligature or septic condition of the wound. In severe haemorrhage, +as from the division of a large artery, the patient may +collapse and death ensue from syncope. In this case stimulants +and strychnine may be given, but they should be avoided until +it is certain the bleeding has been properly controlled, as they +tend to increase it. Transfusion of blood directly from the vein +of a healthy person to the blood-vessels of the patient, and +infusion of saline solution into a vein, may be practised (see +Shock). In a congenital condition known as <i>haemophylia</i> (<i>q.v.</i>) +it is difficult to stop the flow of blood.</p> + +<p>The surgical procedure for the treatment of an open wound +is—(1) arrest of haemorrhage; (2) cleansing of the wound and +removal of any foreign bodies; (3) careful apposition of its +edges and surfaces—the edges being best brought in contact +by sutures of aseptic silk or catgut, the surfaces by carefully +applied pressure; (4) free drainage, if necessary, to prevent +accumulation either of blood or serous effusion; (5) avoidance +of sepsis; (6) perfect rest of the part. These methods of treatment +require to be modified for wounds in special situations and +for those in which there is much contusion and laceration. When +a special poison has entered the wound at the time of its infliction +or at some subsequent date, it is necessary to provide against +septic conditions of the wound itself and blood-poisoning of the +general circulation.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAEMORRHOIDS,<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> or Hemorrhoids (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="haima">αἷμα</span>, blood, +and <span class="grk" title="rhein">ῥεῖν</span>, to flow), commonly called <i>piles</i>, swellings formed by the +dilatation of veins of the lowest part of the bowel, or of those +just outside the margin of its aperture. The former, <i>internal +piles</i>, are covered by mucous membrane; the latter, <i>external piles</i>, +are just beneath the skin. As the veins of the lining of the bowel +become dilated they form definite bulgings within the bowel, +and, at last increasing in size, escape through the anus when a +motion is being passed. Growing still larger, they may come +down spontaneously when the individual is standing or walking, +and they are apt to be a grave source of pain or annoyance. +Eventually they may remain constantly protruded—nevertheless, +they are still <i>internal</i> piles because they arise from the interior +of the bowel. Though a pile is sometimes solitary, there are +usually several of them. They are apt to become inflamed, and +the inflammation is associated with heat, pain, discharge and +general uneasiness; ulceration and bleeding are also common +symptoms, hence the term “bleeding piles.” The <i>external pile</i> +is covered by the thin dark-coloured skin of the anal margin. +Severe pressure upon the large abdominal veins may retard the +upward flow of blood to the heart and so give rise to piles; +this is apt to happen in the case of disease of the liver, malignant +and other tumours, and pregnancy. General weakness of the +constitution or of the blood-vessels and habitual constipation +may be predisposing causes of piles. The exciting cause may be +vigorous straining at stool or exposure to damp, as from sitting +on the wet ground. Piles are often only a symptom, and in their +treatment this fact should be kept in view; if the cause is +removed the piles may disappear. But in some cases it may +be impossible to remove the cause, as when a widely-spreading +cancerous growth of the rectum, or of the interior of the pelvis +or abdomen, is blocking the upward flow of blood in the veins. +Sometimes when a pile has been protruded, as during defaecation, +it is tightly grasped by spasmodic contraction of the circular +muscular fibres which guard the outlet of the bowel, and it then +becomes swollen, engorged and extremely painful; the strangulation +may be so severe that the blood in the vessels coagulates +and the pile mortifies. This, indeed, is nature’s attempt at +curing a pile, but it is distressing, and, as a rule, it is not entirely +successful.</p> + +<p>The palliative treatment of piles consists in obtaining a daily +and easy action of the bowels, in rest, cold bathing, astringent +injections, lotions and ointments. The radical treatment consists +in their removal by operation, but this should not be contemplated +until palliative treatment has failed. The operation consists in +drawing the pile well down, and strangling the vessels entering +and leaving its base, either by a strong ligature tightly applied, +by crushing, or by cautery. Before dealing with the pile the anus +is vigorously dilated in order that the pile may be dealt with with +greater precision, and also that the temporary paralysis of the +sphincter muscle, which follows the stretching, may prevent the +occurrence of painful and spasmodic contractions subsequently. +The ligatures by which the base of the piles are strangulated +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page806" id="page806"></a>806</span> +slough off with the pile in about ten days, and in about ten days +more the individual is, as a rule, well enough to return to his +work. If, for one reason or another, no operation is to be undertaken, +and the piles are troublesome, relief may be afforded by +warm sponging and by sitz-baths, the pile being gently dried +afterwards by a piece of soft linen, smeared with vaseline, +and carefully returned into the bowel. Under surgical advice, +cocaine or morphia may be brought in contact with the tender +parts, either in the form of lotion, suppository or ointment. +In operating upon internal piles it is undesirable to remove all the +external piles around the anus, lest the contraction of the +circumferential scar should cause permanent narrowing of the +orifice. If, as often happens, blood clots in the vein of an external +pile, the small, hard, tender swelling may be treated with anodyne +fomentations, or it may be rendered insensitive by the ether +spray and opened by a small incision, the clot being turned +out.</p> +<div class="author">(E. O.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAEMOSPORIDIA,<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> in zoology, an order of Ectospora, which +although comparatively few in number and very inconspicuous +in size and appearance, have of late years probably attracted +greater attention and been more generally studied than any +other Sporozoa; the reason being that they include the organisms +well known as malarial parasites. In spite, however, of +much and careful recent research—to a certain extent, rather, +as a result of it—it remains the case that the Haemosporidia are, +in some respects, the group of the Ectospora about which our +knowledge is, for the time being, in the most unsatisfactory +condition. Such important questions, indeed, as the scope and +boundaries of the group, its exact origin and affinities, the rank +and interclassification of the forms admittedly included in it, +are answered quite differently by different workers. For example, +one well-known Sporozoan authority (M. Lühe) has recently +united the two groups, Haemosporidia and Haemoflagellates, +bodily into one, while others (<i>e.g.</i> Novy and McNeal) deny +that there is any connexion whatever between “Cytozoa” and +Trypanosomes. Again, the inclusion or exclusion of forms like +<i>Piroplasma</i> and <i>Halteridium</i> is also the subject of much discussion. +The present writer accepts here the view that the Haemosporidia +are derived from Haemoflagellates which have developed +a gregariniform (Sporozoan) phase at the expense, largely or +entirely, of the flagelliform one. The not inconsiderable differences +met with among different types are capable of explanation +on the ground that certain forms have advanced farther than +others along this particular line of evolution. In other words, +it is most probable that the Haemosporidia are to be regarded +as comprising various parasites which represent different stages +intermediate between, on the one side, a Flagellate, and on the +other, a typical chlamydospore-forming Ectosporan parasite. +While, however, it is easy enough sharply to separate off all +Haemosporidia from other Ectospora, it is a very difficult matter +to define their limits on the former side. Two principal criteria +which a doubtful haemal parasite might very well be required +to satisfy in order to be considered as a Haemosporidian rather +than a Haemoflagellate are (<i>a</i>) the occurrence of schizogony +during the “corpuscular” phase in the Vertebrate host, and (<i>b</i>) +the formation of many germs (“sporozoites”) from the zygote; +so long as these conditions were complied with, the present +writer, at all events, would not feel he was countenancing any +protozoological heresy in allowing for the possibility of a Flagellate +(perhaps trypaniform) phase or features being present at +some period or other in the life-cycle.<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> To render this article +complete, however, one or two well-known parasites, hitherto +referred to this order, must also be mentioned, which, judged +by the above (arbitrary) standard, are, it may be, on the Haemoflagellate +side of the dividing line (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Halteridium</i>, according to +Schaudinn).</p> + +<p>The chief characters which distinguish the Haemosporidia +from other Ectospora are the following. They are invariably +blood parasites, and for part or all of the trophic period come into +intimate relation with the cellular elements in the blood. There +is always an alternation of hosts and of generations, an Invertebrate +being the definitive host, in which sexual conjugation +is undergone and which is to be regarded as the primary one, +a Vertebrate being the intermediate or secondary one. The +zygote or sporont is at first capable of movement and known as +an ookinete. No resistant spores (chlamydospores) are formed, +the ultimate germs or sporozoites always being free in the oocyst +and not enclosed by sporocysts.</p> + +<p>To Sir E. Ray Lankester is due the honour of discovering +the first Haemosporidian, a discovery which did not take place +until after most of the other kinds of Sporozoa were known. +In 1871 this author described the parasite of the frog, which he +later termed <i>Drepanidium ranarum</i>. The next discovery was +the great and far-reaching one of Laveran, who in 1883 described +all the characteristic phases of the malarial parasite which are +met with in human blood. While regarding the organism as the +cause of the disease, Laveran did not at once recognize its animal +and Sporozoan nature, but considered it rather as a vegetable, +and termed it <i>Oscillaria malariae</i>. As in the case of the Trypanosomes, +we owe to Danilewsky (1885-1889) the first serious +attempts to study the comparative anatomy and life-history of +these parasites, from a zoological point of view. Danilewsky +first named them Haemosporidia, and distinguished between +<i>Haemocytozoa</i> and <i>Leucocytozoa</i>. To the brilliant researches of +R. Ross and Grassi in the closing years of the 19th century is +due the realization of the essential part played by the gnat or +mosquito in the life-cycle and transmission of the parasites; +and to MacCallum belongs the credit of first observing the true +sexual conjugation, in the case of a <i>Halteridium</i>. Since then, +thanks to the labours of Argutinsky and Schaudinn, our knowledge +of the malarial parasites has steadily increased. Until +quite recently, however, very little was known about the Haemosporidia +of cold-blooded Vertebrates; but in 1903 Siegel and +Schaudinn demonstrated that the same rôle is performed in +their case by a leech or a tick, and since then many new forms +have been described.</p> + +<p>The Haemosporidia are widely distributed and of very general +occurrence among the chief classes of Vertebrates. Among Invertebrates +they are apparently limited to bloodsucking +insects, ticks and leeches.<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a> As already stated, +<span class="sidenote">Occurrence: habitat; effects on host.</span> +the universal habitat of the parasites in the Vertebrate +is the blood; as a result, of course, they are to be met +with in the capillaries of practically all the important +organs of the body; and it is to be noted that while certain +phases (<i>e.g.</i> growing trophozoites, mature gametocytes) are found +in the peripheral circulation, others (<i>e.g.</i> schizogonous “rosettes,” +young gametocytes) occur in the internal organs, liver, kidneys, +&c., where the circulation is sluggish. The relation of the parasites +to the blood-cells varies greatly. Most attack, probably +exclusively, the red blood corpuscles (haematids); a few, however, +select the leucocytes, and are therefore known as Leucocytozoa. +In the case of Mammalian and Avian forms (malarial +parasites) Schaudinn and Argutinsky have shown that the +trophic and schizogonic phases are not really endoglobular but +closely attached to the corpuscle, hollowing out a depression +or space into which they nestle; the gametocytes, on the +other hand, are actually intercellular. Forms parasitic in cold-blooded +Vertebrates, on the contrary, are always, so far as is +known, endoglobular when in relation with the corpuscles; and +the same is apparently the case with the Mammalian parasite, +<i>Piroplasma</i>. Although in no instance so far described is the +parasite actually intranuclear (as certain Coccidia are), in one or +two cases (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Karyolysus</i> of lizards and certain species of +<i>Haemogregarina</i>) it reacts markedly upon the nucleus and soon +causes its disintegration. While many Haemosporidia (<i>e.g.</i> +malarial parasites, with the exception of <i>Halteridium</i>) remain in +connexion with the same corpuscle throughout the whole period +of growth and schizogony, the new generation of merozoites +first being set free from the broken-down cell, others (the Haemogregarines, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page807" id="page807"></a>807</span> +broadly speaking, and also <i>Halteridium</i>) leave +one corpuscle after a short time, wander about free in the +plasma, and then seek out another; and this may be repeated +until the parasite is ready for schizogony, which generally occurs +in the corpuscle.</p> + +<p>As in the case of Trypanosomes (<i>q.v.</i>), normally—that is to say, +when in an accustomed, tolerant host, and under natural conditions—Haemosporidia +are non-pathogenic and do not give +rise to any ill-effects in the animals harbouring them. When, +however, the parasites gain an entry into the blood of man or +other unadapted animals,<a name="fa3d" id="fa3d" href="#ft3d"><span class="sp">3</span></a> they produce, as is well known, +harmful and often very serious effects. There are three recognized +types of malarial fever, each caused by a distinct form and +characterized by the mode of manifestation. Two, the so-called +benign fevers, are intermittent; namely, tertian and quartan +fever, in which the fever recurs every second and third day +respectively. This is due to the fact that schizogony takes +different lengths of time in the two cases, 48 hours in the one, +72 in the other; the height of the fever-period coincides with the +break-down of the corpuscle at the completion of the process, and +the liberation of great numbers of merozoites in the blood. +The third type is the dangerous aestivo-autumnal or pernicious +malaria, in which the fever is irregular or continuous during long +periods.</p> + +<p>A very general symptom is anaemia, which is sometimes +present to a marked extent, when it may lead to a fatal termination. +This is the result of the very considerable destruction of +the blood-corpuscles which takes place, the haemoglobin of which +is absorbed by the parasites as nutriment. A universal feature +connected with this mode of nutrition is the production, in the +cytoplasm of the parasite, of a brown pigment, termed melanin; +this does not represent reserve material, but is an excreted <span class="correction" title="bye">by</span>-product +derived from the haemoglobin. These pigment-grains +are at length liberated into the blood-stream and become deposited +in the various organs, spleen, liver, kidneys, brain, +causing pronounced pigmentation.</p> + +<p>Another type of fever, more acute and more generally fatal, is +that produced by forms belonging to the genus <i>Piroplasma</i>, in +cattle, dogs, horses and other domestic animals in different +regions of the globe; and recently Wilson and Chowning have +stated that the “spotted fever of the Rockies” is a human +piroplasmosis caused by <i>P. hominis</i>. The disease of cattle is +known variously as Texas-fever, Tristeza, Red-water, Southern +cattle-fever, &c. In this type of illness the endogenous multiplication +of the parasites is very great and rapid, and brings about +an enormous diminution in the number of healthy red blood +corpuscles. Their sudden destruction results in the liberation of +large quantities of haemoglobin in the plasma, which turns +deep-red in colour; and hence haemoglobinuria, which occurs +only rarely in malaria, is a constant symptom in piroplasmosis.</p> + +<p>The parasite of pernicious malaria, here termed <i>Laverania +malariae</i>, will serve very well as a type of the general life-cycle +(fig. 1). Slight differences shown by the other malarial parasites +(<i>Plasmodium</i>) will be mentioned in passing, but the +<span class="sidenote">Example of the life-history.</span> +main divergences which other Haemosporidian types +exhibit are best considered separately. With the bite +of an infected mosquito, the minute sickle-like sporozoites +are injected into the blood. They rapidly penetrate into +the blood corpuscles, in which they appear as small irregular, +more or less amoeboid trophozoites. A vacuole next arises in +the cytoplasm, which increases greatly in size, and gives rise to +the well-known, much discussed ring-form of the parasite, in +which it resembles a signet-ring, the nucleus forming a little +thickening to one side. Some authorities (<i>e.g.</i> Argutinsky) have +regarded this structure as being really a greatly distended +vesicular nucleus, and, to a large extent, indeed, an artifact, +resulting from imperfect fixation; but Schaudinn considers it is +a true vacuole, and explains it on the ground of the rapid nutrition +and growth. Later on this vacuole disappears, and the grains +of pigment make their appearance. The trophozoite is now +large and full-grown, and has become rounded and ready for +schizogony. The nucleus of the schizont divides several times +(more or less directly, by simple or multiple fission) to form a +number of daughter-nuclei, which take up a regular position +near the periphery. Around these the cytoplasm becomes segmented, +giving rise to the well-known <i>corps en rosace</i>. Eventually +the merozoites, in the form of little round uninuclear bodies, +are liberated from the now broken-down corpuscle, leaving behind +a certain amount of residual cytoplasm containing the pigment +grains. Besides the difference in the time taken by the complete +process of schizogony in the various species (see above), there are +distinctions in the composition of the rosettes. Thus, in <i>Laverania</i>, +the number of merozoites formed is very variable; in +<i>Plasmodium vivax</i> (the tertian parasite) there are only few (9 to 12) +merozoites, but in <i>P. malariae</i> (the quartan form) they are more +numerous, from 12 to 24. The liberated merozoites proceed to +infect fresh blood corpuscles and a new endogenous cycle is +started.</p> + +<p>After asexual multiplication has gone on for some time, sexual +forms become developed. According to Schaudinn, the stimulus +which determines the production of gametocytes instead of +schizonts is the reaction of the host (at the height of a +fever period) upon the parasites. A young trophozoite which +is becoming a gametocyte is distinguished from one which +gives rise to a schizont by its much slower rate of growth, +and the absence of any vacuoles in its cytoplasm. The +gametocytes themselves are characterized by their peculiar +shape, like that of a sausage, whence they are very generally +known as “crescents.” Male and female gametocytes are +distinguished (roughly) by the arrangement of the pigment-grains; +in the former, they are fairly evenly scattered throughout +the cytoplasm, but in the megagametocytes the pigment tends +to be aggregated centrally, around the nucleus. As they become +full-grown and mature, however, the gametocytes lose their +crescentic form and assume that of an oval, and finally of a +sphere. At the same time, they are set free from the remains +of the blood corpuscle. The spherical stage is practically the +limit of development in the Vertebrate host, although, sometimes, +the nucleus of the microgametocyte may proceed to division. +The “crescents” of the pernicious parasite afford a very +important diagnostic difference from the gametocytes of both +species of <i>Plasmodium</i>, which have the ordinary, rounded shape +of the schizonts. In the case of the latter, points such as their +slower growth, their less amoeboid character, and their size +furnish the means of distinction.</p> + +<p>When a gnat or mosquito sucks blood, all phases of the parasite +in the peripheral circulation at that point may succeed in passing +into the insect. If this occurs all trophic and schizogonic +phases are forthwith digested, and the survival of the sexual +phases depends entirely upon whether the insect is a gnat or +mosquito. Only in the latter case can further development of +the gametocytes go on; in other words, only the genus <i>Anopheles</i>, +and not the genus <i>Culex</i>, furnishes specific hosts for the malarial +parasites. This is a biological fact of considerable importance +in connexion with the prophylactic measures against malaria. +In the stomach of an <i>Anopheles</i>, the gametocytes quickly +proceed to gamete-formation. The nucleus of the microgametocyte +divides up, and the daughter-nuclei pass to the periphery. +The surface of the body grows out into long, whip-like processes, +of which there are usually 6 to 8 (probably the typical number +is 8); each is very motile, in this respect strongly resembling +a flagellum. This phase may also develop in drawn blood, +which has, of course, become suddenly cooled by the exposure; +and it seems evident that it is the change in temperature, from +the warm to the cold-blooded host, which brings about the +development of the actual sexual elements. Earlier observers +regarded the phase just described as representing another +parasite altogether, of a Flagellate nature—whence the well-known +term, <i>Polymitus</i>-form; and even more recent workers, +such as Labbé who connected it with the malarial parasite, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page808" id="page808"></a>808</span> +failed to appreciate its true significance, and considered +it rather as a degeneration-appearance. +The micro-gametes soon liberate themselves from +the residual cytoplasm of the parent and swim +away in search of a megagamete; each is a very +slender, wavy filament, composed largely of chromatic +substance. The finer details of structure of +the microgamete of a malarial parasite cannot be +said, however, to be thoroughly known, and it is +by no means impossible that its structure is really +trypaniform, as, according to Schaudinn’s great +work, is the case with the merozoites and +sporozoites.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:642px; height:971px" src="images/img808a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f80 tcl" colspan="2">From Lankester’s <i>Treatise on Zoology</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90 tcl" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Diagram of the complete life-cycle of the parasite of pernicious malaria, +<i>Laverania malariae</i>, Gr. et Fel. The stages on the upper side of the dotted line are +those found in human blood; below the dotted line are seen the phases through which +the parasite passes in the intermediate host, the mosquito. Plan and arrangement +chiefly after Neveu-Lemaire; details of the figures founded on those of Grassi, +Schaudinn (Leuckart’s <i>Zoologische Wandtafeln</i>), Ross and others.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>I.-V. and 6-10 show the schizogony.</p> + +<p>VI.-XII., The sexual generation.</p> + +<p>XIII., The motile zygote.</p> + +<p>XIV.-XIX., Sporogony.</p> + +<p>I.-III., Young amoebulae in blood-corpuscles.</p> + +<p>IV., Older, actively amoeboid trophozoite.</p> + +<p>V., Still older, less amoeboid trophozoite.</p> + +<p>6, Mature schizont.</p> + +<p>7, Schizont, with nucleus dividing up.</p> + +<p>8, Young rosette stage.</p> + +<p>9, Fully formed rosette stage.</p> + +<p>10, Merozoites free in the blood by breaking down of the corpuscle.</p> + +<p>VI., Young indifferent gametocyte.</p> + +<p>VII., <i>a</i>, Male crescent.</p> + +<p>VII., <i>b</i>, Female crescent.</p> + +<p>VIII., <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>, The gametocytes becoming oval.</p> + +<p>IX., <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>, Spherical gametocytes; +in the male (IX. <i>a</i>) the nucleus has divided up.</p> + +<p>X., <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>, Formation of gametes; +in the male (X. <i>a</i>) the so-called +flagella or male gametes (<i>fl</i>) are +thrown out, one of them is seen +detached; in the female (X. <i>b</i>) a +portion of the nucleus has been expelled.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>XI., A male gamete penetrating a +female gamete at a cone of reception +formed near the nucleus.</p> + +<p>XII., Zygote with two pronuclei in proximity.</p> + +<p>XIII., Zygote in the motile stage (vermicule or oökinete).</p> + +<p>XIV., Encysted zygote (oöcyst).</p> + +<p>XV., Commencing multiplication of the nuclei in the oöcyst.</p> + +<p>XVI., Oöcyst with numerous sporoblasts.</p> + +<p>XVII., Commencing formation of sporozoites.</p> + +<p>XVIII., Full-grown oocyst crammed with ripe +sporozoites; on one side the cyst has burst +and the sporozoites are escaping.</p> + +<p>XIX., Free sporozoites, showing their changes of form.</p> + +<p><i>n</i>, Nucleus of the parasite.</p> +<p><i>p</i>, Melanin pigment.</p> +<p><i>fl</i>, “Flagella.”</p> +<p><i>sp. bl.</i>, Sporoblasts.</p> +<p><i>r. n.</i>, Residual nuclei.</p> +<p><i>r. p.</i>, Residual protoplasm.</p></td></tr></table> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:280px; height:186px" src="images/img808b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f80 tcl" colspan="2">From Lankester’s <i>Treatise on Zoology</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90 tcl" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—Stomach of a mosquito, +with cysts of Haemosporidia. (After +Ross.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>oes</i>, Oesophagus.</p> +<p><i>st</i>, Stomach.</p> +<p><i>cy</i>, Cysts.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>Mt</i>, Malpighian tubules.</p> +<p><i>int</i>, Intestine.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The megagametocyte becomes a megagamete +directly after a process of maturation, which +consists in the expulsion of a certain amount of +nuclear substance. The actual conjugation is quite +similar to the process in Coccidia, and the resulting +zygote perfectly homologous. In the present case, +however, the zygote does not at once secrete an +oöcyst, with a thick resistant wall; on the contrary, +it changes its shape, and becomes markedly gregariniform +and active, and is known for this +reason as an ookinete. The ookinete passes through +the epithelial layer of the stomach, the thinner and +more pointed end leading the way, and comes to +rest in the connective tissue forming the outer layer +of the stomach-wall (fig. 2). Here it becomes +rounded and cyst-like, and grows considerably; +for only a thin, delicate cyst-membrane is secreted, +which does not impede the absorption of nutriment. +Meanwhile, the nucleus has divided into several, +around each of which the cytoplasm becomes segmented. +Each of these segments (“blastophores,” +“zoidophores”) is entirely comparable to a sporoblast +in the Coccidian oocyst, the chief difference +being that it never forms a spore; moreover the +segments or sporoblasts in the oocyst of a malarial +parasite are irregular in shape and do not become +completely separated from one another, but +remain connected by thin cytoplasmic strands. +Repeated multiplication of the sporoblast-nuclei +next takes place, with the result that a great +number of little nuclei are found all round the +periphery. A corresponding number of fine cytoplasmic +processes grow out from the surface, each +carrying a nucleus with it, and in this manner a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page809" id="page809"></a>809</span> +huge number of slender, slightly sickle-shaped germs or sporozoites +(“blasts,” “zoids,” &c.) are formed. Each oocyst may +contain from hundreds to thousands of sporozoites.</p> + +<p>When the sporogony (which lasts about 10 days) is completed, +the oocyst ruptures and the sporozoites are set free into the +body-cavity, leaving behind a large quantity of residual cytoplasm, +including pigment grains, &c. The sporozoites are +carried about by the blood-stream; ultimately, however, +apparently by virtue of some chemotactic attraction, they +practically all collect in the salivary glands, filling the secretory +cells and also invading the ducts. When the mosquito next +bites a man, numbers of them are injected, together with the +minute drop of saliva, into his blood, where they begin a fresh +endogenous cycle.</p> + +<p>There is only one other point with regard to the life-history +that need be mentioned. With the lapse of time all trophic and +schizogonic (asexual) phases of the parasite in the blood die off. +But it has long been known that malarial patients, apparently +quite cured, may suddenly exhibit all the symptoms again, +without having incurred a fresh infection. Schaudinn has +investigated the cause of this recurrence, and finds that it is +due to the power of the megagametocytes, which are very +resistant and long-lived, to undergo a kind of parthenogenesis +under favourable conditions and give rise to the ordinary asexual +schizonts, which in turn can repopulate the host with all the other +phases. Microgametocytes, on the other hand, die off in time +if they cannot pass into a mosquito.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:556px; height:156px" src="images/img809a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f80 tcl" colspan="2">From Lankester’s <i>Treatise on Zoology</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—<i>Haemogregarina bigemina</i>, Laveran, from the blood of blennies. +(After Laveran, magnified about 1800 diameters.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>a</i>, The form of the parasite +found free in the blood-plasma.</p> + +<p><i>b</i>, Parasite within a blood-corpuscle, +preparing for division; +the nucleus has already +divided.</p> + +<p><i>c</i>, The parasite has divided into +two rounded corpuscles, +which assume the form of +the free parasite, as seen in +<i>d</i>, <i>e</i> and <i>f</i>.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>N, Nucleus of the blood-corpuscle.</p> + +<p><i>n</i>, Nucleus of the parasite. +The outline of the blood-corpuscle +is indicated by a thick black line.</p></td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p class="pt2">Various types of form are to be met with among the Haemosporidia. +In one, characteristic of most (though not of absolutely +all) parasites of warm-blooded Vertebrates, the trophozoites +are of irregular amoeboid shape; hence this section +<span class="sidenote">Comparative Morphology; variations in the life-cycle where known.</span> +is generally known as the <i>Haemamoebidae</i>. In another +type, characteristic of the parasites of cold-blooded +Vertebrates, the body possesses a definite, vermiform, <i>i.e.</i> +gregariniform shape, which is retained during the intracorpuscular +as well as during the free condition; this +section comprises the <i>Haemogregarinidae</i>. Allied to this +latter type of form are the trophozoites of <i>Piroplasma</i>, which are +normally pear-shaped; they differ, however, in being very minute, +and, moreover, exhibit considerable polymorphism, rod-like (so-called +bacillary) and ring-forms being of common occurrence. It is +important to note that in a certain species of <i>Haemogregarina</i> (fig. 3) +the young trophozoites markedly resemble <i>Piroplasma</i> in their +pyriform appearance; and a further point of agreement between the +two forms is mentioned below. Lastly there is the Avian genus +<i>Halteridium</i>, the trophozoites of which are characteristically bean-shaped +or reniform. True Haemogregarines also differ in other slight +points from “Haemamoebae.” Thus the young endoglobular trophozoite +does not exhibit a ring (vacuolar) phase; and the cytoplasm +never contains, at any period, the characteristic melanin pigment +above noted. In some species of <i>Haemogregarina</i> the parasite, while +intracorpuscular, becomes surrounded by a delicate membrane, +the cytocyst; on entering upon an active, “free” period, the +cytocyst is ruptured and left behind with the remains of the corpuscle. +A very interesting cytological feature is the occurrence, in one or +two Haemosporidia, of nuclear dimorphism, <i>i.e.</i> of a larger and +smaller chromatic body, probably comparable to the trophic and +kinetic nuclei of a Trypanosome, or of the “Leishman-Donovan” +bodies. Schaudinn was the first to notice this character, in <i>Piroplasma +canis</i>, and his observation has since been confirmed by Lühe.<a name="fa4d" id="fa4d" href="#ft4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a> +Moreover, Brumpt has also noticed nuclear dimorphism in the +ookinete of a species of <i>Haemogregarina</i> in a leech (as the Invertebrate +host)—a highly important observation.</p> + +<p>As regards the life-history, the endogenous (schizogonous) cycle +is known in many cases. Sometimes schizogony takes the primitive +form of simple binary (probably) longitudinal fission; this is the +case in <i>Piroplasma</i> (fig. 4) and also in <i>Haemogregarina bigemina</i> just +referred to. From this result the pairs of individuals (“twins”) +so often found in the corpuscles. In addition, however, at any rate +in <i>Piroplasma</i>, it is probable that multiple division (more allied to +ordinary schizogony) also takes place; such is the case, according +to Laveran, in <i>P. equi</i>, and the occurrence at times of four parasites +in a corpuscle, arranged in a cruciform manner, is most likely to be +thus explained. Labbé has described schizogony in <i>Halteridium +danilewskyi</i> as taking place in a rather peculiar manner; the parasite +becomes much drawn-out and halter-like, and the actual division is +restricted to its two ends, two clumps of merozoites being formed, +at first connected by a narrow strand of unused cytoplasm, which +subsequently disappears. Some doubt, however, attaches to this +account, as no one else appears to have seen the process. For the +rest, schizogony takes place more or less in the customary way, +allowing for variations in the mode of arrangement of the merozoites. +It remains to be noted that in <i>Karyolysus lacertarum</i>, according to +Labbé, two kinds of schizont are developed, which give rise, respectively, +to micromerozoites and megamerozoites, in either case +enclosed in a delicate cytocyst. This probably corresponds to +an early sexual differentiation (such as is found among certain +Coccidia (<i>q.v.</i>), the micromerozoites producing eventually micro-gametocytes, +the others megagametocytes.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:482px; height:205px" src="images/img809b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f80 tcl" colspan="2">From Lankester’s <i>Treatise on Zoology</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>—Development and schizogony of <i>Piroplasma bigeminum</i> +in the blood-corpuscles of the ox. (After Laveran and Nicolle.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>a</i>, Youngest form.</p> + +<p><i>b</i>, Slightly older.</p> + +<p><i>c</i> and <i>d</i>. Division of the nucleus.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>e</i> and <i>f</i>, Division of the body of +the parasite.</p> + +<p><i>g</i>, <i>h</i>, <i>i</i>, <i>j</i>, Various forms of the +twin parasite.</p> + +<p><i>k</i> and <i>l</i>, Doubly infected corpuscles.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">It has now been recognized for some time that the sexual +(exogenous) part of the life-cycle of all the <i>Haemamoebidae</i> takes +place in an Invertebrate (Insectan) host, and is fundamentally +similar to that above described in those cases where it has +been followed. In contradistinction to the malarial parasites, +this host, in the Avian forms (<i>Haemoproteus</i> and <i>Halteridium</i>)<a name="fa5d" id="fa5d" href="#ft5d"><span class="sp">5</span></a> +is a species of <i>Culex</i> and not of <i>Anopheles</i>; in other words, +gamete-formation, conjugation and subsequent sporozoite-formation +in these cases will only go on in the former. On +the other hand, in the case of the Haemogregarines, it was +thought until quite lately that the entire life-history, including +conjugation and sporogony, went on in the Vertebrate host; +and only in 1902 Hintze described what purported to be the +complete life-history of <i>Lankesterella</i> (<i>Drepanidium</i>) <i>ranarum</i> +undergone in the frog. This view was rendered obsolete by +the work of Siegel and Schaudinn, who demonstrated the +occurrence of an alternation of hosts and of generations +in the case of <i>Haemogregarina stepanovi</i>, parasitic in a +tortoise, and in <i>Karyolysus lacertarum</i>; the Invertebrate +hosts, in which, in both cases, the sexual process is undergone, +being respectively a leech (<i>Placobdella</i>) and a tick (<i>Ixodes</i>). With +this discovery the main distinction (as supposed) between the +Haemosporidia of warm and of cold-blooded Vertebrates vanished. +It was further acknowledged by Schaudinn (under whom Hintze +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page810" id="page810"></a>810</span> +had worked) that the latter had been misled by Coccidian cysts and +spores, which he took for those of <i>Lankesterella</i>. The gametogony +and sporogony of <i>Haemogregarina stepanovi</i> in the leech agree in +essential particulars with the process above described. The microgametes +are extremely minute, and the sporozoites, which are +developed in the salivary glands, where the motile ookinetes finally +come to rest, are extremely “spirochaetiform”—the full +significance of this latter fact being, perhaps, not +appreciated.</p> + +<p>Christophers recently described some remarkable +phases which he regarded as belonging to the cycle of +<i>Haemogregarina gerbilli</i> (one of the few Mammalian +Haemogregarines known) in a louse (<i>Haematopinus</i>). +In a private communication, however, the author +states that he has probably mistaken phases in the +development of an ordinary gregarine parasite in +the louse for part of the life-cycle of this Haemogregarine.</p> + +<p>The Mammalian parasite <i>Piroplasma</i> is the one about +whose life-history our knowledge is most vague. +Besides the typical and generally occurring forms, +others have also been observed in the blood, but it +is doubtful how far these are to be looked upon as +normal; for instance, Bowhill and Le Doux have +described, in various species, a phase in which a long, +slender pseudopodial-like outgrowth is present, with a +swelling at the distal end. It is, moreover, quite +uncertain which are the sexual forms, comparable to +gametocytes. Doflein regards large pear-shaped forms as such +(megagametocytes?), which become spherical when maturing; +and Nocard and Motas have figured amoeboid, irregular forms, +with the nucleus fragmented and possessing flagella-like processes +(possibly microgametes?). The Invertebrate host is well known to +be, in the case of all species, a tick; thus bovine piroplasmosis +(<i>P. bigeminum</i>) in America is conveyed by <i>Rhipicephalus annulatus</i> +(<i>Boophilus bovis</i>), canine piroplasmosis (<i>P. canis</i>) in South Africa +by <i>Haemaphysalis leachi</i> (and perhaps <i>Dermacentor reticulatus</i>), +and so on. The manner in which the infection is transmitted by +the tick varies greatly. In some cases (<i>e.g.</i> <i>P. bigeminum</i> and <i>P. +canis</i>) only the generation subsequent to that which receives the +infection (by feeding on an infected ox) can transmit it back again +to another ox; in other words, true hereditary infection of the ova +in the mother-tick is found to occur. The actual period in the life of +the daughter-tick at which it can convey the infection apparently +varies. On the other hand, in the case of East African coast-fever, +Theiler found that hereditary infection does not occur, the same +generation transmitting the parasite (<i>P. parvum</i>) at different periods +of life. Little is certainly known regarding the phases of the parasite +which are passed through in the tick. Lignières has observed a kind +of multiple fission in the stomach, several very minute bodies, +consisting mostly of chromatin, being formed, which may serve for +endogenous reproduction. Koch has published an account of certain +curious forms of <i>P. bigeminum</i>, in which the body is produced into +many stiff, ray-like processes, giving the appearance of a star; +according to him fusion of such forms takes place, and the resulting +zygote becomes rounded, perhaps transitional to the pear-shaped +forms.</p> + +<p>The classification and nomenclature of the Haemosporidia are +in a very unsettled condition. For an account of the various systems +and modifications hitherto adopted, the article of Minchin +(see under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sporozoa</a></span>: <i>Bibliography</i>) should be consulted. +<span class="sidenote">Classification.</span> +With the realization that the life-history in the case of the +“Haemamoebae” and the Haemogregarines is fundamentally +similar in type, the chief reason for grouping them as distinct suborders +has disappeared. It is most convenient to regard them as +separate, but closely allied families, the <i>Plasmodidae</i> (“<i>Haemamoebidae</i>”) +and the <i>Haemogregarinidae</i>. The <i>Piroplasmata</i>, on the +other hand, constitute another family, which is better placed in a +distinct section or sub-order. In addition there are, as already +noted, two or three genera whose systematic position must be considered +as quite uncertain. One is the well-known <i>Halteridium</i> of +Labbé, parasitic in various birds; the type-species is <i>H. danilewskyi</i> +(Gt. and Fel.). Another is the much-debated parasite of white +blood-corpuscles (leucocytes), originally described in birds by +Danilewsky under the name of <i>Leucocytozoon</i>, a form of which has +been recently observed in Mammals.</p> + +<p>In conclusion, the chief members of the above-mentioned families +may be enumerated.</p> + +<p>Fam. <i>Plasmodidae</i> (“<i>Haemamoebidae</i>”).</p> + +<p>Genus <i>Laverania</i>, Gr. and Fel. (syn. <i>Haemamoenas</i>, Ross), for L. +<i>malariae</i>, Gr. and Fel. (synn. L. s. <i>Plasmodium</i>, s. “<i>Haemamoeba</i>,” +&c., <i>praecox</i> s. <i>immaculatum</i>, &c.), the parasite of pernicious malaria. +Genus <i>Plasmodium</i>, March. and Celli (syn. “<i>Haemamoeba</i>”) for +<i>P. vivax</i> and <i>P. malariae</i>, the tertian and quartan parasite, respectively. +There is also a form known in apes, <i>P. kochi</i>. Genus <i>Haemoproteus</i>, +Kruse (syn. <i>Proteosoma</i>), for <i>H. danilewskyi</i> (syn. <i>Proteosoma +grassi</i>, <i>Plasmodium praecox</i>, &c.), parasitic in numerous birds. +Recently, another form has been described, from reptiles, which +Castellani and Willey have termed <i>Haemocystidium simondi</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Remarks</i>.—The distinguishing characters of the malarial parasites +have been mentioned above. Some authorities would include +<i>Laverania</i> in the genus <i>Plasmodium</i>, as differing only specifically +from the other two forms. It has, moreover, been suggested by +Sergent that all three are merely different phases of the same parasite, +predominating at different seasons; this idea cannot be regarded, +however, as in any way proved so far. From what is known of the +morphology and mode of manifestation of these forms, the differences +between <i>Laverania</i> and the two species of <i>Plasmodium</i> are considerably +more pronounced than those between <i>P. vivax</i> and <i>P. malariae</i>; +if the latter are to be considered as distinct species, the first-named +is probably generically distinct. Lühe, it may be noted, in his recent +comprehensive account of the Haematozoa, also takes this view. +Lastly, whatever be the correct solution of the above problem, +there is certainly not sufficient justification for including the Avian +genus <i>Haemoproteus</i>, as also only a species of <i>Plasmodium</i>, which is +done by some. Its different Vertebrate habitat, and also the fact +that its Insectan definitive host is Culex and not <i>Anopheles</i>, differentiate +it sharply from <i>Laverania</i> and <i>Plasmodium</i>.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:612px; height:143px" src="images/img810a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f80 tcl" colspan="2">From Lankester’s <i>Treatise on Zoology</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>—<i>Haemoproteus danilewskyi</i>, Kruse (parasite of various birds). × about +1200. <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i> and <i>d</i> from the chaffinch; <i>d</i> and <i>e</i> from the lark. (After Labbé.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>a</i>, Young trophozoite in a blood-corpuscle,</p> +<p><i>b</i> and <i>c</i>, Older trophozoite.</p> +<p><i>d</i> and <i>e</i>, Sporulation.</p> +<p><i>d</i>, Precocious sporulation with few merozoites.</p> +<p><i>e</i>, Sporulation of a full-grown + schizont, with numerous merozoites.</p> +<p><i>f</i>, Gametocyte.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>N, Nucleus of blood-corpuscle.</p> +<p><i>n</i>, Nucleus of parasite.</p> +<p><i>p</i>, Pigment.</p> +<p><i>mz</i>, Merozoites.</p> +<p><i>r.p</i>, Residual protoplasm.</p></td></tr></table> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:536px; height:354px" src="images/img810b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f80 tcl" colspan="2">From Lankester’s <i>Treatise on Zoology</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>—<i>Haemogregarina stepanovi</i>, Danilewsky (par. <i>Emys</i> and +<i>Cistudo</i>), phases of the schizogony. (<i>a-e</i> and <i>j</i> after Laveran; <i>f-i</i> +after Börner.) × 1000 to 1200 diameters.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>a</i>, Blood-corpuscle with young +trophozoite.</p> + +<p><i>b</i>, Older trophozoite.</p> + +<p><i>c</i>, Full-grown trophozoite, ready +to leave the corpuscle.</p> + +<p><i>d</i> and <i>e</i>, Trophozoites free in the +blood-plasma, showing +changes of form.</p> + +<p><i>f-i</i>, Trophozoites, still within the +blood-corpuscle (not drawn), +showing the structure of the +nucleus, the coarse chromatoid +granules in the protoplasm +and the manner in +which the parasite grows +into the <b>U</b>-shaped Haemogregarine +without increase of +body-mass.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>j</i>, Commencement of sporulation; +the nucleus has divided +into eight nuclei, and the +body of the parasite is +beginning to divide up into +as many merozoites within a +blood-corpuscle.</p> + +<p>N, Nucleus of the blood-corpuscle.</p> + +<p><i>n</i>, Nucleus of the parasite.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">Fam. <i>Haemogregarinidae</i>.—The different genera are characterized +chiefly by their size relative to the blood-corpuscles, and their disposition +in the latter. Here, again, it has been suggested to unite +the various types all in one genus, <i>Haemogregarina</i>, but this seems at +least premature when it is remembered how little is known in most +cases of the life-cycle, which may prove to exhibit important +divergences.</p> + +<p>Genus <i>Haemogregarina</i>, Danilewsky (syn. <i>Danilewskya</i>, Labbé). +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page811" id="page811"></a>811</span> +The body of the parasite exceeds the blood-corpuscle in length, +when adult, and is bent upon itself, like a <b>U</b>. A very great number +of species are known, mostly from reptiles and fishes; among them +may be mentioned <i>H. stepanovi</i> (fig. 6), from <i>Emys</i> and <i>Cistudo</i>, +whose sexual-cycle in a leech has been worked out by Siegel (see +above), <i>H. delagei</i>, from <i>Raja</i>, <i>H. bigemina</i>, from blennies, and <i>H. +simondi</i>, from soles. Recently one or two Mammalian forms have +been observed, <i>H. gerbilli</i>, from an Indian rat (<i>Gerbillus</i>), and <i>H. +jaculi</i>, from the jerboa.</p> + +<p>Genus <i>Lankesterella</i>, Labbé (syn. <i>Drepanidium</i>, Lankester). The +parasite is not more than three-quarters the length of the corpuscle. +<i>L. ranarum</i> from <i>Rana</i> is the type-species; another, recently described +by Fantham, is <i>L. tritonis</i>, from the newt.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:388px; height:139px" src="images/img811.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f80 tcl">From Lankester’s <i>Treatise on Zoology</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90 tcl"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>—<i>Karyolysus lacertarum</i> (Danil.), in the blood-corpuscles of +Lacerta muralis, showing the effects of the parasite upon the nucleus +of the corpuscle. In <i>c</i> and <i>d</i> the nucleus is broken up. N, Nucleus +of the corpuscle; <i>n</i>, nucleus of the parasite, seen as a number of +masses of chromatin, not enclosed by a distinct membrane. (After +Marceau.)</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">Genus <i>Karyolysus</i>, Labbé. The parasite does not exceed the corpuscle +in length; the forms included in this genus, moreover, +although not actually intranuclear, have a marked karyolytic and +disintegrating action upon the nucleus of the corpuscle. The type-species +is the well-known <i>K. lacertarum</i>, of lizards; another is <i>K. +(Haemogregarina) viperini</i>, from <i>Tropidonotus</i>.</p> + +<p>In the section of the <i>Piroplasmata</i> there is only the genus <i>Piroplasma</i>, +Patton (synn. <i>Babesia</i>, Starcovici, <i>Pyrosoma</i>, Smith and +Kilborne), the principal species of which are as follows: <i>P. bigeminum</i>, +the cause of Texas cattle-fever, tick-fever (Rinder-malaria) +of South Africa, and <i>P. bovis</i>, causing haemoglobinuria of cattle in +Southern Europe; there is some uncertainty as to whether these two +are really distinct; <i>P. canis</i>, <i>P. ovis</i> and <i>P. equi</i> associated, respectively, +with those animals. Lately, a very small form, <i>P. parvum</i>, +has been described by Theiler in Rhodesia, which causes East-African +coast-fever; and another, <i>P. muris</i>, has been observed in +white rats by Fantham.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—(The older literature is enumerated in most +treatises on Sporozoa—see bibliography under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sporozoa</a></span>). P. +Argutinsky, “Malariastudien,” <i>Arch. mikr. Anat.</i> 59, p. 315, pls. +18-21 (1901), and <i>op. cit.</i> 61, p. 331, pl. 18 (1902); A. Balfour, +“Haemogregarine of Mammals,” <i>J. Trop. Med.</i> 8, p. 241, 8 figs. +(1905); C. A. Bentley, “Leucocytozoan of the Dog,” <i>B.M.J.</i> +(1905), 1, pp. 988 and 1078; N. Berestneff, “Über einen neuen +Blutparasiten der indischen Frösche,” <i>Arch. Protistenk.</i> 2, p. 343, +pl. 8 (1903); “Über das <i>’Leucocytozoan’ danilewskyi</i>,” <i>op. cit.</i> 3, +p. 376, pl. 15 (1904); A. Billet, “Contribution à l’étude du paludisme +et de son hématozoaire en Algérie,” <i>Ann. Inst. Pasteur</i>, 16, +p. 186 (1902); (Notes on various Haemogregarines). <i>C. R. Soc. Biol.</i> +56, pp. 482, 484, 607 and 741 (1904); C. Börner, “Untersuchungen +über Hämosporidien,” <i>Zeitschr. wiss. Zool.</i> 69, p. 398, 1 pl. (1901); +T. Bowhill, “Equine piroplasmosis,” &c., <i>J. Hyg.</i> 5, p. 7, pls. 1-3 +(1905); Bowhill and C. le Doux, “Contribution to the Study of +’<i>Piroplasmosis canis</i>,’” <i>op. cit.</i> 4, p. 217, pl. 11 (1904); E. Brumpt +and C. Lebailly, “Description de quelques nouvelles espèces de +trypanosomes et d’hémogrégarines,” &c., C. R. Ac. Sci. 139, p. 613 +(1904); A. Castellani and A. Willey, “Observations on the Haematozoa +of Vertebrates in Ceylon,” <i>Spolia Zeylan</i>. 2, p. 78, 1 pl. (1904), +and <i>Q. J. Micr. Sci.</i> 49, p. 383, pl. 24 (1905); S. R. Christophers, +“<i>Haemogregarina gerbilli</i>,” <i>Sci. Mem. India</i>, 18, 15 pp., 1 pl. (1905); +H. B. Fantham, “<i>Lankesterella tritonis</i>, n. sp.,” &c., <i>Zool. Anz.</i> +29, p. 257, 17 figs. (1905); “<i>Piroplasma muris</i>,” &c., <i>Q. J. Micr. +Sci.</i> 50, p. 493, pl. 28 (1906); C. Graham-Smith, “A new Form of +Parasite found in the Red Blood-Corpuscles of Moles,” <i>J. Hyg.</i> 5, +p. 453, pls. 13 and 14 (1905); R. Hintze, “Lebensweise und Entwickelung +von <i>Lankesterella minima</i>,” <i>Zool. Jahrb. Anat.</i> 15, p. 693, +pl. 36 (1902); S. James, “On a Parasite found in the White Blood-Corpuscles +of Dogs,” <i>Sci. Mem. India</i>, 14, 12 pp. 1 pl. (1905); +R. Koch, “Vorläufige Mitteilungen über die Ergebnisse einer +Forschungsreise nach Ostafrika,” <i>Deutsch. med. Wochenschr.</i>, 1905, +p. 1865, 24 figs.; A. Labbé, “Recherches sur les parasites endoglobulaires +du sang des vertébrés,” <i>Arch. zool. exp.</i> (3) ii. p. 55, +10 pls. (1894); A. Laveran, “Sur quelques hémogrégarines des +ophidiens,” <i>C. R. Ac. Sci.</i> 135, p. 1036, 13 figs. (1902); “Sur une +<i>Haemamoeba</i> d’une mésange (<i>Parus major</i>),” <i>C. R. Soc. Biol.</i> 54, +p. 1121, 10 figs. (1902); “Sur la piroplasmose bovine bacilliforme,” +<i>C. R. Ac. Sci.</i> 138, p. 648, 18 figs. (1903); “Contribution à l’étude +de <i>Haemamoeba ziemanni</i>,” <i>C. R. Soc. Biol.</i> 55, p. 620, 7 figs. (1903); +“Sur une hémogrégarine des gerboises,” <i>C. R. Ac. Sci.</i> 141, p. 295, +9 figs. (1905); (On different Haemogregarines) <i>C. R. Soc. Biol.</i> 59, +pp. 175, 176, with figs. (1905); “Haemocytozoa. Essai de classification,” +<i>Bull. Inst. Pasteur</i>, 3, p. 809 (1905); Laveran and F. Mesnil, +“Sur les hématozoaires des poissons marins,” <i>C. R. Ac. Sci.</i> 135, +p. 567 (1902); “Sur quelques protozoaires parasites d’une tortue +d’Asie,” <i>t.c.</i> p. 609, 14 figs. (1902); Laveran and Nègre, “Sur un +protozoaire parasite de <i>Hyalomma aegyptium</i>,” <i>C. R. Soc. Biol.</i> 58, +p. 964, 6 figs. (1905); (for various earlier papers by these authors, +reference should be made to the C. R. Ac. Sci. and C R. Soc. Biol. +for previous years); C. Lebailly (On Piscine Haemogregarines) +<i>C. R. Ac. Sci.</i> 139, p. 576 (1904), and <i>C. R. Soc. Biol.</i> 59, p. 304 +(1905); J. Lignières, “Sur la ‘Tristeza,’” <i>Ann. Inst. Pasteur</i>, 15, +p. 121, pl. 6 (1901); “La Piroplasmose bovine; nouvelles recherches,” +&c., <i>Arch. parasit.</i> 7, p. 398, pl. 4 (1903); M. Lühe, “Die +im Blute schmarotzenden Protozoen,” in Mense’s <i>Handbuch der +Tropenkrankheiten</i> (Leipzig, 1906), 3, 1; F. Marceau, “Note sur le +<i>Karyolysus lacertarum</i>,” <i>Arch. parasitol.</i> 4, p. 135, 46 figs. (1901); +W. MacCallum, “On the Haematozoan Infection of Birds,” <i>J. Exp. +Med.</i> 3, p. 117, pl. 12 (1898); G. Mauser, “Die Malaria perniciosa,” +<i>Centrbl. Bakter.</i> (1) 32, Orig. p. 695, 3 pls. (1902); C. Nicolle (On +various Reptilian Haemogregarines), <i>C. R. Soc. Biol.</i> 56, pp. 330, +608 and 912, with figs. (1904); Nicolle and C. Comte, “Sur le rôle +... de <i>Hyalomma</i> ... dans l’infection hémogrégarinienne,” <i>op. +cit.</i> 58, p. 1045 (1905); Norcard and Motas, “Contribution à l’étude +de la piroplasmose canine,” <i>Ann. Inst. Pasteur</i>, 16, p. 256, pls. 5 +and 6 (1902); G. Nuttall and G. Graham-Smith, “Canine piroplasmosis,” +<i>J. Hygiene</i>, p. 237, pl. 9 (1905); F. Schaudinn, “Der +Generationswechsel der Coccidien und Hämosporidien,” <i>Zool. +Centrbl.</i> 6, p. 675 (1899); “Studien über krankheitserregende +Protozoen—II. <i>Plasmodium vivax</i>,” <i>Arb. Kais. Gesundheitsamte</i>, 19, +p. 169, pls. 4-6 (1902); E. and E. Sergent (On different Haemogregarines), +<i>C. R. Soc. Biol.</i> 56, pp. 130, 132 (1904), <i>op. cit.</i> 58, pp. +56, 57, 670 (1905); J. Siegel, “Die geschlechtliche Entwickelung +von <i>Haemogregarina</i>,” &c., <i>Arch. Protistenk.</i> 2, p. 339, 7 figs. (1903); +P. L. Simond, “Contribution à l’étude des hématozoaires endoglobulaires +des reptiles,” <i>Ann. Inst. Pasteur</i>, 15, p. 319, 1 pl. (1901); +T. Smith and F. Kilborne, “Investigations into the Nature, Causation +and Prevention of Texas Cattle Fever,” <i>Rep. Bureau Animal Industry</i>, +U.S.A., 9 and 10, p. 177, pls. (1893); A. Theiler, “The +<i>Piroplasma bigeminum</i> of the Immune Ox,” <i>J. Army Med. Corps</i>, 3, +pp. 469, 599, 1 pl. (1904); J. Vassal, “Sur une hématozoaire +endoglobulaire nouveau d’un mammifère,” <i>Ann. Inst. Pasteur</i>, 19, +p. 224, pl. 10 (1905); L. B. Wilson and W. Chowning, “Studies in +<i>Piroplasmosis hominis</i>,” <i>J. Infect. Diseases</i>, 1, p. 31, 2 pls. (1904).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. M. Wo.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Compare, for example, the flagellated granules of certain +Coccidia, which point unmistakably to a Flagellate ancestry.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> A possible exception is a doubtful species of <i>Haemogregarina</i>, +which has been described from the walls of the blood-vessels of an +Annelid.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3d" id="ft3d" href="#fa3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> For an interesting account of the biological relations between +parasites and their hosts, and the penalty Man pays for his roving +propensities, the reader should see Lankester’s article in the <i>Quarterly +Review</i>, July 1904.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4d" id="ft4d" href="#fa4d"><span class="fn">4</span></a> This does away with one of the principal reasons on account of +which some authorities consider <i>Piroplasma</i> (<i>Leishmania</i>) <i>donovani</i> +as quite distinct from other <i>Piroplasmata</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Trypanosomes</a></span>).</p> + +<p><a name="ft5d" id="ft5d" href="#fa5d"><span class="fn">5</span></a> It must not be forgotten that one species of <i>Halteridium</i> (<i>H.</i> +[<i>Trypanomorpha</i>] <i>noctuae</i>) is said to have well-marked trypaniform +phases in its life-cycle; these are preferably considered under +<i>Trypanosomes</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), and therefore, to avoid repetition, are only +thus alluded to here. Whether <i>H. danilewskyi</i> also becomes trypaniform +in certain phases, and how far it really agrees with the criteria +of a Haemosporidian above postulated, are matters which are not +yet definitely known.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAETZER,<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Hetzer</span>, <b>LUDWIG</b> (d. 1529), Swiss divine, +was born in Switzerland, at Bischofszell, in Thurgau. He +studied at Freiburg-im-Breisgau, and began his career in a +chaplaincy at Wadenswil, on the Lake of Zürich. At this time +his attachment to the old faith was tempered by a mystical turn, +and by a devotion to the prophetical writings of the Old Testament, +which he studied in the original. By 1523 we find him +in Zürich, where he published, at first anonymously and in +Latin (<i>Judicium Dei</i>), later with his name and in German +(Sept. 24, 1523), a small tract against the religious use of images, +and bearing the motto attached to all his subsequent works, +“O Got erlösz die (or dein) Gefangnen” (“O God, set the +prisoners free”). An attempt to give effect to the teaching of +this (frequently reprinted) tract was followed by a public religious +disputation, of which Haetzer drew up the official account. +In 1524 he brought out a tract on the conversion of the Jews, +and published a German version of Johann Bugenhagen’s +brief exposition of the epistles of St Paul (Ephesians to Hebrews); +in the dedication (dated Zürich, June 29, 1524) he undertakes +to translate Bugenhagen’s comment on the Psalter. He then +went to Augsburg, bearing Zwingli’s introduction to Johann +Frosch. Here he came for a time under the influence of Urbanus +Regius, and was for a short time the guest of Georg Regel. +Returning to Zürich, he was in intercourse with leading Anabaptists +(though his own position was simply the disuse of infant +baptism) till their expulsion in January 1525. Again resorting +to Augsburg, and resuming work as corrector of the press for +his printer Silvan Ottmar, he pushed his views to the extreme +of rejecting all sacraments, reaching something like the mystical +standpoint of the early Quakers. He was expelled from Augsburg +in the autumn of 1525, and made his way through Constance +to Basel, where Oecolampadius received him kindly. He translated +into German the first treatise of Oecolampadius on the +Lord’s Supper (in which the words of institution are taken +figuratively), and proceeding to Zürich in November, published +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page812" id="page812"></a>812</span> +his version there in February 1526, with a preface disclaiming +connexion with the Anabaptists. His relations with Zwingli +were difficult; returning to Basel he published (July 18, 1526) +his translation of Malachi, with Oecolampadius’s exposition, +and with a preface reflecting on Zwingli. This he followed by +a version of Isaiah xxxvi.-xxxvii. He next went to Strassburg, +and was received by Wolfgang Capito. At Strassburg in the +late autumn of 1526 he fell in with Hans Dengk or Denck, who +collaborated with him in the production of his <i>opus magnum</i>, +the translation of the Hebrew Prophets, <i>Alle Propheten nach +hebraischer Sprach vertuetscht</i>. The preface is dated Worms, +3 April 1527; and there are editions, Worms, 13 April 1527, +folio; Augsburg, 22 June 1527, folio; Worms, 7 Sept. 1527, +16º; and Augsburg, 1528, folio. It was the first Protestant +version of the prophets in German, preceding Luther’s by five +years, and highly spoken of by him. Haetzer and Denck now +entered on a propagandist mission from place to place, with +some success, but of short duration. Denck died at Basel in +November 1527. Haetzer was arrested at Constance in the +summer of 1528. After long imprisonment and many examinations +he was condemned on the 3rd of February 1529 to die by +the sword, and the sentence was executed on the following day. +His demeanour on the scaffold impressed impartial witnesses, +Hans Zwick and Thomas Blaurer, who speak warmly of his +fervour and courage. The Dutch Baptist Martyrology describes +him as “a servant of Jesus Christ.” The Moravian Chronicle +says “he was condemned for the sake of divine truth.” His +papers included an unpublished treatise against the essential +deity of Christ, which was suppressed by Zwingli; the only +extant evidence of his anti-trinitarian views being contained +in eight quaint lines of German verse preserved in Sebastian +Frank’s <i>Chronica</i>. The discovery of his heterodox Christology +(which has led modern Unitarians to regard him as their proto-martyr) +was followed by charges of loose living, never heard of +in his lifetime, and destitute of evidence or probability.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Breitinger, “Anecdota quaedam de L. H.” in <i>Museum Helveticum</i> +(1746), parts 21 and 23; Wallace, <i>Antitrinitarian Biography</i> +(1850); <i>Dutch Martyrology</i> (Hanserd Knollys Society) (1856); Th. +Keim, in Hauck’s <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (1899).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. Go.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HĀFIZ.<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> Shams-ud-din Mahommed, better known by his +<i>takhallus</i> or <i>nom de plume</i> of Hāfiz, was one of the most +celebrated writers of Persian lyrical poetry. He was born at +Shiraz, the capital of Fars, in the early part of the 8th century +of the Mahommedan era, that is to say, in the 14th of our own. +The exact date of his birth is uncertain, but he attained a ripe +old age and died in 791 <span class="scs">A.H.</span> (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1388). This is the date +given in the chronogram which is engraved on his tomb, although +several Persian biographers give a different year. Very little +is actually known about his life, which appears to have been +passed in retirement in Shiraz, of which he always speaks in +terms of affectionate admiration. He was a subject of the +Muzaffar princes, who ruled in Shiraz, Yazd, Kirman and Ispahan, +until the dynasty was overthrown by Timur (Tamerlane). Of +these princes his especial patrons were Shah Shujā’ and Shah +Mansūr. He early devoted himself to the study of poetry and +theology, and also became learned in mystic philosophy, which +he studied under Shaik Mahmūd ‘Aṭṭār, chief of an order of +dervishes. Hāfiz afterwards enrolled himself in the same order +and became a professor of Koranic exegesis in a college which +his friend and patron Haji Kiwam-ud-din, the vizier, specially +founded for him. This was probably the reason of his adopting +the sobriquet of Hāfiz (“one who remembers”), which is technically +applied to any person who has learned the Koran by heart. +The restraints of an ascetic life seem to have been very little to +Hāfiz’s taste, and his loose conduct and wine-bibbing propensities +drew upon him the severe censure of his monastic colleagues. +In revenge he satirizes them unmercifully in his verses, and seldom +loses an opportunity of alluding to their hypocrisy. Hāfiz’s +fame as a poet was soon rapidly spread throughout the Mahommedan +world, and several powerful monarchs sent him presents +and pressing invitations to visit them. Amongst others he was +invited by Mahmūd Shah Bahmani, who reigned in the south +of India. After crossing the Indus and passing through Lahore +he reached Hurmuz, and embarked on board a vessel sent for +him by the Indian prince. He seems, however, to have been a +bad sailor, and, having invented an excuse for being put ashore, +made the best of his way back to Shiraz. Some biographies +narrate a story of an interview between Hāfiz and the invader +Timur. The latter sent for him and asked angrily, “Art thou +he who was so bold as to offer my two great cities Samarkand +and Bokhara for the black mole on thy mistress’s cheek?” +alluding to a well-known verse in one of his odes. “Yes, sire,” +replied Hāfiz, “and it is by such acts of generosity that I have +brought myself to such a state of destitution that I have +now to solicit your bounty.” Timur was so pleased at his ready +wit that he dismissed the poet with a handsome present. Unfortunately +for the truth of this story Timur did not capture +Shiraz till <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1393, while the latest date that can be assigned +to Hāfiz’s death is 1391. Of his private life little or nothing is +known. One of his poems is said to record the death of his wife, +another that of a favourite unmarried son, and several others +speak of his love for a girl called <i>Shākh i Nabat</i>, “Sugar-cane +branch,” and this is almost all of his personal history that can +be gathered from his writings. He was, like most Persians, +a Shi‘ite by religion, believing in the transmission of the office +of Imām (head of the Moslem Church) in the family of Ali, +cousin of the prophet, and rejecting the <i>Hadith</i> (traditional sayings) +of Mahomet, which form the Sunna or supplementary code +of Mahommedan ceremonial law. One of his odes which contains +a verse in praise of Ali is engraved on the poet’s tomb, but is +omitted by Sudi, the Turkish editor and commentator, who +was himself a rigid Sunnite. Hāfiz’s heretical opinions and +dissipated life caused difficulties to be raised by the ecclesiastical +authorities on his death as to his interment in consecrated +ground. The question was at length settled by Hāfiz’s own +works, which had then already begun to be used, as they are now +throughout the East, for the purposes of divination, in the same +manner as Virgil was employed in the middle ages for the divination +called <i>Sortes Virgilianae</i>. Opening the book at random +after pronouncing the customary formula asking for inspiration, +the objectors hit upon the following verse—“Turn not away +thy foot from the bier of Hāfiz, for though immersed in sin, he +will be admitted into Paradise.” He was accordingly buried +in the centre of a small cemetery at Shiraz, now included in an +enclosure called the Hāfiziyeh.</p> + +<p>His principal work is the <i>Dīwān</i>, that is, a collection of short +odes or sonnets called <i>ghazals</i>, and consisting of from five to +sixteen <i>baits</i> or couplets each, all the couplets in each ode having +the same rhyme in the last hemistich, and the last couplet always +introducing the poet’s own <i>nom de plume</i>. The whole of these +are arranged in alphabetical order, an arrangement which +certainly facilitates reference but makes it absolutely impossible +to ascertain their chronological order, and therefore detracts +from their value as a means of throwing light upon the growth +and development of his genius or the incidents of his career. +They are often held together by a very slender thread of continuous +thought, and few editions agree exactly in the order of +the couplets. Still, a careful study of them, especially from the +point of view indicated by the Sufiistic system of philosophy, +will always show that a single idea does run throughout the +whole. The nature of these poems has been the subject of much +discussion in the West, some scholars seeing in their anacreontic +utterances nothing but sensuality and materialism, while others, +following the Oriental school, maintain that they are wholly +and entirely mystic and philosophic. Something between the two +would probably be nearer the truth. It must be remembered +that Hāfiz was a professed dervish and Sūfi, and that his <i>ghazals</i> +were in all probability published from a <i>takia</i>, and arranged +with at least a view to Sufiistic interpretation. At the same +time it is ridiculous to suppose that the glowing imagery, the +gorgeous and often tender descriptions of natural beauties, the +fervent love passages, and the roystering drinking songs were +composed in cool blood or with deliberate ascetic purpose. The +beauty of Hāfiz’s poetry is that it is natural. It is the outcome +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page813" id="page813"></a>813</span> +of a fervent soul and a lofty genius delighting in nature and +enjoying life; and it is the poet’s misfortune that he lived in an +age and amongst a people where rigid conventionality demanded +that his free and spontaneous thoughts should be recast in an +artificial mould.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Besides the <i>Dīwān</i>, Hāfiz wrote a number of other poems; the +Leipzig edition of his works contains 573 <i>ghazals</i> (forming the <i>Dīwān</i>), +42 <i>kit‘as</i> or fragments, 69 <i>ruba‘iyāt</i> or tetrastics, 6 <i>masnaviyāt</i> or +poems in rhyming couplets, 2 <i>kasāïd</i>, idylls or panegyrics, and 1 +<i>mukhammes</i> or poem in five-line strophes. Other editions contain +several <i>tarji‘-band</i> or poems with a refrain. The whole <i>Dīwān</i> was +translated into English prose by H. Wilberforce Clarke in 1891, +with introduction and exhaustive commentary and bibliography; +a few rhyming versions of single poems by Sir William Jones, J. +Nott, J. Hindley, Falconer, &c., are to be found scattered through +the pages of the <i>Oriental Miscellany</i> and other periodicals, and a fine +edition containing a verse rendering of the principal poems by H. +Bicknell appeared in 1875. Other selections by S. Robinson (1875), +A. Rogers (1889), J. H. M‘Carthy (1893), and Gertrude L. Bell (1897). +The principal German versions are by von Hammer Purgstall (1812), +which gave the first impulse to Goethe’s <i>Westöstlicher Diwan</i>; a +rhyming and rhythmical translation of a large portion of Hāfiz’s +works by Vincenz von Rosenzweig of Vienna (Vienna, 1858), which +contains also the Persian text and notes; <i>Der Diwan des Schemseddīn +Muhammed Hāfis</i>, by G. H. F. Nesselmann (Berlin, 1865), in +which the rhyming system of the original is imitated. Besides these, +the reader may consult d’Herbelot, <i>Bibliothèque orientale</i>, article +“Hafiz”; Sir William Ouseley’s <i>Oriental Collections</i> (1797-1798); +<i>A Specimen of Persian Poetry, or Odes of Hafiz</i>, by John Richardson +(London, 1802); <i>Biographical Notices of Persian Poets</i>, by Sir Gore +Ouseley (Oriental Translation Fund, 1846); and an excellent article +by Professor E. B. Cowell in <i>Macmillan’s Magazine</i> (No. 177, July +1874); J. A. Vullers, <i>Vitae poëtarum Persicorum</i> (1839, translated +from Daulatshah); S. Robinson, <i>Persian Poetry for English Readers</i> +(1883). The best edition of the text is perhaps that edited by Hermann +Brockhaus of Leipzig (1854-1856). which is based on the recension +of the Turkish editor Sudi, and contains his commentary +in Turkish on the first eighty <i>ghazals</i>. See also H. Ethé in <i>Grundriss +der iranischen Philologie</i>, ii. (Strassburg, 1896); P. Horn, <i>Geschichte +der persischen Literatur</i> (Leipzig, 1901).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. H. P.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAG.<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (1) (Probably a shortened form of the O. Eng. <i>hægtesse</i>, +<i>hegtes</i>, cognate with Ger. <i>Hexe</i>, witch, Dutch <i>hecse</i>), a word +common during the 16th and 17th centuries for a female demon +or evil spirit, and so particularly applied to such supernatural +beings as the harpies and fairies of classical mythology, and also +to witches. In modern usage the word is generally used of a +hideous old woman whose repulsive exterior is accompanied by +malice or wickedness. The name is also used of an eel-like +parasitic fish, <i>Myxine glutinosa</i>, allied to the lamprey.</p> + +<p>(2) A word common in Scottish and northern English dialects +for an enclosed piece of wood, a copse. This is the same word +as “hedge” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hedges</a></span>) and “haw.” “Hag” also means “to +cut,” and is used in Scotland of an extent of woodland marked +out for felling, and of a quantity of felled wood. This word +is also used of a cutting in the peat of a “moss” or “bog,” +and hence applied to the small plots of firm ground or heather +in a bog; it is common in the form “moss-hags.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAGEDORN, FRIEDRICH VON<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> (1708-1754), German poet, +was born on the 23rd of April 1708 at Hamburg, where his father, +a man of scientific and literary taste, was Danish minister. +He was educated at the gymnasium of Hamburg, and later +(1726) became a student of law at Jena. Returning to Hamburg +in 1729, he obtained the appointment of unpaid private secretary +to the Danish ambassador in London, where he lived till 1731. +Hagedorn’s return to Hamburg was followed by a period of great +poverty and hardship, but in 1733 he was appointed secretary +to the so-called “English Court” (<i>Englischer Hof</i>) in Hamburg, +a trading company founded in the 13th century. He shortly +afterwards married, and from this time had sufficient leisure +to pursue his literary occupations till his death on the 28th of +October 1754. Hagedorn is the first German poet who bears +unmistakable testimony to the nation’s recovery from the +devastation wrought by the Thirty Years’ War. He is eminently +a social poet. His light and graceful love-songs and anacreontics, +with their undisguised <i>joie de vivre</i>, introduced a new note into +the German lyric; his fables and tales in verse are hardly inferior +in form and in delicate persiflage to those of his master La +Fontaine, and his moralizing poetry re-echoes the philosophy +of Horace. He exerted a dominant influence on the German +lyric until late in the 18th century.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The first collection of Hagedorn’s poems was published at Hamburg +shortly after his return from Jena in 1729, under the title +<i>Versuch einiger Gedichte</i> (reprinted by A. Sauer, Heilbronn, 1883). +In 1738 appeared <i>Versuch in poetischen Fabeln und Erzählungen</i>; +in 1742 a collection of his lyric poems, under the title <i>Sammlung +neuer Oden und Lieder</i>; and his <i>Moralische Gedichte</i> in 1750. A +collection of his entire works was published at Hamburg after his +death in 1757. The best is J. J. Eschenburg’s edition (5 vols., +Hamburg, 1800). Selections of his poetry with an excellent introduction +in F. Muncker’s <i>Anakreontiker und preussisch-patriotische +Lyriker</i> (Stuttgart, 1894). See also H. Schuster, <i>F. von Hagedorn +und seine Bedeutung für die deutsche Literatur</i> (Leipzig, 1882); W. +Eigenbrodt, <i>Hagedorn und die Erzählung in Reimversen</i> (Berlin, +1884).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAGEN, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH VON DER<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> (1780-1856), +German philologist, chiefly distinguished for his researches in +Old German literature, was born at Schmiedeberg In Brandenburg +on the 19th of February 1780. After studying law at +the university of Halle, he obtained a legal appointment in the +state service at Berlin, but in 1806 resigned this office in order +to devote himself exclusively to letters. In 1810 he was appointed +<i>professor extraordinarius</i> of German literature in the university +of Berlin; in the following year he was transferred in a similar +capacity to Breslau, and in 1821 returned to Berlin as <i>professor +ordinarius</i>. He died at Berlin on the 11th of June 1856. +Although von der Hagen’s critical work is now entirely out of +date, the chief merit of awakening an interest in old German +poetry belongs to him.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His principal publications are the <i>Nibelungenlied</i>, of which he +issued four editions, the first in 1810 and the last in 1842; the +<i>Minnesinger</i> (Leipzig, 1838-1856, 4 vols, in 5 parts); <i>Lieder der +ältern Edda</i> (Berlin, 1812); <i>Gottfried von Strassburg</i> (Berlin, 1823); +a collection of Old German tales under the title <i>Gesamtabenteuer</i> +(Stuttgart, 1850, 3 vols.) and <i>Das Heldenbuch</i> (Leipzig, 1855). He +also published <i>Über die ältesten Darstellungen der Faustsage</i> (Berlin, +1844); and from 1835 he edited <i>Das neue Jahrbuch der Berlinischen +Gesellschaft für deutsche Sprache und Altertumskunde</i>. His correspondence +with C. G. Heyne and G. F. Benecke was published by +K. Dziatzko (Leipzig, 1893).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAGEN,<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> a town of Germany, In the Prussian province of +Westphalia. Pop. (1905), 77,498. It lies amid well-wooded hills +at the confluence of the Ennepe with the Volme, 15 m. N.E. +of Elberfeld, on the main line to Brunswick and Berlin, and at +the junction of important lines of railway, connecting it with the +principal towns of the Westphalian iron district. It has five +Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic church, an Old Catholic +church, a synagogue, a gymnasium, realgyrnnasium, and a +technical school with special classes for machine-building. There +are also a museum, a theatre, and a prettily arranged municipal +park. Hagen is one of the most flourishing commercial towns +in Westphalia, and possesses extensive iron and steel works, +large cotton print works, woollen and cotton factories, manufactures +of leather, paper, tobacco, and iron and steel wares, +breweries and distilleries. There are large limestone quarries +in the vicinity and also an alabaster quarry.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAGENAU,<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the imperial province of +Alsace-Lorraine, situated in the middle of the Hagenau Forest, +on the Moder, and on the railway from Strassburg to Weissenburg, +10 m. N.N.E. of the former city. Pop. (1905), 18,500. It +has two Evangelical and two ancient Catholic churches (one +dating from the 12th, the other from the 13th century), a +gymnasium, a public library, a hospital, and a theatre. The +principal industries are wool and cotton spinning, and the +manufacture of porcelain, earthenware, boots, soap, oil, sparkling +wines and beer. There is also considerable trade in hops and +vegetables. Hagenau is an important military centre and has +a large garrison, including three artillery battalions.</p> + +<p>Hagenau dates from the beginning of the 12th century, and +owes its origin to the erection of a hunting lodge by the dukes +of Swabia. The emperor Frederick I. surrounded it with walls +and gave it town rights in 1154. On the site of the hunting lodge +he founded an imperial palace, in which were preserved the +jewelled imperial crown, sceptre, imperial globe, and sword of +Charlemagne. Subsequently it became the seat of the <i>Landvogt</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page814" id="page814"></a>814</span> +of Hagenau, the imperial <i>advocatus</i> in Lower Alsace. Richard +of Cornwall, king of the Romans, made it an imperial city in +1257. In 1648 it came into the possession of France, and in +1673 Louis XIV. caused the fortifications to be razed. In 1675 +it was captured by imperial troops, but in 1677 it was retaken +by the French and nearly all destroyed by fire. In 1871 it fell, +with the rest of Alsace-Lorraine, into the possession of Germany.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAGENBACH, KARL RUDOLF<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (1801-1874). German church +historian, was born on the 4th of March 1801 at Basel, where his +father was a practising physician. His preliminary education was +received at a Pestalozzian school, and afterwards at the gymnasium, +whence in due course he passed to the newly reorganized +local university. He early devoted himself to theological studies +and the service of the church, while at the same time cherishing +and developing broad “humanistic” tendencies which found +expression in many ways and especially in an enthusiastic +admiration for the writings of Herder. The years 1820-1823 +were spent first at Bonn, where G. C. F. Lücke (1791-1855) +exerted a powerful influence on his thought, and afterwards at +Berlin, where Schleiermacher and Neander became his masters. +Returning in 1823 to Basel, where W. M. L. de Wette had recently +been appointed to a theological chair, he distinguished +himself greatly by his trial-dissertation, <i>Observationes historico-hermeneuticae +circa Origenis methodum interpretendae sacrae +Scripturae</i>; in 1824 he became professor extraordinarius, and +in 1829 professor ordinarius of theology. Apart from his +academic labours in connexion with the history of dogma and +of the church, he lived a life of great and varied usefulness as a +theologian, a preacher and a citizen; and at his “jubilee” +in 1873, not only the university and town of Basel but also the +various churches of Switzerland united to do him honour. He +died at Basel on the 7th of June 1874.</p> + +<p>Hagenbach was a voluminous author in many departments, +but he is specially distinguished as a writer on church history. +Though neither so learned and condensed as the contributions +of Gieseler, nor so original and profound as those of Neander, +his lectures are clear, attractive and free from narrow sectarian +prejudice. In dogmatics, while avowedly a champion of the +“mediation theology” (<i>Vermittelungstheologie</i>), based upon the +fundamental conceptions of Herder and Schleiermacher, he was +much less revolutionary than were many others of his school. +He sought to maintain the old confessional documents, and to +make the objective prevail over the purely subjective manner +of viewing theological questions. But he himself was aware +that in the endeavour to do so he was not always successful, +and that his delineations of Christian dogma often betrayed a +vacillating and uncertain hand.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His works include <i>Tabellarische Übersicht der Dogmengeschichte</i> +(1828); <i>Encyclopädie u. Methodologie der theol. Wissenschaften</i> (1833); +<i>Vorlesungen über Wesen u. Geschichte der Reformation u. des Protestantismus</i> +(1834-1843); <i>Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte</i> (1840-1841, 5th +ed., 1867; English transl., 1850); <i>Vorlesungen über die Geschichte +der alien Kirche</i> (1853-1855); <i>Vorlesungen über die Kirchengeschichte +des Mittelalters</i> (1860-1861); <i>Grundlinien der Homiletik u. Liturgik</i> +(1863); biographies of Johannes Oecolampadius (1482-1564) and +Oswald Myconius (1488-1552) and a <i>Geschichte der theol. Schule +Basels</i> (1860); his <i>Predigten</i> (1858-1875), two volumes of poems +entitled <i>Luther u. seine Zeit</i> (1838), and <i>Gedichte</i> (1846). The +lectures on church history under the general title <i>Vorlesungen über +die Kirchengeschichte von der ältesten Zeit bis zum 19ten Jahrhundert</i> +were reissued in seven volumes (1868-1872).</p> + +<p>See especially the article in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAGENBECK, CARL<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (1844-  ), wild-animal collector and +dealer, was born at Hamburg in 1844. In 1848 his father +purchased some seals and a Polar bear brought to Hamburg +by a whaler, and subsequently acquired many other wild animals. +At the age of twenty-one Carl Hagenbeck was given the whole +collection, and before long had greatly extended the business, +so that in 1873 he had to erect large buildings in Hamburg to +house his animals. In 1875 he began to exhibit a collection of +the representative animals of many countries, accompanied by +troupes of the natives of the respective countries, throughout +all the large cities of Europe. The educational value of these +exhibitions was officially recognized by the French government, +which in 1891 awarded Hagenbeck the diploma of the Academy. +Most of the wild animals exhibited in music-halls and other +popular places of entertainment throughout the world have +come from Hagenbeck’s collection at Stellingen, near Hamburg.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAGERSTOWN,<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Washington +county, Maryland, U.S.A., near Antietam Creek, about 86 m. +by rail W.N.W. from Baltimore. Pop. (1890), 10,118; (1900), +13,591, of whom 1277 were negroes; (1910, census), 16,507. +Hagerstown is served by the Baltimore & Ohio, the Western +Maryland, the Norfolk & Western, and the Cumberland Valley +railways, and by an interurban electric line. It lies in a fertile +valley overlooked by South Mountain to the E. and North +Mountain, more distant, to the W. The city is the seat of Kee +Mar College (1852; non-sectarian) for women. Hagerstown +is a business centre for the surrounding agricultural district, +has good water power, and as a manufacturing centre ranked +third in the state in 1905, its factory products being valued in +that year at $3,026,901, an increase of 66.3% over their value +in 1900. Among the manufactures are flour, shirts, hosiery, +gloves, bicycles, automobiles, agricultural implements, print +paper, fertilizers, sash, doors and blinds, furniture, carriages, +spokes and wheels. The municipality owns and operates its +electric lighting plant. Hagerstown was laid out as a town in +1762 by Captain Jonathan Hager (who had received a patent +to 200 acres here from Lord Baltimore in 1739), and was incorporated +in 1791. It was an important station on the old National +(or Cumberland) Road. General R. E. Lee concentrated his +forces at Hagerstown before the battle of Gettysburg.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAG-FISH,<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> <span class="sc">Glutinous Hag</span>, Or <span class="sc">Borer</span> (<i>Myxine</i>), a marine +fish which forms with the lampreys one of the lowest orders of +vertebrates (<i>Cyclostomata</i>). Similar in form to a lamprey, it is +usually found within the body of dead cod or haddock, on the +flesh of which it feeds after having buried itself in the abdomen. +When caught, it secretes a thick glutinous slime in such quantity +that it is commonly believed to have the power of converting +water into glue. It is found in the North Atlantic and other +temperate seas of the globe, being taken in some localities in +large numbers, <i>e.g.</i> off the east coast of Scotland and the west +coast of California (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cyclostomata</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAGGADA,<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> or ’<span class="sc">Agada</span> (literally “narrative”), includes the +more homiletic elements of rabbinic teaching. It is not logically +distinguishable from the halakha (<i>q.v.</i>), for the latter or forensic +element makes up with the haggada the Midrash (<i>q.v.</i>), but, +being more popular than the halakha, is often itself styled the +Midrash. It may be described as the poetical and ethical element +as contrasted with the legal element in the Talmud (<i>q.v.</i>), but +the two elements are always closely connected. From one point +of view the haggada, amplifying and developing the contents +of Hebrew scripture in response to a popular religious need, may +be termed a rabbinical commentary on the Old Testament, +containing traditional stories and legends, sometimes amusing, +sometimes trivial, and often beautiful. The haggada abounds +in parables. The haggadic passages of the Talmud were collected +in the <i>Eye of Jacob</i>, a very popular compilation completed by +Jakob ibn Habib in the 16th century.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAGGAI,<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> in the Bible, the tenth in order of the “minor +prophets,” whose writings are preserved in the Old Testament. +The name Haggai (<span title="Haggai">חגי</span>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="'Aggaios">Ἀγγαῖος</span>, whence Aggeus in the English +version of the Apocrypha) perhaps means “born on the +feast day,” “festive.” But Wellhausen<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> is probably right in +taking the word as a contraction for Hagariah (“Yahweh hath +girded”), just as Zaccai (Zacchaeus) is known to be a contraction +of Zechariah.</p> + +<p>The book of Haggai contains four short prophecies delivered +between the first day of the sixth month and the twenty-fourth +day of the ninth month—that is, between September and +December—of the second year of Darius the king. The king in +question must be Darius Hystaspis (521-485 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). The language +of the prophet in ii. 3 suggests the probability that he was himself +one of those whose memories reached across the seventy years +of the captivity, and that his prophetic work began in extreme +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page815" id="page815"></a>815</span> +old age. This supposition agrees well with the shortness of the +period covered by his book, and with the fact that Zechariah, +who began to prophesy in the same autumn and was associated +with Haggai’s labours (Ezra v. 1), afterwards appears as the +leading prophet in Jerusalem (Zech. vii. 1-4). We know nothing +further of the personal history of Haggai from the Bible. Later +traditions may be read in Carpzov’s <i>Introductio</i>, pars 3, cap. xvi. +Epiphanius (<i>Vitae prophetarum</i>) says that he came up from +Babylon while still young, prophesied the return, witnessed the +building of the temple and received an honoured burial near +the priests. Haggai’s name is mentioned in the titles of several +psalms in the Septuagint (Psalms cxxxvii., cxlv.-cxlviii.) and +other versions, but these titles are without value, and moreover +vary in MSS. Eusebius did not find them in the Hexaplar +Septuagint.<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p> + +<p>In his first prophecy (i. 1-11) Haggai addresses Zerubbabel +and Joshua, rebuking the people for leaving the temple unbuilt +while they are busy in providing panelled houses for themselves. +The prevalent famine and distress are due to Yahweh’s indignation +at such remissness. Let them build the house, and Yahweh +will take pleasure in it and acknowledge the honour paid to Him. +The rebuke took effect, and the people began to work at the +temple, strengthened by the prophet’s assurance that the Lord +was with them (i. 12-15). In a second prophecy (ii. 1-9) delivered +in the following month, Haggai forbids the people to be disheartened +by the apparent meanness of the new temple. The +silver and gold are the Lord’s. He will soon shake all nations +and their choicest gifts will be brought to adorn His house. +Its glory shall be greater than that of the former temple, and in +this place He will give peace. A third prophecy (ii. 10-19) +contains a promise, enforced by a figure drawn from the priestly +ritual, that God will remove famine and bless the land from the +day of the foundation of the temple onwards. Finally, in ii. +20-23, Zerubbabel is assured of God’s special love and protection +in the impending catastrophe of kingdoms and nations to which +the prophet had formerly pointed as preceding the glorification +of God’s house on Zion. In thus looking forward to a shaking +of all nations Haggai agrees with earlier prophecies, especially +Isa. xxiv.-xxvii., while his picture of the glory and peace of the +new Zion and its temple is drawn from the great anonymous +prophet who penned Isa. lx and lxvi. The characteristic +features of the book are the importance assigned to the personality +of Zerubbabel, who, though a living contemporary, is +marked out as the Messiah; and the almost sacramental +significance attached to the temple. The hopes fixed on Zerubbabel, +the chosen of the Lord, dear to Him as His signet ring +(cf. Jer. xxii. 24), are a last echo in Old Testament prophecy +of the theocratic importance of the house of David. In the book +of Zechariah Zerubbabel has already fallen into the background +and the high priest is the leading figure of the Judean community.<a name="fa3e" id="fa3e" href="#ft3e"><span class="sp">3</span></a> +The stem of David is superseded by the house of +Zadok, the kingship has yielded to the priesthood, and the +extinction of national hopes gives new importance to that strict +organization of the hierarchy for which Ezekiel had prepared +the way by his sentence of disfranchisement against the non-Zadokite +priests.</p> + +<p>The indifference of the Jews to the desolate conditions of their +sanctuary opens up a problem of some difficulty. It is strange +that neither Haggai nor his contemporary Zechariah mentions +or implies any return of exiles from Babylon, and the suggestion +has accordingly been made that the return under Cyrus described +in Ezra i.-iv. is unhistorical, and that the community addressed +by Haggai consisted of the remnant that had been left in +Jerusalem and its neighbourhood after the majority had gone +into exile or fled to Egypt (Jer. xliii.). Such a remnant, amongst +whom might be members of the priestly and royal families, +would gather strength and boldness as the troubles of Babylon +increased and her vigilance was relaxed, and might receive from +Babylon and other lands both refugees and some account at +least of the writings of Ezekiel and the Second Isaiah. Stimulated +by such causes and obtaining formal permission from the Persian +government, they would arise as a new Israel and enter on a +new phase of national life and divine revelation.</p> + +<p>In spite, however, of the plausibility of this theory, it seems +preferable to adhere to the story of Ezra i.-iv. Apart from the +weighty objections that the Edomites would have frustrated such +a recrudescence of the remnant Jews as has been described, it +must be remembered that the main stream of Jewish life and +thought had been diverted to Babylon. Thence, when the +opportunity came under Cyrus, some 50,000 Jews, the spiritual +heirs of the best elements of the old Israel, returned to found the +new community. With them were all the resources, and the +only people they found at Jerusalem were hostile gentiles and +Samaritans. Full of enthusiasm, they set about rebuilding +the temple and realizing the glowing promises about the +prosperity and dominance of Zion that had fallen from the lips +of the Second Isaiah (xlix. 14-26, xlv. 14). Bitter disappointment, +however, soon overcame them, the Samaritans were +strong enough to thwart and hinder their temple-building, and +it seemed as though the divine favour was withdrawn. Apathy +took the place of enthusiasm, and sordid worries succeeded to +high hopes. “The like collapse has often been experienced in +history when bands of religious men, going forth, as they thought, +to freedom and the immediate erection of a holy commonwealth, +have found their unity wrecked and their enthusiasm dissipated +by a few inclement seasons on a barren and hostile shore.”<a name="fa4e" id="fa4e" href="#ft4e"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p> + +<p>From this torpor they were roused by tidings which might well +be interpreted as the restoration of divine favour. Away in the +East Cyrus had been succeeded in 529 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by Cambyses, who had +annexed Egypt and on whose death in 522 a Magian impostor, +Gaumata, had seized the throne. The fraud was short-lived, +and Darius I. became king and the founder of a new dynasty. +These events shook the whole Persian empire; Babylon and +other subject states rose in revolt, and to the Jews it seemed that +Persia was tottering and that the Messianic era was nigh. It +was therefore natural that Haggai and Zechariah should urge +the speedy building of the temple, in order that the great king +might be fittingly received.</p> + +<p>It is sometimes levied as a reproach against Haggai that he +makes no direct reference to moral duties. But it is hardly fair +to contrast his practical counsel with the more ethical and +spiritual teaching of the earlier Hebrew prophets. One thing +was needful—the temple. “Without a sanctuary Yahweh would +have seemed a foreigner to Israel. The Jews would have thought +that He had returned to Sinai, the holy mountain; and that they +were deprived of the temporal blessings which were the gifts of a +God who literally dwelt in the midst of his people.” Haggai +argued that material prosperity was conditioned by zeal in +worship; the prevailing distress was an indication of divine anger +due to the people’s religious apathy. Haggai’s reproofs touched +the conscience of the Jews, and the book of Zechariah enables +us in some measure to follow the course of a religious revival +which, starting with the restoration of the temple, did not confine +itself to matters of ceremony and ritual worship. On the other +hand, Haggai’s treatment of his theme, practical and effective +as it was for the purpose in hand, moves on a far lower level than +the aspirations of the prophet who wrote the closing chapters +of Isaiah. To the latter the material temple is no more than a +detail in the picture of a work of restoration eminently ideal +and spiritual, and he expressly warns his hearers against attaching +intrinsic importance to it (Isa. lxvi. 1). To Haggai the temple +appears so essential that he teaches that while it lay waste, the +people and all their works and offerings were unclean (Hag. ii. 14). +In this he betrays his affinity with Ezekiel, who taught that it +is by the possession of the sanctuary that Israel is sanctified +(Ezek. xxxvii. 28). In truth the new movement of religious +thought and feeling which started from the fall of the Hebrew +state took two distinct lines, of which Ezekiel and the anonymous +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page816" id="page816"></a>816</span> +authors of Isa. xl.-lxvi. are the respective representatives. +While the latter developed their great picture of Israel the +mediatorial nation, the systematic and priestly mind of Ezekiel +had shaped a more material conception of the religious vocation +of Israel in that picture of the new theocracy where the temple +and its ritual occupy the largest place, with a sanctity which is +set in express contrast to the older conception of the holiness of +the city of Jerusalem (cf. Ezek. xliii. 7 seq. with Jer. xxxi. 40, +Isa. iv. 5), and with a supreme significance for the religious life of +the people which is expressed in the figure of the living waters +issuing from under the threshold of the house (Ezek. xlvii.). It was +the conception of Ezekiel which permanently influenced the citizens +of the new Jerusalem, and took final shape in the institutions of +Ezra. To this consummation, with its necessary accompaniment +in the extinction of prophecy, the book of Haggai already points.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—The elaborate and valuable German commentary +of A. Köhler (Erlangen, 1860) forms the first part of his work on +the <i>Nachexilische Propheten</i>. Reinke’s <i>Commentary</i> (Münster, 1868) +is the work of a scholarly Roman Catholic. Haggai has generally +been treated in works on all the prophets, as by Ewald (2nd ed., +1868; Eng. trans., vol. iii., 1878); or along with the other minor +prophets, as by Hitzig (3rd ed., by H. Steiner, Leipzig, 1881), Keil +(1866, 3rd ed., 1888, Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1868), and Pusey +(1875), S. R. Driver (1906), W. Nowack (2nd ed., 1905), K. Marti +(1904), J. Wellhausen (3rd ed., 1898); or with the other post-exile +prophets, as by Köhler, Pressel (Gotha, 1870), Dods (1879) and others. +The older literature will be found in books of introduction or in +Rosenmüller’s <i>Scholia</i>. The learned commentary of Marckius may +be specially mentioned. On the place of Haggai in the history of +Old Testament prophecy, see Duhm, <i>Theologie der Propheten</i> (Bonn, +1875); A. B. Davidson, <i>The Theology of the Old Testament</i> (1904); +A. F. Kirkpatrick, <i>The Doctrine of the Prophets</i>; G. A. Smith, <i>The +Book of the Twelve Prophets</i>, vol. 2 (1903); Tony Andrée, <i>Le Prophète +Aggée</i>; Ed. Meyer, <i>Entstehung des Judentums</i> (1896).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. R. S.; A. J. G.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In Bleek’s <i>Einleitung</i>, 4th ed., p. 434.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See the note on Ps. cxlv. 1 in Field’s <i>Hexapla</i>; Köhler, <i>Weissagungen +Haggai’s</i>, 32; Wright, <i>Zechariah and his Prophecies</i>, xix.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3e" id="ft3e" href="#fa3e"><span class="fn">3</span></a> After the foundation of the temple Zerubbabel disappears from +history and lives only in legend, which continued to busy itself with +his story, as we see from the apocryphal book of Esdras (cf. Derenbourg, +<i>Hist. de la Palestine</i>, chap. i).</p> + +<p><a name="ft4e" id="ft4e" href="#fa4e"><span class="fn">4</span></a> G. A. Smith, <i>Minor Prophets</i>, ii. 235.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAGGARD, HENRY RIDER<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (1856-  ), English novelist, +was born at Bradenham Hall, Norfolk, on the 22nd of June 1856. +When he was nineteen he went to South Africa as secretary to +Sir Henry Bulwer, governor of Natal. At the time of the first +annexation of the Transvaal (1877), he was on the staff of the +special commissioner, Sir Theophilus Shepstone; and he subsequently +became a master of the high court of the Transvaal. +He married in 1879 a Norfolk heiress, Miss Margitson, but +returned to the Transvaal in time to witness its surrender to the +Boers and the overthrow of the policy of his former chief. +He returned to England and read for the bar, but soon took to +literary work; he published <i>Cetywayo and his White Neighbours</i> +(1882), written in defence of Sir T. Shepstone’s policy. This was +followed by the novels <i>Dawn</i> (1884), <i>The Witch’s Head</i> (1885), +which contains an account of the British defeat at Isandhlwana; +and in 1886 <i>King Solomon’s Mines</i>, suggested by the Zimbabwe +ruins, which first made him popular. <i>She</i> (1887), another +fantastic African story, was also very successful, a sequel, <i>Ayesha, +or the Return of She</i>, being published in 1905. The scene of <i>Jess</i> +(1887) and of <i>Allan Quatermain</i> (1888) was also laid in Africa. +In 1895 he unsuccessfully contested the East Norfolk parliamentary +division in the Unionist interest; he showed great +interest in rural and agricultural questions, being a practical +gardener and farmer on his estate in Norfolk. In his <i>Rural +England</i> (2 vols., 1902) he exposed the evils of depopulation in +country districts. In 1905 he was commissioned by the colonial +office to inquire into the Salvation Army settlements at Fort +Romie, S. California, and Fort Amity, Colorado, with a view to +the establishment of similar colonies in South Africa. His +report on the subject was first published as a blue book, and +afterwards, in an enlarged form, as <i>The Poor and the Land</i> (1905), +with suggestions for a scheme of national land settlement in +Great Britain itself.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His other books include <i>Maiwa’s Revenge</i> (1888), <i>Mr Meeson’s Will</i> +(1888), <i>Colonel Quaritch</i>, V.C. (1888), <i>Cleopatra</i> (1889), <i>Eric Brighteyes</i> +(1891), <i>The World’s Desire</i> (1890), a romance of Helen of Troy, +written with Mr Andrew Lang; <i>Nada the Lily</i> (1892), <i>Montezuma’s +Daughter</i> (1894), <i>The People of the Mist</i> (1894), <i>Joan Haste</i> (1895), +<i>Heart of the World</i> (1896), <i>Dr Therne</i> (1898), <i>A Farmer’s Year</i> (1899), +<i>The New South Africa</i> (1900), <i>Lysbeth, A Tale of the Dutch</i> (1901). +<i>Stella Fregelius</i> (1903), <i>A Gardener’s Year</i> (1905), <i>A Farmer’s Year</i> +(1899, revised ed., 1906), <i>The Way of the Spirit</i> (1906).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAGGIS,<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> a dish consisting of a calf’s, sheep’s or other animal’s +heart, liver and lungs, and also sometimes of the smaller +intestines, boiled in the stomach of the animal with seasoning +of pepper, salt, onions, &c., chopped fine with suet and oatmeal. +It is considered peculiarly a Scottish dish, but was common in +England till the 18th century. The derivation of the word is +obscure. The Fr. <i>hachis</i>, English “hash,” is of later appearance +than “haggis.” It may be connected with a verb “to hag,” +meaning to cut in small pieces, and would then be cognate +ultimately with “hash.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAGIOLOGY<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="hagios">ἅγιος</span>, saint, <span class="grk" title="logos">λόγος</span>, discourse), that +branch of the historical sciences which is concerned with the +lives of the saints. If hagiology be considered merely in the +sense in which the term has come to be understood in the later +stages of its development, <i>i.e.</i> the critical study of hagiographic +remains, there would be no such science before the 17th century. +But the bases of hagiology may fairly be said to have been laid +at the time when hagiographic documents, hitherto dispersed, +were first brought together into collections. The oldest collection +of this kind, the <span class="grk" title="sunagôgê tôn archaiôn marturiôn">συναγωγὴ τῶν ἀρχαίων μαρτυρίων</span> of Eusebius, +to which the author refers in several passages in his writings +(<i>Hist. Eccl.</i>, v. proem 2; v. 20, 5), and which has left more than +one trace in Christian literature, is unfortunately lost in its +entirety. The <i>Martyrs of Palestine</i>, as also the writings of +Theodoret, Palladius and others, on the origins of the monastic +life, and, similarly, the <i>Dialogues</i> of St Gregory (Pope Gregory I.), +belong to the category of sources rather than to that of hagiologic +collections. The <i>In gloria martyrum</i> and <i>In gloria confessorum</i> +of Gregory of Tours are valuable for the sources used in their +compilation. The most important collections are those which +comprise the Acts of the Martyrs and the lives of saints, arranged +in the order of the calendar. In the Greek Church these are +called menologies (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="mên">μήν</span>, month, <span class="grk" title="logos">λόγος</span>, discourse), and +their existence can be traced back with certainty to the 9th +century (Theodore of Studium, <i>Epist.</i> i. 2). One of them, the +menology of Metaphrastes, compiled in the second half of the +10th century, enjoyed a universal vogue (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Symeon Metaphrastes</a></span>). +The corresponding works in the Western Church are +the <i>passionaries</i> or <i>legendaries</i>, varieties of which are dispersed +in libraries and have not been studied collectively. They +generally draw from a common source, the Roman legendary, +and the lives of the local saints, <i>i.e.</i> those specially honoured in +a church, a province or a country. One of the best known is +the Austrian legendary (<i>De magno legendario Austriaco</i> in the +<i>Analecta Bollandiana</i>, xvii. 24-264). From the menologies +and legendaries various compilations were made: in the Greek +Church, the Synaxaria (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Synaxarium</a></span>); in the Western +Church, abridgments and extracts such as the <i>Speculum hisloriale</i> +of Vincent de Beauvais; the <i>Legenda aurea</i> of Jacobus de +Voragine; the <i>Sanctorale</i> of Bernard Guy [d. 1331] (see L. +Delisle, <i>Notice sur les manuscrits de Bernard Guy</i>, Paris, 1879); +the <i>Sanctilogium</i> of John of Tynemouth (<i>c.</i> 1366), utilized by +John Capgrave, and published in 1516 under the name of <i>Nova +legenda Angliae</i> (new edition by C. Horstman, Oxford, 1901); +and the <i>Catalogus sanctorum</i> of Petrus de Natalibus (<i>c.</i> 1375), +published at Vicenza in 1493, and many times reprinted. The +<i>Sanctuarium</i> of B. Mombritius, published at Milan about 1480, +is particularly valuable because it gives a faithful reproduction +of the ancient texts according to the manuscripts. One of the +most zealous collectors of lives of saints was John Gielemans of +Brabant (d. 1487), whose work is of great value (Bollandists, +<i>De codicibus hagiographicis Iohannis Gielemans</i>, Brussels, 1895), +and with him must be associated Anton Geens, or Gentius, of +Groenendael, who died in 1543 (<i>Analecta Bollandiana</i>, vi. 31-34).</p> + +<p>Hagiology entered on a new development with the publication +of the <i>Sanctorum priscorum patrum vitae</i> (Venice and Rome, +1551-1560) of Aloysius Lipomanus (Lippomano), bishop of +Verona. As a result of the co-operation of humanist scholars +a great number of Greek hagiographic texts became for the first +time accessible to the West in a Latin translation. The +Carthusian, Laurentius Surius, carried on the work of Lippomano, +completed it, and arranged the materials strictly in the order +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page817" id="page817"></a>817</span> +of the calendar (<i>De probatis sanctorum historiis</i>, Cologne, 1570-1575). +What prevents the work of Surius from being regarded +as an improvement upon Lippomano’s is that Surius thought +it necessary to retouch the style of those documents which +appeared to him badly written, without troubling himself about +the consequent loss of their documentary value.</p> + +<p>The actual founder of hagiologic criticism was the Flemish +Jesuit, Heribert Rosweyde (d. 1629), who, besides his important +works on the martyrologies (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Martyrology</a></span>), published the +celebrated collection of the <i>Vitae patrum</i> (Antwerp, 1615), a +veritable masterpiece for the time at which it appeared. It was +he, too, who conceived the plan of a great collection of lives of +saints, compiled from the manuscripts and augmented with +notes, from which resulted the collection of the <i>Acta sanctorum</i> +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bollandists</a></span>). This last enterprise gave rise to others of +a similar character but less extensive in scope.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Dom T. Ruinart collected the best <i>Acta</i> of the martyrs in his +<i>Acta martyrum sincera</i> (Paris, 1689). The various religious orders +collected the Acta of their saints, often increasing the lists beyond +measure. The best publication of this kind, the <i>Acta sanctorum +ordinis S. Benedicti</i> (Paris, 1668-1701) of d’Achery and Mabillon, +does not entirely escape this reproach. Countries, provinces and +dioceses also had their special hagiographic collections, conceived +according to various plans and executed with more or less historical +sense. Of these, the most important collections are those of O. +Caietanus, <i>Vitae sanctorum Siculorum</i> (Palermo, 1657); G. A. +Lobineau, <i>Vie des saints de Bretagne</i> (Rennes, 1725); and J. H. +Ghesquière, <i>Acta sanctorum Belgii</i> (Brussels and Tongerloo, 1783-1794). +The principal lives of the German saints are published in the +<i>Monumenta Germaniae</i>, and a special section of the <i>Scriptores rerum +Merovingicarum</i> is devoted to the lives of the saints. For Scotland +and Ireland mention must be made of T. Messingham’s <i>Florilegium +insulae sanctorum</i> (Paris, 1624); I. Colgan’s <i>Acta sanctorum veteris +et maioris Scotiae seu Hiberniae</i> (Louvain, 1645-1647); John +Pinkerton’s <i>Vitae antiquae sanctorum ...</i> (London, 1789, of which +a revised and enlarged edition was published by W. M. Metcalfe at +Paisley in 1889, under the title of <i>Lives of the Scottish Saints</i>); W. J. +Rees’s <i>Lives of the Cambro-British Saints</i> (Llandovery, 1853); <i>Acta +sanctorum Hiberniae</i> (Edinburgh, 1888); Whitley Stokes’s <i>Lives +of Saints from the Book of Lismore</i> (Oxford, 1890); and J. O’Hanlon’s +<i>Lives of the Irish Saints</i> (Dublin, 1875-1904). Towards the 13th +century vernacular collections of lives of saints began to increase. +This literature is more interesting from the linguistic than from +the hagiologic point of view, and comes rather within the domain +of the philologist.</p> + +<p>The hagiography of the Eastern and the Greek church also has +been the subject of important publications. The Greek texts are +very much scattered. Of them, however, may be mentioned J. B. +Malou’s “Symeonis Metaphrastae opera omnia” (<i>Patrologia Graeca</i>, +114, 115, 116) and Theophilos Ioannu, <span class="grk" title="Mnêmeia agiologika">Μνημεῖα ἁγιολογικά</span> (Venice, +1884). For Syriac, there are S. E. Assemani’s <i>Acta sanctorum +martyrum orientalium</i> (Rome, 1748) and P. Bedjan’s <i>Acta martyrum +et sanctorum</i> (Paris, 1890-1897); for Armenian, the acts of +martyrs and lives of saints, published in two volumes by the +Mechitharist community of Venice in 1874; for Coptic, Hyvernat’s +<i>Les Actes des martyrs de l’Égypte</i> (Paris, 1886); for Ethiopian, K. +Conti Rossini’s <i>Scriptores Aethiopici, vitae sanctorum</i> (Paris, 1904 +seq.); and for Georgian, Sabinin’s <i>Paradise of the Georgian Church</i> +(St Petersburg, 1882).</p> + +<p>In addition to the principal collections must be mentioned the +innumerable works in which the hagiographic texts have been subjected +to detailed critical study.</p> + +<p>To realize the present state of hagiology, the <i>Bibliotheca hagiographica</i>, +both Latin and Greek, published by the Bollandists, and +the <i>Bulletin hagiographique</i>, which appears in each number of the +<i>Analecta Bollandiana</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bollandists</a></span>), must be consulted. Thanks +to the combined efforts of a great number of scholars, the classification +of the hagiographic texts has in recent years made notable +progress. The criticism of the sources, the study of literary styles, +and the knowledge of local history now render it easier to discriminate +in this literature between what is really historical and what is +merely the invention of the genius of the people or of the imagination +of pious writers (see H. Delehaye, <i>Les Légendes hagiographiques</i>, +2nd ed., pp. 121-141, Brussels, 1906). “Though the lives of saints,” +says a recent historian, “are filled with miracles and incredible +stories, they form a rich mine of information concerning the life and +customs of the people. Some of them are ‘memorials of the best +men of the time written by the best scholars of the time,’” (C. Gross, +<i>The Sources and Literature of English History</i>, p. 34, London, 1900).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. De.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAGIOSCOPE<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="hagios">ἅγιος</span>, holy, and <span class="grk" title="skopein">σκοπεῖν</span>, to see), +in architecture, an opening through the wall of a church in an +oblique direction, to enable the worshippers in the transepts or +other parts of the church, from which the altar was not visible, +to see the elevation of the Host. As a rule these hagioscopes, +or “squints” as they are sometimes called, are found on one or +both sides of the chancel arch. In some cases a series of openings +has been cut in the walls in an oblique line to enable a person +standing in the porch (as in Bridgewater church, Somerset) to +see the altar; in this case and in other instances such openings +were sometimes provided for an attendant, who had to ring the +Sanctus bell when the Host was elevated. Though rarely met +with on the continent of Europe, there are occasions where they +are found, so as to enable a monk in one of the vestries to follow +the service and communicate with the bell-ringers.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAGONOY,<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> a town of the province of Bulacan, Luzon, +Philippine Islands, on Manila Bay and on the W. branch and the +delta of the Pampanga Grande river, about 25 m. N.W. of Manila. +Pop. (1903), 21,304. Hagonoy is situated in a rich agricultural +region, producing rice, Indian corn, sugar and a little coffee. +Alcohol is made in considerable quantities from the fermented +juice of the nipa palm, which grows in the neighbouring swamps, +and from the leaves of which the nipa thatch is manufactured. +There is good fishing. The women of the town are very skilful in +weaving the native fabrics. The language is Tagalog. Hagonoy +was founded in 1581.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAGUE, THE<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (in Dutch, <i>’s Gravenhage</i>, or, abbreviated, <i>den +Haag</i>; in Fr. <i>La Haye</i>; and in Late Lat. <i>Haga Comitis</i>), +the chief town of the province of South Holland, about 2½ m. +from the sea, with a junction station 9½ m. by rail S.W. by S. +of Leiden. Steam tramways connect it with the seaside villages +of Scheveningen, Kykduin and ’s Gravenzande, as well as with +Delft, Wassenaar and Leiden, and it is situated on a branch of +the main canal from Rotterdam to Amsterdam. Pop. (1900), +212,211. The Hague is the chief town of the province, the usual +residence of the court and diplomatic bodies, and the seat of +the government, the states-general, the high council of the +Netherlands, the council of state, the chamber of accounts and +various other administrative bodies. The characteristics of the +town are quite in keeping with its political position; it is as +handsome as it is fashionable, and was rightly described by de +Amicis in his <i>Olanda</i> as half Dutch, half French. The Hague has +grown very largely in modern times, especially on its western +side, which is situated on the higher and more sandy soil, the +south-eastern half of the town comprising the poorer and the +business quarters. The main features in a plan of the town are +its fine streets and houses and extensive avenues and well-planted +squares; while, as a city, the neighbourhood of an +attractive seaside resort, combined with the advantages and +importance of a large town, and the possession of beautiful and +wooded surroundings, give it a distinction all its own.</p> + +<p>The medieval-looking group of government buildings situated +in the Binnenhof (or “inner court”), their backs reflected in the +pretty sheet of water called the Vyver, represent both historically +and topographically the centre of the Hague. On the opposite +side of the Vyver lies the parallelogram formed by the fine +houses and magnificent avenue of trees of the Lange Voorhout, +the Kneuterdyk and the Vyverburg, representing the fashionable +kernel of the city. Close by lies the entrance to the Haagsche +Bosch, or the wood, on one side of which is situated the deer-park, +and a little beyond on the other the zoological gardens +(1862). Away from the Lange Voorhout the fine Park Straat +stretches to the “1813 Plein” or square, in the centre of which +rises the large monument (1869) by Jaquet commemorating the +jubilee of the restoration of Dutch independence in 1813. Beyond +this is the Alexander Veld, used as a military drill ground, and +close by is the entrance to the beautiful road called the Scheveningensche +Weg, which leads through the “little woods” to +Scheveningen. Parallel to the Park Straat is the busy Noordeinde, +in which is situated the royal palace. The palace was +purchased by the States in 1595, rebuilt by the stadtholder +William III., and extended by King William I. in the beginning +of the 19th century. In front of the building is an equestrian +statue of William I. of Orange by Count Nieuerkerke (1845), +and behind are the gardens and extensive stables. The Binnenhof, +which has been already mentioned, was once surrounded by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page818" id="page818"></a>818</span> +a moat, and is still entered through ancient gateways. The +oldest portion was founded in 1249 by William II., count of +Holland, whose son, Florens V., enlarged it and made it his +residence. Several centuries later the stadtholders also lived +here. The fine old hall of the knights, built by Florens, and now +containing the archives of the home office, is the historic chamber +in which the states of the Netherlands abjured their allegiance to +Philip II. of Spain, and in front of which the grey-headed statesman +Johan van Oldenbarneveldt was executed in 1619. Close +by on the one side are the courts of justice, and on the other +the first and second chambers of the states-general, containing +some richly painted ceilings and the portraits of various stadtholders. +Government offices occupy the remainder of the buildings, +and in the middle of the court is a fountain surmounted by +a statuette of William II., count of Holland (1227-1256). In the +adjoining Buitenhof, or “outer court,” is a statue of King +William II. (d. 1849), and the old Gevangen Poort, or prison gate +(restored 1875), consisting of a tower and gateway. It was +here that the brothers Cornelis and Jan de Witt were killed by +the mob in 1672. On the opposite side of the Binnenhof is the +busy square called the Plein, where all the tram-lines meet. +Round about it are the buildings of the ministry of justice and +other government buildings, including one to contain the state +archives, the large club-house of the Witte Societeit, and the +Mauritshuis. The Mauritshuis was built in 1633-1644 by Count +John Maurice of Nassau, governor of Brazil, and contains the +famous picture gallery of the Hague. The nucleus of this collection +was formed by the princes of Orange, notably by the +stadtholder William V. (1748-1806). King William I. did much +to restore the losses caused by the removal of many of the +pictures during the French occupation. Other artistic collections +in the Hague are the municipal museum (<i>Gernsente</i> Museum), containing +paintings by both ancient and modern Dutch artists, and +some antiquities; the fine collection of pictures in the Steengracht +gallery, belonging to Jonkheer Steengracht; the museum +Meermanno-Westreenianum, named after Count Meermann and +Baron Westreenen (d. 1850), containing some interesting MSS. +and specimens of early typography and other curiosities; and +the Mesdag Museum, containing the collection of the painter +H. W. Mesdag (b. 1831) presented by him to the state. The +royal library (1798) contains upwards of 500,000 volumes, +including some early illuminated MSS., a valuable collection of +coins and medals and some fine antique gems. In addition +to the royal palace already mentioned, there are the palaces of +the queen-dowager, of the prince of Orange (founded about 1720 +by Count Unico of Wassenaar Twiekels) and of the prince von +Wied, dating from 1825, and containing some good early Dutch +and Flemish masters. There are numerous churches of various +denominations in the Hague as well as an English church, a +Russian chapel and two synagogues, one of which is Portuguese. +The Groote Kerk of St James (15th and 16th centuries) has a fine +vaulted interior, and contains some old stained glass, a carved +wooden pulpit (1550), a large organ and interesting sepulchral +monuments, and some escutcheons of the knights of the Golden +Fleece, placed here after the chapter of 1456. The Nieuwe Kerk, +or new church (first half 17th century), contains the tombs of +the brothers De Witt and of the philosopher Spinoza. Spinoza +is further commemorated by a monument in front of the house +in which he died in 1677. The picturesque town hall (built in +1565 and restored and enlarged in 1882) contains a historical +picture gallery. The principal other buildings are the provincial +government offices, the royal school of music, the college of art, +the large building (1874) of the society for arts and sciences, the +ethnographical institute of the Netherlands Indies with fine +library, the theatres, civil and military hospitals, orphanage, +lunatic asylum and other charitable institutions; the fine +modern railway station (1892), the cavalry and artillery and +the infantry barracks, and the cannon foundry. The chief +industries of the town are iron casting, copper and lead smelting, +cannon founding, the manufacture of furniture and carriages, +liqueur distilling, lithographing and printing.</p> + +<p>The Hague wood has been described as the city’s finest +ornament. It is composed chiefly of oaks and alders and magnificent +avenues of gigantic beech-trees. Together with the Haarlem +wood it is thought to be a remnant of the immense forest which +once extended along the coast. At the end of one of the avenues +which penetrates into it from the town is the large summer club-house +of the Witte Societeit, under whose auspices concerts are +given here in summer. Farther into the wood are some pretty +little lakes, and the famous royal villa called the Huis ten Bosch, +or “house in the wood.” This villa was built by Pieter Post for +the Princess Amelia of Solms, in memory of her husband the +stadtholder, Frederick Henry of Orange (d. 1647), and wings +were added to it by Prince William IV. in 1748. The chief room +is the Orange Saloon, an octagonal hall 50 ft. high, covered with +paintings by Dutch and Flemish artists, chiefly of incidents in +the life of Prince Frederick. In this room the International +Peace Conference had its sittings in the summer of 1899. The +collections in the Chinese and Japanese rooms, and the grisailles +in the dining-room painted by Jacobus de Wit (1695-1754), +are also noteworthy.</p> + +<p>The history of the Hague is in some respects singular. In +the 13th century it was no more than a hunting-lodge of the counts +of Holland, and though Count Floris V. (b. 1254-1296) made it +his residence and it thus became the seat of the supreme court of +justice of Holland and the centre of the administration, and +from the time of William of Orange onward the meeting-place of +the states-general, it only received the status of a town, from +King Louis Bonaparte, early in the 19th century.</p> + +<p>In the latter part of the 17th and the first half of the 18th +century the Hague was the centre of European diplomacy. +Among the many treaties and conventions signed here may be +mentioned the treaty of the Triple Alliance (January 23, 1688) +between England, Sweden and the Netherlands; the concert of +the Hague (March 31, 1710) between the Emperor, England and +Holland, for the maintenance of the neutrality of the Swedish +provinces in Germany during the war of the northern powers +against Sweden; the Triple Alliance (January 4, 1717) between +France, England and Holland for the guarantee of the treaty of +Utrecht; the treaty of peace (Feb. 17, 1717) between Spain, Savoy +and Austria, by which the first-named acceded to the principles +of the Triple Alliance; the treaty of peace between Holland and +France (May 16, 1795); the first “Hague Convention,” the outcome +of the “peace conference” assembled on the initiative of the +emperor Nicholas II. of Russia (July 27, 1899), and the series of +conventions, the results of the second peace conference (June 15-October +18, 1907). The International court of arbitration or +Hague Tribunal was established in 1899 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Europe</a></span>: <i>History</i>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arbitration, International</a></span>). The Palace of Peace designed +to be completed in 1913 as the seat of the tribunal, on the Scheveningen +avenue, is by a French architect, L. M. Cordonnier, and +A. Carnegie contributed £300,000 towards its cost.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAHN, AUGUST<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (1792-1863), German Protestant theologian, +was born on the 27th of March 1792 at Grossosterhausen near +Eisleben, and studied theology at the university of Leipzig. +In 1819 he was nominated <i>professor extraordinarius</i> of theology +and pastor of Altstadt in Königsberg, and in 1820 received a +superintendency in that city. In 1822 he became <i>professor +ordinarius</i>. In 1826 he removed as professor of theology to +Leipzig, where, hitherto distinguished only as editor of Bardesanes, +Marcion (<i>Marcion’s Evangelium in seiner ursprünglichen +Gestalt</i>, 1823), and Ephraem Syrus, and the joint editor of a +<i>Syrische Chrestomathie</i> (1824), he came into great prominence as +the author of a treatise, <i>De rationalismi qui dicitur vera indole et +qua cum naturalismo contineatur ratione</i> (1827), and also of an +<i>Offene Erklärung an die Evangelische Kirche zunächst in Sachsen +u. Preussen</i> (1827), in which, as a member of the school of E. W. +Hengstenberg, he endeavoured to convince the rationalists +that it was their duty voluntarily and at once to withdraw from +the national church. In 1833 Hahn’s pamphlet against K. G. +Bretschneider (<i>Über die Lage des Christenthums in unserer Zeit</i>, +1832) having attracted the notice of Friedrich Wilhelm III., he +was called to Breslau as theological professor and consistorial +councillor, and in 1843 became “general superintendent” of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page819" id="page819"></a>819</span> +the province of Silesia. He died at Breslau on the 13th of May +1863. Though uncompromising in his “supra-naturalism,” he +did not altogether satisfy the men of his own school by his own +doctrinal system. The first edition of his <i>Lehrbuch des christlichen +Glaubens</i> (1828) was freely characterized as lacking in +consistency and as detracting from the strength of the old +positions in many important points. Many of these defects, +however, he is considered to have remedied in his second edition +(1857). Among his other works are his edition of the Hebrew +Bible (1833), his <i>Bibliothek der Symbole und Glaubensregeln +der apostolisch-katholischen Kirche</i> (1842; 2nd ed. 1877) and +<i>Predigten</i> (1852).</p> + +<p>His eldest son, <span class="sc">Heinrich August Hahn</span> (1821-1861), after +studying theology at Breslau and Berlin, became successively +<i>Privatdozent</i> at Breslau (1845), professor <i>ad interim</i> (1846) at +Königsberg on the death of Heinrich Hävernick, professor +extraordinarius (1851) and professor ordinarius (1860) at Greifswald. +Amongst his published works were a commentary on +the Book of Job (1850), a translation of the Song of Songs (1852), +an exposition of Isaiah xl.-lxvi. (1857) and a commentary on the +Book of Ecclesiastes (1860).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the articles in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, and the +<i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAHNEMANN, SAMUEL CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> (1755-1843), +German physician and founder of “homoeopathy,” was +born at Meissen in Saxony on the 10th of April 1755. He was +educated at the “elector’s school” of Meissen, and studied +medicine at Leipzig and Vienna, taking the degree of M.D. at +Erlangen in 1779. After practising in various places, he settled +in Dresden in 1784, and thence removed to Leipzig in 1789. In +the following year, while translating W. Cullen’s <i>Materia medica</i> +into German, he was struck by the fact that the symptoms produced +by quinine on the healthy body were similar to those of +the disordered states it was used to cure. He had previously felt +dissatisfied with the state of the science of medicine, and this +observation led him to assert the truth of the “law of similars,” +<i>similia similibus curantur</i> or <i>curentur</i>—<i>i.e.</i> diseases are cured +(or should be treated) by those drugs which produce symptoms +similar to them in the healthy. He promulgated his new +principle in a paper published in 1796 in C. W. Hufeland’s +<i>Journal</i>, and four years later, convinced that drugs in much +smaller doses than were generally employed effectually exerted +their curative powers, he advanced his doctrine of their potentization +or dynamization. In 1810 he published his chief work, +<i>Organon der rationellen Heilkunde</i>, containing an exposition of his +system, which he called homoeopathy (<i>q.v.</i>), and in the following +years appeared the six volumes of his <i>Reine Arzneimittellehre</i>, +which detailed the symptoms produced by “proving” a large +number of drugs, <i>i.e.</i> by systematically administering them to +healthy subjects. In 1821 the hostility of established interests, +and especially of the apothecaries, whose services were not +required under his system, forced him to leave Leipzig, and at +the invitation of the grand-duke of Anhalt-Cöthen he went +to live at Cöthen. Fourteen years later he removed to Paris, +where he practised with great success until his death on the +2nd of July 1843. Statues were erected to his memory at +Leipzig in 1851 and at Cöthen in 1855. He also wrote, in +addition to the works already mentioned, <i>Fragmenta de viribus +medicamentorum positivis</i> (1805) and <i>Die chronischen Krankheiten</i> +(1828-1830).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Homoeopathy</a></span>; also Albrecht, <i>Hahnemann’s Leben +und Werken</i> (Leipzig, 1875); Bradford, <i>Hahnemann’s Life and +Letters</i> (Philadelphia, 1895).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAHN-HAHN, IDA,<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> <span class="sc">Countess Von</span> (1805-1880), German +author, was born at Tressow, in Mecklenburg-Schwerin, on +the 22nd of June 1805, daughter of Graf (Count) Karl Friedrich +von Hahn (1782-1857), well known for his enthusiasm for the +stage, upon which he squandered a large portion of his fortune. +She married in 1826 her wealthy cousin Count Adolf von Hahn-Hahn. +With him she had an extremely unhappy life, and in +1829 her husband’s irregularities led to a divorce. The countess +travelled, produced some volumes of poetry indicating true +lyrical feeling, and in 1838 appeared as a novelist with <i>Aus der +Gesellschaft</i>, a title which, proving equally applicable to her +subsequent novels, was retained as that of a series, the book +originally so entitled being renamed <i>Ida Schönholm</i>. For +several years the countess continued to produce novels bearing a +certain subjective resemblance to those of George Sand, but less +hostile to social institutions, and dealing almost exclusively +with aristocratic society. The author’s patrician affectations +at length drew upon her the merciless ridicule of Fanny Lewald +in a parody of her style entitled <i>Diogena</i> (1847), and this and the +revolution of 1848 together seem to have co-operated in inducing +her to embrace the Roman Catholic religion in 1850. She +justified her step in a polemical work entitled <i>Von Babylon nach +Jerusalem</i> (1851), which elicited a vigorous reply from H. Abeken. +In 1852 she retired into a convent at Angers, which she, however, +soon left, taking up her residence at Mainz where she founded a +nunnery, in which she lived without joining the order, and +continued her literary labours. For many years her novels were +the most popular works of fiction in aristocratic circles; many +of her later publications, however, passed unnoticed as mere +party manifestoes. Her earlier works do not deserve the neglect +into which they have fallen. If their sentimentalism is sometimes +wearisome, it is grounded on genuine feeling and expressed +with passionate eloquence. <i>Ulrich</i> and <i>Gräfin Faustine</i>, both +published in 1841, mark the culmination of her power; but +<i>Sigismund Forster</i> (1843), <i>Cecil</i> (1844), <i>Sibylle</i> (1846) and <i>Maria +Regina</i> (1860) also obtained considerable popularity. She died +at Mainz on the 12th of January 1880.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Her collected works, <i>Gesammelte Werke</i>, with an introduction by +O. von Schaching, were published in two series, 45 volumes in all +(Regensburg, 1903-1904). See H. Keiter, <i>Gräfin Hahn-Hahn</i> +(Würzburg, undated); P. Haffner, <i>Gräfin Ida Hahn-Hahn</i>, <i>eine +psychologische Studie</i> (Frankfort, 1880); A. Jacoby, <i>Ida Gräfin +Hahn-Hahn</i> (Mainz, 1894).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAI<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (939-1038), Jewish Talmudical scholar, was born in 939. +He was educated by his father Sherira, gaon of Pombeditha +(Pumbedita), whom he afterwards assisted in his work. They +were cast into prison for a short time by the caliph Qadir, and +subsequently on Sherira’s death Hai was appointed gaon in +his place (998). This office he held till his death on the 28th of +March 1038. He is famous chiefly for his answers to problems +of ritual and civil law. He composed important treatises on +Talmudic law and the <i>Mishnah</i>; many poems are also attributed +to him on doubtful authority. In his <i>responsa</i> he laid stress on +custom and tradition provided no infringement of the law +were involved, and was essentially conservative in theology. +He had considerable knowledge not only of religious movements +within the Jewish body, but also of Mahommedan theology and +controversial method, and frequently consulted theologians of +other beliefs.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Steinschneider, <i>Hebr. Übersetz</i>. p. 910, and article in <i>Jewish +Encyclopedia</i>, vi. 153.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAIBAK,<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> a town and khanate of Afghan Turkestan. The +valley of Haibak, which is 3100 ft. above sea level, is fertile and +richly cultivated. The town, which is famed in Persian legend, +consists now of only a couple of streets, containing many Hindu +shops and a small garrison. The inhabitants call themselves +Jagatais, a Turki race, though now generally mixed with Tajiks +and speaking Persian. In the neighbourhood of Haibak are +some very typical Buddhist ruins. Haibak derives its importance +from its position on the main line of communication between +Kabul and Afghan Turkestan.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAIDA,<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> a tribe of North American Indians of Skittagetan +stock. They still occupy their original home, the Queen Charlotte +islands, British Columbia. They are skilful seamen, +making long fishing expeditions in cedarwood canoes. They +are noted for their carving and basket-work. They formerly +made raids on the coast tribes. Slavery was hereditary, the +slaves being prisoners of war. The population, some 7000 in +the middle of the 19th century, is now reduced to a few hundreds.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Handbook of American Indians</i> (Washington, 1907). For +“Haida Texts and Myths,” see <i>Bull. 29 Smithsonian Institution Bureau +Amer. Ethnol.</i> (1905).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page820" id="page820"></a>820</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAIDINGER, WILHELM KARL,<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> <span class="sc">Ritter von</span> (1795-1871), +Austrian mineralogist, geologist and physicist, was born at Vienna +on the 5th of February 1795. His father, Karl Haidinger, +contributed largely to the development of mineralogical science +in the latter half of the 18th century. Having studied at the +normal school of St Anne, and attended classes at the university, +Wilhelm, at the age of seventeen, joined Professor F. Mohs at +Gratz, and five years later accompanied the professor to Freiberg +on the transfer of his labours to the mining academy of that +town.</p> + +<p>In 1822 Haidinger visited France and England with Count +Breunner, and, journeying northward, took up his abode in +Edinburgh. He translated into English, with additions of his +own, Mohs’s <i>Grundriss der Mineralogie</i>, published at Edinburgh +in three volumes under the title <i>Treatise on Mineralogy</i> (1825). +After a tour in northern Europe, including the Scandinavian +mining districts, he undertook the scientific direction of the +porcelain works at Elbogen, belonging to his brothers. In 1840 +he was appointed counsellor of mines (Bergrat) at Vienna in the +place of Professor Mohs, a post which included the charge of the +imperial cabinet of minerals. He devoted himself to the rearrangement +and enrichment of the collections, and the museum +became the first in Europe. Shortly after (1843) Haidinger +commenced a series of lectures on mineralogy, which was given +to the world under the title <i>Handbuch der bestimmenden Mineralogie</i> +(Vienna, 1845; tables, 1846). On the establishment of the +imperial geological institute, he was chosen director (1849); +and this important position he occupied for seventeen years. +He was elected a member of the imperial board of agriculture and +mines, and a member of the imperial academy of sciences of +Vienna. He organized the society of the Freunde der Naturwissenschaften. +As a physicist Haidinger ranked high, and he +was one of the most active promoters of scientific progress in +Austria. He was the discoverer of the interesting optical +appearances which have been called after him “Haidinger’s +brushes.” Knighted in 1865, the following year he retired to his +estate at Dornbach near Vienna, where he died on the 19th of +March 1871.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In addition to the works already named, Haidinger published +<i>Anfangsgründe der Mineralogie</i> (Leipzig, 1829); <i>Geognostische Übersichtskarte +der österreich. Monarchie</i> (Vienna, 1847); <i>Bemerkungen +über die Anordnung der kleinsten Theilchen in Christallen</i> (Vienna, +1853); <i>Interferenzlinien am Glimmer</i> (Vienna, 1855); <i>Vergleichungen +von Augit und Amphibol</i> (Vienna, 1855). He also edited the +<i>Naturwissenschaftliche Abhandlungen</i> (Vienna, 1847); the <i>Berichte +über die Mittheilungen von Freunden der Naturwissenschaften +in Wien</i> (Vienna, 1847-1851); and the <i>Jahrbuch</i> of the Vienna K. +K. Geologische Reichsanstalt (1850), &c. Some of his papers will +be found in the <i>Transactions</i> of the Royal Society of Edinburgh +(vol. x.) and of the Wernerian Society (1822-1823), <i>Edinburgh +Phil. Journal, Brewster’s Journal of Science</i>, and <i>Poggendorff’s +Annalen</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. B. Wo.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAIDUK<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (also written <i>Hayduk, Heiduc, Heyduke</i> and <i>Heyduque</i>), +a term which appears originally to have meant “robber” +or “brigand,” a sense it retains in Servia and some other parts +of the Balkan Peninsula. It is probably derived from the +Turkish <i>haidūd</i>, “marauder,” but its origin is not absolutely +certain. Most of the European races with which the Turks came +into close contact during the 15th and 16th centuries seem to have +adopted it as a loan-word, and it appears in Magyar as <i>hajdú</i> +(plural <i>hajduk</i>), in Serbo-Croatian, Rumanian, Polish and Čech +as <i>hajduk</i>, in Bulgarian as <i>hajdutin</i> and in Greek as <span class="grk" title="chaintoutês">χαιντούτης</span>. +By the beginning of the 17th century its use had spread north +and west as far as Sweden and Great Britain. In Hungary it +was applied to a class of mercenary foot-soldiers of Magyar stock. +In 1605 these haiduks were rewarded for their fidelity to the +Protestant party (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hungary</a></span>: <i>History</i>) with titles of nobility +and territorial rights over a district situated on the left bank +of the river Theiss, known thenceforward as the Haiduk region. +This was enlarged in 1876 and converted into the county of +Hajdú (Ger. <i>Hajduken</i>). <i>Hajdú</i> is also a common prefix in +Hungarian place-names, <i>e.g.</i> Hajdú-Szoboszló, Hajdú-Námás. +In Austria-Hungary, Germany, Poland, Sweden and some other +countries, <i>haiduk</i> came to mean an attendant in a court of law, +or a male servant, dressed in Hungarian semi-military costume. +It is also occasionally used as a synonym for “footman” or +“lackey.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAIFA,<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> a town of Palestine at the foot of Mt. Carmel, on the +south of the Bay of Acre. It represents the classical Sycaminum, +but the present town is entirely modern. It has developed since +about 1890 into an important port, and is connected by railway +with Damascus. The population is estimated at 12,000 (Moslems +6000, Christians 4000, Jews 1500, Germans 500; the last +belong for the greater part to the Unitarian sect of the +“Templars,” who have colonies also at Jaffa and Jerusalem). +The exports (grain and oil) were valued at £178,738 in 1900. +Much of the trade that formerly went to Acre has been attracted +to Haifa. This port is the best natural harbour on the Palestine +coast.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAIK<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (an Arabic word, from <i>hak</i>, to weave), a piece of cloth, +usually of coarse hand-woven wool, worn by Arabs, Moors and +other Mahommedan peoples. It is generally 6 to 6½ yds. long, +and about 2 broad. It is either striped or plain, and is +worn equally by both sexes, usually as an outer covering; but +it is often the only garment of the poorer classes. By women the +“haik” is arranged to cover the head and, in the presence of +men, is held so as to conceal the face. A thin “haik” of silk, +like a veil, is used by brides at their marriage.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAIL<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> (O. Eng. <i>hægl</i> and <i>hagol</i>,<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> cf. the cognate Teutonic <i>hagel</i>, +as in German, Dutch, Swedish, &c.; the Gr. <span class="grk" title="kachlêx">κάχληξ</span>, pebble, is +probably allied), the name for rounded masses or single pellets +of ice falling from the clouds in a shower. True hail has a concentric +structure caused by the frozen particles of moisture first +descending into a warm cloud, whence they are carried upwards +on an ascending current of heated air into a cold stratum where +the fresh coating of water vapour deposited in the cloud is frozen. +The hailstone descends again, receives a fresh coating, is carried +up once more, refrozen, and again descends. Thus the hailstone +grows until the current is no longer strong enough to support it +when it falls to the ground. At times masses of hail are frozen +together, and a very sudden cooling will sometimes result in the +formation of ragged masses of ice that fall with disastrous +results. Hail must be distinguished from the frozen snow, +“soft-hail” or “graupel,” that often falls at the rear of a spring +cyclone, since true hail is almost entirely a summer phenomenon, +and falls most frequently in thunderstorms which are produced +under the conditions that are favourable to the formation of +hail, <i>i.e.</i> great heat, a still atmosphere, the production of strong +local convection currents in consequence, and the passage of +a cold upper drift.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> “Hail,” a call of greeting or salutation, a shout to attract +attention, must, of course, be distinguished. This word represents +the Old Norwegian <i>heill</i>, prosperity, cognate with O. Eng. <i>hāl</i>, +whence “hale,” “whole,” and <i>hæl</i>, whence “health,” “heal.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAILES, DAVID DALRYMPLE,<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> <span class="sc">Lord</span> (1726-1792), Scottish +lawyer and historian, was born at Edinburgh on the 28th of +October 1726. His father, Sir James Dalrymple, Bart., of +Hailes, in the county of Haddington, auditor-general of the +exchequer of Scotland, was a grandson of James, first Viscount +Stair; and his mother, Lady Christian Hamilton, was a daughter +of Thomas, 6th earl of Haddington. David was the eldest of +sixteen children. He was educated at Eton, and studied law at +Utrecht, being intended for the Scottish bar, to which he was +admitted shortly after his return to Scotland in 1748. As a +pleader he attained neither high distinction nor very extensive +practice, but he rapidly established a well-deserved reputation +for sound knowledge, unwearied application and strict probity; +and in 1766 he was elevated to the bench, when he assumed the +title of Lord Hailes. Ten years later he was appointed a lord of +justiciary. He died on the 29th of November 1792. He was +twice married, and had a daughter by each wife. The baronetcy +to which he had succeeded passed to the son of his brother John, +provost of Edinburgh. Another brother was Alexander +Dalrymple (1737-1808), the first admiralty hydrographer, who +distinguished himself in the East India Company’s service and +as a geographer. Lord Hailes’s younger daughter married Sir +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page821" id="page821"></a>821</span> +James Fergusson; and their grandson, Sir Charles Dalrymple, +1st Bart. (cr. 1887), M.P. for Bute from 1868 to 1885, afterwards +came into Lord Hailes’s estate and took his family name.</p> + +<p>Lord Hailes’s most important contribution to literature was +the <i>Annals of Scotland</i>, of which the first volume, “From the +accession of Malcolm III., surnamed Canmore, to the accession of +Robert I.,” appeared in 1776, and the second, “From the accession +of Robert I., surnamed Bruce, to the accession of the house +of Stewart,” in 1779. It is, as Dr Johnson justly described this +work at the time of its appearance, a “Dictionary” of carefully +sifted facts, which tells all that is wanted and all that is known, +but without any laboured splendour of language or affected +subtlety of conjecture. The other works of Lord Hailes include +<i>Historical Memoirs concerning the Provincial Councils of the +Scottish Clergy</i> (1769); <i>An Examination of some of the Arguments +for the High Antiquity of Regiam Majestatem</i> (1769); three +volumes entitled <i>Remains of Christian Antiquity</i> (“Account of +the Martyrs of Smyrna and Lyons in the Second Century,” +1776; “The Trials of Justin Martyr, Cyprian, &c.,” 1778; +“The History of the Martyrs of Palestine, translated from +Eusebius,” 1780); <i>Disquisitions concerning the Antiquities of the +Christian Church</i> (1783); and editions or translations of portions +of Lactantius, Tertullian and Minucius Felix. In 1786 he published +<i>An Inquiry into the Secondary Causes which Mr Gibbon +has assigned for the Rapid Growth of Christianity</i> (Dutch translation, +Utrecht, 1793), one of the most respectable of the very +many replies which were made to the famous 15th and 16th +chapters of the <i>Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i>.</p> + +<p>A “Memoir” of Lord Hailes is prefixed to the 1808 reprint of his +<i>Inquiry into the Secondary Causes</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAILSHAM,<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> a market-town in the Eastbourne parliamentary +division of Sussex, England, 54 m. S.S.E. from London by the +London, Brighton & South Coast railway. Pop. (1901), 4197. +The church of St Mary is Perpendicular. The picturesque +Augustinian priory of Michelham lies 2 m. W. by the Cuckmere +river; it is altered into a dwelling house, but retains a gate-house, +crypt and other portions of Early English date. There +was also a Premonstratensian house at Otham, 3 m. S., but the +remains are scanty. Hailsham has a considerable agricultural +trade, and manufactures of rope and matting are carried on.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAINAN,<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> or, as it is usually called in Chinese, <i>K’iung-chow-fu</i>, +a large island belonging to the Chinese province of Kwang-tung, +and situated between the Chinese Sea and the Gulf of Tong-king +from 20° 8′ to 17° 52′ N., and from 108° 32′ to 111° 15′ E. It +measures 160 m. from N.E. to S.W., and the average breadth +is about 90 m. The area is estimated at from 1200 to 1400 sq. +m., or two-thirds the size of Sicily. From the peninsula of Lei-chow +on the north it is separated by the straits of Hainan, +which have a breadth of 15 or 20 m.</p> + +<p>With the exception of a considerable area in the north, and +broad tracts on the north-east and north-west sides, the whole +island is occupied by jungle-covered mountains, with rich valleys +between. The central range bears the name of Li-mou shan or +Wu-tchi shan (the Five-Finger Mountain), and attains a height +of 6000 or 7000 ft. Its praises are celebrated in a glowing ode +by Ch‘iu, a native poet. The island appears to be well watered, +and some of its rivers are not without importance as possible +highways of commerce; but the details of its hydrography are +very partially ascertained. A navigable channel extends in an +irregular curve from the bay of Hoi-how (Hai-K‘ow) in the north +to Tan-chow on the west coast. Being exposed to the winter +monsoon, the northern parts of the island enjoy much the same +sort of temperate climate as the neighbouring provinces of the +mainland, but in the southern parts, protected from the monsoon +by the mountain ranges, the climate is almost or entirely tropical. +Snow falls so rarely that its appearance in 1684 is reported in +the native chronicles as a remarkable event. Earthquakes are a +much more familiar phenomenon, having occurred, according to +the same authority, in 1523, 1526, 1605, 1652, 1677, 1681, 1684, +1702, 1704, 1725, 1742, 1816, 1817 and 1822. Excellent timber +of various kinds—eagle-wood, rose-wood, liquidambar, &c.—is +one of the principal products of the island, and has even +been specially transported to Peking for imperial purposes. The +coco palm flourishes freely even in the north, and is to be found +growing in clumps with the <i>Pinus sinensis</i>. Rice, cotton, sugar, +indigo, cinnamon, betel-nuts, sweet potatoes, ground-nuts and +tobacco are all cultivated in varying quantities. The aboriginal +inhabitants collect a kind of tea called t’ien ch’a, or celestial tea, +which looks like the leaves of a wild camellia, and has an earthy +taste when infused. Lead, silver, copper and iron occur in the +Shi-lu shan or “stone-green-hill”; the silver at least was worked +till 1850. Gold and lapis lazuli are found in other parts of the +island.</p> + +<p>The ordinary cattle of Hainan are apparently a cross between +the little yellow cow of south China and the zebu of India. +Buffaloes are common, and in the neighbourhood of Nanlu at +least they are frequently albinos. Horses are numerous but small. +Hogs and deer are both common wild animals, and of the latter +there are three species, <i>Cervus Eldi, Cervus hippelaphus</i> and +<i>Cervus vaginalis</i>. Among the birds, of which 172 species are +described by Mr Swinhoe in his paper in <i>The Ibis</i> (1870), there are +eagles, notably a new species <i>Spilornis Rutherfordi</i>, buzzards, +harriers, kites, owls, goatsuckers and woodpeckers. The <i>Upupa +ceylonensis</i> is familiar to the natives as the “bird of the Li +matrons,” and the <i>Palaeornis javanica</i> as the “sugar-cane bird.”</p> + +<p>Hainan forms a fu or department of the province of Kwang-tung, +though strictly it is only a portion of the island that is +under Chinese administration, the remainder being still occupied +by unsubjugated aborigines. The department contains three +<i>chow</i> and ten <i>hien</i> districts. K‘iung-chow-hien, in which the +capital is situated; Ting-an-hien, the only inland district; +Wen-ch‘ang-hien, in the north-east of the island; Hui-t‘ung-hien, +Lo-hui-hien, Ling-shu-hien, Wan-chow, Yai-chow (the +southmost of all), Kan-ēn-hien, Ch’ang-hwa-hien, Tan-chow, +Lin-kao-hien and Ch‘ēng-mai-hien. The capital K’iung-chow-fu +is situated in the north about 10 li (or 3 m.) from the coast on +the river. It is a well-built compact city, and its temples and +examination halls are in good preservation. Carved articles in +coco-nuts and scented woods are its principal industrial product. +In 1630 it was made the seat of a Roman Catholic mission by +Benoit de Mathos, a Portuguese Jesuit, and the old cemetery +still contains about 113 Christian graves. The port of K‘iung-chow-fu +at the mouth of the river, which is nearly dry at low +water, is called simply Hoi-how, or in the court dialect Hai-K‘ow, +<i>i.e.</i> seaport. The two towns are united by a good road, along +which a large traffic is maintained partly by coolie porters but +more frequently by means of wheel-barrows, which serve the +purpose of cabs and carts. The value of the trade of the port +has risen from £670,600 in 1899 to £719,333 in 1904. In the same +year 424 vessels, representing a tonnage of 312,554, visited the +port. This trade is almost entirely with the British colony of +Hong-Kong, with which the port is connected by small coasting +steamers, but since 1893 it has had regular steamboat communication +with Haiphong in Tongking. The population of +K‘iung-chow, including its shipping port of Hoi-how, is estimated +at 52,000. The number of foreign residents in 1900 was about +30, most of them officials or missionaries.</p> + +<p>The inhabitants of Hainan may be divided into three classes, +the Chinese immigrants, the civilized aborigines or Shu-li and +the wild aborigines or Sheng-li. The Chinese were for the most +part originally from Kwang-si and the neighbouring provinces, +and they speak a peculiar dialect, of which a detailed account by +Mr Swinhoe was given in <i>The Phoenix, a Monthly Magazine for +China, &c.</i> (1870). The Shu-li as described by Mr Taintor are +almost of the same stature as the Chinese, but have a more +decided copper colour, higher cheek-bones and more angular +features, while their eyes are not oblique. Their hair is long, +straight and black, and their beards, if they have any, are very +scanty. They till the soil and bring rice, fuel, timber, grass-cloth, +&c., to the Chinese markets. The Sheng-li or Li proper, called +also La, Le or Lauy, are probably connected with the Laos of +Siam and the Lolos of China. Though not gratuitously aggressive, +they are highly intractable, and have given great trouble +to the Chinese authorities. Among themselves they carry on +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page822" id="page822"></a>822</span> +deadly feuds, and revenge is a duty and an inheritance. Though +they are mainly dependent on the chase for food, their weapons +are still the spear and the bow, the latter being made of wood and +strung with bamboo. In marriage no avoidance of similarity +of name is required. The bride’s face is tattooed according to a +pattern furnished by the bridegroom. Their funeral mourning +consists of abstaining from drink and eating raw beef, and they +use a wooden log for a coffin. When sick they sacrifice oxen. +In the spring-time there is a festival in which the men and +women from neighbouring settlements move about in gay +clothing hand in hand and singing songs. The whole population +of the island is estimated at about 2½ millions. At its first +conquest 23,000 families were introduced from the mainland. +In 1300 the Chinese authorities assign 166,257 inhabitants; in +1370, 291,000; in 1617, 250,524; and in 1835, 1,350,000.</p> + +<p>It was in 111 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> that Lu-Po-Teh, general of the emperor Wu-ti, +first made the island of Hainan subject to the Chinese, who +divided it into the two prefectures, Tan-urh or Drooping Ear +in the south, so-called from the long ears of the native “king,” +and Chu-yai or Pearl Shore in the north. During the decadence +of the elder branch of the Han dynasty the Chinese supremacy +was weakened, but in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 43 the natives were led by the success +of Ma-yuan in Tong-king to make a new tender of their allegiance. +About this time the whole island took the name of Chu-yai. In +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 627 the name of K‘iung-chow came into use. On its conquest +by the generals of Kublai Khan in 1278 the island was +incorporated with the western part of the province of Kwang-tung +in a new satrapy, Hai-peh Hai-nan Tao, <i>i.e.</i> the circuit north +of the sea and south of the sea. It was thus that Hai-nan-Tao, +or district south of the sea or strait, came into use as the name of +the island, which, however, has borne the official title of K‘iung-chow-fu, +probably derived from the Kiung shan or Jade Mountains, +ever since 1370, the date of its erection into a department +of Kwang-tung. For a long time Hainan was the refuge of the +turbulent classes of China and the place of deportation for +delinquent officials. It was there, for example, that Su-She or +Su-Tung-po was banished in 1097. From the 15th to the 19th +century pirates made the intercourse with the mainland dangerous, +and in the 17th they were considered so formidable that +merchants were allowed to convey their goods only across the +narrow Hainan Strait. Since 1863 the presence of English men-of-war +has put an end to this evil. According to the treaty of +Tientsin, the capital K’iung-chow and the harbour Hoi-how +(Hai-Kow) were opened to European commerce; but it was not +till 1876 that advantage was taken of the permission.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAINAU<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> (officially <span class="sc">Haynau</span>), a town of Germany, in the +Prussian province of Silesia, on the Schnelle Deichsa and the +railway from Breslau to Dresden, 12 m. N.W. of Liegnitz. Pop. +10,500. It has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, +manufactories of gloves, patent leather, paper, metal ware +and artificial manures, and a considerable trade in cereals. Near +Hainau the Prussian cavalry under Blücher inflicted a defeat on +the French rearguard on the 26th of May 1813.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAINAUT<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> (Flem. <i>Henegouwen</i>, Ger. <i>Hennegau</i>), a province +of Belgium formed out of the ancient county of Hainaut. Modern +Hainaut is famous as containing the chief coal and iron mines +of Belgium. There are about 150,000 men and women employed +in the mines, and about as many more in the iron and steel works +of the province. About 1880 these numbers were not more than +half their present totals. The principal towns of Hainaut are +Mons, the capital, Charleroi, Tournai, Jumet and La Louvière. +The province is watered by both the Scheldt and the Sambre, +and is connected with Flanders by the Charleroi-Ghent canal. +The area of the province is computed at 930,405 acres or +1453 sq. m. In 1904 the population was 1,192,967, showing an +average of 821 per square mile.</p> + +<p>Under the successors of Clovis Hainaut formed part, first +of the kingdom of Metz, and then of that of Lotharingia. It +afterwards became part of the duchy of Lorraine. The first to +bear the title of count of Hainaut was Reginar “Long-Neck” +(<i>c.</i> 875), who, later on, made himself master of the duchy of +Lorraine and died in 916. His eldest son inherited Lower +Lorraine, the younger, Reginar II., the countship of Hainaut, +which remained in the male line of his descendants, all named +Reginar, until the death of Reginar V. in 1036. His heiress, +Richildis, married <i>en secondes noces</i> Baldwin VI. of Flanders, +and, by him, became the ancestress of the Baldwin (VI. of +Hainaut) who in 1204 was raised by the Crusaders to the empire +of Constantinople. The emperor Baldwin’s elder daughter +Jeanne brought the countship of Hainaut to her husbands +Ferdinand of Portugal (d. 1233) and Thomas of Savoy (d. 1259). +On her death in 1244, however, it passed to her sister Margaret, +on whose death in 1279 it was inherited by her grandson, +John of Avesnes, count of Holland (d. 1304). The countship of +Hainaut remained united with that of Holland during the 14th +and 15th centuries. It was under the counts William I. “the +Good” (1304-1337), whose daughter Philippa married Edward +III. of England, and William II. (1337-1345) that the communes +of Hainaut attained great political importance. Margaret, who +succeeded her brother William II. in 1345, by her marriage +with the emperor Louis IV. brought Hainaut with the rest of +her dominions to the house of Wittelsbach. Finally, early in +the 15th century, the countess Jacqueline was dispossessed by +Philip the Good of Burgundy, and Hainaut henceforward shared +the fate of the rest of the Netherlands.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—The <i>Chronicon Hanoniense</i> or <i>Chronica Honnoniae</i> +of Giselbert of Mons (d. 1223-1225), chancellor of Count Baldwin V., +covering the period between 1040 and 1195, is published in Pertz, +<i>Monum. Germ.</i> (Hanover, 1840, &c.). The <i>Chronicon Hanoniense</i>, +ascribed to Baldwin, count of Avesnes (d. 1289), and written between +1278 and 1281, was published under the title <i>Hist. genealogica +comitum Hannoniae</i>, &c., at Antwerp (1691 and 1693) and Brussels +(1722). The Annals of Jacques de Guise (b. 1334; d. 1399) were +published by de Fortia d’Urban under the title, <i>Histoire de Hainault +par Jacques de Guyse</i>, in 19 vols. (Paris, 1826-1838); C. +Delacourt, “Bibliographie de l’hist. du Hainaut,” in the <i>Annales +du cercle archéologique de Mons</i>, vol. v. (Mons, 1864); T. Bernier, +<i>Dict. géograph. historique, &c., de Hainault</i> (Mons, 1891). See also +Ulysse Chevalier, <i>Répertoire des sources</i> s.v.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAINBURG,<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Haimburg</span>, a town of Austria, in Lower +Austria, 38 m. E.S.E of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900), 5134. +It is situated on the Danube, only 2½ m. from the Hungarian +frontier, and since the fire of 1827 Hainburg has been much +improved, being now a handsomely built town. It has one of +the largest tobacco manufactories in Austria, employing about +2000 hands, and a large needle factory. It occupies part of the +site of the old Celtic town Carnuntum (<i>q.v.</i>). It is still surrounded +by ancient walls, and has a gate guarded by two old towers. +There are numerous Roman remains, among which may be +mentioned the altar and tower at the town-house, on the latter +of which is a statue, said to be of Attila. A Roman aqueduct +is still used to bring water to the town. On the neighbouring +Hainberg is an old castle, built of Roman remains, which appears +in German tradition under the name of Heimburc; it was wrested +from the Hungarians in 1042 by the emperor Henry III. At the +foot of the same hill is a castle of the 12th century, where Ottakar +of Bohemia was married to Margaret of Austria in 1252; earlier +it was the residence of the dukes of Babenberg. Outside the +town, on an island in the Danube, is the ruined castle of Röthelstein +or Rothenstein, held by the Knights Templars. Hainburg +was besieged by the Hungarians in 1477, was captured by +Matthias Corvinus in 1482, and was sacked and its inhabitants +massacred by the Turks in 1683.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAINICHEN,<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, +on the Kleine Striegis, 15 m. N.E. of Chemnitz, on the railway +to Rosswein. Pop. (1905), 7752. It has two Evangelical +churches, a park, and commercial and technical schools. +Hainichen is a place of considerable industry. Its chief manufacture +is that of flannels, baize, and similar fabrics; indeed +it may be called the centre of this industry in Germany. The +special whiteness and excellence of the flannel made in Hainichen +are due to the peculiar nature of the water used in the manufacture. +There are also large dye-works and bleaching establishments. +Hainichen is the birthplace of Gellert, to whose +memory a bronze statue was erected in the market-place in 1865. +The Gellert institution for the poor was erected in 1815.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page823" id="page823"></a>823</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAI-PHONG,<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> a seaport of Tongking, French Indo-China, on +the Cua-Cam, a branch of the Song-koi (Red river) delta. The +population numbers between 21,000 and 22,000, of whom 12,500 +are Annamese, 7500 Chinese (attracted by the rice trade of the +port) and 1200 Europeans. It is situated about 20 m. from the +Gulf of Tongking and 58 m. E. by S. of Hanoi, with which it +communicates by river and canal and by railway. It is the +second commercial port of French Indo-China, is a naval station, +and has government and private ship-building yards. The +harbour is accessible at all times to vessels drawing 19 to 20 ft., +but is obstructed by a bar. Hai-phong is the seat of a resident +who performs the functions of mayor, and the residency is the +chief building of the town. A civil tribunal, a tribunal of commerce +and a branch of the Bank of Indo-China are also among +its institutions. It is the headquarters of the river steamboat +service (<i>Messageries fluviales</i>) of Tongking, which plies as far +as Lao-kay on the Song-koi, to the other chief towns of Tongking +and northern Annam, and also to Hong-kong. Cotton-spinning +and the manufacture of cement are carried on.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAIR<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (a word common to Teutonic languages), the general +term for the characteristic outgrowth of the epidermis forming +the coat of mammals. The word is also applied by analogy to +the filamentous outgrowths from the body of insects, &c., plants, +and metaphorically to anything of like appearance.</p> + +<p>For anatomy, &c. of animal hair see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Skin and Exoskeleton</a></span>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fibres</a></span> and allied articles; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fur</a></span>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Leather</a></span>.</p> + +<p><i>Anthropology.</i>—The human hair has an important place +among the physical criteria of race. While its general structure +and quantity vary comparatively little, its length in individuals +and relatively in the two sexes, its form, its colour, its general +consistency and the appearance under the microscope of its +transverse section show persistent differences in the various races. +It is the persistence of these differences and specially in regard +to its colour and texture, which has given to hair its ethnological +importance. So obvious a racial differentiation had naturally +long ago attracted the attention of anthropologists. But it was +not until the 19th century that microscopic examination showed +the profound difference in structure between the hair characteristic +of the great divisions of mankind. It was in 1863 that Dr +Pruner-Bey read a paper before the Paris Anthropological +Society entitled “On the Human Hair as a Race Character, +examined by aid of the Microscope.” This address established +the importance of hair as a racial criterion. He demonstrated +that the structure of the hair is threefold:—</p> + +<p>(1) Short and crisp, generally termed “woolly,” elliptical or +kidney-shaped in section, with no distinguishable medulla or +pith. Its colour is almost always jet black, and it is characteristic +of all the black races except the Australians and aborigines +of India. This type of hair has two varieties. When the hairs +are relatively long and the spiral of the curls large, the head has +the appearance of being completely covered, as with some of +the Melanesian races and most of the negroes. Haeckel has +called this “<i>eriocomous</i>” or “woolly” proper. In some negroid +peoples, however, such as the Hottentots and Bushmen, the hair +grows in very short curls with narrow spirals and forms little +tufts separated by spaces which appear bare. The head looks as +if it were dotted over with pepper-seed, and thus this hair has +gained the name of “peppercorn-growth.” Haeckel has called it +“<i>lophocomous</i>” or “crested.” Most negroes have this type of +hair in childhood and, even when fully grown, signs of it around +the temples. The space between each tuft is not bald, as was at +one time generally assumed. The hair grows uniformly over +the head, as in all races.</p> + +<p>2. Straight, lank, long and coarse, round or nearly so in section, +with the medulla or pith easily distinguishable, and almost +without exception black. This is the hair of the yellow races, +the Chinese, Mongols and Indians of the Americas.</p> + +<p>3. Wavy and curly, or smooth and silky, oval in section, with +medullary tube but no pith. This is the hair of Europeans, +and is mainly fair, though black, brown, red or towy varieties +are found.</p> + +<p>There is a fourth type of hair describable as “frizzy.” It is +easily distinguishable from the Asiatic and European types, but +not from the negroid wool. It is always thick and black, and +is characteristic of the Australians, Nubians, and certain of the +Mulattos. Generally hair curls in proportion to its flatness. +The rounder it is the stiffer and lanker. These extremes are +respectively represented by the Papuans and the Japanese. +Of all hair the woolly type is found to be the most persistent, as +in the case of the Brazilian Cafusos, negro and native hybrids. +Quatrefages quotes the case of a triple hybrid, “half negro, +quarter Cherokee, quarter English,” who had short crisp furry-looking +hair.</p> + +<p>Wavy types of hair vary most in colour: almost the deepest +hue of black being found side by side with the most flaxen and +towy. Colour varies less in the lank type, and scarcely at all +in the woolly. The only important exception to the uniform +blackness of the negroid wool is to be found among the Wochuas, +a tribe of African pigmies whose hair is described by Wilhelm +Junker (<i>Travels in Africa</i>, iii. p. 82) as “of a dark, rusty brown +hue.” Fair hair in all its shades is frequent among the populations +of northern Europe, but much rarer in the south. According +to Dr John Beddoe there are sixteen blonds out of every hundred +Scotch, thirteen out of every hundred English, and two only out +of a hundred Italians. The percentage of brown hair is 75% +among Spaniards, 39 among French and 16 only in Scandinavia. +Among the straight-haired races fair hair is far rarer; it is, +however, found among the western Finns. Among those races +with frizzy hair, red is almost as common as among those with +wavy hair. Red hair, however, is an individual anomaly associated +ordinarily with freckles. There are no red-haired races.</p> + +<p>A certain correlation appears to exist between the nature of +hair and its absolute or relative length in the two sexes. Thus +straight hair is the longest (Chinese, Red Indians), while woolly +is shortest. Wavy hair holds an intermediate position. In the +two extremes the difference of length in man and woman is +scarcely noticeable. In some lank-haired races, men’s tresses +are as long as women’s, <i>e.g.</i> the Chinese pigtail, and the hair of +Redskins which grows to the length sometimes of upwards of +9 ft. In the frizzy-haired peoples, men and women have equally +short growths. Bushwomen, the female Hottentot and negresses +have hair no longer than men’s. It is only in the wavy, and now +and again in the frizzy types, that the difference in the sexes is +marked. Among European men the length rarely exceeds 12 to +16 in., while with women the mean length is between 25 and +30 in. and in some cases has been known to reach 6 ft. or more.</p> + +<p>The growth of hair on the body corresponds in general with +that on the head. The hairiest races are the Australians and +Tasmanians, whose heads are veritable mops in the thickness +and unkempt luxuriance of the locks. Next to them are the +Todas, and other hill-tribesmen of India, and the Hairy Ainu +of Japan. Traces, too, of the markedly hairy race, now extinct, +supposed to be the ancestor of Toda and Ainu alike, are to be +found here and there in Europe, especially among the Russian +peasantry. The least hairy peoples are the yellow races, the +men often scarcely having rudimentary beards, <i>e.g.</i> Indians of +America and the Mongols. Negroid peoples may be said to be +intermediate, but usually incline to hairlessness. The wavy-haired +populations hold also an intermediate position, but +somewhat incline to hairiness. Among negroes especially no +rule can be formulated. Bare types such as the Bushmen and +western negroes are found contiguous to hairy types such as the +inhabitants of Ashantee. Neither is there any rule as to baldness. +From statistics taken in America it would seem that it is ten times +less frequent among negroes than among whites between the ages +of thirty-three and forty-five years, and thirty times less between +twenty-one and thirty-two years. Among Mulattos it is more +frequent than among negroes but less than among whites. It +is rarer among Redskins than among negroes. The <i>lanugo</i> or +downy hairs, with which the human foetus is covered for some +time before birth and which is mostly shed in the womb, and the +minute hairs which cover nearly every part of the adult human +body, may be regarded as rudimentary remains of a complete +hairy covering in the ancestors of mankind. The Pliocene, or +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page824" id="page824"></a>824</span> +at all events Miocene precursor of man, was a furred creature. +The discovery of Egyptian mummies six thousand years old or +more has proved that this physical criterion remains unchanged, +and that it is to-day what it was so many scores of centuries +back. Perhaps, then, the primary divisions of mankind were +distinguished by hair the same in texture and colour as that which +characterizes to-day the great ethnical groups. The wavy type +bridges the gulf between the lank and woolly types, all in turn +derived from a common hair-covered being. In this connexion +it is worth mention, as pointed out by P. Topinard, that though +the regions occupied by the negroid races are the habitat of the +anthropoid apes, the hair of the latter is real hair, not wool. +Further in the eastern section of the dark domain, while the +Papuan is still black and dolichocephalic, his presumed progenitor, +the orang-utan, is brachycephalic with decidedly red +hair. Thus the white races are seen to come nearest the higher +apes in this respect, yellow next, and black farthest removed.</p> + +<p>No test has proved, on repeated examination, to be a safer +one of racial purity than the quality of hair, and Pruner-Bey goes +so far as to suggest that “a single hair presenting the average +form characteristic of the race might serve to define it.” At any +rate a hair of an individual bears the stamp of his origin.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Dr Pruner-Bey in <i>Mémoires de la société d’anthropologie</i>, ii. +P. A. Brown, <i>Classification of Mankind by the Hair</i>; P. Topinard, +<i>L’Homme dans la nature</i> (1891), chap. vi.</p> + +<p><i>Commerce.</i>—Hair enters into a considerable variety of manufactures. +Bristles are the stout elastic hairs obtained from the backs +of certain breeds of pigs. The finest qualities, and the greatest +quantities as well, are obtained from Russia, where a variety of pig +is reared principally on account of its bristles. The best and most +costly bristles are used by shoemakers, secondary qualities being +employed for toilet and clothes-brushes, while inferior qualities are +worked up into the commoner kinds of brushes used by painters and +for many mechanical purposes. For artists’ use and for decorative +painting, brushes or pencils of hair from the sable, camel, badger, +polecat, &c., are prepared. The hair of various animals which is +too short for spinning into yarn is utilized for the manufacture of +felt. For this use the hair of rabbits, hares, beavers and of several +other rodents is largely employed, especially in France, in making +the finer qualities of felt hats. Cow hair, obtained from tanneries, +is used in the preparation of roofing felts, and felt for covering +boilers or steam-pipes, and for other similar purposes. It is also +largely used by plasterers for binding the mortar of the walls and +roofs of houses; and it is to some extent being woven up into coarse +friezes, horse-cloths, railway rugs and inferior blankets. The tail +hair of oxen is also of value for stuffing cushions and other upholstery +work, for which purpose, as well as for making the official +wigs of law officers, barristers, &c., the tail and body hair of the yak +or Tibet ox is also sometimes imported into Europe. The tail and +mane hair of horses is in great demand for various purposes. The +long tail hair is especially valuable for weaving into hair-cloth, mane +hair and the short tail hair being, on the other hand, principally +prepared and curled for stuffing the chairs, sofas and couches which +are covered with the cloth manufactured from the long hair. The +horse hair used in Great Britain is principally obtained from South +America, Germany and Russia, and its sorting, cleaning and working +up into the various manufactures dependent on the material +are industries of some importance. In addition to the purposes +already alluded to, horse hair is woven into crinoline for ladies’ +bonnets, plaited into fishing lines, woven into bags for oil and cider +pressers, and into straining cloths for brewers, &c., and for numerous +other minor uses. The manufactures which arise in connexion with +human hair are more peculiar than important, although occasionally +fashions arise which cause a large demand for human hair. The +fluctuations of such fashions determine the value of hair; but at all +times long tresses are of considerable value. Grey, light, pale and +auburn hair are distinguished as extra colours, and command much +higher prices than the common shades. The light-coloured hair is +chiefly obtained in Germany and Austria, and the south of France +is the principal source of the darker shades. In the south of France +the cultivation and sale of heads of hair by peasant girls is a common +practice; and hawkers attend fairs for the special purpose of engaging +in this traffic. Hair 5 and even 6 ft. long is sometimes obtained. +Scarcely any of the “raw material” is obtained in the United Kingdom +except in the form of ladies’ “combings.” Bleaching of hair +by means of peroxide of hydrogen is extensively practised, with the +view of obtaining a supply of golden locks, or of preparing white +hair for mixing to match grey shades; but in neither case is the +result very successful. Human hair is worked up into a great +variety of wigs, scalps, artificial fronts, frizzets and curls, all for +supplementing the scanty or failing resources of nature. The plaiting +of human hair into articles of jewellery, watch-guards, &c., forms +a distinct branch of trade.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAIR-TAIL<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> (<i>Trichiurus</i>), a marine fish belonging to the +<i>Acanthopterygii scombriformes</i>, with a long band-like body +terminating in a thread-like tail, and with strong prominent +teeth in both jaws. Several species are known, of which one, +common in the tropical Atlantic, not rarely reaches the British +Islands.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAITI<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Haïti</span>, <span class="sc">Hayti</span>, <span class="sc">San Domingo</span>, or <i>Hispaniola</i>], an +island in the West Indies. It lies almost in the centre of the +chain and, with the exception of Cuba, is the largest of the group. +Its greatest length between Cape Engano on the east and Cape +des Irois on the west is 407 m., and its greatest breadth between +Cape Beata on the south and Cape Isabella on the north 160 m. +The area is 28,000 sq. m., being rather less than that of Ireland. +From Cuba, 70 m. W.N.W., and from Jamaica, 130 m. W.S.W., +it is separated by the Windward Passage; and from Porto Rico, +60 m. E., by the Mona Passage. It lies between 17° 37′ and +20° 0′ N. and 68° 20′ and 74° 28′ W. From the west coast +project two peninsulas. The south-western, of which Cape +Tiburon forms the extremity, is the larger. It is 150 m. long +and its width varies from 20 to 40 m. Columbus landed at Mole +St Nicholas at the point of the north-western peninsula, which +is 50 m. long, with an average breadth of 40 m. Between these +lies the Gulf of Gonaïve, a triangular bay, at the apex of which +stands the city of Port-au-Prince. The island of Gonaïve, +opposite the city at a distance of 27 m., divides the entrance to +Port-au-Prince into two fine channels, and forms an excellent +harbour, 200 sq. m. In extent, the coral reefs along the coast +being its only defect. On the north-east coast is the magnificent +Bay of Samana, formed by the peninsula of that name, a +mountain range projecting into the sea; its mouth is protected +by a coral reef stretching 8½m. from the south coast. There is +however, a good passage for ships, and within lies a safe and +beautiful expanse of water 300 sq. m. in extent. Beyond Samana, +with the exception of the poor harbour of Santo Domingo, there +are no inlets on the east and south coasts until the Bays of Ocoa +and Neyba are reached. The south coast of the Tiburon peninsula +has good harbours at Jacmel, Bainet, Aquin and Les Cayes or +Aux Cayes. The only inlets of any importance between Aux +Cayes and Port-au-Prince are Jeremie and the Bay of Baraderes. +The coast line is estimated at 1250 m.</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:515px; height:312px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img824.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p class="pt2">Haiti is essentially a mountainous island. Steep escarpments, +leading to the rugged uplands of the interior, reach almost everywhere +down to the shores, leaving only here and there a few strips +of beach. There are three fairly distinct mountain ranges, the +northern, central and southern, with parallel axes from E. to W.; +while extensive and fertile plains lie between them. The northern +range usually called the Sierra de Monti Cristi, extends from Cape +Samana on the east to Cape Fragata on the west. It has a mean +elevation of 3000 ft., culminating in the Loma Diego Campo (3855 +ft.), near the centre of the range. The central range runs from +Cape Engano to Cape St Nicholas, some 400 m. in an oblique direction +from E. to W. Towards the centre of the island it broadens and +forms two distinct chains; the northern, the Sierra del Cibao, constituting +the backbone of Haiti; the southern curving first S.W., +then N.W., and reaching the sea near St Marc. In addition to these +there are a number of secondary crests, difficult to trace to the backbone +of the system, since the loftiest peaks are usually on some +lateral ridge. Such for instance is Loma Tina (10,300 ft.) the highest +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page825" id="page825"></a>825</span> +elevation on the island, which rises as a spur N.W. of the city of +Santo Domingo. In the Sierra del Cibao, the highest summit is the +Pico del Yaqui (9700 ft.). The southern range runs from the Bay of +Neyba due W. to Cape Tiburon. Its highest points are La Selle +(8900 ft.) and La Hotte (7400 ft.). The plain of Seybo or Los Llanos +is the largest of the Haitian plains. It stretches eastwards from +the river Ozama for 95 m. and has an average width of 16 m. It is +perfectly level, abundantly watered, and admirably adapted for the +rearing of cattle. But perhaps the grandest is the Vega Real, or +Royal Plain, as it was called by Columbus, which lies between the +Cibao and Monti Cristi ranges. It stretches from Samana Bay to +Manzanillo Bay, a distance of 140 m., but is interrupted in the centre +by a range of hills in which rise the rivers which drain it. The +northern part of this plain, however, is usually known as the Valley +of Santiago. Most of the large valleys are in a state of nature, in +part savanna, in part wooded, and all very fertile.</p> + +<p>There are four large rivers. The Yaqui, rising in the Pico del Yaqui, +falls, after a tortuous north-westerly course through the valley of +Santiago, into Manzanillo Bay; its mouth is obstructed by shallows, +and it is navigable only for canoes. The Neyba, or South Yaqui, +also rises in the Pico del Yaqui and flows S. into the Bay of Neyba. +In the mountains within a few miles from the sources of these rivers, +rise the Yuna and the Artibonite. The Yuna drains the Vega Real, +flows into Samana Bay, and is navigable by light-draught vessels +for some distance from its mouth. The Artibonite flows through +the valley of its name into the Gulf of Gonaïve. Of the smaller +rivers the Ozama, on which the city of Santo Domingo stands, is the +most important. The greatest lake is that of Enriquillo or Xaragua, +at a height of 300 ft. above sea-level. It is 27 m. long by 8 m. +broad and very deep. Though 25 m. from the sea its waters are salt, +and the Haitian negroes call it Etang Salé. After heavy rains it +occasionally forms a continuous sheet of water with another lake +called Azuey, or Etang Saumatre, which is 16 m. long by 4 m. +broad; on these occasions the united lake has a total length of 60 m. +and is larger than the Lake of Geneva. Farther S. is the Icoten +de Limon, 5 m. long by 2 m. broad, a fresh-water lake with no visible +outlet. Smaller lakes are Rincon and Miragoane. There are no +active volcanoes, but earthquakes are not infrequent.</p> + +<p><i>Geology.</i>—The geology of Haiti is still very imperfectly known, +and large tracts of the island have never been examined by a geologist. +It is possible that the schists that have been observed in some +parts of the island may be of Pre-cretaceous age, but the oldest +rocks in which fossils have yet been found belong to the Cretaceous +System, and the geological sequence is very similar to that of +Jamaica. Excluding the schists of doubtful age, the series begins +with sandstones and conglomerates, containing pebbles of syenite, +granite, diorite, &c.; and these are overlaid by marls, clays and +limestones containing <i>Hippurites</i>. Then follows a series of sandstones, +clays and limestones with occasional seams of lignite, +evidently of shallow-water origin. These are referred by R. T. Hill to +the Eocene, and they are succeeded by chalky beds which were laid +down in a deeper sea and which probably correspond with the Montpelier +beds of Jamaica (Oligocene). Finally, there are limestones and +marls composed largely of corals and molluscs, which are probably +of very late Tertiary or Post-tertiary age. Until, however, the +island has been more thoroughly examined, the correlation of the +various Tertiary and Post-tertiary deposits must remain doubtful. +Some of the beds which Hill has placed in the Eocene have been +referred by earlier writers to the Miocene. Tippenhauer describes +extensive eruptions of basalt of Post-pliocene age.</p> + +<p><i>Fauna and Flora.</i>—The fauna is not extensive. The agouti is the +largest wild mammal. Birds are few, excepting water-fowl and +pigeons. Snakes abound, though few are venomous. Lizards are +numerous, and insects swarm in the low parts, with tarantulas, +scorpions and centipedes. Caymans are found in the lakes and +rivers, and the waters teem with fish and other sea food. Wild cattle, +hogs and dogs, descendants of those brought from Europe, roam at +large on the plains and in the forests. The wild hogs furnish much +sport to the natives, who hunt them with dogs trained for the +purpose.</p> + +<p>In richness and variety of vegetable products Haiti is not excelled +by any other country in the world. All tropical plants and trees +grow in perfection, and nearly all the vegetables and fruits of temperate +climates may be successfully cultivated in the highlands. +Among indigenous products are cotton, rice, maize, tobacco, cocoa, +ginger, native indigo (<i>indigo marron</i> or <i>sauvage</i>), arrowroot, manioc +or cassava, pimento, banana, plantain, pine-apple, artichoke, yam +and sweet potato. Among the important plants and fruits are sugarcane, +coffee, indigo (called <i>indigo franc</i>, to distinguish it from the +native), melons, cabbage, lucerne, guinea grass and the bread-fruit, +mango, caimite, orange, almond, apple, grape, mulberry and fig. +Most of the imported fruits have degenerated from want of care, +but the mango, now spread over nearly the whole island, has become +almost a necessary article of food; the bread-fruit has likewise +become common, but is not so much esteemed. Haiti is also rich +in woods, especially in cabinet and dye woods; among the former are +mahogany, manchineel, satinwood, rosewood, cinnamon wood +(<i>Canella alba</i>), yellow acoma (<i>Sideroxylon mastichodendron</i>) and +gri-gri; and among the latter are Brazil wood, logwood, fustic and +sassafras. On the mountains are extensive forests of pine and a +species of oak; and in various parts occur the locust, ironwood, +cypress or Bermuda cedar, palmetto and many kinds of palms.</p> + +<p><i>Climate.</i>—Owing to the great diversity of its relief Haiti presents +a wider range of climate than any other part of the Antilles. The +yearly rainfall is abundant, averaging about 120 in., but the wet +and dry seasons are clearly divided. At Port-au-Prince the rainy +season lasts from April to October, but varies in other parts of the +island, so that there is never a season when rain is general. The +mountain districts are constantly bathed in dense mists and heavy +dews, while other districts are almost rainless. Owing to its sheltered +position the heat at Port-au-Prince is greater than elsewhere. In +summer the temperature there ranges between 80° and 95° F. and +in winter between 70° and 80° F. Even in the highlands the mercury +never falls below 45° F. Hurricanes are not so frequent as in the +Windward Isles, but violent gales often occur. The prevailing winds +are from the east.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>The Republic of Haiti.</i>—Haiti is divided into two parts, the +negro republic of Haiti owning the western third of the island, +while the remainder belongs to Santo Domingo (<i>q.v.</i>) or the +Dominican Republic. Between these two governments there +exists the strongest political antipathy.</p> + +<p>Although but a small state, with an area of only 10,204 sq. m., +the republic of Haiti is, in many respects, one of the most +interesting communities in the world, as it is the earliest and +most successful example of a state peopled, and governed on a +constitutional model, by negroes. At its head is a president +assisted by two chambers, the members of which are elected +and hold office under a constitution of 1889. This constitution, +thoroughly republican in form, is French in origin, as are also +the laws, language, traditions and customs of Haiti. In practice, +however, the government resolves itself into a military despotism, +the power being concentrated in the hands of the president. +The Haitians seem to possess everything that a progressive +and civilized nation can desire, but corruption is spread through +every portion and branch of the government. Justice is venal, +and the police are brutal and inefficient. Since 1869 the Roman +Catholic has been the state religion, but all classes of society +seem to be permeated with a thinly disguised adherence to the +horrid rites of Voodoo (<i>q.v.</i>), although this has been strenuously +denied. The country is divided into 5 <i>départements</i>, 23 <i>arrondissements</i> +and 67 <i>communes</i>. Each <i>département</i> and <i>arrondissement</i> +is governed by a general in the army. The army numbers +about 7000 men, and the navy consists of a few small vessels. +Elementary education is free, and there are some 400 primary +schools; secondary education is mainly in the hands of the +church. The Sisters of Charity and the Christian Brothers have +schools at Port-au-Prince, where there is also a lyceum, a medical +and a law school. The children of the wealthier classes are +usually sent to France for their education. The unit of money +is the <i>gourde</i>, the nominal value of which is the same as the +American dollar, but it is subject to great fluctuations. The +revenue is almost entirely derived from customs, paid both on +imports and exports. There being a lack of capital and enterprise, +the excessive customs dues produce a very depressed condition +of trade. Imports are consequently confined to bare +necessaries, the cheapest sorts of dry and fancy goods, matches, +flour, salt beef and pork, codfish, lard, butter and similar provisions. +The exports are coffee, cocoa, logwood, cotton, gum, +honey, tobacco and sugar. The island is one of the most fertile +in the world, and if it had an enlightened and stable government, +an energetic people, and a little capital, its agricultural possibilities +would seem to be endless. Communications are bad; +the roads constructed during the French occupation have +degenerated into mere bridle tracks. There is a coast service +of steamers, maintained since 1863, and 26 ports are regularly +visited every ten days. Foreign communication is excellent, +more foreign steamships visiting this island than any other in +the West Indies. A railway from Port-au-Prince runs through +the Plain of Cul de Sac for 28 m. to Manneville on the Etang +Saumatre, another runs from Cap Haitien to La Grande Rivière, +15 m. distant.</p> + +<p>The people are almost entirely pure-blooded negroes, the +mulattoes, who form about 10% of the population, being a +rapidly diminishing and much-hated class. The negroes are a +kindly, hospitable people, but ignorant and lazy. They have +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page826" id="page826"></a>826</span> +a passion for dancing weird African dances to the accompaniment +of the tom-tom. Marriage is neither frequent nor legally +prescribed, since children of looser unions are regarded by the +state as legitimate. In the interior polygamy is frequent. The +people generally speak a curious but not unattractive <i>patois</i> +of French origin, known as Creole. French is the official +language, and by a few of the educated natives it is written and +spoken in its purity. On the whole it must be owned that, after +a century of independence and self-government, the Haitian +people have made no progress, if they have not actually shown +signs of retrogression. The chief towns ate Port-au-Prince +(pop. 75,000), Cap Haitien (29,000), Les Cayes (25,000), Gonaïve +(18,000), and Port de Paix (10,000). Jeremie was the birthplace +of the elder Dumas. The ruins of the wonderful palace of Sans-Souci +and of the fortress of La Ferrière, built by King Henri +Christophe (1807-1825), can be seen near Millot, a town 9 m. +inland from Cap Haitien. Plaisance (25,000), Gros Morne +(22,000) and La Croix des Bouquets (20,000) are the largest +towns in the interior. The entire population of the republic +is about 1,500,000.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The history of Haiti begins with its discovery by +Columbus, who landed from Cuba at Mole St Nicholas on the +6th of December 1492. The natives called the country Haiti +(mountainous country), and Quisquica (vast country). Columbus +named it Espagnola (Little Spain), which was latinized into +Hispaniola. At the time of its discovery, the island was inhabited +by about 2,000,000 Indians, who are described by the Spaniards +as feeble in intellect and physically defective. They were, +however, soon exterminated, and their place was supplied (as +early as 1512) by slaves imported from Africa, the descendants +of whom now possess the land. Six years after its discovery +Columbus had explored the interior of the island, founded the +present capital, and had established flourishing settlements +at Isabella, Santiago, La Vega, Porto Plata and Bonao. Mines +had been opened up, and advances made in agriculture. Sugar +was introduced in 1506, and in a few years became the staple +product. About 1630, a mixed company of French and English, +driven by the Spaniards from St Kitts, settled on the island of +Tortuga, where they became formidable under the name of +Buccaneers. They soon obtained a footing on the mainland of +Haiti, and by the treaty of Ryswick, 1697, the part they occupied +was ceded to France. This new colony, named Saint Dominique, +subsequently attained a high degree of prosperity, and was in a +flourishing state when the French Revolution broke out in 1789. +The population was then composed of whites, free coloured +people (mostly mulattoes) and negro slaves. The mulattoes +demanded civil rights, up to that time enjoyed only by the +whites; and in 1791 the National Convention conferred on them +all the privileges of French citizens. The whites at once adopted +the most violent measures, and petitioned the home government +to reverse the decree, which was accordingly revoked. In +August 1791, the plantation slaves broke out into insurrection, +and the mulattoes threw in their lot with them. A period of +turmoil followed, lasting for several years, during which both +parties were responsible for acts of the most revolting cruelty. +Commissioners were sent out from France with full powers to +settle the dispute, but although in 1793 they proclaimed the +abolition of slavery, they could effect nothing. To add further +to the troubles of the colony, it was invaded by a British force, +which, in spite of the climate and the opposition of the colonists, +succeeded in maintaining itself until driven out in 1798 by +Toussaint l’Ouverture. By treaty with Spain, in 1795, France +had acquired the title to the entire island.</p> + +<p>By 1801, Toussaint l’Ouverture, an accomplished negro of +remarkable military genius, had succeeded in restoring order. +He then published, subject to the approval of France, a form of +constitutional government, under which he was to be governor +for life. This step, however, roused the suspicions of Bonaparte, +then first consul, who determined to reduce the colony and restore +slavery. He sent out his brother-in-law, General Leclerc, with +25,000 troops; but the colonists offered a determined, and often +ferocious, resistance. At length, wearied of the struggle, Leclerc +proposed terms, and Toussaint, induced by the most solemn +guarantees on the part of the French, laid down his arms. He +was seized and sent to France, where he died in prison in 1803. +The blacks, infuriated by this act of treachery, renewed the +struggle, under Jean Jacques Dessalines (1758-1806), with a +barbarity unequalled in previous contests. The French, further +embarrassed by the appearance of a British fleet, were only too +glad to evacuate the island in November 1803.</p> + +<p>The opening of the following year saw the declaration of +independence, and the restoration of the aboriginal name of +Haiti. Dessalines, made governor for life, inaugurated his rule +with a bloodthirsty massacre of all the whites. In October +1804, he proclaimed himself emperor and was crowned with +great pomp; but in 1806 his subjects, growing tired of his +tyranny, assassinated him. His position was now contended for +by several chiefs, one of whom, Henri Christophe (1767-1820), +established himself in the north, while Alexandre Sabes Pétion +(1770-1818) took possession of the southern part. The Spaniards +re-established themselves in the eastern part of the island, +retaining the French name, modified to Santo Domingo. Civil +war now raged between the adherents of Christophe and Pétion, +but in 1810 hostilities were suspended. Christophe declared +himself king of Haiti under the title of Henry I.; but his cruelty +caused an insurrection, and in 1820 he committed suicide. Pétion +was succeeded in 1818 by General Jean Pierre Boyer (1776-1850), +who, after Christophe’s death, made himself master of all the +French part of the island. In 1821 the eastern end of the island +proclaimed its independence of Spain, and Boyer, taking advantage +of dissensions there, invaded it, and in 1822 the dominion +of the whole island fell into his hands. Boyer held the presidency +of the new government, which was called the republic of Haiti, +until 1843, when he was driven from the island by a revolution. +In 1844 the people at the eastern end of the island again asserted +their independence. The republic of Santo Domingo was +established, and from that time the two political divisions have +been maintained. Meanwhile in Haiti revolution followed revolution, +and president succeeded president, in rapid succession. +Order, however, was established in 1849, when Soulouque, who +had previously obtained the presidency, proclaimed himself +emperor, under the title of Faustin I. After a reign of nine +years he was deposed and exiled, the republic being restored +under the mulatto president Fabre Geffrard. His firm and +enlightened rule rendered him so unpopular that in 1867 he was +forced to flee to Jamaica. He was succeeded by Sylvestre +Salnave, who, after a presidency of two years, was shot. Nissage-Saget +(1870), Dominique (1874), and Boisrond-Canal (1876) +followed, each to be driven into exile by revolution. The next +president, Salomon, maintained himself in office for ten years, +but he too was driven from the country and died in exile. Civil +war raged in 1888-1889 between Generals Légitime and Hippolyte, +and the latter succeeded in obtaining the vacant presidency. +He ruled with the most absolute authority till his +death in 1896. General Tiresias Simon Sam followed and ruled +till his flight to Paris in 1902. The usual civil war ensued, and +after nine months of turmoil, order was restored by the election +of Nord Alexis in December 1902.</p> + +<p>Alexis’ administration was unsuccessful, and was marked by +many disturbances, culminating in his expulsion. In 1904 there +was an attack by native soldiery on the French and German +representatives, and punishment was exacted by these powers. +In December 1904 ex-president Sam, his wife and members of +his ministry were sentenced to long terms of imprisonment for +fraudulently issuing bonds. In December 1907 a conspiracy +against the government was reported and the ringleaders were +sentenced to death. But in January 1908 the revolution spread, +and Gonaïve and St Marc and other places were reported to be +in the hands of the insurgents. Prompt measures were taken, +the rising was checked, and Alexis announced the pardon of +the revolutionaries. In March, however, this pacific policy was +reversed by a new ministry; some suspects were summarily +executed, and the attitude of the government was only modified +when the powers sent war-ships to Port-au-Prince. In September +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page827" id="page827"></a>827</span> +the criminal court at the capital sentenced to death, by default, +a large number of persons implicated in the risings earlier in the +year, and in November revolution broke out again. General +Antoine Simon raised his standard at Aux Cayes. Disaffection +was rife among the government troops, who deserted to him in +great numbers. On the 2nd of December Port-au-Prince was +occupied without bloodshed by the revolutionaries, and Alexis +took to flight, escaping violence with some difficulty, and finding +refuge on a French ship. General Simon then assumed the +presidency. At the end of April 1910 Alexis died in Jamaica, +in circumstances of some obscurity; it had just been discovered +that a plot was on foot to depose Simon, and further trouble was +threatened.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—B. Edwards, <i>Hist. Survey of the Island of S. +Domingo</i> (London, 1801); Jordan, <i>Geschichte der Insel Haiti</i> (Leipzig, +1846); Linstant Pradin, <i>Recueil général des lois et actes du gouvernement +d’Haiti</i> (Paris, 1851-1865); Monte y Tejada, Historia de +Santo Domingo (Havana, 1853); Saint Amand, <i>Hist. des révolutions +d’Haiti</i> (Paris, 1859); Sam. Hazard, <i>Santo Domingo, Past and +Present</i> (London, 1873), with bibliography; Sir Spencer St John, +<i>Haiti, or the Black Republic</i> (London, 1889); L. Gentil Tippenhauer, +<i>Die Insel Haiti</i> (Leipzig, 1893); Marcelin, <i>Haiti, études économiques, +sociales, et politiques</i>; and <i>Haiti, ses guerres civiles, leurs causes</i> +(Paris, 1893); Hesketh Pritchard, <i>Where Black Rules White</i> +(London, 1900). For geology, see W. M. Gabb, “On the Topography +and Geology of Santo Domingo,” <i>Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc.</i>, +Philadelphia, new series, vol. xv. (1881). pp. 49-259, with map; +L. G. Tippenhauer, <i>Die Insel Haiti</i> (Leipzig, 1893); see also several +articles by L. G. Tippenhauer in <i>Peterm. Mitt.</i> 1899 and 1901. A +comparison with the Jamaican succession will be found in R. T. +Hill, “The Geology and Physical Geography of Jamaica,” <i>Bull. +Mus. Comp. Zool.</i>, Harvard, vol. xxxiv. (1899).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAJIPUR,<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> a town of British India, in the Muzaffarpur district +of Bengal, on the Gandak, just above its confluence with the +Ganges opposite Patna. Pop. (1901), 21,398. Hajipur figures +conspicuously in the history of the struggles between Akbar +and his rebellious Afghan governors of Bengal, being twice +besieged and captured by the imperial troops, in 1572 and 1574. +Within the limits of the old fort is a small stone mosque, very +plain, but of peculiar architecture, and attributed to Hājī Ilyās, +its traditional founder (<i>c.</i> 1350). Its command of water traffic +in three directions makes the town a place of considerable +commercial importance. Hajipur has a station on the main +line of the Bengal and North-western railway.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAJJ<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Hadj</span>, the Arabic word, meaning literally a “setting +out,” for the greater pilgrimage of Mahommedans to Mecca, +which takes place from the 8th to the 10th of the twelfth month +of the Mahommedan year; the lesser pilgrimage, called <i>umrah</i> +or <i>omra</i>, may be made to the mosque at Mecca at any time other +than that of the hajj proper, and is also a meritorious act. The +term <i>hajji</i> or <i>hadji</i> is given to those who have performed the +greater pilgrimage. The word <i>hajj</i> is sometimes loosely used of any +Mahommedan pilgrimage to a sacred place or shrine, and is also +applied to the pilgrimages of Christians of the East to the Holy +Sepulchre at Jerusalem (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mecca</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mahommedan Religion</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HĀJJĪ KHALĪFA<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> [in full Muṣṭafā ibn ‘Abdallāh Kātib +Chelebī Hājjī Khalīfa] (<i>ca.</i> 1599-1658), Arabic and Turkish +author, was born at Constantinople. He became secretary to +the commissariat department of the Turkish army in Anatolia, +was with the army in Bagdad in 1625, was present at the siege +of Erzerum, and returned to Constantinople in 1628. In the +following year he was again in Bagdad and Hamadān, and in +1633 at Aleppo, whence he made the pilgrimage to Mecca (hence +his title Hājjī). The following year he was in Erivān and then +returned to Constantinople. Here he obtained a post in the +head office of the commissariat department, which afforded +him time for study. He seems to have attended the lectures of +great teachers up to the time of his death, and made a practice +of visiting bookshops and noting the titles and contents of all +books he found there. His largest work is the <i>Bibliographical +Encyclopaedia</i> written in Arabic. In this work, after five chapters +dealing with the sciences generally, the titles of Arabian, Persian +and Turkish books written up to his own time are arranged in +alphabetical order. With the titles are given, where possible, +short notes on the author, his date, and sometimes the introductory +words of his work. It was edited by G. Flügel with +Latin translation and a useful appendix (7 vols. Leipzig, 1835-1858). +The text alone of this edition has been reproduced at +Constantinople (1893).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Hājjī Khalīfa also wrote in Turkish: a chronological conspectus +of general history (translated into Italian by G. R. Carli, Venice, +1697); a history of the Turkish empire from 1594 to 1655 (Constantinople, +1870); a history of the naval wars of the Turks +(Constantinople, 1729; chapters 1-4 translated by J. Mitchell, +London, 1831); a general geography published at Constantinople, +1732 (Latin trans. by M. Norberg, London and Gotha, 1818; German +trans. of part by J. von Hammer, Vienna, 1812; French trans. of +part by V. de St Martin in his <i>Geography of Asia Minor</i>, vol. I).</p> + +<p>For his life see the preface to Flügel’s edition; list of his works +in C. Brockelmann’s <i>Gesch. d. arabischen Literatur</i> (Berlin, 1902), +vol. ii., pp. 428-429.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. W. T.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAKE, EDWARD<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (fl. 1579), English satirist, was educated +under John Hopkins, the part-author of the metrical version of +the Psalms. He resided in Gray’s Inn and Barnard’s Inn, +London. In the address “To the Gentle Reader” prefixed to +his <i>Newes out of Powles Churchyard ... Otherwise entitled +Syr Nummus</i> (2nd ed., 1579) he mentions the “first three yeeres +which I spent in the Innes of Channcery, being now about a +dosen of yeeres passed.” In 1585 and 1586 he was mayor of +New Windsor, and in 1588 he represented the borough in parliament. +His last work was published in 1604. He was protected +by the earl of Leicester, whose policy it was to support the Puritan +party, and who no doubt found a valuable ally in so vigorous +a satirist of error in clerical places as was Hake. <i>Newes out of +Paules Churchyarde, A Trappe for Syr Monye</i>, first appeared +in 1567, but no copy of this impression is known, and it was +re-issued in 1579 with the title quoted above. The book takes +the form of a dialogue between Bertulph and Paul, who meet in +the aisles of the cathedral, and is divided into eight “satyrs,” +dealing with the corruption of the higher clergy and of judges, +the greed of attorneys, the tricks of physicians and apothecaries, +the sumptuary laws, extravagant living, Sunday sports, the +abuse of St Paul’s cathedral as a meeting-place for business and +conversation, usury, &c. It is written in rhymed fourteen-syllable +metre, which is often more comic than the author intended. It +contains, amid much prefatory matter, a note to the “carping +and scornefull Sicophant,” in which he attacks his enemies with +small courtesy and much alliteration. One is described as a +“carping careless cankerd churle.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>He also wrote a translation from Thomas à Kempis, <i>The Imitation, +or Following of Christ</i> (1567, 1568); <i>A Touchstone for this Time +Present</i> (1574), a scurrilous attack on the Roman Catholic Church, +followed by a treatise on education; <i>A Commemoration of the ... +Raigne of ... Elizabeth</i> (1575), enlarged in 1578 to <i>A Joyfull Continuance +of the Commemoration, &c.</i>; and of <i>Gold’s Kingdom, and this +Unhelping Age</i> (1604), a collection of pieces in prose and verse, in +which the author inveighs against the power of gold. A bibliography +of these and of Hake’s other works was compiled by Mr Charles +Edmonds for his edition in 1872 of the <i>Newes</i> (Isham Reprints, +No. 2, 1872).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAKE, THOMAS GORDON<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> (1800-1895), English poet, was +born at Leeds, of an old Devonshire family, on the 10th of March +1809. His mother was a Gordon of the Huntly branch. He +studied medicine at St George’s hospital and at Edinburgh and +Glasgow, but had given up practice for many years before his +death, and had devoted himself to a literary life. In 1839 he +published a prose epic <i>Vates</i>, republished in Ainsworth’s magazine +as <i>Valdarno</i>, which attracted the attention of D. G. Rossetti. +In after years he became an intimate member of the circle of +friends and followers gathered round Rossetti, who so far +departed from his usual custom as to review Hake’s poems in +the <i>Academy</i> and in the <i>Fortnightly Review</i>. In 1871 he published +<i>Madeline</i>; 1872, <i>Parables and Tales</i>; 1883, <i>The Serpent Play</i>; +1890, <i>New Day Sonnets</i>; and in 1892 his <i>Memoirs of Eighty +Years</i>. Dr Hake’s works had much subtlety and felicity of +expression, and were warmly appreciated in a somewhat restricted +literary circle. In his last published verse, the sonnets, he shows +an advance in facility on the occasional harshness of his earlier +work. He was given a Civil List literary pension in 1893, and +died on the 11th of January 1895.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page828" id="page828"></a>828</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAKE<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (<i>Merluccius vulgaris</i>), a fish which differs from the cod +in having only two dorsal fins, and one anal. It is very common +on the coasts of Europe and eastern North America, but its flesh +is much less esteemed than that of the true <i>Gadi</i>. Specimens +4 ft. in length are not scarce. There are local variations in the +use of “hake” as a name; in America the “silver hake” +(<i>Merluccius bilinearis</i>), sometimes called “whiting,” and +“Pacific hake” (<i>Merluccius productus</i>) are also food-fishes of +inferior quality.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAKKAS<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (“Guests,” or “Strangers”), a people of S.W. +China, chiefly found in Kwang-Tung, Fu-Kien and Formosa. +Their origin is doubtful, but there is some ground for believing +that they may be a cross between the aboriginal Mongolic +element of northern China and the Chinese proper. According +to their tradition, they were in Shantung and northern China +as early as the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> In disposition, appearance +and customs they differ from the true Chinese. They speak +a distinct dialect. Their women, who are prettier than the pure +Chinese, do not compress their feet, and move freely about in +public. The Hakkas are a most industrious people and furnish +at Canton nearly all the coolie labour employed by Europeans. +Their intelligence is great, and many noted scholars have been +of Hakka birth. Hung Sin-tsuan, the leader in the Taiping +rebellion, was a Hakka. In Formosa they serve as intermediaries +between the Chinese and European traders and the natives. +From time immemorial they seem to have been persecuted by +the Chinese, whom they regard as “foreigners,” and with whom +their means of communication is usually “pidgin English.” +The earliest persecution occurred under the “first universal +emperor” of China, Shi-Hwang-ti (246-210 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). From this +time the Hakkas appear to have become wanderers. Sometimes +for generations they were permitted to live unmolested, as under +the Han dynasty, when some of them held high official posts. +During the Tang dynasty (7th, 8th, and 9th centuries) they +settled in the mountains of Fu-kien and on the frontiers of +Kwang-Tung. On the invasion of Kublai Khan, the Hakkas +distinguished themselves by their bravery on the Chinese side. +In the 14th century further persecutions drove them into +Kwang-Tung.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See “An Outline History of the Hakkas,” <i>China Review</i> (London, +1873-1874), vol. ii.; Pitou, “On the Origin and History of the +Hakkas,” ib.; Dyer Ball, <i>Easy Lessons in the Hakka Dialect</i> (1884), +<i>Things Chinese</i> (London, 1893); Schaub, “Proverbs in Daily Use +among the Hakkas,” in <i>China Review</i> (London, 1894-1895), vol. xxi.; +Rev. J. Edkins, <i>China’s Place in Philology</i>; Girard de Rialle, <i>Rev. +d. anthrop.</i> (Jan. and April, 1885); G. Taylor, “The Aborigines of +Formosa,” <i>China Review</i>, xiv. p. 198 seq., also xvi. No. 3, “A Ramble +through Southern Formosa.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAKLUYT, RICHARD<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1553-1616), British geographer, +was born of good family in or near London about 1553. The +Hakluyts were of Welsh extraction, not Dutch as has been +supposed. They appear to have settled in Herefordshire as +early as the 13th century. The family seat was Eaton, 2 m. +S.E. of Leominster. Hugo Hakelute was returned M.P. for +that borough in 1304/5. Richard went to school at Westminster, +where he was a queen’s scholar; while there his future +bent was determined by a visit to his cousin and namesake, +Richard Hakluyt of the Middle Temple. His cousin ’s discourse, +illustrated by “certain bookes of cosmographie, an universall +mappe, and the Bible,” made young Hakluyt resolve to “prosecute +that knowledge and kind of literature.” Entering Christ +Church, Oxford, in 1570, “his exercises of duty first performed,” +he fell to his intended course of reading, and by degrees perused +all the printed or written voyages and discoveries that he could +find. He took his B.A. In 1573/4. It is probable that, +shortly after taking his M.A. (1577), he began at Oxford the first +public lectures in geography that “shewed both the old imperfectly +composed and the new lately reformed mappes, globes, +spheares, and other instruments of this art.” That this was not +in London is certain, as we know that the first lecture of the +kind was delivered in the metropolis on the 4th of November +1588 by Thomas Hood.</p> + +<p>Hakluyt’s first published work was his <i>Divers Voyages touching +the Discoverie of America</i> (London, 1582, 4to.). This brought +him to the notice of Lord Howard of Effingham, and so to that +of Sir Edward Stafford, Lord Howard’s brother-in-law; accordingly +at the age of thirty, being acquainted with “the chiefest +captaines at sea, the greatest merchants, and the best mariners +of our nation,” he was selected as chaplain to accompany +Stafford, now English ambassador at the French court, to +Paris (1583). In accordance with the instructions of Secretary +Walsingham, he occupied himself chiefly in collecting information +of the Spanish and French movements, and “making diligent +inquirie of such things as might yield any light unto our westerne +discoverie in America.” The first fruits of Hakluyt’s labours +in Paris are embodied in his important work entitled <i>A particuler +discourse concerning Westerne discoveries written in the yere 1584, +by Richarde Hackluyt of Oxforde, at the requeste and direction of +the righte worshipfull Mr Walter Raghly before the comynge home +of his twoo barkes</i>. This long-lost MS. was at last printed in 1877. +Its object was to recommend the enterprise of planting the +English race in the unsettled parts of North America. Hakluyt’s +other works consist mainly of translations and compilations, +relieved by his dedications and prefaces, which last, with a few +letters, are the only material we possess out of which a biography +of him can be framed. Hakluyt revisited England in 1584, +laid before Queen Elizabeth a copy of the <i>Discourse</i> “along with +one in Latin upon Aristotle’s <i>Politicks</i>,” and obtained, two days +before his return to Paris, the grant of the next vacant prebend +at Bristol, to which he was admitted in 1586 and held with his +other preferments till his death.</p> + +<p>While in Paris Hakluyt interested himself in the publication +of the MS. journal of Laudonnière, the <i>Histoire notable de la +Florida</i>, edited by Bassanier (Paris, 1586, 8vo.). This was +translated by Hakluyt and published in London under the title +of <i>A notable historie containing foure voyages made by certayne +French captaynes into Florida</i> (London, 1587, 4to.). The same +year <i>De orbe novo Petri Martyris Anglerii decades octo illustratae +labore et industria Richardi Hackluyti</i> saw the light at Paris. +This work contains the exceedingly rare copperplate map dedicated +to Hakluyt and signed F. G. (supposed to be Francis +Gualle); it is the first on which the name of “Virginia” appears.</p> + +<p>In 1588 Hakluyt finally returned to England with Lady +Stafford, after a residence in France of nearly five years. In 1589 +he published the first edition of his chief work, <i>The Principall +Navigations, Voiages and Discoveries of the English Nation</i> +(fol., London, 1 vol.). In the preface to this we have the +announcement of the intended publication of the first terrestrial +globe made in England by Molyneux. In 1598-1600 appeared +the final, reconstructed and greatly enlarged edition of <i>The +Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques and Discoveries of +the English Nation</i> (fol., 3 vols.). Some few copies contain an +exceedingly rare map, the first on the Mercator projection made +in England according to the true principles laid down by Edward +Wright. Hakluyt’s great collection, though but little read, has +been truly called the “prose epic of the modern English nation.” +It is an invaluable treasure of material for the history of +geographical discovery and colonization, which has secured for its +editor a lasting reputation. In 1601 Hakluyt edited a translation +from the Portuguese of Antonio Galvano, <i>The Discoveries of +the World</i> (4to., London). In the same year his name occurs as +an adviser to the East India Company, supplying them with +maps, and informing them as to markets. Meantime in 1590 +(April 20th) he had been instituted to the rectory of Withering-sett-cum-Brockford, +Suffolk. In 1602, on the 4th of May, he +was installed prebendary of Westminster, and in the following +year he was elected archdeacon of Westminster. In the licence +of his second marriage (30th of March 1604) he is also described +as one of the chaplains of the Savoy, and his will contains a +reference to chambers occupied by him there up to the time of +his death; in another official document he is styled D.D. In +1605 he secured the prospective living of James Town, the +intended capital of the intended colony of Virginia. This +benefice he supplied, when the colony was at last established in +1607, by a curate, one Robert Hunt. In 1606 he appears as one +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page829" id="page829"></a>829</span> +of the chief promoters of the petition to the king for patents +to colonize Virginia. He was also a leading adventurer in the +London or South Virginia Company. His last publication was +a translation of Fernando de Soto’s discoveries in Florida, +entitled <i>Virginia richly valued by the description of Florida her +next neighbour</i> (London, 1609, 4to). This work was intended +to encourage the young colony of Virginia; to Hakluyt, it has +been said, “England is more indebted for its American possession +than to any man of that age.” We may notice that it was at +Hakluyt’s suggestion that Robert Parke translated Mendoza’s +<i>History of China</i> (London, 1588-1589) and John Pory made his +version of <i>Leo Africanus</i> (<i>A Geographical History of Africa</i>, +London, 1600). Hakluyt died in 1616 (November 23rd) and +was buried in Westminster Abbey (November 26th); by an error +in the abbey register his burial is recorded under the year 1626. +Out of his various emoluments and preferments (of which the +last was Gedney rectory, Lincolnshire, in 1612) he amassed a +small fortune, which was squandered by a son. A number of +his MSS., sufficient to form a fourth volume of his collections +of 1598-1600, fell into the hands of Samuel Purchas, who inserted +them in an abridged form in his <i>Pilgrimes</i> (1625-1626, fol.). +Others are preserved at Oxford (Bib. Bod. MS. Seld. B. 8). which +consist chiefly of notes gathered from contemporary authors.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Besides the MSS. or editions noticed in the text (<i>Divers Voyages</i> +(1582); <i>Particuler Discourse</i> (1584); Laudonnière’s <i>Florida</i> (1587); +Peter Martyr, <i>Decades</i> (1587); <i>Principal Navigations</i> (1589 and 1598-1600); +Galvano’s <i>Discoveries</i> (1601); De Soto’s Florida record, the +<i>Virginia richly valued</i> (1609, &c.), we may notice the Hakluyt +Society’s London edition of the <i>Divers Voyages</i> in 1850, the edition +of the <i>Particuler Discourse</i>, by Charles Deane in the <i>Collections of +the Maine Historical Society</i> (Cambridge, Mass., 1870, with an introduction +by Leonard Woods); also, among modern issues of the +<i>Principal Navigations</i>, those of 1809 (5 vols., with much additional +matter), and of 1903-1905 (Glasgow, 12 vols.). The new title-page +issued for the first volume of the final edition of the <i>Principal +Navigations</i>, in 1599, merely cancelled the former 1598 title with its +reference to the Cadiz expedition of 1596; but from this has arisen +the mistaken supposition that a new <i>edition</i> was then (1599) published. +Hakluyt’s Galvano was edited for the Hakluyt Society by Admiral +C. R. D. Bethune in 1862. This Society, which was founded +in 1846 for printing rare and unpublished voyages and travels, +includes the Glasgow edition of the <i>Principal Navigations</i> in its +<i>extra series</i>, as well as C. R. Beazley’s edition of <i>Carpini</i>, <i>Rubruquis</i>, +and other medieval texts from Hakluyt (Cambridge, 1903, 1 vol.). +Reckoning in these and an issue of Purchas’s <i>Pilgrimes</i> by the Glasgow +publisher of the Hakluyt of 1903-1905, the society has now published +or “fathered” 150 vols. See also <i>Voyages of the Elizabethan Seamen +to America, being Select Narratives from the Principal Navigations</i>, by +E. J. Payne (Oxford, 1880; 1893; new edition by C. R. Beazley, 1907).</p> + +<p>For Hakluyt’s life the dedications of the 1589 and 1598 editions +of the <i>Principal Navigations</i> should be especially consulted; also +Winter Jones’s introduction to the Kakluyt Society edition of the +<i>Divers Voyages</i>; Fuller’s <i>Worthies of England</i>, “Herefordshire”; +<i>Oxford Univ. Reg.</i> (Oxford Hist. Soc), ii., iii. 39; <i>Historical MSS. +Commission, 4th report, appendix</i>, p. 614, the last giving us the +Towneley MSS. referring to payments (prizes?) awarded to Hakluyt +when at Oxford, May 12th and June 4th, 1575.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. H. C; C. R. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAKODATE,<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> a town on the south of the island of Yezo, +Japan, for many years regarded as the capital of the island +until Sapporo was officially raised to that rank. Pop. (1903) +84,746. Its position, as has been frequently remarked, is not +unlike that of Gibraltar, as the town is built along the north-western +base of a rocky promontory (1157 ft. in height) which +forms the eastern boundary of a spacious bay, and is united to +the mainland by a narrow sandy isthmus. The summit of the +rock, called the Peak, is crowned by a fort. Hakodate is one of +the ports originally opened to foreign trade. The Bay of Hakodate, +an inlet of Tsugaru Strait, is completely land-locked, easy +of access and spacious, with deep water almost up to the shore, +and good holding-ground. The Russians formerly used Hakodate +as a winter port. The staple exports are beans, pulse and peas, +marine products, sulphur, furs and timber; the staple imports, +comestibles (especially salted fish), kerosene and oil-cake. The +town is not situated so as to profit largely by the development of +the resources of Yezo, and as a port of foreign trade its outlook +is indifferent. Frequent steamers connect Hakodate and +Yokohama and other ports, and there is daily communication +with Aomori, 56 m. distant, whence there is rail-connexion with +Tokyo. Hakodate was opened to American commerce in 1854. +In the civil war of 1868 the town was taken by the rebel fleet, +but it was recovered by the mikado in 1869.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HAL,<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> a town of Brabant, Belgium, about 9 m. S.W. of Brussels, +situated on the river Senne and the Charleroi canal. Pop. (1904) +13,541. The place is interesting chiefly on account of its fine +church of Notre Dame, formerly dedicated to St Martin. This +church, a good example of pure Gothic, was begun in 1341 and +finished in 1409. Its principal ornament is the alabaster altar, +by J. Mone, completed in 1533. The bronze font dates from +1446. Among the monuments is one in black marble to the +dauphin Joachim, son of Louis XI., who died in 1460. In the +treasury of the church are many costly objects presented by +illustrious personages, among others by the emperor Charles V., +King Henry VIII. of England, Charles the Bold of Burgundy, +and several popes. The church is chiefly celebrated, however, +for its miraculous image of the Virgin. Legend says that during +a siege the bullets fired into the town were caught by her in the +folds of her dress. Some of these are still shown in a chest that +stands in a side chapel. In consequence of this belief a great +pilgrimage, attended by many thousands from all parts of +Belgium, is paid annually to this church. The hôtel de ville +dates from 1616 and has been restored with more than ordinary +good taste.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALA,<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Halla</span> (formerly known as Murtazabad), a town of +British India in Hyderabad district, Sind. Pop. (1901) 4985. +It has long been famous for its glazed pottery and tiles, made +from a fine clay obtained from the Indus, mixed with powdered +flints. The town has also a manufacture of susis or striped +trouser-cloths.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALAESA,<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> an ancient town on the north coast of Sicily, +about 14 m. E. of Cephaloedium [Cefalu], to the east of the +modern Castel di Tusa, founded in 403 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by Archonides, +tyrant of Herbita, whose name it sometimes bore: we find, <i>e.g.</i> +<i>Halaisa Archonida</i> on a coin of the time of Augustus (<i>Corp. +inscrip. Lat.</i> x., Berlin, 1883, p. 768). It was the first town to +surrender to the Romans in the First Punic War, and was granted +freedom and immunity from tithe. It became a place of some +importance in Roman days, especially as a port, and entirely +outstripped its mother city. Halaesa is the only place in Sicily +where an inscription dedicated to a Roman governor of the +republican period (perhaps in 93 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) has come to light.</p> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALAKHA,<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Halacha</span> (literally “rule of conduct”), the +rabbinical development of the Mosaic law; with the haggada +it makes up the Talmud and Midrash (<i>q.v.</i>). As the haggada +is the poetic, so the halakha is the legal element of the Talmud +(<i>q.v.</i>), and arose out of the faction between the Sadducees, who +disputed the traditions, and the Pharisees, who strove to prove +their derivation from scripture. Among the chief attempts to +codify the halakha were the <i>Great Rules</i> (<i>Halakhoth Gedoloth</i>) +of Simon Kayyara (9th century), based on the letters written by +the Gaonim, the heads of the Babylonian schools, to Jewish +inquirers in many lands, the work of Jacob Alfassi (1013-1103), +the <i>Strong Hand of</i> Maimonides (1180), and the <i>Table Prepared</i> +(<i>Shulḥan Aruch</i>) of Joseph Qaro (1565), which from its practical +scope and its clarity as a work of general reference became the +universal handbook of Jewish life in many of its phases.</p> +<div class="author">(I. A.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALBERSTADT,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province +of Saxony, 56 m. by rail N.W. of Halle, and 29 S.W. of Magdeburg. +It lies in a fertile country to the north of the Harz +Mountains, on the Holzemme, at the junction of railways to +Halle, Goslar and Thale. Pop. (1905) 45,534. The town has +a medieval appearance, many old houses decorated with beautiful +wood-carving still surviving. The Gothic cathedral (now Protestant), +dating from the 13th and 14th centuries, is remarkable +for the majestic impression made by the great height of the +interior, with its slender columns and lofty, narrow aisles. The +treasure, preserved in the former chapter-house, is rich in +reliquaries, vestments and other objects of medieval church +art. The beautiful spires, which had become unsafe, were +rebuilt in 1890-1895. Among the other churches the only one +of special interest is the Liebfrauenkirche (Church of Our Lady), +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page830" id="page830"></a>830</span> +a basilica, with four towers, in the later Romanesque style, +dating from the 12th and 13th centuries and restored in 1848, +containing old mural frescoes and carved figures. Remarkable +among the other old buildings are the town-hall, of the 14th +century and restored in the 17th century, with a crypt, and the +Petershof, formerly the episcopal palace, but now utilized as +law courts and a prison. The principal educational establishment +is the gymnasium, with a library of 40,000 volumes. Close +to the cathedral lies the house of the poet Gleim (<i>q.v.</i>), since 1899 +the property of the municipality and converted into a museum. +It contains a collection of the portraits of the friends of the +poet-scholar and some valuable manuscripts. The principal +manufactures of the town are sugar, cigars, paper, gloves, +chemical products, beer and machinery. About a mile and a half +distant are the Spiegelsberge, from which a fine view of the +surrounding country is obtained, and the Klusberge, with prehistoric +cave-dwellings cut out in the sandstone rocks.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The history of Halberstadt begins with the transfer to it, by +Bishop Hildegrim I., in 820 of the see founded by Charlemagne at +Seligenstadt. At the end of the 10th century the bishops were +granted by the emperors the right to exercise temporal jurisdiction +over their see, which became one of the most considerable of the +ecclesiastical principalities of the Empire. As such it survived the +introduction of the Reformation in 1542; but in 1566, on the death +of Sigismund of Brandenburg (also archbishop of Madgeburg from +1552 to 1566), the last Catholic bishop, the chapter from motives +of economy elected the infant Henry Julius of Brunswick-Lüneburg. +In 1589 he became duke of Brunswick, and two years later he +abolished the Catholic rites in Halberstadt. The see was governed +by lay bishops until 1648, when it was formally converted by the +treaty of Westphalia into a secular principality for the elector of +Brandenburg. By the treaty of Tilsit in 1807 it was annexed to +the kingdom of Westphalia, but came again to Prussia on the +downfall of Napoleon.</p> + +<p>The town received a charter from Bishop Arnulf in 998. In +1113 it was burnt by the emperor Henry V., and in 1179 by Henry +the Lion. During the Thirty Years’ War it was occupied alternately +by the Imperialists and the Swedes, the latter of whom handed it +over to Brandenburg.</p> + +<p>See Lucanus, <i>Der Dom zu Halberstadt</i> (1837), <i>Wegweiser durch +Halberstadt</i> (2nd ed., 1866) and <i>Die Liebfrauenkirche zu Halberstadt</i> +(1872); Scheffer, <i>Inschriften und Legenden halberstädtischer Bauten</i> +(1864); Schmidt, <i>Urkundenbuch der Stadt Halberstadt</i> (Halle, 1878); +and Zschiesche, <i>Halberstadt, sonst und jetzi</i> (1882).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALBERT,<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> <span class="sc">Halberd</span> or <span class="sc">Halbard</span>, a weapon consisting of an +axe-blade balanced by a pick and having an elongated pike-head +at the end of the staff, which was usually about 5 or 6 ft. in +length. The utility of such a weapon in the wars of the later +middle ages lay in this, that it gave the foot soldier the means +of dealing with an armoured man on horseback. The pike could +do no more than keep the horseman at a distance. This ensured +security for the foot soldier but did not enable him to strike a +mortal blow, for which firstly a long-handled and secondly a +powerful weapon, capable of striking a heavy cleaving blow, +was required. Several different forms of weapon responding +to these requirements are described and illustrated below; it +will be noticed that the thrusting pike is almost always combined +with the cutting-bill hook or axe-head, so that the individual +billman or halberdier should not be at a disadvantage if caught +alone by a mounted opponent, or if his first descending blow +missed its object. It will be noticed further that, concurrently +with the disuse of complete armour and the development of +firearms, the pike or thrusting element gradually displaces the +axe or cleaving element in these weapons, till at last we arrive +at the court halberts and partizans of the late 16th and early +17th centuries and the so-called “halbert” of the infantry +officer and sergeant in the 18th, which can scarcely be classed +even as partizans.</p> + +<p>Figs. 1-6 represent types of these long cutting, cut and thrust +weapons of the middle ages, details being omitted for the sake of +clearness. The most primitive is the <i>voulge</i> (fig. 1), which is +simply a heavy cleaver on a pole, with a point added. The next +form, the <i>gisarme</i> or <i>guisarme</i> (fig. 2), appears in infinite variety +but is always distinguished from voulges, &c. by the hook, +which was used to pull down mounted men, and generally +resembles the agricultural bill-hook of to-day. The <i>glaive</i> +(fig. 3 is late German) is a broad, heavy, slightly curved sword-blade +on a stave; it is often combined with the hooked gisarme +as a <i>glaive-gisarme</i> (fig. 4, Burgundian, about 1480). A <i>gisarme-voulge</i> +is shown in fig. 5 (Swiss, 14th century).</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 420px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:286px; height:177px" src="images/img830a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Figs. 1-6.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:373px; height:184px" src="images/img830b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Figs. 7-12.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>The weapon best known to Englishmen is the <i>bill</i>, which was +originally a sort of scythe-blade, sharp on the concave side +(whereas the glaive has +the cutting edge on the +convex side), but in its +best-known form it should +be called a bill-gisarme +(fig. 6). The <i>partizans</i>, <i>ranseurs</i> +and <i>halberts</i> proper +developed naturally from +the earlier types. The +feature common to all, +as has been said, is the +combination of spear and axe. In the halberts the axe +predominates, as the examples (fig. 10, Swiss, early 15th +century; fig. 11, Swiss, middle 16th century; and fig. 12, German +court halbert of the same period as fig. 11) show. In the +<i>partizan</i> the pike is the more important, the axe-heads being +reduced to little more than an ornamental feature. A south +German specimen (fig. 9, 1615) shows how this was compensated +by the broadening of the spear-head, the edges of which in such +weapons were sharpened. Fig. 8, a service weapon of simple +form, merely has projections on either side, and from this +developed the <i>ranseur</i> (fig. 7), a partizan with a very long and +narrow point, like the blade of a rapier, and with fork-like projections +intended to act as “sword-breakers,” instead of the +atrophied axe-heads of the partizan proper.</p> + +<p>The halbert played almost as conspicuous a part in the military +history of Middle Europe during the 15th and early 16th centuries +as the pike. But, +even in a form +distinguishable +from the voulge +and the glaive, it +dates from the +early part of the +13th century, and +for many generations +thereafter it +was the special +weapon of the +Swiss. Fauchet, in his <i>Origines des dignitez</i>, printed in 1600, +states that Louis XI. of France ordered certain new weapons +of war called <i>hallebardes</i> to be made at Angers and other places in +1475. The Swiss had a mixed armament of pikes and halberts +at the battle of Morat in 1476. In the 15th and 16th centuries +the halberts became larger, and the blades were formed +in many varieties of shape, often engraved, inlaid, or pierced +in open work, and exquisitely finished as works of art. This +weapon was in use in England from the reign of Henry VII. +to the reign of George III., when it was still carried (though in +shape it had certainly lost its original characteristics, and had +become half partizan and half pike) by sergeants in the guards +and other infantry regiments. It is still retained as the symbol +of authority borne before the magistrates on public occasions +in some of the burghs of Scotland. The Lochaber axe may be +called a species of halbert furnished with a hook on the end of +the staff at the back of the blade. The godendag (Fr. <i>godendart</i>) +is the Flemish name of the halbert in its original form.</p> + +<p>The derivation of the word is as follows. The O. Fr. <i>hallebarde</i>, +of which the English “halberd,” “halbert,” is an adaptation, +was itself adapted from the M.H.G. <i>helmbarde</i>, mod. <i>Hellebarde</i>; +the second part is the O.H.G. <i>barta</i> or <i>parta</i>, broad-axe, probably +the same word as <i>Bart</i>, beard, and so called from its shape; +the first part is either <i>helm</i>, handle, cf. “helm,” tiller of a ship, +the word meaning “hafted axe,” or else <i>helm</i>, helmet, an axe +for smiting the helmet. A common derivation was to take the +word as representing a Ger. <i>halb-barde</i>, half-axe; the early +German form shows this to be an erroneous guess.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page831" id="page831"></a>831</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALDANE, JAMES ALEXANDER<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> (1768-1851), Scottish +divine, the younger son of Captain James Haldane of Airthrey +House, Stirlingshire, was born at Dundee on the 14th of July +1768. Educated first at Dundee and afterwards at the high +school and university of Edinburgh, at the age of seventeen he +joined the “Duke of Montrose” East Indiaman as a midshipman. +After four voyages to India he was nominated to the +command of the “Melville Castle” in the summer of 1793; +but having during a long and unexpected detention of his ship +begun a careful study of the Bible, and also come under the +evangelical influence of David Bogue of Gosport, one of the +founders of the London Missionary Society, he abruptly resolved +to quit the naval profession for a religious life, and returned to +Scotland before his ship had sailed. About the year 1796 he +became acquainted with the celebrated evangelical divine, +Charles Simeon of Cambridge, in whose society he made several +tours through Scotland, endeavouring by tract-distribution +and other means to awaken others to some of that interest in +religious subjects which he himself so strongly felt. In May +1797 he preached his first sermon, at Gilmerton near Edinburgh, +with encouraging success. In the same year he established a +non-sectarian organization for tract distribution and lay preaching +called the “Society for the Propagation of the Gospel at +Home.” During the next few years he made repeated missionary +journeys, preaching wherever he could obtain hearers, and +generally in the open air. Not originally disloyal to the Church +of Scotland, he was gradually driven by the hostility of the +Assembly and the exigencies of his position into separation. +In 1799 he was ordained as pastor of a large Independent congregation +in Edinburgh. This was the first congregational church +known by that name in Scotland. In 1801 a permanent building +replaced the circus in which the congregation had at first met. +To this church he continued to minister gratuitously for more +than fifty years. In 1808 he made public avowal of his conversion +to Baptist views. As advancing years compelled him to withdraw +from the more exhausting labours of itineracy and open-air +preaching, he sought more and more to influence the discussion +of current religious and theological questions by means of the +press. He died on the 8th of February 1851.</p> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">Daniel Rutherford Haldane</span> (1824-1887), by his +second wife, a daughter of Professor Daniel Rutherford, was a +prominent Scottish physician, who became president of the +Edinburgh College of Physicians.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Among J. A. Haldane’s numerous contributions to current theological +discussions were: <i>The Duty of Christian Forbearance in +Regard to Points of Church Order</i> (1811); <i>Strictures on a Publication +upon Primitive Christianity by Mr John Walker</i> (1819); <i>Refutation +of Edward Irving’s Heretical Doctrines respecting the Person and +Atonement of Jesus Christ</i>. His <i>Observations on Universal Pardon</i>, +&c., was a contribution to the controversy regarding the views of +Thomas Erskine of Linlathen and Campbell of Row; <i>Man’s Responsibility</i> +(1842) is a reply to Howard Hinton on the nature and +extent of the Atonement. He also published: <i>Journal of a Tour +in the North</i>; <i>Early Instruction Commended</i> (1801); <i>Views of the +Social Worship of the First Churches</i> (1805); <i>The Doctrine and Duty +of Self-Examination</i> (1806); <i>The Doctrine of the Atonement</i> (1845); +<i>Exposition of the Epistle to the Galatians</i> (1848).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALDANE, RICHARD BURDON<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (1856-  ), British statesman +and philosopher, was the third son of Robert Haldane of +Cloanden, Perthshire, a writer to the signet, and nephew of +J. S. Burdon-Sanderson. He was a grand-nephew of the Scottish +divines J. A. and Robert Haldane. He was educated at Edinburgh +Academy and the universities of Edinburgh and Göttingen, +where he studied philosophy under Lotze. He took first-class +honours in philosophy at Edinburgh, and was Gray scholar and +Ferguson scholar in philosophy of the four Scottish Universities +(1876). He was called to the bar in 1879, and so early as 1890 +became a queen’s counsel. In 1885 he entered parliament as +liberal member for Haddingtonshire, for which he was re-elected +continuously up to and including 1910. He was included in +1905 in Sir H. Campbell-Bannerman’s cabinet as secretary for +war, and was the author of the important scheme for the reorganization +of the British army, by which the militia and the +volunteer forces were replaced by a single territorial force. +Though always known as one of the ablest men of the Liberal +party and conspicuous during the Boer War of 1899-1902 as +a Liberal Imperialist, the choice of Mr Haldane for the task of +thinking out a new army organization on business lines had +struck many people as curious. Besides being a chancery +lawyer, he was more particularly a philosopher, conspicuous for +his knowledge of Hegelian metaphysics. But with German philosophy +he had also the German sense of thoroughness and system, +and his scheme, while it was much criticized, was recognized +as the best that could be done with a voluntary army. Mr +Haldane’s chief literary publications were: <i>Life of Adam Smith</i> +(1887); <i>Education and Empire</i> (1902); <i>The Pathway to Reality</i> +(1903). He also translated, jointly with J. Kemp, Schopenhauer’s +<i>Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung</i> (<i>The World as Will and +Idea</i>, 3 vols., 1883-1886).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALDANE, ROBERT<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> (1764-1842), Scottish divine, elder +brother of J. A. Haldane (<i>q.v.</i>), was born in London on the +28th of February 1764. After attending classes in the Dundee +grammar school and in the high school and university of Edinburgh +in 1780, he joined H.M.S. “Monarch,” of which his uncle +Lord Duncan was at that time in command, and in the following +year was transferred to the “Foudroyant,” on board of which, +during the night engagement with the “Pegase,” he greatly +distinguished himself. Haldane was afterwards present at the +relief of Gibraltar, but at the peace of 1783 he finally left the +navy, and soon afterwards settled on his estate of Airthrey, near +Stirling. He put himself under the tuition of David Bogue of +Gosport and carried away deep impressions from his academy. +The earlier phases of the French Revolution excited his deepest +sympathy, a sympathy which induced him to avow his strong +disapproval of the war with France. As his over-sanguine visions +of a new order of things to be ushered in by political change +disappeared, he began to direct his thoughts to religious subjects. +Resolving to devote himself and his means wholly to the advancement +of Christianity, his first proposal for that end, made in +1796, was to organize a vast mission to Bengal, of which he was +to provide the entire expense; with this view the greater part +of his estate was sold, but the East India Company refused to +sanction the scheme, which therefore had to be abandoned. +In December 1797 he joined his brother and some others in the +formation of the “Society for the Propagation of the Gospel at +Home,” in building chapels or “tabernacles” for congregations, +in supporting missionaries, and in maintaining institutions for +the education of young men to carry on the work of evangelization. +He is said to have spent more than £70,000 in the course of +the following twelve years (1798-1810). He also initiated a +plan for evangelizing Africa by bringing over native children +to be trained as Christian teachers to their own countrymen. +In 1816 he visited the continent, and first at Geneva and afterwards +in Montauban (1817) he lectured and interviewed large +numbers of theological students with remarkable effect; among +them were Malan, Monod and Merle d’Aubigné. Returning to +Scotland in 1819, he lived partly on his estate of Auchengray +and partly in Edinburgh, and like his brother took an active part, +chiefly through the press, in many of the religious controversies +of the time. He died on the 12th of December 1842.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In 1816 he published a work on the <i>Evidences and Authority of +Divine Revelation</i>, and in 1819 the substance of his theological +prelections in a <i>Commentaire sur l’Épître aux Romains</i>. Among +his later writings, besides numerous pamphlets on what was known +as “the Apocrypha controversy,” are a treatise <i>On the Inspiration +of Scripture</i> (1828), which has passed through many editions, and +a later <i>Exposition of the Epistle to the Romans</i> (1835), which has been +frequently reprinted, and has been translated into French and +German.</p> + +<p>See <i>Memoirs of R. and J. A. Haldane</i>, by Alexander Haldane +(1852).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALDEMAN, SAMUEL STEHMAN<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> (1812-1880), American +naturalist and philologist, was born on the 12th of August 1812 +at Locust Grove, Pa. He was educated at Dickinson College, +and in 1851 was appointed professor of the natural sciences in +the university of Pennsylvania. In 1855 he went to Delaware +College, where he filled the same position, but in 1869 he +returned to the university of Pennsylvania as professor of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page832" id="page832"></a>832</span> +comparative philology and remained there till his death, which +occurred at Chickies, Pa., on the 10th of September 1880. His +writings include <i>Freshwater Univalve Mollusca of the United +States</i> (1840); <i>Zoological Contributions</i> (1842-1843); <i>Analytic +Orthography</i> (1860); <i>Tours of a Chess Knight</i> (1864); <i>Pennsylvania +Dutch, a Dialect of South German with an Infusion of +English</i> (1872); <i>Outlines of Etymology</i> (1877); and <i>Word-Building</i> +(1881).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALDIMAND, SIR FREDERICK<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> (1718-1791), British general +and administrator, was born at Yverdun, Neuchâtel, Switzerland, +on the 11th of August 1718, of Huguenot descent. After serving +in the armies of Sardinia, Russia and Holland, he entered +British service in 1754, and subsequently naturalized as an +English citizen. During the Seven Years’ War he served in +America, was wounded at Ticonderoga (1758) and was present at +the taking of Montreal (1760). After filling with credit several +administrative positions in Canada, Florida and New York, +in 1778 he succeeded Sir Guy Carleton (afterwards Lord Dorchester) +as governor-general of Canada. His measures against +French sympathizers with the Americans have incurred +extravagant strictures from French-Canadian historians, but he +really showed moderation as well as energy. In 1785 he returned +to London. He died at his birthplace on the 5th of +June 1791.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His life has been well written by Jean McIlwraith in the “Makers +of Canada” series (Toronto, 1904). His Correspondence and Diary +fill 262 volumes in the Canadian Archives, and are catalogued in +the Annual Reports (1884-1889).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALE, EDWARD EVERETT<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> (1822-1909), American author, +was born in Boston on the 3rd of April 1822, son of Nathan Hale +(1784-1863), proprietor and editor of the Boston <i>Daily Advertiser</i>, +nephew of Edward Everett, the orator and statesman, and grand-nephew +of Nathan Hale, the martyr spy. He graduated from +Harvard in 1839; was pastor of the church of the Unity, +Worcester, Massachusetts, in 1846-1856, and of the South +Congregational (Unitarian) church, Boston, in 1856-1899; and +in 1903 became chaplain of the United States Senate. He died +at Roxbury (Boston), Massachusetts, on the 10th of June 1909. +His forceful personality, organizing genius, and liberal practical +theology, together with his deep interest in the anti-slavery +movement (especially in Kansas), popular education (especially +Chautauqua work), and the working-man’s home, were active +in raising the tone of American life for half a century. He was +a constant and voluminous contributor to the newspapers and +magazines. He was an assistant editor of the Boston <i>Daily +Advertiser</i>, and edited the <i>Christian Examiner, Old and New</i> +(which he assisted in founding in 1869; in 1875 it was merged in +<i>Scribner’s Magazine</i>), <i>Lend a Hand</i> (founded by him in 1886 and +merged in the <i>Charities Review</i> in 1897), and the <i>Lend a Hand +Record</i>; and he was the author or editor of more than sixty +books—fiction, travel, sermons, biography and history.</p> + +<p>He first came into notice as a writer in 1859, when he contributed +the short story “My Double and How He Undid Me” +to the <i>Atlantic Monthly</i>. He soon published in the same +periodical other stories, the best known of which was “The +Man Without a Country” (1863), which did much to strengthen +the Union cause in the North, and in which, as in some of his +other non-romantic tales, he employed a minute realism which +has led his readers to suppose the narrative a record of fact. +The two stories mentioned, and such others as “The Rag-Man +and the Rag-Woman” and “The Skeleton in the Closet,” gave +him a prominent position among the short-story writers of +America. The story <i>Ten Times One is Ten</i> (1870), with its hero +Harry Wadsworth, and its motto, first enunciated in 1869 in his +Lowell Institute lectures, “Look up and not down, look forward +and not back, look out and not in, and lend a hand,” led to the +formation among young people of “Lend-a-Hand Clubs,” +“Look-up Legions” and “Harry Wadsworth Clubs.” Out of +the romantic Waldensian story <i>In His Name</i> (1873) there +similarly grew several other organizations for religious work, +such as “King’s Daughters,” and “King’s Sons.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Among his other books are <i>Kansas and Nebraska</i> (1854); <i>The +Ingham Papers</i> (1869); <i>His Level Best, and Other Stories</i> (1870); +<i>Sybaris and Other Homes</i> (1871); <i>Philip Nolan’s Friends</i> (1876), his +best-known novel, and a sequel to <i>The Man Without a Country; The +Kingdom of God</i> (1880); <i>Christmas at Narragansett</i> (1885); <i>East +and West</i>, a novel (1892); <i>For Fifty Years</i> (poems, 1893); <i>Ralph +Waldo Emerson</i> (1899); <i>We, the People</i> (1903); <i>Prayers Offered in +the Senate of the United States</i> (1904), and <i>Tarry-at-Home Travels</i> +(1906). He edited Lingard’s <i>History of England</i> (1853), and contributed +to Winsor’s <i>Memorial History of Boston</i> (1880-1881), and +to his <i>Narrative and Critical History of America</i> (1886-1889). With +his son, Edward Everett Hale, Jr., he published <i>Franklin in France</i> +(2 vols., 1887-1888), based largely on original research. The most +charming books of his later years were <i>A New England Boyhood</i> +(1893), <i>James Russell Lowell and His Friends</i> (1899), and <i>Memories +of a Hundred Years</i> (1902).</p> + +<p>A uniform and revised edition of his principal writings, in ten +volumes, appeared in 1899-1901.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALE, HORATIO<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> (1817-1896), American ethnologist, was +born in Newport, New Hampshire, on the 3rd of May 1817. He +was the son of David Hale, a lawyer, and of Sarah Josepha Hale +(1790-1879), a popular poet, who, besides editing <i>Godey’s Lady’s +Magazine</i> for many years and publishing some ephemeral books, +is supposed to have written the verses “Mary had a little lamb,” +and to have been the first to suggest the national observance of +Thanksgiving Day. The son graduated in 1837 at Harvard, +and during 1838-1842 was philologist to the United States +Exploring Expedition, which under Captain Charles Wilkes sailed +around the world. Of the reports of that expedition Hale +prepared the sixth volume, <i>Ethnography and Philology</i> (1846), +which is said to have “laid the foundations of the ethnography +of Polynesia.” He was admitted to the Chicago bar in 1855, +and in the following year removed to Clinton, Ontario, Canada, +where he practised his profession, and where on the 28th of +December 1896 he died. He made many valuable contributions +to the science of ethnology, attracting attention particularly by +his theory of the origin of the diversities of human languages +and dialects—a theory suggested by his study of “child-languages,” +or the languages invented by little children. He +also emphasized the importance of languages as tests of mental +capacity and as “criteria for the classification of human groups.” +He was, moreover, the first to discover that the Tutelos of Virginia +belonged to the Siouan family, and to identify the Cherokee +as a member of the Iroquoian family of speech. Besides writing +numerous magazine articles, he read a number of valuable papers +before learned societies. These include: <i>Indian Migrations as +Evidenced by Language</i> (1882); <i>The Origin of Languages and the +Antiquity of Speaking Man</i> (1886); <i>The Development of Language</i> +(1888); and <i>Language as a Test of Mental Capacity: Being an +Attempt to Demonstrate the True Basis of Anthropology</i> (1891). +He also edited for Brinton’s “Library of Aboriginal Literature,” +the <i>Iroquois Book of Rites</i> (1883).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALE, JOHN PARKER<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> (1806-1873), American statesman, was +born at Rochester, New Hampshire, on the 31st of March 1806. +He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1827, was admitted to the +New Hampshire bar in 1830, was a member of the state House of +Representatives in 1832, and from 1834 to 1841 was United +States district attorney for New Hampshire. In 1843-1845 he +was a Democratic member of the national House of Representatives, +and, though his earnest co-operation with John +Quincy Adams in securing the repeal of the “gag rule” directed +against the presentation to Congress of anti-slavery petitions +estranged him from the leaders of his party, he was renominated +without opposition. In January 1845, however, he refused in +a public statement to obey a resolution (28th of December 1844) +of the state legislature directing him and his New Hampshire +associates in Congress to support the cause of the annexation +of Texas, a Democratic measure which Hale regarded as being +distinctively in the interest of slavery. The Democratic State +convention was at once reassembled, Hale was denounced, and +his nomination withdrawn. In the election which followed Hale +ran independently, and, although the Democratic candidates +were elected in the other three congressional districts of the +state, his vote was large enough to prevent any choice (for which +a majority was necessary) in his own. Hale then set out in the +face of apparently hopeless odds to win over his state to the anti-slavery +cause. The remarkable canvass which he conducted +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page833" id="page833"></a>833</span> +is known in the history of New Hampshire as the “Hale Storm +of 1845.” The election resulted in the choice of a legislature +controlled by the Whigs and the independent Democrats, he +himself being chosen as a member of the state House of Representatives, +of which in 1846 he was speaker. He is remembered, +however, chiefly for his long service in the United States Senate, +of which he was a member from 1847 to 1853 and again from +1855 to 1865. At first he was the only out-and-out anti-slavery +senator,—he alone prevented the vote of thanks to General Taylor +and General Scott for their Mexican war victories from being made +unanimous in the Senate (February 1848)—but in 1849 Salmon +P. Chase and William H. Seward, and in 1851 Charles Sumner +joined him, and the anti-slavery cause became for the first time +a force to be reckoned with in that body. In October 1847 he had +been nominated for president by the Liberty party, but he +withdrew in favour of Martin Van Buren, the Free Soil candidate, +in 1848. In 1851 he was senior counsel for the rescuers of the +slave Shadrach in Boston. In 1852 he was the Free Soil candidate +for the presidency, but received only 156,149 votes. In +1850 he secured the abolition of flogging in the U.S. navy, +and through his efforts in 1862 the spirit ration in the navy was +abolished. He was one of the organizers of the Republican +party, and during the Civil War was an eloquent supporter of +the Union and chairman of the Senate naval committee. From +1865 to 1869 he was United States minister to Spain. He died at +Dover, New Hampshire, on the 19th of December 1873. A +statue of Hale, presented by his son-in-law William Eaton +Chandler (b. 1835), U.S. senator from New Hampshire in +1887-1901, was erected in front of the Capitol in Concord, New +Hampshire, in 1892.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALE, SIR MATTHEW<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> (1609-1676), lord chief justice of +England, was born on the 1st of November 1609 at Alderley +in Gloucestershire, where his father, a retired barrister, had a +small estate. His paternal grandfather was a rich clothier of +Wotton-under-Edge; on his mother’s side he was connected +with the noble family of the Poyntzes of Acton. Left an orphan +when five years old, he was placed by his guardian under the +care of the Puritan vicar of Wotton-under-Edge, with whom he +remained till he attained his sixteenth year, when he entered +Magdalen Hall, Oxford. At Oxford, Hale studied for several +terms with a view to holy orders, but suddenly there came a +change. The diligent student, at first attracted by a company +of strolling players, threw aside his studies, and plunged carelessly +into gay society. He soon decided to change his profession; +and resolved to trail a pike as a soldier under the prince of +Orange in the Low Countries. Before going abroad, however, +Hale found himself obliged to proceed to London in order to give +instructions for his defence in a legal action which threatened +to deprive him of his patrimony. His leading counsel was the +celebrated Serjeant Glanville (1586-1661), who, perceiving in the +acuteness and sagacity of his youthful client a peculiar fitness +for the legal profession, succeeded, with much difficulty, in +inducing him to renounce his military for a legal career, and on +the 8th of November 1629 Hale became a member of the honourable +society of Lincoln’s Inn.</p> + +<p>He immediately resumed his habits of intense application. +The rules which he laid down for himself, and which are still +extant in his handwriting, prescribe sixteen hours a day of close +application, and prove, not only the great mental power, but +also the extraordinary physical strength he must have possessed, +and for which indeed, during his residence at the university, +he had been remarkable. During the period allotted to his +preliminary studies, he read over and over again all the yearbooks, +reports, and law treatises in print, and at the Tower of +London and other antiquarian repositories examined and carefully +studied the records from the foundation of the English +monarchy down to his own time. But Hale did not confine +himself to law. He dedicated no small portion of his time to +the study of pure mathematics, to investigations in physics and +chemistry, and even to anatomy and architecture; and there +can be no doubt that this varied learning enhanced considerably +the value of many of his judicial decisions.</p> + +<p>Hale was called to the bar in 1637, and almost at once found +himself in full practice. Though neither a fluent speaker nor +bold pleader, in a very few years he was at the head of his +profession. He entered public life at perhaps the most critical +period of English history. Two parties were contending in +the state, and their obstinacy could not fail to produce a most +direful collision. But amidst the confusion Hale steered a middle +course, rising in reputation, and an object of solicitation from +both parties. Taking Pomponius Atticus as his political model, +he was persuaded that a man, a lawyer and a judge could best +serve his country and benefit his countrymen by holding aloof +from partisanship and its violent prejudices, which are so apt +to distort and confuse the judgment. But he is best vindicated +from the charges of selfishness and cowardice by the thoughts +and meditations contained in his private diaries and papers, +where the purity and honour of his motives are clearly seen. It +has been said, but without certainty, that Hale was engaged as +counsel for the earl of Strafford; he certainly acted for Archbishop +Laud, Lord Maguire, Christopher Love, the duke of +Hamilton and others. It is also said that he was ready to plead +on the side of Charles I. had that monarch submitted to the +court. The parliament having gained the ascendancy, Hale +signed the Solemn League and Covenant, and was a member +of the famous assembly of divines at Westminster in 1644; but +although he would undoubtedly have preferred a Presbyterian +form of church government, he had no serious objection to the +system of modified Episcopacy, proposed by Usher. Consistently +with his desire to remain neutral, Hale took the engagement to +the Commonwealth as he had done to the king, and in 1653, +already serjeant, he became a judge in the court of common pleas. +Two years afterwards he sat in Cromwell’s parliament as one of +the members for Gloucestershire. After the death of the protector, +however, he declined to act as a judge under Richard +Cromwell, although he represented Oxford in Richard’s parliament. +At the Restoration in 1660 Hale was very graciously +received by Charles II., and in the same year was appointed +chief baron of the exchequer, and accepted, with extreme +reluctance, the honour of knighthood. After holding the office +of chief baron for eleven years he was raised to the higher dignity +of lord chief justice, which he held till February 1676, when his +failing health compelled him to resign. He retired to his native +Alderley, where he died on the 25th of December of the same +year. He was twice married and survived all his ten children +save two.</p> + +<p>As a judge Sir Matthew Hale discharged his duties with +resolute independence and careful diligence. His sincere piety +made him the intimate friend of Isaac Barrow, Archbishop +Tillotson, Bishop Wilkins and Bishop Stillingfleet, as well +as of the Nonconformist leader, Richard Baxter. He is chargeable, +however, with the condemnation and execution of two poor +women tried before him for witchcraft in 1664, a kind of judicial +murder then falling under disuse. He is also reproached with +having hastened the execution of a soldier for whom he had +reason to believe a pardon was preparing.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Of Hale’s legal works the only two of importance are his <i>Historia +placitorum coronae, or History of the Pleas of the Crown</i> (1736); +and the <i>History of the Common Law of England, with an Analysis +of the Law</i>, &c. (1713). Among his numerous religious writings the +<i>Contemplations, Moral and Divine</i>, occupy the first place. Others are +<i>The Primitive Origination of Man</i> (1677); <i>Of the Nature of True +Religion</i>, &c. (1684); <i>A Brief Abstract of the Christian Religion</i> (1688). +One of his most popular works is the collection of <i>Letters of Advice +to his Children and Grandchildren</i>. He also wrote an <i>Essay touching +the Gravitation or Nongravitation of Fluid Bodies</i> (1673); <i>Difficiles +Nugae, or Observations touching the Torricellian Experiment</i>, &c. +(1675); and a translation of the <i>Life of Pomponius Atticus</i>, by +Cornelius Nepos (1677). His efforts in poetry were inauspicious. +He left his valuable collection of MSS. and records to the library of +Lincoln’s Inn. His life has been written by G. Burnet (1682); by +J. B. Williams (1835); by H. Roscoe, in his <i>Lives of Eminent +Lawyers</i>, in 1838; by Lord Campbell, in his <i>Lives of the Chief +Justices</i>, in 1849; and by E. Foss in his <i>Lives of the Judges</i> +(1848-1870).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALE, NATHAN<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> (1756-1776). American hero of the War of +Independence, was born at Coventry, Conn., and educated +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page834" id="page834"></a>834</span> +at Yale, then becoming a school teacher. He joined a Connecticut +regiment after the breaking out of the war, and served +in the siege of Boston, being commissioned a captain at the +opening of 1776. When Heath’s brigade departed for New York +he went with them, and the tradition is that he was one of +a small and daring band who captured an English provision +sloop from under the very guns of a man-of-war. But on the +21st of September, having volunteered to enter the British lines to +obtain information concerning the enemy, he was captured in his +disguise of a Dutch school-teacher and on the 22nd was hanged. +The penalty was in accordance with military law, but young +Hale’s act was a brave one, and he has always been glorified +as a martyr. Tradition attributes to him the saying that he +only regretted that he had but one life to lose for his country; +and it is said that his request for a Bible and the services of a +minister was refused by his captors. There is a fine statue of +Hale by Macmonnies in New York.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See H. P. Johnston, <i>Nathan Hale</i> (1901).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALE, WILLIAM GARDNER<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> (1849-  ), American classical +scholar, was born on the 9th of February 1849 in Savannah, +Georgia. He graduated at Harvard University in 1870, and +took a post-graduate course in philosophy there in 1874-1876; +studied classical philology at Leipzig and Göttingen in 1876-1877; +was tutor in Latin at Harvard from 1877 to 1880, and +professor of Latin in Cornell University from 1880 to 1892, +when he became professor of Latin and head of the Latin department +of the University of Chicago. From 1894 to 1899 he was +chairman and in 1895-1896 first director of the American School +of Classical Studies at Rome. He is best known as an original +teacher on questions of syntax. In The <i>Cum-Constructions: +Their History and Functions</i>, which appeared in <i>Cornell University +Studies in Classical Philology</i> (1888-1889; and in +German version by Neizert in 1891), he attacked Hoffmann’s +distinction between absolute and relative temporal clauses as +published in <i>Lateinische Zeitpartikeln</i> (1874); Hoffmann replied +in 1891, and the best summary of the controversy is in Wetzel’s +<i>Der Streit zwischen Hoffmann und Hale</i> (1892). Hale wrote also +<i>The Sequence of Tenses in Latin</i> (1887-1888), <i>The Anticipatory +Subjunctive in Greek and Latin</i> (1894), and a <i>Latin Grammar</i> +(1903), to which the parts on sounds, inflection and word-formation +were contributed by Carl Darling Buck.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALEBID,<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> a village in Mysore state, southern India; pop. +(1901), 1524. The name means “old capital,” being the site of +Dorasamudra, the capital of the Hoysala dynasty founded early +in the 11th century. In 1310 and again in 1326 it was taken +and plundered by the first Mahommedan invader of southern +India. Two temples, still standing, though never completed +and greatly ruined, are regarded as the finest examples of the +elaborately carved Chalukyan style of architecture.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALES,<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Hayles</span>, <b>JOHN</b> (d. 1571), English writer and +politician, was a son of Thomas Hales of Hales Place, Halden, +Kent. He wrote his <i>Highway to Nobility</i> about 1543, and was +the founder of a free school at Coventry for which he wrote +<i>Introductiones ad grammaticam</i>. In political life Hales, who was +member of parliament for Preston, was specially concerned with +opposing the enclosure of land, being the most active of the +commissioners appointed in 1548 to redress this evil; but he +failed to carry several remedial measures through parliament. +When the protector, the duke of Somerset, was deprived of his +authority in 1550, Hales left England and lived for some time +at Strassburg and Frankfort, returning to his own country on +the accession of Elizabeth. However he soon lost the royal +favour by writing a pamphlet, <i>A Declaration of the Succession of +the Crowne Imperiall of Inglande</i>, which declared that the recent +marriage between Lady Catherine Grey and Edward Seymour, +earl of Hertford, was legitimate, and asserted that, failing direct +heirs to Elizabeth, the English crown should come to Lady +Catherine as the descendant of Mary, daughter of Henry VII. +The author was imprisoned, but was quickly released, and died +on the 28th of December 1571. The <i>Discourse of the Common +Weal</i>, described as “one of the most informing documents +of the age,” and written about 1549, has been attributed +to Hales. This has been edited by E. Lamond (Cambridge, +1893).</p> + +<p>Hales is often confused with another John Hales, who was +clerk of the hanaper under Henry VIII. and his three immediate +successors.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALES, JOHN<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> (1584-1656), English scholar, frequently +referred to as “the ever memorable,” was born at Bath on the +19th of April 1584, and was educated at Corpus Christi College, +Oxford. He was elected a fellow of Merton in 1605, and in 1612 +he was appointed public lecturer on Greek. In 1613 he was +made a fellow of Eton. Five years later he went to Holland, as +chaplain to the English ambassador, Sir Dudley Carleton, who +despatched him to Dort to report upon the proceedings of the +synod then sitting. In 1619 he returned to Eton and spent his +time among his books and in the company of literary men, +among whom he was highly reputed for his common sense, his +erudition and his genial charity. Andrew Marvell called him +“one of the clearest heads and best-prepared breasts in Christendom.” +His eirenical tract entitled <i>Schism and Schismaticks</i> +(1636) fell into the hands of Archbishop Laud, and Hales, +hearing that he had disapproved of it, is said to have written to +the prelate a vindication of his position. This led to a meeting, +and in 1639 Hales was made one of Laud’s chaplains and also a +canon of Windsor. In 1642 he was deprived of his canonry by +the parliamentary committee, and two years later was obliged +to hide in Eton with the college documents and keys. In 1649 +he refused to take the “Engagement” and was ejected from his +fellowship. He then retired to Buckinghamshire, where he found +a home with Mrs Salter, the sister of the bishop of Salisbury +(Brian Duppa), and acted as tutor to her son. The issue of the +order against harbouring malignants led him to return to Eton. +Here, having sold his valuable library at great sacrifice, he lived +in poverty until his death on the 19th of May 1656.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His collected works (3 vols.) were edited by Lord Hailes, and +published in 1765.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALES, STEPHEN<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (1677-1761), English physiologist, chemist +and inventor, was born at Bekesbourne in Kent on the 7th or +17th of September 1677, the fifth (or sixth) son of Thomas Hales, +whose father, Sir Robert Hales, was created a baronet by +Charles II. in 1670. In June 1696 he was entered as a pensioner +of Benet (now Corpus Christi) College, Cambridge, with the view +of taking holy orders, and in February 1703 was admitted to a +fellowship. He received the degree of master of arts in 1703 +and of bachelor of divinity in 1711. One of his most intimate +friends was William Stukeley (1687-1765) with whom he studied +anatomy, chemistry, &c. In 1708-1709 Hales was presented +to the perpetual curacy of Teddington in Middlesex, where he +remained all his life, notwithstanding that he was subsequently +appointed rector of Porlock in Somerset, and later of Faringdon +in Hampshire. In 1717 he was elected fellow of the Royal +Society, which awarded him the Copley medal in 1739. In 1732 +he was named one of a committee for establishing a colony in +Georgia, and the next year he received the degree of doctor of +divinity from Oxford. He was appointed almoner to the princess-dowager +of Wales in 1750. On the death of Sir Hans Sloane in +1753, Hales was chosen foreign associate of the French Academy +of Sciences. He died at Teddington on the 4th of January 1761.</p> + +<p>Hales is best known for his <i>Statical Essays</i>. The first volume, +<i>Vegetable Staticks</i> (1727), contains an account of numerous +experiments in plant-physiology—the loss of water in plants by +evaporation, the rate of growth of shoots and leaves, variations +in root-force at different times of the day, &c. Considering it +very probable that plants draw “through their leaves some +part of their nourishment from the air,” he undertook experiments +to show in “how great a proportion air is wrought into +the composition of animal, vegetable and mineral substances”; +though this “analysis of the air” did not lead him to any +very clear ideas about the composition of the atmosphere, in the +course of his inquiries he collected gases over water in vessels +separate from those in which they were generated, and thus used +what was to all intents and purposes a “pneumatic trough.” The +second volume (1733) on <i>Haemostaticks</i>, containing experiments +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page835" id="page835"></a>835</span> +on the “force of the blood” in various animals, its rate of +flow, the capacity of the different vessels, &c., entitles him to be +regarded as one of the originators of experimental physiology. +But he did not confine his attention to abstract inquiries. The +quest of a solvent for calculus in the bladder and kidneys was +pursued by him as by others at the period, and he devised a form +of forceps which, on the testimony of John Ranby (1703-1773), +sergeant-surgeon to George II., extracted stones with “great +ease and readiness.” His observations of the evil effect of vitiated +air caused him to devise a “ventilator” (a modified organ-bellows) +by which fresh air could be conveyed into gaols, +hospitals, ships’-holds, &c.; this apparatus was successful in +reducing the mortality in the Savoy prison, and it was introduced +into France by the aid of H. L. Duhamel du Monceau. Among +other things Hales invented a “sea-gauge” for sounding, and +processes for distilling fresh from sea water, for preserving corn +from weevils by fumigation with brimstone, and for salting +animals whole by passing brine into their arteries. His <i>Admonition +to the Drinkers of Gin, Brandy, &c.</i>, published anonymously +in 1734, has been several times reprinted.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALESOWEN,<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> a market town in the Oldbury parliamentary +division of Worcestershire, England, on a branch line of the +Great Western and Midland railways, 6½ m. W.S.W. of Birmingham. +Pop. (1901), 4057. It lies in a pleasant country among +the eastern foothills of the Lickey Hills. There are extensive +iron and steel manufactures. The church of SS Mary and John +the Baptist has rude Norman portions; and the poet William +Shenstone, buried in 1763 in the churchyard, has a memorial +in the church. His delight in landscape gardening is exemplified +in the neighbouring estate of the Leasowes, which was his +property. There is a grammar school founded in 1652, and in +the neighbourhood is the Methodist foundation of Bourne +College (1883). Close to the town, on the river Stour, which +rises in the vicinity, are slight ruins of a Premonstratensian abbey +of Early English date. Within the parish and 2 m. N.W. of +Halesowen is Cradley, with iron and steel works, fire-clay works +and a large nail and chain industry.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALEVI, JUDAH BEN SAMUEL<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1085-<i>c.</i> 1140), the greatest +Hebrew poet of the middle ages, was born in Toledo c. 1085, +and died in Palestine after 1140. In his youth he wrote Hebrew +love poems of exquisite fancy, and several of his Wedding Odes +are included in the liturgy of the Synagogue. The mystical +connexion between marital affection and the love of God had, +in the view of older exegesis, already expressed itself in the +scriptural <i>Song of Songs</i> and Judah Halevi used this book as his +model. In this aspect of his work he found inspiration also in +Arabic predecessors. The second period of his literary career +was devoted to more serious pursuits. He wrote a philosophical +dialogue in five books, called the <i>Cuzari</i>, which has been translated +into English by Hirschfeld. This book bases itself on the +historical fact that the Crimean Kingdom of the Khazars adopted +Judaism, and the Hebrew poet-philosopher describes what he +conceives to be the steps by which the Khazar king satisfied +himself as to the claims of Judaism. Like many other medieval +Jewish authors, Judah Halevi was a physician. His real fame +depends on his liturgical hymns, which are the finest written in +Hebrew since the Psalter, and are extensively used in the +Septardic rite. A striking feature of his thought was his devotion +to Jerusalem. To the love of the Holy City he devoted his +noblest genius, and he wrote some memorable Odes to Zion, which +have been commemorated by Heine, and doubly appreciated +recently under the impulse of Zionism (<i>q.v.</i>). He started for +Jerusalem, was in Damascus in 1140, and soon afterwards died. +Legend has it that he was slain by an Arab horseman just as he +arrived within sight of what Heine called his “Woebegone poor +darling, Desolation’s very image,—Jerusalem.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Excellent English renderings of some of Judah Halevi’s poems +may be read in Mrs H. Lucas’s <i>The Jewish Year</i>, and Mrs R. N. +Solomon’s <i>Songs of Exile</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(I. A.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALÉVY, JACQUES FRANÇOIS FROMENTAL ÉLIE<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> (1799-1862), +French composer, was born on the 27th of May 1799, at +Paris, of a Jewish family. He studied at the Paris Conservatoire +under Berton and Cherubini, and in 1819 gained the grand prix +de Rome with his cantata <i>Herminie</i>. In accordance with the +conditions of his scholarship he started for Rome, where he +devoted himself to the study of Italian music, and wrote an +opera and various minor works. In 1827 his opera <i>L’Artisan</i> was +performed at the Théâtre Feydeau in Paris, apparently without +much success. Other works of minor importance, and now +forgotten, followed, amongst which <i>Manon Lescaut</i>, a ballet, +produced in 1830, deserves mention. In 1834 the Opéra-Comique +produced <i>Ludovic</i>, the score of which had been begun by Hérold +and had been completed by Halévy. In 1835 Halévy composed +the tragic opera <i>La Juive</i> and the comic opera <i>L’Éclair</i>, and on +these works his fame is mainly founded. The famous air of +Eléazar and the anathema of the cardinal in <i>La Juive</i> soon became +popular all over France. <i>L’Éclair</i> is a curiosity of musical +literature. It is written for two tenors and two soprani, without +a chorus, and displays the composer’s mastery over the most +refined effects of instrumentation and vocalization in a favourable +light. After these two works he wrote numerous operas of +various genres, amongst which only <i>La Reine de Chypre</i>, a +spectacular piece analyzed by Wagner in one of his Paris letters +(1841), and <i>La Tempesta</i>, in three acts, written for Her Majesty’s +theatre, London (1850), need be mentioned. In addition to his +productive work Halévy also rendered valuable services as a +teacher. He was professor at the Conservatoire from 1827 till +his death—some of the most successful amongst the younger +composers in France, such as Gounod, Victor Massé and Georges +Bizet, the author of <i>Carmen</i>, being amongst his pupils. He was +<i>maestro al cembalo</i> at the Théâtre Italien from 1827 to 1829; +then director of singing at the Opera House in Paris until 1845, +and in 1836 he succeeded Reicha at the Institut de France. +Halévy also tried his hand at literature. In 1857 he became +permanent secretary to the Académie des Beaux Arts, and there +exists an agreeable volume of <i>Souvenirs et portraits</i> from his pen. +He died at Nice, on the 17th of March 1862.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALÉVY, LUDOVIC<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> (1834-1908), French author, was born +in Paris on the 1st of January 1834. His father, Léon Halévy +(1802-1883), was a clever and versatile writer, who tried almost +every branch of literature—prose and verse, vaudeville, drama, +history—without, however, achieving decisive success in any. +His uncle, J. F. Fromental E. Halévy (<i>q.v.</i>), was for many years +associated with the opéra; hence the double and early connexion +of Ludovic Halévy with the Parisian stage. At the age of six +he might have been seen playing in that <i>Foyer de la danse</i> with +which he was to make his readers so familiar, and, when a boy +of twelve, he would often, of a Sunday night, on his way back +to the College Louis le Grand, look in at the Odéon, where he +had free admittance, and see the first act of the new play. At +eighteen he joined the ranks of the French administration and +occupied various posts, the last being that of secrétaire-rédacteur +to the Corps Législatif. In that capacity he enjoyed the special +favour and friendship of the famous duke of Morny, then president +of that assembly. In 1865 Ludovic Halévy’s increasing +popularity as an author enabled him to retire from the public +service. Ten years earlier he had become acquainted with the +musician Offenbach, who was about to start a small theatre of +his own in the Champs Élysées, and he wrote a sort of prologue, +<i>Entrez, messieurs, mesdames</i>, for the opening night. Other little +productions followed, <i>Ba-ta-clan</i> being the most noticeable +among them. They were produced under the pseudonym of +Jules Servières. The name of Ludovic Halévy appeared for the +first time on the bills on the 1st of January 1856. Soon afterwards +the unprecedented run of <i>Orphée aux enfers</i>, a musical +parody, written in collaboration with Hector Crémieux, made +his name famous. In the spring of 1860 he was commissioned +to write a play for the manager of the Variétés in conjunction +with another vaudevillist, Lambert Thiboust. The latter having +abruptly retired from the collaboration, Halévy was at a loss +how to carry out the contract, when on the steps of the theatre +he met Henri Meilhac (1831-1897), then comparatively a stranger +to him. He proposed to Meilhac the task rejected by Lambert +Thiboust, and the proposal was immediately accepted. Thus +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page836" id="page836"></a>836</span> +began a connexion which was to last over twenty years, and +which proved most fruitful both for the reputation of the two +authors and the prosperity of the minor Paris theatres. Their +joint works may be divided into three classes: the <i>opérettes</i>, +the farces, the comedies. The <i>opérettes</i> afforded excellent +opportunities to a gifted musician for the display of his peculiar +humour. They were broad and lively libels against the society +of the time, but savoured strongly of the vices and follies they +were supposed to satirize. Amongst the most celebrated works +of the joint authors were <i>La Belle Hélène</i> (1864), <i>Barbe Bleue</i> +(1866), <i>La Grande Duchesse de Gerolstein</i> (1867), and <i>La Périchole</i> +(1868). After 1870 the vogue of Parody rapidly declined. The +decadence became still more apparent when Offenbach was no +longer at hand to assist the two authors with his quaint musical +irony, and when they had to deal with interpreters almost +destitute of singing powers. They wrote farces of the old type, +consisting of complicated intrigues, with which they cleverly +interwove the representation of contemporary whims and social +oddities. They generally failed when they attempted comedies +of a more serious character and tried to introduce a higher sort +of emotion. A solitary exception must be made in the case of +<i>Frou-frou</i> (1869), which, owing perhaps to the admirable talent +of Aimée Desclée, remains their unique <i>succès de larmes</i>.</p> + +<p>Meilhac and Halévy will be found at their best in light sketches +of Parisian life, <i>Les Sonnettes</i>, <i>Le Roi Candaule</i>, <i>Madame attend +Monsieur</i>, <i>Toto chez Tata</i>. In that intimate association between +the two men who had met so opportunely on the <i>perron des +variétés</i>, it was often asked who was the leading partner. The +question was not answered until the connexion was finally severed +and they stood before the public, each to answer for his own +work. It was then apparent that they had many gifts in common. +Both had wit, humour, observation of character. Meilhac had +a ready imagination, a rich and whimsical fancy; Halévy had +taste, refinement and pathos of a certain kind. Not less clever +than his brilliant comrade, he was more human. Of this he gave +evidence in two delightful books, <i>Monsieur et Madame Cardinal</i> +(1873) and <i>Les Petites Cardinal</i>, in which the lowest orders of +the Parisian middle class are faithfully described. The pompous, +pedantic, venomous Monsieur Cardinal will long survive as the +true image of sententious and self-glorifying immorality. M. +Halévy’s peculiar qualities are even more visible in the simple +and striking scenes of the <i>Invasion</i>, published soon after the +conclusion of the Franco-German War, in <i>Criquette</i> (1883) and +<i>L’Abbé Constantin</i> (1882), two novels, the latter of which went +through innumerable editions. Zola had presented to the public +an almost exclusive combination of bad men and women; in +<i>L’Abbé Constantin</i> all are kind and good, and the change was +eagerly welcomed by the public. Some enthusiasts still maintain +that the <i>Abbé</i> will rank permanently in literature by the side +of the equally chimerical <i>Vicar of Wakefield</i>. At any rate, it +opened for M. Ludovic Halévy the doors of the French Academy, +to which he was elected in 1884.</p> + +<p>Halévy remained an assiduous frequenter of the Academy, +the Conservatoire, the Comédie Française, and the Society of +Dramatic Authors, but, when he died in Paris on the 8th of May +1908, he had produced practically nothing new for many years. +His last romance, <i>Kari Kari</i>, appeared in 1892.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>Théâtre</i> of MM. Meilhac and Halévy was published in 8 vols. +(1900-1902).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALFPENNY, WILLIAM,<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> English 18th-century architectural +designer—he described himself as “architect and carpenter.” +He was also known as Michael Hoare; but whether his real name +was William Halfpenny or Michael Hoare is uncertain. His books, +of which he published a score, deal almost entirely with domestic +architecture, and especially with country houses in those Gothic +and Chinese fashions which were so greatly in vogue in the middle +of the 18th century. His most important publications, from the +point of view of their effect upon taste, were <i>New Designs for +Chinese Temples</i>, in four parts (1750-1752); <i>Rural Architecture +in the Gothic Taste</i> (1752); <i>Chinese and Gothic Architecture +Properly Ornamented</i> (1752); and <i>Rural Architecture in the +Chinese Taste</i> (1750-1752). These four books were produced in +collaboration with John Halfpenny, who is said to have been his +son. <i>New Designs for Chinese Temples</i> is a volume of some +significance in the history of furniture, since, having been published +some years before the books of Thomas Chippendale and +Sir Thomas Chambers, it disproves the statement so often made +that those designers introduced the Chinese taste into this +country. Halfpenny states distinctly that “the Chinese manner” +had been “already introduced here with success.” The work +of the Halfpennys was by no means all contemptible. It is +sometimes distinctly graceful, but is marked by little originality.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALF-TIMBER WORK,<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> an architectural term given to those +buildings in which the framework is of timber with vertical studs +and cross pieces filled in between with brickwork, rubble masonry +or plaster work on oak laths; in the first two, brick nogging or +nogging are the terms occasionally employed (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Carpentry</a></span>). +Sometimes the timber structure is raised on a stone or brick +foundation, as at Ledbury town hall in Herefordshire, where the +lower storey is open on all sides; but more often it is raised on +a ground storey, either in brick or stone, and in order to give +additional size to the upper rooms projects forward, being carried +on the floor joists. Sometimes the masonry or brickwork rises +through two or three storeys and the half-brick work is confined +to the gables. There seems to be some difference of opinion as +to whether the term applies to the mixture of solid walling with +the timber structure or to the alternation of wood posts and the +filling in, but the latter definition is that which is generally +understood. The half-timber throughout England is of the most +picturesque description, and the earliest examples date from +towards the close of the 15th century. In the earliest example, +Newgate House, York (<i>c.</i> 1450), the timber framing is raised +over the ground floor. The finest specimen is perhaps that of +Moreton Old Hall, Cheshire (1570), where there is only a stone +foundation about 12 in. high, and the same applies to Bramall +Hall, near Manchester, portions of which are very early. Among +other examples are Speke Hall, Lancashire; Park Hall, Shropshire +(1553-1558); Hall i’ th’ Wood, Lancashire (1591); St +Peter’s Hospital, Bristol (1607); the Ludlow Feather’s Inn +(1610); many of the streets at Chester and Shrewsbury; the +Sparrowe’s Home, Ipswich; and Staple Inn, Holborn, from +which in recent years the plaster coat which was put on many +years ago has been removed, displaying the ancient woodwork. +A similar fate has overtaken a very large number of half-timber +buildings to keep out the driving winds; thus in Lewes nearly +all the half-timbered houses have had slates hung on the timbers, +others tiles, the greater number having been covered with plaster +or stucco. Although there are probably many more half-timber +houses in England than on the continent of Europe, in the north +of France and in Germany are examples in many of the principal +towns, and in some cases in better preservation than in England. +They are also enriched with carving of a purer and better type, +especially in France; thus at Chartres, Angers, Rouen, Caen, +Lisieux, Bayeux, St Lô and Beauvais, are many extremely fine +examples of late Flamboyant and early Transitional examples. +Again on the borders of the Rhine in all the small towns most of +the houses are in half-timber work, the best examples being at +Bacharach, Rhense and Boppart. Far more elaborate examples, +however, are found in the vicinity of the Harz Mountains; +the supply of timber from the forests there being very abundant; +thus at Goslar, Wernigerode and Quedlingburg there is an +endless variety, as also farther on at Gelnhausen and Hameln, +the finest series of all being at Hildesheim. In Bavaria at +Nuremberg, Rothenburg and Dinkelsbühl, half-timber houses +dating from the 16th century are still well preserved; and +throughout Switzerland the houses constructed in timber and +plaster are the most characteristic features of the country.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALFWAY COVENANT,<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> an expedient adopted in the Congregational +churches of New England between 1657 and 1662. +Under its terms baptized persons of moral life and orthodox +belief might receive the privilege of baptism for their children and +other church benefits, without the full enrolment in membership +which admitted them to the communion of the Lord’s Supper.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Congregationalism</a></span>: <i>American</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page837" id="page837"></a>837</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALHED, NATHANIEL BRASSEY<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> (1751-1830), English +Orientalist and philologist, was born at Westminster on the 25th +of May 1751. He was educated at Harrow, where he began his +intimacy with Richard Brinsley Sheridan (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sheridan +Family</a></span>) continued after he entered Christ Church, Oxford, +where, also, he made the acquaintance of Sir William Jones, +the famous Orientalist, who induced him to study Arabic. +Accepting a writership in the service of the East India Company, +Halhed went out to India, and here, at the suggestion of Warren +Hastings, by whose orders it had been compiled, translated the +Gentoo code from a Persian version of the original Sanskrit. +This translation was published in 1776 under the title <i>A Code +of Gentoo Laws</i>. In 1778 he published a Bengali grammar, to +print which he set up, at Hugli, the first press in India. It is +claimed for him that he was the first writer to call attention to +the philological connexion of Sanskrit with Persian, Arabic, +Greek and Latin. In 1785 he returned to England, and from +1790-1795 was M.P. for Lymington, Hants. For some time he +was a disciple of Richard Brothers (<i>q.v.</i>), and his unwise speech +in parliament in defence of Brothers made it impossible for him +to remain in the House, from which he resigned in 1795. He +subsequently obtained a home appointment under the East +India Company. He died in London on the 18th of February +1830.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His collection of Oriental manuscripts was purchased by the +British Museum, and there is an unfinished translation by him of the +<i>Mahābhārata</i> in the library of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALIBURTON, THOMAS CHANDLER<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> (1796-1865), British +writer, long a judge of Nova Scotia, was born at Windsor, Nova +Scotia, in 1796, and received his education there, at King’s +College. He was called to the bar in 1820, and became a member +of the House of Assembly. He distinguished himself as a barrister, +and in 1828 was promoted to the bench as a chief-justice of +the common pleas. In 1829 he published <i>An Historical and +Statistical Account of Nova Scotia</i>. But it is as a brilliant +humourist and satirist that he is remembered, in connexion +with his fictitious character “Sam Slick.” In 1835 he contributed +anonymously to a local paper a series of letters +professedly depicting the peculiarities of the genuine Yankee. +These sketches, which abounded in clever picturings of national +and individual character, drawn with great satirical humour, +were collected in 1837, and published under the title of <i>The +Clockmaker, or Sayings and Doings of Samuel Slick of Slickville</i>. +A second series followed in 1838, and a third in 1840. <i>The +Attaché, or Sam Slick in England</i> (1843-1844), was the result +of a visit there in 1841. His other works include: <i>The Old +Judge, or Life in a Colony</i> (1843); <i>The Letter Bag of the +Great Western</i> (1839); <i>Rule and Misrule of the English in America</i> +(1851); <i>Traits of American Humour</i> (1852); and <i>Nature and +Human Nature</i> (1855).</p> + +<p>Meanwhile he continued to secure popular esteem in his +judicial capacity. In 1840 he was promoted to be a judge of the +supreme court; but within two years he resigned his seat on +the bench, removed to England, and in 1859 entered parliament +as the representative of Launceston, in the Conservative interest. +But the tenure of his seat for Launceston was brought to an end +by the dissolution of the parliament in 1865, and he did not again +offer himself to the constituency. He died on the 27th of August +of the same year, at Gordon House, Isleworth, Middlesex.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A memoir of Haliburton, by F. Blake Crofton, appeared in 1889.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALIBUT,<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Holibut</span> (<i>Hippoglossus vulgaris</i>), the largest +of all flat-fishes, growing to a length of 10 ft. or more, specimens +of 5 ft. in length and of 100 ℔ in weight being frequently exposed +for sale in the markets. Indeed, specimens under 2 ft. in length +are very rarely caught, and singularly enough, no instance is +known of a very young specimen having been obtained. Small +ones are commonly called “chicken halibut.” The halibut is +much more frequent in the higher latitudes of the temperate +zone than in its southern portion; it is a circumpolar species, +being found on the northern coasts of America, Europe and +Asia, extending in the Pacific southwards to California. On the +British coasts it keeps at some distance from the shore, and is +generally caught in from 50 to 150 fathoms. Its flesh is generally +considered coarse, but it is white and firm, and when properly +served is excellent for the table. The name is derived from +“holy” (M.E. <i>haly</i>), and recalls its use for food on holy +days.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALICARNASSUS<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> (mod. <i>Budrum</i>), an ancient Greek city on +the S.W. coast of Caria, Asia Minor, on a picturesque and +advantageous site on the Ceramic Gulf or Gulf of Cos. It +originally occupied only the small island of Zephyria close to the +shore, now occupied by the great castle of St Peter, built by the +Knights of Rhodes in 1404; but in course of time this island +was united to the mainland and the city extended so as to +incorporate Salmacis, an older town of the Leleges and Carians.</p> + +<p>About the foundation of Halicarnassus various traditions were +current; but they agree in the main point as to its being a +Dorian colony, and the figures on its coins, such as the head of +Medusa, Athena and Poseidon, or the trident, support the +statement that the mother cities were Troezen and Argos. The +inhabitants appear to have accepted as their legendary founder +Anthes, mentioned by Strabo, and were proud of the title of +Antheadae. At an early period Halicarnassus was a member +of the Doric Hexapolis, which included Cos, Cnidus, Lindus, +Camirus and Ialysus; but one of the citizens, Agasicles, having +taken home the prize tripod which he had won in the Triopian +games instead of dedicating it according to custom to the +Triopian Apollo, the city was cut off from the league. In the +early 5th century Halicarnassus was under the sway of Artemisia, +who made herself famous at the battle of Salamis. Of Pisindalis, +her son and successor, little is known; but Lygdamis, who next +attained to power, is notorious for having put to death the poet +Panyasis and caused Herodotus, the greatest of Halicarnassians, +to leave his native city (<i>c.</i> 457 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). In the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +Halicarnassus and other Dorian cities of Asia were to some +extent absorbed by the Delian League, but the peace of Antalcidas +in 387 made them subservient to Persia; and it was under +Mausolus, a Persian satrap who assumed independent authority, +that Halicarnassus attained its highest prosperity. Struck by +the natural strength and beauty of its position, Mausolus removed +to Halicarnassus from Mylasa, increasing the population of +the city by the inhabitants of six towns of the Leleges. He was +succeeded by Artemisia, whose military ability was shown in +the stratagem by which she captured the Rhodian vessels +attacking her city, and whose magnificence and taste have been +perpetuated by the “Mausoleum,” the monument she erected +to her husband’s memory (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mausolus</a></span>). One of her successors, +Pixodarus, tried to ally himself with the rising power of Macedon, +and is said to have gained the momentary consent of the young +Alexander to wed his daughter. The marriage, however, was +forbidden by Philip. Alexander, as soon as he had reduced Ionia, +summoned Halicarnassus, where Memnon, the paramount satrap +of Asia Minor, had taken refuge with the Persian fleet, to surrender; +and on its refusal took the city after hard fighting and +devastated it, but not being able to reduce the citadel, was +forced to leave it blockaded. He handed the government of +the city back to the family of Mausolus, as represented by Ada, +sister of the latter. Not long afterwards we find the citizens +receiving the present of a gymnasium from Ptolemy, and building +in his honour a stoa or portico; but the city never recovered +altogether from the disasters of the siege, and Cicero describes +it as almost deserted. The site is now occupied in part by the +town of Budrum; but the ancient walls can still be traced round +nearly all their circuit, and the position of several of the temples, +the theatre, and other public buildings can be fixed with +certainty.</p> + +<p>From the ruins of the Mausoleum sufficient has been recovered +by the excavations carried out in 1857 by C. T. Newton to +enable a fairly complete restoration of its design to be made. +The building consisted of five parts—a basement or podium, +a pteron or enclosure of columns, a pyramid, a pedestal and a +chariot group. The basement, covering an area of 114 ft. by 92, +was built of blocks of greenstone and cased with marble. Round +the base of it were probably disposed groups of statuary. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page838" id="page838"></a>838</span> +pteron consisted (according to Pliny) of thirty-six columns of +the Ionic order, enclosing a square <i>cella</i>. Between the columns +probably stood single statues. From the portions that have +been recovered, it appears that the principal frieze of the pteron +represented combats of Greeks and Amazons. In addition to +these, there are also many life-size fragments of animals, horsemen, +&c., belonging probably to pedimental sculptures, but +formerly supposed to be parts of minor friezes. Above the +pteron rose the pyramid, mounting by 24 steps to an apex or +pedestal. On this apex stood the chariot with the figure of +Mausolus himself and an attendant. The height of the statue +of Mausolus in the British Museum is 9 ft. 9½ in. without the +plinth. The hair rising from the forehead falls in thick waves +on each side of the face and descends nearly to the shoulder; +the beard is short and close, the face square and massive, the +eyes deep set under overhanging brows, the mouth well formed +with settled calm about the lips. The drapery is grandly composed. +All sorts of restorations of this famous monument have +been proposed. The original one, made by Newton and Pullan, +is obviously in error in many respects; and that of Oldfield, +though to be preferred for its lightness (the Mausoleum was said +anciently to be “suspended in mid-air”), does not satisfy the +conditions postulated by the remains. The best on the whole is +that of the veteran German architect, F. Adler, published in +1900; but fresh studies have since been made (see below).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C T. Newton and R. P. Pullan, <i>History of Discoveries at +Halicarnassus</i> (1862-1863); J. Fergusson, <i>The Mausoleum at +Halicarnassus</i> restored (1862); E. Oldfield, “The Mausoleum,” in +<i>Archaeologia</i> (1895); F. Adler, <i>Mausoleum zu Halikarnass</i> (1900); +J. P. Six in <i>Journ. Hell. Studies</i> (1905); W. B. Dinsmoor, in <i>Amer. +Journ. of Arch.</i> (1908); J. J. Stevenson, <i>A Restoration of the Mausoleum +of Halicarnassus</i> (1909); J. B. K. Preedy, “The Chariot +Group of the Mausoleum,” in <i>Journ. Hell. Stud.</i>, 1910.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(D. G. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALICZ,<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> a town of Austria, in Galicia, 70 m. by rail S.S.E. +of Lemberg. Pop. (1900), 4809. It is situated at the confluence +of the Luckow with the Dniester and its principal resources are +the recovery of salt from the neighbouring brine wells, soap-making +and the trade in timber. In the neighbourhood are the +ruins of the old castle, the seat of the ruler of the former kingdom +from which Galicia derived its Polish name. Halicz, which is +mentioned in annals as early as 1113, was from 1141 to 1255 the +residence of the princes of that name, one of the principalities +into which western Russia was then divided. The town was +then much larger, as is shown by excavations in the neighbourhood +made during the 19th century, and probably met its +doom during the Mongol invasion of 1240. In 1349 it was +incorporated in the kingdom of Poland.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALIFAX, CHARLES MONTAGUE,<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> <span class="sc">Earl of</span> (1661-1715), +English statesman and poet, fourth son of the Hon. George +Montague, fifth son of the first earl of Manchester, was born at +Horton, Northamptonshire, on the 16th of April 1661. In his +fourteenth year he was sent to Westminster school, where he +was chosen king’s scholar in 1677, and distinguished himself +in the composition of extempore epigrams made according to +custom upon theses appointed for king’s scholars at the time of +election. In 1679 he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, where +he acquired a solid knowledge of the classics and surpassed all +his contemporaries at the university in logic and ethics. Latterly, +however, he preferred to the abstractions of Descartes the +practical philosophy of Sir Isaac Newton; and he was one of +the small band of students who assisted Newton in forming the +Philosophical Society of Cambridge. But it was his facility in +verse-writing, and neither his scholarship nor his practical +ability, that first opened up to him the way to fortune. His +clever but absurdly panegyrical poem on the death of Charles II. +secured for him the notice of the earl of Dorset, who invited him +to town and introduced him to the principal wits of the time; +and in 1687 his joint authorship with Prior of the <i>Hind and +Panther transversed to the Story of the Country Mouse and the +City Mouse</i>, a parody of Dryden’s political poem, not only +increased his literary reputation but directly helped him to +political influence.</p> + +<p>In 1689, through the patronage of the earl of Dorset, he entered +parliament as member for Maldon, and sat in the convention +which resolved that William and Mary should be declared king +and queen of England. About this time he married the countess-dowager +of Manchester, and it would appear, according to +Johnson, that it was still his intention to take orders; but after +the coronation he purchased a clerkship to the council. On +being introduced by Earl Dorset to King William, after the +publication of his poetical <i>Epistle occasioned by his Majesty’s +Victory in Ireland</i>, he was ordered to receive an immediate +pension of £500 per annum, until an opportunity should present +itself of “making a man of him.” In 1691 he was chosen +chairman of the committee of the House of Commons appointed +to confer with a committee of the Lords in regard to the bill for +regulating trials in cases of high treason; and he displayed in +these conferences such tact and debating power that he was +made one of the commissioners of the treasury and called to the +privy council. But his success as a politician was less due to +his oratorical gifts than to his skill in finance, and in this respect +he soon began to manifest such brilliant talents as completely +eclipsed the painstaking abilities of Godolphin. Indeed it may +be affirmed that no other statesman has initiated schemes which +have left a more permanent mark on the financial history of +England. Although perhaps it was inevitable that England +should sooner or later adopt the continental custom of lightening +the annual taxation in times of war by contracting a national +debt, the actual introduction of the expedient was due to +Montague, who on the 15th of December 1692 proposed to raise +a million of money by way of loan. Previous to this the Scotsman +William Paterson (<i>q.v.</i>) had submitted to the government his +plan of a national bank, and when in the spring of 1694 the +prolonged contest with France had rendered another large +loan absolutely necessary, Montague introduced a bill for the +incorporation of the Bank of England. The bill after some +opposition passed the House of Lords in May, and immediately +after the prorogation of parliament Montague was rewarded by +the chancellorship of the exchequer. In 1695 he was triumphantly +returned for the borough of Westminster to the new +parliament, and succeeded in passing his celebrated measure +to remedy the depreciation which had taken place in the currency +on account of dishonest manipulations. To provide for the +expense of recoinage, Montague, instead of reviving the old tax +of hearth money, introduced the window tax, and the difficulties +caused by the temporary absence of a metallic currency were +avoided by the issue for the first time of exchequer bills. His +other expedients for meeting the emergencies of the financial +crisis were equally successful, and the rapid restoration of public +credit secured him a commanding influence both in the House +of Commons and at the board of the treasury; but although +Godolphin resigned office in October 1696, the king hesitated +for some time between Montague and Sir Stephen Fox as his +successor, and it was not till 1697 that the former was appointed +first lord. In 1697 he was accused by Charles Duncombe, and +in 1698 by a Col. Granville, of fraud, but both charges broke +down, and Duncombe was shown to have been guilty of extreme +dishonesty himself. In 1698 and 1699 he acted as one of the +council of regency during the king’s absence from England. +With the accumulation of his political successes his vanity and +arrogance became, however, so offensive that latterly they +utterly lost him the influence he had acquired by his administrative +ability and his masterly eloquence; and when his power +began to be on the wane he set the seal to his political overthrow +by conferring the lucrative sinecure office of auditor of the +exchequer on his brother in trust for himself should he be +compelled to retire from power. This action earned him the +offensive nickname of “Filcher,” and for some time afterwards, +in attempting to lead the House of Commons, he had to submit +to constant mortifications, often verging on personal insults. +After the return of the king in 1699 he resigned his offices in the +government and succeeded his brother in the auditorship.</p> + +<p>On the accession of the Tories to power he was removed in +1701 to the House of Lords by the title of Lord Halifax. In the +same year he was impeached for malpractices along with Lord +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page839" id="page839"></a>839</span> +Somers and the earls of Portland and Oxford, but all the charges +were dismissed by the Lords; and in 1703 a second attempt +to impeach him was still more unsuccessful. He continued out of +office during the reign of Queen Anne, but in 1706 he was named +one of the commissioners to negotiate the union with Scotland; +and after the passing of the Act of Settlement in favour of the +house of Hanover, he was appointed ambassador to the elector’s +court to convey the insignia of order of the garter to George I. +On the death of Anne (1714) he was appointed one of the council +of regency until the arrival of the king from Hanover; and after +the coronation he received the office of first lord of the treasury +in the new ministry, being at the same time created earl of +Halifax and Viscount Sunbury. He died on the 19th of May 1715 +and left no issue. He was buried in the vault of the Albemarle +family in Westminster Abbey. His nephew George (d. 1739) +succeeded to the barony, and was created Viscount Sunbury +and earl of Halifax in 1715.</p> + +<p>Montague’s association with Prior in the travesty of Dryden’s +<i>Hind and Panther</i> has no doubt largely aided in preserving his +literary reputation; but he is perhaps indebted for it chiefly +to his subsequent influential position and to the fulsome flattery +of the men of letters who enjoyed his friendship, and who, in +return for his liberal donations and the splendid banqueting +which they occasionally enjoyed at his villa on the Thames, +“fed him,” as Pope says, “all day long with dedications.” +Swift says he gave them nothing but “good words, and good +dinners.” That, however, his beneficence to needy talent, if +sometimes attributable to an itching ear for adulation, was at +others prompted by a sincere appreciation of intellectual merit, +is sufficiently attested by the manner in which he procured from +Godolphin a commissionership for Addison, and also by his +life-long intimacy with Newton, for whom he obtained the +mastership of the mint. The small fragments of poetry which +he left behind him, and which were almost solely the composition +of his early years, display a certain facility and vigour of diction, +but their thought and fancy are never more than commonplace, +and not unfrequently in striving to be eloquent and impressive +he is only grotesquely and extravagantly absurd. In administrative +talent he was the superior of all his contemporaries, +and his only rival in parliamentary eloquence was Somers; +but the skill with which he managed measures was superior +to his tact in dealing with men, and the effect of his brilliant +financial successes on his reputation was gradually almost +nullified by the affected arrogance of his manner and by the +eccentricities of his sensitive vanity. So eager latterly was his +thirst for fame and power that perhaps Marlborough did not +exaggerate when he said that “he had no other principle but +his ambition, so that he would put all in distraction rather than +not gain his point.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Among the numerous notices of Halifax by contemporaries may +be mentioned the eulogistic reference which concludes Addison’s +account of the “greatest of English poets”; the dedications by +Steel to the second volume of the <i>Spectator</i> and to the fourth of the +<i>Tatler</i>; Pope’s laudatory mention of him in the epilogue to his +<i>Satires</i> and in the preface to the <i>Iliad</i>, and his portrait of him as +“Full-blown Bufo” in the <i>Epistle to Arbuthnot</i>. Various allusions +to him are to be found in Swift’s works and in Marlborough’s <i>Letters</i>. +See also Burnet’s <i>History of his Own Times; The Parliamentary +History</i>; Howell’s <i>State Trials</i>; Johnson’s <i>Lives of the Poets</i>; and +Macaulay’s <i>History of England</i>. His <i>Miscellaneous Works</i> were +published at London in 1704; his <i>Life and Miscellaneous Works</i> in +1715; and his <i>Poetical Works</i>, to which also his “Life” is attached, +in 1716. His poems were reprinted in the 9th volume of Johnson’s +<i>English Poets</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALIFAX, GEORGE MONTAGU DUNK,<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> <span class="sc">2nd Earl of</span> (1716-1771), +son of George Montagu, 1st earl of Halifax (of the second +creation), was born on the 5th or 6th of October 1716, becoming +earl of Halifax on his father’s death in 1739. Educated at Eton +and at Trinity College, Cambridge, he was married in 1741 to +Anne Richards (d. 1753), a lady who had inherited a great +fortune from Sir Thomas Dunk, whose name was taken by +Halifax. After having been an official in the household of +Frederick, prince of Wales, the earl was made master of the buckhounds, +and in 1748 he became president of the Board of Trade. +While filling this position he helped to found Halifax, the capital +of Nova Scotia, which was named after him, and in several +ways he rendered good service to trade, especially with North +America. About this time he sought to <span class="correction" title="amended from became">become</span> a secretary of +state, but in vain, although he was allowed to enter the cabinet +in 1757. In March 1761 Halifax was appointed lord-lieutenant +of Ireland, and during part of the time which he held this office +he was also first lord of the admiralty. He became secretary +of state for the northern department under the earl of Bute in +October 1762, retaining this post under George Grenville and +being one of the three ministers to whom George III. entrusted +the direction of affairs. He signed the general warrant under +which Wilkes was arrested in 1763, for which action he was +mulcted in damages by the courts of law in 1769, and he was +mainly responsible for the exclusion of the name of the king’s +mother, Augusta, princess of Wales, from the Regency Bill of +1765. With his colleagues the earl left office in July 1765, +returning to the cabinet as lord privy seal under his nephew, +Lord North, in January 1770. He had just been transferred to +his former position of secretary of state when he died on the 8th +of June 1771. Halifax, who was lord-lieutenant of Northamptonshire +and a lieutenant-general in the army, showed some +disinterestedness in money matters, but was very extravagant. +He left no children, and his titles became extinct on his death. +Horace Walpole speaks slightingly of the earl, and says he and +his mistress, Mary Anne Faulkner, “had sold every employment +in his gift.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the <i>Memoirs</i> of his secretary, Richard Cumberland (1807).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALIFAX, GEORGE SAVILE,<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Marquess of</span> (1633-1695), +English statesman and writer, great-grandson of Sir George +Savile of Lupset and Thornhill in Yorkshire (created baronet +in 1611), was the eldest son of Sir William Savile, 3rd baronet, +who distinguished himself in the civil war in the royalist cause +and who died in 1644, and of Anne, eldest daughter of Lord +Keeper Coventry. He was thus nephew of Sir William Coventry, +who is said to have influenced his political opinions, and of +Lord Shaftesbury, afterwards his most bitter opponent, and +great-nephew of the earl of Strafford; by his marriage with +the Lady Dorothy Spencer, he was brother-in-law to Lord +Sunderland. He entered public life with all the advantages of +lineage, political connexions, great wealth and estates, and +uncommon abilities. He was elected member of the Convention +parliament for Pontefract in 1660, and this was his only appearance +in the Lower House. A peerage was sought for him by the +duke of York in 1665, but was successfully opposed by Clarendon, +on the ground of his “ill-reputation amongst men of piety and +religion,” the real motives of the chancellor’s hostile attitude +being probably Savile’s connexion with Buckingham and +Coventry. The honours were, however, only deferred for a short +time and were obtained after the fall of Clarendon on the 31st +of December 1667,<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> when Savile was created Baron Savile of +Eland and Viscount Halifax.</p> + +<p>He supported zealously the anti-French policy formulated in +the Triple Alliance of January 1668. He was at this time in +favour at court, was created a privy councillor in 1672, and, +while ignorant of the disgraceful secret clauses in the treaty of +Dover, was chosen envoy to negotiate terms of peace with Louis +XIV. and the Dutch at Utrecht. His mission was still further +deprived of importance by Arlington and Buckingham, who +were in the king’s counsels, and who anticipated his arrival and +took the negotiations out of his hands; and though he signed +the compact, he had no share in the harsh terms imposed upon +the Dutch, and henceforth became a bitter opponent of the +policy of subservience to French interests and of the Roman +Catholic claims.</p> + +<p>He took an active part in passing through parliament the +great Test Act of 1673<a name="fa2g" id="fa2g" href="#ft2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and forfeited in consequence his friendship +with James. In 1674 he brought forward a motion for +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page840" id="page840"></a>840</span> +disarming “popish recusants,” and supported one by Lord +Carlisle for restricting the marriages in the royal family to +Protestants; but he opposed the bill introduced by Lord Danby +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Leeds, 1st Duke of</a></span>) in 1675, which imposed a test oath +on officials and members of parliament, speaking “with that +quickness, learning and elegance that are inseparable from all +his discourses,” and ridiculing the multiplication of oaths, since +“no man would ever sleep with open doors ... should all +the town be sworn not to rob.” He was now on bad terms with +Danby, and a witty sally at that minister’s expense caused his +dismissal from the council in January 1676. In 1678 he took +an active part in the investigation of the “Popish Plot,” to +which he appears to have given excessive credence, but opposed +the bill which was passed on the 30th of October 1678, to exclude +Roman Catholics from the House of Lords.</p> + +<p>In 1679, as a consequence of the fall of Danby, he became a +member of the newly constituted privy council. With Charles, +who had at first “kicked at his appointment,” he quickly became +a favourite, his lively and “libertine” (<i>i.e.</i> free or sceptical) +conversation being named by Bishop Burnet as his chief attraction +for the king. His dislike of the duke of York and of the +Romanist tendencies of the court did not induce him to support +the rash attempt of Lord Shaftesbury to substitute the illegitimate +duke of Monmouth for James in the succession. He feared +Shaftesbury’s ascendancy in the national councils and foresaw +nothing but civil war and confusion as a result of his scheme. +He declared against the exclusion of James, was made an earl +in 1679, and was one of the “Triumvirate” which now directed +public affairs. He assisted in passing into law the Habeas +Corpus Bill. According to Sir W. Temple he showed great +severity in putting into force the laws against the Roman +Catholics, but this statement is considered a misrepresentation.<a name="fa3g" id="fa3g" href="#ft3g"><span class="sp">3</span></a> +In 1680 he voted against the execution of Lord Stafford.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile (1679) his whole policy had been successfully +directed towards uniting all parties with the object of frustrating +Shaftesbury’s plans. Communications were opened with the +prince of Orange, and the illness of the king was made the +occasion for summoning James from Brussels. Monmouth was +compelled to retire to Holland, and Shaftesbury was dismissed. +On the other hand, while Halifax was so far successful, James +was given an opportunity of establishing a new influence at the +court. It was with great difficulty that his retirement to Scotland +was at last effected; the ministers lost the confidence and +support of the “country party,” and Halifax, fatigued and ill, +at the close of this year, retired to Rufford Abbey, the country +home of the Saviles since the destruction of Thornhill Hall in +1648, and for some time took little part in affairs. He returned in +September 1680 on the occasion of the introduction of the +Exclusion Bill in the Lords. The debate which followed, one +of the most famous in the whole annals of parliament, became a +duel of oratory between Halifax and his uncle Shaftesbury, the +finest two speakers of the day, watched by the Lords, the +Commons at the bar, and the king, who was present. It lasted +seven hours. Halifax spoke sixteen times, and at last, regardless +of the menaces of the more violent supporters of the bill, who +closed round him, vanquished his opponent. The rejection of +the bill by a majority of 33 was attributed by all parties entirely +to the eloquence of Halifax. His conduct transformed the +allegiance to him of the Whigs into bitter hostility, the Commons +immediately petitioning the king to remove him from his councils +for ever, while any favour which he might have regained with +James was forfeited by his subsequent approval of the regency +scheme.</p> + +<p>He retired to Rufford again in January 1681, but was present +at the Oxford parliament, and in May returned suddenly to +public life and held for a year the chief control of affairs. The +arrest of Shaftesbury on the 2nd of July was attributed to his +influence, but in general, during the period of Tory reaction, +he seems to have urged a policy of conciliation and moderation +upon the king. He opposed James’s return from Scotland and, +about this time (Sept.), made a characteristic but futile attempt +to persuade the duke to attend the services of the Church of +England and thus to end all difficulties. He renewed relations +with the prince of Orange, who in July paid a visit to England +to seek support against the French designs upon Luxemburg. +The influence of Halifax procured for the Dutch a formal +assurance from Charles of his support; but the king informed +the French ambassador that he had no intention of fulfilling +his engagements, and made another secret treaty with Louis. +Halifax opposed in 1682 James’s vindictive prosecution of the +earl of Argyll, arousing further hostility in the duke, while the +same year he was challenged to a duel by Monmouth, who +attributed to him his disgrace.</p> + +<p>His short tenure of power ended with the return of James in +May. Outwardly he still retained the king’s favour and was +advanced to a marquisate (Aug. 17) and to the office of +lord privy seal (Oct. 25). Being still a member of the +administration he must share responsibility for the attack now +made upon the municipal franchises, a violation of the whole +system of representative government, especially as the new +charters passed his office. In January 1684 he was one of the +commissioners “who supervise all things concerning the city +and have turned out those persons who are whiggishly inclined” +(N. Luttrell’s <i>Diary</i>, i. 295). He made honourable but vain +endeavours to save Algernon Sidney and Lord Russell. “My +Lord Halifax,” declared Tillotson in his evidence before the +later inquiry, “showed a very compassionate concern for my +Lord Russell and all the readiness to serve them that could be +wished.”<a name="fa4g" id="fa4g" href="#ft4g"><span class="sp">4</span></a> The Rye-House Plot, in which it was sought to +implicate them, was a disastrous blow to his policy, and in +order to counteract its consequences he entered into somewhat +perilous negotiations with Monmouth, and endeavoured to +effect his reconciliation with the king. On the 12th of February +1684, he procured the release of his old antagonist, Lord Danby. +Shortly afterwards his influence at the court revived. Charles +was no longer in receipt of his French pension and was beginning +to tire of James and Rochester. The latter, instead of becoming +lord treasurer, was, according to the epigram of Halifax which +has become proverbial, “kicked upstairs,” to the office of lord +president of the council. Halifax now worked to establish +intimate relations between Charles and the prince of Orange and +opposed the abrogation of the recusancy laws. In a debate in +the cabinet of November 1684, on the question of the grant of +a fresh constitution to the New England colonies, he urged with +great warmth “that there could be no doubt whatever but that +the same laws which are in force in England should also be +established in a country inhabited by Englishmen and that an +absolute government is neither so happy nor so safe as that +which is tempered by laws and which sets bounds to the authority +of the prince,” and declared that he could not “live under a king +who should have it in his power to take, whenever he thought +proper, the money he has in his pocket.” The opinions thus +expressed were opposed by all the other ministers and highly +censured by Louis XIV., James and Judge Jeffreys.</p> + +<p>At the accession of James he was immediately deprived of all +power and relegated to the presidency of the council. He showed +no compliance, like other Lords, with James’s Roman Catholic +preferences. He was opposed to the parliamentary grant to the +king of a revenue for life; he promoted the treaty of alliance +with the Dutch in August 1685; he expostulated with the king +on the subject of the illegal commissions in the army given to +Roman Catholics; and finally, on his firm refusal to support the +repeal of the Test and Habeas Corpus Acts, he was dismissed, +and his name was struck out of the list of the privy council +(Oct. 1685). He corresponded with the prince of Orange, +conferred with Dykveldt, the latter’s envoy, but held aloof +from plans which aimed at the prince’s personal interference in +English affairs. In 1687 he published the famous <i>Letter to a +Dissenter</i>, in which he warns the Nonconformists against being +beguiled by the “Indulgence” into joining the court party, +sets in a clear light the fatal results of such a step, and reminds +them that under their next sovereign their grievances would in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page841" id="page841"></a>841</span> +all probability be satisfied by the law. The tract, which has +received general and unqualified admiration, must be classed +amongst the few known writings which have actually and +immediately altered the course of history. Copies to the number +of 20,000 were circulated through the kingdom, and a great party +was convinced of the wisdom of remaining faithful to the national +traditions and liberties. He took the popular side on the occasion +of the trial of the bishops in June 1688, visited them in the +Tower, and led the cheers with which the verdict of “not guilty” +was received in court; but the same month he refrained from +signing the invitation to William, and publicly repudiated any +share in the prince’s plans. On the contrary he attended the +court and refused any credence to the report that the prince born +to James was supposititious. After the landing of William he +was present at the council called by James on the 27th of +November. He urged the king to grant large concessions, but +his speech, in contrast to the harsh and overbearing attitude +of the Hydes, was “the most tender and obliging ... that +ever was heard.” He accepted the mission with Nottingham +and Godolphin to treat with William at Hungerford, and +succeeded in obtaining moderate terms from the prince. The +negotiations, however, were abortive, for James had from the +first resolved on flight. In the crisis which ensued, when the +country was left without a government, Halifax took the lead. +He presided over the council of Lords which assembled and took +immediate measures to maintain public order. On the return +of James to London on the 16th of November, after his capture +at Faversham, Halifax repaired to William’s camp and henceforth +attached himself unremittingly to his cause. On the +17th he carried with Lords Delamere and Shrewsbury a message +from William to the king advising his departure from London, +and, after the king’s second flight, directed the proceedings of +the executive. On the meeting of the convention on the 22nd +of January 1689, he was formally elected speaker of the House +of Lords. He voted against the motion for a regency (Jan. +20), which was only defeated by two votes. The moderate +and comprehensive character of the settlement at the revolution +plainly shows his guiding hand, and it was finally through his +persuasion that the Lords yielded to the Commons and agreed +to the compromise whereby William and Mary were declared +joint sovereigns. On the 13th of February in the Banqueting +House at Whitehall, he tendered the crown to them in the name +of the nation, and conducted the proclamation of their accession +in the city.</p> + +<p>At the opening of the new reign he had considerable influence, +was made lord privy seal, while Danby his rival was obliged to +content himself with the presidency of the council, and controlled +the appointments to the new cabinet which were made on +a “trimming” or comprehensive basis. His views on religious +toleration were as wide as those of the new king. He championed +the claims of the Nonconformists as against the high or rigid +Church party, and he was bitterly disappointed at the miscarriage +of the Comprehension Bill. He thoroughly approved also at +first of William’s foreign policy; but, having excited the hostility +of both the Whig and Tory parties, he now became exposed to +a series of attacks in parliament which finally drove him from +power. He was severely censured, as it seems quite unjustly, +for the disorder in Ireland, and an attempt was made to impeach +him for his conduct with regard to the sentences on the Whig +leaders. The inquiry resulted in his favour; but notwithstanding, +and in spite of the king’s continued support, he determined +to retire. He had already resigned the speakership of the House +of Lords, and he now (Feb. 8, 1690) quitted his place in +the cabinet. He still nominally retained his seat in the privy +council, but in parliament he became a bitter critic of the +administration; and the rivalry of Halifax (the Black Marquess) +with Danby, now marquess of Carmarthen (the White Marquess) +threw the former at this time into determined opposition. He +disapproved of William’s total absorption in European politics, +and his open partiality for his countrymen. In January 1691 +Halifax had an interview with Henry Bulkeley, the Jacobite +agent, and is said to have promised “to do everything that lay +in his power to serve the king.” This was probably merely +a measure of precaution, for he had no serious Jacobite leanings. +He entered bail for Lord Marlborough, accused wrongfully of +complicity in a Jacobite plot in May 1692, and in June, during +the absence of the king from England, his name was struck off +the privy council.</p> + +<p>He spoke in favour of the Triennial Bill (Jan. 12, 1693) which +passed the legislature but was vetoed by William, suggested +a proviso in the Licensing Act, which restricted its operation +to anonymous works, approved the Place Bill (1694), but +opposed, probably on account of the large sums he had engaged +in the traffic of annuities, the establishment of the bank of +England in 1694. Early in 1695 he delivered a strong attack +on the administration in the House of Lords, and, after a short +illness arising from a neglected complaint, he died on the 5th of +April at the age of sixty-one. He was buried in Henry VII.’s +chapel in Westminster Abbey.</p> + +<p>The influence of Halifax, both as orator and as writer, on +the public opinion of his day was probably unrivalled. His intellectual +powers, his high character, his urbanity, vivacity and +satirical humour made a great impression on his contemporaries, +and many of his witty sayings have been recorded. But the +superiority of his statesmanship could not be appreciated till +later times. Maintaining throughout his career a complete +detachment from party, he never acted permanently or continuously +with either of the two great factions, and exasperated +both in turn by deserting their cause at the moment when their +hopes seemed on the point of realization. To them he appeared +weak, inconstant, untrustworthy. They could not see what to +us now is plain and clear, that Halifax was as consistent in his +principles as the most rabid Whig or Tory. But the principle +which chiefly influenced his political action, that of compromise, +differed essentially from those of both parties, and his attitude +with regard to the Whigs or Tories was thus by necessity continually +changing. Measures, too, which in certain circumstances +appeared to him advisable, when the political scene had changed +became unwise or dangerous. Thus the regency scheme, which +Halifax had supported while Charles still reigned, was opposed +by him with perfect consistency at the revolution. He readily +accepted for himself the character of a “trimmer,” desiring, he +said, to keep the boat steady, while others attempted to weigh +it down perilously on one side or the other; and he concluded +his tract with these assertions: “that our climate is a Trimmer +between that part of the world where men are roasted and the +other where they are frozen; that our Church is a Trimmer +between the frenzy of fanatic visions and the lethargic ignorance +of Popish dreams; that our laws are Trimmers between the +excesses of unbounded power and the extravagance of liberty +not enough restrained; that true virtue hath ever been thought +a Trimmer, and to have its dwelling in the middle between two +extremes; that even God Almighty Himself is divided between +His two great attributes, His Mercy and His Justice. In such +company, our Trimmer is not ashamed of his name....”<a name="fa5g" id="fa5g" href="#ft5g"><span class="sp">5</span></a></p> + +<p>His powerful mind enabled him to regard the various political +problems of his time from a height and from a point of view +similar to that from which distance from the events enables us +to consider them at the present day; and the superiority of his +vision appears sufficiently from the fact that his opinions and +judgments on the political questions of his time are those which +for the most part have ultimately triumphed and found general +acceptance. His attitude of mind was curiously modern.<a name="fa6g" id="fa6g" href="#ft6g"><span class="sp">6</span></a> +Reading, writing and arithmetic, he thinks, should be taught to +all and at the expense of the state. His opinions again on the +constitutional relations of the colonies to the mother country, +already cited, were completely opposed to those of his own +period. For that view of his character which while allowing him +the merit of a brilliant political theorist denies him the qualities +of a man of action and of a practical politician, there is no solid +basis. The truth is that while his political ideas are founded +upon great moral or philosophical generalizations, often vividly +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page842" id="page842"></a>842</span> +recalling and sometimes anticipating the broad conceptions of +Burke, they are at the same time imbued with precisely those +practical qualities which have ever been characteristic of English +statesmenship, and were always capable of application to actual +conditions. He was no star-gazing philosopher, with thoughts +superior to the contemplation of mundane affairs. He had no +taste for abstract political dogma. He seems to venture no +further than to think that “men should live in some competent +state of freedom,” and that the limited monarchical and +aristocratic government was the best adapted for his country. +“Circumstances,” he writes in the <i>Rough Draft of a New Model +at Sea</i>, “must come in and are to be made a part of the matter +of which we are to judge; positive decisions are always dangerous, +more especially in politics.” Nor was he the mere literary +student buried in books and in contemplative ease. He had +none of the “indecisiveness which commonly renders literary +men of no use in the world” (Sir John Dalrymple). The incidents +of his career show that there was no backwardness or hesitation +in acting when occasion required. The constant tendency of +his mind towards antithesis and the balancing of opinions did +not lead to paralysis in time of action. He did not shrink from +responsibility, nor show on any occasion lack of courage. At +various times of crisis he proved himself a great leader. He +returned to public life to defeat the Exclusion Bill. At the +revolution it was Halifax who seized the reins of government, +flung away by James, and maintained public security. His +subsequent failure in collaborating with William is, it is true, +disappointing. But the cause was one that has not perhaps +received sufficient attention. Party government had come to +the birth during the struggles over the Exclusion Bill, and there +had been unconsciously introduced into politics a novel element +of which the nature and importance were not understood or +suspected. Halifax had consistently ignored and neglected +party; and it now had its revenge. Detested by the Whigs and +by the Tories alike, and defended by neither, the favour alone of +the king and his own transcendent abilities proved insufficient +to withstand the constant and violent attacks made upon him +in parliament, and he yielded to the superior force. He seems +indeed himself to have been at last convinced of the necessity +in English political life of party government, for though in his +Cautions to electors he warns them against men “tied to a +party,” yet in his last words he declares “If there are two parties +a man ought to adhere to that which he disliked least though in +the whole he doth not approve it; for whilst he doth not list +himself in one or the other party, he is looked upon as such a +straggler that he is fallen upon by both.... Happy those that +are convinced so as to be of the general opinions” (<i>Political +Thoughts and Reflections of Parties</i>).</p> + +<p>The private character of Lord Halifax was in harmony with +the greatness of his public career. He was by no means the +“voluptuary” described by Macaulay. He was on the contrary +free from self-indulgence; his manner of life was decent and +frugal, and his dress proverbially simple. He was an affectionate +father and husband. “His heart,” says Burnet (i. 492-493, +ed. 1833), “was much set on raising his family”—his last concern +even while on his deathbed was the remarriage of his son +Lord Eland to perpetuate his name; and this is probably the +cause of his acceptance of so many titles for which he himself +affected a philosophical indifference. He was estimable in his +social relations and habits. He showed throughout his career +an honourable independence, and was never seen to worship the +rising sun. In a period when even great men stooped to accept +bribes, Halifax was known to be incorruptible; at a time when +animosities were especially bitter, he was too great a man to +harbour resentments. “Not only from policy,” says Reresby +(<i>Mem.</i> p. 231), “(which teaches that we ought to let no man +be our enemy when we can help it), but from his disposition I +never saw any man more ready to forgive than himself.” Few +were insensible to his personal charm and gaiety. He excelled +especially in quick repartee, in “exquisite nonsense,” and in +spontaneous humour. When quite a young man, just entering +upon political life he is described by Evelyn as “a witty gentleman, +if not a little too prompt and daring.” The latter characteristic +was not moderated by time but remained through life. +He was incapable of controlling his spirit of raillery, from jests +on Siamese missionaries to sarcasms at the expense of the heir +to the throne and ridicule of hereditary monarchy, and his +brilliant paradoxes, his pungent and often profane epigrams +were received by graver persons as his real opinions and as +evidences of atheism. This latter charge he repudiated, assuring +Burnet that he was “a Christian in submission,” but that he +could not digest iron like an ostrich nor swallow all that the +divines sought to impose upon the world.</p> + +<p>The speeches of Halifax have not been preserved, and his +political writings on this account have all the greater value. +<i>The Character of a Trimmer</i> (1684 or 1685), the authorship of +which, long doubtful, is now established,<a name="fa7g" id="fa7g" href="#ft7g"><span class="sp">7</span></a> was his most ambitious +production, written seemingly as advice to the king and as a +manifesto of his own opinions. In it he discusses the political +problems of the time and their solution on broad principles. +He supports the Test Act and, while opposing the Indulgence, +is not hostile to the repeal of the penal laws against the Roman +Catholics by parliament. Turning to foreign affairs he contemplates +with consternation the growing power of France and the +humiliation of England, exclaiming indignantly at the sight of +the “Roses blasted and discoloured while lilies triumph and +grow insolent upon the comparison.” The whole is a masterly +and comprehensive summary of the actual political situation and +its exigencies; while, when he treats such themes as liberty, +or discusses the balance to be maintained between freedom and +government in the constitution, he rises to the political idealism +of Bolingbroke and Burke. <i>The Character of King Charles II.</i> +(printed 1750), to be compared with his earlier sketch of the king +in the <i>Character of a Trimmer</i>, is perhaps from the literary point +of view the most admirable of his writings. The famous <i>Letter +to a Dissenter</i> (1687) was thought by Sir James Mackintosh to +be unrivalled as a political pamphlet. <i>The Lady’s New Year’s +Gift: or Advice to a Daughter</i>, refers to his daughter Elizabeth, +afterwards wife of the 3rd and mother of the celebrated 4th earl +of Chesterfield (1688). In <i>The Anatomy of an Equivalent</i> (1688) +he treats with keen wit and power of analysis the proposal to +grant a “perpetual edict” in favour of the Established Church +in return for the repeal of the test and penal laws. <i>Maxims of +State</i> appeared about 1692. <i>The Rough Draft of a New Model +at Sea</i> (<i>c.</i> 1694), though apparently only a fragment, is one of the +most interesting and characteristic of his writings. It opens +with the question: “’What shall we do to be saved in this world?’ +There is no other answer but this, ‘Look to your moat.’ The +first article of an Englishman’s political creed must be that he +believeth in the sea.” He discusses the naval establishment, +not from the naval point of view alone, but from the general +aspect of the constitution of which it is a detail, and is thus led +on to consider the nature of the constitution itself, and to show +that it is not an artificial structure but a growth and product +of the natural character. We may also mention <i>Some Cautions</i> +to the electors of the parliament (1694), and <i>Political, Moral and +Miscellaneous Thoughts and Reflections</i> (n.d.), a collection of +aphorisms in the style of the maxims of La Rochefoucauld, +inferior in style—but greatly excelling the French author in +breadth of view and in moderation. (For other writings +attributed to Halifax, see Foxcroft, <i>Life of Sir G. Savile</i>, ii. +529 sqq.).</p> + +<p>Halifax was twice married, first in 1656 to the Lady Dorothy +Spencer—daughter of the 1st earl of Sunderland and of Dorothy +Sidney, “Sacharissa”—who died in 1670, leaving a family; and +secondly, in 1672, to Gertrude, daughter of William Pierrepont +of Thoresby, who survived him, and by whom he had one +daughter, Elizabeth, Lady Chesterfield, who seems to have inherited +a considerable portion of her father’s intellectual abilities. +On the death of his son William, 2nd marquess of Halifax, in +August 1700 without male issue, the peerage became extinct, +and the baronetcy passed to the Saviles of Lupset, the whole +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page843" id="page843"></a>843</span> +male line of the Savile family ending in the person of Sir George +Savile, 8th baronet, in 1784. Henry Savile, British envoy at +Versailles, who died unmarried in 1687, was a younger brother +of the first marquess. Halifax has been generally supposed to +have been the father of the illegitimate Henry Carey, the poet, +but this is doubtful.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Life and Letters of Sir George Savile, 1st Marquis of Halifax</i> +(2 vols., 1898), by Miss H. C. Foxcroft, who has collected and made +excellent use of all the material available at that date, including +hitherto unexplored Savile MSS., at Devonshire House, in the +Spencer Archives, in the Longleat and other collections, and who +has edited the works of Halifax and printed a memorandum of +conversations with King William of 1688-1690, left in MS. by Halifax. +Macaulay, in his <i>History of England</i>, misjudged Halifax on some +points, but nevertheless understood and did justice to the greatness +of his statesmanship, and pronounced on him a well-merited and +eloquent eulogy (iv. 545). Contemporary characters of Halifax +which must be accepted with caution are Burnet’s in the <i>History of +His Own Times</i> (ed. 1833, vol. i. pp. 491-493, and iv. 268), that by the +author of “Savilianal,” identified as William Mompesson, and +“Sacellum Apollinare,” a panegyric in verse by Elkanah Settle +(1695).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(P. C. Y.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Cal. State Papers, Dom.</i> (Nov. 1667-Sep. 1668). p. 106.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2g" id="ft2g" href="#fa2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Lords’ Journals</i>, 12, p. 567; <i>Savile Correspondence</i>, ed. by W. D. +Cooper, p. 136; “Character of a Trimmer,” in <i>Life of Sir G. Savile</i>, +by H. C. Foxcroft, ii. 316.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3g" id="ft3g" href="#fa3g"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Foxcroft i. 160, where Hallam is quoted to this effect.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4g" id="ft4g" href="#fa4g"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>Hist. MSS. Comm. House of Lords MSS.</i> 1689-1690, p. 287.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5g" id="ft5g" href="#fa5g"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>Character of a Trimmer</i>, conclusion.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6g" id="ft6g" href="#fa6g"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Saviliana quoted by Foxcroft i. 115.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7g" id="ft7g" href="#fa7g"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Foxcroft, ii. 273 et seq., and <i>Hist. MSS. Comm. MSS.</i> of F. W. +Leyborne-Popham, p. 264.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALIFAX,<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> a city and port of entry, capital of the province of +Nova Scotia, Canada. It is situated in 44° 59′ N. and 63° 35′ W., +on the south-east coast of the province, on a fortified hill, 225 ft. +in height, which slopes down to the waters of Chebucto Bay, +now known as Halifax Harbour. The harbour, which is open all +the year, is about 6 m. long by 1 m. in width, and has excellent +anchorage in all parts; to the north a narrow passage connects +it with Bedford Basin, 6 m. in length by 4 m., and deep enough +for the largest men-of-war. At the harbour mouth lies McNab’s +Island, thus forming two entrances; the eastern passage is +only employed by small vessels, though in 1862 the Confederate +cruiser, “Tallahassee,” slipped through by night, and escaped +the northern vessels which were watching off the western +entrance. The population in 1901 was 40,832.</p> + +<p>The town was originally built of wood, plastered or stuccoed, +but though the wooden houses largely remain, the public buildings +are of stone. Inferior in natural strength to Quebec alone, the +city and its approaches have been fortified till it has become +the strongest position in Canada, and one of the strongest in the +British Empire. Till 1906 it was garrisoned by British troops, +but in that year, with Esquimalt, on the Pacific coast, it was +taken over by the Canadian government, an operation necessitating +a large increase in the Canadian permanent military force. +At the same time, the royal dockyard, containing a dry-dock +610 ft. in length, and the residences in connexion, were also taken +over for the use of the department of marine and fisheries. +Till 1905 Halifax was the summer station of the British North +American squadron. In that year, in consequence of a redistribution +of the fleet, the permanent North American squadron +was withdrawn; but Halifax is still visited periodically by +powerful squadrons of cruisers.</p> + +<p>Though, owing to the growth of Sydney and other outports, +it no longer monopolizes the foreign trade of the province, +Halifax is still a thriving town, and has the largest export trade +of the Dominion in fish and fish products, the export of fish +alone, in 1904, amounting to over three-fifths that of the entire +Dominion. Lumber (chiefly spruce deals) and agricultural products +(especially apples) are also exported in large quantities. +The chief imports are manufactures from Great Britain and +the United States, and sugar, molasses, rum and fruit from the +West Indies. Its industrial establishments include foundries, +sugar refineries, manufactures of furniture and other articles of +wood, a skate factory and rope and cordage works, the produce +of which are all exported. It is the Atlantic terminus of the +Intercolonial, Canadian Pacific and several provincial railways, +and the chief winter port of Canada, numerous steamship lines +connecting it with Great Britain, Europe, the West Indies and +the United States. The public gardens, covering 14 acres, and +Point Pleasant Park, left to a great extent in its natural state, +are extremely beautiful. Behind the city is an arm of the sea +(known as the North-West Arm), 5 m. in length and 1 m. in breadth, +with high, well-wooded shores, and covered in summer with +canoes and sailing craft. The educational institutions include +a ladies’ college, several convents, a Presbyterian theological +college and Dalhousie University, with faculties of arts, law, +medicine and science. Established by charter in 1818 by the +earl of Dalhousie, then lieutenant governor, and reorganized +in 1863, it has since become much the most important seat of +learning in the maritime provinces. Other prominent buildings +are Government House, the provincial parliament and library, +and the Roman Catholic cathedral. St Paul’s church (Anglican) +dates from 1750, and though not striking architecturally, is +interesting from the memorial tablets and the graves of celebrated +Nova Scotians which it contains. The city is the seat of the +Anglican bishop of Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island, and +of the Roman Catholic bishop of Halifax.</p> + +<p>Founded in 1749 by the Hon. Edward Cornwallis as a rival +to the French town of Louisburg in Cape Breton, it was named +after the 2nd earl of Halifax, president of the board of trade and +plantations. In the following year it superseded Annapolis as +capital of the province. Its privateers played a prominent part +in the war of 1812-15 with the United States, and during the +American Civil War it was a favourite base of operations for +Confederate blockade-runners. The federation of the North +American provinces in 1867 lessened its relative importance, +but its merchants have gradually adapted themselves to the +altered conditions.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALIFAX,<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> a municipal, county and parliamentary borough +in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 194 m. N.N.W. from +London and 7 m. S.W. from Bradford, on the Great Northern +and the Lancashire & Yorkshire railways. Pop. (1891), 97,714; +(1901) 104,936. It lies in a bare hilly district on and above the +small river Hebble near its junction with the Calder. Its appearance +is in the main modern, though a few picturesque old houses +remain. The North Bridge, a fine iron structure, spans the +valley, giving connexion between the opposite higher parts of +the town. The principal public building is the town hall, +completed in 1863 after the designs of Sir Charles Barry; it is +a handsome Palladian building with a tower. Of churches the +most noteworthy is that of St John the Baptist, the parish church, +a Perpendicular building with lofty western tower. Two earlier +churches are traceable on this side, the first perhaps pre-Norman, +the second of the Early English period. The old woodwork is +fine, part being Perpendicular, but the greater portion dates +from 1621. All Souls’ church was built in 1859 from the designs +of Sir Gilbert Scott, of whose work it is a good example, at the +expense of Mr Edward Akroyd. The style is early Decorated, +and a rich ornamentation is carried out in Italian marble, +serpentine and alabaster. A graceful tower and spire 236 ft. +high rise at the north-west angle. The Square chapel, erected +by the Congregationalists in 1857, is a striking cruciform building +with a tower and elaborate crocketed spire. Both the central +library and museum and the Akroyd museum and art gallery +occupy buildings which were formerly residences, the one of +Sir Francis Crossley (1817-1872) and the other of Mr Edward +Akroyd. Among charitable institutions the principal is the +handsome royal infirmary, a Renaissance building. The Heath +grammar school was founded in 1585 under royal charter for +instruction in classical languages. It possesses close scholarships +at Oxford and Cambridge universities. The Waterhouse charity +school occupies a handsome set of buildings forming three sides +of a quadrangle, erected in 1855. The Crossley almshouses were +erected and endowed by Sir Francis and Mr Joseph Crossley, +who also endowed the Crossley orphan home and school. +Technical schools are maintained by the corporation. Among +other public buildings may be noted the Piece-Hall, erected +in 1799 for the lodgment and sale of piece goods, now used as a +market, a great quadrangular structure occupying more than +two acres; the bonding warehouse, court-house, and mechanics’ +institute. There are six parks, of which the People’s Park of +12½ acres, presented by Sir Francis Crossley in 1858, is laid out +in ornate style from designs by Sir Joseph Paxton.</p> + +<p>Halifax ranks with Leeds, Bradford and Huddersfield as a +seat of the woollen and worsted manufacture. The manufacture +of carpets is a large industry, one establishment employing some +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page844" id="page844"></a>844</span> +5000 hands. The worsted, woollen and cotton industries, and +the iron, steel and machinery manufactures are very extensive. +There are collieries and freestone quarries in the +neighbourhood.</p> + +<p>The parliamentary borough returns two members. The +county borough was created in 1888. The municipal borough +is under a mayor, 15 aldermen and 45 councillors. Area, +13,967 acres.</p> + +<p>At the time of the Conquest Halifax formed part of the +extensive manor of Wakefield, which belonged to the king, but +in the 13th century was in the hands of John, earl Warrenne +(<i>c.</i> 1245-1305). The prosperity of the town began with the +introduction of the cloth trade in the 15th century, when there +are said to have been only thirteen houses, which before the end +of the 16th century had increased to 520. Camden, about the +end of the 17th century, wrote that “the people are very industrious, +so that though the soil about it be barren and improfitable, +not fit to live on, they have so flourished ... by the +clothing trade that they are very rich and have gained a reputation +for it above their neighbours.” The trade is said to have +been increased by the arrival of certain merchants driven from +the Netherlands by the persecution of the duke of Alva. Among +the curious customs of Halifax was the Gibbet Law, which was +probably established by a prescriptive right to protect the wool +trade, and gave the inhabitants the power of executing any one +taken within their liberty, who, when tried by a jury of sixteen +of the frith-burgesses, was found guilty of the theft of any goods +of the value of more than 13d. The executions took place on +market days on a hill outside the town, the gibbet somewhat +resembling a guillotine. The first execution recorded under this +law took place in 1541, and the right was exercised in Halifax +longer than in any other town, the last execution taking place +in 1650. In 1635 the king granted the inhabitants of Halifax +licence to found a workhouse in a large house given to them for +that purpose by Nathaniel Waterhouse, and incorporated them +under the name of the master and governors. Nathaniel Waterhouse +was appointed the first master, his successors being elected +every year by the twelve governors from among themselves. +Halifax was a borough by prescription, its privileges growing +up with the increased prosperity brought by the cloth trade, +but it was not incorporated until 1848. Since the Reform Act +of 1832 the burgesses have returned two members to parliament. +In 1607 David Waterhouse, lord of the manor of Halifax, +obtained a grant of two markets there every week on Friday +and Saturday and two fairs every year, each lasting three days, +one beginning on the 24th of June, the other on the 11th of +November. Later these fairs and markets were confirmed with +the addition of an extra market on Thursday to Sir William +Ayloffe, baronet, who had succeeded David Waterhouse as lord +of the manor. The market rights were sold to the Markets +Company in 1810 and purchased from them by the corporation +in 1853.</p> + +<p>During the Civil War Halifax was garrisoned by parliament, +and a field near it is still called the Bloody Field on account of +an engagement which took place there between the forces of +parliament and the Royalists.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Victoria County History</i>, “Yorkshire”; T. Wright, <i>The +Antiquities of the Town of Halifax</i> (Leeds, 1738); John Watson, +<i>The History and Antiquities of the Parish of Halifax</i> (London, 1775); +John Crabtree, <i>A Concise History of the Parish and Vicarage of +Halifax</i> (Halifax and London, 1836).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ḤALIṢAH<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> (Hebrew, <span title="halitza">חליצה</span> “untying”), the ceremony by +which a Jewish widow releases her brother-in-law from the +obligation to marry her in accordance with Deuteronomy xxv. +5-10, and obtains her own freedom to remarry. By the law +of Moses it became obligatory upon the brother of a man +dying childless to take his widow as wife. If he refused, “then +shall his brother’s wife come unto him in the presence of the +elders and loose his shoe from off his foot, and spit in his face, +and shall answer and say, So shall it be done unto that man that +will not build up his brother’s house.” By Rabbinical law the +ceremony was later made more complex. The parties appear +before a court of three elders with two assessors. The place is +usually the synagogue house, or that of the Rabbi, sometimes +that of the widow. After inquiry as to the relationship of the +parties and their status (for if either be a minor or deformed, +ḥaliṣah cannot take place), the shoe is produced. It is usually +the property of the community and made entirely of leather +from the skin of a “clean” animal. It is of two pieces, the upper +part and the sole, sewn together with leathern threads. It has +three small straps in front, and two white straps to bind it on +the leg. After it is strapped on, the man must walk four cubits +in the presence of the court. The widow then loosens and +removes the shoe, throwing it some distance, and spits on the +ground, repeating thrice the Biblical formula “So shall it be +done,” &c. Ḥaliṣah, which is still common among orthodox +Jews, must not take place on the Sabbath, a holiday, or the eve +of either, or in the evening. To prevent brothers-in-law from +extorting money from a widow as a price for releasing her from +perpetual widowhood, Jewish law obliges all brothers at the time +of a marriage to sign a document pledging themselves to submit +to ḥaliṣah without payment. (Compare <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Levirate</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALKETT, HUGH,<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> <span class="sc">Freiherr von</span> (1783-1863), British +soldier and general of infantry in the Hanoverian service, was the +second son of Major-General F. G. Halkett, who had served +many years in the army, and whose ancestors had for several +generations distinguished themselves in foreign services. With +the “Scotch Brigade” which his father had been largely instrumental +in raising, Hugh Halkett served in India from 1798 to +1801. In 1803 his elder brother Colin was appointed to command +a battalion of the newly formed King’s German Legion, and in +this he became senior captain and then major. Under his +brother’s command he served with Cathcart’s expeditions to +Hanover, Rügen and Copenhagen, where his bold initiative on +outpost duty won commendation. He was in the Peninsula in +1808-1809, and at Walcheren. At Albuera, Salamanca, &c., he +commanded the 2nd Light Infantry Battalion, K.G.L., in succession +to his brother, and at Venta del Pozo in the Burgos +retreat he greatly distinguished himself. In 1813 he left the +Peninsula and was subsequently employed in the organization +of the new Hanoverian army. He led a brigade of these troops +in Count Wallmoden’s army, and bore a marked part in the battle +of Göhrde and the action of Schestedt, where he took with his +own hand a Danish standard. In the Waterloo campaign he +commanded two brigades of Hanoverian militia which were sent +to the front with the regulars, and during the fight with the +Old Guard captured General Cambronne. After the fall of +Napoleon he elected to stay in the Hanoverian service, though +he retained his half-pay lieutenant-colonelcy in the English army. +He rose to be general and inspector-general of infantry. In his +old age he led the Xth Federal Army Corps in the Danish War +of 1848, and defeated the Danes at Oversee. He had the G.C.H., +the C.B. and many foreign orders, including the Prussian +order of the Black Eagle and <i>pour le Mérite</i> and the Russian +St Anne.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Knesebeck, <i>Leben des Freiherrn Hugh von Halkett</i> (Stuttgart, +1865).</p> +</div> + +<p>His brother, <span class="sc">Sir Colin Halkett</span> (1774-1856), British soldier, +began his military career in the Dutch Guards and served in +various “companies” for three years, leaving as a captain in +1795. From 1800 to the peace of Amiens he served with the +Dutch troops in English pay in Guernsey. In August 1803 +Halkett was one of the first officers assigned to the service of +raising the King’s German Legion, and he became major, and +later lieutenant-colonel, commanding the 2nd Light Infantry +Battalion. His battalion was employed in the various expeditions +mentioned above, from Hanover to Walcheren, and in 1811 +Colin Halkett succeeded Charles Alten in the command of the +Light Brigade, K.G.L., which he held throughout the Peninsula +War from Albuera to Toulouse. In 1815 Major-General Sir Colin +Halkett commanded the 5th British Brigade of Alten’s division, +and at Waterloo he received four wounds. Unlike his brother, +he remained in the British service, in which he rose to +general. At the time of his death he was governor of Chelsea +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page845" id="page845"></a>845</span> +hospital. He had honorary general’s rank in the Hanoverian +service, the G.C.B. and G.C.H., as well as numerous foreign +orders.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For information about both the Halketts, see Beamish, <i>History +of the King’s German Legion</i> (1832).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALL, BASIL<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> (1788-1844), British naval officer, traveller and +miscellaneous writer, was born at Edinburgh on the 31st of +December 1788. His father was Sir James Hall of Dunglass, the +geologist. Basil Hall was educated at the High School, Edinburgh, +and in 1802 entered the navy, where he rose to the rank of post-captain +in 1817, after seeing active service in several fields. +By observing the ethnological as well as the physical peculiarities +of the countries he visited, he collected the materials for a very +large number of scientific papers. In 1816 he commanded the +sloop “Lyra,” which accompanied Lord Amherst’s embassy to +China; and he described his cruise in <i>An Account of a Voyage of +Discovery to the West Coast of Corea and the Great Loo-choo Island +in the Japan Sea</i> (London, 1818). In 1820 he held a command on +the Pacific coast of America, and in 1824 published two volumes +of <i>Extracts from a Journal written on the Coasts of Chili, Peru and +Mexico in the Years 1820-21-22</i>. Retiring on half-pay in 1824, +Hall in 1825 married Margaret, daughter of Sir John Hunter, and +in her company travelled (1827-1828) through the United States. +In 1829 he published his <i>Travels in North America in the Years +1827 and 1828</i>, which was assailed by the American press for its +views of American society. <i>Schloss Hainfeld, or a Winter in +Lower Styria</i> (1836), is partly a romance, partly a description +of a visit paid by the author to the castle of the countess Purgstall. +<i>Spain and the Seat of War in Spain</i> appeared in 1837. +<i>The Fragments of Voyages and Travels</i> (9 vols.) were issued in +three detachments between 1831 and 1840. Captain Hall was a +fellow of the Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh, and +of the Royal Astronomical, Royal Geographical and Geological +Societies. His last work, a collection of sketches and tales under +the name of <i>Patchwork</i> (1841), had not been long published before +its author became insane, and he died in Haslar hospital, Portsmouth, +on the 11th of September 1844.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALL, CARL CHRISTIAN<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> (1812-1888), Danish statesman, son +of the highly respected artisan and train-band colonel Mads Hall, +was born at Christianshavn on the 25th of February 1812. +After a distinguished career at school and college, he adopted the +law as his profession, and in 1837 married the highly gifted but +eccentric Augusta Marie, daughter of the philologist Peter Oluf +Bröndsted. A natural conservatism indisposed Hall at first to +take any part in the popular movement of 1848, to which almost +all his friends had already adhered; but the moment he was convinced +of the inevitability of popular government, he resolutely +and sympathetically followed in the new paths. Sent to the +<i>Rigsforsamling</i> of 1848 as member for the first district of Copenhagen, +a constituency he continued to represent in the <i>Folketing</i> +till 1881, he immediately took his place in the front rank of +Danish politicians. From the first he displayed rare ability as +a debater, his inspiring and yet amiable personality attracted +hosts of admirers, while his extraordinary tact and temper +disarmed opposition and enabled him to mediate between +extremes without ever sacrificing principles.</p> + +<p>Hall was not altogether satisfied with the fundamental law of +June; but he considered it expedient to make the best use +possible of the existing constitution and to unite the best conservative +elements of the nation in its defence. The aloofness +and sulkiness of the aristocrats and landed proprietors he +deeply deplored. Failing to rally them to the good cause he +determined anyhow to organize the great cultivated middle class +into a political party. Hence the “June Union,” whose programme +was progress and reform in the spirit of the constitution, +and at the same time opposition to the one-sided democratism +and party-tyranny of the <i>Bondevenner</i> or peasant party. The +“Union” exercised an essential influence on the elections of +1852, and was, in fact, the beginning of the national Liberal +party, which found its natural leader in Hall. During the years +1852-1854 the burning question of the day was the connexion +between the various parts of the monarchy. Hall was “eiderdansk” +by conviction. He saw in the closest possible union +between the kingdom and a Schleswig freed from all risk of +German interference the essential condition for Denmark’s +independence; but he did not think that Denmark was strong +enough to carry such a policy through unsupported, and he +was therefore inclined to promote it by diplomatic means and +international combinations, and strongly opposed to the Conventions +of 1851-1852 (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Denmark</a></span>: <i>History</i>), though he was +among the first, subsequently, to accept them as an established +fact and the future basis for Denmark’s policy.</p> + +<p>Hall first took office in the Bang administration (12th of +December 1854) as minister of public worship. In May 1857 +he became president of the council after Andrae, Bang’s successor, +had retired, and in July 1858 he exchanged the ministry +of public worship for the ministry of foreign affairs, while still +retaining the premiership.</p> + +<p>Hall’s programme, “den Konstitutionelle Helstat,” <i>i.e.</i> a +single state with a common constitution, was difficult enough +in a monarchy which included two nationalities, one of which, +to a great extent, belonged to a foreign and hostile jurisdiction. +But as this political monstrosity had already been guaranteed +by the Conventions of 1851-1852, Hall could not rid himself +of it, and the attempt to establish this “Helstat” was made +accordingly by the Constitution of the 13th of November 1863. +The failure of the attempt and its disastrous consequences for +Denmark are described elsewhere. Here it need only be said that +Hall himself soon became aware of the impossibility of the +“Helstat,” and his whole policy aimed at making its absurdity +patent to Europe, and substituting for it a constitutional Denmark +to the Eider which would be in a position to come to terms +with an independent Holstein. That this was the best thing +possible for Denmark is absolutely indisputable, and “the +diplomatic Seven Years’ War” which Hall in the meantime +conducted with all the powers interested in the question is the +most striking proof of his superior statesmanship. Hall knew +that in the last resort the question must be decided not by the +pen but by the sword. But he relied, ultimately, on the protection +of the powers which had guaranteed the integrity of +Denmark by the treaty of London, and if words have any +meaning at all he had the right to expect at the very least the +armed support of Great Britain.<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> But the great German powers +and the force of circumstances proved too strong for him. On +the accession of the new king, Christian IX., Hall resigned rather +than repeal the November Constitution, which gave Denmark +something to negotiate upon in case of need. But he made +matters as easy as he could for his successors in the Monrad +administration, and the ultimate catastrophe need not have +been as serious as it was had his advice, frankly given, been +intelligently followed.</p> + +<p>After 1864 Hall bore more than his fair share of the odium +and condemnation which weighed so heavily upon the national +Liberal party, making no attempt to repudiate responsibility +and refraining altogether from attacking patently unscrupulous +opponents. But his personal popularity suffered not the slightest +diminution, while his clear, almost intuitive, outlook and his +unconquerable faith in the future of his country made him, during +those difficult years, a factor of incalculable importance in the +public life of Denmark. In 1870 he joined the Holstein-Holsteinborg +ministry as minister of public worship, and in +that capacity passed many useful educational reforms, but on +the fall of the administration, in 1873, he retired altogether +from public life. In the summer of 1879 Hall was struck down +by apoplexy, and for the remaining nine years of his life he +was practically bedridden. He died on the 14th of August +1888. In politics Hall was a practical, sagacious “opportunist,” +in the best sense of that much abused word, with an eye +rather for things than for persons. Moreover, he had no very +pronounced political ambition, and was an utter stranger +to that longing for power, which drives so many men of talent +to adopt extreme expedients. His urbanity and perfect +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page846" id="page846"></a>846</span> +equilibrium at the very outset incited sympathy, while his wit +and humour made him the centre of every circle within which +he moved.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Vilhelm Christian Sigurd Topsöe, <i>Polit. Portraetstudier</i> (Copenhagen, +1878); Schöller Parelius Vilhelm Birkedal, <i>Personlige Oplevelser</i> +(Copenhagen, 1890-1891).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> On this head see the 3rd marquess of Salisbury’s <i>Political Essays</i>, +reprinted from the <i>Quarterly Review</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALL, CHARLES FRANCIS<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> (1821-1871), American Arctic +explorer, was born at Rochester, New Hampshire. After +following the trade of blacksmith he became a journalist in +Cincinnati; but his enthusiasm for Arctic exploration led him +in 1859 to volunteer to the American Geographical Society +to “go in search for the bones of Franklin.” With the proceeds +of a public subscription he was equipped for his expedition +and sailed in May 1860 on board a whaling vessel. The whaler +being ice-bound, Hall took up his abode in the regions to the +north of Hudson Bay, where he found relics of Frobisher’s +16th-century voyages, and living with the Eskimo for two years +he acquired a considerable knowledge of their habits and language. +He published an account of these experiences under the +title of <i>Arctic Researches, and Life among the Esquimaux</i> (1864). +Determined, however, to learn more about the fate of the Franklin +expedition he returned to the same regions in 1864, and passing +five years among the Eskimo was successful in obtaining a +number of Franklin relics, as well as information pointing to the +exact fate of 76 of the crew, whilst also performing some geographical +work of interest. In 1871 he was given command of +the North Polar expedition fitted out by the United States +Government in the “Polaris.” Making a remarkably rapid +passage up Smith Sound at the head of Baffin Bay, which was +found to be ice-free, the “Polaris” reached on the 30th of August +the lat. of 82° 11′, at that time, and until the English expedition +of 1876 the highest northern latitude attained by vessel. The +expedition went into winter quarters in a sheltered cove on the +Greenland coast. On the 24th of October, Hall on his return +from a successful sledge expedition to the north was suddenly +seized by an illness of which he died on the 8th of November. +Capt. S. O. Buddington (1823-1888) assumed command, and +although the “Polaris” was subsequently lost after breaking +out of the ice, with only part of the crew aboard, the whole were +ultimately rescued, and the scientific results of the expedition +proved to be of considerable importance.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALL, CHRISTOPHER NEWMAN<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> (1816-1902), English +Nonconformist divine, was born at Maidstone on the 22nd of +May 1816. His father was John Vine Hall, proprietor and +printer of the <i>Maidstone Journal</i>, and the author of a popular +evangelical work called <i>The Sinner’s Friend</i>. Christopher was +educated at University College, London, and took the London +B.A. degree. His theological training was gained at Highbury +College, whence he was called in 1842 to his first pastorate at +the Albion Congregational Church, Hull. During the twelve +years of his ministry there the membership was greatly increased, +and a branch chapel and school were opened. At Hull Newman +Hall first began his active work in temperance reform, and in +defence of his position wrote <i>The Scriptural Claims of Teetotalism</i>. +In 1854 he accepted a call to Surrey chapel, London, founded +in 1783 by the Rev. Rowland Hill. A considerable sum had +been bequeathed by Hill for the perpetuation of his work on +the expiration of the lease; but, owing to some legal flaw in the +will, the money was not available, and Newman Hall undertook +to raise the necessary funds for a new church. By weekly +offertories and donations the money for the beautiful building +called Christ Church at the junction of the Kennington and +Westminster Bridge Roads was collected, and within four years +of opening (1876) the total cost (£63,000) was cleared. In 1892 +Newman Hall resigned his charge and devoted himself to general +evangelical work. Most of his writings are small booklets or +tracts of a distinctly evangelical character. The best known +of these is <i>Come to Jesus</i>, of which over four million copies +have been circulated in forty different languages. Newman Hall +visited the United States during the Civil War, and did much +to promote a friendly understanding between England and +America. A Liberal in politics, and a keen admirer of John +Bright, few preachers of any denomination have exercised so +far-reaching an influence as the “Dissenters’ Bishop,” as he +came to be termed. He died on the 18th of February 1902.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See his <i>Autobiography</i> (1898); obituary notice in <i>The Congregational +Year Book</i> for 1903.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALL, EDWARD<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1498-1547), English chronicler and +lawyer, was born about the end of the 15th century, being a +son of John Hall of Northall, Shropshire. Educated at Eton +and King’s College, Cambridge, he became a barrister and afterwards +filled the offices of common sergeant of the city of London +and judge of the sheriff’s court. He was also member of parliament +for Bridgnorth. Hall’s great work, <i>The Union of the Noble +and Illustre Famelies of Lancastre and York</i>, commonly called +<i>Hall’s Chronicle</i>, was first published in 1542. Another edition +was issued by Richard Grafton in 1548, the year after Hall’s +death, and another in 1550; these include a continuation from +1532 compiled by Grafton from the author’s notes. In 1809 +an edition was published under the supervision of Sir Henry +Ellis, and in 1904 the part dealing with the reign of Henry VIII. +was edited by C. Whibley. The <i>Chronicle</i> begins with the +accession of Henry IV. to the English throne in 1399; it follows +the strife between the houses of Lancaster and York, and with +Grafton’s continuation carries the story down to the death of +Henry VIII. in 1547. Hall presents the policy of this king in a +very favourable light and shows his own sympathy with the +Protestants. For all kinds of ceremonial he has all a lawyer’s +respect, and his pages are often adorned and encumbered with +the pageantry and material garniture of the story. The value of +the <i>Chronicle</i> in its early stages is not great, but this increases +when dealing with the reign of Henry VII. and is very considerable +for the reign of Henry VIII. Moreover, the work is not only +valuable, it is attractive. To the historian it furnishes what is +evidently the testimony of an eye-witness on several matters +of importance which are neglected by other narrators; and to +the student of literature it has the exceptional interest of being +one of the prime sources of Shakespeare’s historical plays.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. Gairdner, <i>Early Chroniclers of Europe; England</i> (1879).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALL, FITZEDWARD<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> (1825-1901), American Orientalist, +was born in Troy, New York, on the 21st of March 1825. He +graduated with the degree of civil engineer from the Rensselaer +Polytechnic Institute at Troy in 1842, and entered Harvard in +the class of 1846; just before his class graduated he left college +and went to India in search of a runaway brother. In January +1850 he was appointed tutor, and in 1853 professor of Sanskrit +and English, in the government college at Benares; and in +1855 was made inspector of public instruction in Ajmere-Merwara +and in 1856 in the Central Provinces. He settled in England +in 1862 and received the appointment to the chair of Sanskrit, +Hindustani and Indian jurisprudence in King’s College, London, +and to the librarianship of the India Office. He died at Marlesford, +Suffolk, on the 1st of February 1901. Hall was the first +American to edit a Sanskrit text, the <i>Vishnupurāna</i>; his library +of a thousand Oriental MSS. he gave to Harvard University.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His works include: in Sanskrit, <i>Atmabodha</i> (1852), <i>Sānkhyaprāvachana</i> +(1856), <i>Sāryasiddhānta</i> (1859), <i>Vāsavadattū</i> (1859), +<i>Sānkhyasāra</i> (1862) and <i>Dasarūpa</i> (1865); in Hindi, Ballantynes’ +<i>Hindi Grammar</i> (1868) and a <i>Reader</i> (1870); on English philology, +<i>Recent Exemplifications of False Philology</i> (1872), attacking Richard +Grant White, <i>Modern English</i> (1873), “On English Adjectives in -able, +with Special Reference to Reliable” (<i>Am. Jour. Philology</i>, +1877), <i>Doctor Indoctus</i> (1880).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALL, ISAAC HOLLISTER<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> (1837-1896), American Orientalist, +was born in Norwalk, Connecticut, on the 12th of December +1837. He graduated at Hamilton College in 1859, was a tutor +there in 1859-1863, graduated at the Columbia Law School in +1865, practised law in New York City until 1875, and in 1875-1877 +taught in the Syrian Protestant College at Beirut, where he +discovered a valuable Syriac manuscript of the Philoxenian +version of a large part of the New Testament, which he published +in part in facsimile in 1884. He worked with General di Cesnola +in classifying the famous Cypriote collection in the Metropolitan +Museum of New York City, and was a curator of that museum +from 1885 until his death in Mount Vernon, New York, on the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page847" id="page847"></a>847</span> +2nd of July 1896. He was an eminent authority on Oriental +inscriptions. Following the scanty clues given by George Smith +and Samuel Birch, and working on the data furnished by the +di Cesnola collection, he succeeded about 1874 in deciphering +an entire Cypriote inscription, and in establishing the +Hellenic character of the dialect and the syllabic nature of the +script.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His work in Cypriote epigraphy is described in his articles in +<i>Scribner’s Magazine</i>, vol. 20 (June, 1880), pp. 205-211 and in the +<i>Journal of the American Oriental Society</i>, vol. 10, No. 2 (1880), +pp. 201-218. He published in facsimile the Antilegomena epistles +(1886), which he deciphered from the W. F. Williams manuscript, +and edited <i>A Critical Bibliography of the Greek New Testament as +Published in America</i> (1884).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALL, SIR JAMES<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> (1761-1832), Scottish geologist and +physicist, eldest son of Sir John Hall, Bart., was born at Dunglass +on the 17th of January 1761; and became distinguished +as the first to establish experimental research as an aid to geological +investigation. He was intimately acquainted with James +Hutton and John Playfair, and having studied rocks in various +parts of Europe he was eventually led to accept and to demonstrate +the truth of Hutton’s views with regard to intrusive rocks. +He commenced a series of experiments to illustrate the fusion of +rocks, their vitreous and crystalline characters, and the influence +of molten rocks in altering adjacent strata. He thus assisted +in proving that granitic veins had been injected into overlying +deposits after their consolidation. He studied the volcanic rocks +in Italy and recognized that the old lava flows and the numerous +dikes in Scotland must have had a similar origin. He made +further experiments to illustrate the contortions of rocks. The +results were brought before the Royal Society of Edinburgh. +He died at Edinburgh on the 23rd of June 1832. He represented +in parliament (1807-1812) the old borough of Michael in Cornwall; +he also wrote an Essay on the <i>Origin, History and Principles +of Gothic Architecture</i> (1813).</p> + +<p>His eldest son, John Hall (1787-1860), who succeeded him, +was a Fellow of the Royal Society; the second son, Captain +Basil Hall (<i>q.v.</i>), was the distinguished traveller; the third son, +James Hall (1800-1854), was a painter, art-patron, and a friend +of Sir David Wilkie.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALL, JAMES<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> (1793-1868), American judge and man of letters, +was born at Philadelphia on the 19th of August 1793. After for +some time prosecuting the study of law, he in 1812 joined the +army, and in the war with Great Britain distinguished himself in +engagements at Lundy’s Lane, Niagara and Fort Erie. On +the conclusion of the war he accompanied an expedition against +Algiers, but in 1818 he resigned his commission, and continued +the study of law at Pittsburg. In 1820 he removed to Shawneetown, +Illinois, where he commenced practice at the bar and also +edited the <i>Illinois Gazette</i>. Soon after he was appointed public +prosecutor of the circuit, and in 1824 state circuit judge. In 1827 +he became state treasurer, and held that office till 1831, but he +continued at the same time his legal practice and also edited +the <i>Illinois Intelligencer</i>. Subsequently he became editor of the +<i>Western Souvenir</i>, an annual publication, and of the <i>Illinois +Monthly Magazine</i>, afterwards the <i>Western Monthly Magazine</i>. +He died near Cincinnati on the 5th of July 1868.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The following are his principal works:—<i>Letters from the West</i>, +originally contributed to the <i>Portfolio</i>, and collected and published +in London in 1828; <i>Legends of the West</i> (1832); <i>The Soldier’s Bride +and other Tales</i> (1832); <i>The Harpe’s Head, a Legend of Kentucky</i> +(1833); <i>Sketches of the West</i> (2 vols., 1835); <i>Tales of the Border</i> +(1835); <i>Notes on the Western States</i> (1838); <i>History of the Indian +Tribes</i>, in conjunction with T. L. M‘Keeney (3 vols., 1838-1844); +<i>The Wilderness and the War-Path</i> (1845); <i>Romance of Western +History</i> (1857).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALL, JAMES<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span> (1811-1898). American geologist and palaeontologist, +was born at Hingham, Massachusetts, on the 12th of +September 1811. In early life he became attached to the study +of natural history, and he completed his education at the polytechnic +institute at Troy in New York, where he graduated in +1832, and afterwards became professor of chemistry and natural +science, and subsequently of geology. In 1836 he was appointed +one of the geologists on the Geological Survey of the state of +New York, and he was before long charged with the palaeontological +work. Eventually he became state geologist and director +of the museum of natural history at Albany. His published +papers date from 1836, and include numerous reports on the +geology and palaeontology of various portions of the United +States and Canada. He dealt likewise with physical geology, +and in 1859 discussed the connexion between the accumulation +of sedimentary deposits and the elevation of mountain-chains. +His chief work was the description of the invertebrate fossils of +New York—in which he dealt with the graptolites, brachiopods, +mollusca, trilobites, echini and crinoids of the Palaeozoic +formations. The results were published in a series of quarto +volumes entitled <i>Palaeontology of New York</i> (1847-1894), in +which he was assisted in course of time by R. P. Whitfield and +J. M. Clarke. He published also reports on the geology of Oregon +and California (1845), Utah (1852), Iowa (1859) and Wisconsin +(1862). He received the Wollaston medal from the Geological +Society of London in 1858. He was a man of great energy and +untiring industry, and in 1897, when in his eighty-sixth year, he +journeyed to St Petersburg to take part in the International +Geological Congress, and then joined the excursion to the Ural +mountains. He died at Albany on the 7th of August 1898.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Life and Work of James Hall</i>, by H. C. Hovey, <i>Amer. Geol.</i> +xxiii., 1899, p. 137 (portraits).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALL, JOSEPH<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> (1574-1656), English bishop and satirist, +was born at Bristow park, near Ashby de la Zouch, Leicestershire, +on the 1st of July 1574. His father, John Hall, was agent +in the town for Henry, earl of Huntingdon, and his mother, +Winifred Bambridge, was a pious lady, whom her son compared +to St Monica. Joseph Hall received his early education at the +local school, and was sent (1589) to Emmanuel College, Cambridge. +Hall was chosen for two years in succession to read the +public lecture on rhetoric in the schools, and in 1595 became fellow +of his college. During his residence at Cambridge he wrote his +<i>Virgidemiarum</i> (1597), satires written after Latin models. The +claim he put forward in the prologue to be the earliest English +satirist:—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“I first adventure, follow me who list</p> +<p class="i05">And be the second English satirist”—</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">gave bitter offence to John Marston, who attacks him in the +satires published in 1598. The archbishop of Canterbury gave +an order (1599) that Hall’s satires should be burnt with works +of John Marston, Marlowe, Sir John Davies and others on the +ground of licentiousness, but shortly afterwards Hall’s book, +certainly unjustly condemned, was ordered to be “staied at the +press,” which may be interpreted as reprieved (see <i>Notes and +Queries</i>, 3rd series, xii. 436). Having taken holy orders, Hall +was offered the mastership of Blundell’s school, Tiverton, but +he refused it in favour of the living of Halsted, Essex, to which +he was presented (1601) by Sir Robert Drury. In his parish +he had an opponent in a Mr Lilly, whom he describes as “a +witty and bold atheist.” In 1603 he married; and in 1605 he +accompanied Sir Edmund Bacon to Spa, with the special aim, +he says, of acquainting himself with the state and practice of +the Romish Church. At Brussels he disputed at the Jesuit +College on the authentic character of modern miracles, and his +inquiring and argumentative disposition more than once +threatened to produce serious results, so that his patron at +length requested him to abstain from further discussion. His +devotional writings had attracted the notice of Henry, prince +of Wales, who made him one of his chaplains (1608). In 1612 +Lord Denny, afterwards earl of Norwich, gave him the curacy +of Waltham-Holy-Cross, Essex, and in the same year he received +the degree of D.D. Later he received the prebend of Willenhall +in the collegiate church of Wolverhampton, and in 1616 he +accompanied James Hay, Lord Doncaster, afterwards earl of +Carlisle, to France, where he was sent to congratulate Louis XIII. +on his marriage, but Hall was compelled by illness to return. +In his absence the king nominated him dean of Worcester, and +in 1617 he accompanied James to Scotland, where he defended +the five points of ceremonial which the king desired to impose +upon the Scots. In the next year he was one of the English +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page848" id="page848"></a>848</span> +deputies at the synod of Dort. In 1624 he refused the see of +Gloucester, but in 1627 became bishop of Exeter.</p> + +<p>He took an active part in the Arminian and Calvinist controversy +in the English church. He did his best in his <i>Via media, +The Way of Peace</i>, to persuade the two parties to accept a compromise. +In spite of his Calvinistic opinions he maintained +that to acknowledge the errors which had arisen in the Catholic +Church did not necessarily imply disbelief in her catholicity, +and that the Church of England having repudiated these errors +should not deny the claims of the Roman Catholic Church on +that account. This view commended itself to Charles I. and +his episcopal advisers, but at the same time Archbishop Laud +sent spies into Hall’s diocese to report on the Calvinistic tendencies +of the bishop and his lenience to the Puritan and low-church +clergy. Hall says he was thrice down on his knees to +the King to answer Laud’s accusations and at length threatened +to “cast up his rochet” rather than submit to them. He was, +however, amenable to criticism, and his defence of the English +Church, entitled <i>Episcopacy by Divine Right</i> (1640), was twice +revised at Laud’s dictation. This was followed by <i>An Humble +Remonstrance to the High Court of Parliament</i> (1640 and 1641), +an eloquent and forceful defence of his order, which produced +a retort from the syndicate of Puritan divines, who wrote under +the name of “Smectymnuus,” and was followed by a long +controversy to which Milton contributed five pamphlets, +virulently attacking Hall and his early satires.</p> + +<p>In 1641 Hall was translated to the see of Norwich, and in the +same year sat on the Lords’ Committee on religion. On the +30th of December he was, with other bishops, brought before +the bar of the House of Lords to answer a charge of high treason +of which the Commons had voted them guilty. They were +finally convicted of an offence against the Statute of Praemunire, +and condemned to forfeit their estates, receiving a small maintenance +from the parliament. They were immured in the Tower +from New Year to Whitsuntide, when they were released on +finding bail for £5000 each. On his release Hall proceeded to his +new diocese at Norwich, the revenues of which he seems for a +time to have received, but in 1643, when the property of the +“malignants” was sequestrated, Hall was mentioned by name. +Mrs Hall had difficulty in securing a fifth of the maintenance +(£400) assigned to the bishop by the parliament; they were +eventually ejected from the palace, and the cathedral was +dismantled. Hall retired to the village of Higham, near Norwich, +where he spent the time preaching and writing until “he was +first forbidden by man, and at last disabled by God.” He bore +his many troubles and the additional burden of much bodily +suffering with sweetness and patience, dying on the 8th of +September 1656. Thomas Fuller says: “He was commonly +called our English Seneca, for the purenesse, plainnesse, and +fulnesse of his style. Not unhappy at <i>Controversies</i>, more happy +at <i>Comments</i>, very good in his <i>Characters</i>, better in his <i>Sermons</i>, +best of all in his <i>Meditations</i>.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Bishop Hall’s polemical writings, although vigorous and effective, +were chiefly of ephemeral interest, but many of his devotional +writings have been often reprinted. It is by his early work as the +censor of morals and the unsparing critic of contemporary literary +extravagance and affectations that he is best known. <i>Virgidemiarum.</i> +<i>Sixe Bookes.</i> <i>First three Bookes.</i> <i>Of Toothlesse Satyrs.</i> +(1) <i>Poeticall</i>, (2) <i>Academicall</i>, (3) <i>Morall</i> (1597) was followed by an +amended edition in 1598, and in the same year by <i>Virgidemiarum</i>. +<i>The three last bookes.</i> <i>Of byting Satyres</i> (reprinted 1599). His claim +to be reckoned the earliest English satirist, even in the formal sense, +cannot be justified. Thomas Lodge, in his <i>Fig for Momus</i> (1593), +had written four satires in the manner of Horace, and John Marston +and John Donne both wrote satires about the same time, although +the publication was in both cases later than that of <i>Virgidemiae</i>. +But if he was not the earliest, Hall was certainly one of the best. +He writes in the heroic couplet, which he manœuvres with great +ease and smoothness. In the first book of his satires (<i>Poeticall</i>) he +attacks the writers whose verses were devoted to licentious subjects, +the bombast of <i>Tamburlaine</i> and tragedies built on similar lines, the +laments of the ghosts of the <i>Mirror for Magistrates</i>, the metrical +eccentricities of Gabriel Harvey and Richard Stanyhurst, the +extravagances of the sonneteers, and the sacred poets (Southwell is +aimed at in “Now good St Peter weeps pure Helicon, And both the +Mary’s make a music moan”). In Book II. Satire 6 occurs the well-known +description of the trencher-chaplain, who is tutor and hanger-on +in a country manor. Among his other satirical portraits is that of +the famished gallant, the guest of “Duke Humfray.”<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Book VI. +consists of one long satire on the various vices and follies dealt with +in the earlier books. If his prose is sometimes antithetical and +obscure, his verse is remarkably free from the quips and conceits +which mar so much contemporary poetry.</p> + +<p>He also wrote <i>The King’s Prophecie; or Weeping Joy</i> (1603), +a gratulatory poem on the accession of James I.; <i>Epistles</i>, both the +first and second volumes of which appeared in 1608 and a third in +1611; <i>Characters of Virtues and Vices</i> (1608), versified by Nahum +Tate (1691); <i>Solomons Divine Arts ...</i> (1609); and, probably +<i>Mundus alter et idem sive Terra Australis antehac semper incognita +... lustrata</i> (1605? and 1607), by “Mercurius Britannicus,” +translated into English by John Healy (1608) as <i>The Discovery +of a New World or A Description of the South Indies ... by an +English Mercury</i>. <i>Mundus alter</i> is an excuse for a satirical description +of London, with some criticism of the Romish church, its +manners and customs, and is said to have furnished Swift with +hints for <i>Gulliver’s Travels</i>. It was not ascribed to him by name +until 1674, when Thomas Hyde, the librarian of the Bodleian, +identified “Mercurius Britannicus” with Joseph Hall. For the +question of the authorship of this pamphlet, and the arguments that +may be advanced in favour of the suggestion that it was written by +Alberico Gentili, see E. A. Petherick, <i>Mundus alter et idem</i>, reprinted +from the <i>Gentleman’s Magazine</i> (July 1896). His controversial +writings, not already mentioned, include:—<i>A Common Apology +... against the Brownists</i> (1610), in answer to John Robinson’s +<i>Censorious Epistle</i>; <i>The Olde Religion: A treatise, wherein is laid +downe the true state of the difference betwixt the Reformed and the +Romane Church; and the blame of this schisme is cast upon the true +Authors ...</i> (1628); <i>Columba Noae olivam adferens ...</i>, a sermon +preached at St Paul’s in 1623; <i>Episcopacie by Divine Right</i> (1640); +<i>A Short Answer to the Vindication of Smectymnuus</i> (1641); <i>A Modest +Confutation of ...</i> (<i>Milton’s</i>) <i>Animadversions</i> (1642).</p> + +<p>His devotional works include:—<i>Holy Observations Lib. I. Some few +of David’s Psalmes Metaphrased</i> (1607 and 1609); three centuries of +<i>Meditations and Vowes, Divine and Morall</i> (1606, 1607, 1609), edited +by Charles Sayle (1901); <i>The Arte of Divine Meditation</i> (1607); +<i>Heaven upon Earth, or of True Peace and Tranquillitie of Mind</i> (1606), +reprinted with some of his letters in John Wesley’s <i>Christian Library</i>, +vol. iv. (1819); <i>Occasional Meditations ...</i> (1630), edited by his +son Robert Hall; <i>Henochisme; or a Treatise showing how to walk +with God</i> (1639), translated from Bishop Hall’s Latin by Moses Wall; +<i>The Devout Soul; or Rules of Heavenly Devotion</i> (1644), often since +reprinted; <i>The Balm of Gilead ...</i> (1646, 1752); <i>Christ Mysticall; +or the blessed union of Christ and his Members</i> (1647), of which +General Gordon was a student (reprinted from Gordon’s copy, 1893); +<i>Susurrium cum Deo</i> (1659); <i>The Great Mysterie of Godliness</i> (1650); +<i>Resolutions and Decisions of Divers Practicall cases of Conscience</i> +(1649, 1650, 1654).</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—The chief authority for Hall’s biography is to be +found in his autobiographical tracts: <i>Observations of some Specialities +of Divine Providence in the Life of Joseph Hall, Bishop of Norwich, +Written with his own hand</i>; and his <i>Hard Measure</i>, a reprint of which +may be consulted in Dr Christopher Wordsworth’s <i>Ecclesiastical +Biography</i>. The best criticism of his satires is to be found in Thomas +Warton’s <i>History of English Poetry</i>, vol. iv. pp. 363-409 (ed. Hazlitt, +1871), where a comparison is instituted between Marston and Hall. +In 1615 Hall published <i>A Recollection of such treatises as have been +... published ...</i> (1615, 1617, 1621); in 1625 appeared his Works +(reprinted 1627, 1628, 1634, 1662). The first complete <i>Works</i> appeared +in 1808, edited by the Rev. Josiah Pratt. Other editions are +by Peter Hall (1837) and by Philip Wynter (1863). See also <i>Bishop +Hall, his Life and Times</i> (1826), by Rev. John Jones; <i>Life of Joseph +Hall</i>, by Rev. George Lewis (1886); A. B. Grosart, <i>The Complete +Poems of Joseph Hall ... with introductions, &c.</i> (1879); <i>Satires, +&c.</i> (<i>Early English Poets</i>, ed. S. W. Singer, 1824). Many of Hall’s +works were translated into French, and some into Dutch, and there +have been numerous selections from his devotional works.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The tomb of Sir John Beauchamp (d. 1358) in old St Paul’s +was commonly known, in error, as that of Duke Humphrey of Gloucester. +“To dine with Duke Humphrey” was to go hungry among +the debtors and beggars who frequented “Duke Humphrey’s Walk” +in the cathedral.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALL, MARSHALL<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> (1790-1857). English physiologist, was +born on the 18th of February 1790, at Basford, near Nottingham, +where his father, Robert Hall, was a cotton manufacturer. +Having attended the Rev. J. Blanchard’s academy at Nottingham, +he entered a chemist’s shop at Newark, and in 1809 began +to study medicine at Edinburgh University. In 1811 he was +elected senior president of the Royal Medical Society; the +following year he took the M.D. degree, and was immediately +appointed resident house physician to the Royal Infirmary, +Edinburgh. This appointment he resigned after two years, +when he visited Paris and its medical schools, and, on a walking +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page849" id="page849"></a>849</span> +tour, those also of Berlin and Göttingen. In 1817, when he +settled at Nottingham, he published his <i>Diagnosis</i>, and in 1818 +he wrote the <i>Mimoses</i>, a work on the affections denominated +bilious, nervous, &c. The next year he was elected a fellow of +the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and in 1825 he became physician +to the Nottingham general hospital. In 1826 he removed to +London, and in the following year he published his <i>Commentaries</i> +on the more important diseases of females. In 1830 he issued +his <i>Observations on Blood-letting, founded on researches on the +morbid and curative effects of loss of blood</i>, which were acknowledged +by the medical profession to be of vast practical value, +and in 1831 his <i>Experimental Essay on the Circulation of the +Blood in the Capillary Vessels</i>, in which he showed that the +blood-channels intermediate between arteries and veins serve +the office of bringing the fluid blood into contact with the material +tissues of the system. In the following year he read before the +Royal Society a paper “On the inverse ratio which subsists +between Respiration and Irritability in the Animal Kingdom.” +His most important work in physiology was concerned with the +theory of reflex action, embodied in a paper “On the reflex +Function of the Medulla Oblongata and the Medulla Spinalis” +(1832), which was supplemented in 1837 by another “On the True +Spinal Marrow, and the Excito-motor System of Nerves.” The +“reflex function” excited great attention on the continent of +Europe, though in England some of his papers were refused +publication by the Royal Society. Hall thus became the +authority on the multiform deranged states of health referable +to an abnormal condition of the nervous system, and he gained +a large practice. His “ready method” for resuscitation in +drowning and other forms of suspended respiration has been the +means of saving innumerable lives. He died at Brighton of a +throat affection, aggravated by lecturing, on the 11th of August +1857.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A list of his works and details of his “ready method,” &c., are +given in his <i>Memoirs</i> by his widow (London, 1861).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALL, ROBERT<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span> (1764-1831), English Baptist divine, was born +on the 2nd of May 1764, at Arnesby near Leicester, where his +father, Robert Hall (1728-1791), a man whose cast of mind in +some respects resembled closely that of the son, was pastor of a +Baptist congregation. Robert was the youngest of a family of +fourteen. While still at the dame’s school his passion for books +absorbed the greater part of his time, and in the summer it was +his custom after school hours to retire to the churchyard with +a volume, which he continued to peruse there till nightfall, +making out the meaning of the more difficult words with the +help of a pocket dictionary. From his sixth to his eleventh +year he attended the school of Mr Simmons at Wigston, a village +four miles from Arnesby. There his precocity assumed the +exceptional form of an intense interest in metaphysics, partly +perhaps on account of the restricted character of his father’s +library; and before he was nine years of age he had read and +re-read Jonathan Edwards’s <i>Treatise on the Will</i> and Butler’s +<i>Analogy</i>. This incessant study at such an early period of life +seems, however, to have had an injurious influence on his health. +After he left Mr Simmons’s school his appearance was so sickly +as to awaken fears of the presence of phthisis. In order, therefore, +to obtain the benefit of a change of air, he stayed for some time +in the house of a gentleman near Kettering, who with an impropriety +which Hall himself afterwards referred to as “egregious,” +prevailed upon the boy of eleven to give occasional addresses +at prayer meetings. As his health seemed rapidly to recover, +he was sent to a school at Northampton conducted by the Rev. +John Ryland, where he remained a year and a half, and “made +great progress in Latin and Greek.” On leaving school he for +some time studied divinity under the direction of his father, +and in October 1778 he entered the Bristol academy for the preparation +of students for the Baptist ministry. Here the self-possession +which had enabled him in his twelfth year to address +unfalteringly various audiences of grown-up people seems to +have strangely forsaken him; for when, in accordance with the +arrangements of the academy, his turn came to deliver an +address in the vestry of Broadmead chapel, he broke down on +two separate occasions and was unable to finish his discourse. +On the 13th of August 1780 he was set apart to the ministry, +but he still continued his studies at the academy; and in 1781, +in accordance with the provisions of an exhibition which he +held, he entered King’s College, Aberdeen, where he took the +degree of master of arts in March 1785. At the university he was +without a rival of his own standing in any of the classes, distinguishing +himself alike in classics, philosophy and mathematics. +He there formed the acquaintance of Mackintosh (afterwards +Sir James), who, though a year his junior in age, was a year his +senior as a student. While they remained at Aberdeen the two +were inseparable, reading together the best Greek authors, +especially Plato, and discussing, either during their walks by +the sea-shore and the banks of the Don or in their rooms until +early morning, the most perplexed questions in philosophy and +religion.</p> + +<p>During the vacation between his last two sessions at Aberdeen, +Hall acted as assistant pastor to Dr Evans at Broadmead chapel, +Bristol, and three months after leaving the university he was +appointed classical tutor in the Bristol academy, an office which +he held for more than five years. Even at this period his extraordinary +eloquence had excited an interest beyond the bounds +of the denomination to which he belonged, and when he preached +the chapel was generally crowded to excess, the audience including +many persons of intellectual tastes. Suspicions in regard +to his orthodoxy having in 1789 led to a misunderstanding with +his colleague and a part of the congregation, he in July 1790 +accepted an invitation to make trial of a congregation at Cambridge, +of which he became pastor in July of the following year. +From a statement of his opinions contained in a letter to the +congregation which he left, it would appear that, while a firm +believer in the proper divinity of Christ, he had at this time +disowned the cardinal principles of Calvinism—the federal +headship of Adam, and the doctrine of absolute election and +reprobation; and that he was so far a materialist as to “hold +that man’s thinking powers and faculties are the result of a +certain organization of matter, and that after death he ceases +to be conscious till the resurrection.” It was during his Cambridge +ministry, which extended over a period of fifteen years, +that his oratory was most brilliant and most immediately powerful. +At Cambridge the intellectual character of a large part of +the audience supplied a stimulus which was wanting at Leicester +and Bristol.</p> + +<p>His first published compositions had a political origin. In +1791 appeared <i>Christianity consistent with the Love of Freedom</i>, +in which he defended the political conduct of dissenters against +the attacks of the Rev. John Clayton, minister of Weighhouse, +and gave eloquent expression to his hopes of great political and +social ameliorations as destined to result nearly or remotely +from the subversion of old ideas and institutions in the maelstrom +of the French Revolution. In 1793 he expounded his political +sentiments in a powerful and more extended pamphlet entitled +an <i>Apology for the Freedom of the Press</i>. On account, however, +of certain asperities into which the warmth of his feelings had +betrayed him, and his conviction that he had treated his subject +in too superficial a manner, he refused to permit the publication +of the pamphlet beyond the third edition, until the references of +political opponents and the circulation of copies without his +sanction induced him in 1821 to prepare a new edition, from +which he omitted the attack on Bishop Horsley, and to which +he prefixed an advertisement stating that his political opinions +had undergone no substantial change. His other publications +while at Cambridge were three sermons—<i>On Modern Infidelity</i> +(1801), <i>Reflections on War</i> (1802), and <i>Sentiments proper to the +present Crisis</i> (1803). He began, however, to suffer from mental +derangement in November 1804. He recovered so speedily +that he was able to resume his duties in April 1805, but a recurrence +of the malady rendered it advisable for him on his second +recovery to resign his pastoral office in March 1806.</p> + +<p>On leaving Cambridge he paid a visit to his relatives in +Leicestershire, and then for some time resided at Enderby, +preaching occasionally in some of the neighbouring villages. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page850" id="page850"></a>850</span> +Latterly he ministered to a small congregation in Harvey Lane, +Leicester, from whom at the close of 1806 he accepted a call to +be their stated pastor. In the autumn of 1807 he changed his +residence from Enderby to Leicester, and in 1808 he married the +servant of a brother minister. His proposal of marriage had +been made after an almost momentary acquaintance, and, +according to the traditionary account, in very abrupt and +peculiar terms; but, judging from his subsequent domestic +life, his choice did sufficient credit to his penetration and sagacity. +His writings at Leicester embraced various tracts printed for +private circulation; a number of contributions to the <i>Eclectic +Review</i>, among which may be mentioned his articles on “Foster’s +Essays” and on “Zeal without Innovation”; several sermons, +including those <i>On the Advantages of Knowledge to the Lower +Classes</i> (1810), <i>On the Death of the Princess Charlotte</i> (1817), +and <i>On the Death of Dr Ryland</i> (1825); and his pamphlet on +<i>Terms of Communion</i>, in which he advocated intercommunion +with all those who acknowledged the “essentials” of Christianity. +In 1819 he published an edition in one volume of his sermons +formerly printed. On the death of Dr Ryland, Hall was invited +to return to the pastorate of Broadmead chapel, Bristol, and as +the peace of the congregation at Leicester had been to some +degree disturbed by a controversy regarding several cases of +discipline, he resolved to accept the invitation, and removed +there in April 1826. The malady of renal calculus had for many +years rendered his life an almost continual martyrdom, and +henceforth increasing infirmities and sufferings afflicted him. +Gradually the inability to take proper exercise, by inducing +a plethoric habit of body and impeding the circulation, led to a +diseased condition of the heart, which resulted in his death on +the 21st of February 1831. He is remembered as a great pulpit +orator, of a somewhat laboured, rhetorical style in his written +works, but of undeniable vigour in his spoken sermons.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Works of Robert Hall, A.M., with a Brief Memoir of his Life, +by Olinthus Gregory, LL.D., and Observations on his Character as +Preacher by John Foster</i>, originally published in 6 vols. (London, +1832); <i>Reminiscences of the Rev. Robert Hall, A.M.</i>, by John Greene, +(London, 1832); <i>Biographical Recollections of the Rev. Robert Hall</i>, +by J. W. Morris (1848); <i>Fifty Sermons of Robert Hall from Notes +taken at the time of their Delivery</i>, by the Rev. Thomas Grinfield, +M.A. (1843); <i>Reminiscences of College Life in Bristol during the +Ministry of the Rev. Robert Hall, A.M.</i>, by Frederick Trestrail (1879).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALL, SAMUEL CARTER<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> (1800-1889), English journalist, +was born at Waterford on the 9th of May 1800, the son of an +army officer. In 1821 he went to London, and in 1823 became +a parliamentary reporter. From 1826 to 1837 he was editor of +a great number and variety of public prints, and in 1839 he +founded and edited <i>The Art Journal</i>. His exposure of the trade +in bogus “Old Masters” earned for this publication a considerable +reputation. Hall resigned the editorship in 1880, and was +granted a Civil List pension “for his long and valuable services +to literature and art.” He died in London on the 16th of March +1889. His wife, Anna Maria Fielding (1800-1881), became +well known as Mrs S. C. Hall, for her numerous novels, sketches +of Irish life, and plays. Two of the last, <i>The Groves of Blarney</i> +and <i>The French Refugee</i>, were produced in London with success. +She also wrote a number of children’s books, and was practically +interested in various London charities, several of which she +helped to found.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALL, WILLIAM EDWARD<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> (1835-1894), English writer on +international law, was the only child of William Hall, M.D., +a descendant of a junior branch of the Halls of Dunglass, and +of Charlotte, daughter of William Cotton, F.S.A. He was born +on the 22nd of August 1835, at Leatherhead, Surrey, but passed +his childhood abroad, Dr Hall having acted as physician to the +king of Hanover, and subsequently to the British legation at +Naples. Hence, perhaps, the son’s taste in after life for art and +modern languages. He was educated privately till, at the early +age of seventeen, he matriculated at Oxford, where in 1856 he +took his degree with a first class in the then recently instituted +school of law and history, gaining, three years afterwards, the +chancellor’s prize for an essay upon “the effect upon Spain of the +discovery of the precious metals in America.” In 1861 he was +called to the bar at Lincoln’s Inn, but devoted his time less to +any serious attempt to obtain practice than to the study of Italian +art, and to travelling over a great part of Europe, always bringing +home admirable water-colour drawings of buildings and scenery. +He was an early and enthusiastic member of the Alpine Club, +making several first ascents, notably that of the Lyskamm. He +was always much interested in military matters, and was +under fire, on the Danish side, in the war of 1864. In 1867 he +published a pamphlet entitled “A Plan for the Reorganization +of the Army,” and, many years afterwards, he saw as much +as he was permitted to see of the expedition sent for the rescue +of Gordon. He would undoubtedly have made his mark in the +army, but in later life his ideal, which he realized, with much +success, first at Llanfihangel in Monmouthshire, and then at +Coker Court in Somersetshire, was, as has been said, “the English +country gentleman, with cosmopolitan experiences, encyclopaedic +knowledge, and artistic feeling.” His travels took him to +Lapland, Egypt, South America and India. He had done good +work for several government offices, in 1871 as inspector of +returns under the Elementary Education Act, in 1877 by reports +to the Board of Trade upon Oyster Fisheries, in France as well +as in England; and all the time was amassing materials for +ambitious undertakings upon the history of civilization, and of +the colonies. His title to lasting remembrance rests, however, +upon his labours in the realm of international law, recognized +by his election as <i>associé</i> in 1875, and as <i>membre</i> in 1882, of the +<i>Institut de Droit International</i>. In 1874 he published a thin 8vo +upon the <i>Rights and Duties of Neutrals</i>, and followed it up in +1880 by his <i>magnum opus</i>, the <i>Treatise on International Law</i>, +unquestionably the best book upon the subject in the English +language. It is well planned, free from the rhetorical vagueness +which has been the besetting vice of older books of a similar +character, full of information, and everywhere bearing traces +of the sound judgment and statesmanlike views of its author. +In 1894 Hall published a useful monograph upon a little-explored +topic, “the Foreign Jurisdictions of the British Crown,” but +on the 30th of November of the same year, while apparently +in the fullest enjoyment of bodily as well as mental vigour, he +suddenly died. He married, in 1866, Imogen, daughter of +Mr (afterwards Mr Justice) Grove, who died in 1886; and in +1891, Alice, daughter of Colonel Hill of Court Hill, Shropshire, +but left no issue.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See T. E. Holland in <i>Law Quarterly Review</i>, vol. xi. p. 113; and in +<i>Studies in International Law</i>, p. 302.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. E. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALL,<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bad-Hall</span>, a market-place and spa of Austria, in +Upper Austria, 25 m. S. of Linz by rail. Pop. (1900) 984. It +is renowned for its saline springs, strongly impregnated with +iodine and bromine, which are considered very efficacious in +scrofulous affections and venereal skin diseases. Although the +springs are known since the 8th century, Hall attained its actual +importance only since 1855, when the springs became the +property of the government. The number of visitors in 1901 +was 4300.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALL<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span> (generally known as <span class="sc">Schwäbisch-Hall</span>, to distinguish +it from the small town of Hall in Tirol and Bad-Hall, a health +resort in Upper Austria), a town of Germany, in the kingdom +of Württemberg, situated in a deep valley on both sides of the +Kocher, and on the railway from Heilbronn to Krailsheim, +35 m. N.E. of Stuttgart. Pop. (1905) 9400. It possesses four +Evangelical churches (of which the Michaeliskirche dates from +the 15th century and has fine medieval carving), a Roman +Catholic church, a handsome town hall and classical and modern +schools. A short distance south from the town is the royal +castle of Komburg, formerly a Benedictine abbey and now used +as a garrison for invalid soldiers, with a church dating from the +12th century. The town is chiefly known for its production of +salt, which is converted into brine and piped from Wilhelmsglück +mine, 5 m. distant. Connected with the salt-works there is a +salt-bath and whey-diet establishment. The industries of the +town also include cotton-spinning, iron founding, tanning, and +the manufacture of soap, starch, brushes, machines, carriages +and metal ware.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page851" id="page851"></a>851</span></p> + +<p>Hall was early of importance on account of its salt-mines, +which were held as a fief of the Empire by the so-called Salzgrafen +(Salt-graves), of whom the earliest known, the counts of Westheim, +had their seat in the castle of Hall. Later the town +belonged to the Knights Templars. It was made a free imperial +city in 1276 by Rudolph of Habsburg. In 1802 it came into the +possession of Württemberg.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALL<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> (O. E. <i>heall</i>, a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. <i>Halle</i>), +a term which has two significations in England and is applied +sometimes to the manor house, the residence of the lord of the +manor, which implied a territorial possession, but more often to +the entrance hall of a mansion. In the latter case it was the one +large room in the feudal castle up to the middle of the 15th +century, when it served as audience chamber, dining-room, and +dormitory. The hall was generally a parallelogram on plan, +with a raised daïs at the farther end, a large bow window on one +side, and in one or two cases on both sides. At the entrance end +was a passage, which was separated from the hall by a partition +screen often elaborately decorated, and over which was provided +a minstrels’ gallery; on the opposite side of the passage were the +hatches communicating with the serveries. This arrangement +is still found in some of the colleges at Oxford and Cambridge, +such as those of New College, Christchurch, Wadham and +Magdalen, Oxford, and in Trinity College, Cambridge. In +private mansions, however, the kitchen and offices have been +removed to a greater distance, and the great hall is only used for +banquets. Among the more remarkable examples are the halls +of Audley End; Hatfield; Brougham Castle; Hardwick; +Knole Stanway in Gloucestershire; Wollaton, where it is +situated in the centre of the mansion and lighted by clerestory +windows; Burton Agnes in Yorkshire; Canons Ashley, Northamptonshire; +Westwood Park, Worcestershire; Fountains, +Yorkshire; Sydenham House, Devonshire; Cobham, Kent; +Montacute, Somersetshire; Bolsover Castle, Derbyshire (vaulted +and with two columns in the centre of the hall to carry the +vault); Longford Castle, Wiltshire; Barlborough, Derbyshire; +Rushton Hall, Northamptonshire, with a bow window at each +end of the daïs and a third bow window at the other end; +Knole, Kent; and at Mayfield, Sussex (with stone arches across +to carry the roof), now converted into a Roman Catholic chapel. +Many of these halls have hammer-beam roofs, the most remarkable +of which is found in the Middle Temple Hall, London, where +both the tie and collar beams have hammer-beams. Of other +halls, Westminster is the largest, being 238 ft. long; followed +by the Banqueting Hall, Whitehall, 110 ft.; Wolsey’s Hall, +Hampton Court, 106 ft.; the Egyptian Hall at the Mansion +House; the hall at Lambeth, now the library; Crosby Hall; +Gray’s Inn Hall; the Guildhall; Charterhouse; and the +following halls of the London City Companies—Clothworkers, +Brewers, Goldsmiths, Fishmongers. The term hall is also given +to the following English mansions:—Haddon, Hardwick, +Apethorpe, Aston, Blickling, Brereton, Burton Agnes, Cobham, +Dingley, Rushton, Kirby, Litford and Wollaton; and it was +the name of some of the earlier colleges at Oxford and Cambridge, +most of which have now been absorbed in other colleges, so that +there remain only St Edmund’s Hall, Oxford, and Trinity Hall, +Cambridge.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALLAM, HENRY<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> (1777-1859), English historian, was the +only son of John Hallam, canon of Windsor and dean of Bristol, +and was born on the 9th of July 1777. He was educated at Eton +and Christ Church, Oxford, where he graduated in 1799. Called +to the bar, he practised for some years on the Oxford circuit; +but his tastes were literary, and when, on the death of his father +in 1812, he inherited a small estate in Lincolnshire, he gave +himself up wholly to the studies of his life. He had early become +connected with the brilliant band of authors and politicians who +then led the Whig party, a connexion to which he owed his +appointment to the well-paid and easy post of commissioner of +stamps; but in practical politics, for which he was by nature +unsuited, he took no active share. But he was an active supporter +of many popular movements—particularly of that which +ended in the abolition of the slave trade; and he was throughout +his entire life sincerely and profoundly attached to the political +principles of the Whigs, both in their popular and in their +aristocratic aspect.</p> + +<p>Hallam’s earliest literary work was undertaken in connexion +with the great organ of the Whig party, the <i>Edinburgh Review</i>, +where his review of Scott’s <i>Dryden</i> attracted much notice. His +first great work, <i>The View of the State of Europe during the +Middle Ages</i>, was produced in 1818, and was followed nine years +later by the <i>Constitutional History of England</i>. In 1838-1839 +appeared the <i>Introduction to the Literature of Europe in the 15th, +16th and 17th Centuries</i>. These are the three works on which +the fame of Hallam rests. They at once took a place in English +literature which has never been seriously challenged. A volume +of supplemental notes to his <i>Middle Ages</i> was published in 1848. +These facts and dates represent nearly all the events of Hallam’s +career. The strongest personal interest in his life was the +affliction which befell him in the loss of his children, one after +another. His eldest son, Arthur Henry Hallam,—the “A.H.H.” +of Tennyson’s <i>In Memoriam</i>, and by the testimony of his contemporaries +a man of the most brilliant promise,—died in 1833 +at the age of twenty-two. Seventeen years later, his second +son, Henry Fitzmaurice Hallam, was cut off like his brother +at the very threshold of what might have been a great career. +The premature death and high talents of these young men, and +the association of one of them with the most popular poem of the +age, have made Hallam’s family afflictions better known than +any other incidents of his life. He survived wife, daughter and +sons by many years. In 1834 Hallam published <i>The Remains +in Prose and Verse of Arthur Henry Hallam, with a Sketch of his +Life</i>. In 1852 a selection of <i>Literary Essays and Characters</i> +from the <i>Literature of Europe</i> was published. Hallam was a +fellow of the Royal Society, and a trustee of the British Museum, +and enjoyed many other appropriate distinctions. In 1830 he +received the gold medal for history, founded by George IV. +He died on the 21st of January 1859.</p> + +<p>The <i>Middle Ages</i> is described by Hallam himself as a series +of historical dissertations, a comprehensive survey of the chief +circumstances that can interest a philosophical inquirer during +the period from the 5th to the 15th century. The work consists +of nine long chapters, each of which is a complete treatise in itself. +The history of France, of Italy, of Spain, of Germany, and of the +Greek and Saracenic empires, sketched in rapid and general +terms, is the subject of five separate chapters. Others deal +with the great institutional features of medieval society—the +development of the feudal system, of the ecclesiastical system, +and of the free political system of England. The last chapter +sketches the general state of society, the growth of commerce, +manners, and literature in the middle ages. The book may be +regarded as a general view of early modern history, preparatory +to the more detailed treatment of special lines of inquiry carried +out in his subsequent works, although Hallam’s original intention +was to continue the work on the scale on which it had been +begun.</p> + +<p>The <i>Constitutional History of England</i> takes up the subject +at the point at which it had been dropped in the <i>View of the +Middle Ages</i>, viz. the accession of Henry VII.,<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and carries it +down to the accession of George III. Hallam stopped here for +a characteristic reason, which it is impossible not to respect and +to regret. He was unwilling to excite the prejudices of modern +politics which seemed to him to run back through the whole +period of the reign of George III. As a matter of fact they ran +back much farther, as Hallam soon found. The sensitive +impartiality which withheld him from touching perhaps the +most interesting period in the history of the constitution did not +save him from the charge of partisanship. The <i>Quarterly Review</i> +for 1828 contains an article on the <i>Constitutional History</i>, written +by Southey, full of railing and reproach. The work, he says, +is the “production of a decided partisan,” who “rakes in the +ashes of long-forgotten and a thousand times buried slanders, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page852" id="page852"></a>852</span> +for the means of heaping obloquy on all who supported the +established institutions of the country.” No accusation made +by a critic ever fell so wide of the mark. Absolute justice is the +standard which Hallam set himself and maintained. His view +of constitutional history was that it should contain only so much +of the political and general history of the time as bears directly +on specific changes in the organization of the state, including +therein judicial as well as ecclesiastical institutions. But while +abstaining from irrelevant historical discussions, Hallam dealt +with statesmen and policies with the calm and fearless impartiality +of a judge. It was his cool treatment of such sanctified names +as Charles, Cranmer and Laud that provoked the indignation of +Southey and the <i>Quarterly</i>, who forgot that the same impartial +measure was extended to statesmen on the other side. If +Hallam can ever be said to have deviated from perfect fairness, +it was in the tacit assumption that the 19th-century theory of +the constitution was the right theory in previous centuries, and +that those who departed from it on one side or the other were +in the wrong. He did unconsciously antedate the constitution, +and it is clear from incidental allusions in his last work that he +did not regard with favour the democratic changes which he +thought to be impending. Hallam, like Macaulay, ultimately +referred all political questions to the standard of Whig constitutionalism. +But though his work is thus, like that of many +historians, coloured by his opinions, this was not the outcome +of a conscious purpose, and he was scrupulously conscientious +in collecting and weighing his materials. In this he was helped +by his legal training, and it was doubtless this fact which made +the <i>Constitutional History</i> one of the text-books of English +politics, to which men of all parties appealed, and which, in +spite of all the work of later writers, still leaves it a standard +authority.</p> + +<p>Like the <i>Constitutional History</i>, the <i>Introduction to the Literature +of Europe</i> continues one of the branches of inquiry which had +been opened in the <i>View of the Middle Ages</i>. In the first chapter +of the <i>Literature</i>, which is to a great extent supplementary to +the last chapter of the <i>Middle Ages</i>, Hallam sketches the state +of literature in Europe down to the end of the 14th century: +the extinction of ancient learning which followed the fall of the +Roman empire and the rise of Christianity; the preservation +of the Latin language in the services of the church; and the slow +revival of letters, which began to show itself soon after the 7th +century—“the <i>nadir</i> of the human mind”—had been passed. +For the first century and a half of his special period he is mainly +occupied with a review of classical learning, and he adopts the +plan of taking short decennial periods and noticing the most +remarkable works which they produced. The rapid growth of +literature in the 16th century compels him to resort to a classification +of subjects. Thus in the period 1520-1550 we have separate +chapters on ancient literature, theology, speculative philosophy +and jurisprudence, the literature of taste, and scientific and +miscellaneous literature; and the subdivisions of subjects is +carried further of course in the later periods. Thus poetry, the +drama and polite literature form the subjects of separate +chapters. One inconvenient result of this arrangement is that +the same author is scattered over many chapters, according as his +works fall within this category or that period of time. Names +like Shakespeare, Grotius, Bacon, Hobbes appear in half a dozen +different places. The individuality of great authors is thus +dissipated except when it has been preserved by an occasional +sacrifice of the arrangement—and this defect, if it is to be +esteemed a defect, is increased by the very sparing references +to personal history and character with which Hallam was +obliged to content himself. His plan excluded biographical +history, nor is the work, he tells us, to be regarded as one of +reference. It is rigidly an account of the books which would +make a complete library of the period,<a name="fa2j" id="fa2j" href="#ft2j"><span class="sp">2</span></a> arranged according to the +date of their publication and the nature of their subjects. The +history of institutions like universities and academies, and that +of great popular movements like the Reformation, are of course +noticed in their immediate connexion with literary results; +but Hallam had little taste for the spacious generalization which +such subjects suggest. The great qualities displayed in this +work have been universally acknowledged—conscientiousness, +accuracy, judgment and enormous reading. Not the least +striking testimony to Hallam’s powers is his mastery over so +many diverse forms of intellectual activity. In science and +theology, mathematics and poetry, metaphysics and law, he is a +competent and always a fair if not a profound critic. The bent +of his own mind is manifest in his treatment of pure literature +and of political speculation—which seems to be inspired with +stronger personal interest and a higher sense of power than other +parts of his work display. Not less worthy of notice in a literary +history is the good sense by which both his learning and his tastes +have been held in control. Probably no writer ever possessed a +juster view of the relative importance of men and things. The +labour devoted to an investigation is with Hallam no excuse for +dwelling on the result, unless that is in itself important. He turns +away contemptuously from the mere curiosities of literature, +and is never tempted to make a display of trivial erudition. +Nor do we find that his interest in special studies leads him to +assign them a disproportionate place in his general view of the +literature of a period.</p> + +<p>Hallam is generally described as a “philosophical historian.” +The description is justified not so much by any philosophical +quality in his method as by the nature of his subject and his own +temper. Hallam is a philosopher to this extent that both in +political and in literary history he fixed his attention on results +rather than on persons. His conception of history embraced +the whole movement of society. Beside that conception the +issue of battles and the fate of kings fall into comparative +insignificance. “We can trace the pedigree of princes,” he +reflects, “fill up the catalogue of towns besieged and provinces +desolated, describe even the whole pageantry of coronations and +festivals, but we cannot recover the genuine history of mankind.” +But, on the other hand, there is no trace in Hallam of anything +like a philosophy of history or society. Wise and generally +melancholy reflections on human nature and political society +are not infrequent in his writings, and they arise naturally and +incidentally out of the subject he is discussing. His object is +the attainment of truth in matters of fact. Sweeping theories +of the movement of society, and broad characterizations of +particular periods of history seem to have no attraction for him. +The view of mankind on which such generalizations are usually +based, taking little account of individual character, was highly +distasteful to him. Thus he objects to the use of statistics +because they favour that tendency to regard all men as mentally +and morally equal which is so unhappily strong in modern times. +At the same time Hallam by no means assumes the tone of the +mere scholar. He is even solicitous to show that his point of +view is that of the cultivated gentleman and not of the specialist +of any order. Thus he tells us that Montaigne is the first French +author whom an English gentleman is ashamed not to have read. +In fact, allusions to the necessary studies of a gentleman meet +us constantly, reminding us of the unlikely erudition of the +schoolboy in Macaulay. Hallam’s prejudices, so far as he had +any, belong to the same character. His criticism is apt to +assume a tone of moral censure when he has to deal with certain +extremes of human thought—scepticism in philosophy, atheism +in religion and democracy in politics.</p> + +<p>Hallam’s style is singularly uniform throughout all his writings. +It is sincere and straightforward, and obviously innocent of any +motive beyond that of clearly expressing the writer’s meaning. +In the <i>Literature of Europe</i> there are many passages of great +imaginative beauty.</p> +<div class="author">(E. R.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Lord Brougham, overlooking the constitutional chapter in the +<i>Middle Ages</i>, censured Hallam for making an arbitrary beginning at +this point, and proposed to write a more complete history himself.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2j" id="ft2j" href="#fa2j"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Technical subjects like painting or English law have been excluded +by Hallam, and history and theology only partially treated.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALLAM, ROBERT<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span> (d. 1417), bishop of Salisbury and +English representative at the council of Constance, was educated +at Oxford, and was chancellor of the university from 1403 to +1405. In the latter year the pope nominated him to be archbishop +of York, but the king objected. However, in 1407 he +was consecrated by Gregory XII. at Siena as bishop of Salisbury. +At the council of Pisa in 1409 he was one of the English +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page853" id="page853"></a>853</span> +representatives. On the 6th of June 1411 Pope John XXIII. made +Hallam a cardinal, but there was some irregularity, and his title +was not recognized. At the council of Constance (<i>q.v.</i>), which met +in November 1414, Hallam was the chief English envoy. There +he at once took a prominent position, as an advocate of the cause +of Church reform, and of the superiority of the council to the +pope. In the discussions which led up to the deposition of +John XXIII. on the 29th of May 1415 he had a leading share. +With the trials of John Hus and Jerome of Prague he had less +concern. The emperor Sigismund, through whose influence +the council had been assembled, was absent during the whole +of 1416 on a diplomatic mission in France and England; but +when he returned to Constance in January 1417, as the open +ally of the English king, Hallam as Henry’s trusted representative +obtained increased importance. Hallam contrived skilfully +to emphasize English prestige by delivering the address of +welcome to Sigismund on his formal reception. Afterwards, +under his master’s direction, he gave the emperor vigorous +support in the endeavour to secure a reform of the Church, +before the council proceeded to the election of a new pope. This +matter was still undecided when Hallam died suddenly, on the +4th of September 1417. After his death the direction of the +English nation fell into less skilful hands, with the result that +the cardinals were able to secure the immediate election of a new +pope (Martin V., elected on the 11th of November). It has been +supposed that the abandonment of the reformers by the English +was due entirely to Hallam’s death; but it is more likely that +Henry V., foreseeing the possible need for a change of front, +had given Hallam discretionary powers which the bishop’s +successors used with too little judgment. Hallam himself, +who had the confidence of Sigismund and was generally respected +for his straightforward independence, might have achieved a +better result. Hallam was buried in the cathedral at Constance, +where his tomb near the high altar is marked by a brass of +English workmanship.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For the acts of the council of Constance see H. von der Hardt’s +<i>Concilium Constantiense</i>, and H. Finke’s <i>Acta concilii Constanciensis</i>. +For a modern account see Mandell Creighton’s <i>History of the Papacy</i> +(6 vols., London, 1897).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. L. K.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALLÉ, SIR CHARLES<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span> (originally <span class="sc">Karl Halle</span>) (1819-1895), +English pianist and conductor, German by nationality, was +born at Hagen, in Westphalia, on the 11th of April 1819. He +studied under Rink at Darmstadt in 1835, and as early as 1836 +went to Paris, where for twelve years he lived in constant intercourse +with Cherubini, Chopin, Liszt and other musicians, and +enjoyed the friendship of such great literary figures as Alfred +de Musset and George Sand. He had started a set of chamber +concerts with Alard and Franchomme with great success, and +had completed one series of them when the revolution of 1848 +drove him from Paris, and he settled, with his wife and two +children, in London. His pianoforte recitals, given at first from +1850 in his own house, and from 1861 in St James’s Hall, were an +important feature of London musical life, and it was due in +great measure to them that a knowledge of Beethoven’s pianoforte +sonatas became general in English society. At the Musical +Union founded by John Ella, and at the Popular Concerts from +their beginning, Hallé was a frequent performer, and from 1853 +was director of the Gentlemen’s Concerts in Manchester, where, +in 1857, he started a series of concerts of his own, raising the +orchestra to a pitch of perfection quite unknown at that time +in England. In 1888 he married Madame Norman Neruda +(b. 1839), the violinist, widow of Ludwig Norman, and daughter +of Josef Neruda, members of whose family had long been famous +for musical talent. In the same year he was knighted; and +in 1890 and 1891 he toured with his wife in Australia and elsewhere. +He died at Manchester on the 25th of October 1895. +Hallé exercised an important influence in the musical education +of England; if his pianoforte-playing, by which he was mainly +known to the public in London, seemed remarkable rather for +precision than for depth, for crystal clearness rather than for +warmth, and for perfect realization of the written text rather +than for strong individuality, it was at least of immense value +as giving the composer’s idea with the utmost fidelity. Those +who were privileged to hear him play in private, like those who +could appreciate the power, beauty and imaginative warmth +of his conducting, would have given a very different verdict; +and they were not wrong in judging Hallé to be a man of the +widest and keenest artistic sympathies, with an extraordinary +gift of insight into music of every school, as well as a strong sense +of humour. He fought a long and arduous battle for the best +music, and never forgot the dignity of his art. In spite of the +fact that his technique was that of his youth, of the period before +Liszt, the ease and certainty he attained in the most modern +music was not the less wonderful because he concealed the +mechanical means so completely.</p> + +<p>Lady Hallé, who from 1864 onwards had been one of the leading +solo violinists of the time, was constantly associated with her +husband on the concert stage till his death; and in 1896 a public +subscription was organized in her behalf, under royal patronage. +She continued to appear occasionally in public, notably as late +as 1907, when she played at the Joachim memorial concert. In +1901 she was given by Queen Alexandra the title of “violinist +to the queen.” A fine classical player and artist, frequently +associated with Joachim, Lady Hallé was the first of the women +violinists who could stand comparison with men.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALLE<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> (known as <span class="sc">Halle-an-der-Saale</span>, to distinguish it +from the small town of Halle in Westphalia), a town of Germany, +in the Prussian province of Saxony, situated in a sandy plain on +the right bank of the Saale, which here divides into several arms, +21 m. N.W. from Leipzig by the railway to Magdeburg. Pop. +(1875), 60,503; (1885) 81,982; (1895) 116,304; (1905) 160,031. +Owing to its situation at the junction of six important lines of +railway, bringing it into direct communication with Berlin, +Breslau, Leipzig, Frankfort-on-Main, the Harz country and +Hanover, it has greatly developed in size and in commercial +and industrial importance. It consists of the old, or inner, town +surrounded by promenades, which occupy the site of the former +fortifications, and beyond these of two small towns, Glaucha +in the south and Neumarkt in the north, and five rapidly increasing +suburbs. The inner town is irregularly built and +presents a somewhat unattractive appearance, but it has been +much improved and modernized by the laying out of new streets.</p> + +<p>The centre of the town proper is occupied by the imposing +market square, on which stand the fine medieval town hall +(restored in 1883) and the handsome Gothic Marienkirche, +dating mainly from the 16th century, with two towers connected +by a bridge. In the middle of the square are a clock-tower +(<i>Der rote Turm</i>) 276 ft. in height, and a bronze statue of Handel, +the composer, a native of Halle. West of the market-square lies +the Halle, or the Tal, where the brine springs (see below) issue. +Among the eleven churches, nine Protestant and two Roman +Catholic, may also be mentioned the St Moritzkirche, dating +from the 12th century, with fine wood carvings and sculptures, +and the cathedral (belonging since 1689 to the Reformed or +Calvinistic church), built in the 16th century and containing an +altar-piece representing Duke Augustus of Saxony and his +family. Of secular buildings the most noticeable are the ruins +of the castle of Moritzburg, formerly a citadel and the residence +of the archbishops of Magdeburg, destroyed by fire in the Thirty +Years’ War, with the exception of the left wing now used for +military purposes, the university buildings, the theatre and the +new railway station. The famous university was founded by +the elector Frederick III. of Brandenburg (afterwards king of +Prussia), in 1694, on behalf of the jurist, Christian Thomasius +(1655-1728), whom many students followed to Halle, when he was +expelled from Leipzig through the enmity of his fellow professors. +It was closed by Napoleon in 1806 and again in 1813, but in 1815 +was re-established and augmented by the removal to it of the +university of Wittenberg, with which it thus became united. +It has faculties of theology, law, medicine and philosophy. +From the first it has been recognized as one of the principal seats +of Protestant theology, originally of the pietistic and latterly of +the rationalistic and critical school. In connexion with the +university there are a botanical garden, a theological seminary, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page854" id="page854"></a>854</span> +anatomical, pathological and physical institutes, hospitals, an +agricultural institute—one of the foremost institutions of the +kind in Germany—a meteorological institute, an observatory +and a library of 180,000 printed volumes and 800 manuscripts. +Among other educational establishments must be mentioned +the Francke’sche Stiftungen, founded in 1691 by August Hermann +Francke (1663-1727), a bronze statue of whom by Rauch was +erected in 1829 in the inner court of the building. They embrace +an orphanage, a laboratory where medicines are prepared and +distributed, a Bible press from which Bibles are issued at a cheap +rate, and eight schools of various grades, attended in all by over +3000 pupils. The other principal institutions are the city +gymnasium, the provincial lunatic asylum, the prison, the town +hospital and infirmary, and the deaf and dumb institute. The +salt-springs of Halle have been known from a very early period. +Some rise within the town and others on an island in the +Saale; and together their annual yield of salt is about 8500 +tons.</p> + +<p>The workmen employed at the salt-works are of a peculiar race +and are known as the <i>Halloren</i>. They have been usually regarded +as descendants of the original Wendish inhabitants, or as Celtic +immigrants, with an admixture of Frankish elements. They +wear a distinct dress, the ordinary costume of about 1700, +observe several ancient customs, and enjoy certain exemptions +and privileges derived from those of the ancient <i>Pfannerschaft</i> +(community of the salt-panners).</p> + +<p>Among the other industries of Halle are sugar refining, machine +building, the manufacture of spirits, malt, chocolate, cocoa, +confectionery, cement, paper, chicory, lubricating and illuminating +oil, wagon grease, carriages and playing cards, printing, +dyeing and coal mining (soft brown coal). The trade, which is +supervised by a chamber of commerce, is very considerable, the +principal exports being machinery, raw sugar and petroleum. +Halle is also noted as the seat of several important publishing +firms. The Bibelanstalt (Bible institution) of von Castein is the +central authority for the revision of Luther’s Bible, of which it +sells annually from 60,000 to 70,000 copies.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Halle is first mentioned as a fortress erected on the Saale in 806 +by Charles, son of Charlemagne, during his expedition against the +Sorbs. The place was, however, known long before, and owes its +origin as well as its name to the salt springs (<i>Halis</i>). In 968 Halle, +with the valuable salt works, was given by the emperor Otto I. to +the newly founded archdiocese of Magdeburg, and in 981 Otto II. +gave it a charter as a town. The interests of the archbishop were +watched over by a <i>Vogt</i> (<i>advocatus</i>) and a burgrave, and from the +first there were separate jurisdictions for the Halloren and the +German settlers in the town, the former being under that of the +<i>Salzgraf</i> (comes salis), the latter of a <i>Schultheiss</i> or bailiff, both +subordinate to the burgrave. The conflict of interests and jurisdictions +led to the usual internecine strife during the middle ages. The +panners (<i>Pfänner</i>) of the Tal, feudatories or officials, became a close +hereditary aristocracy in perpetual rivalry with the gilds in the town; +and both resisted the pretensions of the archbishops. At the +beginning of the 12th century Halle had attained considerable importance, +and in the 13th and 14th centuries as a member of the +Hanseatic League it carried on successful wars with the archbishops +of Magdeburg; and in 1435 it resisted an army of 30,000 men under +the elector of Saxony. Its liberty perished, however, as a result +of the internal feud between the democratic gilds and the patrician +panners. On the 20th of September 1478 a demagogue and cobbler +named Jakob Weissak, a member of the town council, with his +confederates opened the gates to the soldiers of the archbishop. The +townsmen were subdued, and to hold them in check the archbishop, +Ernest of Saxony, built the castle of Moritzburg. Notwithstanding +the efforts of the archbishops of Mainz and Magdeburg, the Reformation +found an entrance into the city in 1522; and in 1541 a +Lutheran superintendent was appointed. After the peace of Westphalia +in 1648 the city came into the possession of the house of +Brandenburg. In 1806 it was stormed and taken by the French, +after which, at the peace of Tilsit, it was united to the new kingdom +of Westphalia. After the battle between the Prussians and French, +in May 1813, it was taken by the Prussians. The rise of Leipzig +was for a long time hurtful to the prosperity of Halle, and its present +rapid increase in population and trade is principally due to its position +as the centre of a network of railways.</p> + +<p>See Dreyhaupt, <i>Ausführliche Beschreibung des Saalkreises</i> (Halle, +2 vols., 1755; 3rd edition, 1842-1844); Hoffbauer, <i>Geschichte der +Universität zu Halle</i> (1806); <i>Halle in Vorzeit und Gegenwart</i> (1851); +Knauth, <i>Kurze Geschichte und Beschreibung der Stadt Halle</i> (3rd ed., +1861); vom Hagen, <i>Die Stadt Halle</i> (1866-1867); Hertzberg, +<i>Geschichte der Vereinigung der Universitäten von Wittenberg und +Halle</i> (1867); Voss, <i>Zur Geschichte der Autonomie der Stadt Halle</i> +(1874); Schrader, <i>Geschichte der Friedrichs-Universität zu Halle</i> +(Berlin, 1894); Karl Hegel, <i>Städte und Gilden der germanischen +Völker</i> (Leipzig, 1891), ii. 444-449.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALLECK, FITZ-GREENE<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> (1790-1867), American poet, was +born at Guilford, Connecticut, on the 8th of July 1790. By his +mother he was descended from John Eliot, the “Apostle to the +Indians.” At an early age he became clerk in a store at Guilford, +and in 1811 he entered a banking-house in New York. +Having made the acquaintance of Joseph Rodman Drake, in 1819 +he assisted him under the signature of “Croaker junior” in +contributing to the New York <i>Evening Post</i> the humorous series +of “Croaker Papers.” In 1821 he published his longest poem, +<i>Fanny</i>, a satire on local politics and fashions in the measure of +Byron’s <i>Don Juan</i>. He visited Europe in 1822-1823, and after +his return published anonymously in 1827 <i>Alnwick Castle, with +other Poems</i>. From 1832 to 1841 he was confidential agent of +John Jacob Astor, who named him one of the trustees of the +Astor library. In 1864 he published in the <i>New York Ledger</i> +a poem of 300 lines entitled “Young America.” He died at +Guilford, on the 19th of November 1867. The poems of Halleck +are written with great care and finish, and manifest the possession +of a fine sense of harmony and of genial and elevated sentiments.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His <i>Life and Letters</i>, by James Grant Wilson, appeared in 1869. +His <i>Poetical Writings</i>, together with extracts from those of Joseph +Rodman Drake, were edited by Wilson in the same year.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALLECK, HENRY WAGER<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> (1815-1872), American general +and jurist, was born at Westernville, Oneida county, N.Y., +in 1815, entered the West Point military academy at the age of +twenty, and on graduating in 1839 was appointed to the engineers, +becoming at the same time assistant professor of engineering +at the academy. In the following year he was made an assistant +to the Board of Engineers at Washington, from 1841 to 1846 +he was employed on the defence works at New York, and in +1845 he was sent by the government to visit the principal +military establishments of Europe. After his return, Halleck +delivered a course of lectures on the science of war, published +in 1846 under the title <i>Elements of Military Art and Science</i>. +A later edition of this work was widely used as a text-book by +volunteer officers during the Civil War. On the outbreak of the +Mexican War in 1846, he served with the expedition to California +and the Pacific coast, in which he distinguished himself not only +as an engineer, but by his skill in civil administration and by his +good conduct before the enemy. He served for several years +in California as a staff officer, and as secretary of state under the +military government, and in 1849 he helped to frame the state +constitution of California, on its being admitted into the Union. +In 1852 he was appointed inspector and engineer of lighthouses, +and in 1853 was employed in the fortification of the Pacific +coast. In 1854 Captain Halleck resigned his commission and +took up the practice of law with great success. He was also +director of a quicksilver mine, and in 1855 he became president +of the Pacific & Atlantic railway. On the outbreak of the Civil +War he returned to the army as a major-general, and in +November 1861 he was charged with the supreme command in +the western theatre of war. There can be no question that his +administrative skill was mainly instrumental in bringing order +out of chaos in the hurried formation of large volunteer armies +in 1861, but the strategical and tactical successes of the following +spring were due rather to the skill and activity of his subordinate +generals Grant, Buell and Pope, than to the plans of the supreme +commander, and when he assumed command of the united forces +of these three generals before Corinth, the methodical slowness +of his advance aroused much criticism. In July, however, he +was called to Washington as general-in-chief of the armies. At +headquarters his administrative powers were conspicuous, +but he proved to be utterly wanting in any large grasp of the +military problem; the successive reverses of Generals McClellan, +Pope, Burnside and Hooker in Virginia were not infrequently +traceable to the defects of the general-in-chief. No co-ordination +of the military efforts of the Union was seriously undertaken by +Halleck, and eventually in March 1864 Grant was appointed to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page855" id="page855"></a>855</span> +replace him, Major-General Halleck becoming chief of staff at +Washington. This post he occupied with credit until the +end of the war. In April 1865 he held the command of the +military division of the James and in August of the same year +of the military division of the Pacific, which he retained till +June 1869, when he was transferred to that of the South, a +position he held till his death at Louisville, Ky., on the 9th of +January 1872. Halleck’s position as a soldier is easily defined +by bis uniform success as an administrative official, his equally +uniform want of success as an officer at the head of large armies +in the field, and the popularity of his theoretical writings on +war. His influence, for good or evil, on the course of the greatest +war of modern times was greater than that of any soldier on +either side save Grant and Lee, and whilst his interference with +the dispositions of the commanders in the field was often disastrous, +his services in organizing and instructing the Union +forces were always of the highest value, and in this respect he +was indispensable.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Besides <i>Military Art and Science</i>, Halleck wrote <i>Bitumen, its +Varieties, Properties and Uses</i> (1841); <i>The Mining Laws of Spain +and Mexico</i> (1859); <i>International Law</i> (1861; new edition, 1908); +and <i>Treatise on International Law and the Laws of War, prepared +for the use of Schools and Colleges</i>, abridged from the larger work. +He translated Jomini’s <i>Vie politique et militaire de Napoléon</i> (1864) +and de Fooz <i>On the Law of Mines</i> (1860). The works on international +law mentioned above entitle General Halleck to be considered as +one of the great jurists of the 19th century.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HÄLLEFLINTA<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span> (a Swedish word meaning rock-flint), a white, +grey, yellow, greenish or pink, fine-grained rock consisting of +an intimate mixture of quartz and felspar. Many examples +are banded or striated; others contain porphyritic crystals +of quartz which resemble those of the felsites and porphyries. +Mica, iron oxides, apatite, zircon, epidote and hornblende may +also be present in small amount. The more micaceous varieties +form transitions to granulite and gneiss. Hälleflinta under the +microscope is very finely crystalline, or even cryptocrystalline, +resembling the felsitic matrix of many acid rocks. It is essentially +metamorphic and occurs with gneisses, schists and granulites, +especially in the Scandinavian peninsula, where it is regarded +as being very characteristic of certain horizons. Of its original +nature there is some doubt, but its chemical composition and +the occasional presence of porphyritic crystals indicate that it +has affinities to the fine-grained acid intrusive rocks. In this +group there may also have been placed metamorphosed acid +tuffs and a certain number of adinoles (shales, contact altered +by intrusions of diabase). The assemblage is not a perfectly +homogeneous one but includes both igneous and sedimentary +rocks, but the former preponderate. Rocks very <span class="correction" title="amended from similiar">similar</span> to the +typical Swedish hälleflintas occur in Tirol, in Galicia and eastern +Bohemia.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">HALLEL<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> (Heb. <span title="hallel">הלל</span> a Mishnic derivative from <span title="hallel">הלל</span> hillēl, +“to praise”), a term in synagogal liturgy for (<i>a</i>) Psalms +cxiii.-cxviii., often called “the Egyptian Hallel” because of its +recitation during the paschal meal on the night of the Passover, +(<i>b</i>) Psalm cxxxvi. “the Great Hallel.” C. A. Briggs<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> points out +that the term “Hallelujah” (Praise ye Yah) is found at the +close of Pss. civ., cv., cxv., cxvi., cxvii., at the beginning of +Pss. cxi., cxii. and at both ends of Pss. cvi., cxiii., cxxxv., cxlvi. +to cl. The Septuagint also gives it at the beginning of Pss. cv., +cvii., cxiv., cxvi. to cxix., cxxxvi. There are thus four groups +of Hallel psalms:—civ.-cvii. (a tetralogy on creation, the +patriarchal age, the Exodus, and the Restoration); cxi.-cxvii. +which includes most of the “Egyptian Hallel”; cxxxv.-cxxxvi.; +cxlvi.-cl. All of these Hallels (except cxlvii. and cxlix. which +are Maccabean) belong to the Greek period, forming a collection +of sixteen psalms composed for public use by the choirs, especially +at the great feasts. Their distribution into four groups was the +work of the final editor of the psalter. Later liturgical use +regarded Pss. cxviii. and even cxix. as Hallels, as well as Pss. +cxx. to cxxxiv.</p> + +<p>It will be observed that the extent of the official Hallel varied +from time to time. It would appear that in the time of Gamaliel +(<i>Pesahim</i> x. 5) the custom of its recitation at the paschal meal +was still of recent innovation. While the school of Shammai +advised only Ps. cxiii., the school of Hillel favoured Pss. cxiii. +and cxiv.<a name="fa2k" id="fa2k" href="#ft2k"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The further extension so as to include Pss. cxv. to +cxviii. probably dates from the first half of the 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, +and these four psalms were recited after the pouring out of the +fourth cup, the two earlier ones being taken at the beginning of +the meal. From the 3rd century the use of the Hallel was +extended to other occasions, and was gradually incorporated +into the liturgy of eighteen festal days.</p> + +<p>The “Great Hallel” (Ps. cxxxvi. and its later extension to +cxx.-cxxxvi.) always served the wider purpose of a more general +thanksgiving. According to Rabbi Johanan it derived its name +from the allusion in v. 25 to the Holy One who sits in heaven and +thence distributes food to all bis creatures.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>International Critical Commentary</i>, “Psalms,” Intro. lxxviii.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2k" id="ft2k" href="#fa2k"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The reference to a hymn at the institution of the Eucharist +(Matt. xxvi. 30, Mark xiv. 26) must be interpreted in the light of this +inceptive stage of the Hallel.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 12, Slice 7, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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