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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 12, Slice 7, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 12, Slice 7
+       "Gyantse" to "Hallel"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: December 24, 2011 [EBook #38401]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 12 SLICE 7 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol, [oo] for infinity, and [alpha],
+      [beta], etc. for greek letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE GYROSCOPE AND GYROSTAT: "... in such a manner that a point
+      on the pendulum at a distance ..." ''pendulum'' amended from
+      ''pedulum''.
+
+    ARTICLE GYROSCOPE AND GYROSTAT: "Interpreted geometrically on the
+      deformable hyperboloid, flattened in the plane of the focal ellipse
+      ..." ''hyperboloid'' amended from ''hyperboloia''.
+
+    ARTICLE HAEMOSPORIDIA: "... this does not represent reserve
+      material, but is an excreted by-product derived from the
+      haemoglobin." ''by-product'' amended from ''bye-product''.
+
+    ARTICLE HALIFAX, GEORGE MONTAGU DUNK: "About this time he sought to
+      become a secretary of state, but in vain, although he was allowed
+      to enter the cabinet in 1757." ''become'' amended from ''became''.
+
+    ARTICLE HÄLLEFLINTA: "Rocks very similar to the typical Swedish
+      hälleflintas occur in Tirol, in Galicia and eastern Bohemia."
+      ''similar'' amended from ''similiar?''.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+           VOLUME XII, SLICE VII
+
+             Gyantse to Hallel
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  GYANTSE                            HAHNEMANN, SAMUEL CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH
+  GYGES                              HAHN-HAHN, IDA
+  GYLIPPUS                           HAI
+  GYLLEMBOURG-EHRENSVÄRD, CHRISTINE  HAIBAK
+  GYLLENSTJERNA, JOHAN               HAIDA
+  GYMKHANA                           HAIDINGER, WILHELM KARL
+  GYMNASTICS AND GYMNASIUM           HAIDUK
+  GYMNOSOPHISTS                      HAIFA
+  GYMNOSPERMS                        HAIK
+  GYMNOSTOMACEAE                     HAIL
+  GYMPIE                             HAILES, DAVID DALRYMPLE
+  GYNAECEUM                          HAILSHAM
+  GYNAECOLOGY                        HAINAN
+  GYÖNGYÖSI, ISTVÁN                  HAINAU
+  GYÖR                               HAINAUT
+  GYP                                HAINBURG
+  GYPSUM                             HAINICHEN
+  GYROSCOPE AND GYROSTAT             HAI-PHONG
+  GYTHIUM                            HAIR
+  GYULA-FEHÉRVÁR                     HAIR-TAIL
+  H                                  HAITI
+  HAAG, CARL                         HAJIPUR
+  HAAKON                             HAJJ
+  HAARLEM                            HAJJI KHALIFA
+  HAARLEM LAKE                       HAKE, EDWARD
+  HAASE, FRIEDRICH                   HAKE, THOMAS GORDON
+  HAASE, FRIEDRICH GOTTLOB           HAKE
+  HAAST, SIR JOHANN JULIUS VON       HAKKAS
+  HABABS                             HAKLUYT, RICHARD
+  HABAKKUK                           HAKODATE
+  HABDALA                            HAL
+  HABEAS CORPUS                      HALA
+  HABERDASHER                        HALAESA
+  HABINGTON, WILLIAM                 HALAKHA
+  HABIT                              HALBERSTADT
+  HABITAT                            HALBERT
+  HABSBURG                           HALDANE, JAMES ALEXANDER
+  HACHETTE, JEAN NICOLAS PIERRE      HALDANE, RICHARD BURDON
+  HACHETTE, JEANNE                   HALDANE, ROBERT
+  HACHETTE, LOUIS FRANÇOIS           HALDEMAN, SAMUEL STEHMAN
+  HACHURE                            HALDIMAND, SIR FREDERICK
+  HACIENDA                           HALE, EDWARD EVERETT
+  HACKBERRY                          HALE, HORATIO
+  HACKENSACK                         HALE, JOHN PARKER
+  HACKET, JOHN                       HALE, SIR MATTHEW
+  HACKETT, HORATIO BALCH             HALE, NATHAN
+  HACKETT, JAMES HENRY               HALE, WILLIAM GARDNER
+  HACKLÄNDER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM VON  HALEBID
+  HACKNEY (borough of London)        HALES, JOHN (d. 1571)
+  HACKNEY (riding-horse)             HALES, JOHN (1584-1656)
+  HADAD                              HALES, STEPHEN
+  HADDINGTON, EARL OF                HALESOWEN
+  HADDINGTON                         HALEVI, JUDAH BEN SAMUEL
+  HADDINGTONSHIRE                    HALÉVY, JACQUES FRANÇOIS ÉLIE
+  HADDOCK                            HALÉVY, LUDOVIC
+  HADDON HALL                        HALFPENNY, WILLIAM
+  HADEN, SIR FRANCIS SEYMOUR         HALF-TIMBER WORK
+  HADENDOA                           HALFWAY COVENANT
+  HADERSLEBEN                        HALHED, NATHANIEL BRASSEY
+  HADING, JANE                       HALIBURTON, THOMAS CHANDLER
+  HADLEIGH                           HALIBUT
+  HADLEY, ARTHUR TWINING             HALICARNASSUS
+  HADLEY, JAMES                      HALICZ
+  HADLEY                             HALIFAX, CHARLES MONTAGUE
+  HADRAMUT                           HALIFAX, GEORGE MONTAGU DUNK
+  HADRIA                             HALIFAX, GEORGE SAVILE
+  HADRIAN                            HALIFAX (Canada)
+  HADRIAN'S WALL                     HALIFAX (Yorkshire, England)
+  HADRUMETUM                         HALISAH
+  HAECKEL, ERNST HEINRICH            HALKETT, HUGH
+  HAEMATITE                          HALL, BASIL
+  HAEMATOCELE                        HALL, CARL CHRISTIAN
+  HAEMOPHILIA                        HALL, CHARLES FRANCIS
+  HAEMORRHAGE                        HALL, CHRISTOPHER NEWMAN
+  HAEMORRHOIDS                       HALL, EDWARD
+  HAEMOSPORIDIA                      HALL, FITZEDWARD
+  HAETZER, LUDWIG                    HALL, ISAAC HOLLISTER
+  HAFIZ                              HALL, SIR JAMES
+  HAG                                HALL, JAMES (American judge)
+  HAGEDORN, FRIEDRICH VON            HALL, JAMES (American geologist)
+  HAGEN, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH VON DER  HALL, JOSEPH
+  HAGEN                              HALL, MARSHALL
+  HAGENAU                            HALL, ROBERT
+  HAGENBACH, KARL RUDOLF             HALL, SAMUEL CARTER
+  HAGENBECK, CARL                    HALL, WILLIAM EDWARD
+  HAGERSTOWN                         HALL (spa of Austria)
+  HAG-FISH                           HALL (town of Germany)
+  HAGGADA                            HALL (of a mansion)
+  HAGGAI                             HALLAM, HENRY
+  HAGGARD, HENRY RIDER               HALLAM, ROBERT
+  HAGGIS                             HALLÉ, SIR CHARLES
+  HAGIOLOGY                          HALLE
+  HAGIOSCOPE                         HALLECK, FITZ-GREENE
+  HAGONOY                            HALLECK, HENRY WAGER
+  HAGUE, THE                         HÄLLEFLINTA
+  HAHN, AUGUST                       HALLEL
+
+
+
+
+GYANTSE, one of the large towns of Tibet. It lies S.E. of Shigatse, 130
+m. from the Indian frontier and 145 m. from Lhasa. Its central position
+at the junction of the roads from India and Bhutan with those from
+Ladakh and Central Asia leading to Lhasa makes it a considerable
+distributing trade centre. Its market is the third largest in Tibet,
+coming after Lhasa and Shigatse, and is especially celebrated for its
+woollen cloth and carpet manufactures. Here caravans come from Ladakh,
+Nepal and upper Tibet, bringing gold, borax, salt, wool, musk and furs,
+to exchange for tea, tobacco, sugar, cotton goods, broadcloth and
+hardware. The town is compactly built of stone houses, with wooden
+balconies facing the main street, whence narrow lanes strike off into
+uninviting slums, and contains a fort and monastery. In the British
+expedition of 1904 Gyantse formed the first objective of the advance,
+and the force was besieged here in the mission post of Changlo for some
+time. The Tibetans made a night attack on the post, and were beaten off
+with some difficulty, but subsequently the British attacked and stormed
+the fort or jong. Under the treaty of 1904 a British trade agent is
+stationed at Gyantse.
+
+
+
+
+GYGES, founder of the third or Mermnad dynasty of Lydian kings, he
+reigned 687-652 B.C. according to H. Geizer, 690-657 B.C. according to
+H. Winckler. The chronology of the Lydian kings given by Herodotus has
+been shown by the Assyrian inscriptions to be about twenty years in
+excess. Gyges was the son of Dascylus, who, when recalled from
+banishment in Cappadocia by the Lydian king Sadyattes--called Candaules
+"the Dog-strangler" (a title of the Lydian Hermes) by the Greeks--sent
+his son back to Lydia instead of himself. Gyges soon became a favourite
+of Sadyattes and was despatched by him to fetch Tudo, the daughter of
+Arnossus of Mysia, whom the Lydian king wished to make his queen. On the
+way Gyges fell in love with Tudo, who complained to Sadyattes of his
+conduct. Forewarned that the king intended to punish him with death,
+Gyges assassinated Sadyattes in the night and seized the throne with the
+help of Arselis of Mylasa, the captain of the Carian bodyguard, whom he
+had won over to his cause. Civil war ensued, which was finally ended by
+an appeal to the oracle of Delphi and the confirmation of the right of
+Gyges to the crown by the Delphian god. Further to secure his title he
+married Tudo. Many legends were told among the Greeks about his rise to
+power. That found in Herodotus, which may be traced to the poet
+Archilochus of Paros, described how "Candaules" insisted upon showing
+Gyges his wife when unrobed, which so enraged her that she gave Gyges
+the choice of murdering her husband and making himself king, or of being
+put to death himself. Plato made Gyges a shepherd, who discovered a
+magic ring by means of which he murdered his master and won the
+affection of his wife (Hdt. i. 8-14; Plato, _Rep._ 359; Justin i. 7;
+Cicero, _De off._ iii. 9). Once established on the throne Gyges devoted
+himself to consolidating his kingdom and making it a military power. The
+Troad was conquered, Colophon captured from the Greeks, Smyrna besieged
+and alliances entered into with Ephesus and Miletus. The Cimmerii, who
+had ravaged Asia Minor, were beaten back, and an embassy was sent to
+Assur-bani-pal at Nineveh (about 650 B.C.) in the hope of obtaining his
+help against the barbarians. The Assyrians, however, were otherwise
+engaged, and Gyges turned to Egypt, sending his faithful Carian troops
+along with Ionian mercenaries to assist Psammetichus in shaking off the
+Assyrian yoke (660 B.C.). A few years later he fell in battle against
+the Cimmerii under Dugdamme (called Lygdamis by Strabo i. 3. 21), who
+took the lower town of Sardis. Gyges was succeeded by his son Ardys.
+
+  See Nicolaus Damascenus, quoting from the Lydian historian Xanthus, in
+  C. Müller, _Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum_, iii.; R. Schubert,
+  _Geschichte der Könige von Lydien_ (1884); M. G. Radet, _La Lydie et
+  le monde grec au temps de Mermnades_ (1892-1893): H. Gelzer, "Das
+  Zeitalter des Gyges" (_Rhein. Mus._, 1875); H. Winckler,
+  _Altorientalische Forschungen_, i. (1893); Macan's edition of
+  Herodotus.     (A. H. S.)
+
+
+
+
+GYLIPPUS, a Spartan general of the 5th century B.C.; he was the son of
+Cleandridas, who had been expelled from Sparta for accepting Athenian
+bribes (446 B.C.) and had settled at Thurii. His mother was probably a
+helot, for Gylippus is said to have been, like Lysander and
+Callicratidas, a _mothax_ (see HELOT). When Alcibiades urged the
+Spartans to send a general to lead the Syracusan resistance against the
+Athenian expedition, Gylippus was appointed, and his arrival was
+undoubtedly the turning point of the struggle (414-413). Though at first
+his long hair, his threadbare cloak and his staff furnished the subject
+of many a jest, and his harsh and overbearing manner caused grave
+discontent, yet the rapidity and decisiveness of his movements, won the
+sympathy and respect of the Syracusans. Diodorus (xiii. 28-32),
+probably following Timaeus, represents him as inducing the Syracusans
+to pass sentence of death on the captive Athenian generals, but we need
+have no hesitation in accepting the statement of Philistus (Plutarch,
+_Nicias_, 28), a Syracusan who himself took part in the defence, and
+Thucydides (vii. 86), that he tried, though without success, to save
+their lives, wishing to take them to Sparta as a signal proof of his
+success. Gylippus fell, as his father had done, through avarice;
+entrusted by Lysander with an immense sum which he was to deliver to the
+ephors at Sparta, he could not resist the temptation to enrich himself
+and, on the discovery of his guilt, went into exile.
+
+  Thucydides vi. 93. 104, vii.; Plutarch, _Nicias_, 19, 21, 27, 28,
+  _Lysander_, 16, 17; Diodorus xiii. 7, 8, 28-32; Polyaenus i. 39. 42.
+  See SYRACUSE (for the siege operations), commentaries on Thucydides
+  and the Greek histories.
+
+
+
+
+GYLLEMBOURG-EHRENSVÄRD, THOMASINE CHRISTINE, Baroness (1773-1856),
+Danish author, was born on the 9th of November 1773, at Copenhagen. Her
+maiden name was Buntzen. Her great beauty early attracted notice, and
+before she was seventeen she married the famous writer Peter Andreas
+Heiberg. To him she bore in the following year a son, afterwards
+illustrious as the poet and critic Johan Ludvig Heiberg. In 1800 her
+husband was exiled, and she obtained a divorce, marrying in December
+1801 the Swedish Baron K. F. Ehrensvärd, himself a political fugitive.
+Her second husband, who presently adopted the name of Gyllembourg, died
+in 1815. In 1822 she followed her son to Kiel, where he was appointed
+professor, and in 1825 she returned with him to Copenhagen. In 1827 she
+first appeared as an author by publishing her romance of _The Polonius
+Family_ in her son's newspaper _Flyvende Post_. In 1828 the same journal
+contained _The Magic Ring_, which was immediately followed by _En
+Hverdags historie (An Everyday Story)_. The success of this anonymous
+work was so great that the author adopted until the end of her career
+the name of "The Author of _An Everyday Story_." In 1833-1834 she
+published three volumes of _Old and New Novels_. _New Stories_ followed
+in 1835 and 1836. In 1839 appeared two novels, _Montanus the Younger_
+and _Ricida_; in 1840, _One in All_; in 1841, _Near and Far_; in 1843,
+_A Correspondence_; in 1844, _The Cross Ways_; in 1845, _Two
+Generations_. From 1849 to 1851 the Baroness Ehrensvärd-Gyllembourg was
+engaged in bringing out a library edition of her collected works in
+twelve volumes. On the 2nd of July 1856 she died in her son's house at
+Copenhagen. Not until then did the secret of her authorship transpire;
+for throughout her life she had preserved the closest reticence on the
+subject even with her nearest friends. The style of Madame
+Ehrensvärd-Gyllembourg is clear and sparkling; for English readers no
+closer analogy can be found than between her and Mrs Gaskell, and
+_Cranford_ might well have been written by the witty Danish authoress.
+
+  See J. L. Heiberg, _Peter Andreas Heiberg og Thomasine Gyllembourg_
+  (Copenhagen, 1882), and L. Kornelius-Hybel, _Nogle Bemaerkninger om P.
+  A. Heiberg og Fru Gyllembourg_ (Copenhagen, 1883).
+
+
+
+
+GYLLENSTJERNA, JOHAN, COUNT (1635-1680), Swedish statesman, completed
+his studies at Upsala and then visited most of the European states and
+laid the foundations of that deep insight into international politics
+which afterwards distinguished him. On his return home he met King
+Charles X. in the Danish islands and was in close attendance upon him
+till the monarch's death in 1660. He began his political career at the
+diet which assembled in the autumn of the same year. An aristocrat by
+birth and inclination, he was nevertheless a true patriot and demanded
+the greatest sacrifices from his own order in the national interests. He
+was therefore one of those who laboured most zealously for the recovery
+of the crown lands. In the Upper House he was the spokesman of the
+gentry against the magnates, whose inordinate privileges he would have
+curtailed or abolished. His adversaries vainly endeavoured to gain him
+by favour, for as court-marshal and senator he was still more hostile to
+the dominant patricians who followed the adventurous policy of Magnus de
+la Gardie. Thus he opposed the French alliance which de la Gardie
+carried through in 1672, and consistently advocated economy in domestic
+and neutrality in foreign affairs. On the outbreak of the war in 1675 he
+was the most loyal and energetic supporter of the young Charles XI.,
+and finally his indispensable counsellor. Indeed, it may be said, that
+the political principles which he instilled into the youthful monarch
+were faithfully followed by Charles during the whole of his reign. In
+1679 Gyllenstjerna was appointed the Swedish plenipotentiary at the
+peace congress of Lund. The alliance which he then concluded with
+Denmark bound the two northern realms together in a common foreign
+policy, and he sought besides to facilitate their harmonious
+co-operation by every means in his power. In 1680, after bringing home
+Charles XI.'s Danish bride from Copenhagen, he was appointed
+governor-general of Scania (Skåne), but expired a few weeks later.
+
+  See M. Höjer, _Öfversigt af Sveriges yttre politik under åren
+  1676-1680_ (Upsala, 1875).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+GYMKHANA, a display of miscellaneous sports, originally at the military
+stations of India. The word would seem to be a colloquial remodelling of
+the Hindustani _gend-khana_, ball-house or racquet-court, by
+substituting for _gend_ the first syllable of the English word
+"gymnastics." The definition given in Yule's _Glossary_ is as follows:
+"A place of public resort at a station, where the needful facilities for
+athletics and games ... are provided." The name of the place was
+afterwards applied to the games themselves, and the word is now used
+almost exclusively in this sense. According to Yule the first use of it
+that can be traced was, on the authority of Major John Trotter, at Rurki
+in the year 1861, when a gymkhana was instituted there. Gymkhana sports
+were invented to relieve the monotony of Indian station life, and both
+officers and men from the ranks took part in them. The first meetings
+consisted of promiscuous horse and pony races at catch weights. To these
+were soon added a second variety, originally called the _pagol_ (funny
+races), the one generally known outside India, which consisted of
+miscellaneous races and competitions of all kinds, some serious and some
+amusing, on horseback, on foot and on bicycles. Among these may be
+mentioned the usual military sports; such as tent-pegging, lemon-cutting
+and obstacle racing; rickshaw racing; tilting at the ring sack, pillion,
+hurdle, egg-and-spoon, blindfold, threading-the-needle and many other
+kinds of races depending upon the inventive powers of the committees in
+charge.
+
+
+
+
+GYMNASTICS AND GYMNASIUM, terms signifying respectively a system of
+physical exercises practised either for recreation or for the purpose of
+promoting the health and development of the body, and the building where
+such exercises are carried on. The gymnasium of the Greeks was
+originally the school where competitors in the public games received
+their training, and was so named from the circumstance that these
+competitors exercised naked ([Greek: gymnos]). The gymnasium was a
+public institution as distinguished from the palaestra, which was a
+private school where boys were trained in physical exercises, though the
+term palaestra is also often used for the part of a gymnasium specially
+devoted to wrestling and boxing. The athletic contests for which the
+gymnasium supplied the means of training and practice formed part of the
+social life of the Greeks from the earliest times. They were held in
+honour of heroes and gods; sometimes forming part of a periodic
+festival, sometimes of the funeral rites of a deceased chief. In course
+of time the Greeks grew more attached to such sports; their free active
+life, spent to a great extent in the open air, fostered the liking
+almost into a passion. The victor in any athletic contest, though he
+gained no money prize, was rewarded with the honour and respect of his
+fellow citizens; and a victory in the great religious festivals was
+counted an honour for the whole state. In these circumstances the
+training of competitors for the greater contests became a matter of
+public concern; and accordingly special buildings were provided by the
+state, and their management entrusted to public officials. The
+regulation of the gymnasium at Athens is attributed by Pausanias (i. 39.
+3) to Theseus. Solon made several laws on the subject; but according to
+Galen it was reduced to a system in the time of Cleisthenes. Ten
+_gymnasiarchs_, one from each tribe, were appointed annually. These
+performed in rotation the duties of their office, which were to maintain
+and pay the persons who were training for public contests, to conduct
+the games at the great Athenian festivals, to exercise general
+supervision over the morals of the youths, and to adorn and keep up the
+gymnasium. This office was one of the ordinary [Greek: leitourgiai]
+(public services), and great expense was entailed on the holders. Under
+them were ten _sophronistae_, whose duty was to watch the conduct of the
+youths at all times, and especially to be present at all their games.
+The practical teaching and selecting of the suitable exercises for each
+youth were in the hands of the _paedotribae_ and _gymnastae_, the latter
+of whom also superintended the effect on the constitution of the pupils,
+and prescribed for them when they were unwell. The _aleiptae_ oiled and
+rubbed dust on the bodies of the youths, acted as surgeons, and
+administered the drugs prescribed. According to Galen there was also a
+teacher of the various games of ball. The gymnasia built to suit these
+various purposes were large buildings, which contained not merely places
+for each kind of exercise, but also a stadium, baths, covered porticos
+for practice in bad weather, and outer porticos where the philosophers
+and men of letters read public lectures and held disputations.
+
+The gymnasium of the Greeks did not long remain an institution
+exclusively devoted to athletic exercises. It soon began to be applied
+to other uses even more important. The development arose naturally
+through the recognition by the Greeks of the important place in
+education occupied by physical culture, and of the relation between
+exercise and health. The gymnasium accordingly became connected with
+education on the one hand and with medicine on the other. Due training
+of the body and maintenance of the health and strength of children were
+the chief part of earlier Greek education. Except the time devoted to
+letters and music, the education of boys was conducted in the gymnasia,
+where provision was made, as already mentioned, for their moral as well
+as their physical training. As they grew older, conversation and social
+intercourse took the place of the more systematic discipline.
+Philosophers and sophists assembled to talk and to lecture in the
+gymnasia, which thus became places of general resort for the purpose of
+all less systematic intellectual pursuits, as well as for physical
+exercises. In Athens there were three great public gymnasia--Academy,
+Lyceum and Cynosarges--each of which was consecrated to a special deity
+with whose statue it was adorned; and each was rendered famous by
+association with a celebrated school of philosophy. Plato's teaching in
+the Academy has given immortality to that gymnasium; Aristotle conferred
+lustre on the Lyceum; and the Cynosarges was the resort of the Cynics.
+Plato when treating of education devotes much consideration to
+gymnastics (see especially _Rep._ iii. and various parts of _Laws_); and
+according to Plato it was the sophist Prodicus who first pointed out the
+connexion between gymnastics and health. Having found such exercises
+beneficial to his own weak health, he formulated a method which was
+adopted generally, and which was improved by Hippocrates. Galen lays the
+greatest stress on the proper use of gymnastics, and throughout ancient
+medical writers we find that special exercises are prescribed as the
+cure for special diseases.
+
+The Greek institution of the gymnasium never became popular with the
+Romans, who regarded the training of boys in gymnastics with contempt as
+conducive to idleness and immorality, and of little use from a military
+point of view; though at Sparta gymnastic training had been chiefly
+valued as encouraging warlike tastes and promoting the bodily strength
+needed for the use of weapons and the endurance of hardship. Among the
+Romans of the republic, the games in the Campus Martius, the duties of
+camp life, and the enforced marches and other hardships of actual
+warfare, served to take the place of the gymnastic exercises required by
+the Greeks. The first public gymnasium at Rome was built by Nero and
+another by Commodus. In the middle ages, though jousts and feats of
+horsemanship and field sports of various kinds were popular, the more
+systematic training of the body which the Greeks had associated with the
+gymnasium fell into neglect; while the therapeutic value of special
+exercises as understood by Hippocrates and Galen appears to have been
+lost sight of. Rousseau, in his _Émile_, was the first in modern times
+to call attention to the injurious consequences of such indifference,
+and he insisted on the importance of physical culture as an essential
+part of education. It was probably due in some measure to his influence
+that F. L. Jahn and his followers in Germany, encouraged by the Prussian
+minister Stein, established the _Turnplätze_, or gymnastic schools,
+which played an important part during the War of Liberation, and in the
+political agitations which followed the establishment of the German
+confederation by the Congress of Vienna. The educational reformers
+Pestalozzi and Froebel emphasized the need for systematic physical
+training in any complete scheme of education.
+
+The later development of the classical gymnasium (when it had become the
+school of Intellectual culture rather than of exclusively physical
+exercise), and not the original idea, has been perpetuated in the modern
+use of the word in Germany, where the name "gymnasium" is given to the
+highest grade of secondary school, and the association of the word with
+athleticism has been entirely abandoned. On the other hand, in England,
+France and elsewhere in Europe, as well as in America, the history of
+the word has been precisely the reverse; the connexion of the gymnasium
+with philosophy and mental culture has been dropped, and it indicates a
+building exclusively intended for the practice of physical exercises.
+But whereas the Greeks received training in the gymnasium for contests
+which are now designated as _athletic sports_ (q.v.), gymnastics in the
+modern sense is a term restricted to such exercises as are usually
+practised indoors, with or without the aid of mechanical appliances, as
+distinguished from sports or games practised in the open air.
+
+It was not until near the end of the 19th century that gymnastics were
+recognized in England as anything more than a recreation; their value as
+a specifically therapeutic agent, or as an article in the curriculum of
+elementary schools, was not realized. More recently, however,
+educationists have urged with increasing insistence the need for
+systematic physical training, and their views received greater attention
+when evidence of deterioration in the physique of the people began to
+accumulate. During the first decade of the 20th century more than one
+commission reported to parliament in England in favour of more
+systematic and general physical training being encouraged or even made
+compulsory by public authority. Voluntary associations were formed for
+encouraging such training and providing facilities for it. Gymnastics
+had already for several years been an essential part of the training of
+army recruits with exceedingly beneficial results, and gymnasia had been
+established at Aldershot and other military centres. Physical exercises,
+although not compulsory, obtained a permanent place in the code for
+elementary schools in Great Britain; and much care has been taken to
+provide a syllabus of exercises adapted for the improvement of the
+physique of the children. These exercises are partly gymnastic and
+partly of the nature of drill; they do not in most cases require the use
+of appliances, and are on that account known as "free movements," which
+numbers of children go through together, accompanied whenever possible
+by music. On the other hand at the larger public schools and
+universities there are elaborate gymnasia equipped with a great variety
+of apparatus, the skilful use of which demands assiduous practice; and
+this is encouraged by annual contests between teams of gymnasts
+representing rival institutions.
+
+
+  Gymnastic apparatus.
+
+The appliances vary to some extent in different gymnasia, some of the
+more complicated requiring a greater amount of space and involving a
+larger cost than is often practicable. But where these considerations
+are negligible, substantial uniformity is to be found in the equipment
+of gymnasia not designed for specifically medical purposes. The
+simplest, and in many respects the most generally useful, of all
+gymnastic apparatus is the dumb-bell. It was in use in England as early
+as the time of Elizabeth, and it has the advantage that it admits of
+being exactly proportioned to the individual strength of each learner,
+and can be adjusted in weight as his strength increases. The exercises
+that may be performed with the dumb-bell, combined with a few simple
+drill-like movements, give employment to all parts of the body and to
+both sides equally. Dumb-bell exercises, therefore, when arranged
+judiciously and with knowledge, are admirably suited for developing the
+physique, and are extensively employed in schools both for boys and
+girls. The bar-bell is merely a two-handed dumb-bell, and its use is
+similar in principle. The Indian club is also in use in most gymnasia;
+but the risk of overstraining the body by its unskilful handling makes
+it less generally popular than the dumb-bell. All these appliances may
+be, and often are, used either in ordinary schoolrooms or elsewhere
+outside the gymnasium. The usual fixed sorts of apparatus, the presence
+of which (or of some of them) in a building may be said to constitute it
+a gymnasium, are the following: a leaping-rope; a leaping-pole; a
+vaulting-horse; a horizontal bar, so mounted between two upright posts
+that its height from the ground may be adjusted as desired; parallel
+bars, used for exercises to develop the muscles of the trunk and arms;
+the trapeze consisting of a horizontal bar suspended by ropes at a
+height of 4 to 5 ft. from the ground; the bridge ladder; the plank; the
+inclined plane; the mast; swinging rings; the prepared wall; the
+horizontal beam.
+
+Before the end of the 19th century the therapeutic value of gymnastics
+was fully realized by the medical profession; and a number of medical or
+surgical gymnasia came into existence, provided with specially devised
+apparatus for the treatment of different physical defects or weaknesses.
+The exercises practised in them are arranged upon scientific principles
+based on anatomical and physiological knowledge; and these principles
+have spread thence to influence largely the practice of gymnastics in
+schools and in the army. A French medical writer enumerates seven
+distinct groups of maladies, each including a number of different
+complaints, for which gymnastic exercises are a recognized form of
+treatment; and there are many malformations of the human body, formerly
+believed to be incurable, which are capable of being greatly remedied if
+not entirely corrected by regular gymnastic exercises practised under
+medical direction.
+
+The value of gymnastics both for curing defects, and still more for
+promoting health and the development of normal physique, is recognized
+even more clearly on the continent of Europe than in Great Britain. In
+Germany the government not only controls the practice of gymnastics but
+makes it compulsory for every child and adult to undergo a prescribed
+amount of such physical training. In France also, physical training by
+gymnastics is under state control; in Sweden, Denmark, Switzerland,
+Italy, Russia, systems more or less distinct enjoy a wide popularity;
+and in Finland gymnastics are practised on lines that exhibit national
+peculiarities. The Finns introduce an exceptional degree of variety into
+their exercises as well as into the appliances devised to assist them;
+women are scarcely less expert than men in the performance of them; and
+the enthusiasm with which the system is supported produces the most
+beneficial results in the physique of the people. International
+gymnastic contests have become a feature of the revived Olympic Games
+(see ATHLETIC SPORTS), and in those held at Athens in 1906 a team of
+Danish ladies took part in the competition and proved by their skilful
+performance that gymnastics may be practised with as much success by
+women as by men.
+
+  The chief work on the ancient gymnastics is Krause, _Gymnastik und
+  Agonistik der Hellenen_ (1841); of more recent works mention may be
+  made of Jäger, _Gymnastik der Hellenen_ (1881); L. Grasberger,
+  _Erziehung und Unterricht im klassischen Altertum_ (1881); J. P.
+  Mahaffy, _Old Greek Education_ (1883); A. S. Wilkins, _National
+  Education in Greece_ (1873); E. Paz, _Histoire de la gymnastique_
+  (1886); Wickenhagen, _Antike und moderne Gymnastik_ (1891);
+  Becker-Göll, _Charicles_ ii.; Brugsma, _Gymnasiorum apud Graecos
+  descriptio_ (1855); Petersen, _Das Gymnasium der Griechen_ (1858). See
+  also N. Laisné, _Gymnastique pratique_ (Paris, 1879); Collineau, _La
+  Gymnastique_ (Paris, 1884); _L'Hygiène à l'école_ (Paris, 1889); P. de
+  Coubertin, _La Gymnastique utilitaire_ (Paris, 1905); H. Nissen,
+  _Rational Home Gymnastics_ (Boston, 1903).     (R. J. M.)
+
+
+
+
+GYMNOSOPHISTS (Lat. _gymnosophistae_, from Gr. [Greek: gymnos,
+sophistês], "naked philosophers"), the name given by the Greeks to
+certain ancient Hindu philosophers who pursued asceticism to the point
+of regarding food and clothing as detrimental to purity of thought. From
+the fact that they often lived as hermits in forests, the Greeks also
+called them _Hylobioi_ (cf. the _Vana-prasthas_ in Sanskrit writings).
+Diogenes Laërtius (ix. 61 and 63) refers to them, and asserts that
+Pyrrho of Elis, the founder of pure scepticism, came under their
+influence, and on his return to Elis imitated their habits of life, to
+what extent does not appear. Strabo (xv. 711, 714) divides them into
+Brahmans and Sarmans (or Shamans). See JAINS.
+
+
+
+
+GYMNOSPERMS, in Botany. The Gymnosperms, with the Angiosperms,
+constitute the existing groups of seed-bearing plants or Phanerogams:
+the importance of the seed as a distinguishing feature in the plant
+kingdom may be emphasized by the use of the designation Spermophyta for
+these two groups, in contrast to the Pteridophyta and Bryophyta in which
+true seeds are unknown. Recent discoveries have, however, established
+the fact that there existed in the Palaeozoic era fern-like plants which
+produced true seeds of a highly specialized type; this group, for which
+Oliver and Scott proposed the term Pteridospermae in 1904, must also be
+included in the Spermophyta. Another instance of the production of seeds
+in an extinct plant which further reduces the importance of this
+character as a distinguishing feature is afforded by the Palaeozoic
+genus _Lepidocarpon_ described by Scott in 1901; this lycopodiaceous
+type possessed an integumented megaspore, to which the designation seed
+may be legitimately applied (see PALAEOBOTANY: _Palaeozoic_).
+
+As the name Gymnosperm (Gr. [Greek: gymnos], naked, [Greek: sperma],
+seed) implies, one characteristic of this group is the absence of an
+ovary or closed chamber containing the ovules. It was the English
+botanist Robert Brown who first recognized this important distinguishing
+feature in conifers and cycads in 1825; he established the gymnospermy
+of these seed-bearing classes as distinct from the angiospermy of the
+monocotyledons and dicotyledons. As Sachs says in his history of botany,
+"no more important discovery was ever made in the domain of comparative
+morphology and systematic botany." As Coulter and Chamberlain express
+it, "the habitats of the Gymnosperms to-day indicate that they either
+are not at home in the more genial conditions affected by Angiosperms,
+or have not been able to maintain themselves in competition with this
+group of plants."
+
+These naked-seeded plants are of special interest on account of their
+great antiquity, which far exceeds that of the Angiosperms, and as
+comprising different types which carry us back to the Palaeozoic era and
+to the forests of the coal period. The best known and by far the largest
+division of the Gymnosperms is that of the cone-bearing trees (pines,
+firs, cedars, larches, &c.), which play a prominent part in the
+vegetation of the present day, especially in the higher latitudes of the
+northern hemisphere; certain members of this class are of considerable
+antiquity, but the conifers as a whole are still vigorous and show but
+little sign of decadence. The division known as the Cycadophyta is
+represented by a few living genera of limited geographical range and by
+a large number of extinct types which in the Mesozoic era (see
+PALAEOBOTANY: _Mesozoic_) played a conspicuous part in the vegetation of
+the world. Among existing Cycadophyta we find surviving types which, in
+their present isolation, their close resemblance to fossil forms, and in
+certain morphological features, constitute links with the past that not
+only connect the present with former periods in the earth's history, but
+serve as sign-posts pointing the way back along one of the many lines
+which evolution has followed.
+
+It is needless to discuss at length the origin of the Gymnosperms. The
+two views which find most favour in regard to the Coniferales and
+Cycadophyta are: (1) that both have been derived from remote filicinean
+ancestors; (2) that the cycads are the descendants of a fern-like stock,
+while conifers have been evolved from lycopodiaceous ancestors. The line
+of descent of recent cycads is comparatively clear in so far as they
+have undoubted affinity with Palaeozoic plants which combined cycadean
+and filicinean features; but opinion is much more divided as to the
+nature of the phylum from which the conifers are derived. The
+Cordaitales (see PALAEOBOTANY: _Palaeozoic_) are represented by extinct
+forms only, which occupied a prominent position in the Palaeozoic
+period; these plants exhibit certain features in common with the living
+Araucarias, and others which invite a comparison with the maidenhair
+tree (_Ginkgo biloba_), the solitary survivor of another class of
+Gymnosperms, the Ginkgoales (see PALAEOBOTANY: _Mesozoic_). The Gnetales
+are a class apart, including three living genera, of which we know next
+to nothing as regards their past history or line of descent. Although
+there are several morphological features in the three genera of Gnetales
+which might seem to bring them into line with the Angiosperms, it is
+usual to regard these resemblances as parallel developments along
+distinct lines rather than to interpret them as evidence of direct
+relationship.
+
+  _Gymnospermae._--Trees or shrubs; leaves vary considerably in size and
+  form. Flowers unisexual, except in a few cases (Gnetales) without a
+  perianth. Monoecious or dioecious. Ovules naked, rarely without
+  carpellary leaves, usually borne on carpophylls, which assume various
+  forms. The single megaspore enclosed in the nucellus is filled with
+  tissue (prothallus) before fertilization, and contains two or more
+  archegonia, consisting usually of a large egg-cell and a small neck,
+  rarely of an egg-cell only and no neck (_Gnetum_ and _Welwitschia_).
+  Microspore spherical or oval, with or without a bladder-like extension
+  of the exine, containing a prothallus of two or more cells, one of
+  which produces two non-motile or motile male cells. Cotyledons two or
+  several. Secondary xylem and phloem produced by a single cambium, or
+  by successive cambial zones; no true vessels (except in the Gnetales)
+  in the wood, and no companion-cells in the phloem.
+
+      I. _Pteridospermae_ (see PALAEOBOTANY, PALAEOZOIC).
+     II. _Cycadophyta_.
+            A. Cycadales (recent and extinct).
+            B. Bennettitales (see Palaeobotany: _Mesozoic_).
+    III. _Cordaitales_ (see PALAEOBOTANY: _Palaeozoic_).
+     IV. _Ginkgoales_ (recent and extinct).
+      V. _Coniferales_.
+            A. Taxaceae.
+            B. Pinaceae.
+
+  There is no doubt that the result of recent research and of work now
+  in progress will be to modify considerably the grouping of the
+  conifers. The family _Araucarieae_, represented by _Araucaria_ and
+  _Agathis_, should perhaps be separated as a special class and a
+  rearrangement of other genera more in accord with a natural system of
+  classification will soon be possible; but for the present its twofold
+  subdivision may be retained.
+
+     VI. _Gnetales_.
+            A. Ephedroideae.
+            B. Gnetoideae.
+            C. Welwitschioideae (Tumboideae).
+
+  CYCADOPHYTA.--A. _Cycadales._--Stems tuberous or columnar, not
+  infrequently branched, rarely epiphytic (Peruvian species of _Zamia_);
+  fronds pinnate, bi-pinnate in the Australian genus _Bowenia_.
+  Dioecious; flowers in the form of cones, except the female flowers of
+  _Cycas_, which consist of a rosette of leaf-like carpels at the apex
+  of the stem. Seeds albuminous, with one integument; the single embryo,
+  usually bearing two partially fused cotyledons, is attached to a long
+  tangled suspensor. Stems and roots increase in diameter by secondary
+  thickening, the secondary wood being produced by one cambium or
+  developed from successive cambium-rings.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Stem of _Cycas_. F, foliage-leaf bases; S,
+  scale-leaf bases.]
+
+  The cycads constitute a homogeneous group of a few living members
+  confined to tropical and sub-tropical regions. As a fairly typical and
+  well-known example of the Cycadaceae, a species of the genus _Cycas_
+  (e.g. _C. circinalis_, _C. revoluta_, &c.) is briefly described. The
+  stout columnar stem may reach a height of 20 metres, and a diameter of
+  half a metre; it remains either unbranched or divides near the summit
+  into several short and thick branches, each branch terminating in a
+  crown of long pinnate leaves. The surface of the stem is covered with
+  rhomboidal areas, which represent the persistent bases of foliage- and
+  scale-leaves. In some species of _Cycas_ there is a well-defined
+  alternation of transverse zones on the stem, consisting of larger
+  areas representing foliage-leaf bases, and similar but smaller areas
+  formed by the bases of scale-leaves (F and S, fig. 1). The
+  scale-leaves clothing the terminal bud are linear-lanceolate in form,
+  and of a brown or yellow colour; they are pushed aside as the
+  stem-axis elongates and becomes shrivelled, finally falling off,
+  leaving projecting bases which are eventually cut off at a still lower
+  level. Similarly, the dead fronds fall off, leaving a ragged petiole,
+  which is afterwards separated from the stem by an absciss-layer a
+  short distance above the base. In some species of _Cycas_ the
+  leaf-bases do not persist as a permanent covering to the stem, but the
+  surface is covered with a wrinkled bark, as in _Cycas siamensis_,
+  which has a stem of unusual form (fig. 2). Small tuberous shoots,
+  comparable on a large scale with the bulbils of _Lycopodium Selago_,
+  are occasionally produced in the axils of some of the persistent
+  leaf-bases; these are characteristic of sickly plants, and serve as a
+  means of vegetative reproduction. In the genus _Cycas_ the female
+  flower is peculiar among cycads in consisting of a terminal crown of
+  separate leaf-like carpels several inches in length; the apical
+  portion of each carpellary leaf may be broadly triangular in form, and
+  deeply dissected on the margins into narrow woolly appendages like
+  rudimentary pinnae. From the lower part of a carpel are produced
+  several laterally placed ovules, which become bright red or orange on
+  ripening; the bright fleshy seeds, which in some species are as large
+  as a goose's egg, and the tawny spreading carpels produce a pleasing
+  combination of colour in the midst of the long dark-green fronds,
+  which curve gracefully upwards and outwards from the summit of the
+  columnar stem. In _Cycas_ the stem apex, after producing a cluster of
+  carpellary leaves, continues to elongate and produces more bud-scales,
+  which are afterwards pushed aside as a fresh crown of fronds is
+  developed. The young leaves of _Cycas_ consist of a straight rachis
+  bearing numerous linear pinnae, traversed by a single midrib; the
+  pinnae are circinately coiled like the leaf of a fern (fig. 3). The
+  male flower of _Cycas_ conforms to the type of structure
+  characteristic of the cycads, and consists of a long cone of numerous
+  sporophylls bearing many oval pollen-sacs on their lower faces. The
+  type described serves as a convenient representative of its class.
+  There are eight other living genera, which may be classified as
+  follows:--
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--_Cycas siamensis._]
+
+  _Classification._--A. _Cycadeae._--Characterized by (a) the
+  alternation of scale- and foliage-leaves (fig. 1) on the branched or
+  unbranched stem; (b) the growth of the main stem through the female
+  flower; (c) the presence of a prominent single vein in the linear
+  pinnae; (d) the structure of the female flower, which is peculiar in
+  not having the form of a cone, but consists of numerous independent
+  carpels, each of which bears two or more lateral ovules. Represented
+  by a single genus, _Cycas_. (Tropical Asia, Australia, &c.).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--_Cycas._ Young Frond.]
+
+  B. _Zamieae._--The stem does not grow through the female flower; both
+  male and female flowers are in the form of cones. (a)
+  _Stangerieae._--Characterized by the fern-like venation of the pinnae,
+  which have a prominent midrib, giving off at a wide angle simple or
+  forked and occasionally anastomosing lateral veins. A single genus,
+  _Stangeria_, confined to South Africa, (b) _Euzamieae._--The pinnae
+  are traversed by several parallel veins. _Bowenia_, an Australian
+  cycad, is peculiar in having bi-pinnate fronds (fig. 5). The various
+  genera are distinguished from one another by the shape and manner of
+  attachment of the pinnae, the form of the carpellary scales, and to
+  some extent by anatomical characters. _Encephalartos_ (South and
+  Tropical Africa).--Large cones; the carpellary scales terminate in a
+  peltate distal expansion. _Macrozamia_ (Australia).--Similar to
+  _Encephalartos_ except in the presence of a spinous projection from
+  the swollen distal end of the carpels. _Zamia_ (South America,
+  Florida, &c.).--Stem short and often divided into several columnar
+  branches. Each carpel terminates in a peltate head. _Ceratozamia_
+  (Mexico).--Similar in habit to _Macrozamia_, but distinguished by the
+  presence of two horn-like spinous processes on the apex of the
+  carpels. _Microcycas_ (Cuba).--Like _Zamia_, except that the ends of
+  the stamens are flat, while the apices of the carpels are peltate.
+  _Dioon_ (Mexico) (fig. 4).--Characterized by the woolly scale-leaves
+  and carpels; the latter terminate in a thick laminar expansion of
+  triangular form, bearing two placental cushions, on which the ovules
+  are situated. _Bowenia_ (Australia).--Bi-pinnate fronds; stem short
+  and tuberous (fig. 5).
+
+  [Illustration: From a photograph of a plant in Peradeniya Gardens,
+  Ceylon, by Professor R. H. Yapp.
+
+  FIG. 4.--_Dioon edule._]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--_Bowenia spectabilis_: frond.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.--_Macrozamia heteromera_. A, part of frond; B,
+  single pinna.]
+
+
+    Stem and leaf.
+
+  The stems of cycads are often described as unbranched; it is true that
+  in comparison with conifers, in which the numerous branches, springing
+  from the main stem, give a characteristic form to the tree, the
+  tuberous or columnar stem of the Cycadaceae constitutes a striking
+  distinguishing feature. Branching, however, occurs not infrequently:
+  in _Cycas_ the tall stem often produces several candelabra-like arms;
+  in _Zamia_ the main axis may break up near the base into several
+  cylindrical branches; in species of _Dioon_ (fig. 4) lateral branches
+  are occasionally produced. The South African _Encephalartos_
+  frequently produces several branches. Probably the oldest example of
+  this genus in cultivation is in the Botanic Garden of Amsterdam, its
+  age is considered by Professor de Vries to be about two thousand
+  years: although an accurate determination of age is impossible, there
+  is no doubt that many cycads grow very slowly and are remarkable for
+  longevity. The thick armour of petiole-bases enveloping the stem is a
+  characteristic Cycadean feature; in _Cycas_ the alternation of
+  scale-leaves and fronds is more clearly shown than in other cycads; in
+  _Encephalartos_, _Dioon_, &c., the persistent scale-leaf bases are
+  almost equal in size to those of the foliage-leaves, and there is no
+  regular alternation of zones such as characterizes some species of
+  _Cycas_. Another type of stem is illustrated by _Stangeria_ and
+  _Zamia_, also by a few forms of _Cycas_ (fig. 2), in which the fronds
+  fall off completely, leaving a comparatively smooth stem. The _Cyas_
+  type of frond, except as regards the presence of a midrib in each
+  pinna, characterizes the cycads generally, except _Bowenia_ and
+  _Stangeria_. In the monotypic genus _Bowenia_ the large fronds, borne
+  singly on the short and thick stem, are bi-pinnate (fig. 5); the
+  segments, which are broadly ovate or rhomboidal, have several forked
+  spreading veins, and resemble the large pinnules of some species of
+  _Adiantum_. In _Stangeria_, also a genus represented by one species
+  (_S. paradoxa_ of South Africa), the long and comparatively broad
+  pinnae, with an entire or irregularly incised margin, are very
+  fern-like, a circumstance which led Kunze to describe the plant in
+  1835 as a species of the fern _Lomaria_. In rare cases the pinnae of
+  cycads are lobed or branched: in _Dioon spinulosum_ (Central America)
+  the margin of the segments bears numerous spinous processes; in some
+  species of _Encephalartos_, e.g. _E. horridus_, the lamina is deeply
+  lobed; and in a species of the Australian genus _Macrozamia_, _M.
+  heteromera_, the narrow pinnae are dichotomously branched almost to
+  the base (fig. 6), and resemble the frond of some species of the fern
+  _Schizaea_, or the fossil genus _Baiera_ (Ginkgoales). An interesting
+  species of _Cycas_, _C. Micholitzii_, has recently been described by
+  Sir William Thiselton-Dyer from Annam, where it was collected by one
+  of Messrs Sanders & Son's collectors, in which the pinnae instead of
+  being of the usual simple type are dichotomously branched as in
+  _Macrozamia heteromera_. In _Ceratozamia_ the broad petiole-base is
+  characterized by the presence of two lateral spinous processes,
+  suggesting stipular appendages, comparable, on a reduced scale, with
+  the large stipules of the Marattiaceae among Ferns. The vernation
+  varies in different genera; in _Cycas_ the rachis is straight and the
+  pinnae circinately coiled (fig. 3); in _Encephalartos_, _Dioon_, &c.,
+  both rachis and segments are straight; in _Zamia_ the rachis is bent
+  or slightly coiled, bearing straight pinnae. The young leaves arise on
+  the stem-apex as conical protuberances with winged borders on which
+  the pinnae appear as rounded humps, usually in basipetal order; the
+  scale-leaves in their young condition resemble fronds, but the lamina
+  remains undeveloped. A feature of interest in connexion with the
+  phylogeny of cycads is the presence of long hairs clothing the
+  scale-leaves, and forming a cap on the summit of the stem-apex or
+  attached to the bases of petioles; on some fossil cycadean plants
+  these outgrowths have the form of scales, and are identical in
+  structure with the ramenta (paleae) of the majority of ferns.
+
+
+    Flower.
+
+  The male flowers of cycads are constructed on a uniform plan, and in
+  all cases consist of an axis bearing crowded, spirally disposed
+  sporophylls. These are often wedge-shaped and angular; in some cases
+  they consist of a short, thick stalk, terminating in a peltate
+  expansion, or prolonged upwards in the form of a triangular lamina.
+  The sporangia (pollen-sacs), which occur on the under-side of the
+  stamens, are often arranged in more or less definite groups or sori,
+  interspersed with hairs (paraphyses); dehiscence takes place along a
+  line marked out by the occurrence of smaller and thinner-walled cells
+  bounded by larger and thicker-walled elements, which form a fairly
+  prominent cap-like "annulus" near the apex of the sporangium, not
+  unlike the annulus characteristic of the Schizaeaceae among ferns. The
+  sporangial wall, consisting of several layers of cells, encloses a
+  cavity containing numerous oval spores (pollen-grains). In structure a
+  cycadean sporangium recalls those of certain ferns (Marattiaceae,
+  Osmundaceae and Schizaeaceae), but in the development of the spores
+  there are certain peculiarities not met with among the Vascular
+  Cryptogams. With the exception of _Cycas_, the female flowers are also
+  in the form of cones, bearing numerous carpellary scales. In _Cycas
+  revoluta_ and _C. circinalis_ each leaf-like carpel may produce
+  several laterally attached ovules, but in _C. Normanbyana_ the carpel
+  is shorter and the ovules are reduced to two; this latter type brings
+  us nearer to the carpels of _Dioon_, in which the flower has the form
+  of a cone, and the distal end of the carpels is longer and more
+  leaf-like than in the other genera of the _Zamieae_, which are
+  characterized by shorter carpels with thick peltate heads bearing two
+  ovules on the morphologically lower surface. The cones of cycads
+  attain in some cases (e.g. _Encephalartos_) a considerable size,
+  reaching a length of more than a foot. Cases have been recorded (by
+  Thiselton-Dyer in _Encephalartos_ and by Wieland in _Zamia_) in which
+  the short carpellary cone-scales exhibit a foliaceous form. It is
+  interesting that no monstrous cycadean cone has been described in
+  which ovuliferous and staminate appendages are borne on the same axis:
+  in the Bennettitales (see PALAEOBOTANY: _Mesozoic_) flowers were
+  produced bearing on the same axis both androecium and gynoecium.
+
+
+    Microspores and megaspores.
+
+  The pollen-grains when mature consist of three cells, two small and
+  one large cell; the latter grows into the pollen-tube, as in the
+  Coniferales, and from one of the small cells two large ciliated
+  spermatozoids are eventually produced. A remarkable exception to this
+  rule has recently been recorded by Caldwell, who found that in
+  _Microcycas Calocoma_ the body-cells may be eight or even ten in
+  number and the sperm-cells twice as numerous. One of the most
+  important discoveries made during the latter part of the 19th century
+  was that by Ikeno, a Japanese botanist, who first demonstrated the
+  existence of motile male cells in the genus _Cycas_. Similar
+  spermatozoids were observed in some species of _Zamia_ by H. J.
+  Webber, and more recent work enables us to assume that all cycads
+  produce ciliated male gametes. Before following the growth of the
+  pollen-grain after pollination, we will briefly describe the structure
+  of a cycadean ovule. An ovule consists of a conical nucellus
+  surrounded by a single integument. At an early stage of development a
+  large cell makes its appearance in the central region of the nucellus;
+  this increases in size and eventually forms three cells; the lowest of
+  these grows vigorously and constitutes the megaspore (embryo-sac),
+  which ultimately absorbs the greater part of the nucellus. The
+  megaspore-nucleus divides repeatedly, and cells are produced from the
+  peripheral region inwards, which eventually fill the spore-cavity with
+  a homogeneous tissue (prothallus); some of the superficial cells at
+  the micropylar end of the megaspore increase in size and divide by a
+  tangential wall into two, an upper cell which gives rise to the short
+  two-celled neck of the archegonium, and a lower cell which develops
+  into a large egg-cell. Each megaspore may contain 2 to 6 archegonia.
+  During the growth of the ovum nourishment is supplied from the
+  contents of the cells immediately surrounding the egg-cell, as in the
+  development of the ovum of _Pinus_ and other conifers. Meanwhile the
+  tissue in the apical region of the nucellus has been undergoing
+  disorganization, which results in the formation of a pollen-chamber
+  (fig. 7, C) immediately above the megaspore. Pollination in cycads has
+  always been described as anemophilous, but according to recent
+  observations by Pearson on South African species it seems probable
+  that, at least in some cases, the pollen is conveyed to the ovules by
+  animal agency. The pollen-grains find their way between the
+  carpophylls, which at the time of pollination are slightly apart owing
+  to the elongation of the internodes of the flower-axis, and pass into
+  the pollen-chamber; the large cell of the pollen-grain grows out into
+  a tube (Pt), which penetrates the nucellar tissue and often branches
+  repeatedly; the pollen-grain itself, with the prothallus-cells,
+  projects freely into the pollen-chamber (fig. 7). The nucleus of the
+  outermost (second) small cell (fig. 7, G) divides, and one of the
+  daughter-nuclei passes out of the cell, and may enter the lowest
+  (first) small cell. The outermost cell, by the division of the
+  remaining nucleus, produces two large spermatozoids (fig. 8, a, a). In
+  _Microcycas_ 16 sperm-cells are produced. In the course of division
+  two bodies appear in the cytoplasm, and behave as centrosomes during
+  the karyokinesis; they gradually become threadlike and coil round each
+  daughter nucleus. This thread gives rise to a spiral ciliated band
+  lying in a depression on the body of each spermatozoid; the large
+  spermatozoids eventually escape from the pollen-tube, and are able to
+  perform ciliary movements in the watery liquid which occurs between
+  the thin papery remnant of nucellar tissue and the archegonial necks.
+  Before fertilization a neck-canal cell is formed by the division of
+  the ovum-nucleus. After the body of a spermatozoid has coalesced with
+  the egg-nucleus the latter divides repeatedly and forms a mass of
+  tissue which grows more vigorously in the lower part of the fertilized
+  ovum, and extends upwards towards the apex of the ovum as a peripheral
+  layer of parenchyma surrounding a central space. By further growth
+  this tissue gives rise to a proembryo, which consists, at the
+  micropylar end, of a sac; the tissue at the chalazal end grows into a
+  long and tangled suspensor, terminating in a mass of cells, which is
+  eventually differentiated into a radicle, plumule and two cotyledons.
+  In the ripe seed the integument assumes the form of a fleshy envelope,
+  succeeded internally by a hard woody shell, internal to which is a
+  thin papery membrane--the apical portion of the nucellus--which is
+  easily dissected out as a conical cap covering the apex of the
+  endosperm. A thorough examination of cycadean seeds has recently been
+  made by Miss Stopes, more particularly with a view to a comparison of
+  their vascular supply with that in Palaeozoic gymnospermous seeds
+  (_Flora_, 1904). The first leaves borne on the seedling axis are often
+  scale-like, and these are followed by two or more larger laminae,
+  which foreshadow the pinnae of the adult frond.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--_Zamia._ Part of Ovule in longitudinal
+  section. (After Webber.)
+
+    P,  Prothallus.
+    A,  Archegonia.
+    N,  Nucellus.
+    C,  Pollen-chamber.
+    Pt, Pollen-tube.
+    Pg, Pollen-grain.
+    G, Generative cell (second cell of pollen-tube).]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.--_Zamia._ Proximal end of Pollen-tube, a, a,
+  Spermatozoids from G of fig. 7; Pg, pollen-grain; c, proximal cell
+  (first cell). (After Webber.)]
+
+
+    Anatomy.
+
+    Roots.
+
+  The anatomical structure of the vegetative organs of recent cycads is
+  of special interest as affording important evidence of relationship
+  with extinct types, and with other groups of recent plants.
+  Brongniart, who was the first to investigate in detail the anatomy of
+  a cycadean stem, recognized an agreement, as regards the secondary
+  wood, with Dicotyledons and Gymnosperms, rather than with
+  Monocotyledons. He drew attention also to certain structural
+  similarities between _Cycas_ and _Ginkgo_. The main anatomical
+  features of a cycad stem may be summarized as follows: the centre is
+  occupied by a large parenchymatous pith traversed by numerous
+  secretory canals, and in some genera by cauline vascular bundles (e.g.
+  _Encephalartos_ and _Macrozamia_). In addition to these cauline
+  strands (confined to the stem and not connected with the leaves),
+  collateral bundles are often met with in the pith, which form the
+  vascular supply of terminal flowers borne at intervals on the apex of
+  the stem. These latter bundles may be seen in sections of old stems to
+  pursue a more or less horizontal course, passing outwards through the
+  main woody cylinder. This lateral course is due to the more vigorous
+  growth of the axillary branch formed near the base of each flower,
+  which is a terminal structure, and, except in the female flower of
+  _Cycas_, puts a limit to the apical growth of the stem. The vigorous
+  lateral branch therefore continues the line of the main axis. The pith
+  is encircled by a cylinder of secondary wood, consisting of single or
+  multiple radial rows of tracheids separated by broad medullary rays
+  composed of large parenchymatous cells; the tracheids bear numerous
+  bordered pits on the radial walls. The large medullary rays give to
+  the wood a characteristic parenchymatous or lax appearance, which is
+  in marked contrast to the more compact wood of a conifer. The
+  protoxylem-elements are situated at the extreme inner edge of the
+  secondary wood, and may occur as small groups of narrow,
+  spirally-pitted elements scattered among the parenchyma which abuts on
+  the main mass of wood. Short and reticulately-pitted tracheal cells,
+  similar to tracheids, often occur in the circummedullary region of
+  cycadean stems. In an old stem of _Cycas_, _Encephalartos_ or
+  _Macrozamia_ the secondary wood consists of several rather unevenly
+  concentric zones, while in some other genera it forms a continuous
+  mass as in conifers and normal dicotyledons. These concentric rings of
+  secondary xylem and phloem (fig. 9) afford a characteristic cycadean
+  feature. After the cambium has been active for some time producing
+  secondary xylem and phloem, the latter consisting of sieve-tubes,
+  phloem-parenchyma and frequently thick-walled fibres, a second cambium
+  is developed in the pericycle; this produces a second vascular zone,
+  which is in turn followed by a third cambium, and so on, until several
+  hollow cylinders are developed. It has been recently shown that
+  several cambium-zones may remain in a state of activity, so that the
+  formation of a new cambium does not necessarily mark a cessation of
+  growth in the more internal meristematic rings. It occasionally
+  happens that groups of xylem and phloem are developed internally to
+  some of the vascular rings; these are characterized by an inverse
+  orientation of the tissues, the xylem being centrifugal and the phloem
+  centripetal in its development. The broad cortical region, which
+  contains many secretory canals, is traversed by numerous vascular
+  bundles (fig. 9, c) some of which pursue a more or less vertical
+  course, and by frequent anastomoses with one another form a loose
+  reticulum of vascular strands; others are leaf-traces on their way
+  from the stele of the stem to the leaves. Most of these cortical
+  bundles are collateral in structure, but in some the xylem and phloem
+  are concentrically arranged; the secondary origin of these bundles
+  from procambium-strands was described by Mettenius in his classical
+  paper of 1860. During the increase in thickness of a cycadean stem
+  successive layers of cork-tissue are formed by phellogens in the
+  persistent bases of leaves (fig. 9, pd), which increase in size to
+  adapt themselves to the growth of the vascular zones. The leaf-traces
+  of cycads are remarkable both on account of their course and their
+  anatomy. In a transverse section of a stem (fig. 9) one sees some
+  vascular bundles following a horizontal or slightly oblique course in
+  the cortex, stretching for a longer or shorter distance in a direction
+  concentric with the woody cylinder. From each leaf-base two main
+  bundles spread right and left through the cortex of the stem (fig. 9,
+  lt), and as they curve gradually towards the vascular ring they
+  present the appearance of two rather flat ogee curves, usually spoken
+  of as the leaf-trace girdles (fig. 9, lt). The distal ends of these
+  girdles give off several branches, which traverse the petiole and
+  rachis as numerous collateral bundles. The complicated girdle-like
+  course is characteristic of the leaf-traces of most recent cycads, but
+  in some cases, e.g. in _Zamia floridana_, the traces are described by
+  Wieland in his recent monograph on American fossil cycads (_Carnegie
+  Institution Publications_, 1906) as possessing a more direct course
+  similar to that in Mesozoic genera. A leaf-trace, as it passes through
+  the cortex, has a collateral structure, the protoxylem being situated
+  at the inner edge of the xylem; when it reaches the leaf-base the
+  position of the spiral tracheids is gradually altered, and the endarch
+  arrangement (protoxylem internal) gives place to a mesarch structure
+  (protoxylem more or less central and not on the edge of the xylem
+  strand). In a bundle examined in the basal portion of a leaf the bulk
+  of the xylem is found to be centrifugal in position, but internally to
+  the protoxylem there is a group of centripetal tracheids; higher up in
+  the petiole the xylem is mainly centripetal, the centrifugal wood
+  being represented by a small arc of tracheids external to the
+  protoxylem and separated from it by a few parenchymatous elements.
+  Finally, in the pinnae of the frond the centrifugal xylem may
+  disappear, the protoxylem being now exarch in position and abutting on
+  the phloem. Similarly in the sporophylls of some cycads the bundles
+  are endarch near the base and mesarch near the distal end of the
+  stamen or carpel. The vascular system of cycadean seedlings presents
+  some features worthy of note; centripetal xylem occurs in the
+  cotyledonary bundles associated with transfusion-tracheids. The
+  bundles from the cotyledons pursue a direct course to the stele of the
+  main axis, and do not assume the girdle-form characteristic of the
+  adult plant. This is of interest from the point of view of the
+  comparison of recent cycads with extinct species (_Bennettites_), in
+  which the leaf-traces follow a much more direct course than in modern
+  cycads. The mesarch structure of the leaf-bundles is met with in a
+  less pronounced form in the flower peduncles of some cycads. This fact
+  is of importance as showing that the type of vascular structure, which
+  characterized the stems of many Palaeozoic genera, has not entirely
+  disappeared from the stems of modern cycads; but the mesarch bundle is
+  now confined to the leaves and peduncles. The roots of some cycads
+  resemble the stems in producing several cambium-rings; they possess 2
+  to 8 protoxylem-groups, and are characterized by a broad pericyclic
+  zone. A common phenomenon in cycads is the production of roots which
+  grow upwards (apogeotropic), and appear as coralline branched
+  structures above the level of the ground; some of the cortical cells
+  of these roots are hypertrophied, and contain numerous filaments of
+  blue-green Algae (Nostocaceae), which live as endoparasites in the
+  cell-cavities.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.--_Macrozamia._ Diagrammatic transverse section
+  of part of Stem. (After Worsdell.)
+
+    pd, Periderm in leaf-bases.
+    lt, Leaf-traces in cortex.
+    ph, Phloem.
+    x,  Xylem.
+    m,  Medullary bundles.
+    c,  Cortical bundles.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.--_Ginkgo biloba._ Leaves.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.--_Ginkgo adiantoides._ Fossil (Eocene) leaf
+  from the Island of Mull.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12.--_Ginkgo biloba._ A, Male flower; B, C, single
+  stamens; D, female flower.]
+
+  GINKGOALES.--This class-designation has been recently proposed to give
+  emphasis to the isolated position of the genus _Ginkgo_ (_Salisburia_)
+  among the Gymnosperms. _Ginkgo biloba_, the maidenhair tree, has
+  usually been placed by botanists in the Taxeae in the neighbourhood of
+  the yew (_Taxus_), but the proposal by Eichler in 1852 to institute a
+  special family, the _Salisburieae_, indicated a recognition of the
+  existence of special characteristics which distinguish the genus from
+  other members of the Coniferae. The discovery by the Japanese botanist
+  Hirase of the development of ciliated spermatozoids in the pollen-tube
+  of _Ginkgo_, in place of the non-motile male cells of typical
+  conifers, served as a cogent argument in favour of separating the
+  genus from the Coniferales and placing it in a class of its own. In
+  1712 Kaempfer published a drawing of a Japanese tree, which he
+  described under the name _Ginkgo_; this term was adopted in 1771 by
+  Linnaeus, who spoke of Kaempfer's plant as _Ginkgo biloba_. In 1797
+  Smith proposed to use the name _Salisburia adiantifolia_ in preference
+  to the "uncouth" genus _Ginkgo_ and "incorrect" specific term
+  _biloba_. Both names are still in common use. On account of the
+  resemblance of the leaves to those of some species of _Adiantum_, the
+  appellation maidenhair tree has long been given to _Ginkgo biloba_.
+  _Ginkgo_ is of special interest on account of its isolated position
+  among existing plants, its restricted geographical distribution, and
+  its great antiquity (see PALAEOBOTANY: _Mesozoic_). This solitary
+  survivor of an ancient stock is almost extinct, but a few old and
+  presumably wild trees are recorded by travellers in parts of China.
+  _Ginkgo_ is common as a sacred tree in the gardens of temples in the
+  Far East, and often cultivated in North America and Europe. _Ginkgo
+  biloba_, which may reach a height of over 30 metres, forms a tree of
+  pyramidal shape with a smooth grey bark. The leaves (figs. 10 and 11)
+  have a long, slender petiole terminating in a fan-shaped lamina, which
+  may be entire, divided by a median incision into two wedge-shaped
+  lobes, or subdivided into several narrow segments. The venation is
+  like that of many ferns, e.g. _Adiantum_; the lowest vein in each half
+  of the lamina follows a course parallel to the edge, and gives off
+  numerous branches, which fork repeatedly as they spread in a palmate
+  manner towards the leaf margin. The foliage-leaves occur either
+  scattered on long shoots of unlimited growth, or at the apex of short
+  shoots (spurs), which may eventually elongate into long shoots.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13.--_Ginkgo._ Apex of Ovule, and Pollen-grain.
+  (After Hirase.)
+
+    p,  Pollen-tube (proximal end).
+    c,  Pollen-chamber.
+    e,  Upward prolongation of megaspore.
+    a,  Archegonia.
+    Pg, Pollen-grain.
+    Ex, Exine.]
+
+
+    Flowers.
+
+  The flowers are dioecious. The male flowers (fig. 12), borne in the
+  axil of scale-leaves, consist of a stalked central axis bearing
+  loosely disposed stamens; each stamen consists of a slender filament
+  terminating in a small apical scale, which bears usually two, but not
+  infrequently three or four pollen-sacs (fig. 12, C). The axis of the
+  flower is a shoot bearing leaves in the form of stamens. A mature
+  pollen-grain contains a prothallus of 3 to 5 cells (Fig. 13, Pg); the
+  exine extends over two-thirds of the circumference, leaving a thin
+  portion of the wall, which on collapsing produces a longitudinal
+  groove similar to the median depression on the pollen-grain of a
+  cycad. The ordinary type of female flower has the form of a long,
+  naked peduncle bearing a single ovule on either side of the apex (fig.
+  12), the base of each being enclosed by a small, collar-like rim, the
+  nature of which has been variously interpreted. A young ovule consists
+  of a conical nucellus surrounded by a single integument terminating as
+  a two-lipped micropyle. A large pollen-chamber occupies the apex of
+  the nucellus; immediately below this, two or more archegonia (fig. 13,
+  a) are developed in the upper region of the megaspore, each consisting
+  of a large egg-cell surmounted by two neck-cells and a canal-cell
+  which is cut off shortly before fertilization. After the entrance of
+  the pollen-grain the pollen-chamber becomes roofed over by a blunt
+  protuberance of nucellar tissue. The megaspore (embryo-sac) continues
+  to grow after pollination until the greater part of the nucellus is
+  gradually destroyed; it also gives rise to a vertical outgrowth, which
+  projects from the apex of the megaspore as a short, thick column (fig.
+  13, e) supporting the remains of the nucellar tissue which forms the
+  roof of the pollen-chamber (fig. 13, c). Surrounding the pitted wall
+  of the ovum there is a definite layer of large cells, no doubt
+  representing a tapetum, which, as in cycads and conifers, plays an
+  important part in nourishing the growing egg-cell. The endosperm
+  detached from a large _Ginkgo_ ovule after fertilization bears a close
+  resemblance to that of a cycad; the apex is occupied by a depression,
+  on the floor of which two small holes mark the position of the
+  archegonia, and the outgrowth from the megaspore apex projects from
+  the centre as a short peg. After pollination the pollen-tube grows
+  into the nucellar tissue, as in cycads, and the pollen-grain itself
+  (fig. 13, Pg) hangs down into the pollen-chamber; two large spirally
+  ciliated spermatozoids are produced, their manner of development
+  agreeing very closely with that of the corresponding cells in _Cycas_
+  and _Zamia_. After fertilization the ovum-nucleus divides and
+  cell-formation proceeds rapidly, especially in the lower part of the
+  ovum, in which the cotyledon and axis of the embryo are
+  differentiated; the long, tangled suspensor of the cycadean embryo is
+  not found in _Ginkgo_. It is often stated that fertilization occurs
+  after the ovules have fallen, but it has been demonstrated by Hirase
+  that this occurs while the ovules are still attached to the tree. The
+  ripe seed, which grows as large as a rather small plum, is enclosed by
+  a thick, fleshy envelope covering a hard woody shell with two or
+  rarely three longitudinal keels. A papery remnant of nucellus lines
+  the inner face of the woody shell, and, as in cycadean seeds, the
+  apical portion is readily separated as a cap covering the summit of
+  the endosperm.
+
+
+    Anatomy.
+
+  The morphology of the female flowers has been variously interpreted by
+  botanists; the peduncle bearing the ovules has been described as
+  homologous with the petiole of a foliage-leaf and as a
+  shoot-structure, the collar-like envelope at the base of the ovules
+  being referred to as a second integument or arillus, or as the
+  representative of a carpel. The evidence afforded by normal and
+  abnormal flowers appears to be in favour of the following
+  interpretation: The peduncle is a shoot bearing two or more carpels.
+  Each ovule is enclosed at the base by an envelope or collar homologous
+  with the lamina of a leaf; the fleshy and hard coats of the nucellus
+  constitute a single integument. The stalk of an ovule, considerably
+  reduced in normal flowers and much larger in some abnormal flowers, is
+  homologous with a leaf-stalk, with which it agrees in the structure
+  and number of vascular bundles. The facts on which this description is
+  based are derived partly from anatomical evidence, and in part from an
+  account given by a Japanese botanist, Fujii, of several abnormal
+  female flowers; in some cases the collar at the base of an ovule,
+  often described as an arillus, is found to pass gradually into the
+  lamina of a leaf bearing marginal ovules (fig. 14, B). The occurrence
+  of more than two ovules on one peduncle is by no means rare; a
+  particularly striking example is described by Fujii, in which an
+  unusually thick peduncle bearing several stalked ovules terminates in
+  a scaly bud (fig. 14, A, b). The frequent occurrence of more than two
+  pollen-sacs and the equally common occurrence of additional ovules
+  have been regarded by some authors as evidence in favour of the view
+  that ancestral types normally possessed a greater number of these
+  organs than are usually found in the recent species. This view
+  receives support from fossil evidence. Close to the apex of a shoot
+  the vascular bundles of a leaf make their appearance as double
+  strands, and the leaf-traces in the upper part of a shoot have the
+  form of distinct bundles, which in the older part of the shoot form a
+  continuous ring. Each double leaf-trace passes through four internodes
+  before becoming a part of the stele; the double nature of the trace is
+  a characteristic feature. Secretory sacs occur abundantly in the
+  leaf-lamina, where they appear as short lines between the veins; they
+  are abundant also in the cortex and pith of the shoot, in the fleshy
+  integument of the ovule, and elsewhere. The secondary wood of the
+  shoot and root conforms in the main to the coniferous type; in the
+  short shoots the greater breadth of the medullary rays in the more
+  internal part of the xylem recalls the cycadean type. The secondary
+  phloem contains numerous thick-walled fibres, parenchymatous cells,
+  and large sieve-tubes with plates on the radial walls; swollen
+  parenchymatous cells containing crystals are commonly met with in the
+  cortex, pith and medullary-ray tissues. The wood consists of
+  tracheids, with circular bordered pits on their radial walls, and in
+  the late summer wood pits are unusually abundant on the tangential
+  walls. A point of anatomical interest is the occurrence in the
+  vascular bundles of the cotyledons, scale-leaves, and elsewhere of a
+  few centripetally developed tracheids, which give to the xylem-strands
+  a mesarch structure such as characterizes the foliar bundles of
+  cycads. The root is diarch in structure, but additional
+  protoxylem-strands may be present at the base of the main root; the
+  pericycle consists of several layers of cells.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14.--_Ginkgo._ Abnormal female Flowers. A,
+  Peduncle; b, scaly bud; B, leaf bearing marginal ovule. (After
+  Fujii.)]
+
+
+    Geological history.
+
+  This is not the place to discuss in detail the past history of
+  _Ginkgo_ (see PALAEOBOTANY: _Mesozoic_). Among Palaeozoic genera there
+  are some which bear a close resemblance to the recent type in the form
+  of the leaves; and petrified Palaeozoic seeds, almost identical with
+  those of the maidenhair tree, have been described from French and
+  English localities. During the Triassic and Jurassic periods the genus
+  _Baiera_--no doubt a representative of the Ginkgoales--was widely
+  spread throughout Europe and in other regions; _Ginkgo_ itself occurs
+  abundantly in Mesozoic and Tertiary rocks, and was a common plant in
+  the Arctic regions as elsewhere during the Jurassic and Lower
+  Cretaceous periods. Some unusually perfect _Ginkgo_ leaves have been
+  found in the Eocene leaf-beds between the lava-flows exposed in the
+  cliffs of Mull (fig. 11). From an evolutionary point of view, it is of
+  interest to note the occurrence of filicinean and cycadean characters
+  in the maidenhair tree. The leaves at once invite a comparison with
+  ferns; the numerous long hairs which form a delicate woolly covering
+  on young leaves recall the hairs of certain ferns, but agree more
+  closely with the long filamentous hairs of recent cycads. The
+  spermatozoids constitute the most striking link with both cycads and
+  ferns. The structure of the seed, the presence of two neck-cells in
+  the archegonia, the late development of the embryo, the
+  partially-fused cotyledons and certain anatomical characters, are
+  features common to _Ginkgo_ and the cycads. The maidenhair tree is one
+  of the most interesting survivals from the past; it represents a type
+  which, in the Palaeozoic era, may have been merged into the extinct
+  class Cordaitales. Through the succeeding ages the Ginkgoales were
+  represented by numerous forms, which gradually became more restricted
+  in their distribution and fewer in number during the Cretaceous and
+  Tertiary periods, terminating at the present day in one solitary
+  survivor.
+
+  CONIFERALES.--Trees and shrubs characterized by a copious branching of
+  the stem and frequently by a regular pyramidal form. Leaves simple,
+  small, linear or short and scale-like, usually persisting for more
+  than one year. Flowers monoecious or dioecious, unisexual, without a
+  perianth, often in the form of cones, but never terminal on the main
+  stem.
+
+
+    External features.
+
+  The plants usually included in the Coniferae constitute a less
+  homogeneous class than the Cycadaceae. Some authors use the term
+  Coniferae in a restricted sense as including those genera which have
+  the female flowers in the form of cones, the other genera,
+  characterized by flowers of a different type, being placed in the
+  Taxaceae, and often spoken of as Taxads. In order to avoid confusion
+  in the use of the term Coniferae, we may adopt as a class-designation
+  the name Coniferales, including both the Coniferae--using the term in
+  a restricted sense--and the Taxaceae. The most striking characteristic
+  of the majority of the Coniferales is the regular manner of the
+  monopodial branching and the pyramidal shape. _Araucaria imbricata_,
+  the Monkey-puzzle tree, _A. excelsa_, the Norfolk Island pine, many
+  pines and firs, cedars and other genera illustrate the pyramidal form.
+  The mammoth redwood tree of California, _Sequoia (Wellingtonia)
+  gigantea_, which represents the tallest Gymnosperm, is a good example
+  of the regular tapering main stem and narrow pyramidal form. The
+  cypresses afford instances of tall and narrow trees similar in habit
+  to Lombardy poplars. The common cypress (_Cupressus sempervirens_), as
+  found wild in the mountains of Crete and Cyprus, is characterized by
+  long and spreading branches, which give it a cedar-like habit. A
+  pendulous or weeping habit is assumed by some conifers, e.g. _Picea
+  excelsa_ var. _virgata_ represents a form in which the main branches
+  attain a considerable horizontal extension, and trail themselves like
+  snakes along the ground. Certain species of _Pinus_, the yews
+  (_Taxus_) and some other genera grow as bushes, which in place of a
+  main mast-like stem possess several repeatedly-branched leading
+  shoots. The unfavourable conditions in Arctic regions have produced a
+  dwarf form, in which the main shoots grow close to the ground.
+  Artificially induced dwarfed plants of _Pinus_, _Cupressus_,
+  _Sciadopitys_ (umbrella pine) and other genera are commonly cultivated
+  by the Japanese. The dying off of older branches and the vigorous
+  growth of shoots nearer the apex of the stem produce a form of tree
+  illustrated by the stone pine of the Mediterranean region (_Pinus
+  Pinea_), which Turner has rendered familiar in his "Childe Harold's
+  Pilgrimage" and other pictures of Italian scenery. Conifers are not
+  infrequently seen in which a lateral branch has bent sharply upwards
+  to take the place of the injured main trunk. An upward tendency of all
+  the main lateral branches, known as fastigiation, is common in some
+  species, producing well-marked varieties, e.g. _Cephalotaxus
+  pedunculata_ var. _fastigiata_; this fastigiate habit may arise as a
+  sport on a tree with spreading branches. Another departure from the
+  normal is that in which the juvenile or seedling form of shoot
+  persists in the adult tree; the numerous coniferous plants known as
+  species of _Retinospora_ are examples of this. The name _Retinospora_,
+  therefore, does not stand for a true genus, but denotes persistent
+  young forms of _Juniperus_, _Thuja_, _Cupressus_, &c., in which the
+  small scaly leaves of ordinary species are replaced by the slender,
+  needle-like leaves, which stand out more or less at right angles from
+  the branches. The flat branchlets of _Cupressus_, _Thuja_ (arbor
+  vitae), _Thujopsis dolabrata_ (Japanese arbor vitae) are
+  characteristic of certain types of conifers; in some cases the
+  horizontal extension of the branches induces a dorsiventral structure.
+  A characteristic feature of the genus _Agathis (Dammara)_ the Kauri
+  pine of New Zealand, is the deciduous habit of the branches; these
+  become detached from the main trunk leaving a well-defined
+  absciss-surface, which appears as a depressed circular scar on the
+  stem. A new genus of conifers, _Taiwania_, has recently been described
+  from the island of Formosa; it is said to agree in habit with the
+  Japanese _Cryptomeria_, but the cones appear to have a structure which
+  distinguishes them from those of any other genus.
+
+
+    Leaves.
+
+  With a few exceptions conifers are evergreen, and retain the leaves
+  for several years (10 years in _Araucaria imbricata_, 8 to 10 in
+  _Picea excelsa_, 5 in _Taxus baccata_; in _Pinus_ the needles usually
+  fall in October of their third year). The larch (_Larix_) sheds its
+  leaves in the autumn, in the Chinese larch (_Pseudolarix Kaempferi_)
+  the leaves turn a bright yellow colour before falling. In the swamp
+  cypress (_Taxodium distichum_) the tree assumes a rich brown colour in
+  the autumn, and sheds its leaves together with the branchlets which
+  bear them; deciduous branches occur also in some other species, e.g.
+  _Sequoia sempervirens_ (redwood), _Thuja occidentalis_, &c. The leaves
+  of conifers are characterized by their small size, e.g. the
+  needle-form represented by _Pinus_, _Cedrus_, _Larix_, &c., the linear
+  flat or angular leaves, appressed to the branches, of _Thuja_,
+  _Cupressus_, _Libocedrus_, &c. The flat and comparatively broad leaves
+  of _Araucaria imbricata_, _A. Bidwillii_, and some species of the
+  southern genus _Podocarpus_ are traversed by several parallel veins,
+  as are also the still larger leaves of _Agathis_, which may reach a
+  length of several inches. In addition to the foliage-leaves several
+  genera also possess scale-leaves of various kinds, represented by
+  bud-scales in _Pinus_, _Picea_, &c., which frequently persist for a
+  time at the base of a young shoot which has pushed its way through the
+  yielding cap of protecting scales, while in some conifers the
+  bud-scales adhere together, and after being torn near the base are
+  carried up by the growing axis as a thin brown cap. The cypresses,
+  araucarias and some other genera have no true bud-scales; in some
+  species, e.g. _Araucaria Bidwillii_, the occurrence of small
+  foliage-leaves, which have functioned as bud-scales, at intervals on
+  the shoots affords a measure of seasonal growth. The occurrence of
+  long and short shoots is a characteristic feature of many conifers. In
+  _Pinus_ the needles occur in pairs, or in clusters of 3 or 5 at the
+  apex of a small and inconspicuous short shoot of limited growth
+  (spur), which is enclosed at its base by a few scale-leaves, and borne
+  on a branch of unlimited growth in the axil of a scale-leaf. In the
+  Californian _Pinus monophylla_ each spur bears usually one needle, but
+  two are not uncommon; it would seem that rudiments of two needles are
+  always produced, but, as a rule, only one develops into a needle. In
+  _Sciadopitys_ similar spurs occur, each bearing a single needle,
+  which in its grooved surface and in the possession of a double
+  vascular bundle bears traces of an origin from two needle-leaves. A
+  peculiarity of these leaves is the inverse orientation of the vascular
+  tissue; each of the two veins has its phloem next the upper and the
+  xylem towards the lower surface of the leaf; this unusual position of
+  the xylem and phloem may be explained by regarding the needle of
+  _Sciadopitys_ as being composed of a pair of leaves borne on a short
+  axillary shoot and fused by their margins (fig. 15, A). Long and short
+  shoots occur also in _Cedrus_ and _Larix_, but in these genera the
+  spurs are longer and stouter, and are not shed with the leaves; this
+  kind of short shoot, by accelerated apical growth, often passes into
+  the condition of a long shoot on which the leaves are scattered and
+  separated by comparatively long internodes, instead of being crowded
+  into tufts such as are borne on the ends of the spurs. In the genus
+  _Phyllocladus_ (New Zealand, &c.) there are no green foliage-leaves,
+  but in their place flattened branches (phylloclades) borne in the
+  axils of small scale-leaves. The cotyledons are often two in number,
+  but sometimes (e.g. _Pinus_) as many as fifteen; these leaves are
+  usually succeeded by foliage-leaves in the form of delicate spreading
+  needles, and these primordial leaves are followed, sooner or later, by
+  the adult type of leaf, except in Retinosporas, which retain the
+  juvenile foliage. In addition to the first foliage-leaves and the
+  adult type of leaf, there are often produced leaves which are
+  intermediate both in shape and structure between the seedling and
+  adult foliage. Dimorphism or heterophylly is fairly common. One of the
+  best known examples is the Chinese juniper (_Juniperus chinensis_), in
+  which branches with spinous leaves, longer and more spreading than the
+  ordinary adult leaf, are often found associated with the normal type
+  of branch. In some cases, e.g. _Sequoia sempervirens_, the fertile
+  branches bear leaves which are less spreading than those on the
+  vegetative shoots. Certain species of the southern hemisphere genus
+  _Dacrydium_ afford particularly striking instances of heterophylly,
+  e.g. _D. Kirkii_ of New Zealand, in which some branches bear small and
+  appressed leaves, while in others the leaves are much longer and more
+  spreading. A well-known fossil conifer from Triassic strata--_Voltzia
+  heterophylla_--also illustrates a marked dissimilarity in the leaves
+  of the same shoot. The variation in leaf-form and the tendency of
+  leaves to arrange themselves in various ways on different branches of
+  the same plant are features which it is important to bear in mind in
+  the identification of fossil conifers. In this connexion we may note
+  the striking resemblance between some of the New Zealand Alpine
+  Veronicas, e.g. _Veronica Hectori_, _V. cupressoides_, &c. (also
+  _Polycladus cupressinus_, a Composite), and some of the cypresses and
+  other conifers with small appressed leaves. The long linear leaves of
+  some species of _Podocarpus_, in which the lamina is traversed by a
+  single vein, recall the pinnae of Cycas; the branches of some
+  Dacrydiums and other forms closely resemble those of lycopods; these
+  superficial resemblances, both between different genera of conifers
+  and between conifers and other plants, coupled with the usual
+  occurrence of fossil coniferous twigs without cones attached to them,
+  render the determination of extinct types a very unsatisfactory and
+  frequently an impossible task.
+
+
+    Flowers.
+
+  A typical male flower consists of a central axis bearing numerous
+  spirally-arranged sporophylls (stamens), each of which consists of a
+  slender stalk (filament) terminating distally in a more or less
+  prominent knob or triangular scale, and bearing two or more
+  pollen-sacs (microsporangia) on its lower surface. The pollen-grains
+  of some genera (e.g. _Pinus_) are furnished with bladder-like
+  extensions of the outer wall, which serve as aids to wind-dispersal.
+  The stamens of _Araucaria_ and _Agathis_ are peculiar in bearing
+  several long, and narrow free pollen-sacs; these may be compared with
+  the sporangiophores of the horsetails (_Equisetum_); in _Taxus_ (yew)
+  the filament is attached to the centre of a large circular distal
+  expansion, which bears several pollen-sacs on its under surface. In
+  the conifers proper the female reproductive organs have the form of
+  cones, which may be styled flowers or inflorescences according to
+  different interpretations of their morphology. In the Taxaceae the
+  flowers have a simpler structure. The female flowers of the
+  _Abietineae_ may be taken as representing a common type. A pine cone
+  reaches maturity in two years; a single year suffices for the full
+  development in _Larix_ and several other genera. The axis of the cone
+  bears numerous spirally disposed flat scales (cone-scales), each of
+  which, if examined in a young cone, is found to be double, and to
+  consist of a lower and an upper portion. The latter is a thin flat
+  scale bearing a median ridge or keel (e.g. _Abies_), on each side of
+  which is situated an inverted ovule, consisting of a nucellus
+  surrounded by a single integument. As the cone grows in size and
+  becomes woody the lower half of the cone-scale, which we may call the
+  carpellary scale, may remain small, and is so far outgrown by the
+  upper half (seminiferous scale) that it is hardly recognizable in the
+  mature cone. In many species of _Abies_ (e.g. _Abies pectinata_, &c.)
+  the ripe cone differs from those of _Pinus_, _Picea_ and _Cedrus_ in
+  the large size of the carpellary scales, which project as conspicuous
+  thin appendages beyond the distal margins of the broader and more
+  woody seminiferous scales; the long carpellary scale is a prominent
+  feature also in the cone of the Douglas pine (_Pseudotsuga
+  Douglasii_). The female flowers (cones) vary considerably in size; the
+  largest are the more or less spherical cones of _Araucaria_--a single
+  cone of _A. imbricata_ may produce as many as 300 seeds, one seed to
+  each fertile cone-scale--and the long pendent cones, 1 to 2 ft. in
+  length, of the sugar pine of California (_Pinus Lambertiana_) and
+  other species. Smaller cones, less than an inch long, occur in the
+  larch, _Athrotaxis_ (Tasmania), _Fitzroya_ (Patagonia and Tasmania),
+  &c. In the _Taxodieae_ and _Araucarieae_ the cones are similar in
+  appearance to those of the _Abietineae_, but they differ in the fact
+  that the scales appear to be single, even in the young condition; each
+  cone-scale in a genus of the _Taxodiinae_ (_Sequoia_, &c.) bears
+  several seeds, while in the _Araucariinae_ (_Araucaria_ and _Agathis_)
+  each scale has one seed. The _Cupressineae_ have cones composed of a
+  few scales arranged in alternate whorls; each scale bears two or more
+  seeds, and shows no external sign of being composed of two distinct
+  portions. In the junipers the scales become fleshy as the seeds ripen,
+  and the individual scales fuse together in the form of a berry. The
+  female flowers of the Taxaceae assume another form; in _Microcachrys_
+  (Tasmania) the reproductive structures are spirally disposed, and form
+  small globular cones made up of red fleshy scales, to each of which is
+  attached a single ovule enclosed by an integument and partially
+  invested by an arillus; in _Dacrydium_ the carpellary leaves are very
+  similar to the foliage leaves--each bears one ovule with two
+  integuments, the outer of which constitutes an arillus. Finally in the
+  yew, as a type of the family Taxeae, the ovules occur singly at the
+  apex of a lateral branch, enclosed when ripe by a conspicuous red or
+  yellow fleshy arillus, which serves as an attraction to animals, and
+  thus aids in the dispersal of the seeds.
+
+
+    Morphology of female flower.
+
+  It is important to draw attention to some structural features
+  exhibited by certain cone-scales, in which there is no external sign
+  indicative of the presence of a carpellary and a seminiferous scale.
+  In _Araucaria Cookii_ and some allied species each scale has a small
+  pointed projection from its upper face near the distal end; the scales
+  of _Cunninghamia_ (China) are characterized by a somewhat ragged
+  membranous projection extending across the upper face between the
+  seeds and the distal end of the scale; in the scales of _Athrotaxis_
+  (Tasmania) a prominent rounded ridge occupies a corresponding
+  position. These projections and ridges may be homologous with the
+  seminiferous scale of the pines, firs, cedars, &c. The simplest
+  interpretation of the cone of the _Abietineae_ is that which regards
+  it as a flower consisting of an axis bearing several open carpels,
+  which in the adult cone may be large and prominent or very small, the
+  scale bearing the ovules being regarded as a placental outgrowth from
+  the flat and open carpel. In _Araucaria_ the cone-scale is regarded as
+  consisting of a flat carpel, of which the placenta has not grown out
+  into the scale-like structure. The seminiferous scale of _Pinus_, &c.,
+  is also spoken of sometimes as a ligular outgrowth from the carpellary
+  leaf. Robert Brown was the first to give a clear description of the
+  morphology of the Abietineous cone in which carpels bear naked ovules;
+  he recognized gymnospermy as an important distinguishing feature in
+  conifers as well as in cycads. Another view is to regard the cone as
+  an inflorescence, each carpellary scale being a bract bearing in its
+  axil a shoot the axis of which has not been developed; the
+  seminiferous scale is believed to represent either a single leaf or a
+  fused pair of leaves belonging to the partially suppressed axillary
+  shoot. In 1869 van Tieghem laid stress on anatomical evidence as a key
+  to the morphology of the cone-scales; he drew attention to the fact
+  that the collateral vascular bundles of the seminiferous scale are
+  inversely orientated as compared with those of the carpellary scale;
+  in the latter the xylem of each bundle is next the upper surface,
+  while in the seminiferous scale the phloem occupies that position. The
+  conclusion drawn from this was that the seminiferous scale (fig. 15,
+  B, Sc) is the first and only leaf of an axillary shoot (b) borne on
+  that side of the shoot, the axis of which is suppressed, opposite the
+  subtending bract (fig. 15, A, B, C, Br). Another view is to apply to
+  the seminiferous scale an explanation similar to that suggested by von
+  Mohl in the case of the double needle of _Sciadopitys_, and to
+  consider the seed-bearing scale as being made up of a pair of leaves
+  (fig. 15, A, a, a) of an axillary shoot (b) fused into one by their
+  posterior margins (fig. 15, A). The latter view receives support from
+  abnormal cones in which carpellary scales subtend axillary shoots, of
+  which the first two leaves (fig. 15, C, l¹, l¹) are often harder and
+  browner than the others; forms have been described transitional
+  between axillary shoots, in which the leaves are separate, and others
+  in which two of the leaves are more or less completely fused. In a
+  young cone the seminiferous scale appears as a hump of tissue at the
+  base or in the axil of the carpellary scale, but Celakovský, a strong
+  supporter of the axillary-bud theory, attaches little or no importance
+  to this kind of evidence, regarding the present manner of development
+  as being merely an example of a short cut adopted in the course of
+  evolution, and replacing the original production of a branch in the
+  axil of each carpellary scale. Eichler, one of the chief supporters of
+  the simpler view, does not recognize in the inverse orientation of the
+  vascular bundles an argument in support of the axillary-bud theory,
+  but points out that the seminiferous scale, being an outgrowth from
+  the surface of the carpellary scale, would, like outgrowths from an
+  ordinary leaf, naturally have its bundles inversely orientated. In
+  such cone-scales as show little or no external indication of being
+  double in origin, e.g. _Araucaria_ (fig. 15, D) Sequoia, &c., there
+  are always two sets of bundles; the upper set, having the phloem
+  uppermost, as in the seminiferous scale of _Abies_ or _Pinus_, are
+  regarded as belonging to the outgrowth from the carpellary scale and
+  specially developed to supply the ovules. Monstrous cones are fairly
+  common; these in some instances lend support to the axillary-bud
+  theory, and it has been said that this theory owes its existence to
+  evidence furnished by abnormal cones. It is difficult to estimate the
+  value of abnormalities as evidence bearing on morphological
+  interpretation; the chief danger lies perhaps in attaching undue
+  weight to them, but there is also a risk of minimizing their
+  importance. Monstrosities at least demonstrate possible lines of
+  development, but when the abnormal forms of growth in various
+  directions are fairly evenly balanced, trustworthy deductions become
+  difficult. The occurrence of buds in the axils of carpellary scales
+  may, however, simply mean that buds, which are usually undeveloped in
+  the axils of sporophylls, occasionally afford evidence of their
+  existence. Some monstrous cones lend no support to the axillary-bud
+  theory. In _Larix_ the axis of the cone often continues its growth;
+  similarly in _Cephalotaxus_ the cones are often proliferous. (In rare
+  cases the proliferated portion produces male flowers in the
+  leaf-axils.) In _Larix_ the carpellary scale may become leafy, and the
+  seminiferous scale may disappear. Androgynous cones may be produced,
+  as in the cone of _Pinus rigida_ (fig. 16), in which the lower part
+  bears stamens and the upper portion carpellary and seminiferous
+  scales. An interesting case has been figured by Masters, in which
+  scales of a cone of _Cupressus Lawsoniana_ bear ovules on the upper
+  surface and stamens on the lower face. One argument that has been
+  adduced in support of the axillary bud theory is derived from the
+  Palaeozoic type _Cordaites_, in which each ovule occurs on an axis
+  borne in the axil of a bract. The whole question is still unsolved,
+  and perhaps insoluble. It may be that the interpretation of the female
+  cone of the _Abietineae_ as an inflorescence, which finds favour with
+  many botanists, cannot be applied to the cones of _Agathis_ and
+  _Araucaria_. Without expressing any decided opinion as to the
+  morphology of the double cone-scale of the _Abietineae_, preference
+  may be felt in favour of regarding the cone-scale of the _Araucarieae_
+  as a simple carpellary leaf bearing a single ovule. A discussion of
+  this question may be found in a paper on the _Araucarieae_ by Seward
+  and Ford, published in the Transactions of the Royal Society of London
+  (1906). _Cordaites_ is an extinct type which in certain respects
+  resembles _Ginkgo_, cycads and the _Araucarieae_, but its agreement
+  with true conifers is probably too remote to justify our attributing
+  much weight to the bearing of the morphology of its female flowers on
+  the interpretation of that of the Coniferae. The greater simplicity of
+  the Eichler theory may prejudice us in its favour; but, on the other
+  hand, the arguments advanced in favour of the axillary-bud theories
+  are perhaps not sufficiently cogent to lead us to accept an
+  explanation based chiefly on the uncertain evidence of monstrosities.
+
+  [Illustration: (C and D after Worsdell.)
+
+  FIG. 15.--Diagrammatic treatment of:
+
+    A, Double needle of _Sciadopitys_ (a, a, leaves; b, shoot; Br,
+    bract).
+
+    B, seminiferous scale as leaf of axillary shoot (b, shoot; Sc,
+    seminiferous scale; Br, bract).
+
+    C, seminiferous scale as fused pair of leaves (l¹, l², 1³, first,
+    second and third leaves; b, shoot; Br, bract),
+
+    D, cone-scale of _Araucaria_ (n, nucellus; i, integument; x,
+    xylem).]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Abnormal Cone of _Pinus rigida_. (After
+    Masters.)]
+
+
+    Micro-spores and megaspores.
+
+  A pollen-grain when first formed from its mother-cell consists of a
+  single cell; in this condition it may be carried to the nucellus of
+  the ovule (e.g. _Taxus_, _Cupressus_, &c.), or more usually (_Pinus_,
+  _Larix_, &c.) it reaches maturity before the dehiscence of the
+  microsporangium. The nucleus of the microspore divides and gives rise
+  to a small cell within the large cell, a second small cell is then
+  produced; this is the structure of the ripe pollen-grain in some
+  conifers (_Taxus_, &c.). The large cell grows out as a pollen-tube;
+  the second of the two small cells (body-cell) wanders into the tube,
+  followed by the nucleus of the first small cell (stalk-cell). In
+  _Taxus_ the body-cell eventually divides into two, in which the
+  products of division are of unequal size, the larger constituting the
+  male generative cell, which fuses with the nucleus of the egg-cell. In
+  _Juniperus_ the products of division of the body-cell are equal, and
+  both function as male generative cells. In the _Abietineae_
+  cell-formation in the pollen-grain is carried farther. Three small
+  cells occur inside the cavity of the microspore; two of them collapse
+  and the third divides into two, forming a stalk-cell and a larger
+  body-cell. The latter ultimately divides in the apex of the
+  pollen-tube into two non-motile generative cells. Evidence has lately
+  been adduced of the existence of numerous nuclei in the pollen-tubes
+  of the _Araucarieae_, and it seems probable that in this as in several
+  other respects this family is distinguished from other members of the
+  Coniferales. The precise method of fertilization in the Scots Pine was
+  followed by V. H. Blackman, who also succeeded in showing that the
+  nuclei of the sporophyte generation contain twice as many chromosomes
+  as the nuclei of the gametophyte. Other observers have in recent years
+  demonstrated a similar relation in other genera between the number of
+  chromosomes in the nuclei of the two generations. The ovule is usually
+  surrounded by one integument, which projects beyond the tip of the
+  nucellus as a wide-open lobed funnel, which at the time of pollination
+  folds inwards, and so assists in bringing the pollen-grains on to the
+  nucellus. In some conifers (e.g. _Taxus_, _Cephalotaxus_, _Dacrydium_,
+  &c.) the ordinary integument is partially enclosed by an arillus or
+  second integument. It is held by some botanists (Celakovský) that the
+  seminiferous scale of the _Abietineae_ is homologous with the arillus
+  or second integument of the Taxaceae, but this view is too strained to
+  gain general acceptance. In _Araucaria_ and _Saxegothaea_ the nucellus
+  itself projects beyond the open micropyle and receives the
+  pollen-grains direct. During the growth of the cell which forms the
+  megaspore the greater part of the nucellus is absorbed, except the
+  apical portion, which persists as a cone above the megaspore; the
+  partial disorganization of some of the cells in the centre of the
+  nucellar cone forms an irregular cavity, which may be compared with
+  the larger pollen-chamber of _Ginkgo_ and the cycads. In each ovule
+  one megaspore comes to maturity, but, exceptionally, two may be
+  present (e.g. _Pinus sylvestris_). It has been shown by Lawson that in
+  _Sequoia sempervirens_ (_Annals of Botany_, 1904) and by other workers
+  in the genera that several megaspores may attain a fairly large size
+  in one prothallus. The megaspore becomes filled with tissue
+  (prothallus), and from some of the superficial cells archegonia are
+  produced, usually three to five in number, but in rare cases ten to
+  twenty or even sixty may be present. In the genus _Sequoia_ there may
+  be as many as sixty archegonia (Arnoldi and Lawson) in one megaspore;
+  these occur either separately or in some parts of the prothallus they
+  may form groups as in the _Cupressineae_; they are scattered through
+  the prothallus instead of being confined to the apical region as in
+  the majority of conifers. Similarly in the _Araucarieae_ and in
+  _Widdringtonia_ the archegonia are numerous and scattered and often
+  sunk in the prothallus tissue. In _Libocedrus decurrens_
+  (Cupressineae) Lawson describes the archegonia as varying in number
+  from 6 to 24 (_Annals of Botany_ xxi., 1907). An archegonium consists
+  of a large oval egg-cell surmounted by a short neck composed of one or
+  more tiers of cells, six to eight cells in each tier. Before
+  fertilization the nucleus of the egg-cell divides and cuts off a
+  ventral canal-cell; this cell may represent a second egg-cell. The
+  egg-cells of the archegonia may be in lateral contact (e.g.
+  _Cupressineae_) or separated from one another by a few cells of the
+  prothallus, each ovum being immediately surrounded by a layer of cells
+  distinguished by their granular contents and large nuclei. During the
+  development of the egg-cell, food material is transferred from these
+  cells through the pitted wall of the ovum. The tissue at the apex of
+  the megaspore grows slightly above the level of the archegonia, so
+  that the latter come to lie in a shallow depression. In the process of
+  fertilization the two male generative nuclei, accompanied by the
+  pollen-tube nucleus and that of the stalk-cell, pass through an open
+  pit at the apex of the pollen-tube into the protoplasm of the ovum.
+  After fertilization the nucleus of the egg divides, the first stages
+  of karyokinesis being apparent even before complete fusion of the male
+  and female nuclei has occurred. The result of this is the production
+  of four nuclei, which eventually take up a position at the bottom of
+  the ovum and become separated from one another by vertical cell-walls;
+  these nuclei divide again, and finally three tiers of cells are
+  produced, four in each tier. In the _Abietineae_ the cells of the
+  middle tier elongate and push the lowest tier deeper into the
+  endosperm; the cells of the bottom tier may remain in lateral contact
+  and produce together one embryo, or they may separate (_Pinus_,
+  _Juniperus_, &c.) and form four potential embryos. The ripe albuminous
+  seed contains a single embryo with two or more cotyledons. The seeds
+  of many conifers are provided with large thin wings, consisting in
+  some genera (e.g. _Pinus_) of the upper cell-layers of the
+  seminiferous scale, which have become detached and, in some cases,
+  adhere loosely to the seed as a thin membrane; the loose attachment
+  may be of use to the seeds when they are blown against the branches of
+  trees, in enabling them to fall away from the wing and drop to the
+  ground. The seeds of some genera depend on animals for dispersal, the
+  carpellary scale (_Microcachrys_) or the outer integument being
+  brightly coloured and attractive. In some _Abietineae_ (e.g. _Pinus_
+  and _Picea_)--in which the cone-scales persist for some time after the
+  seeds are ripe--the cones hang down and so facilitate the fall of the
+  seeds; in _Cedrus_, _Araucaria_ and _Abies_ the scales become detached
+  and fall with the seeds, leaving the bare vertical axis of the cone on
+  the tree. In all cases, except some species of _Araucaria_ (sect.
+  _Colymbea_) the germination is epigean. The seedling plants of some
+  Conifers (e.g. _Araucaria imbricata_) are characterized by a
+  carrot-shaped hypocotyl, which doubtless serves as a food-reservoir.
+
+
+    Anatomy.
+
+  The roots of many conifers possess a narrow band of primary
+  xylem-tracheids with a group of narrow spiral protoxylem-elements at
+  each end (diarch). A striking feature in the roots of several genera,
+  excluding the _Abietineae_, is the occurrence of thick and somewhat
+  irregular bands of thickening on the cell-walls of the cortical layer
+  next to the endodermis. These bands, which may serve to strengthen the
+  central cylinder, have been compared with the netting surrounding the
+  delicate wall of an inflated balloon. It is not always easy to
+  distinguish a root from a stem; in some cases (e.g. _Sequoia_) the
+  primary tetrarch structure is easily identified in the centre of an
+  old root, but in other cases the primary elements are very difficult
+  to recognize. The sudden termination of the secondary tracheids
+  against the pith-cells may afford evidence of root-structure as
+  distinct from stem-structure, in which the radial rows of secondary
+  tracheids pass into the irregularly-arranged primary elements next the
+  pith. The annual rings in a root are often less clearly marked than in
+  the stem, and the xylem-elements are frequently larger and thinner.
+  The primary vascular bundles in a young conifer stem are collateral,
+  and, like those of a Dicotyledon, they are arranged in a circle round
+  a central pith and enclosed by a common endodermis. It is in the
+  nature of the secondary xylem that the Coniferales are most readily
+  distinguished from the Dicotyledons and Cycadaceae; the wood is
+  homogeneous in structure, consisting almost entirely of tracheids with
+  circular or polygonal bordered pits on the radial walls, more
+  particularly in the late summer wood. In many genera xylem-parenchyma
+  is present, but never in great abundance. A few Dicotyledons, e.g.
+  _Drimys_ (Magnoliaceae) closely resemble conifers in the homogeneous
+  character of the wood, but in most cases the presence of large spring
+  vessels, wood-fibres and abundant parenchyma affords an obvious
+  distinguishing feature.
+
+  The abundance of petrified coniferous wood in rocks of various ages
+  has led many botanists to investigate the structure of modern genera
+  with a view to determining how far anatomical characters may be used
+  as evidence of generic distinctions. There are a few well-marked types
+  of wood which serve as convenient standards of comparison, but these
+  cannot be used except in a few cases to distinguish individual genera.
+  The genus _Pinus_ serves as an illustration of wood of a distinct type
+  characterized by the absence of xylem-parenchyma, except such as is
+  associated with the numerous resin-canals that occur abundantly in the
+  wood, cortex and medullary rays; the medullary rays are composed of
+  parenchyma and of horizontal tracheids with irregular ingrowths from
+  their walls. In a radial section of a pine stem each ray is seen to
+  consist in the median part of a few rows of parenchymatous cells with
+  large oval simple pits in their walls, accompanied above and below by
+  horizontal tracheids with bordered pits. The pits in the radial walls
+  of the ordinary xylem-tracheids occur in a single row or in a double
+  row, of which the pits are not in contact, and those of the two rows
+  are placed on the same level. The medullary rays usually consist of a
+  single tier of cells, but in the _Pinus_ type of wood broader
+  medullary rays also occur and are traversed by horizontal
+  resin-canals. In the wood of _Cypressus_, _Cedrus_, _Abies_ and
+  several other genera, parenchymatous cells occur in association with
+  the xylem-tracheids and take the place of the resin-canals of other
+  types. In the Araucarian type of wood (_Araucaria_ and _Agathis_) the
+  bordered pits, which occur in two or three rows on the radial walls of
+  the tracheids, are in mutual contact and polygonal in shape, the pits
+  of the different rows are alternate and not on the same level; in this
+  type of wood the annual rings are often much less distinct than in
+  _Cupressus_, _Pinus_ and other genera. In _Taxus_, _Torreya_
+  (California and the Far East) and _Cephalotaxus_ the absence of
+  resin-canals and the presence of spiral thickening-bands on the
+  tracheids constitute well-marked characteristics. An examination of
+  the wood of branches, stems and roots of the same species or
+  individual usually reveals a fairly wide variation in some of the
+  characters, such as the abundance and size of the medullary rays, the
+  size and arrangement of pits, the presence of
+  wood-parenchyma--characters to which undue importance has often been
+  attached in systematic anatomical work. The phloem consists of
+  sieve-tubes, with pitted areas on the lateral as well as on the
+  inclined terminal walls, phloem-parenchyma and, in some genera,
+  fibres. In the _Abietineae_ the phloem consists of parenchyma and
+  sieve-tubes only, but in most other forms tangential rows of fibres
+  occur in regular alternation with the parenchyma and sieve-tubes. The
+  characteristic companion-cells of Angiosperms are represented by
+  phloem-parenchyma cells with albuminous contents; other parenchymatous
+  elements of the bast contain starch or crystals of calcium oxalate.
+  When tracheids occur in the medullary rays of the xylem these are
+  replaced in the phloem-region by irregular parenchymatous cells known
+  as albuminous cells. Resin-canals, which occur abundantly in the
+  xylem, phloem or cortex, are not found in the wood of the yew.
+  _Cephalotaxus (Taxeae)_ is also peculiar in having resin-canals in the
+  pith (cf. _Ginkgo_). One form of _Cephalotaxus_ is characterized by
+  the presence of short tracheids in the pith, in shape like ordinary
+  parenchyma, but in the possession of bordered pits and lignified walls
+  agreeing with ordinary xylem-tracheids; it is probable that these
+  short tracheids serve as reservoirs for storing rather than for
+  conducting water. The vascular bundle entering the stem from a leaf
+  with a single vein passes by a more or less direct course into the
+  central cylinder of the stem, and does not assume the girdle-like
+  form characteristic of the cycadean leaf-trace. In species of which
+  the leaves have more than one vein (e.g. _Araucaria imbricata_, &c.)
+  the leaf-trace leaves the stele of the stem as a single bundle which
+  splits up into several strands in its course through the cortex. In
+  the wood of some conifers, e.g. _Araucaria_, the leaf-traces persist
+  for a considerable time, perhaps indefinitely, and may be seen in
+  tangential sections of the wood of old stems. The leaf-trace in the
+  Coniferales is simple in its course through the stem, differing in
+  this respect from the double leaf-trace of _Ginkgo_. A detailed
+  account of the anatomical characters of conifers has been published by
+  Professor D. P. Penhallow of Montreal and Dr. Gothan of Berlin which
+  will be found useful for diagnostic purposes. The characters of leaves
+  most useful for diagnostic purposes are the position of the stomata,
+  the presence and arrangement of resin-canals, the structure of the
+  mesophyll and vascular bundles. The presence of hypodermal fibres is
+  another feature worthy of note, but the occurrence of these elements
+  is too closely connected with external conditions to be of much
+  systematic value. A pine needle grown in continuous light differs from
+  one grown under ordinary conditions in the absence of hypodermal
+  fibres, in the absence of the characteristic infoldings of the
+  mesophyll cell-walls, in the smaller size of the resin-canals, &c. The
+  endodermis in _Pinus_, _Picea_ and many other genera is usually a
+  well-defined layer of cells enclosing the vascular bundles, and
+  separated from them by a tissue consisting in part of ordinary
+  parenchyma and to some extent of isodiametric tracheids; but this
+  tissue, usually spoken of as the pericycle, is in direct continuity
+  with other stem-tissues as well as the pericycle. The occurrence of
+  short tracheids in close proximity to the veins is a characteristic of
+  coniferous leaves; these elements assume two distinct forms--(1) the
+  short isodiametric tracheids (transfusion-tracheids) closely
+  associated with the veins; (2) longer tracheids extending across the
+  mesophyll at right angles to the veins, and no doubt functioning as
+  representatives of lateral veins. It has been suggested that
+  transfusion-tracheids represent, in part at least, the centripetal
+  xylem, which forms a distinctive feature of cycadean leaf-bundles;
+  these short tracheids form conspicuous groups laterally attached to
+  the veins in _Cunninghamia_, abundantly represented in a similar
+  position in the leaves of _Sequoia_, and scattered through the
+  so-called pericycle in _Pinus_, _Picea_, &c. It is of interest to note
+  the occurrence of precisely similar elements in the mesophyll of
+  _Lepidodendron_ leaves. An anatomical peculiarity in the veins of
+  _Pinus_ and several other genera is the continuity of the medullary
+  rays, which extend as continuous plates from one end of the leaf to
+  the other. The mesophyll of _Pinus_ and _Cedrus_ is characterized by
+  its homogeneous character and by the presence of infoldings of the
+  cell-walls. In many leaves, e.g. _Abies_, _Tsuga_, _Larix_, &c., the
+  mesophyll is heterogeneous, consisting of palisade and spongy
+  parenchyma. In the leaves of _Araucaria imbricata_, in which
+  palisade-tissue occurs in both the upper and lower part of the
+  mesophyll, the resin-canals are placed between the veins; in some
+  species of _Podocarpus_ (sect. _Nageia_) a canal occurs below each
+  vein; in _Tsuga_, _Torreya_, _Cephalotaxus_, _Sequoia_, &c., a single
+  canal occurs below the midrib; in _Larix_, _Abies_, &c., two canals
+  run through the leaf parallel to the margins. The stomata are
+  frequently arranged in rows, their position being marked by two white
+  bands of wax on the leaf-surface.
+
+
+    Distribution.
+
+  The chief home of the Coniferales is in the northern hemisphere, where
+  certain species occasionally extend into the Arctic circle and
+  penetrate beyond the northern limit of dicotyledonous trees. Wide
+  areas are often exclusively occupied by conifers, which give the
+  landscape a sombre aspect, suggesting a comparison with the forest
+  vegetation of the Coal period. South of the tree-limit a belt of
+  conifers stretches across north Europe, Siberia and Canada. In
+  northern Europe this belt is characterized by such species as _Picea
+  excelsa_ (spruce), which extends south to the mountains of the
+  Mediterranean region; _Pinus sylvestris_ (Scottish fir), reaching from
+  the far north to western Spain, Persia and Asia Minor; _Juniperus
+  communis_, &c. In north Siberia _Pinus Cembra_ (Cembra or Arolla Pine)
+  has a wide range; also _Abies sibirica_ (Siberian silver fir), _Larix
+  sibirica_ and _Juniperus Sabina_ (savin). In the North American area
+  _Picea alba_, _P. nigra_, _Larix americana_, _Abies balsamea_ (balsam
+  fir), _Tsuga canadensis_ (hemlock spruce), _Pinus Strobus_ (Weymouth
+  pine), _Thuja occidentalis_ (white cedar), _Taxus canadensis_ are
+  characteristic species. In the Mediterranean region occur _Cupressus
+  sempervirens_, _Pinus Pinea_ (stone pine), species of juniper, _Cedrus
+  atlantica_, _C. Libani_, _Callitris quadrivalvis_, _Pinus montana_,
+  &c. Several conifers of economic importance are abundant on the
+  Atlantic side of North America--_Juniperus virginiana_ (red cedar,
+  used in the manufacture of lead pencils, and extending as far south as
+  Florida), _Taxodium distichum_ (swamp cypress), _Pinus rigida_ (pitch
+  pine), _P. mitis_ (yellow pine), _P. taeda_, _P. palustris_, &c. On
+  the west side of the American continent conifers play a still more
+  striking rôle; among them are _Chamaecyparis nutkaensis_, _Picea
+  sitchensis_, _Libocedrus decurrens_, _Pseudotsuga Douglasii_ (Douglas
+  fir), _Sequoia sempervirens_, _S. gigantea_ (the only two surviving
+  species of this generic type are now confined to a few localities in
+  California, but were formerly widely spread in Europe and elsewhere),
+  _Pinus Coulteri_, _P. Lambertiana_, &c. Farther south, a few
+  representatives of such genera as _Abies_, _Cupressus_, _Pinus_ and
+  juniper are found in the Mexican Highlands, tropical America and the
+  West Indies. In the far East conifers are richly represented; among
+  them occur _Pinus densiflora_, _Cryptomeria japonica_, _Cephalotaxus_,
+  species of _Abies_, _Larix_, _Thujopsis_, _Sciadopitys verticillata_,
+  _Pseudolarix Kaempferi_, &c. In the Himalaya occur _Cedrus deodara_,
+  _Taxus_, species of _Cupressus_, _Pinus excelsa_, _Abies Webbiana_,
+  &c. The continent of Africa is singularly poor in conifers. _Cedrus
+  atlantica_, a variety of _Abies Pinsapo_, _Juniperus thurifera_,
+  _Callitris quadrivalvis_, occur in the north-west region, which may be
+  regarded as the southern limit of the Mediterranean region. The
+  greater part of Africa north of the equator is without any
+  representatives of the conifers; _Juniperus procera_ flourishes in
+  Somaliland and on the mountains of Abyssinia; a species of
+  _Podocarpus_ occurs on the Cameroon mountains, and _P. milanjiana_ is
+  widely distributed in east tropical Africa. _Widdringtonia Whytei_, a
+  species closely allied to _W. juniperoides_ of the Cedarberg mountains
+  of Cape Colony, is recorded from Nyassaland and from N.E. Rhodesia;
+  while a third species, _W. cupressoides_, occurs in Cape Colony.
+  _Podocarpus elongata_ and _P. Thunbergii_ (yellow wood) form the
+  principal timber trees in the belt of forest which stretches from the
+  coast mountains of Cape Colony to the north-east of the Transvaal.
+  _Libocedrus tetragona_, _Fitzroya patagonica_, _Araucaria
+  brasiliensis_, _A. imbricata_, _Saxegothaea_ and others are met with
+  in the Andes and other regions in South America. _Athrotaxis_ and
+  _Microcachrys_ are characteristic Australian types. _Phyllocladus_
+  occurs also in New Zealand, and species of _Dacrydium_, _Araucaria_,
+  _Agathis_ and _Podocarpus_ are represented in Australia, New Zealand
+  and the Malay regions.
+
+  GNETALES.--These are trees or shrubs with simple leaves. The flowers
+  are dioecious, rarely monoecious, provided with one or two perianths.
+  The wood is characterized by the presence of vessels in addition to
+  tracheids. There are no resin-canals. The three existing genera,
+  usually spoken of as members of the Gnetales, differ from one another
+  more than is consistent with their inclusion in a single family; we
+  may therefore better express their diverse characters by regarding
+  them as types of three separate families--(1) _Ephedroideae_, genus
+  _Ephedra_; (2) _Welwitschioideae_, genus _Welwitschia_; (3)
+  _Gnetoideae_, genus _Gnetum_. Our knowledge of the Gnetales leaves
+  much to be desired, but such facts as we possess would seem to
+  indicate that this group is of special importance as foreshadowing,
+  more than any other Gymnosperms, the Angiospermous type. In the more
+  heterogeneous structure of the wood and in the possession of true
+  vessels the Gnetales agree closely with the higher flowering plants.
+  It is of interest to note that the leaves of _Gnetum_, while typically
+  Dicotyledonous in appearance, possess a Gymnospermous character in the
+  continuous and plate-like medullary rays of their vascular bundles.
+  The presence of a perianth is a feature suggestive of an approach to
+  the floral structure of Angiosperms; the prolongation of the
+  integument furnishes the flowers with a substitute for a stigma and
+  style. The genus _Ephedra_, with its prothallus and archegonia, which
+  are similar to those of other Gymnosperms, may be safely regarded as
+  the most primitive of the Gnetales. In _Welwitschia_ also the
+  megaspore is filled with prothallus-tissue, but single egg-cells take
+  the place of archegonia. In certain species of _Gnetum_ described by
+  Karsten the megaspore contains a peripheral layer of protoplasm, in
+  which scattered nuclei represent the female reproductive cells; in
+  _Gnetum Gnemon_ a similar state of things exists in the upper half of
+  the megaspore, while the lower half agrees with the megaspore of
+  _Welwitschia_ in being full of prothallus-tissue, which serves merely
+  as a reservoir of food. Lotsy has described the occurrence of special
+  cells at the apex of the prothallus of _Gnetum Gnemon_, which he
+  regards as imperfect archegonia (fig. 17, C, a); he suggests they may
+  represent vestigial structures pointing back to some ancestral form
+  beyond the limits of the present group. The Gnetales probably had a
+  separate origin from the other Gymnosperms; they carry us nearer to
+  the Angiosperms, but we have as yet no satisfactory evidence that they
+  represent a stage in the direct line of Angiospermic evolution. It is
+  not improbable that the three genera of this ancient phylum survive as
+  types of a blindly-ending branch of the Gymnosperms; but be that as it
+  may, it is in the Gnetales more than in any other Gymnosperms that we
+  find features which help us to obtain a dim prospect of the lines
+  along which the Angiosperms may have been evolved.
+
+  _Ephedra._--This genus is the only member of the Gnetales represented
+  in Europe. Its species, which are characteristic of warm temperate
+  latitudes, are usually much-branched shrubs. The finer branches are
+  green, and bear a close resemblance to the stems of Equisetum and to
+  the slender twigs of _Casuarina_; the surface of the long internodes
+  is marked by fine longitudinal ribs, and at the nodes are borne pairs
+  of inconspicuous scale-leaves. The flowers are small, and borne on
+  axillary shoots. A single male flower consists of an axis enclosed at
+  the base by an inconspicuous perianth formed of two concrescent leaves
+  and terminating in two, or as many as eight, shortly stalked or
+  sessile anthers. The female flower is enveloped in a closely fitting
+  sac-like investment, which must be regarded as a perianth; within this
+  is an orthotropous ovule surrounded by a single integument prolonged
+  upwards as a beak-like micropyle. The flower may be described as a bud
+  bearing a pair of leaves which become fused and constitute a perianth,
+  the apex of the shoot forming an ovule. In function the perianth may
+  be compared with a unilocular ovary containing a single ovule; the
+  projecting integument, which at the time of pollination secretes a
+  drop of liquid, serves the same purpose as the style and stigma of an
+  angiosperm. The megaspore is filled with tissue as in typical
+  Gymnosperms, and from some of the superficial cells 3 to 5 archegonia
+  are developed, characterized by long multicellular necks. The
+  archegonia are separated from one another, as in _Pinus_, by some of
+  the prothallus-tissue, and the cells next the egg-cells (tapetal
+  layer) contribute food-material to their development. After
+  fertilization, some of the uppermost bracts below each flower become
+  red and fleshy; the perianth develops into a woody shell, while the
+  integument remains membranous. In some species of _Ephedra_, e.g. _E.
+  altissima_, the fertilized eggs grow into tubular proembryos, from the
+  tip of each of which embryos begin to be developed, but one only comes
+  to maturity. In _Ephedra helvetica_, as described by Jaccard, no
+  proembryo or suspensor is formed; but the most vigorous fertilized
+  egg, after undergoing several divisions, becomes attached to a tissue,
+  termed the columella, which serves the purpose of a primary suspensor;
+  the columella appears to be formed by the lignification of certain
+  cells in the central region of the embryo-sac. At a later stage some
+  of the cells in the upper (micropylar) end of the embryo divide and
+  undergo considerable elongation, serving the purpose of a secondary
+  suspensor. The secondary wood of _Ephedra_ consists of tracheids,
+  vessels and parenchyma; the vessels are characterized by their wide
+  lumen and by the large simple or slightly-bordered pits on their
+  oblique end-walls.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 17.--_Gnetum Gnemon._ (After Lotsy.)
+
+    A,  Female Flower. a, Imperfect Archegonia.
+    n,  Nucellus. e, Partially developed Megaspore.
+    pc, Pollen-chamber. F, Fertile half.
+    i,  Integument. S, Sterile half.
+    p´, Inner Perianth. pt, Pollen-tube.
+    p´´, Outer Perianth. z, Zygote.
+    B,  C, Megaspore. z´, Prothallus.
+    a,  Imperfect Archegonia.
+    e,  Partially developed Megaspore.
+    F,  Fertile half.
+    S,  Sterile half.
+    pt, Pollen-tube.
+    z,  Zygote.
+    z´, Prothallus.]
+
+  _Gnetum._--This genus is represented by several species, most of which
+  are climbing plants, both in tropical America and in warm regions of
+  the Old World. The leaves, which are borne in pairs at the tumid
+  nodes, are oval in form and have a Dicotyledonous type of venation.
+  The male and female inflorescences have the form of simple or
+  paniculate spikes. The spike of an inflorescence bears whorls of
+  flowers at each node in the axils of concrescent bracts accompanied by
+  numerous sterile hairs (paraphyses); in a male inflorescence numerous
+  flowers occur at each node, while in a female inflorescence the number
+  of flowers at each node is much smaller. A male flower consists of a
+  single angular perianth, through the open apex of which the
+  flower-axis projects as a slender column terminating in two anthers.
+  The female flowers, which are more complex in structure, are of two
+  types, complete and incomplete; the latter occur in association with
+  male flowers in a male inflorescence. A complete female flower
+  consists of a nucellus (fig. 17, A, n), surrounded by a single
+  integument (fig. 17, A, i), prolonged upwards as a narrow tube and
+  succeeded by an inner and an outer perianth (fig. 17, A, p´ and p´´).
+  The whole flower may be looked upon as an adventitious bud bearing two
+  pairs of leaves; each pair becomes concrescent and forms a perianth,
+  the apex of the shoot being converted into an orthotropous ovule. The
+  incomplete female flowers are characterized by the almost complete
+  suppression of the inner perianth. Several embryo-sacs (megaspores)
+  are present in the nucellus of a young ovule, but one only attains
+  full size, the smaller and partially developed megaspores (fig. 17, B
+  and C, e) being usually found in close association with the surviving
+  and fully-grown megaspore. In _Gnetum Gnemon_, as described by Lotsy,
+  a mature embryo-sac contains in the upper part a large central vacuole
+  and a peripheral layer of protoplasm, including several nuclei, which
+  take the place of the archegonia of _Ephedra_; the lower part of the
+  embryo-sac, separated from the upper by a constriction, is full of
+  parenchyma. The upper part of the megaspore may be spoken of as the
+  fertile half (fig. 17, B and C, F) and the lower part, which serves
+  only as food-reservoir for the growing embryo, may be termed the
+  sterile half (fig. 17, B and C, S). (Coulter, _Bot. Gazette_, xlvi.,
+  1908, regards this tissue as belonging to the nucellus.) At the time
+  of pollination the long tubular integument secretes a drop of fluid
+  at its apex, which holds the pollen-grains, brought by the wind, or
+  possibly to some extent by insect agency, and by evaporation these are
+  drawn on to the top of the nucellus, where partial disorganization of
+  the cells has given rise to an irregular pollen-chamber (fig. 17, A,
+  pc). The pollen-tube, containing two generative and one vegetative
+  nucleus, pierces the wall of the megaspore and then becomes swollen
+  (fig. 17, B and C, pt); finally the two generative nuclei pass out of
+  the tube and fuse with two of the nuclei in the fertile half of the
+  megaspore. As the result of fertilization, the fertilized nuclei of
+  the megaspore become surrounded by a cell-wall, and constitute
+  zygotes, which may attach themselves either to the wall of the
+  megaspore or to the end of a pollen-tube (fig. 17, C, z and z'); they
+  then grow into long tubes or proembryos, which make their way towards
+  the prothallus (C, z'), and eventually embryos are formed from the
+  ends of the proembryo tubes. One embryo only comes to maturity. The
+  embryo of _Gnetum_ forms an out-growth from the hypocotyl, which
+  serves as a feeder and draws nourishment from the prothallus. The
+  fleshy outer portion of the seed is formed from the outer perianth,
+  the woody shell being derived from the inner perianth. The climbing
+  species of _Gnetum_ are characterized by the production of several
+  concentric cylinders of secondary wood and bast, the additional
+  cambium-rings being products of the pericycle, as in _Cycas_ and
+  _Macrozamia_. The structure of the wood agrees in the main with that
+  of _Ephedra_.
+
+  _Welwitschia (Tumboa)._--This is by far the most remarkable member of
+  the Gnetales, both as regards habit and the form of its flowers. In a
+  supplement to the systematic work of Engler and Prantl the well-known
+  name _Welwitschia_, instituted by Hooker in 1864 in honour of
+  Welwitsch, the discoverer of the plant, is superseded by that of
+  _Tumboa_, originally suggested by Welwitsch. The genus is confined to
+  certain localities in Damaraland and adjoining territory on the west
+  coast of tropical South Africa. A well-grown plant projects less than
+  a foot above the surface of the ground; the stem, which may have a
+  circumference of more than 12 ft., terminates in a depressed crown
+  resembling a circular table with a median groove across the centre and
+  prominent broad ridges concentric with the margin. The thick tuberous
+  stem becomes rapidly narrower, and passes gradually downwards into a
+  tap-root. A pair of small strap-shaped leaves succeed the two
+  cotyledons of the seedling, and persist as the only leaves during the
+  life of the plant; they retain the power of growth in their basal
+  portion, which is sunk in a narrow groove near the edge of the crown,
+  and the tough lamina, 6 ft. in length, becomes split into narrow
+  strap-shaped or thong-like strips which trail on the ground. Numerous
+  circular pits occur on the concentric ridges of the depressed and
+  wrinkled crown, marking the position of former inflorescences borne in
+  the leaf-axil at different stages in the growth of the plant. An
+  inflorescence has the form of a dichotomously-branched cyme bearing
+  small erect cones; those containing the female flowers attain the size
+  of a fir-cone, and are scarlet in colour. Each cone consists of an
+  axis, on which numerous broad and thin bracts are arranged in regular
+  rows; in the axil of each bract occurs a single flower; a male flower
+  is enclosed by two opposite pairs of leaves, forming a perianth
+  surrounding a central sterile ovule encircled by a ring of stamens
+  united below, but free distally as short filaments, each of which
+  terminates in a trilocular anther. The integument of the sterile ovule
+  is prolonged above the nucellus as a spirally-twisted tube expanded at
+  its apex into a flat stigma-like organ. A complete and functional
+  female flower consists of a single ovule with two integuments, the
+  inner of which is prolonged into a narrow tubular micropyle, like that
+  in the flower of _Gnetum_. The megaspore of _Welwitschia_ is filled
+  with a prothallus-tissue before fertilization, and some of the
+  prothallus-cells function as egg-cells; these grow upwards as long
+  tubes into the apical region of the nucellus, where they come into
+  contact with the pollen-tubes. After the egg-cells have been
+  fertilized by the non-motile male cells they grow into tubular
+  proembryos, producing terminal embryos. The stem is traversed by
+  numerous collateral bundles, which have a limited growth, and are
+  constantly replaced by new bundles developed from strands of secondary
+  meristem. One of the best-known anatomical characteristics of the
+  genus is the occurrence of numerous spindle-shaped or branched fibres
+  with enormously-thickened walls studded with crystals of calcium
+  oxalate. Additional information has been published by Professor
+  Pearson of Cape Town based on material collected in Damaraland in 1904
+  and 1906-1907. In 1906 he gave an account of the early stages of
+  development of the male and female organs and, among other interesting
+  statements in regard to the general biology of _Welwitschia_, he
+  expressed the opinion that, as Hooker suspected, the ovules are
+  pollinated by insect-agency. In a later paper Pearson considerably
+  extended our knowledge of the reproduction and gametophyte of this
+  genus.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--General: Bentham and Hooker, _Genera Plantarum_ (London,
+  1862-1883); Engler and Prantl, _Die natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien_
+  (Leipzig, 1889 and 1897); Strasburger, _Die Coniferen und Gnetaceen_
+  (Jena, 1872); _Die Angiospermen und die Gymnospermen_ (Jena, 1879);
+  _Histologische Beiträge_, iv. (Jena, 1892); Coulter and Chamberlain,
+  _Morphology of Spermatophytes_ (New York, 1901); Rendle, _The
+  Classification of Flowering Plants_, vol. i. (Cambridge, 1904); "The
+  Origin of Gymnosperms" (A discussion at the Linnean Society; _New
+  Phytologist_, vol. v., 1906). Cycadales: Mettenius, "Beiträge zur
+  Anatomie der Cycadeen," _Abh. k. sächs_. _Ges. Wiss._ (1860); Treub,
+  "Recherches sur les Cycadées," _Ann. Bot. Jard. Buitenzorg_, ii.
+  (1884); Solms-Laubach, "Die Sprossfolge der Stangeria, &c.," _Bot.
+  Zeit._ xlviii. (1896); Worsdell, "Anatomy of Macrozamia," _Ann. Bot._
+  x. (1896) (also papers by the same author, _Ann. Bot._, 1898, _Trans.
+  Linn. Soc._ v., 1900); Scott, "The Anatomical Characters presented by
+  the Peduncle of Cycadaceae," Ann. Bot. xi. (1897); Lang, "Studies in
+  the Development and Morphology of Cycadean Sporangia, No. I.," Ann.
+  Bot. xi. (1897); No. II., _Ann. Bot._ xiv. (1900); Webber,
+  "Development of the Antherozoids of Zamia," Bot. Gaz. (1897); Ikeno,
+  "Untersuchungen über die Entwickelung, &c., bei Cycas revoluta,"
+  _Journ. Coll. Sci. Japan_, xii. (1898); Wieland, "American Fossil
+  Cycads," Carnegie Institution Publication (1906); Stopes, "Beiträge
+  zur Kenntnis der Fortpflanzungsorgane der Cycadeen," _Flora_ (1904);
+  Caldwell, "Microcycas Calocoma," _Bot. Gaz._ xliv., 1907 (also papers
+  on this and other Cycads in the _Bot. Gaz._, 1907-1909); Matte,
+  _Recherches sur l'appareil libéro-ligneux des Cycadacées_ (Caen,
+  1904). Ginkgoales: Hirase, "Études sur la fécondation, &c., de Ginkgo
+  biloba," _Journ. Coll. Sci. Japan_, xii. (1898); Seward and Gowan,
+  "Ginkgo biloba," _Ann. Bot._ xiv. (1900) (with bibliography); Ikeno,
+  "Contribution à l'étude de la fécondation chez le Ginkgo biloba,"
+  _Ann. Sci. Nat._ xiii. (1901); Sprecher, _Le Ginkgo biloba_ (Geneva,
+  1907). Coniferales: "Report of the Conifer Conference" (1891) _Journ.
+  R. Hort. Soc._ xiv. (1892); Beissner, _Handbuch der Nadelholzkunde_
+  (Berlin, 1891); Masters, "Comparative Morphology of the Coniferae,"
+  _Journ. Linn. Soc._ xxvii. (1891); ibid. (1896), &c.; Penhallow, "The
+  Generic Characters of the North American Taxaceae and Coniferae,"
+  _Proc. and Trans. R. Soc. Canada_, ii. (1896); Blackman,
+  "Fertilization in Pinus sylvestris," _Phil. Trans._ (1898) (with
+  bibliography); Worsdell, "Structure of the Female Flowers in
+  Conifers," _Ann. Bot._ xiv. (1900) (with bibliography); ibid. (1899);
+  Veitch, _Manual of the Coniferae_ (London, 1900); Penhallow, "Anatomy
+  of North American Coniferales," _American Naturalist_ (1904); Engler
+  and Pilger, _Das Pflanzenreich, Taxaceae_ (1903); Seward and Ford,
+  "The Araucarieae, recent and extinct," _Phil. Trans. R. Soc._ (1906)
+  (with bibliography); Lawson, "Sequoia sempervirens," _Annals of
+  Botany_ (1904); Robertson, "Torreya Californica," _New Phytologist_
+  (1904); Coker, "Gametophyte and Embryo of Taxodium," _Bot. Gazette_
+  (1903); E. C. Jeffrey, "The Comparative Anatomy and Phylogeny of the
+  Coniferales, part i. The Genus Sequoia," _Mem. Boston Nat. Hist. Soc._
+  v. No. 10 (1903); Gothan, "Zur Anatomie lebender und fossiler
+  Gymnospermen-Hölzer," _K. Preuss. Geol. Landes._ (Berlin, 1905) (for
+  more recent papers, see _Ann. Bot., New Phytologist_, and _Bot.
+  Gazette_, 1906-1909). Gnetales: Hooker, "On Welwitschia mirabilis."
+  _Trans. Linn. Soc._ xxiv. (1864); Bower, "Germination, &., in Gnetum,"
+  _Journ. Mic. Sci._ xxii. (1882); ibid. (1881); Jaccard, "Recherches
+  embryologiques sur _l'Ephedra helvetica_," _Diss. Inaug. Lausanne_
+  (1894); Karsten, "Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Gattung Gnetum,"
+  _Cohn's Beiträge_, vi. (1893); Lotsy, "Contributions to the
+  Life-History of the genus Gnetum," _Ann. Bot. Jard. Buitenzorg_, xvi.
+  (1899); Land, "Ephedra trifurca," _Bot. Gazette_ (1904); Pearson,
+  "Some observations on Welwitschia mirabilis," _Phil. Trans. R. Soc._
+  (1906); Pearson, "Further Observations on Welwitschia," _Phil. Trans.
+  R. Soc._ vol. 200 (1909).     (A. C. Se.)
+
+
+
+
+GYMNOSTOMACEAE, an order of Ciliate Infusoria (q.v.), characterized by a
+closed mouth, which only opens to swallow food actively, and body cilia
+forming a general or partial investment (rarely represented by a girdle
+of membranellae), but not differentiated in different regions. With the
+Aspirotrochaceae (q.v.) it formed the Holotricha of Stein.
+
+
+
+
+GYMPIE, a mining town of March county, Queensland, Australia, 107 m. N.
+of Brisbane, and 61 m. S. of Maryborough by rail. Pop. (1901) 11,959.
+Numerous gold mines are worked in the district, which also abounds in
+copper, silver, antimony, cinnabar, bismuth and nickel. Extensive
+undeveloped coal-beds lie 40 m. N. at Miva. Gympie became a municipality
+in 1880.
+
+
+
+
+GYNAECEUM (Gr. [Greek: gynaikeion], from [Greek: gynê], woman), that
+part in a Greek house which was specially reserved for the women, in
+contradistinction to the "andron," the men's quarters; in the larger
+houses there was an open court with peristyles round, and as a rule all
+the rooms were on the same level; in smaller houses the servants were
+placed in an upper storey, and this seems to have been the case to a
+certain extent in the Homeric house of the Odyssey. "Gynaeconitis" is
+the term given by Procopius to the space reserved for women in the
+Eastern Church, and this separation of the sexes was maintained in the
+early Christian churches where there were separate entrances and
+accommodation for the men and women, the latter being placed in the
+triforium gallery, or, in its absence, either on one side of the church,
+the men being on the other, or occasionally in the aisles, the nave
+being occupied by the men.
+
+
+
+
+GYNAECOLOGY (from Gr. [Greek: gynê, gynaikos], a woman, and [Greek:
+logos], discourse), the name given to that branch of medicine which
+concerns the pathology and treatment of affections peculiar to the
+female sex.
+
+Gynaecology may be said to be one of the most ancient branches of
+medicine. The papyrus of Ebers, which is one of the oldest known works
+on medicine and dates from 1550 B.C., contains references to diseases of
+women, and it is recorded that specialism in this branch was known
+amongst Egyptian medical practitioners. The Vedas contain a list of
+therapeutic agents used in the treatment of gynaecological diseases. The
+treatises on gynaecology formerly attributed to Hippocrates (460 B.C.)
+are now said to be spurious, but the wording of the famous oath shows
+that he was at least familiar with the use of gynaecological
+instruments. Diocles Carystius, of the Alexandrian school (4th century
+B.C.), practised this branch, and Praxagoras of Cos, who lived shortly
+after, opened the abdomen by laparotomy. While the Alexandrine school
+represented Greek medicine, Greeks began to practise in Rome, and in the
+first years of the Christian era gynaecologists were much in demand
+(Häser). A speculum for gynaecological purposes has been found in the
+ruins of Pompeii, and votive offerings of anatomical parts found in the
+temples show that various gynaecological malformations were known to the
+ancients. Writers who have treated of this branch are Celsus (50
+B.C.-A.D. 7) and Soranus of Ephesus (A.D. 98-138), who refers in his
+works to the fact that the Roman midwives frequently called to their aid
+practitioners who made a special study of diseases of women. These
+midwives attended the simpler gynaecological ailments. This was no
+innovation, as in Athens, as mentioned by Hyginus, we find one Agnodice,
+a midwife, disguising herself in man's attire so that she might attend
+lectures on medicine and diseases of women. After instruction she
+practised as a gynaecologist. This being contrary to Athenian law she
+was prosecuted, but was saved by the wives of some of the chief men
+testifying on her behalf. Besides Agnodice we have Sotira, who wrote a
+work on menstruation which is preserved in the library at Florence,
+while Aspasia is mentioned by Aetius as the author of several chapters
+of his work. It is evident that during the Roman period much of the
+gynaecological work was in the hands of women. Martial alludes to the
+"_feminae medicae_" in his epigram on Leda. These women must not be
+confounded with the midwives who on monuments are always described as
+"obstetrices." Galen devotes the sixth chapter of his work _De locis
+affectis_ to gynaecological ailments. During the Byzantine period may be
+mentioned the work of Oribasius (A.D. 325) and Moschion (2nd century
+A.D.) who wrote a book in Latin for the use of matrons and midwives
+ignorant of Greek.
+
+In modern times James Parsons (1705-1770) published his _Elenchus
+gynaicopathologicus et obstetricarius_, and in 1755 Charles Perry
+published his _Mechanical account and explication of the hysterical
+passion and of all other nervous disorders incident to the sex, with an
+appendix on cancers_. In the early part of the 19th century fresh
+interest in diseases of women awakened. Joseph Récamier (1774-1852) by
+his writings and teachings advocated the use of the speculum and sound.
+This was followed in 1840 by the writings of Simpson in England and
+Huguier in France. In 1845 John Hughes Bennett published his great work
+on inflammation of the uterus, and in 1850 Tilt published his book on
+ovarian inflammation. The credit of being the first to perform the
+operation of ovariotomy is now credited to McDowell of Kentucky in 1809,
+and to Robert Lawson Tait (1845-1899) in 1883 the first operation for
+ruptured ectopic gestation.
+
+  _Menstruation._--Normal menstruation comprises the escape of from 4 to
+  6 oz. of blood together with mucus from the uterus at intervals of
+  twenty-eight days (more or less). The flow begins at the age of
+  puberty, the average age of which in England is between fourteen and
+  sixteen years. It ceases between forty-five and fifty years of age,
+  and this is called the menopause or climacteric period, commonly
+  spoken of as "the change of life." Both the age of puberty and that of
+  the menopause may supervene earlier or later according to local
+  conditions. At both times the menstrual flow may be replaced by
+  haemorrhage from distant organs (epistaxis, haematemesis,
+  haemoptysis); this is called _vicarious menstruation_. Menstruation is
+  usually but not necessarily coincident with ovulation. The usual
+  disorders of menstruation are: (1) _amenorrhoea_ (absence of flow),
+  (2) _dysmenorrhoea_ (painful flow), (3) _menorrhagia_ (excessive
+  flow), (4) _metrorrhagia_ (excessive and irregular flow). Amenorrhoea
+  may arise from physiological causes, such as pregnancy, lactation, the
+  menopause; constitutional causes, such as phthisis, anaemia and
+  chlorosis, febrile disorders, some chronic intoxications, such as
+  morphinomania, and some forms of cerebral disease; local causes, which
+  include malformations or absence of one or more of the genital parts,
+  such as absence of ovaries, uterus or vagina, atresia of vagina,
+  imperforate cervix, disease of the ovaries, or sometimes imperforate
+  hymen. The treatment of amenorrhoea must be directed towards the
+  cause. In anaemia and phthisis menstruation often returns after
+  improvement in the general condition, with good food and good sanitary
+  conditions, an outdoor life and the administration of iron or other
+  tonics. In local conditions of imperforate hymen, imperforate cervix
+  or ovarian disease, surgical interference is necessary. Amenorrhoea is
+  permanent when due to absence of the genital parts. The causes of
+  dysmenorrhoea are classified as follows: (1) ovarian, due to disease
+  of the ovaries or Fallopian tubes; (2) obstructive, due to some
+  obstacle to the flow, as stenosis, flexions and malpositions of the
+  uterus, or malformations; (3) congestive, due to subinvolution,
+  chronic inflammation of the uterus or its lining membrane, fibroid
+  growths and polypi of the uterus, cardiac or hepatic disease; (4)
+  neuralgic; (5) membranous. The foremost place in the treatment of
+  dysmenorrhoea must be given to aperients and purgatives administered a
+  day or two before the period is expected. By this means congestion is
+  reduced. Hot baths are useful, and various drugs such as hyoscyanus,
+  cannabis indica, phenalgin, ammonol or phenacetin have been
+  prescribed. Medicinal treatment is, however, only palliative, and
+  flexions and malpositions of the uterus must be corrected, stenosis
+  treated by dilatation, fibroid growths if present removed, and
+  endometritis when present treated by local applications or curetting
+  according to its severity. Menorrhagia signifies excessive bleeding at
+  the menstrual periods. Constitutional causes are purpura, haemophilia,
+  excessive food and alcoholic drinks and warm climates; while local
+  causes are congestion and displacements of the uterus, endometritis,
+  subinvolution, retention of the products of conception, new growths in
+  the uterus such as mucous and fibroid polypi, malignant growths,
+  tubo-ovarian inflammation and some ovarian tumours. Metrorrhagia is a
+  discharge of blood from the uterus, independent of menstruation. It
+  always arises from disease of the uterus or its appendages. Local
+  causes are polypi, retention of the products of conception, extra
+  uterine gestation, haemorrhages in connexion with pregnancy, and new
+  growths in the uterus. In the treatment of both menorrhagia and
+  metrorrhagia the local condition must be carefully ascertained. When
+  pregnancy has been excluded, and constitutional causes treated,
+  efforts should be made to relieve congestion. Uterine haemostatics, as
+  ergot, ergotin, tincture of hydrastis or hamamelis, are of use,
+  together with rest in bed. Fibroid polypi and other new growths must
+  be removed. Irregular bleeding in women over forty years of age is
+  frequently a sign of early malignant disease, and should on no account
+  be neglected.
+
+  _Diseases of the External Genital Organs._--The vulva comprises
+  several organs and structures grouped together for convenience of
+  description (see REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM). The affections to which these
+  structures are liable may be classified as follows: (1) Injuries to
+  the vulva, either accidental or occurring during parturition; these
+  are generally rupture of the perinaeum. (2) _Vulvitis._ Simple
+  Vulvitis is due to want of cleanliness, or irritating discharges, and
+  in children may result from threadworms. The symptoms are heat,
+  itching and throbbing, and the parts are red and swollen. The
+  treatment consists of rest, thorough cleanliness and fomentations.
+  Infective vulvitis is nearly always due to gonorrhoea. The symptoms
+  are the same as in simple vulvitis, with the addition of mucopurulent
+  yellow discharge and scalding pain on micturition; if neglected,
+  extension of the disease may result. The treatment consists of rest in
+  bed, warm medicated baths several times a day or fomentations of
+  boracic acid. The parts must be kept thoroughly clean and discharges
+  swabbed away. Diphtheritic vulvitis occasionally occurs, and
+  erysipelas of the vulva may follow wounds, but since the use of
+  antiseptics is rarely seen. (3) Vascular disturbances may occur in the
+  vulva, including varix, haematoma, oedema and gangrene; the treatment
+  is the same as for the same disease in other parts. (4) The vulva is
+  likely to be affected by a number of cutaneous affections, the most
+  important being erythema, eczema, herpes, lichen, tubercle,
+  elephantiasis, vulvitis pruriginosa, syphilis and kraurosis. These
+  affections present the same characters as in other parts of the body.
+  _Kraurosis vulvae_, first described by Lawson Tait in 1875, is an
+  atrophic change accompanied by pain and a yellowish discharge; the
+  cause is unknown. Pruritis vulvae is due to parasites, or to
+  irritating discharges, as leucorrhoea, and is frequent in diabetic
+  subjects. The hymen may be occasionally imperforate and require
+  incision. Cysts and painful carunculae may occur on the clitoris. Any
+  part of the vulva may be the seat of new growths, simple or malignant.
+
+  _Diseases of the Vagina._--(1) Malformations. The vagina may be absent
+  in whole or in part or may present a septum. Stenosis of the vagina
+  may be a barrier to menstruation. (2) Displacements of the vagina; (a)
+  cystocele, which is a hernia of the bladder into the vagina; (b)
+  rectocele, a hernia of the rectum into the vagina. The cause of these
+  conditions is relaxation of the tissues due to parturition. The
+  palliative treatment consists in keeping up the parts by the insertion
+  of a pessary; when this fails operative interference is called for.
+  (3) Fistulae may form between the vagina and bladder or vagina and
+  rectum; they are generally caused by injuries during parturition or
+  the late stages of carcinoma. Persistent fistulae require operative
+  treatment. The vagina normally secretes a thin opalescent acid fluid
+  derived from the lymph serum and the shedding of squamous epithelium.
+  This fluid normally contains the vagina bacillus. In pathological
+  conditions of the vagina this secretion undergoes changes. For
+  practical purposes three varieties of _vaginitis_ may be described:
+  (a) simple catarrhal vaginitis is due to the same causes as simple
+  vulvitis, and occasionally in children is important from a
+  medico-legal aspect when it is complicated by vulvitis. The symptoms
+  are heat and discomfort with copious mucopurulent discharge. The only
+  treatment required is rest, with vaginal douches of warm unirritating
+  lotions such as boracic acid or subacetate of lead. (b) Gonorrhoeal
+  vaginitis is most common in adults. The patient complains of pain and
+  burning, pain on passing water and discharge which is generally green
+  or yellow. The results of untreated gonorrhoeal vaginitis are serious
+  and far-reaching. The disease may spread up the genital passages,
+  causing endometritis, salpingitis and septic peritonitis, or may
+  extend into the bladder, causing cystitis. Strict rest should be
+  enjoined, douches of carbolic acid (1 in 40) or of perchloride of
+  mercury (1 in 2000) should be ordered morning and evening, the vagina
+  being packed with tampons of iodoform gauze. Saline purgatives and
+  alkaline diuretics should be given, (c) Chronic vaginitis (leucorrhoea
+  or "the whites") may follow acute conditions and persist indefinitely.
+  The vagina is rarely the seat of tumours, but cysts are common.
+
+  _Diseases of the Uterus._--The uterus undergoes important changes
+  during life, chiefly at puberty and at the menopause. At puberty it
+  assumes the pear shape characteristic of the mature uterus. At the
+  menopause it shares in the general atrophy of the reproductive organs.
+  It is subject to various disorders and misplacements. (a)
+  _Displacements of the Uterus._--The normal position of the uterus,
+  when the bladder is empty, is that of anteversion. We have therefore
+  to consider the following conditions as pathological: anteflexion,
+  retroflexion, retroversion, inversion, prolapse and procidentia.
+  Slight anteflexion or bending forwards is normal; when exaggerated it
+  gives rise to dysmenorrhoea, sterility and reflex nervous phenomena.
+  This condition is usually congenital and is often associated with
+  under-development of the uterus, from which the sterility results. The
+  treatment is by dilatation of the canal or by a plastic operation.
+  Retroflexion is a bending over of the uterus backwards, and occurs as
+  a complication of retroversion (or displacement backwards). The causes
+  are (1) any cause tending to make the fundus or upper part of the
+  uterus extra heavy, such as tumours or congestion, (2) loss of tone of
+  the uterine walls, (3) adhesions formed after cellulitis, (4) violent
+  muscular efforts, (5) weakening of the uterine supports from
+  parturition. The symptoms are dysmenorrhoea, pain on defaecation and
+  constipation from the pressure of the fundus on the rectum; the
+  patient is often sterile. The treatment is the replacing of the uterus
+  in position, where it can be kept by the insertion of a pessary;
+  failing this, operative treatment may be required. Retroversion when
+  pathological is rarer than retroflexion. It may be the result of
+  injury or is associated with pregnancy or a fibroid. The symptoms are
+  those of retroflexion with feeling of pain and weight in the pelvis
+  and desire to micturate followed by retention of urine due to the
+  pressure of the cervix against the base of the bladder. The uterus
+  must be skilfully replaced in position; when pessaries fail to keep it
+  there the operation of hysteropexy gives excellent results.
+
+  Inversion occurs when the uterus is turned inside out. It is only
+  possible when the cavity is dilated, either after pregnancy or by a
+  polypus. The greater number of cases follow delivery and are acute.
+  Chronic inversions are generally due to the weight of a polypus. The
+  symptoms are menorrhagia, metrorrhagia and bladder troubles; on
+  examination a tumour-like mass occupies the vagina. Reduction of the
+  condition is often difficult, particularly when the condition has
+  lasted for a long time. The tumour which has caused the inversion must
+  be excised. Prolapse and procidentia are different degrees of the same
+  variety of displacement. When the uterus lies in the vagina it is
+  spoken of as prolapse, when it protrudes through the vulva it is
+  procidentia. The causes are directly due to increased intra-abdominal
+  pressure, increased weight of the uterus by fibroids, violent
+  straining, chronic cough and weakening of the supporting structures of
+  the pelvic floor, such as laceration of the vagina and perinaeum.
+  Traction on the uterus from below (as a cervical tumour) may be a
+  cause; advanced age, laborious occupations and frequent pregnancies
+  are indirect causes. The symptoms are a "bearing down" feeling, pain
+  and fatigue in walking, trouble with micturition and defaecation. The
+  condition is generally obvious on examination. As a rule the uterus is
+  easy to replace in position. A rubber ring pessary will often serve to
+  keep it there. If the perinaeum is very much torn it may be necessary
+  to repair it. Various operations for retaining the uterus in position
+  are described. (b) _Enlargements of the Uterus_ (hypertrophy or
+  hyperplasia). This condition may sometimes involve the uterus as a
+  whole or may be most marked in the body or in the cervix. It follows
+  chronic congestion or inflammatory prolapse, or any condition
+  interfering with the circulation. The symptoms comprise local
+  discomfort and sometimes dysmenorrhoea, leucorrhoea or menorrhagia.
+  When the elongation occurs in the cervical portion the only possible
+  treatment is amputation of the cervix. Atrophy of the uterus is normal
+  after the menopause. It may follow the removal of the tubes and
+  ovaries. Some constitutional diseases produce the same result, as
+  tuberculosis, chlorosis, chronic morphinism and certain diseases of
+  the central nervous system.
+
+  (c) _Injuries and Diseases resultant from Pregnancy._--The most
+  frequent of these injuries is laceration of the cervix uteri, which is
+  frequent in precipitate labour. Once the cervix is torn the raw
+  surfaces become covered by granulations and later by cicatricial
+  tissue, but as a rule they do not unite. The torn lips may become
+  unhealthy, and the congestion and oedema spread to the body of the
+  uterus. A lacerated cervix does not usually give rise to symptoms;
+  these depend on the accompanying endometritis, and include
+  leucorrhoea, aching and a feeling of weight. Lacerations are to be
+  felt digitally. As lacerations predispose to abortion the operation of
+  trachelorraphy or repair of the cervix is indicated. Perforation of
+  the uterus may occur from the use of the sound in diseased conditions
+  of the uterine walls. Superinvolution means premature atrophy
+  following parturition. Subinvolution is a condition in which the
+  uterus fails to return to its normal size and remains enlarged.
+  Retention of the products of conception may cause irregular
+  haemorrhages and may lead to a diagnosis of tumour. The uterus should
+  be carefully explored.
+
+  (d) _Inflammations Acute and Chronic._--The mucous membrane lining the
+  cervical canal and body of the uterus is called the endometrium. Acute
+  inflammation or endometritis may attack it. The chief causes are
+  sepsis following labour or abortion, extension of a gonorrhoeal
+  vaginitis, or gangrene or infection of a uterine myoma. The puerperal
+  endometritis following labour is an avoidable disease due to lack of
+  scrupulous aseptic precautions.
+
+  Gonorrhoeal endometritis is an acute form associated with copious
+  purulent discharge and well-marked constitutional disturbance. The
+  temperature ranges from 99° to 105° F., associated with pelvic pain,
+  and rigors are not uncommon. The tendency is to recovery with more or
+  less protracted convalescence. The most serious complications are
+  extension of the disease and later sterility. Rest in bed and
+  intrauterine irrigation, followed by the introduction of iodoform
+  pencils into the uterine cavity, should be resorted to, while pain is
+  relieved by hot fomentations and sitz baths. Chronic endometritis may
+  be the sequela of the acute form, or may be septic in origin, or the
+  result of chronic congestion, acute retroflection or subinvolution
+  following delivery or abortion. The varieties are glandular,
+  interstitial, haemorrhagic and senile. The symptoms are disturbance of
+  the menstrual function, headache, pain and pelvic discomfort, and more
+  or less profuse thick leucorrhoeal discharge. The treatment consists
+  in attention to the general health, with suitable laxatives and local
+  injections, and in obstinate cases curettage is the most effectual
+  measure. The disease is frequently associated with adenomatous disease
+  of the cervix, formerly called erosion. In this disease there is a new
+  formation of glandular elements, which enlarge and multiply, forming a
+  soft velvety areola dotted with pink spots. This was formerly
+  erroneously termed ulceration. The cause is unknown. It occurs in
+  virgins as well as in mothers, but it often accompanies lacerations of
+  the cervix. The symptoms are indefinite pain and leucorrhoea. The
+  condition is visible on inspection with a speculum. The treatment is
+  swabbing with iodized phenol or curettage. The body of the uterus may
+  also be the seat of adenomatous disease. Tuberculosis may attack the
+  uterus; this usually forms part of a general tuberculosis.
+
+  (e) _New Growths in the Uterus._--The uterus is the most common seat
+  of new growths. From the researches of von Gurlt, compiled from the
+  Vienna Hospital _Reports_, embracing 15,880 cases of tumour, females
+  exceed males in the proportion of seven to three, and of this large
+  majority uterine growths account for 25%. When we consider its
+  periodic monthly engorgements and the alternate hypertrophy and
+  involution it undergoes in connexion with pregnancy, we can anticipate
+  the special proneness of the uterus to new growths. Tumours of the
+  uterus are divided into benign and malignant. The benign tumours known
+  as fibroids or myomata are very common. They are stated by Bayle to
+  occur in 20% of women over 35 years of age, but happily in a great
+  number of cases they are small and give rise to no symptoms. They are
+  definitely associated with the period of sexual activity and occur
+  more frequently in married women than in single, in the proportion of
+  two to one (Winckel). It is doubtful if they ever originate after the
+  menopause. Indeed if uncomplicated by changes in them they share in
+  the general atrophy of the sexual organs which then takes place. They
+  are divided according to their position in the tissues into
+  intramural, subserous and submucous (the last when it has a pedicle
+  forms a polypus), or as to the part of the uterus in which they
+  develop into fibroids of the cervix and fibroids of the body.
+  Intramural and submucous fibroids give rise to haemorrhage. The menses
+  may be so increased that the patient is scarcely ever free from
+  haemorrhage. The pressure of the growth may cause dysmenorrhoea, or
+  pressure on the bladder and rectum may cause dysuria, retention or
+  rectal tenesmus. The uterus may be displaced by the weight of the
+  tumour. Secondary changes take place in fibroids, such as mucous
+  degeneration, fatty metamorphosis, calcification, septic infection
+  (sloughing fibroid) and malignant (sarcomatous) degeneration.
+
+  The modes in which fibroids imperil life are haemorrhage (the
+  commonest of all), septic infection, which is one of the most
+  dangerous, impaction when it fits the true pelvis so tightly that the
+  tumour cannot rise, twisting of the pedicle by rotation, leading to
+  sloughing and intestinal and urinary obstruction. When fibroids are
+  complicated by pregnancy, impaction and consequent abortion may take
+  place, or a cervical myoma may offer a mechanical obstacle to delivery
+  or lead to serious post partem haemorrhage. In the treatment of
+  fibroids various drugs (ergot, hamamelis, hydrastis canadensis) may be
+  tried to control the haemorrhage, and repose and the injection of hot
+  water (120° F.) are sometimes successful, together with electrical
+  treatment. Surgical measures are needed, however, in severe recurrent
+  haemorrhage, intestinal obstruction, sloughing and the co-existence of
+  pregnancy. An endeavour must be made if possible to enucleate the
+  fibroid, or hysterectomy (removal of the uterus) may be required. The
+  operation of removal of the ovaries to precipitate the menopause has
+  fallen into disuse.
+
+  (f) _Malignant Disease of the Uterus._--The varieties of malignant
+  disease met with in the uterus are sarcoma, carcinoma and
+  chorion-epithelioma malignum. Sarcomata may occur in the body and in
+  the neck. They occur at an earlier age than carcinomata. Marked
+  enlargement and haemorrhage are the symptoms. The differential
+  diagnosis is microscopic. Extirpation of the uterus is the only chance
+  of prolonging life. The age at which women are most subject to
+  carcinoma (cancer) of the uterus is towards the decline of sexual
+  life. Of 3385 collected cases of cancer of the uterus 1169 occurred
+  between 40 and 50, and 856 between 50 and 60. In contradistinction to
+  fibroid tumours it frequently arises after the menopause. It may be
+  divided into cancer of the body and cancer of the neck (cervix).
+  Cancer of the neck of the uterus is almost exclusively confined to
+  women who have been pregnant (Bland-Sutton). Predisposing causes may
+  be injuries during delivery. The symptoms which induce women to seek
+  medical aid are haemorrhage, foetid discharge, and later pain and
+  cachexia. An unfortunate belief amongst the public that the menopause
+  is associated with irregular bleeding and offensive discharges has
+  prevented many women from seeking medical advice until too late. It
+  cannot be too widely understood that cancer of the cervix is in its
+  early stages a purely local disease, and if removed in this stage
+  usually results in cure. So important is the recognition of this fact
+  in the saving of human life that at the meeting of the British Medical
+  Association in April 1909 the council issued for publication a special
+  appeal to medical practitioners, midwives and nurses, and directed it
+  to be published in British and colonial medical and nursing journals.
+  It will be useful to quote here a part of the appeal directed to
+  midwives and nurses: "Cancer may occur at any age and in a woman who
+  looks quite well, and who may have no pain, no wasting, no foul
+  discharge and no profuse bleeding. To wait for pain, wasting, foul
+  discharge or profuse bleeding is to throw away the chance of
+  successful treatment. The early symptoms of cancer of the womb
+  are:--(1) bleeding which occurs after the change of life, (2) bleeding
+  after sexual intercourse or after a vaginal douche, (3) bleeding,
+  slight or abundant, even in young women, if occurring between the
+  usual monthly periods, and especially when accompanied by a
+  bad-smelling or watery blood-tinged discharge, (4) thin watery
+  discharge occurring at any age." On examination the cervix presents
+  certain characteristic signs, though these may be modified according
+  to the variety of cancer present. Hard nodules or definite loss of
+  substance, extreme friability and bleeding after slight manipulation,
+  are suspicious. Epithelial cancer of the cervix may assume a
+  proliferating ulcerative type, forming the well-known "cauliflower"
+  excrescence. The treatment of cancer of the cervix is free removal at
+  the earliest possible moment. Cancer of the body of the uterus is rare
+  before the 45th year. It is most frequent at or subsequent to the
+  menopause. The majority of the patients are nulliparae (Bland-Sutton).
+  The signs are fitful haemorrhages after the menopause, followed by
+  profuse and offensive discharges. The uterus on examination often
+  feels enlarged. The diagnosis being made, hysterectomy (removal of the
+  uterus) is the only treatment. Cancer of the body of the uterus may
+  complicate fibroids. Chorion-epithelioma malignum (deciduoma) was
+  first described in 1889 by Sänger and Pfeiffer. It is a malignant
+  disease presenting microscopic characters resembling decidual tissue.
+  It occurs in connexion with recent pregnancy, and particularly with
+  the variety of abortion termed hydatid mole. In many cases it destroys
+  life with a rapidity unequalled by any other kind of growth. It
+  quickly ulcerates and infiltrates the uterine tissues, forming
+  metastatic growths in the lung and vagina. Clinically it is recognized
+  by the occurrence after pregnancy of violent haemorrhages, progressive
+  cachexia and fever with rigors. Recent suggestions have been made as
+  to chorion-epithelioma being the result of pathological changes in the
+  lutein tissue of the ovary. The growth is usually primary in the
+  uterus, but may be so in the Fallopian tubes and in the vagina. A few
+  cases have been recorded unconnected with pregnancy. The virulence of
+  chorion-epithelioma varies, but in the present state of our knowledge
+  immediate removal of the primary growth along with the affected organ
+  is the only treatment.
+
+  _Diseases of the Fallopian Tubes._--The Fallopian tubes or oviducts
+  are liable to inflammatory affections, tuberculosis, sarcomata,
+  cancer, chorion-epithelioma and tubal pregnancy. Salpingitis
+  (inflammation of the oviducts) is nearly always secondary to septic
+  infection of the genital tract. The chief causes are septic
+  endometritis following labour or abortion, gangrene of a myoma,
+  gonorrhoea, tuberculosis and cancer of the uterus; it sometimes
+  follows the specific fevers. When the pus escapes from the tubes into
+  the coelom it sets up pelvic peritonitis. When the inflammation is
+  adjacent to the ostium it leads to the matting together of the tubal
+  fimbriae and glues them to an adjacent organ. This seals the ostium.
+  The occluded tube may now have an accumulation of pus in it
+  (pyosalpinx). When in consequence of the sealing of the ostium the
+  tube becomes distended with serous fluid it is termed hydrosalpinx.
+  Haematosalpinx is a term applied to the non-gravid tube distended with
+  blood; later the tubes may become sclerosed. Acute septic salpingitis
+  is ushered in by a rigor, the temperature rising to 103°, 104° F.,
+  with severe pain and constitutional disturbance. The symptoms may
+  become merged in those of general peritonitis. In chronic disease
+  there is a history of puerperal trouble followed by sterility, with
+  excessive and painful menstruation. Acute salpingitis requires
+  absolute rest, opium suppositories and hot fomentations. With urgent
+  symptoms removal of the inflamed adnexa must be resorted to. Chronic
+  salpingitis often renders a woman an invalid. Permanent relief can
+  only be afforded by surgical intervention. Tuberculous salpingitis is
+  usually secondary to other tuberculous infections. The Fallopian tubes
+  may be the seat of malignant disease. This is rarely primary. By far
+  the most important of the conditions of the Fallopian tubes is tubal
+  pregnancy (or ectopic gestation). It is now known that fertilization
+  of the human ovum by the spermatozoon may take place even when the
+  ovum is in its follicle in the ovary, for oosperms have been found in
+  the ovary and Fallopian tubes as well as in the uterus. Belief in
+  ovarian pregnancy is of old standing, and had been regarded as
+  possible but unproved, no case of an early embryo in its membranes in
+  the sac of an ovary being forthcoming, until the remarkable case
+  published by Dr Catherine van Tussenboek of Amsterdam in 1899
+  (Bland-Sutton). Tubal pregnancy is most frequent in the left tube; it
+  sometimes complicates uterine pregnancy; rarely both tubes are
+  pregnant. When the oosperm lodges in the ampulla or isthmus it is
+  called tubal gestation; when it is retained in the portion traversing
+  the uterine wall it is called tubo-uterine gestation. Wherever the
+  fertilized ovum remains and implants its villi the tube becomes turgid
+  and swollen, and the abdominal ostium gradually closes. The ovum in
+  this situation is liable to apoplexy, forming tubal mole. When the
+  abdominal ostium remains pervious the ovum may escape into the
+  coelomic cavity (tubal abortion); death from shock and haemorrhage
+  into the abdominal cavity may result. When neither of these
+  occurrences has taken place the ovum continues to grow inside the
+  tube, the rupture of the distended tube usually taking place between
+  the sixth and the tenth week. The rupture of the tube may be
+  intraperitoneal or extraperitoneal. The danger is death from
+  haemorrhage occurring during the rupture, or adhesions may form, the
+  retained blood forming a haematocele. The ovum may be destroyed or may
+  continue to develop. In rare cases rupture may not occur, the tube
+  bulging into the peritoneal cavity; and the foetus may break through
+  the membranes and lie free among the intestines, where it may die,
+  becoming encysted or calcified. The tubal placenta possesses foetal
+  structures, the true decidua forming in the uterus. The signs
+  suggestive of tubal pregnancy before rupture are missed periods,
+  pelvic pains and the presence of an enlarged tube. When rupture takes
+  place it is attended in both varieties with sudden and severe pain and
+  more or less marked collapse, and a tumour may or may not be felt
+  according to the situation of the rupture. There is a general "feeling
+  of something having given way." If diagnosed before rupture, the sac
+  must be removed by abdominal section. In intraperitoneal rupture
+  immediate operation affords the only chance of saving life. In
+  extraperitoneal rupture the foetus may occasionally remain alive until
+  full term and be rescued by abdominal section, if the condition is
+  recognized, or a false labour may take place, accompanied by death of
+  the foetus.
+
+  _Diseases of the Ovaries and Parovarium._--The ovaries undergo
+  striking changes at puberty, and again at the menopause, after which
+  there is a gradual shrinkage. One or both may be absent or malformed,
+  or they are subject to displacements, being either undescended,
+  contained in a hernia or prolapsed. Either of these conditions, if a
+  source of pain, may necessitate their removal. The ovary is also
+  subject to haemorrhage or apoplexy. Acute inflammations (oöphorites)
+  are constantly associated with salpingitis or other septic conditions
+  of the genital tract or with an attack of mumps. The relation of
+  oöphoritis to mumps is at present unknown. Acute oöphoritis may
+  culminate in abscess but more usually adhesions are formed. The
+  surgical treatment is that of pyosalpinx. Chronic inflammation may
+  follow acute or be consequent on pelvic cellulitis. Its constant
+  features are more or less pain followed by sterility. The ovary may be
+  the seat of tuberculosis, which is generally secondary to other
+  lesions. Suppuration and abscess of the ovary also occur.
+  Perioöphoritis, or chronic inflammation in the neighbourhood, may also
+  involve the gland. The cause of cirrhosis of the ovaries is unknown,
+  though it may be associated with cirrhotic liver. The change is met
+  with in women between 20 and 40 years of age, the ovaries being in a
+  shrunken, hard, wrinkled condition. Under ovarian neuralgia are
+  grouped indefinite painful symptoms occurring frequently in neurotic
+  and alcoholic subjects, and often worse during menstruation. The
+  treatment, whether local or operative, is usually unsatisfactory. The
+  ovary is frequently the seat of tumours, dermoids and cysts. Cysts may
+  be simple, unilocular or multilocular, and may attain an enormous
+  size. The largest on record was removed by Dr Elizabeth Reifsnyder of
+  Shanghai, and contained 100 litres of fluid, and the patient
+  recovered. The operation is termed ovariotomy. Dermoid cysts
+  containing skin, bones, teeth and hair, are of frequent growth in the
+  ovary, and have attained the weight of from 20 to 40 kilogrammes. In
+  one case a girl weighed 27 kilogrammes and her tumour 44 kilogrammes
+  (Keen). Papillomatous cysts also occur in the ovary. Parovarian and
+  Gärtnerian cysts are found, and adenomata form 20% of all ovarian
+  cysts. Occasionally the tunic of peritoneum surrounding the ovary
+  becomes distended with serous fluid. This is termed ovarian hydrocele.
+  Ovarian fibroids occur, and malignant disease (sarcoma and carcinoma)
+  is fairly frequent, sarcoma being the most usual ovarian tumour
+  occurring before puberty. Carcinoma of the ovary is rarely primary,
+  but it is a common situation for secondary cancer to that of the
+  breast, gall-bladder or gastro-intestinal tract. The treatment of all
+  rapidly-growing tumours of the ovary is removal.
+
+  _Diseases of the Pelvic Peritoneum and Connective Tissue._--Women are
+  excessively liable to peritoneal infections. (1) Septic infection
+  often follows acute salpingitis and may give rise to pelvic
+  peritonitis (perimetritis), which may be adhesive, serous or purulent.
+  It may follow the rupture of ovarian or dermoid cysts, rupture of the
+  uterus, extra uterine pregnancy or extension from pyosalpinx. The
+  symptoms are severe pain, fever, 103° F. and higher, marked
+  constitutional disturbances, vomiting, restlessness, even delirium.
+  The abdomen is fixed and tympanitic. Its results are the formation of
+  adhesions causing abnormal positions of the organs, or chronic
+  peritonitis may follow. The treatment is rest in bed, opium, hot
+  stupes to the abdomen and quinine. (2) Epithelial infections take
+  place in the peritoneum in connexion with other malignant growths. (3)
+  Hydroperitoneum, a collection of free fluid in the abdominal cavity,
+  may be due to tumours of the abdominal viscera or to tuberculosis of
+  the peritoneum. (4) Pelvic cellulitis (parametritis) signifies the
+  inflammation of the connective tissue between the folds of the broad
+  ligament (mesometrium). The general causes are septic changes
+  following abortion, delivery at term (especially instrumental
+  delivery), following operations on the uterus or salpingitis. The
+  symptoms are chill followed by severe intrapelvic pain and tension,
+  fever 100° to 102° F. There may be nausea and vomiting, diarrhoea,
+  rectal tenseness and dysuria. If consequent on parturition the lochia
+  cease or become offensive. On examination there is tenderness and
+  swelling in one flank and the uterus becomes fixed and immovable in
+  the exudate as if embedded in plaster of Paris. The illness may go to
+  resolution if treated by rest, opium, hot stupes or icebags and
+  glycerine tampons, or may go on to suppuration forming pelvic abscess,
+  which signifies a collection of pus between the layers of the broad
+  ligament. The pus in a pelvic abscess may point and escape through the
+  walls of the vagina, rectum or bladder. It occasionally points in the
+  groin. If the pus can be localized an incision should be made and the
+  abscess drained. The tumours which arise in the broad ligament are
+  haematocele, solid tumours (as myomata, lipomata and sarcomata), and
+  echinnococcus colonies (hydatids).
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Albutt, Playfair and Eden, _System of Gynaecology_
+  (1906); McNaughton Jones, _Manual of Diseases of Women_ (1904);
+  Bland-Sutton and Giles, _Diseases of Women_ (1906); C. Lockyer,
+  "Lutein Cysts in association with Chorio-Epithelioma," _Journal of
+  Obstetrics and Gynaecology_ (January, 1905); W. Stewart McKay,
+  _History of Ancient Gynaecology_; Hart and Barbour, _Diseases of
+  Women_; Howard Kelly, _Operative Gynaecology_.     (H. L. H.)
+
+
+
+
+GYÖNGYÖSI, ISTVÁN [STEPHEN] (1620-1704), Hungarian poet, was born of
+poor but noble parents in 1620. His abilities early attracted the notice
+of Count Ferencz Wesselényi, who in 1640 appointed him to a post of
+confidence in Fülek castle. Here he remained till 1653, when he married
+and became an assessor of the judicial board. In 1681 he was elected as
+a representative of his county at the diet held at Soprony (Oedenburg).
+From 1686 to 1693, and again from 1700 to his death in 1704, he was
+deputy lord-lieutenant of the county of Gömör. Of his literary works the
+most famous is the epic poem _Murányi Venus_ (Caschau, 1664), in honour
+of his benefactor's wife Maria Szécsi, the heroine of Murány. Among his
+later productions the best known are _Rózsa-Koszorú_, or Rose-Wreath
+(1690), _Kemény-János_ (1693), _Cupidó_ (1695), _Palinodia_ (1695) and
+_Chariklia_ (1700).
+
+  The earliest edition of his collected poetical works is by Dugonics
+  (Pressburg and Pest, 1796); the best modern selection is that of
+  Toldy, entitled _Gyöngyösi István válogatott poétai munkái_ (Select
+  poetical works of Stephen Gyöngyösi, 2 vols., 1864-1865).
+
+
+
+
+GYÖR (Ger. _Raab_), a town of Hungary, capital of a county of the same
+name, 88 m. W. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 27,758. It is situated
+at the confluence of the Raab with the Danube, and is composed of the
+inner town and three suburbs. Györ is a well-built town, and is the seat
+of a Roman Catholic bishop. Amongst its principal buildings are the
+cathedral, dating from the 12th century, and rebuilt in 1639-1654; the
+bishop's palace; the town hall; the Roman Catholic seminary for priests
+and several churches. There are manufactures of cloth, machinery and
+tobacco, and an active trade in grain and horses. Twenty miles by rail
+W. S. W. of the town is situated Csorna, a village with a
+Premonstratensian abbey, whose archives contain numerous valuable
+historical documents.
+
+Györ is one of the oldest towns in Hungary and occupies the site of the
+Roman _Arabona_. It was already a place of some importance in the 10th
+century, and its bishopric was created in the 11th century. It was a
+strongly fortified town which resisted successfully the attacks of the
+Turks, into whose hands it fell by treachery in 1594, but they retained
+possession of it only for four years. Montecucculi made Györ a
+first-class fortress, and it remained so until 1783, when it was
+abandoned. At the beginning of the 19th century, the fortifications were
+re-erected, but were easily taken by the French in 1809, and were again
+stormed by the Austrians on the 28th of June 1849.
+
+About 11 m. S.E. of Györ on a spur of the Bakony Forest lies the famous
+Benedictine abbey of Pannonhalma (Ger. _St Martinsberg_; Lat. _Mons
+Sancti Martini_), one of the oldest and wealthiest abbeys of Hungary. It
+was founded by King St Stephen, and the original deed from 1001 is
+preserved in the archives of the abbey. The present building is a block
+of palaces, containing a beautiful church, some of its parts dating from
+the 12th century, and lies on a hill 1200 ft. high. The church has a
+tower 130 ft. high. In the convent there are a seminary for priests, a
+normal school, a gymnasium and a library of 120,000 vols. The chief
+abbot has the rank of a bishop, and is a member of the Upper House of
+the Hungarian parliament, while in spiritual matters he is subordinate
+immediately to the Roman curia.
+
+
+
+
+GYP, the pen name of SIBYLLE GABRIELLE MARIE ANTOINETTE RIQUETI DE
+MIRABEAU, Comtesse de Martel de Janville (1850-   ) French writer, who
+was born at the château of Koetsal in the Morbihan. Her father, who was
+the grandson of the vicomte de Mirabeau and great-nephew of the orator,
+served in the Papal Zouaves, and died during the campaign of 1860. Her
+mother, the comtesse de Mirabeau, in addition to some graver
+compositions, contributed to the _Figaro_ and the _Vie parisienne_,
+under various pseudonyms, papers in the manner successfully developed by
+her daughter. Under the pseudonym of "Gyp" Madame de Martel, who was
+married in 1869, sent to the _Vie parisienne_, and later to the _Revue
+des deux mondes_, a large number of social sketches and dialogues,
+afterwards reprinted in volumes. Her later work includes stories of a
+more formal sort, essentially differing but little from the shorter
+studies. The following list includes some of the best known of Madame de
+Martel's publications, nearly seventy in number: _Petit Bob_ (1882);
+_Autour du mariage_ (1883); _Ce que femme veut_ (1883); _Le Monde à
+côté_ (1884), _Sans voiles_ (1885); _Autour du divorce_ (1886); _Dans le
+train_ (1886); _Mademoiselle Loulou_ (1888); _Bob au salon_ (1888-1889);
+_L'Education d'un prince_ (1890); _Passionette_ (1891); _Ohé! la grande
+vie_ (1891); _Une Élection à Tigre-sur-mer_ (1890), an account of
+"Gyp's" experiences in support of a Boulangist candidate; _Mariage
+civil_ (1892); _Ces bons docteurs_ (1892); _Du haut en bas_ (1893);
+_Mariage de chiffon_ (1894); _Leurs âmes_ (1895); _Le Coeur d'Ariane_
+(1895); _Le Bonheur de Ginette_ (1896); _Totote_ (1897); _Lune de miel_
+(1898); _Israël_ (1898); _L'Entrevue_ (1899); _Le Pays des champs_
+(1900); _Trop de chic_ (1900); _Le Friquet_ (1901); _La Fée_ (1902); _Un
+Mariage chic_ (1903); _Un Ménage dernier cri_ (1903); _Maman_ (1904);
+_Le Coeur de Pierrette_ (1905). From the first "Gyp," writing of a
+society to which she belonged, displayed all the qualities which have
+given her a distinct, if not pre-eminent, position among writers of her
+class. Those qualities included an intense faculty of observation, much
+skill in innuendo, a mordant wit combined with some breadth of humour,
+and a singular power of animating ordinary dialogues without destroying
+the appearance of reality. Her Parisian types of the spoiled child, of
+the precocious schoolgirl, of the young bride, and of various masculine
+figures in the gay world, have become almost classical, and may probably
+survive as faithful pictures of luxurious manners in the 19th century.
+Some later productions, inspired by a violent anti-Semitic and
+Nationalist bias, deserve little consideration. An earlier attempt to
+dramatize _Autour du mariage_ was a failure, not owing to the audacities
+which it shares with most of its author's works, but from lack of
+cohesion and incident. More successful was _Mademoiselle Ève_ (1895),
+but indeed "Gyp's" successes are all achieved without a trace of
+dramatic faculty. In 1901 Madame de Martel furnished a sensational
+incident in the Nationalist campaign during the municipal elections in
+Paris. She was said to have been the victim of a kidnapping outrage or
+piece of horseplay provoked by her political attitude, but though a most
+circumstantial account of the outrages committed on her and of her
+adventurous escape was published, the affair was never clearly explained
+or verified.
+
+
+
+
+GYPSUM, a common mineral consisting of hydrous calcium sulphate, named
+from the Gr. [Greek: gypsos], a word used by Theophrastus to denote not
+only the raw mineral but also the product of its calcination, which was
+employed in ancient times, as it still is, as a plaster. When
+crystallized, gypsum is often called selenite, the [Greek: selênitês] of
+Dioscorides, so named from [Greek: selênê], "the moon," probably in
+allusion to the soft moon-like reflection of light from some of its
+faces, or, according to a legend, because it is found at night when the
+moon is on the increase. The granular, marble-like gypsum is termed
+alabaster (q.v.).
+
+Gypsum crystallizes in the monoclinic system, the habit of the crystals
+being usually either prismatic or tabular; in the latter case the broad
+planes are parallel to the faces of the clinopinacoid. The crystals may
+become lenticular by curvature of certain faces. In the characteristic
+type represented in fig. 1, f represents the prism, l the hemi-pyramid
+and P the clinopinacoid. Twins are common, as in fig. 2, forming in some
+cases arrow-headed and swallow-tailed crystals. Cleavage is perfect
+parallel to the clinopinacoid, yielding thin plates, often
+diamond-shaped, with pearly lustre; these flakes are usually flexible,
+but may be brittle, as in the gypsum of Montmartre. Two other cleavages
+are recognized, but they are imperfect. Crystals of gypsum, when
+occurring in clay, may enclose much muddy matter; in other cases a large
+proportion of sand may be mechanically entangled in the crystals without
+serious disturbance of form; whilst certain crystals occasionally
+enclose cavities with liquid and an air-bubble. Gypsum not infrequently
+becomes fibrous. This variety occurs in veins, often running through
+gypseous marls, with the fibres disposed at right angles to the
+direction of the vein. Such gypsum when cut and polished has a pearly
+opalescence, or satiny sheen, whence it is called satin-spar (q.v.).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+Gypsum is so soft as to be scratched even by the finger-nail (H = 1.5 to
+2). Its specific gravity is about 2.3. The mineral is slightly soluble
+in water, one part of gypsum being soluble, according to G. K. Cameron,
+in 372 parts of pure water at 26° C. Waters percolating through gypseous
+strata, like the Keuper marls, dissolve the calcium sulphate and thus
+become permanently hard or "selenitic." Such water has special value for
+brewing pale ale, and the water used by the Burton breweries is of this
+character; hence the artificial dissolving of gypsum in water for
+brewing purposes is known as "burtonization." Deposits of gypsum are
+formed in boilers using selenitic water.
+
+Pure gypsum is colourless or white, but it is often tinted, especially
+in the alabaster variety, grey, yellow or pink. Gypsum crystallizes with
+two molecules of water, equal to about 21% by weight, and consequently
+has the formula CaSO4.2H2O. By exposure to strong heat all the water may
+be expelled, and the substance then has the composition of anhydrite
+(q.v.). When the calcination, however, is conducted at such a
+temperature that only about 75% of the water is lost, it yields a white
+pulverulent substance, known as "plaster of Paris," which may readily be
+caused to recombine with water, forming a hard cement. The gypsum
+quarries of Montmartre, in the north of Paris, were worked in Tertiary
+strata, rich in fossils. Gypsum is largely quarried in England for
+conversion into plaster of Paris, whence it is sometimes known as
+"plaster stone," and since much is sent to the Staffordshire potteries
+for making moulds it is also termed "potter's stone." The chief workings
+are in the Keuper marls near Newark in Nottinghamshire, Fauld in
+Staffordshire and Chellaston in Derbyshire. It is also worked in Permian
+beds in Cumberland and Westmorland, and in Purbeck strata near Battle in
+Sussex.
+
+Gypsum frequently occurs in association with rock-salt, having been
+deposited in shallow basins of salt water. Much of the calcium in
+sea-water exists as sulphate; and on evaporation of a drop of sea-water
+under the microscope this sulphate is deposited as acicular crystals of
+gypsum. In salt-lagoons the deposition of the gypsum is probably
+effected in most cases by means of micro-organisms. Waters containing
+sulphuretted hydrogen, on exposure to the air in the presence of
+limestone, may yield gypsum by the formation of sulphuric acid and its
+interaction with the calcium carbonate. In volcanic districts gypsum is
+produced by the action of sulphuric acid, resulting from the oxidation
+of sulphurous vapours, on lime-bearing minerals, like labradorite and
+augite, in the volcanic rocks: hence gypsum is common around solfataras.
+Again, by the oxidation of iron-pyrites and the action of the resulting
+sulphuric acid on limestone or on shells, gypsum may be formed; whence
+its origin in most clays. Gypsum is also formed in some cases by the
+hydration of anhydrite, the change being accompanied by an increase of
+volume to the extent of about 60%. Conversely gypsum may, under certain
+conditions, be dehydrated or reduced to anhydrite.
+
+Some of the largest known crystals of selenite have been found in
+southern Utah, where they occur in huge geodes, or crystal-lined
+cavities, in deposits from the old salt-lakes. Fine crystals, sometimes
+curiously bent, occur in the Permian rocks of Friedrichroda, near Gotha,
+where there is a grotto called the Marienglashöhle, close to
+Rheinhardsbrunn. Many of the best localities for selenite are in the New
+Red Sandstone formation (Trias and Permian), notably the salt-mines of
+Hall and Hallein, near Salzburg, and of Bex in Switzerland. Excellent
+crystals, usually of a brownish colour arranged in groups, are often
+found in the brine-chambers and the launders used in salt-works.
+Selenite also occurs in fine crystals in the sulphur-bearing marls of
+Girgenti and other Sicilian localities; whilst in Britain very bold
+crystals are yielded by the Kimeridge clay of Shotover Hill near Oxford.
+Twisted crystals and rosettes of gypsum found in the Mammoth Cave,
+Kentucky, have been called "oulopholites" ([Greek: oulos], "woolly";
+[Greek: phôleos], "cave").
+
+In addition to the use of gypsum in cement-making, the mineral finds
+application as an agricultural agent in dressing land, and it has also
+been used in the manufacture of porcelain and glass. Formerly it was
+employed, in the form of thin cleavage-plates, for glazing windows, and
+seems to have been, with mica, called _lapis specularis_. It is still
+known in Germany as _Marienglas_ and _Fraueneis_. Delicate
+cleavage-plates of gypsum are used in microscopic petrography for the
+determination of certain optical constants in the rock-forming minerals.
+     (F. W. R.*)
+
+
+
+
+GYROSCOPE AND GYROSTAT. These are scientific models or instruments
+designed to illustrate experimentally the dynamics of a rotating body
+such as the spinning-top, hoop and bicycle, and also the precession of
+the equinox and the rotation of the earth.
+
+The gyroscope (Gr. [Greek: gyros], ring, [Greek: skopein], to see) may
+be distinguished from the gyrostat ([Greek: gyros], and [Greek:
+statikos], stationary) as an instrument in which the rotating wheel or
+disk is mounted in gimbals so that the principal axis of rotation
+always passes through a fixed point (fig. 1). It can be made to imitate
+the motion of a spinning-top of which the point is placed in a smooth
+agate cup as in Maxwell's dynamical top (figs. 2, 3). (_Collected
+Works_, i. 248.) A bicycle wheel, with a prolongation of the axle placed
+in a cup, can also be made to serve (fig. 4).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+The gyrostat is an instrument designed by Lord Kelvin (_Natural
+Philosophy_, § 345) to illustrate the more complicated state of motion
+of a spinning body when free to wander about on a horizontal plane, like
+a top spun on the pavement, or a hoop or bicycle on the road. It
+consists essentially of a massive fly-wheel concealed in a metal casing,
+and its behaviour on a table, or with various modes of suspension or
+support, described in Thomson and Tait, _Natural Philosophy_, serves to
+illustrate the curious reversal of the ordinary laws of statical
+equilibrium due to the _gyrostatic domination_ of the interior invisible
+fly-wheel, when rotated rapidly (fig. 5).
+
+The toy shown in figs. 6 and 7, which can be bought for a shilling, is
+acting as a gyroscope in fig. 6 and a gyrostat in fig. 7.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+The gyroscope, as represented in figs. 2 and 3 by Maxwell's dynamical
+top, is provided with screws by which the centre of gravity can be
+brought into coincidence with the point of support. It can then be used
+to illustrate Poinsot's theory of the motion of a body under no force,
+the gyroscope being made kinetically unsymmetrical by a setting of the
+screws. The discussion of this movement is required for Jacobi's
+theorems on the allied motion of a top and of a body under no force
+(Poinsot, _Théorie nouvelle de la rotation des corps_, Paris, 1857;
+Jacobi, _Werke_, ii. Note B, p. 476).
+
+To imitate the movement of the top the centre of gravity is displaced
+from the point of support so as to give a preponderance. When the motion
+takes place in the neighbourhood of the downward vertical, the bicycle
+wheel can be made to serve again mounted as in fig. 8 by a stalk in the
+prolongation of the axle, suspended from a universal joint at O; it can
+then be spun by hand and projected in any manner.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+The first practical application of the gyroscopic principle was invented
+and carried out (1744) by Serson, with a spinning top with a polished
+upper plane surface for giving an artificial horizon at sea, undisturbed
+by the motion of the ship, when the real horizon was obscured. The
+instrument has been perfected by Admiral Georges Ernest Fleuriais (fig.
+9), and is interesting theoretically as showing the correction required
+practically for the rotation of the earth. Gilbert's barogyroscope is
+devised for the same purpose of showing the earth's rotation; a
+description of it, and of the latest form employed by Föppl, is given in
+the _Ency. d. math. Wiss._, 1904, with bibliographical references in the
+article "Mechanics of Physical Apparatus." The rotation of the fly-wheel
+is maintained here by an electric motor, as devised by G. M. Hopkins,
+and described in the _Scientific American_, 1878. To demonstrate the
+rotation of the earth by the constancy in direction of the axis of a
+gyroscope is a suggestion that has often been made; by E. Sang in 1836,
+and others. The experiment was first carried out with success by
+Foucault in 1851, by a simple pendulum swung in the dome of the
+Pantheon, Paris, and it has been repeated frequently (_Mémoires sur le
+pendule_, 1889).
+
+A gyroscopic fly-wheel will preserve its original direction in space
+only when left absolutely free in all directions, as required in the
+experiments above. If employed in steering, as of a torpedo, the
+gyroscope must act through the intermediary of a light relay; but if
+direct-acting, the reaction will cause precession of the axis, and the
+original direction is lost.
+
+The gyrostatic principle, in which one degree of freedom is suppressed
+in the axis, is useful for imparting steadiness and stability in a
+moving body; it is employed by Schlick to mitigate the rolling of a ship
+and to maintain the upright position of Brennan's monorail car.
+
+Lastly, as an application of gyroscopic theory, a stretched chain of
+fly-wheels in rotation was employed by Kelvin as a mechanical model of
+the rotary polarization of light in an electromagnetic field; the
+apparatus may be constructed of bicycle wheels connected by short links,
+and suspended vertically.
+
+
+  _Theory of the Symmetrical Top._
+
+  1. The physical constants of a given symmetrical top, expressed in
+  C.G.S. units, which are employed in the subsequent formulae, are
+  denoted by M, h, C and A. M is the weight in grammes (g) as given by
+  the number of gramme weights which equilibrate the top when weighed in
+  a balance; h is the distance OG in centimetres (cm.) between G the
+  centre of gravity and O the point of support, and Mh may be called the
+  preponderance in g.-cm.; Mh and M can be measured by a spring balance
+  holding up in a horizontal position the axis OC in fig. 8 suspended at
+  O. Then gMh (dyne-cm. or ergs) is the moment of gravity about O when
+  the axis OG is horizontal, gMh sin [theta] being the moment when the
+  axis OG makes an angle [theta] with the vertical, and g = 981 (cm./s²)
+  on the average; C is the moment of inertia of the top about OG, and A
+  about any axis through O at right angles to OG, both measured in
+  g-cm.².
+
+  To measure A experimentally, swing the top freely about O in small
+  plane oscillation, and determine the length, l cm., of the equivalent
+  simple pendulum; then
+
+    (1) l = A/Mh, A = Mhl.
+
+  Next make the top, or this simple pendulum, perform small conical
+  revolutions, nearly coincident with the downward vertical position of
+  equilibrium, and measure n, the mean angular velocity of the conical
+  pendulum in radians / second; and T its period in seconds; then
+
+    (2) 4[pi]²/T² = n² = g/l = gMh/A;
+
+  and f = n/2[pi] is the number of revolutions per second, called the
+  _frequency_, T = 2[pi]/n is the period of a revolution, in seconds.
+
+
+    Steady motion of the top.
+
+  2. In the popular explanation of the steady movement of the top at a
+  constant inclination to the vertical, depending on the composition of
+  angular velocity, such as given in Perry's _Spinning Tops_, or
+  Worthington's _Dynamics of Rotation_, it is asserted that the moment
+  of gravity is always generating an angular velocity about an axis OB
+  perpendicular to the vertical plane COC´ through the axis of the top
+  OC´; and this angular velocity, compounded with the resultant angular
+  velocity about an axis OI, nearly coincident with OC´, causes the axes
+  OI and OC´ to keep taking up a new position by moving at right angles
+  to the plane COC´, at a constant precessional angular velocity, say µ
+  rad./sec., round the vertical OC (fig. 4).
+
+  If, however, the axis OC´ is prevented from taking up this
+  precessional velocity, the top at once falls down; thence all the
+  ingenious attempts--for instance, in the swinging cabin of the
+  Bessemer ship--to utilise the gyroscope as a mechanical directive
+  agency have always resulted in failure (_Engineer_, October 1874),
+  unless restricted to actuate a light relay, which guides the
+  mechanism, as in steering a torpedo.
+
+  An experimental verification can be carried out with the gyroscope in
+  fig. 1; so long as the vertical spindle is free to rotate in its
+  socket, the rapidly rotating wheel will resist the impulse of tapping
+  on the gimbal by moving to one side; but when the pinch screw prevents
+  the rotation of the vertical spindle in the massive pedestal, this
+  resistance to the tapping at once disappears, provided the friction of
+  the table prevents the movement of the pedestal; and if the wheel has
+  any preponderance, it falls down.
+
+  Familiar instances of the same principles are observable in the
+  movement of a hoop, or in the steering of a bicycle; it is essential
+  that the handle of the bicycle should be free to rotate to secure the
+  stability of the movement.
+
+  The bicycle wheel, employed as a spinning top, in fig. 4, can also be
+  held by the stalk, and will thus, when rotated rapidly, convey a
+  distinct muscular impression of resistance to change of direction, if
+  brandished.
+
+
+    Elementary demonstration of the condition of steady motion.
+
+  3. A demonstration, depending on the elementary principles of
+  dynamics, of the exact conditions required for the axis OC´ of a
+  spinning top to spin steadily at a constant inclination [theta] to the
+  vertical OC, is given here before proceeding to the more complicated
+  question of the general motion, when [theta], the inclination of the
+  axis, is varying by nutation.
+
+  It is a fundamental principle in dynamics that if OH is a vector
+  representing to scale the angular momentum of a system, and if Oh is
+  the vector representing the axis of the impressed couple or torque,
+  then OH will vary so that the velocity of H is represented to scale by
+  the impressed couple Oh, and if the top is moving freely about O, Oh
+  is at right angles to the vertical plane COC´, and
+
+    (1) Oh = gMh sin [theta].
+
+  In the case of the steady motion of the top, the vector OH lies in the
+  vertical plane COC´, in OK suppose (fig. 4), and has a component OC =
+  G about the vertical and a component OC´ = G´, suppose, about the axis
+  OC; and G´ = CR, if R denotes the angular velocity of the top with
+  which it is spun about OC´.
+
+  If µ denotes the constant precessional angular velocity of the
+  vertical plane COC´ the components of angular velocity and momentum
+  about OA are µ sin [theta] and Aµ sin [theta], OA being perpendicular
+  to OC´ in the plane COC´; so that the vector OK has the components
+
+    (2) OC´ = G´, and C´K = Aµ sin[theta],
+
+  and the horizontal component
+
+    (3) CK = OC´ sin[theta] - C´K cos[theta]
+           = G´ sin[theta] - Aµ sin[theta] cos[theta].
+
+  The velocity of K being equal to the impressed couple Oh,
+
+    (4) gMh sin[theta] = µ·CK = sin [theta] (G´µ - Aµ² cos [theta]),
+
+  and dropping the factor sin[theta],
+
+    (5) Aµ² cos[theta] - G´µ + gMh = 0, or Aµ² cos[theta] - CRµ + An² = 0,
+
+  the condition for steady motion.
+
+  Solving this as a quadratic in µ, the roots µ1, µ2 are given by
+                                 _                                 _
+                 G´             |                4A²n²              |
+    (6) µ1, µ2 = -- sec [theta] |1 ± [root] (1 - ----- cos [theta]) |;
+                 2A             |_                G´²              _|
+
+  and the minimum value of G´ = CR for real values of µ is given by
+
+         G´²                   CR
+    (7) -----   = cos [theta], -- = 2[root](cos [theta]);
+        4A²n²                  An
+
+  for a smaller value of R the top cannot spin steadily at the
+  inclination [theta] to the upward vertical.
+
+  Interpreted geometrically in fig. 4
+
+    (8) µ = gMh sin [theta]/CK = An²/KN, and µ = C´K/A sin [theta] = KM/A,
+
+    (9) KM·KN = A²n²,
+
+  so that K lies on a hyperbola with OC, OC´ as asymptotes.
+
+
+    Constrained motion of the gyroscope.
+
+  4. Suppose the top or gyroscope, instead of moving freely about the
+  point O, is held in a ring or frame which is compelled to rotate about
+  the vertical axis OC with constant angular velocity µ; then if N
+  denotes the couple of reaction of the frame keeping the top from
+  falling, acting in the plane COC', equation (4) § 3 becomes modified
+  into
+
+    (1) gMh sin [theta] - N = µ·CK = sin [theta] G´µ - Aµ² cos [theta],
+
+    (2) N = sin [theta] (Aµ² cos [theta] - G´µ + gMh)
+          = A sin[theta] cos [theta] (µ - µ1)(µ - µ2);
+
+  and hence, as µ increases through µ2 and µ1, the sign of N can be
+  determined, positive or negative, according as the tendency of the
+  axis is to fall or rise.
+
+  When G´ = CR is large, µ2 is large, and
+
+    (3) µ1 [~=] gMh/G´ = An²/CR,
+
+  the same for all inclinations, and this is the precession observed in
+  the spinning top and centrifugal machine of fig. 10 This is true
+  accurately when the axis OC' is horizontal, and then it agrees with
+  the result of the popular explanation of § 2.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+  If the axis of the top OC´ is pointing upward, the precession is in
+  the same direction as the rotation, and an increase of µ from µ1 makes
+  N negative, and the top rises; conversely a decrease of the procession
+  µ causes the axis to fall (Perry, _Spinning Tops_, p. 48).
+
+  If the axis points downward, as in the centrifugal machine with upper
+  support, the precession is in the opposite direction to the rotation,
+  and to make the axis approach the vertical position the precession
+  must be reduced.
+
+
+    Centrifugal machine.
+
+  This is effected automatically in the Weston centrifugal machine (fig.
+  10) used for the separation of water and molasses, by the friction of
+  the indiarubber cushions above the support; or else the spindle is
+  produced downwards below the drum a short distance, and turns in a
+  hole in a weight resting on the bottom of the case, which weight is
+  dragged round until the spindle is upright; this second arrangement is
+  more effective when a liquid is treated in the drum, and wave action
+  is set up (_The Centrifugal Machine_, C. A. Matthey).
+
+  Similar considerations apply to the stability of the whirling bowl in
+  a cream-separating machine.
+
+  We can write equation (1)
+
+    (4) N = An² sin [theta] - µ·CK = (A^n² - KM·KN) sin [theta]/A,
+
+  so that N is negative or positive, and the axis tends to rise or fall
+  according as K moves to the inside or outside of the hyperbola of free
+  motion. Thus a tap on the axis tending to hurry the precession is
+  equivalent to an impulse couple giving an increase to C´K, and will
+  make K move to the interior of the hyperbola and cause the axis to
+  rise; the steering of a bicycle may be explained in this way; but K1
+  will move to the exterior of the hyperbola, and so the axis will fall
+  in this second more violent motion.
+
+  Friction on the point of the top may be supposed to act like a tap in
+  the direction opposite to the precession; and so the axis of a top
+  spun violently rises at first and up to the vertical position, but
+  falls away again as the motion dies out. Friction considered as acting
+  in retarding the rotation may be compared to an impulse couple tending
+  to reduce OC´, and so make K and K1 both move to the exterior of the
+  hyperbola, and the axis falls in both cases. The axis may rise or fall
+  according to the direction of the frictional couple, depending on the
+  shape of the point; an analytical treatment of the varying motion is
+  very intractable; a memoir by E. G. Gallop may be consulted in the
+  _Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc._, 1903.
+
+  The earth behaves in precession like a large spinning top, of which
+  the axis describes a circle round the pole of the ecliptic of mean
+  angular radius [theta], about 23½°, in a period of 26,000 years, so
+  that R/µ = 26000 × 365; and the mean couple producing precession is
+
+    (5) CRµ sin [theta] = CR² sin 23½°/(26000 × 365),
+
+  one 12 millionth part of ½CR², the rotation energy of the earth.
+
+  5. If the preponderance is absent, by making the C·G coincide with O,
+  and if Aµ is insensible compared with G´,
+
+    (1) N = -G´µ sin [theta],
+
+  the formula which suffices to explain most gyroscopic action.
+
+
+    Gyroscopic action of railway wheels.
+
+  Thus a carriage running round a curve experiences, in consequence of
+  the rotation of the wheels, an increase of pressure Z on the outer
+  track, and a diminution Z on the inner, giving a couple, if a is the
+  gauge,
+
+    (2) Za = G´µ,
+
+  tending to help the centrifugal force to upset the train; and if c is
+  the radius of the curve, b of the wheels, C their moment of inertia,
+  and v the velocity of the train,
+
+    (3) µ = v/c, G´ = Cv/b,
+
+    (4) Z = Cv²/abc (dynes),
+
+  so that Z is the fraction C/Mab of the centrifugal force Mv²/c, or
+  the fraction C/Mh of its transference of weight, with h the height of
+  the centre of gravity of the carriage above the road. A Brennan
+  carriage on a monorail would lean over to the inside of the curve at
+  an angle [alpha], given by
+
+    (6) tan [alpha] = G´µ/gMh = G´v/gMhc.
+
+  The gyroscopic action of a dynamo, turbine, and other rotating
+  machinery on a steamer, paddle or screw, due to its rolling and
+  pitching, can be evaluated in a similar elementary manner
+  (Worthington, _Dynamics of Rotation_), and Schlick's gyroscopic
+  apparatus is intended to mitigate the oscillation.
+
+  6. If the axis OC in fig. 4 is inclined at an angle [alpha] to the
+  vertical, the equation (2) § 4 becomes
+
+    (1) N = sin [theta] (Aµ² cos [theta] - G´µ) + gMh sin ([alpha] -
+      [theta]).
+
+  Suppose, for instance, that OC is parallel to the earth's axis, and
+  that the frame is fixed in the meridian; then [alpha] is the
+  co-latitude, and µ is the angular velocity of the earth, the square of
+  which may be neglected; so that, putting N = 0, [alpha] - [theta] = E,
+
+    (2) gMh sin E - G´µ sin ([alpha] - E) = 0,
+
+                   G´µ sin [alpha]         G´µ
+    (3) tan E = --------------------- [~=] --- sin [alpha].
+                gMh + G´µ cos [alpha]      gMh
+
+
+    The barogyroscope.
+
+  This is the theory of Gilbert's barogyroscope, described in Appell's
+  _Mécanique rationnelle_, ii. 387: it consists essentially of a rapidly
+  rotated fly-wheel, mounted on knife-edges by an axis perpendicular to
+  its axis of rotation and pointing east and west; spun with
+  considerable angular momentum G´, and provided with a slight
+  preponderance Mh, it should tilt to an angle E with the vertical, and
+  thus demonstrate experimentally the rotation of the earth.
+
+
+    Foucault's gyroscope.
+
+  In Foucault's gyroscope (_Comptes rendus_, 1852; Perry, p. 105) the
+  preponderance is made zero, and the axis points to the pole, when free
+  to move in the meridian.
+
+  Generally, if constrained to move in any other plane, the axis seeks
+  the position nearest to the polar axis, like a dipping needle with
+  respect to the magnetic pole. (_A gyrostatic working model of the
+  magnetic compass_, by Sir W. Thomson. British Association Report,
+  Montreal, 1884. A. S. Chessin, St Louis Academy of Science, January
+  1902.)
+
+
+    Gyroscopic horizon.
+
+  A spinning top with a polished upper plane surface will provide an
+  artificial horizon at sea, when the real horizon is obscured. The
+  first instrument of this kind was constructed by Serson, and is
+  described in the _Gentleman's Magazine_, vol. xxiv., 1754; also by
+  Segner in his _Specimen theoriae turbinum_ (Halae, 1755). The inventor
+  was sent to sea by the Admiralty to test his instrument, but he was
+  lost in the wreck of the "Victory," 1744. A copy of the Serson top,
+  from the royal collection, is now in the Museum of King's College,
+  London. Troughton's Nautical Top (1819) is intended for the same
+  purpose.
+
+  The instrument is in favour with French navigators, perfected by
+  Admiral Fleuriais (fig. 9); but it must be noticed that the horizon
+  given by the top is inclined to the true horizon at the angle E given
+  by equation (3) above; and if µ1 is the precessional angular velocity
+  as given by (3) § 4, and T = 2[pi]/µ, its period in seconds,
+
+                µ            T cos lat         T cos lat
+    (4) tan E = -- cos lat = ---------, or E = ---------,
+                µ1             86400             8[pi]
+
+  if E is expressed in minutes, taking µ = 2[pi]/86400; thus making the
+  true latitude E nautical miles to the south of that given by the top
+  (_Revue maritime_, 1890; _Comptes rendus_, 1896).
+
+  This can be seen by elementary consideration of the theory above, for
+  the velocity of the vector OC´ of the top due to the rotation of the
+  earth is
+
+    (5) µ·OC´ cos lat = gMh sin E = µ1·OC´ sin E,
+
+              µ               T cos lat
+      sin E = -- cos lat, E = ---------,
+              µ1                8[pi]
+
+  in which 8[pi] can be replaced by 25, in practice; so that the
+  Fleuriais gyroscopic horizon is an illustration of the influence of
+  the rotation of the earth and of the need for its allowance.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.]
+
+
+    Euler's coordinate angles.
+
+  7. In the ordinary treatment of the general theory of the gyroscope,
+  the motion is referred to two sets of rectangular axes; the one Ox,
+  Oy, Oz fixed in space, with Oz vertically upward and the other OX, OY,
+  OZ fixed in the rotating wheel with OZ in the axis of figure OC.
+
+  The relative position of the two sets of axes is given by means of
+  Euler's unsymmetrical angles [theta], [phi], [psi], such that the
+  successive turning of the axes Ox, Oy, Oz through the angles (i.)
+  [psi] about Oz, (ii.) [theta] about OE, (iii.) [phi] about OZ, brings
+  them into coincidence with OX, OY, OZ, as shown in fig. 11,
+  representing the _concave_ side of a spherical surface.
+
+  The component angular velocities about OD, OE, OZ are
+
+    (1) [.[psi]] sin [theta], .[theta], .[phi] + .[psi] cos [theta];
+
+  so that, denoting the components about OX, OY, OZ by P, Q, R,
+
+    (2) P =  .[theta] cos [phi] + .[psi] sin [theta] sin [phi],
+        Q = -.[theta] sin [phi] + .[psi] sin [theta] cos [phi],
+        R =              .[phi] + .[psi] cos [theta].
+
+  Consider, for instance, the motion of a fly-wheel of preponderance Mh,
+  and equatoreal moment of inertia A, of which the axis OC is held in a
+  light ring ZCX at a constant angle [gamma] with OZ, while OZ is held
+  by another ring zZ, which constrains it to move round the vertical Oz
+  at a constant inclination [theta] with constant angular velocity µ, so
+  that
+
+    (3) .[theta] = 0, .[psi] = µ;
+
+    (4) P = µ sin [theta] sin [phi],
+        Q = µ sin [theta] cos [phi],
+        R = .[phi] + µ cos [theta].
+
+  With CXF a quadrant, the components of angular velocity and momentum
+  about OF, OY, are
+
+    (5) P cos [gamma] - R sin [gamma], Q, and A(P cos [gamma]
+      - R sin [gamma]), AQ,
+
+  so that, denoting the components of angular momentum of the fly-wheel
+  about OC, OX, OY, OZ by K or G´, h1, h2, h3,
+
+    (6) h1 = A(P cos [gamma] - R sin [gamma]) cos [gamma] + K sin [gamma],
+
+    (7) h2 = AQ,
+
+    (8) h3 = -A(P cos [gamma] - R sin [gamma]) sin [gamma]
+      + K cos [gamma];
+
+  and the dynamical equation
+
+        dh3
+    (9) --- - h1Q + h2P = N,
+        dt
+
+  with K constant, and with preponderance downward
+
+    (10) N = gMh cos zY sin [gamma]
+           = gMh sin [gamma] sin [theta] cos [phi],
+
+  reduces to
+
+           d²[phi]
+    (11) A ------- sin [gamma]
+             dt²
+
+      + Aµ² sin [gamma] sin² [theta] sin [phi] cos [phi]
+      + Aµ² cos [gamma] sin [theta] cos [theta] cos [phi]
+      - (Kµ + gMh) sin [theta] cos [phi] = 0.
+
+  The position of relative equilibrium is given by
+
+    (12) cos [phi] = 0, and sin [phi]
+
+        Kµ + gMh - Aµ² cos [gamma] cos [theta]
+      = --------------------------------------.
+             Aµ² sin [gamma] sin [theta]
+
+  For small values of µ the equation becomes
+
+           d²[phi]
+    (13) A ------- sin [gamma] - (Kµ + gMh) sin [theta] cos [phi] = 0,
+             dt²
+
+  so that [phi] = ½[pi] gives the position of stable equilibrium, and
+  the period of a small oscillation is 2[pi] [root]{A sin [gamma]/(Kµ +
+  gMh) sin [theta]}.
+
+  In the general case, denoting the periods of vibration about [phi] =
+  ½[pi], -½[pi], and the sidelong position of equilibrium by 2[pi]/(n1,
+  n2, or n3), we shall find
+
+                sin [theta]
+    (14) n1² = ------------- {gMh + Kµ - Aµ² cos ([gamma] - [theta])},
+               A sin [gamma]
+
+                sin [theta]
+    (15) n2² = ------------- {-gMh - Kµ + Aµ² cos ([gamma] + [theta])},
+               A sin [gamma]
+
+    (16) n3 = n1 n2/µ sin [theta].
+
+  The first integral of (11) gives
+
+             /d[phi]\²
+    (17) ½A ( ------ ) sin [gamma]
+             \  dt  /
+
+      + ½Aµ² sin [gamma] sin² [theta] sin² [phi]
+      - Aµ² cos [gamma] sin [theta] cos [theta] sin [phi]
+      + (Kµ + gMh) sin [theta] sin [phi] - H = 0,
+
+  and putting tan (¼[pi] + ½[phi]) = z, this reduces to
+
+         dz
+    (18) -- = n [root]Z
+         dt
+
+  where Z is a quadratic in z², so that z is a Jacobian elliptic
+  function of t, and we have
+
+    (19) tan (¼[pi] + ½[phi]) = C(tn, dn, nc, or cn)nt,
+
+  according as the ring ZC performs complete revolutions, or oscillates
+  about a sidelong position of equilibrium, or oscillates about the
+  stable position of equilibrium [phi] = ±½[pi].
+
+  Suppose Oz is parallel to the earth's axis, and µ is the diurnal
+  rotation, the square of which may be neglected, then if Gilbert's
+  barogyroscope of § 6 has the knife-edges turned in azimuth to make an
+  angle ß with E. and W., so that OZ lies in the horizon at an angle
+  E.ß.N., we must put [gamma] = ½[pi], cos [theta] = sin [alpha] sin ß;
+  and putting [phi] = ½[pi] - [delta] + E, where [delta] denotes the
+  angle between Zz and the vertical plane Z[zeta] through the zenith
+  [zeta],
+
+    (20) sin [theta] cos [delta] = cos [alpha], sin [theta] sin [delta]
+      = sin [alpha] cos ß;
+
+  so that equations (9) and (10) for relative equilibrium reduce to
+
+    (21) gMh sin E = KQ = Kµ sin [theta] cos [phi]
+      = Kµ sin [theta] sin ([delta] - E),
+
+  and will change (3) § 6 into
+
+                 Kµ sin [alpha] cos ß
+    (22) tan E = --------------------,
+                 gMh + Kµ cos [alpha]
+
+  a multiplication of (3) § 6 by cos ß (Gilbert, _Comptes rendus_,
+  1882).
+
+  Changing the sign of K or h and E and denoting the revolutions/second
+  of the gyroscope wheel by F, then in the preceding notation, T
+  denoting the period of vibration as a simple pendulum,
+
+                 Kµ sin [alpha] cos ß       F sin [alpha] cos ß
+    (23) tan E = -------------------- = ---------------------------,
+                 gMh - Kµ cos [alpha]   86400 A/T²C - F cos [alpha]
+
+  so that the gyroscope would reverse if it were possible to make F cos
+  [alpha] > 86400 A/T²C (Föppl, _Münch. Ber_, 1904).
+
+  A gyroscopic pendulum is made by the addition to it of a fly-wheel,
+  balanced and mounted, as in Gilbert's barogyroscope, in a ring movable
+  about an axis fixed in the pendulum, in the vertical plane of motion.
+
+  As the pendulum falls away to an angle [theta] with the upward
+  vertical, and the axis of the fly-wheel makes an angle [phi] with the
+  vertical plane of motion, the three components of angular momentum are
+
+    (24) h1 = K cos [phi], h2 = A .[theta] + K sin [phi], h3 = A .[phi],
+
+  where h3 is the component about the axis of the ring and K of the
+  fly-wheel about its axis; and if L, M´, N denote the components of the
+  couple of reaction of the ring, L may be ignored, while N is zero,
+  with P = 0, Q = [.[theta]], R = 0, so that
+
+    (25) M´ = h2 = A :[theta] + K .[phi] cos [phi],
+
+    (26) 0 = h3 - h1 .[theta] = A :[phi] - K .[theta] cos [phi].
+
+  For the motion of the pendulum, including the fly-wheel,
+
+    (27) MK² :[theta] = gMH sin [theta] - M´
+                      = gMH sin [theta] - A :[theta] - K .[phi] cos [phi].
+
+  If [theta] and [phi] remain small,
+
+    (28) A :[phi] = K .[theta], A .[phi] = K([theta] - [alpha]),
+
+    (29) (MK² + A) :[theta] + (K²/A) ([theta] - [alpha]) - gMH[theta] = 0;
+
+  so that the upright position will be stable if K² > gMHA, or the
+  rotation energy of the wheel greater than ½A/C times the energy
+  acquired by the pendulum in falling between the vertical and
+  horizontal position; and the vibration will synchronize with a simple
+  pendulum of length
+
+    (30) (MK² + A)/[(K²/gA) - MH].
+
+  This gyroscopic pendulum may be supposed to represent a ship among
+  waves, or a carriage on a monorail, and so affords an explanation of
+  the gyroscopic action essential in the apparatus of Schlick and
+  Brennan.
+
+
+    General motion of the top.
+
+  8. Careful scrutiny shows that the steady motion of a top is not
+  steady absolutely; it reveals a small nutation superposed, so that a
+  complete investigation requires a return to the equations of unsteady
+  motion, and for the small oscillation to consider them in a
+  penultimate form.
+
+  In the general motion of the top the vector OH of resultant angular
+  momentum is no longer compelled to lie in the vertical plane COC´
+  (fig. 4), but since the axis Oh of the gravity couple is always
+  horizontal, H will describe a curve in a fixed horizontal plane
+  through C. The vector OC´ of angular momentum about the axis will be
+  constant in length, but vary in direction; and OK will be the
+  component angular momentum in the vertical plane COC´, if the planes
+  through C and C´ perpendicular to the lines OC and OC´ intersect in
+  the line KH; and if KH is the component angular momentum perpendicular
+  to the plane COC´, the resultant angular momentum OH has the three
+  components OC´, C´K, KH, represented in Euler's angles by
+
+    (1) KH = A d[theta]/dt, C´K = A sin [theta] d[psi]/dt, OC´ = G´.
+
+  Drawing KM vertical and KN parallel to OC´, then
+
+    (2) KM = A d[psi]/dt, KN = CR - A cos [theta] d[psi]/dt
+           = (C - A)R + A d[phi]/dt
+
+  so that in the spherical top, with C = A, KN = A d[phi]/dt.
+
+  The velocity of H is in the direction KH perpendicular to the plane
+  COC´, and equal to gMh sin [theta] or An² sin [theta], so that if a
+  point in the axis OC´ at a distance An² from O is projected on the
+  horizontal plane through C in the point P on CK, the curve described
+  by P, turned forwards through a right angle, will be the hodograph of
+  H; this is expressed by
+
+    (3) An² sin [theta] e^{([psi] + ½[pi])i}
+      = iAn² sin [theta] e^{[psi]i} = d/dt ([rho]e^{[pi]i})
+
+  where [rho]e[varpi]i is the vector CH; and so the curve described by P
+  and the motion of the axis of the top is derived from the curve
+  described by H by a differentiation.
+
+  Resolving the velocity of H in the direction CH,
+
+    (4) d·CH/dt = An² sin [theta] sin KCH = An² sin [theta] KH/CH,
+
+    (5) d·½CH²/dt = A²n²sin [theta] d[theta]/dt.
+
+  and integrating
+
+    (6) ½CH² = A²n²(E - cos [theta]),
+
+    (7) ½OH² = A²n²(F - cos [theta]),
+
+    (8) ½C´H² = A²n²(D - cos [theta]),
+
+  where D, E, F are constants, connected by
+
+    (9) F = E + G²/2A²n² = D + G´²/2A²n².
+
+  Then
+
+    (10) KH² = OH² - OK²,
+
+    (11) OK² sin² [theta] = CC´² = G² - 2GG´ cos [theta] + G´²,
+
+    (12) A² sin² [theta] (d[theta]/dt)²
+      = 2A²n²(F - cos [theta]) sin² [theta] - G² + 2GG´ cos [theta] - G´²;
+
+  and putting cos [theta] = z,
+
+    (13) (dz/dt)² = 2n²(F - z) (1 - z²) - (G² - 2GG´z + G´²)/A²
+                  = 2n²(E - z)(1-z²) - (G´ - Gz)²/A²
+                  = 2n²(D - z)(1-z²) - (G - G´z)²/A²
+                  = 2n² Z suppose.
+
+  Denoting the roots of Z = 0 by z1, z2, z3, we shall have them arranged
+  in the order
+
+    (14) z1 > 1 > z2 > z > z3 > -1.
+
+    (15) (dz/dt)² = 2n²(z1 - z)(z2 - z)(z - z3).
+
+                _z
+               /         /
+    (16) nt =  |   dz/ \/(2Z),
+              _/z3
+
+
+  an elliptic integral of the first kind, which with
+
+                   /z1 - z3             z2 - z3
+    (17) m = n \  / -------, [kappa]² = -------,
+                \/     2                z1 - z2
+
+  can be expressed, when normalized by the factor [root](z1 - z3)/2, by
+  the inverse elliptic function in the form
+
+                _z
+               /          [root](z1 - z3)dz
+    (18) mt =  |   ---------------------------------
+              _/z3 [root][4(z1 - z)(z2 - z)(z - z3)]
+
+                         / z - z3              /z2 - z               /z1 - z
+            = sn^(-1)\  / ------- = cn^(-1)\  / ------- = dn^(-1)\  / -------.
+                      \/  z2 - z3           \/  z2 - z3           \/  z1 - z3
+
+    (19) z - z3 = (z2 - z3)sn²mt, z2 - z = (z2 - z3)cn²mt,
+         z1 - z = (z1 - z3)dn²mt.
+
+    (20) z = z2sn²mt + z3cn²mt.
+
+  Interpreted dynamically, the axis of the top keeps time with the beats
+  of a simple pendulum of length
+
+    (21) L = l/½(z1 - z3),
+
+  suspended from a point at a height ½(z1 + z3)l above 0, in such a
+  manner that a point on the pendulum at a distance
+
+    (22) ½(z1 - z3)l = l²/L
+
+  from the point of suspension moves so as to be always at the same
+  level as the centre of oscillation of the top.
+
+  The polar co-ordinates of H are denoted by [rho], [varpi] in the
+  horizontal plane through C; and, resolving the velocity of H
+  perpendicular to CH,
+
+    (23) [rho] d[~omega]/dt = An² sin [theta] cos KCH.
+
+    (24) [rho]² d[~omega]/dt = An² sin [theta] CK
+
+                             = An² (G´ - G cos [theta])
+                       _               _
+                      / G´ - Gz dt    /   (G´ - Gz)/2An    dz
+    (25) [~omega] = ½ | ------- -- =  |   ------------- ----------,
+                     _/  E - z  A    _/z3     E - z     [root](2Z)
+
+  an elliptic integral, of the third kind, with pole at z = E; and then
+
+  (26) [~omega] - [psi] = KCH = tan^(-1) KH/CH
+
+                A sin [theta] d[theta]/dt             [root](2Z)
+     = tan^(-1) ------------------------- = tan^(-1) ------------,
+                   G´ - G cos [theta]                (G´ - Gz)/An
+
+  which determines [psi].
+
+  Otherwise, from the geometry of fig. 4,
+
+    (27) C´K sin [theta] = OC - OC´ cos [theta],
+
+    (28) A sin² [theta] d[psi]/dt = G - G´ cos [theta],
+                  _                _               _
+                 / G - G´z dt     / G - G´ dt     / G + G´ dt
+    (29) [psi] = | ------- -- = ½ | ------ -- + ½ | ------ --,
+                _/  1 - z² A     _/  1 - z A     _/  1 + z A
+
+  the sum of two elliptic integrals of the third kind, with pole at z =
+  ±1; and the relation in (25) (26) shows the addition of these two
+  integrals into a single integral, with pole at z = E.
+
+  The motion of a sphere, rolling and spinning in the interior of a
+  spherical bowl, or on the top of a sphere, is found to be of the same
+  character as the motion of the axis of a spinning top about a fixed
+  point.
+
+  The curve described by H can be identified as a Poinsot herpolhode,
+  that is, the curve traced out by rolling a quadric surface with centre
+  fixed at O on the horizontal plane through C; and Darboux has shown
+  also that a deformable hyperboloid made of the generating lines, with
+  O and H at opposite ends of a diameter and one generator fixed in OC,
+  can be moved so as to describe the curve H; the tangent plane of the
+  hyperboloid at H being normal to the curve of H; and then the other
+  generator through O will coincide in the movement with OC´, the axis
+  of the top; thus the Poinsot herpolhode curve H is also the trace made
+  by rolling a line of curvature on an ellipsoid confocal to the
+  hyperboloid of one sheet, on the plane through C.
+
+  Kirchhoff's _Kinetic Analogue_ asserts also that the curve of H is the
+  projection of a tortuous elastica, and that the spherical curve of C´
+  is a hodograph of the elastica described with constant velocity.
+
+  Writing the equation of the focal ellipse of the Darboux hyperboloid
+  through H, enlarged to double scale so that O is the centre,
+
+    (30) x²/[alpha]² + y²/ß² + z²/O = 1,
+
+  with [alpha]² + [lambda], ß² + [lambda], [lambda] denoting the squares
+  of the semiaxes of a confocal ellipsoid, and [lambda] changed into µ
+  and [nu] for a confocal hyperboloid of one sheet and of two sheets.
+
+    (31) [lambda] > O > µ > -ß² > [nu] > -[alpha]²,
+
+  then in the deformation of the hyperboloid, [lambda] and [nu] remain
+  constant at H; and utilizing the theorems of solid geometry on
+  confocal quadrics, the magnitudes may be chosen so that
+
+    (32) [alpha]² + [lambda] + ß² + µ + [nu] = OH² = ½k²(F - z)
+      = [rho]² + OC².
+
+    (33) [alpha]² + µ = ½k²(z1 - z) = [rho]² - [rho]1²,
+
+    (34) ß² + µ = ½k²(z2 - z) = [rho]² - [rho]2²,
+
+    (35) µ = ½k²(z3 - z) = [rho]² - [rho]3²,
+
+    (36) [rho]1² < 0 < [rho]2² < [rho]² < [rho]3²,
+
+    (37) F = z1 + z2 + z3,
+
+    (38) [lambda] - 2µ + [nu] = k²z, [lambda] - [nu] = k²,
+
+          [lambda] - µ     1 + z       µ - [nu]      1 - z
+    (39) --------------- = -----,  --------------- = -----
+         [lambda] - [nu]     2     [lambda] - [nu]     2
+
+  with z = cos [theta], [theta] denoting the angle between the
+  generating lines through H; and with OC = [delta], OC´ = [delta]´, the
+  length k has been chosen so that in the preceding equations
+
+    (40) [delta]/k = G/2An, [delta]´/k = G´/2An;
+
+  and [delta], [delta]´, k may replace G, G´, 2An; then
+
+           2Z     1   /d[theta]\²    4KH²
+    (41) ------ = -- ( -------- )  = ----,
+         1 - z²   n²  \   dt   /      k²
+
+  while from (33-39)
+
+           2Z      4([alpha]² + µ)(ß² + µ)µ
+    (42) ------ = --------------------------,
+         1 - z²   k²(µ - [lambda])(µ - [nu])
+
+  which verifies that KH is the perpendicular from O on the tangent
+  plane of the hyperboloid at H, and so proves Darboux's theorem.
+
+  Planes through O perpendicular to the generating lines cut off a
+  constant length HQ = [delta], HQ´ = [delta]´, so the line of curvature
+  described by H in the deformation of the hyperboloid, the intersection
+  of the fixed confocal ellipsoid [lambda] and hyperboloid of two sheets
+  [nu], rolls on a horizontal plane through C and at the same time on a
+  plane through C´ perpendicular to OC´.
+
+  Produce the generating line HQ to meet the principal planes of the
+  confocal system in V, T, P; these will also be fixed points on the
+  generator; and putting
+
+    (43) (HV, HT, HP,)/HQ = D/(A, B, C,),
+
+  then
+
+    (44) Ax² + By² + Cz² = D[delta]²
+
+  is a quadric surface with the squares of the semiaxes given by HV·HQ,
+  HT·HQ, HP·HQ, and with HQ the normal line at H, and so touching the
+  horizontal plane through C; and the direction cosines of the normal
+  being
+
+    (45) x/HV, y/HT, z/HP,
+
+    (46) A²x² + B²y² + C²z² = D²[delta]²,
+
+  the line of curvature, called the polhode curve by Poinsot, being the
+  intersection of the quadric surface (44) with the ellipsoid (46).
+
+  There is a second surface associated with (44), which rolls on the
+  plane through C´, corresponding to the other generating line HQ´
+  through H, so that the same line of curvature rolls on two planes at a
+  constant distance from O, [delta] and [delta]´; and the motion of the
+  top is made up of the combination. This completes the statement of
+  Jacobi's theorem (_Werke_, ii. 480) that the motion of a top can be
+  resolved into two movements of a body under no force.
+
+  Conversely, starting with Poinsot's polhode and herpolhode given in
+  (44) (46), the normal plane is drawn at H, cutting the principal axes
+  of the rolling quadric in X, Y, Z; and then
+
+    (47) [alpha]² + µ = x·OX, ß² + µ = y·OY, µ = z·OZ,
+
+  this determines the deformable hyperboloid of which one generator
+  through H is a normal to the plane through C; and the other generator
+  is inclined at an angle [theta], the inclination of the axis of the
+  top, while the normal plane or the parallel plane through O revolves
+  with angular velocity d[psi]/dt.
+
+  The curvature is useful in drawing a curve of H; the diameter of
+  curvature D is given by
+
+             dp²          ½k²sin³ [theta]         ½D    ¼k²
+    (48) D = --- = -----------------------------, -- = -----.
+             dp    [delta] - [delta]´ cos[theta]  p    KM·KN
+
+  The curvature is zero and H passes through a point of inflexion when
+  C´ comes into the horizontal plane through C; [psi] will then be
+  stationary and the curve described by C´ will be looped.
+
+  In a state of steady motion, z oscillates between two limits z2 and z3
+  which are close together; so putting z2 = z3 the coefficient of z in Z
+  is
+
+                             GG´         (OM cos[theta] + ON)(OM + ON cos [theta])
+    (49) 2Z1z3 + z²3 = -1 + ----  = -1 + -----------------------------------------,
+                            A²n²                          OM·ON
+
+                 OM² + ON²                   OM² + ON²
+    (50) 2z1z3 = --------- cos [theta], z1 = ---------,
+                   OM·ON                      2OM·ON
+
+                      OM² - 2OM·ON cos [theta] + ON²    MN²
+    (51) 2(z1 - z3) = ------------------------------ = -----.
+                                  OM·ON                OM·ON
+
+  With z2 = z3, [kappa] = [omicron], K = ½[pi]; and the number of beats
+  per second of the axis is
+
+          m      n       /z1 - z3        MN         n
+    (52) ---- = ---- \  / ------- = ------------- -----,
+         [pi]   [pi]  \/     2      [root](OM·ON) 2[pi]
+
+  beating time with a pendulum of length
+
+                  l        4OM·ON
+    (53)  L = ---------- = ------ l.
+              ½(z1 - z3)     MN²
+
+  The wheel making R/2[pi] revolutions per second,
+
+             beats/second            MN        n    C    MN
+    (54)  ------------------  = -------------  -- = -- . ---,
+          revolutions/second    [root](OM·ON)  R    A    OC´
+
+  from (8) (9) § 3; and the apsidal angle is
+
+           ½[pi]   Aµ n               ON         2[root](OM·ON)           ON
+    (55) µ ----- = --·--·½[pi] = ------------- · -------------- · ½[pi] = -- [pi],
+             m     An m          [root](OM·ON)         MN                 MN
+
+  and the height of the equivalent conical pendulum [lambda] is given by
+
+         [lambda]    g    n²   OM   KC    OL
+    (56) -------- = --- = -- = -- = --- = ---,
+             l      lµ²   µ²   ON   KC´   OC´
+
+  if OR drawn at right angles to OK cuts KC´ in R, and RL is drawn
+  horizontal to cut the vertical CO in L; thus if OC² represents l to
+  scale, then OL will represent [lambda].
+
+  9. The gyroscope motion in fig. 4 comes to a stop when the rim of the
+  wheel touches the ground; and to realize the motion when the axis is
+  inclined at a greater angle with the upward vertical, the stalk is
+  pivoted in fig. 8 in a lug screwed to the axle of a bicycle hub,
+  fastened vertically in a bracket bolted to a beam. The wheel can now
+  be spun by hand, and projected in any manner so as to produce a
+  desired gyroscopic motion, undulating, looped, or with cusps if the
+  stalk of the wheel is dropped from rest.
+
+  As the principal part of the motion takes place now in the
+  neighbourhood of the lowest position, it is convenient to measure the
+  angle [theta] from the downward vertical, and to change the sign of z
+  and G.
+
+  Equation (18) § 8 must be changed to
+
+                               _z3
+                   /z3 - z1   /    [root](z3 - z1)dz
+    (1) mt = nt   / ------- = |    -----------------,
+                \/     2     _/z       [root](4Z)
+
+
+    (2) Z = (z - F)(1 - z²) - (G²- 2GG´z + G´²) / 2A²n²
+          = (z - D)(1 - z²) - (G - G´z)² / 2A²n²
+          = (z - E)(1 - z²) - (G´- Gz)² / 2A²n²
+          = (z3 - z)(z - z2)(z - z1),
+
+    (3) 1 > z3 > z > z2 > -1, D, E > z1,
+
+    (4) z1 + z2 + z3 = F = D - G´² / 2A²n² = E - G²/2A²n²,
+
+  and expressed by the inverse elliptic function
+
+                       /z3 - z              /z - z2              /z - z1
+    (5) mt = sn^(-1)  / ------- = cn^(-1)  / ------- = dn^(-1)  / -------,
+                    \/  z3 - z2          \/  z3 - z2          \/  z3 - z1
+
+    (6) z = z2sn²mt + z3cn²mt, [kappa]² = (z3 - z2)/(z3 - z1),
+
+  Equation (25) and (29) § 8 is changed to
+                      _                _
+                     / G´- Gz  dt     / G´-GE dt   Gt
+    (7) [~omega] = ½ | ------- -- = ½ | ----- -- - --,
+                    _/  z - E  A     _/  z-E  A    2A
+                 _                _               _
+                / G´z - G dt     / G´ + G dt     / G´ - G dt
+    (8) [psi] = | ------- -- = ½ | ------ -- - ½ | ------ --,
+               _/  1 - z² A     _/ 1 - z  A     _/ 1 + z  A
+
+  while [psi] and [varpi] change places in (26).
+
+  The Jacobian elliptic parameter of the third elliptic integral in (7)
+  can be given by [nu], where
+
+                _z3     /                _z3   _z2
+               /   [root](z3 - z1)      /     /
+    (9) [nu] = |   --------------- dz = |   + |   = K + (1 - f)Ki´,
+              _/E     [root](4Z)       _/z2  _/E
+
+  where f is a real fraction,
+
+                      _E
+                     /   [root](z3 - z1)
+    (10) (1 - f)K´ = |   --------------- dz,
+                    _/z1   [root](-4Z)
+
+                _E    /
+               /   [root](z3 - z1)
+    (11) fK´ = |   --------------- dz,
+              _/z1   [root](-4Z)
+
+                         / E - z1             / z2 - E             / z3 - E
+             = sn^(-1)  / ------- = cn^(-1)  / ------- = dn^(-1)  / -------,
+                      \/  z2 - z1          \/  z2 - z1          \/  z3 - z1
+
+  with respect to the comodulus [kappa]´.
+
+  Then, with z = E, and
+
+    (12) 2Z{E} = -{(G´- GE)/An}²,
+
+  if II denotes the apsidal angle of [~omega], and T the time of a single
+  beat of the axle, up or down,
+
+                    _z3
+              GT   /  [root](-2Z_E)     dz
+    (13) II + -- = |  ------------- ----------,
+             2A   _/z2    z - E     [root](2Z)
+
+                 = ½[pi]f + KznfK´,
+
+  in accordance with the theory of the complete elliptic integral of the
+  third kind.
+
+  Interpreted geometrically on the deformable hyperboloid, flattened in
+  the plane of the focal ellipse, if OQ is the perpendicular from the
+  centre on the tangent HP, AOQ = amfK´, and the eccentric angle of P,
+  measured from the minor axis, is am(1 - f)K´, the eccentricity of the
+  focal ellipse being the comodulus [kappa]´.
+
+  A point L is taken in QP such that
+
+    (14) QL/OA = znfK´,
+
+    (15) QV, QT, QP = OA(zs, zc, zd)fK´;
+
+  and with
+
+    (16) mT = K, m/n = [root](z3 - z1)/2 = OA/k,
+
+         GT    G     k     QH
+    (17) -- = --- · -- K = -- K,
+         2A   2An   OA     OA
+
+                       QL + QH              HL
+    (18) II = ½[pi]f + ------- K = ½[pi]f + -- K.
+                         OA                 OA
+
+  By choosing for f a simple rational fraction, such as ½, 1/3, ¼, 1/5,
+  ... an algebraical case of motion can be constructed (_Annals of
+  Mathematics_, 1904).
+
+  Thus with G´ - GE = 0, we have E = z1 or z2, never z3; f = 0 or 1;
+  and P is at A or B on the focal ellipse; and then
+
+    (19) [~omega] = -pt, p = G/2A,
+
+                               n[root](2Z)
+    (20) [psi] + pt = tan^(-1) -----------,
+                                2p(z - E)
+
+    (21) sin [theta] exp ([psi] + pt)i
+      = i[root][(-z2 - z3)(z - z1)] + [root][(z3 - z)(z - z2)],
+
+           1 + z2z3     /-z2 - z3    G    p      G´
+      z1 = --------,   / -------- = --- = -- = -----, or
+           z2 + z3   \/      2      2An   n    2Anz1
+
+    (22) sin [theta] exp ([psi] + pt)i =
+      i[root][(-z1 - z3)(z - z2)] + [root][(z3 - z)(z - z1)],
+
+           1 + z1z3     /-z1 - z3    G    p      G´
+      z2 = --------,   / -------- = --- = -- = -----.
+           z1 + z3   \/      2      2An   n    2Anz2
+
+  Thus z2 = 0 in (22) makes G´ = 0; so that if the stalk is held out
+  horizontally and projected with angular velocity 2p about the vertical
+  axis OC without giving any spin to the wheel, the resulting motion of
+  the stalk is like that of a spherical pendulum, and given by
+
+                                             / /2p²            \
+    (23) sin [theta] exp ([psi] + pt)i = i  / ( --- cos [theta] )
+                                          \/   \ n²            /
+
+           / /                 p²            \
+      +   / ( sin² [theta] - 2 -- cos [theta] ),
+        \/   \                 n²            /
+
+      = i sin [alpha] [root](sec [alpha] cos [theta])
+        + [root][(sec [alpha] + cos [theta])(cos [alpha] - cos [theta])],
+
+  if the axis falls in the lowest position to an angle [alpha] with the
+  downward vertical.
+
+  With z3 = 0 in (21) and z2 = -cos ß, and changing to the upward
+  vertical measurement, the motion is given by
+
+    (24) sin [theta] e^([psi]i)
+      = e^(int) [root]½ cos ß[[root](1 - cos ß cos [theta])
+      + i[root](cos ß cos [theta] - cos² [theta])],
+
+  and the axis rises from the horizontal position to a series of cusps;
+  and the mean precessional motion is the same as in steady motion with
+  the same rotation and the axis horizontal.
+
+  The special case of f = ½ may be stated here; it is found that
+
+         p                           /(1 + x)([kappa] - x)       /(1 - x)([kappa] + x)
+    (25) -- exp ([~omega] - pt)i =  / -------------------- + i  / --------------------,
+         a                        \/           2              \/            2
+
+    (26) [rho]² = a² ([kappa] - x²),
+
+    (27) ½[lambda]² sin [theta] exp ([psi] - pt)i
+
+                                /(1 - x)([kappa] + x)
+      = (L - 1 + [kappa] - x)  / --------------------
+                             \/           2
+
+                                 /(1 + x)([kappa] - x)
+      + i(L - 1 + [kappa] + x)  / --------------------
+                              \/           2
+
+    (28) L = ½(1 - [kappa]) + [lambda]p/n,
+
+  so that p = 0 and the motion is made algebraical by taking L = ½(1 -
+  [kappa]).
+
+  The stereoscopic diagram of fig. 12 drawn by T. I. Dewar shows these
+  curves for [kappa] = 15/17, 3/5, and 1/3 (cusps).
+
+  10. So far the motion of the axis OC' of the top has alone been
+  considered; for the specification of any point of the body, Euler's
+  third angle [phi] must be introduced, representing the angular
+  displacement of the wheel with respect to the stalk. This is given by
+
+        d[phi]               d[psi]
+    (1) ------ + cos [theta] ------ = R,
+          dt                   dt
+
+        d([phi] + [psi])    /    C \            G´ + G
+    (2) ---------------- = ( 1 - -- ) R + ------------------,
+               dt           \    A /      A(1 + cos [theta])
+
+        d([phi] - [psi])    /    C \           G´ - G
+        ---------------- = ( 1 - -- ) R + ------------------.
+               dt           \    A /      A(1 - cos [theta])
+
+  It will simplify the formulas by cancelling a secular term if we make
+  C = A, and the top is then called a _spherical top_; OH becomes the
+  axis of instantaneous angular velocity, as well as of resultant
+  angular momentum.
+
+  When this secular term is restored in the general case, the axis OI of
+  angular velocity is obtained by producing Q´H to I, making
+
+        HI    A - C  HI    A - C
+    (3) --- = -----, --- = -----,
+        Q´H     C    Q´I     A
+
+  and then the four vector components OC´, C´K, KH, HI give a resultant
+  vector OI, representing the angular velocity [omega], such that
+
+    (4) OI/Q´I = [omega]/R.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12.]
+
+  The point I is then fixed on the generating line Q´H of the deformable
+  hyperboloid, and the other generator through I will cut the fixed
+  generator OC of the opposite system in a fixed point O´, such that IO´
+  is of constant length, and may be joined up by a link, which
+  constrains I to move on a sphere.
+
+  In the spherical top then,
+                           _                               _
+                          / G´ + G dt                     / G´ - G dt
+    (5) ½([phi] + [psi])= | ------ --, ½([phi] - [psi]) = | ------ --
+                         _/  1 + z 2A                    _/ 1 - z  2A
+
+  depending on the two elliptic integrals of the third kind, with pole
+  at z = ±1; and measuring [theta] from the downward vertical, their
+  elliptic parameters are:--
+
+                _[oo]
+               /   [root](z3 - z1)dz
+    (6)  v1 =  |   ----------------- = f1K´i,
+              _/1      [root](4Z)
+
+                _-1
+               /    [root](z3 - z1)dz
+    (7)  v2 =  |    ----------------- = K + (1 - f2)K´i
+              _/[oo]   [root](4Z)
+
+                    _[oo]
+                   /   [root](z3 - z1)dz
+    (8)  f1K´ =  |   -----------------
+                  _/1     [root](-4Z)
+
+                  /z3 - z1             /1 - z3             /1 - z2
+      = sn^(-1)  / ------- = cn^(-1)  / ------ = dn^(-1)  / --------,
+               \/  1 - z1           \/  1 - z1          \/  1 - z1
+
+                       _-1
+                      /   [root](z3 - z1)dz
+    (9) (1 - f2)K´ =  |   -----------------
+                     _/z1    [root](-4Z)
+
+                              /-1 - z1             /1 + z2
+                   = sn^(-1) / ------- = cn^(-1)  / -------
+                           \/  z2 - z1          \/  z2 - z1
+
+                                                   /1 + z3
+                                       = dn^{-1}  / -------
+                                                \/  z3 - z1
+
+  Then if v´ = K + (1 - f´)K´i is the parameter corresponding to z = D,
+  we find
+
+    (10) f = f2 - f1, f´ = f2 + f1,
+
+    (11) v = v1 + v2, v´ = v1 - v2.
+
+  The most symmetrical treatment of the motion of any point fixed in the
+  top will be found in Klein and Sommerfeld, Theorie des Kreisels, to
+  which the reader is referred for details; four new functions, [alpha],
+  ß, [gamma], [delta], are introduced, defined in terms of Euler's
+  angles, [theta], [psi], [phi], by
+
+    (12) [alpha] = cos ½[theta] exp ½([phi] + [psi]i),
+
+    (13) ß       = i sin ½[theta] exp ½(-[phi] + [psi])i,
+
+    (14) [gamma] = i sin ½[theta] exp ½([phi] - [psi])i,
+
+    (15) [delta] = cos ½[theta] exp ½(-[phi] - [psi])i.
+
+  Next Klein takes two functions or co-ordinates [lambda] and [Lambda],
+  defined by
+
+                    x + yi   r + z
+    (16) [lambda] = ------ = ------,
+                    r - z    x - yi
+
+  and [Lambda] the same function of X, Y, Z, so that [lambda], [Lambda]
+  play the part of stereographic representations of the same point (x,
+  y, z) or (X, Y, Z) on a sphere of radius r, with respect to poles in
+  which the sphere is intersected by Oz and OZ.
+
+  These new functions are shown to be connected by the bilinear relation
+
+                        [alpha][Lambda] + ß
+    (17) [lambda] = --------------------------,
+                    [gamma][Lambda] + [delta]'
+
+      [alpha][delta] - ß[gamma] = 1,
+
+  in accordance with the annexed scheme of transformation of
+  co-ordinates--
+
+           |      [Xi]      |    [Eta]  |        [Zeta]
+    -------+----------------+-----------+--------------------------
+     [xi]  |    [alpha]²    |     ß²    |       2[alpha]ß
+    -------+----------------+-----------+--------------------------
+    [eta]  |    [gamma]²    |  [delta]² |     2[gamma][delta]
+    -------+----------------+-----------+--------------------------
+    [zeta] | [alpha][gamma] |  ß[delta] | [alpha][delta] + ß[gamma]
+
+  where
+
+    (18) [xi] = x + yi,  [eta] = -x + yi,  [zeta] = -z,
+         [Xi] = X + Yi,  [Eta] = -X + Yi,  [Zeta] = -Z;
+
+  and thus the motion in space of any point fixed in the body defined by
+  [Lambda] is determined completely by means of [alpha], ß, [gamma],
+  [delta]; and in the case of the symmetrical top these functions are
+  elliptic transcendants, to which Klein has given the name of
+  _multiplicative elliptic functions_; and
+
+    (19) [alpha][delta] = cos² ½[theta], ß[gamma] = -sin² ½[theta],
+         [alpha][delta] - ß[gamma] = 1, [alpha][delta] + ß[gamma]
+           = cos [theta],
+         [root](-4[alpha]ß[gamma][delta]) = sin [theta];
+
+  while, for the motion of a point on the axis, putting [Lambda] = 0, or
+  [infinity],
+
+    (20) [lambda] = ß/[delta] = i tan ½[theta]e^{[psi]i}, or
+         [lambda] = [alpha]/[gamma] = -i cot ½[theta]e^{[psi]i},
+
+  and
+
+    (21) [alpha]ß = ½i sin [theta]e^([psi]i),
+         [alpha][gamma] = ½i sin  [theta]e^([psi]i),
+
+  giving orthogonal projections on the planes GKH, CHK; and
+
+                 dß   d[alpha]      [rho]
+    (22) [alpha] -- - --------ß = n ---- e^([~omega]i),
+                 dt      dt           k
+
+  the vectorial equation in the plane GKH of the herpolhode of H for a
+  spherical top.
+
+  When f1 and f2 in (9) are rational fractions, these multiplicative
+  elliptic functions can be replaced by algebraical functions, qualified
+  by factors which are exponential functions of the time t; a series of
+  quasi-algebraical cases of motion can thus be constructed, which
+  become purely algebraical when the exponential factors are cancelled
+  by a suitable arrangement of the constants.
+
+  Thus, for example, with f = 0, f´ = 1, f1 = ½, f2 = ½, as in (24) § 9,
+  where P and P´ are at A and B on the focal ellipse, we have for the
+  spherical top
+
+    (23) (1 + cos [theta]) exp ([phi] + [psi] - qt)i
+         = [root](sec ß - cos [theta]) [root](cos ß - cos [theta])
+         + i([root]sec ß + [root] cos ß)[root]cos [theta],
+
+    (24) (1 - cos [theta]) exp ([phi] - [psi] - q´t)i
+         = [root](sec ß - cos [theta])[root](cos ß - cos [theta])
+         + i([root]sec ß - [root]cos ß) [root]cos [theta],
+
+    (25) q, q´ = n[root](2 sec ß) ± n[root](2 cos ß);
+
+  and thence [alpha], ß, [gamma], [delta] can be inferred.
+
+  The physical constants of a given symmetrical top have been denoted in
+  § 1 by M, h, A, C, and l, n, T; to specify a given state of general
+  motion we have G, G´ or CR, D, E, or F, which may be called the
+  dynamical constants; or [kappa], v, w, v1, v2, or f, f´, f1, f2, the
+  analytical constants; or the geometrical constants, such as [alpha],
+  ß, [delta], [delta]´, k of a given articulated hyperboloid.
+
+  There is thus a triply infinite series of a state of motion; the
+  choice of a typical state can be made geometrically on the
+  hyperboloid, flattened in the plane of the local ellipse, of which
+  [kappa] is the ratio of the semiaxes [alpha] and ß, and am(1 - f) K´
+  is the eccentric angle from the minor axis of the point of contact P
+  of the generator HQ, so that two analytical constants are settled
+  thereby; and the point H may be taken arbitrarily on the tangent line
+  PQ, and HQ´ is then the other tangent of the focal ellipse; in which
+  case [theta]3 and [theta]2 are the angles between the tangents HQ,
+  HQ´, and between the focal distances HS, HS´, and k² will be HS·HS´,
+  while HQ, HQ´ are [delta], [delta]´. As H is moved along the tangent
+  line HQ, a series of states of motion can be determined, and drawn
+  with accuracy.
+
+  11. Equation (5) § 3 with slight modification will serve with the same
+  notation for the steady rolling motion at a constant inclination
+  [alpha] to the vertical of a body of revolution, such as a disk, hoop,
+  wheel, cask, wine-glass, plate, dish, bowl, spinning top, gyrostat, or
+  bicycle, on a horizontal plane, or a surface of revolution, as a coin
+  in a conical lamp-shade.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13.]
+
+  The point O is now the intersection of the axis GC´ with the vertical
+  through the centre B of the horizontal circle described by the centre
+  of gravity, and through the centre M of the horizontal circle
+  described by P, the point of contact (fig. 13). Collected into a
+  particle at G, the body swings round the vertical OB as a conical
+  pendulum, of height AB or GL equal to g/µ² = [lambda], and GA would be
+  the direction of the thread, of tension gM(GA/GL) dynes. The reaction
+  with the plane at P will be an equal parallel force; and its moment
+  round G will provide the couple which causes the velocity of the
+  vector of angular momentum appropriate to the steady motion; and this
+  moment will be gM·Gm dyne-cm. or ergs, if the reaction at P cuts GB in
+  m.
+
+  Draw GR perpendicular to GK to meet the horizontal AL in R, and draw
+  RQC´K perpendicular to the axis Gz, and KC perpendicular to LG.
+
+  The velocity of the vector GK of angular momentum is µ times the
+  horizontal component, and
+
+    (1) horizontal component / Aµ sin [alpha] = KC/KC´,
+
+  so that
+
+    (2) gM·Gm = Aµ² sin [alpha](KC/KC´),
+
+        A    KC´       g
+    (3) -- = --- -------------- Gm = GQ·Gm.
+        M    KC  µ² sin [alpha]
+
+  The instantaneous axis of rotation of the case of a gyrostat would be
+  OP; drawing GI parallel to OP, and KK´ parallel to OG, making tan
+  K´GC´ = (A/C) tan IGC'1; then if GK represents the resultant angular
+  momentum, K´K will represent the part of it due to the rotation of the
+  fly-wheel. Thus in the figure for the body rolling as a solid, with
+  the fly-wheel clamped, the points m and Q move to the other side of G.
+  The gyrostat may be supposed swung round the vertical at the end of a
+  thread PA´ fastened at A´ where Pm produced cuts the vertical AB, and
+  again at the point where it crosses the axis GO. The discussion of the
+  small oscillation superposed on the state of steady motion requisite
+  for stability is given in the next paragraph.
+
+
+    General motion of a gyrostat rolling on a plane.
+
+  12. In the theoretical discussion of the general motion of a gyrostat
+  rolling on a horizontal plane the safe and shortest plan apparently is
+  to write down the most general equations of motion, and afterwards to
+  introduce any special condition.
+
+  Drawing through G the centre of gravity any three rectangular axes Gx,
+  Gy, Gz, the notation employed is
+
+    u, v, w,    the components of linear velocity of G;
+    p, q, r,    the components of angular velocity about the axes,
+    h1, h2, h3, the components of angular momentum;
+    [theta]1, [theta]2, [theta]3, the components of angular velocity of
+                  the coordinate axes;
+    x, y, z,    the co-ordinates of the point of contact with the
+                  horizontal plane;
+    X, Y, Z,    the components of the reaction of the plane;
+    [alpha], ß, [gamma], the direction cosines of the downward vertical.
+
+  The geometrical equations, expressing that the point of contact is at
+  rest on the plane, are
+
+    (1) u - ry + qz = 0,
+
+    (2) v - pz + rx = 0,
+
+    (3) w - qx + py = 0.
+
+  The dynamical equations are
+
+    (4) du/dt - [theta]3v + [theta]2w = g[alpha] + X/M,
+
+    (5) dv/dt - [theta]1w + [theta]2u = gß + Y/M,
+
+    (6) dw/dt - [theta]2u + [theta]1v = g[gamma] + Z/M,
+
+  and
+
+    (7) dh1/dt - [theta]3h2 + [theta]2h3 = yZ - zY,
+
+    (8) dh2/dt - [theta]1h3 + [theta]3h1 = zX - xZ,
+
+    (9) dh3/dt - [theta]2h1 + [theta]1h2 = xY - yX.
+
+  In the special case of the gyrostat where the surface is of revolution
+  round Gz, and the body is kinetically symmetrical about Gz, we take Gy
+  horizontal and Gzx through the point of contact so that y = 0; and
+  denoting the angle between Gz and the downward vertical by [theta]
+  (fig. 13)
+
+    (10) [alpha] = sin[theta], ß = 0, [gamma] = cos[theta].
+
+  The components of angular momentum are
+
+    (11) h1 = Ap, h2 = Aq, h3 = Cr + K,
+
+  where A, C denote the moment of inertia about Gx, Gz, and K is the
+  angular momentum of a fly-wheel fixed in the interior with its axis
+  parallel to Gz; K is taken as constant during the motion.
+
+  The axis Gz being fixed in the body,
+
+    (12) [theta]1 = p, [theta]2 = q = -d[theta]/dt,
+         [theta]3 = p cot [theta].
+
+  With y = 0, (1), (2), (3) reduce to
+
+    (13) u = -qz, v = pz - rx, w = qx;
+
+  and, denoting the radius of curvature of the meridian curve of the
+  rolling surface by [rho],
+
+         dx                    d[theta]
+    (14) -- = [rho] cos[theta] --------  = -q [rho] cos[theta],
+         dt                       dt
+
+         dz                     d[theta]
+         -- = -[rho] sin[theta] -------- = q [rho] sin[theta];
+         dt                        dt
+
+  so that
+
+         du     dq
+    (15) -- = - -- z - q²[rho] sin[theta],
+         dt     dt
+
+         dv   dp     dr
+    (16) -- = -- z - -- x + pq[rho] sin[theta] + qr[rho] sin[theta],
+         dt   dt     dt
+
+         dw   dq
+    (17) -- = -- x - q²[rho] cos[theta].
+         dt   dt
+
+  The dynamical equations (4)...(9) can now be reduced to
+
+         X      dq
+    (18) -- = - -- z - p²z cot[theta] + q²(x - [rho] sin[theta])
+         M      dt
+
+         + prx cot[theta] - g sin[theta],
+
+         Y    dp     dr
+    (19) -- = -- z - -- x - pq(x + z cot[theta] - [rho] sin[theta])
+         M    dt     dt
+
+         + qrp cos[theta],
+
+         Z    dq
+    (20) -- = -- x + q²(z - [rho] cos[theta]) + p²z - prx - g cos[theta],
+         M    dt
+
+                 dp
+    (21) -zY = A -- - Apq cot[theta] + qh3,
+                 dt
+
+                      dq
+    (22) -zX - xZ = A -- + Ap² cot [theta] - ph3,
+                      dt
+
+              dh3     dr          d
+    (23) xY = --- = C -- = -Cq --------.
+              dt      dt       d[theta]
+
+  Eliminating Y between (19) and (23),
+
+          /C    \  dr      dp
+    (24) (-- + x²) -- - xz -- + pqx(x + z cot[theta] - [rho] sin[theta])
+          \M    /  dt      dt
+
+         - qrx[rho] cos[theta] = 0,
+
+         /C    \     dr            dp
+    (A) (-- + x²) -------- - xz -------- - px(x + z cot[theta]
+         \M    /  d[theta]      d[theta]
+
+        - [rho] sin[theta]) + rx[rho] cos[theta] = 0.
+
+  Eliminating Y between (19) and (21)
+
+          /A    \  dp      dr A                     h3
+    (25) (-- + z²) -- - xz -- -- -pq cot[theta] + q --
+          \M    /  dt      dt M                     M
+
+    - pqz(x + z cot[theta] - [rho] sin[theta]) + qrz[rho] cos[theta] = 0,
+
+               dr       /A    \     dp      A                 h3
+    (B) -xz -------- + (-- + z²) -------- + -- p cot[theta] - --
+            d[theta]    \M    /  d[theta]   M                 M
+
+     + pz(x + z cot[theta] - [rho] sin[theta]) + rz[rho] cos[theta] = 0.
+
+  In the special case of a gyrostat rolling on the sharp edge of a
+  circle passing through G, z = 0, [rho] = 0, (A) and (B) reduce to
+
+              / C     \     dr       / 1    1 \    dh3
+    (26) p = ( --- + 1 ) -------- = ( --- + -- ) --------,
+              \Mx²    /  d[theta]    \Mx²   C /  d[theta]
+
+            dp                     h3  d·p sin[theta]   h3sin [theta]
+    (27) -------- + p cot[theta] = --, -------------- = -------------;
+         d[theta]                  A      d[theta]            A
+
+           d²h3         dh3                   CMx²
+    (28) --------- + -------- cot[theta] = ----------,
+         d[theta]²   d[theta]              A(Mx² + C)
+
+  a differential equation of a hypergeometric series, of the form of
+  Legendre's zonal harmonic of fractional order n, given by
+
+    (29) n(n + 1) = CMx²/A(Mx² + C).
+
+  For a sharp point, x = 0, [rho] = 0, and the previous equations are
+  obtained of a spinning top.
+
+  The elimination of X and Z between (18) (20) (22), expressed
+  symbolically as
+
+    (30) (22) - z(18) + x(20) = 0,
+
+  gives
+
+         /A           \  dq     h3    /A      \
+    (C) ( -- + x² + z² ) -- - p -- + ( -- + z² ) p² cot [theta] + p²xz
+         \M           /  dt     M     \M      /
+
+        + q²[rho](x cos[theta] - z sin[theta]) - prx(x + z cot[theta])
+        - g(x cos[theta] - z sin[theta]) = 0,
+
+  and this combined with (A) and (B) will lead to an equation the
+  integral of which is the equation of energy.
+
+  13. The equations (A) (B) (C) are intractable in this general form;
+  but the restricted case may be considered when the axis moves in
+  steady motion at a constant inclination [alpha] to the vertical; and
+  the stability is secured if a small nutation of the axis can be
+  superposed.
+
+  It is convenient to put p = [Omega] sin [theta], so that [Omega] is
+  the angular velocity of the plane Gzx about the vertical; (A) (B) (C)
+  become
+
+          /C     \     dr                     d[Omega]
+    (A*) ( -- + x²) --------  - xz sin[theta] --------
+          \M     /  d[theta]                  d[theta]
+
+         - [Omega]x(x sin[theta] - 2z cos[theta]
+         - [rho] sin²[theta]) + rx[rho] cos[theta] = 0,
+
+                dr       /A     \             d[Omega]   h3            /A     \
+    (B*) -xz -------- + ( -- + z²) sin[theta] -------- - -- + 2[Omega]( -- + z²) cos [theta]
+             d[theta]    \M     /             d[theta]   M             \M     /
+
+         + [Omega]z sin[theta](x - [rho] sin[theta]) - rz[rho] cos[theta] = 0,
+
+          /A          \  dq                                              h3
+    (C*) ( -- + x² + z²) -- + q²p(x cos[theta] - z sin[theta]) - [Omega] -- sin [theta]
+          \M          /  dt                                              M
+
+                  /A     \
+      + [Omega]² ( -- + z²) sin [theta] cos [theta] + [Omega]²xz sin²[theta]
+                  \M     /
+
+      - [Omega]rx(x sin [theta] + z cos [theta]) - g(x cos [theta] - z sin [theta]) = 0.
+
+  The steady motion and nutation superposed may be expressed by
+
+    (1) [theta] = [alpha] + L, sin [theta] = sin[alpha] + L cos[alpha],
+        cos[theta] = cos[alpha] - L sin [alpha],
+        [Omega] = µ + N, r = R + Q,
+
+  where L, N, Q are small terms, involving a factor e^(nti), to express
+  the periodic nature of the nutation; and then if a, c denote the mean
+  value of x, z, at the point of contact
+
+    (2) x = a + L[rho] cos[alpha], z = c - L[rho] sin[alpha],
+
+    (3) x sin [theta] + z cos [theta] = a sin [alpha] + c cos [alpha]
+        + L(a cos [alpha] - c sin [alpha]),
+
+    (4) x cos [theta] - z sin [theta] = a cos [alpha] - c sin [alpha]
+        - L(a sin [alpha] + c cos [alpha] - [rho]).
+
+  Substituting these values in (C*) with dq/dt = -d²[theta]/dt² = n²L,
+  and ignoring products of the small terms, such as L², LN, ...
+
+           /A          \                /CR + K   CQ\
+    (C**) ( -- + a² + c²) Ln² - (µ + N)( ------ + -- )(sin[alpha] + L cos[alpha])
+           \M          /                \  M      M /
+
+                   /A                           \
+      + (µ² + 2µN)( -- + c² - 2L[rho]c sin[alpha]) (sin [alpha] cos[alpha] + L cos[alpha])
+                   \M                           /
+
+      + (µ² + 2µN) [ac - L[rho](a sin [alpha] - c sin[alpha])] (sin² [alpha] + L sin 2[alpha])
+      - (µ + N)(R + Q)(a + L[rho]cos[alpha])[a sin [alpha] + c cos[alpha]
+      + L(a cos[alpha] - c sin [alpha])] - g(a cos[alpha] - c sin[alpha])
+      + gL(a sin[alpha] + c cos[alpha] - [rho]) = 0,
+
+  which is equivalent to
+
+           CR + K                  /A     \
+    (5) -µ ------ sin[alpha] + µ² ( -- + c²) sin [alpha] cos [alpha]
+             M                     \M     /
+
+        + µ² ac sin²[alpha] - µRa(a sin[alpha] + c cos[alpha])
+        - g(a cos[alpha] - c sin[alpha]) = 0,
+
+  the condition of steady motion; and
+
+    (6) DL + EQ + FN = 0,
+
+  where
+
+             /A          \         CK + K
+    (7) D = ( -- + a² + c²) n² - µ ------ cos[alpha]
+             \M          /           M
+
+          - 2µ²[rho]c sin²[alpha] cos[alpha]
+
+                /A     \
+          + µ² ( -- + c²) cos [alpha] - µ²[rho](a sin [alpha]
+                \M     /
+
+          - c cos[alpha]) sin²[alpha] + µ²ac sin 2[alpha]
+          - µR[rho] cos [alpha](a sin [alpha] + c cos[alpha])
+          - µRa(a cos [alpha] - c sin[alpha])
+          + g(a sin[alpha] + c cos[alpha] - [rho]),
+
+               C
+    (8) E = -µ -- sin [alpha] - µa(a sin [alpha] + c cos [alpha]),
+               M
+
+              CR + K                   /A     \
+    (9) F = - ------ sin [alpha] + 2µ ( -- + c²) sin [alpha] cos [alpha]
+                M                      \M     /
+
+            + 2µac sin² [alpha] - Ra(a sin [alpha] + c cos [alpha]).
+
+  With the same approximation (A*) and (B*) are equivalent to
+
+           /C     \  Q                  N
+    (A**) ( -- + a²) -- - ac sin [alpha]--
+           \M     /  L                  L
+
+          - µa(a sin [alpha] + 2c cos [alpha] - [rho] sin² [alpha])
+          + Ra[rho] cos [alpha] = 0,
+
+              Q     /A     \             N    CR + K       /A     \
+    (B**) -ac -- + ( -- + c²) sin [alpha]-- - ------ + 2µ ( -- + c²) cos [alpha]
+              L     \M     /             L      M          \M     /
+
+          + µc sin [alpha](a - [rho] sin [alpha])
+          - Rc[rho] cos [alpha] = 0.
+
+  The elimination of L, Q, N will lead to an equation for the
+  determination of n², and n² must be positive for the motion to be
+  stable.
+
+  If b is the radius of the horizontal circle described by G in steady
+  motion round the centre B,
+
+    (10) b = v/µ = (cP - aR)/µ = c sin [alpha] - aR/µ,
+
+  and drawing GL vertically upward of length [lambda] = g/µ², the height
+  of the equivalent conical pendulum, the steady motion condition may be
+  written
+
+    (11) (CR + K)µ sin[alpha] - µ² sin[alpha] cos[alpha]
+         = -gM(a cos[alpha] - c sin[alpha])
+           + M(µ²c sin[alpha] - µRa) (a sin[alpha] + c cos[alpha])
+         = gM[b[lambda]^(-1) (a sin [alpha] + c cos [alpha])
+           - a cos [alpha] + c sin [alpha]]
+         = gM·PT,
+
+  LG produced cuts the plane in T.
+
+  Interpreted dynamically, the left-hand side of this equation
+  represents the velocity of the vector of angular momentum about G, so
+  that the right-hand side represents the moment of the applied force
+  about G, in this case the reaction of the plane, which is parallel to
+  GA, and equal to gM·GA/GL; and so the angle AGL must be less than the
+  angle of friction, or slipping will take place.
+
+  Spinning upright, with [alpha] = 0, a = 0, we find F = 0, Q = 0, and
+
+            CR + K      /A     \
+    (12)  - ------ + 2µ( -- + c²) - Rcp = 0,
+              M         \M     /
+
+          /A     \         CR + K      /A     \
+    (13) ( -- + c²) n² = µ ------ - µ²( -- + c²) + µR[rho]c - g(c - [rho]),
+          \M     /           M         \M     /
+
+          /A     \²        /CK + R          \²     /A     \
+    (14) ( -- + c²) n² = ¼( ------ + Rc[rho] ) - g( -- + c²) (c - [rho]),
+          \M     /         \  M             /      \M     /
+
+  Thus for a top spinning upright on a rounded point, with K = 0, the
+  stability requires that
+
+    (15) R > 2k´ [root]{g(c - [rho])}/(k² + c[rho]),
+
+  where k, k´ are the radii of gyration about the axis Gz, and a
+  perpendicular axis at a distance c from G; this reduces to the
+  preceding case of § 3 (7) when [rho] = 0.
+
+  Generally, with [alpha] = 0, but a ± 0, the condition (A) and (B)
+  becomes
+
+          /C    \  Q
+    (16) ( - + a²) -- = 2µac - Ra[rho],
+          \M    /  L
+
+             Q    CR + K                /A     \
+         -ac -- = ------ + Rc[rho] - 2µ( -- + a²),
+             L      M                   \M     /
+
+  so that, eliminating Q/L,
+            _                          _
+           |  /A     \  /C     \        |      /C     \  /CR + K\    C
+    (17) 2 | ( -- + c²)( -- + a²) - a²c²| µ = ( -- + a²)( ------ ) + -- Rc[rho],
+           |_ \M     /  \M     /       _|      \M     /  \  M   /    M
+
+  the condition when a coin or platter is rolling nearly flat on the
+  table.
+
+  Rolling along in a straight path, with [alpha] = ½[pi], c = 0, µ = 0,
+  E = 0; and
+
+    (18) N/L = (CR + K)/A,
+
+              /A     \
+    (19) D = ( -- + a²) n² + g(a - [rho]),
+              \M     /
+
+               CR + K
+         F = - ------ - Ra²,
+                 M
+
+                      /A     \
+                     ( -- + a²) n² + g(a - [rho])
+         N      D     \M     /
+    (20) -- = - -- = ----------------------------,
+         L      F          /C     \      K
+                          ( -- + a²) R + -
+                           \M     /      M
+                                   _                  _
+          /A     \       (CR + K) |  /C     \      K   |
+    (21) ( -- + a²) n² = -------- | ( -- + a²) R + --  | - g(a - [rho]).
+          \M     /           A    |_ \M     /      M  _|
+
+  Thus with K = 0, and rolling with velocity V = Ra, stability
+  requires
+
+         V²       a - [rho]        A  a - [rho]
+    (22) -- > ---------------- > ½ -- ---------,
+         2g     C   / C     \      C    C
+              2 -- ( --- + 1 )         --- + 1
+                A   \Ma²    /          Ma²
+
+  or the body must have acquired velocity greater than attained by
+  rolling down a plane through a vertical height 1/2(a - [rho])A/C.
+
+  On a sharp edge, with [rho] = 0, a thin uniform disk or a thin ring
+  requires
+
+    (23) V²/2g > a/6 or a/8.
+
+  The gyrostat can hold itself upright on the plane without advance when
+  R = 0, provided
+
+    (24) K²/AM - g(a - [rho]) is positive.
+
+  For the stability of the monorail carriage of § 5 (6), ignoring the
+  rotary inertia of the wheels by putting C = 0, and replacing K by G´
+  the theory above would require
+
+         G´  /     G´\
+    (25) -- ( aV + -- ) > gh.
+         A   \     A /
+
+  For further theory and experiments consult Routh, _Advanced Rigid
+  Dynamics_, chap. v., and Thomson and Tait, _Natural Philosophy_, §
+  345; also Bourlet, _Traité des bicycles_ (analysed in Appell,
+  _Mécanique rationnelle_, ii. 297, and Carvallo, _Journal de l'école
+  polytechnique_, 1900); Whipple, _Quarterly Journal of Mathematics_,
+  vol. xxx., for mathematical theories of the bicycle, and other bodies.
+
+
+    Gyrostatic chain.
+
+  14. Lord Kelvin has studied theoretically and experimentally the
+  vibration of a chain of stretched gyrostats (_Proc. London Math.
+  Soc._, 1875; J. Perry, _Spinning Tops_, for a diagram). Suppose each
+  gyrostat to be equivalent dynamically to a fly-wheel of axial length
+  2a, and that each connecting link is a light cord or steel wire of
+  length 2l, stretched to a tension T.
+
+  Denote by x, y the components of the slight displacement from the
+  central straight line of the centre of a fly-wheel; and let p, q, 1
+  denote the direction cosines of the axis of a fly-wheel, and r, s, 1
+  the direction cosines of a link, distinguishing the different bodies
+  by a suffix.
+
+  Then with the previous notation and to the order of approximation
+  required,
+
+    (1) [theta]1 = -dq/dt, [theta]2 = dp/dt,
+
+    (2) h1 = A[theta]1, h2 = A[theta]2, h3 = K,
+
+  to be employed in the dynamical equations
+
+    (3) dh1/dt - [theta]3 h2 + [theta]2 h3 = L, ...
+
+  in which [theta]3 h1 and [theta]3 h2 can be omitted.
+
+  For the kth fly-wheel
+
+    (4) -A :q_k + K .p_k = Ta(q_k - s_k) + Ta[q_k - s_(k+1)],
+
+    (5) A :p_k + K .q_k = -Ta(p_k - r_k) - Ta[p_k - r_(k+1)];
+
+  and for the motion of translation
+
+    (6) M :x_k = T[r_(k+1) - r_k], M :y_k = T[s(k+1) - s_k];
+
+  while the geometrical relations are
+
+    (7) x_(k+1) - x_k = a [p_(k+1) + p_k] + 2lr_(k+1),
+
+    (8) y_(k+1) - y_k = a [q_(k+1) + q_k] + 2ls_(k+1).
+
+  Putting
+
+    (9) x + yi = w, p + qi = [~omega], r + si = [sigma],
+
+  these three pairs of equations may be replaced by the three equations
+
+    (10) A :[~omega]_k - K .[~omega]_ki + 2Ta[~omega]_k
+         - Ta([sigma]_(k+1) + [sigma]_k) = 0,
+
+    (11) M :[~omega]_k - T([sigma]_(k+1) - [sigma]_k) = 0,
+
+    (12) w_(k+1) - w_k - a([~omega]_(k+1) +
+         [~omega]_k - 2l[sigma]_(k+1) = 0.
+
+  For a vibration of circular polarization assume a solution
+
+    (13) w_k, [~omega]_k, [sigma]_k = (L, P, Q) exp (nt + kc)i,
+
+  so that c/n is the time-lag between the vibration of one fly-wheel and
+  the next; and the wave velocity is
+
+    (14) U = 2(a + l)n/c.
+
+  Then
+
+    (15) P(-An² + Kn + 2Ta) - QTa[e^(ci) + 1] = 0,
+
+    (16) -LMn² - QT[e^(ci) - 1] = 0,
+
+    (17) L[e^(ci) - 1] -Pa[e^(ci) + 1] - 2Qle^(ci) = 0,
+
+  leading, on elimination of L, P, Q, to
+
+                 (2 Ta + Kn - An²) (1 - Mn²l/T) - Mn²
+    (18) cos c = ------------------------------------,
+                        2Ta + Kn - An² + Mna²
+
+                     M  n² 2Ta(a + l) + KNl - An²l
+    (19) 2 sin² ½c = -- --------------------------.
+                     T    2Ta + Kn - An² + Mn²a²
+
+  With K = 0, A = 0, this reduces to Lagrange's condition in the
+  vibration of a string of beads.
+
+  Putting
+
+    (20) [rho] = M/2(a + l),   the mass per unit length of the chain,
+
+    (21) [kappa] = K/2(a + l), the gyrostatic angular momentum per unit
+                                 length,
+
+    (22) [alpha] = A/2(a + l), the transverse moment of inertia per unit
+                                length,
+
+    (23) 1/2c = (a + l)n/U,
+
+  equation (19) can be written
+
+    (24) {sin (a + l)n/U}²
+
+                 [rho]                Ta + [kappa]nl - [alpha]n²l
+    = (a + l)²n² ----- ----------------------------------------------------------,
+                   T   Ta + [kappa]n(a + l) - [alpha]n²(a + l) + [rho]n²a²(a + l)
+
+          /    (a + l)n    \²
+    (25) ( ---------------  )
+          \ sin (a + l)n/U /
+
+         T     T + ([kappa]n - [alpha]n²) (1 + l/a) + [rho]n²a(a + l)
+     = ----- . ------------------------------------------------------.
+       [rho]                T + ([kappa]n - an²)l/a
+
+  In a continuous chain of such gyrostatic links, with a and l
+  infinitesimal,
+
+                T    /         [kappa]n - [alpha]n²      \
+    (26) U² = ----- ( 1 + ------------------------------  )
+              [rho]  \    T + ([kappa]n - [alpha]n² l/a) /
+
+  for the vibration of helical nature like circular polarization.
+
+  Changing the sign of n for circular polarization in the opposite
+  direction
+
+                 T    /         [kappa]n + [alpha]n²      \
+    (27) U´² = ----- ( 1 - ------------------------------  ).
+               [rho]  \    T - ([kappa]n + [alpha]n² l/a) /
+
+  In this way a mechanical model is obtained of the action of a
+  magnetized medium on polarized light, [kappa] representing the
+  equivalent of the magnetic field, while [alpha] may be ignored as
+  insensible (J. Larmor, _Proc. Lond. Math. Soc._, 1890; _Aether and
+  Matter_, Appendix E).
+
+  We notice that U² in (26) can be positive, and the gyrostatic chain
+  stable, even when T is negative, and the chain is supporting a thrust,
+  provided [kappa]n is large enough, and the thrust does not exceed
+
+    (28) ([kappa]n - an²)(1 + l/a);
+
+  while U'² in (27) will not be positive and the straight chain will be
+  unstable unless the tension exceeds
+
+    (29) ([kappa]n + [alpha]n²)(1 + l/a).
+
+  15. _Gyrostat suspended by a Thread._--In the discussion of the small
+  vibration of a single gyrostat fly-wheel about the vertical position
+  when suspended by a single thread of length 2l = b, the suffix k can
+  be omitted in the preceding equations of § 14, and we can write
+
+    (1) A :[~omega] - K .[~omega]i + Ta[~omega] - Ta[sigma] = 0,
+
+    (2) M :w + T[sigma] = 0, with T = gM,
+
+    (3) w - a[~omega] - b[sigma] = 0.
+
+  Assuming a periodic solution of these equations
+
+    (4) w, [~omega], [sigma], = (L, P, Q) exp nti,
+
+  and eliminating L, P, Q, we obtain
+
+    (5) (-An² + Kn + gMa)(g - n²b) - gMn²a² = 0,
+
+  and the frequency of a vibration in double beats per second is
+  n/2[pi], where n is a root of this quartic equation.
+
+  For upright spinning on a smooth horizontal plane, take b = [oo] and
+  change the sign of a, then
+
+    (6) An² - Kn + gMa = 0,
+
+  so that the stability requires
+
+    (7) K² > 4gAMa.
+
+  Here A denotes the moment of inertia about a diametral axis through
+  the centre of gravity; when the point of the fly-wheel is held in a
+  small smooth cup, b = 0, and the condition becomes
+
+    (8) (A + Ma²)n² - Kn + gMa = 0,
+
+  requiring for stability, as before in § 3,
+
+    (9) K² > 4g(A + M²)Ma.
+
+  For upright spinning inside a spherical surface of radius b, the sign
+  of a must be changed to obtain the condition at the lowest point, as
+  in the gyroscopic horizon of Fleuriais.
+
+  For a gyrostat spinning upright on the summit of a sphere of radius b,
+  the signs of a and b must be changed in (5), or else the sign of g,
+  which amounts to the same thing.
+
+  Denoting the components of horizontal displacement of the point of the
+  fly-wheel by [xi], [eta], then
+
+    (10) br = [xi], bs = [eta], b[sigma] = [xi] + [eta]i = [lambda]
+        (suppose),
+
+    (11) [omega] = [alpha][~omega] + [lambda].
+
+  If the point is forced to take the motion ([xi], [eta], [zeta]) by
+  components of force X, Y, Z, the equations of motion become
+
+    (12) -A :q + K .p = Ya - Zaq,
+
+    (13) A :p + K .q = -Xa + Zap,
+
+    (14) M :w = X + Yi, M( :[zeta] - g) = Z;
+
+  so that
+
+    (15) A :[~omega] - K .[~omega]i + gMa[~omega] + Ma :w
+         = Ma[~omega] :[zeta],
+
+  or
+
+    (16) (A + Ma²) :[~omega] - K .[~omega]i + gMa[~omega] + Ma[lambda] =
+         Ma[~omega] :[zeta].
+
+  Thus if the point of the gyrostat is made to take the periodic motion
+  given by [lambda] = R exp nti, [zeta] = 0, the forced vibration of the
+  axis is given by [~omega] = P exp nti, where
+
+    (17) P{-(A + Ma²)n² + Kn + gMa} - RMn²a = 0;
+
+  and so the effect may be investigated on the Fleuriais gyroscopic
+  horizon of the motion of the ship.
+
+  Suppose the motion [lambda] is due to the suspension of the gyrostat
+  from a point on the axis of a second gyrostat suspended from a fixed
+  point.
+
+  Distinguishing the second gyrostat by a suffix, then [lambda] =
+  b[~omega]1, if b denotes the distance between the points of suspension
+  of the two gyrostats; and the motion of the second gyrostat influenced
+  by the reaction of the first, is given by
+
+    (18) (A1 + M1h1²) :[~omega]1 - K1 .[~omega]1 i
+         = -g(M1h1 + Mb)[~omega]1 - b(X + Yi)
+         = -g(M1h1 + Mb)[~omega]1 - Mb(a :[~omega] + :[lambda]);
+
+  so that, in the small vibration,
+
+          R   /                                    \
+    (19)  -- ( -(A1 + M1h1²)n² + K1n + g(M1h1 + Mb) ) = Mn²b(aP + R),
+          b   \                                    /
+
+    (20) R { -(A1 + M1h1² + Mb²)n² + K1n + g(M1h1 + Mb)} - PMn²ab² = 0.
+
+  Eliminating the ratio of P to R, we obtain
+
+    (21) { -(A + Ma²)n² + Kn + gMa}
+         × {-(A1 + M1h1² + Mb²)n² + K1n + g (M1h1 + Mb)} - M²n^4a²b² = 0,
+
+  a quartic for n, giving the frequency n/2[pi] of a fundamental
+  vibration.
+
+  Change the sign of g for the case of the gyrostats spinning upright,
+  one on the top of the other, and so realize the gyrostat on the top of
+  a gyrostat described by Maxwell.
+
+  In the gyrostatic chain of § 14, the tension T may change to a limited
+  pressure, and U² may still be positive, and the motion stable; and so
+  a motion is realized of a number of spinning tops, superposed in a
+  column.
+
+  16. _The Flexure Joint._--In Lord Kelvin's experiment the gyrostats
+  are joined up by equal light rods and short lengths of elastic wire
+  with rigid attachment to the rod and case of a gyrostat, so as to keep
+  the system still, and free from entanglement and twisting due to pivot
+  friction of the fly-wheels.
+
+  When this gyrostatic chain is made to revolve with angular velocity n
+  in relative equilibrium as a plane polygon passing through Oz the axis
+  of rotation, each gyrostatic case moves as if its axis produced was
+  attached to Oz by a flexure joint. The instantaneous axis of resultant
+  angular velocity bisects the angle [pi] - [theta], if the axis of the
+  case makes an angle [theta] with Oz, and, the components of angular
+  velocity being n about Oz, and -n about the axis, the resultant
+  angular velocity is 2n cos½([pi] - [theta]) = 2n sin½[theta]; and the
+  components of this angular velocity are
+
+    (1) -2n sin ½[theta] sin ½[theta] = -n(1-cos[theta]), along the axis,
+  and
+
+    (2) -2n sin ½[theta] cos ½[theta] = -n sin [theta], perpendicular to
+  the axis of the case. The flexure joint behaves like a pair of equal
+  bevel wheels engaging.
+
+  The component angular momentum in the direction Ox is therefore
+
+    (3) L = -An sin [theta] cos [theta] - Cn (1 - cos [theta]) sin [theta]
+          + K sin [theta],
+
+  and Ln is therefore the couple acting on the gyrostat.
+
+  If [alpha] denotes the angle which a connecting link makes with Oz,
+  and T denotes the constant component of the tension of a link parallel
+  to Oz, the couple acting is
+
+    (4) Ta cos [theta]_k(tan [alpha]_(k+1) + tan [alpha]_k)
+        - 2T[alpha]sin[theta]_k,
+
+  which is to be equated to Ln, so that
+
+    (5) -An² sin [theta]_k cos [theta]_k
+          - Cn(1 - cos [theta]_k) sin [theta]_k
+          + Kn sin [theta]_k
+          - T[alpha] cos [theta]_k(tan [alpha]_(k+1) + tan [alpha]_k)
+          + 2T[alpha] sin [theta]_k = 0.
+
+  In addition
+
+    (6) Mn²[chi]_k + T(tan [alpha]_(k+1) - tan [alpha]_k) = 0,
+
+  with the geometrical relation
+
+    (7) [chi]_(k+1) - [chi]_k - [alpha](sin [theta]_(k+1) + sin [theta]_k)
+          - 2l sin{k + 1} = 0.
+
+  When the polygon is nearly coincident with Oz, these equations can be
+  replaced by
+
+    (8) (-An² + Kn + 2Ta)[theta]_k - Ta([alpha]_(k+1) + [alpha]_k) = 0,
+
+    (9) Mn²x_k + T([alpha]_(k+1) - [alpha]_k) = 0,
+
+    (10) x_(k+1) - x_k - a([theta]_(k+1) + [theta]_k) - 2la_k = 0,
+
+  and the rest of the solution proceeds as before in § 14, putting
+
+    (11) x_k, [theta]_k, [alpha]_k = (L, P, Q) exp cki.
+
+  A half wave length of the curve of gyrostats is covered when ck =
+  [pi], so that [pi]/c is the number of gyrostats in a half wave, which
+  is therefore of wave length 2[pi](a + l)/c.
+
+  A plane polarized wave is given when exp cki is replaced by exp (nt +
+  ck)i, and a wave circularly polarized when w, [~omega], [sigma] of §
+  14 replace this x, [theta], [alpha].
+
+  _Gyroscopic Pendulum._--The elastic flexure joint is useful for
+  supporting a rod, carrying a fly-wheel, like a gyroscopic pendulum.
+
+  Expressed by Euler's angles, [theta], [phi], [psi], the kinetic energy
+  is
+
+    (12) T = ½A( .[theta]² + sin² [theta] .[psi]²)
+           + ½C´(1 - cos [theta])² .[psi]²
+           + ½C( .[phi] + .[psi] cos [theta])²,
+
+  where A refers to rod and gyroscope about the transverse axis at the
+  point of support, C´ refers to rod about its axis of length, and C
+  refers to the revolving fly-wheel.
+
+  The elimination of .[psi] between the equation of conservation of
+  angular momentum about the vertical, viz.
+
+    (13) A sin² [theta] .[psi] - C´(1 - cos [theta]) cos [theta] .[psi] +
+  C( .[phi] +  .[psi] cos [theta]) cos [theta] = G, a constant, and the
+  equation of energy, viz.
+
+    (14) T - gMh cos [theta] = H, a constant, with [theta] measured from
+  the downward vertical, and
+
+    (15) .[phi] + .[psi] cos [theta] = R, a constant, will lead to an
+  equation for d[theta]/dt, or dz/dt, in terms of cos [theta] or z, the
+  integral of which is of hyperelliptic character, except when A = C´.
+
+  In the suspension of fig. 8, the motion given by .[phi] is suppressed
+  in the stalk, and for the fly-wheel .[phi] gives the rubbing angular
+  velocity of the wheel on the stalk; the equations are now
+
+    (16) T = ½A( .[theta]² + sin² [theta] .[psi]²)
+           + ½C´ cos² [theta] .[psi]² + ½CR² = H + gMh cos [theta],
+
+    (17) A sin² [theta][.[psi]] + C´ cos² [theta] .[psi] + CR cos [theta]
+           = G,
+
+  and the motion is again of hyperelliptic character, except when A =
+  C´, or C´ = 0. To realize a motion given completely by the elliptic
+  function, the suspension of the stalk must be made by a smooth ball
+  and socket, or else a Hooke universal joint.
+
+  Finally, there is the case of the general motion of a top with a
+  spherical rounded point on a smooth plane, in which the centre of
+  gravity may be supposed to rise and fall in a vertical line. Here
+
+    (18) T = ½(A + Mh² sin² [theta]) .[theta]² + ½A sin² [theta] .[psi]²
+           + ½CR² = H - gMh cos [theta],
+
+  with [theta] measured from the upward vertical, and
+
+    (19) A sin² [theta] .[psi] + CR cos [theta] = G,
+
+  where A now refers to a transverse axis through the centre of gravity.
+  The elimination of [.[psi]] leads to an equation for z, = cos [theta],
+  of the form
+
+          /dz\²     g        Z            g  (z1 - z)(z2 - z)(z3 - z)
+    (20) ( -- ) = 2 -- -------------- = 2 -- ------------------------,
+          \dt/      h  1 - z² + A/Mh²     h      (z4 - z)(z - z5)
+
+  with the arrangement
+
+    (21) z1, z4 > / > z2 > z > z3 > - / > z5;
+
+  so that the motion is hyperelliptic.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--In addition to the references in the text the following
+  will be found useful:--_Ast. Notices_, vol. i.; _Comptes rendus_,
+  Sept. 1852; Paper by Professor Magnus translated in Taylor's _Foreign
+  Scientific Memoirs_, n.s., pt. 3, p. 210; _Ast. Notices_, xiii.
+  221-248; _Theory of Foucault's Gyroscope Experiments_, by the Rev.
+  Baden Powell, F.R.S.; _Ast. Notices_, vol. xv.; articles by Major J.
+  G. Barnard in _Silliman's Journal_, 2nd ser., vols. xxiv. and xxv.; E.
+  Hunt on "Rotatory Motion," _Proc. Phil. Soc. Glasgow_, vol. iv.; J.
+  Clerk Maxwell, "On a Dynamical Top," _Trans. R.S.E._ vol. xxi.; _Phil.
+  Mag._ 4th ser. vols. 7, 13, 14; _Proc. Royal Irish Academy_, vol.
+  viii.; Sir William Thomson on "Gyrostat," _Nature_, xv. 297; G. T.
+  Walker, "The Motion of a Celt," _Quar. Jour. Math._, 1896; G. T.
+  Walker, _Math. Ency._ iv. 1, xi. 1; Gallop, _Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc._
+  xii. 82, pt. 2, 1903, "Rise of a Top"; Price's _Infinitesimal
+  Calculus_, vol. iv.; Worms, _The Earth and its Mechanism_; Routh,
+  _Rigid Dynamics_; A. G. Webster, _Dynamics_ (1904); H. Crabtree,
+  _Spinning Tops and Gyroscopic Motion_ (1909). For a complete list of
+  the mathematical works on the subject of the Gyroscope and Gyrostat
+  from the outset, Professor Cayley's Report to the British Association
+  (1862) on the _Progress of Dynamics_ should be consulted. Modern
+  authors will be found cited in Klein and Sommerfeld, _Theorie des
+  Kreisels_ (1897), and in the _Encyclopädie der mathematischen
+  Wissenschaften_.     (G. G.)
+
+
+
+
+GYTHIUM, the harbour and arsenal of Sparta, from which it was some 30 m.
+distant. The town lay at the N.W. extremity of the Laconian Gulf, in a
+small but fertile plain at the mouth of the Gythius. Its reputed
+founders were Heracles and Apollo, who frequently appear on its coins:
+the former of these names may point to the influence of Phoenician
+traders, who, we know, visited the Laconian shores at a very early
+period. In classical times it was a community of _perioeci_, politically
+dependent on Sparta, though doubtless with a municipal life of its own.
+In 455 B.C., during the first Peloponnesian War, it was burned by the
+Athenian admiral Tolmides. In 370 B.C. Epaminondas besieged it
+unsuccessfully for three days. Its fortifications were strengthened by
+the tyrant Nabis, but in 195 B.C. it was invested and taken by Titus and
+Lucius Quintius Flamininus, and, though recovered by Nabis two or three
+years later, was recaptured immediately after his murder (192 B.C.) by
+Philopoemen and Aulus Atilius and remained in the Achaean League until
+its dissolution in 146 B.C. Subsequently it formed the most important of
+the Eleutherolaconian towns, a group of twenty-four, later eighteen,
+communities leagued together to maintain their autonomy against Sparta
+and declared free by Augustus. The highest officer of the confederacy
+was the general ([Greek: stratêgos]), who was assisted by a treasurer
+([Greek: tamias]), while the chief magistrates of the several
+communities bore the title of ephors ([Greek: ephoroi]).
+
+Pausanias (iii. 21 f.) has left us a description of the town as it
+existed in the reign of Marcus Aurelius, the agora, the Acropolis, the
+island of Cranae (Marathonisi) where Paris celebrated his nuptials with
+Helen, the Migonium or precinct of Aphrodite Migonitis (occupied by the
+modern town of Marathonisi or Gythium), and the hill Larysium (Koumaro)
+rising above it. The numerous remains extant, of which the theatre and
+the buildings partially submerged by the sea are the most noteworthy,
+all belong to the Roman period.
+
+The modern town is a busy and flourishing port with a good harbour
+protected by Cranae, now connected by a mole with the mainland: it is
+the capital of the prefecture ([Greek: nomos]) of [Greek: Lakônikê] with
+a population in 1907 of 61,522.
+
+  See G. Weber, _De Gytheo et Lacedaemoniorum rebus navalibus_
+  (Heidelberg, 1833); W. M. Leake, _Travels in the Morea_, i. 244 foll.;
+  E. Curtius, _Peloponnesos_, ii. 267 foll. Inscriptions: Le
+  Bas-Foucart, _Voyage archéologique_, ii. Nos. 238-248 f.;
+  Collitz-Bechtel, _Sammlung d. griech. Dialekt-Inschriften_, iii. Nos.
+  4562-4573; _British School Annual_, x. 179 foll. Excavations: [Greek:
+  A. Skias, Praktika tês Arch. Hetaireias], 1891, 69 foll.     (M. N. T.)
+
+
+
+
+GYULA-FEHÉRVÁR (Ger. _Karlsburg_), a town of Hungary, in Transylvania,
+in the county of Alsó-Feliér, 73 m. S. of Kolozsvár by rail. Pop. (1900)
+11,507. It is situated on the right bank of the Maros, on the outskirts
+of the Transylvanian Erzgebirge or Ore Mountains, and consists of the
+upper town, or citadel, and the lower town. Gyula-Fehérvár is the seat
+of a Roman Catholic bishop, and has a fine Roman Catholic cathedral,
+built in the 11th century in Romanesque style, and rebuilt in 1443 by
+John Hunyady in Gothic style. It contains among other tombs that of John
+Hunyady. Near the cathedral is the episcopal palace, and in the same
+part of the town is the Batthyaneum, founded by Bishop Count Batthyány
+in 1794. It contains a valuable library with many incunabula and old
+manuscripts, amongst which is one of the _Nibelungenlied_, an
+astronomical observatory, a collection of antiquities, and a mineral
+collection. Gyula-Fehérvár carries on an active trade in cereals, wine
+and cattle.
+
+Gyula-Fehérvár occupies the site of the Roman colony _Apulum_. Many
+Roman relics found here, and in the vicinity, are preserved in the
+museum of the town. The bishopric was founded in the 11th century by
+King Ladislaus I. (1078-1095). In the 16th century, when Transylvania
+separated from Hungary, the town became the residence of the
+Transylvanian princes. From this period dates the castle, and also the
+buildings of the university, founded by Gabriel Bethlen, and now used as
+barracks. After the reversion of Transylvania in 1713 to the Habsburg
+monarchy the actual strong fortress was built in 1716-1735 by the
+emperor Charles VI., whence the German name of the town.
+
+
+
+
+H The eighth symbol in the Phoenician alphabet, as in its descendants,
+has altered less in the course of ages than most alphabetic symbols.
+From the beginning of Phoenician records it has consisted of two
+uprights connected by transverse bars, at first either two or three in
+number. The uprights are rarely perpendicular and the cross bars are not
+so precisely arranged as they are in early Greek and Latin inscriptions.
+In these the symbol takes the form of two rectangles [symbol] out of
+which the ordinary H develops by the omission of the cross bars at top
+and bottom. It is very exceptional for this letter to have more than
+three cross bars, though as many as five are occasionally found in N.W.
+Greece. Within the same inscription the appearance of the letter often
+varies considerably as regards the space between and the length of the
+uprights. When only one bar is found it regularly crosses the uprights
+about the middle. In a few cases the rectangle is closed at top and
+bottom but has no middle cross bar [symbol]. The Phoenician name for the
+letter was Heth (Het). According to Semitic scholars it had two values,
+(1) a glottal spirant, a very strong _h_, (2) an unvoiced velar spirant
+like the German _ch_ in _ach_. The Greeks borrowed it with the value of
+the ordinary aspirate and with the name [Greek: êta]. Very early in
+their history, however, most of the Greeks of Asia Minor lost the
+aspirate altogether, and having then no further use for the symbol with
+this value they adopted it to represent the long _e_-sound, which was
+not originally distinguished by a different symbol from the short sound
+(see E). With this value its name has always been [Greek: êta] in Greek.
+The alphabet of the Asiatic Greeks was gradually adopted elsewhere. In
+official documents at Athens H represented the rough breathing or
+aspirate ' till 403 B.C.; henceforth it was used for [eta]. The Western
+Greeks, however, from whom the Romans obtained their alphabet, retained
+their aspirate longer than those of Asia Minor, and hence the symbol
+came to the Romans with the value not of a long vowel but of the
+aspirate, which it still preserves. The Greek aspirate was itself the
+first or left-hand half of this letter |-, while the smooth breathing '
+was the right-hand portion -|. At Tarentum |- is found for H in
+inscriptions. The Roman aspirate was, however, a very slight sound which
+in some words where it was etymologically correct disappeared at an
+early date. Thus the cognate words of kindred languages show that the
+Lat. _anser_ "goose" ought to begin with _h_, but nowhere is it so
+found. In none of the Romance languages is there any trace of initial or
+medial _h_, which shows that vulgar Latin had ceased to have the
+aspirate by 240 B.C. The Roman grammarians were guided to its presence
+by the Sabine forms where _f_ occurred; as the Sabines said _fasena_
+(sand), it was recognised that the Roman form ought to be _harena_, and
+so for _haedus_ (goat), _hordeum_ (barley), &c. Between vowels _h_ was
+lost very early, for _ne-hemo_ (no man) is throughout the literature
+_nemo_, _bi-himus_ (two winters old) _bimus_. In the Ciceronian age
+greater attention was paid to reproducing the Greek aspirates in
+borrowed words, and this led to absurd mistakes in Latin words, mistakes
+which were satirized by Catullus in his epigram (84) upon Arrius, who
+said _chommoda_ for _commoda_ and _hinsidias_ for _insidias_. In Umbrian
+_h_ was often lost, and also used without etymological value to mark
+length, as in _comohota_ (= Lat. _commota_), a practice to which there
+are some doubtful parallels in Latin.
+
+In English the history of _h_ is very similar to that in Latin. While
+the parts above the glottis are in position to produce a vowel, an
+aspirate is produced without vibration of the vocal chords, sometimes,
+like the pronunciation of Arrius, with considerable effort as a reaction
+against the tendency to "drop the h's." Though _h_ survives in Scotland,
+Ireland and America as well as in the speech of cultivated persons, the
+sound in most of the vulgar dialects is entirely lost. Where it is not
+ordinarily lost, it disappears in unaccented syllables, as "_Give it
+'im_" and the like. Where it is lost, conscious attempts to restore it
+on the part of uneducated speakers lead to absurd misplacements of _h_
+and to its restoration in Romance words when it never was pronounced, as
+_humble_ (now recognized as standard English), _humour_ and even
+_honour_.     (P. Gi.)
+
+
+
+
+HAAG, CARL (1820-   ), a naturalized British painter, court painter to
+the duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, was born in Bavaria, and was trained
+in the academies at Nuremburg and Munich. He practised first as an
+illustrator and as a painter, in oil, of portraits and architectural
+subjects; but after he settled in England, in 1847, he devoted himself
+to water colours, and was elected associate of the Royal Society of
+Painters in Water Colours in 1850 and member in 1853. He travelled much,
+especially in the East, and made a considerable reputation by his firmly
+drawn and carefully elaborated paintings of Eastern subjects. Towards
+the end of his professional career Carl Haag quitted England and
+returned to Germany.
+
+  See _A History of the "Old Water-Colour" Society, now the Royal
+  Society of Painters in Water Colours_, by John Lewis Roget (2 vols.,
+  London, 1891).
+
+
+
+
+HAAKON (Old Norse _Hákon_), the name of several kings of Norway, of whom
+the most important are the following:--
+
+HAAKON I., surnamed "the Good" (d. 961), was the youngest son of Harald
+Haarfager. He was fostered by King Aethelstan of England, who brought
+him up in the Christian religion, and on the news of his father's death
+in 933 provided him with ships and men for an expedition against his
+half-brother Erik, who had been proclaimed king. On his arrival in
+Norway Haakon gained the support of the landowners by promising to give
+up the rights of taxation claimed by his father over inherited real
+property. Erik fled, and was killed a few years later in England. His
+sons allied themselves with the Danes, but were invariably defeated by
+Haakon, who was successful in everything he undertook except in his
+attempt to introduce Christianity, which aroused an opposition he did
+not feel strong enough to face. He was killed at the battle of Fitje in
+961, after a final victory over Erik's sons. So entirely did even his
+immediate circle ignore his religion that a court skald composed a poem
+on his death representing his welcome by the heathen gods into Valhalla.
+
+HAAKON IV., surnamed "the Old" (1204-1263), was declared to be the son
+of Haakon III., who died shortly before the former's birth in 1204. A
+year later the child was placed under the protection of King Inge, after
+whose death in 1217 he was chosen king; though until 1223 the church
+refused to recognize him, on the ground of illegitimacy, and the Pope's
+dispensation for his coronation was not gained until much later. In the
+earlier part of his reign much of the royal power was in the hands of
+Earl Skule, who intrigued against the king until 1239, when he proceeded
+to open hostility and was put to death. From this time onward Haakon's
+reign was marked by more peace and prosperity than Norway had known for
+many years, until in 1263 a dispute with the Scottish king concerning
+the Hebrides, a Norwegian possession, induced Haakon to undertake an
+expedition to the west of Scotland. A division of his army seems to have
+repulsed a large Scottish force at Largs (though the later Scottish
+accounts claim this battle as a victory), and, having won back the
+Norwegian possessions in Scotland, Haakon was wintering in the Orkneys,
+when he was taken ill and died on the 15th of December 1263. A great
+part of his fleet had been scattered and destroyed by storms. The most
+important event in his reign was the voluntary submission of the
+Icelandic commonwealth. Worn out by internal strife fostered by Haakon's
+emissaries, the Icelandic chiefs acknowledged the Norwegian king as
+overlord in 1262. Their example was followed by the colony of Greenland.
+
+HAAKON VII. (1872-   ), the second son of Frederick VIII., king of
+Denmark, was born on the 3rd of August 1872, and was usually known as
+Prince Charles of Denmark. When in 1905 Norway decided to separate
+herself from Sweden the Norwegians offered their crown to Charles, who
+accepted it and took the name of Haakon VII., being crowned at Trondhjem
+in June 1906. The king married Maud, youngest daughter of Edward VII.,
+king of Great Britain, their son, Prince Olav, being born in 1903.
+
+
+
+
+HAARLEM, a town of Holland in the province of North Holland, on the
+Spaarne, having a junction station 11 m. by rail W. of Amsterdam. It is
+connected by electric and steam tramways with Zandvoort, Leiden,
+Amsterdam and Alkmaar. Pop. (1900) 65,189. Haarlem is the seat of the
+governor of the province of North Holland, and of a Roman Catholic and a
+Jansenist bishopric. In appearance it is a typical Dutch town, with
+numerous narrow canals and quaintly gabled houses. Of the ancient city
+gates the Spaarnewouder or Amsterdam gate alone remains. Gardens and
+promenades have taken the place of the old ramparts, and on the south
+the city is bounded by the Frederiks and the Flora parks, between which
+runs the fine avenue called the Dreef, leading to the Haarlemmer Hout or
+wood. In the Frederiks Park is a pump-room supplied with a powerful
+chalybeate water from a spring, the Wilhelminabron, in the Haarlemmer
+Polder not far distant, and in connexion with this there is an
+orthopaedic institution adjoining. In the great market place in the
+centre of the city are gathered together the larger number of the most
+interesting buildings, including the quaint old Fleshers' Hall, built by
+Lieven de Key in 1603, and now containing the archives; the town hall;
+the old Stadsdoelen, where the burgesses met in arms; the Groote Kerk,
+or Great Church; and the statue erected in 1856 to Laurenz Janszoon
+Koster, the printer. The Great Church, dedicated to St Bavo, with a
+lofty tower (255 ft.), is one of the most famous in Holland, and dates
+from the end of the 15th and the beginning of the 16th centuries. Its
+great length (460 ft.) and the height and steepness of its vaulted
+cedar-wood roof (1538) are very impressive. The choir-stalls and screen
+(1510) are finely carved, and of further interest are the ancient pulpit
+sounding-board (1432), some old stained glass, and the small models of
+ships, copies dating from 1638 of yet earlier models originally
+presented by the Dutch-Swedish Trading Company. The church organ was
+long considered the largest and finest in existence. It was constructed
+by Christian Müller in 1738, and has 4 keyboards, 64 registers and 5000
+pipes, the largest of which is 15 in. in diameter and 32 ft. long. Among
+the monuments in the church are those of the poet Willem Bilderdyk (d.
+1831) and the engineer Frederik Willem Conrad (d. 1808), who designed
+the sea-sluices at Katwyk. In the belfry are the _damiaatjes_, small
+bells presented to the town, according to tradition, by William I.,
+count of Holland (d. 1222), the crusader. The town hall was originally a
+palace of the counts of Holland, begun in the 12th century, and some old
+13th-century beams still remain; but the building was remodelled in the
+beginning of the 17th century. It contains a collection of antiquities
+(including some beautiful goblets) and a picture gallery which, though
+small, is celebrated for its fine collection of paintings by Frans Hals.
+The town library contains several _incunabula_ and an interesting
+collection of early Dutch literature. At the head of the scientific
+institutions of Haarlem may be placed the Dutch Society of Sciences
+(_Hollandsche Maatschappij van Wetenschappen_), founded in 1752, which
+possesses valuable collections in botany, natural history and geology.
+Teyler's Stichting (i.e. foundation), enlarged in modern times, was
+instituted by the will of Pieter Teyler van der Hulst (d. 1778), a
+wealthy merchant, for the study of theology, natural science and art,
+and has lecture-theatres, a large library, and a museum containing a
+physical and a geological cabinet, as well as a collection of paintings,
+including many modern pictures, and a valuable collection of drawings
+and engravings by old masters. The Dutch Society for the Promotion of
+Industry (_Nederlaandsche Maatschappij ter Bevordering van Nijverheid_),
+founded in 1777, has its seat in the Pavilion Welgelegen, a villa on the
+south side of the Frederiks Park, built by the Amsterdam banker John
+Hope in 1778, and afterwards acquired by Louis Bonaparte, king of
+Holland. The colonial museum and the museum of industrial art were
+established in this villa by the society in 1871 and 1877 respectively.
+Besides these there are a museum of ecclesiastical antiquities, chiefly
+relating to the bishopric of Haarlem; the old weigh-house (1598) and the
+orphanage for girls (1608), originally an almshouse for old men, both
+built by the architect Lieven de Key of Ghent.
+
+The staple industries of Haarlem have been greatly modified in the
+course of time. Cloth weaving and brewing, which once flourished
+exceedingly, declined in the beginning of the 16th century. A century
+later, silk, lace and damask weaving were introduced by French refugees,
+and became very important industries. But about the close of the 18th
+century this remarkable prosperity had also come to an end, and it was
+not till after the Belgian revolution of 1830-1831 that Haarlem began to
+develop the manufactures in which it is now chiefly engaged. Cotton
+manufacture, dyeing, printing, bleaching, brewing, type-founding, and
+the manufacture of tram and railway carriages are among the more
+important of its industries. One of the printing establishments has the
+reputation of being the oldest in the Netherlands, and publishes the
+oldest Dutch paper, _De Opragte Haarlemmer Courant_. Market-gardening,
+especially horticulture, is extensively practised in the vicinity, so
+that Haarlem is the seat of a large trade in Dutch bulbs, especially
+hyacinths, tulips, fritillaries, spiraeas and japonicas.
+
+Haarlem, which was a prosperous place in the middle of the 12th century,
+received its first town charter from William II., count of Holland and
+king of the Romans, in 1245. It played a considerable part in the wars
+of Holland with the Frisians. In 1492 it was captured by the insurgent
+peasants of North Holland, was re-taken by the duke of Saxony, the
+imperial stadholder, and deprived of its privileges. In 1572 Haarlem
+joined the revolt of the Netherlands against Spain, but on the 13th of
+July 1573, after a seven months' siege, was forced to surrender to
+Alva's son Frederick, who exacted terrible vengeance. In 1577 it was
+again captured by William of Orange and permanently incorporated in the
+United Netherlands.
+
+  See Karl Hegel, _Städte und Gilden_ (Leipzig, 1891); Allan,
+  _Geschiedenis en beschrijving van Haarlem_ (Haarlem, 1871-1888).
+
+
+
+
+HAARLEM LAKE (Dutch _Harlemmer Meer_), a commune of the province of
+North Holland, constituted by the law of the 16th of July 1855. It has
+an area of about 46,000 acres, and its population increased from 7237 in
+1860 to 16,621 in 1900. As its name indicates, the commune was formerly
+a lake, which is said to have been a relic of a northern arm of the
+Rhine which passed through the district in the time of the Romans. In
+1531 the Haarlemmer Meer had an area of 6430 acres, and in its vicinity
+were three smaller sheets of water--the Leidsche Meer or Leiden Lake,
+the Spiering Meer, and the Oude Meer or Old Lake, with a united area of
+about 7600 acres. The four lakes were formed into one by successive
+inundations, whole villages disappearing in the process, and by 1647 the
+new Haarlem Lake had an area of about 37,000 acres, which a century
+later had increased to over 42,000 acres. As early as 1643 Jan
+Adriaanszoon Leeghwater proposed to endike and drain the lake; and
+similar schemes, among which those of Nikolaas Samuel Cruquius in 1742
+and of Baron van Lijnden van Hemmen in 1820 are worthy of special
+mention, were brought forward from time to time. But it was not till a
+furious hurricane in November 1836 drove the waters as far as the gates
+of Amsterdam, and another on Christmas Day sent them in the opposite
+direction to submerge the streets of Leiden, that the mind of the nation
+was seriously turned to the matter. In August 1837 the king appointed a
+royal commission of inquiry; the scheme proposed by the commission
+received the sanction of the Second Chamber in March 1839, and in the
+following May the work was begun. A canal was first dug round the lake
+for the reception of the water and the accommodation of the great
+traffic which had previously been carried on. This canal was 38 m. in
+length, 123-146 ft. wide, and 8 ft. deep, and the earth which was taken
+out of it was used to build a dike from 30 to 54 yds. broad containing
+the lake. The area enclosed by the canal was rather more than 70 sq. m.,
+and the average depth of the lake 13 ft. 1½ in., and as the water had no
+natural outfall it was calculated that probably 1000 million tons would
+have to be raised by mechanical means. This amount was 200 million tons
+in excess of that actually discharged. Pumping by steam-engines began in
+1848, and the lake was dry by the 1st of July 1852. At the first sale of
+the highest lands along the banks on the 16th of August 1853, about £28
+per acre was paid; but the average price afterwards was less. The whole
+area of 42,096 acres recovered from the waters brought in 9,400,000
+florins, or about £780,000, exactly covering the cost of the enterprise;
+so that the actual cost to the nation was only the amount of the
+interest on the capital, or about £368,000. The soil is of various
+kinds, loam, clay, sand and peat; most of it is sufficiently fertile,
+though in the lower portions there are barren patches where the scanty
+vegetation is covered with an ochreous deposit. Mineral springs occur
+containing a very high percentage (3.245 grams per litre) of common
+salt; and in 1893 a company was formed for working them. Corn, seeds,
+cattle, butter and cheese are the principal produce. The roads which
+traverse the commune are bordered by pleasant-looking farm-houses built
+after the various styles of Holland, Friesland or Brabant. Hoofddorp,
+Venneperdorp or Nieuw Vennep, Abbenes and the vicinities of the
+pumping-stations are the spots where the population has clustered most
+thickly. The first church was built in 1855; in 1877 there were seven.
+In 1854 the city of Leiden laid claim to the possession of the new
+territory, but the courts decided in favour of the nation.
+
+
+
+
+HAASE, FRIEDRICH (1827-   ), German actor, was born on the 1st of
+November 1827, in Berlin, the son of a valet to King Frederick William
+IV., who became his godfather. He was educated for the stage under
+Ludwig Tieck and made his first appearance in 1846 in Weimar, afterwards
+acting at Prague (1849-1851) and Karlsruhe (1852-1855). From 1860 to
+1866 he played in St Petersburg, then was manager of the court theatre
+in Coburg, and in 1869 (and again in 1882-1883) visited the United
+States. He was manager of the Stadt Theater in Leipzig from 1870 to
+1876, when he removed to Berlin, where he devoted his energies to the
+foundation and management of the Deutsches Theater. He finally retired
+from the stage in 1898. Haase's aristocratic appearance and elegant
+manner fitted him specially to play high comedy parts. His chief rôles
+were those of Rocheferrier in the _Partie Piquet_; Richelieu; Savigny in
+_Der feiner Diplomat_, and der Fürst in _Der geheime Agent_. He is the
+author of _Ungeschminkte Briefe and Was ich erlebte 1846-1898_ (Berlin,
+1898).
+
+  See Simon, _Friedrich Haase_ (Berlin, 1898).
+
+
+
+
+HAASE, FRIEDRICH GOTTLOB (1808-1867), German classical scholar, was born
+at Magdeburg on the 4th of January 1808. Having studied at Halle,
+Greifswald and Berlin, he obtained in 1834 an appointment at
+Schulpforta, from which he was suspended and sentenced to six years'
+imprisonment for identifying himself with the _Burschenschaften_
+(students' associations). Having been released after serving one year of
+his sentence, he visited Paris, and on his return in 1840 he was
+appointed professor at Breslau, where he remained till his death on the
+16th of August 1867. He was undoubtedly one of the most successful
+teachers of his day in Germany, and exercised great influence upon all
+his pupils.
+
+  He edited several classic authors: Xenophon ([Greek: Lakedaimoniôn
+  politeia], 1833); Thucydides (1840); Velleius Paterculus (1858);
+  Seneca the philosopher (2nd ed., 1872, not yet superseded); and
+  Tacitus (1855), the introduction to which is a masterpiece of
+  Latinity. His _Vorlesungen über lateinische Sprachwissenschaft_ was
+  published after his death by F. A. Eckstein and H. Peter (1874-1880).
+  See C Bursian, _Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in Deutschland_
+  (1883); G. Fickert, _Friderici Haasii memoria_ (1868), with a list of
+  works; T. Oelsner in _Rübezahl (Schlesische Provinzialblätter)_, vii.
+  Heft 3 (Breslau, 1868).
+
+
+
+
+HAAST, SIR JOHANN FRANZ JULIUS VON (1824-1887), German and British
+geologist, was born at Bonn on the 1st of May 1824. He received his
+early education partly in that town and partly in Cologne, and then
+entered the university at Bonn, where he made a special study of geology
+and mineralogy. In 1858 he started for New Zealand to report on the
+suitability of the colony for German emigrants. He then became
+acquainted with Dr von Hochstetter, and rendered assistance to him in
+the preliminary geological survey which von Hochstetter had undertaken.
+Afterwards Dr Haast accepted offers from the governments of Nelson and
+Canterbury to investigate the geology of those districts, and the
+results of his detailed labours greatly enriched our knowledge with
+regard to the rocky structure, the glacial phenomena and the economic
+products. He discovered gold and coal in Nelson, and he carried on
+important researches with reference to the occurrence of _Dinornis_ and
+other extinct wingless birds (Moas). His _Geology of the Provinces of
+Canterbury and Westland, N.Z._, was published in 1879. He was the
+founder of the Canterbury museum at Christchurch, of which he became
+director, and which he endeavoured to render the finest collection in
+the southern hemisphere. He was surveyor-general of Canterbury from 1861
+to 1871, and professor of geology at Canterbury College. He was elected
+F.R.S. in 1867; and he was knighted for his services at the time of the
+colonial exhibition in London in 1887. He died at Wellington, N.Z., on
+the 15th of August 1887.
+
+
+
+
+HABABS (AZ-HIBBEHS), a nomadic pastoral people of Hamitic stock, living
+in the coast region north-west of Massawa. Physically they are Beja, by
+language and traditions Abyssinians. They were Christians until the 19th
+century, but are now Mahommedans. Their sole wealth consists in cattle.
+
+
+
+
+HABAKKUK, the name borne by the eighth book of the Old Testament "Minor
+Prophets." It occurs twice in the book itself (i. 1, iii. 1) in titles,
+but nowhere else in the Old Testament. The meaning of the name is
+uncertain. If Hebrew, it might be derived from the root [Hebrew: habak]
+(to embrace) as an intensive term of affection. It has also been
+connected more plausibly with an Assyrian plant name, _[h)]ambakuku_
+(Delitzsch, _Assyrisches Handwörterbuch_, p. 281). The Septuagint has
+[Greek: Ambakoum]. Of the person designated, no more is known than may
+be inferred from the writing which bears his name. Various legends are
+connected with him, of which the best known is given in the Apocryphal
+story of "Bel and the Dragon" (v. 33-39); but none of these has any
+historic value.[1]
+
+The book itself falls into three obvious parts, viz. (1) a dialogue
+between the prophet and God (i. 2-ii. 4); (2) a series of five woes
+pronounced on wickedness (ii. 5-ii. 20); (3) a poem describing the
+triumphant manifestation of God (iii.). There is considerable difficulty
+in regard to the interpretation of (1), on which that of (2) will turn;
+while (3) forms an independent section, to be considered separately.
+
+In the dialogue, the prophet cries to God against continued violence and
+injustice, though it is not clear whether this is done _within_ or _to_
+Israel (i. 2-4). The divine answer declares that God raises up the
+Chaldaeans, whose formidable resources are invincible (i. 5-11). The
+prophet thereupon calls God's attention to the tyranny which He
+apparently allows to triumph, and declares his purpose to wait till an
+answer is given to his complaint (i. 12-ii. 2). God answers by demanding
+patience, and by declaring that the righteous shall live by his
+faithfulness (ii. 3-4).
+
+The interpretation of this dialogue which first suggests itself is that
+the prophet is referring to wickedness _within_ the nation, which is to
+be punished by the Chaldaeans as a divine instrument; in the process,
+the tyranny of the instrument itself calls for punishment, which the
+prophet is bidden to await in patient fidelity. On this view of the
+dialogue, the subsequent woes will be pronounced against the Chaldaeans,
+and the date assigned to the prophecy will be about 600 B.C., i.e. soon
+after the battle of Carchemish (605 B.C.), when the Chaldaean victory
+over Egypt inaugurated a period of Chaldaean supremacy which lasted till
+the Chaldaeans themselves were overthrown by Cyrus in 538 B.C. Grave
+objections, however, confront this interpretation, as is admitted even
+by such recent defenders of it as Davidson and Driver. Is it likely that
+a prophet would begin a complaint against Chaldaean tyranny (admittedly
+central in the prophecy) by complaining of that wickedness of his
+fellow-countrymen which seems partly to justify it? Are not the terms of
+reference in i. 2 f. and 1. 12 f. too similar for the supposition that
+two distinct, even contradictory, complaints are being made (cf.
+"wicked" and "righteous" in i. 4 and i. 13, interchanged in regard to
+Israel, on above theory)? And if i. 5-11 is a genuine _prophecy_ of the
+raising up of the Chaldaeans, whence comes that long experience of their
+rule required to explain the _detailed_ denunciation of their tyranny?
+To meet the last objection, Davidson supposes i. 5-11 to be really a
+reference to the past, prophetic in form only, and brings down the whole
+section to a later period of Chaldaean rule, "hardly, one would think,
+before the deportation of the people under Jehoiachin in 597" (p. 49).
+Driver prefers to bisect the dialogue by supposing i. 2-11 to be written
+at an earlier period than i. 12 f. (p. 57). The other objections,
+however, remain, and have provoked a variety of theories from Old
+Testament scholars, of which three call for special notice. (1) The
+first of these, represented by Giesebrecht,[2] Nowack and Wellhausen,
+refers i. 2-4 to Chaldaean oppression of Israel, the same subject being
+continued in i. 12 f. Obviously, the reference to the Chaldaeans as a
+divine instrument could not then stand in its present place, and it is
+accordingly regarded as a misplaced earlier prophecy. This is the
+minimum of critical procedure required to do justice to the facts. (2)
+Budde, followed by Cornill, also regards i. 2-4 as referring to the
+oppression of Israel by a foreign tyrant, whom, however, he holds to be
+Assyria. He also removes i. 5-11 from its present place, but makes it
+part of the divine answer, following ii. 4. On this view, the Chaldaeans
+are the divine instrument for punishing the tyranny of the Assyrians, to
+whom the following woes will therefore refer. The date would fall
+between Josiah's reformation (621) and his death (609). This is a
+plausible and even attractive theory; its weakness seems to lie in the
+absence of any positive evidence in the prophecy itself, as is
+illustrated by the fact that even G. A. Smith, who follows it, suggests
+"Egypt from 608-605" as an alternative to Assyria (p. 124). (3) Marti
+(1904) abandons the attempt to explain the prophecy as a unity, and
+analyses it into three elements, viz. (a) The original prophecy by
+Habakkuk, consisting of i. 5-10, 14 f., belonging to the year 605, and
+representing the emergent power of the Chaldaeans as a divine scourge of
+the faithless people; (b) Woes against the Chaldaeans, presupposing not
+only tyrannous rule over many peoples, but the beginning of their
+decline and fall, and therefore of date about 540 B.C. (ii. 5-19); (c) A
+psalm of post-exilic origin, whose fragments, i. 2-4, 12 a, 13, ii. 1-4,
+have been incorporated into the present text from the margins on which
+they were written, its subject being the suffering of the righteous.
+Each of these three theories[3] encounters difficulties of detail; none
+can be said to have secured a dominant position. The great variety of
+views amongst competent critics is significant of the difficulty of the
+problem, which can hardly be regarded as yet solved; this divergence of
+opinion perhaps points to the impossibility of maintaining the unity of
+chs. i. and ii., and throws the balance of probability towards some such
+analysis as that of Marti, which is therefore accepted in the present
+article.
+
+In regard to the poem which forms the third and closing chapter of the
+present book of Habakkuk, there is much more general agreement. Its most
+striking characteristic lies in the superscription ("A prayer of
+Habakkuk the prophet, set to Shigionoth"), the subscription ("For the
+chief musician, on my stringed instruments"), and the insertion of the
+musical term "Selah" in three places (v. 3, 9, 13). These liturgical
+notes make extremely probable the supposition that the poem has been
+taken from some collection like that of our present book of Psalms,
+probably on the ground of the authorship asserted by the superscription
+there attached to it. It cannot, however, be said that the poem itself
+supports this assertion, which carries no more intrinsic weight than
+the Davidic titles of the Psalms. The poem begins with a prayer that God
+will renew the historic manifestation of the exodus, which inaugurated
+the national history and faith; a thunderstorm moving up from the south
+is then described, in which God is revealed (3-7); it is asked whether
+this manifestation, whose course is further described, is against nature
+only (8-11); the answer is given that it is for the salvation of Israel
+against its wicked foes (12-15); the poet describes the effect in terror
+upon himself (16) and declares his confidence in God, even in utter
+agricultural adversity (17-19). As Wellhausen says (p. 171): "The poet
+appears to believe that in the very act of describing enthusiastically
+the ancient deed of deliverance, he brings home to us the new; we are
+left sometimes in doubt whether he speaks of the past to suggest the new
+by analogy, or whether he is concerned directly with the future, and
+simply paints it with the colours of the past." In any case, there is
+nothing in this fine poem to connect it with the conception of the
+Chaldaeans as a divine instrument. It is the nation that speaks through
+the poet (cf. v. 14), but at what period of its post-exilic history we
+have no means of inferring.
+
+Our estimate of the theological teaching of this book will naturally be
+influenced by the particular critical theory which is adopted. The
+reduction of the book to four originally independent sections requires
+that the point of each be stated separately. When this is done, it will,
+however, be found that there is a broad unity of subject, and of natural
+development in its treatment, such as to some extent justifies the
+instinct or the judgment of those who were instrumental in effecting the
+combination of the separate parts. (1) The poem (iii.), though possibly
+latest in date,[4] claims first consideration, because it avowedly moves
+in the circle of primitive ideas, and supplicates a divine intervention,
+a direct and immediate manifestation of the transcendent God. He is
+conceived as controlling or overcoming the forces of nature; and though
+an earlier mythology has supplied some of the ideas, yet, as with the
+opening chapters of Genesis, they are transfigured by the moral purpose
+which animates them, the purpose to subdue all things that could
+frustrate the destiny of God's anointed (v. 13). The closing verses
+strike that deep note of absolute dependence on God, which is the glory
+of the religion of the Old Testament and its chief contribution to the
+spirit of the Gospels. (2) The prophecy of the Chaldaeans as the
+instruments of the divine purpose involves a different, yet related,
+conception of the divine providence. The philosophy of history, by which
+Hebrew prophets could read a deep moral significance into national
+disaster and turn the flank of resistless attack, became one of the most
+important elements in the nation's faith. If the world-powers were hard
+as flint in their dealings with Israel, the people of God were steeled
+to such moral endurance that each clash of their successive onsets
+kindled some new flame of devotion. Through the Chaldaeans God worked a
+work which required centuries of life and literature to disclose its
+fulness (i. 5). (3) When we turn from this view of the Chaldaeans to the
+denunciation of their tyranny in "taunt songs" (ii. 5-20), we have
+simply a practical application of the doctrine of divine government. God
+being what He is, at once moral and all-powerful, the immoral life is
+doomed to overthrow, whether the immorality consist in grasping
+rapacity, proud self-aggrandizement, cruel exaction, exulting triumph or
+senseless idolatry. (4) Yet, because the doom so often tarries, there
+arises the problem of the suffering of the innocent and the upright. How
+can God look down with tolerance that seems favour on so much that
+conflicts with His declared will and character? This is the great
+problem of Israel, finding its supreme expression for all time in the
+book of Job (q.v.). In that book the solution of the problem of innocent
+suffering lies hidden from the sufferer, even to the end, for he is not
+admitted with the reader to the secret of the prologue; it is the
+practical solution of faithfulness resting on faith which is offered to
+us. So here, with the principle of ii. 4, "the righteous shall live by
+his faithfulness." The different application of these words in the New
+Testament to "faith" is well known (Rom. i. 17; Gal. iii. 11; Heb. x.
+38) though the difference is apt to be exaggerated by those who forget
+how much of the element of [Hebrew: emuna]: lies in Paul's conception of
+[Greek: pistis]. In G. A. Smith's words, "as Paul's adaptation, 'the
+just shall live by faith,' has become the motto of evangelical
+Christianity, so we may say that Habakkuk's original of it has been the
+motto and the fame of Judaism: 'the righteous shall live by his
+faithfulness.'"
+
+  The Hebrew text of this impressive and varied book is unfortunately
+  corrupt in many places; even so cautious a critic as Driver accepts or
+  favourably notices eighteen textual emendations in the three chapters,
+  and suspects the text in at least seven other cases. For the
+  interpretation of the book in detail, the English reader will find
+  Driver's commentary (1906) the most useful.
+
+  References to earlier literature will be found in the following
+  noteworthy studies of recent date: Davidson, "Nahum, Habakkuk and
+  Zephaniah," in _Cambridge Bible_ (1896); Nowack, _Die kleinen
+  Propheten_ (Hdkr.) (1897); Wellhausen, _Die kleinen Propheten_^3
+  (1898); G. A. Smith, "The Book of the Twelve Prophets," in _The
+  Expositor's Bible_, vol. ii. (1898); Driver, article "Habakkuk" in
+  Hastings' _Dictionary of the Bible_, vol. ii. pp. 269-272 (1900);
+  Budde, article "Habakkuk" in _Ency. Biblica_, vol. ii., c. 1921-1928
+  (1901); Stevenson, "The Interpretation of Habakkuk," in _The
+  Expositor_ (1902), pp. 388-401; Peake, _The Problem of Suffering in
+  the Old Testament_ (1904), pp. 4-11 and app. A, "Recent Criticism of
+  Habakkuk"; Marti, _Dodekapropheton_ (K. H. C.) (1904); Driver, "Minor
+  Prophets," vol. ii., in _Century Bible_ (1906); Duhm, _Das Buch
+  Habakkuk_ (Text, Übersetzung und Efklärung), 1906 (regards the book as
+  a unity belonging to the time of Alexander the Great). Max L. Margolis
+  discusses the anonymous Greek version of Habakkuk iii. in a volume of
+  _Old Test. and Semitic Studies: in Memory of William Rainey Harper_
+  (Chicago, 1908).     (H. W. R.*)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] These legends are collected in Hastings, D. B. vol. ii. p. 272.
+    He is the watchman of Is. xxi. 6 (cf. Hab. ii. 1); the son of the
+    Shunammite (2 Kings iv. 16); and is miraculously lifted by his hair
+    to carry his own dinner to Daniel in the lions' den (_supra_).
+
+  [2] Followed by Peake in _The Problem of Suffering_, pp. 4 f., 151
+    f., to whose appendix (A) reference may be made for further details
+    of recent criticism.
+
+  [3] For the less probable theories of Rothstein, Lauterburg, Happel
+    and Peiser (amongst others), cf. Marti's _Commentary_, pp. 328 f. and
+    332. Stevenson (_The Expositor_, 1902) states clearly the
+    difficulties for those who regard ch. i. as a unity. He sees two
+    independent sections, 2-4 + 12-13, and 5-11 + 14-17.
+
+  [4] Earlier, however, than Ps. lxxvii. 17-20, which is drawn from it.
+
+
+
+
+HABDALA (lit. "separation"), a Hebrew term chiefly appropriated to
+ceremonies at the conclusion of Sabbath and festivals, marking the
+separation between times sacred and secular. On the Saturday night the
+ceremony consists of three items: (a) benediction over a cup of wine
+(common to many other Jewish functions); (b) benediction over a lighted
+taper, of which possibly the origin is utilitarian, as no light might be
+kindled on the Sabbath day, but the rite may be symbolical; and (c)
+benediction over a box of sweet-smelling spices. The origin of the
+latter has been traced to the bowl of burning spice which in Talmudic
+times was introduced after each meal. But here too symbolic ideas must
+be taken into account. Both the light and the spices would readily fit
+into the conception of the Sabbath "Over-soul" of the mystics. (I. A.)
+
+
+
+
+HABEAS CORPUS, in English law, a writ issued out of the High Court of
+Justice commanding the person to whom it is directed to bring the body
+of a person in his custody before that or some other court for a
+specified purpose.
+
+There are various forms of the writ, of which the most famous is that
+known as _habeas corpus ad subjiciendum_, the well-established remedy
+for violation of personal liberty. From the earliest records of the
+English law no free man could be detained in custody except on a
+criminal charge or conviction or for a civil debt. That right is
+expressed in the Great Charter in the words: "_Nullus liber homo
+capiatur vel imprisonetur aut dissaisietur aut utlagetur, aut exuletur
+aut aliquo modo destruatur nec super eum ibimus nec super eum mittemus,
+nisi per legale judicium parium suorum, vel per legem terrae._"[1] The
+writ is a remedial mandatory writ of right existing by the common law,
+i.e. it is one of the extraordinary remedies--such as _mandamus_,
+_certiorari_ and prohibitions, which the superior courts may grant.
+While "of right," it is not "of course," and is granted only on
+application to the High Court or a judge thereof, supported by a sworn
+statement of facts setting up at least a probable case of illegal
+confinement. It is addressed to the person in whose custody another is
+detained, and commands him to bring his prisoner before the court
+immediately after the receipt of the writ, together with the day and
+cause of his being taken and detained, to undergo and receive (_ad
+subjiciendum et recipiendum_) whatsoever the court awarding the writ
+"may consider of concerning him in that behalf."
+
+It is often stated that the writ is founded on the article of the Great
+Charter already quoted; but there are extant instances of the issue of
+writs of _habeas corpus_ before the charter. Other writs having somewhat
+similar effect were in use at an early date, e.g. the writ _de odio et
+atiâ_, used as early as the 12th century to prevent imprisonment on
+vexatious appeals of felony, and the writ of mainprise (_de
+manucaptione_), long obsolete if not abolished in England but which it
+was attempted to use in India so late as 1870. In the ease of
+imprisonment on accusation of crime the writ issued from the court of
+king's bench (or from the chancery), and on its return the court judged
+of the legality of the imprisonment, and discharged the prisoner or
+admitted him to bail or remanded him to his former custody according to
+the result of the examination.
+
+By the time of Charles I. the writ was fully established as the
+appropriate process for checking illegal imprisonment by inferior courts
+or by public officials. But it acquired its full and present
+constitutional importance by legislation.
+
+In Darnel's case (1627) the judges held that the command of the king was
+a sufficient answer to a writ of _habeas corpus_. The House of Commons
+thereupon passed resolutions to the contrary, and after a conference
+with the House of Lords the measure known as the Petition of Right was
+passed (1627, 3 Car. I. c. i.) which, inter alia, recited (s. 5) that,
+contrary to the Great Charter and the good laws and statutes of the
+realm, divers of the king's subjects had of late been imprisoned without
+any cause shown, and when they were brought up on _habeas corpus ad
+subjiciendum_, and no cause was shown other than the special command of
+the king signified by the privy council, were nevertheless remanded to
+prison, and enacted "that no freeman in any such manner as is before
+mentioned be imprisoned or detained." The Petition of Right was
+disregarded in Selden's case (1629), when it was successfully returned
+to a _habeas corpus_ that Selden and others were committed by the king's
+special command "for notable contempts against the king and his
+government and for stirring up sedition against him."[2] This led to
+legislation in 1640 by which, after abolishing the Star Chamber, the
+right to a _habeas corpus_ was given to test the legality of commitments
+by command or warrant of the king or the privy council.[3]
+
+The reign of Charles II. was marked by further progress towards securing
+the freedom of the subject from wrongful imprisonment. Lord Clarendon
+was impeached, _inter alia_, for causing many persons to be imprisoned
+against law and to be conveyed in custody to places outside England. In
+1668 a writ of _habeas corpus_ was issued to test the legality of an
+imprisonment in Jersey. Though the authority of the courts had been
+strengthened by the Petition of Right and the act of 1640, it was still
+rendered insufficient by reason of the insecurity of judicial tenure,
+the fact that only the chancellor (a political as well as a legal
+officer) and the court of king's bench had undoubted right to issue the
+writ, and the inability or hesitation of the competent judges to issue
+the writ except during the legal term, which did not cover more than
+half the year. A series of bills was passed through the Commons between
+1668 and 1675, only to be rejected by the other House. In Jenkes's case
+(1676) Lord Chancellor Nottingham refused to issue the writ in vacation
+in a case in which a man had been committed by the king in council for a
+speech at Guildhall, and could get neither bail nor trial. In 1679, but
+rather in consequence of Lord Clarendon's arbitrary proceedings[4] than
+of Jenkes's case, a fresh bill was introduced which passed both Houses
+(it is said the upper House by the counting of one stout peer as ten)
+and became the famous Habeas Corpus Act of 1679 (31 Car. II. c. 2). The
+passing of the act was largely due to the experience and energy of Lord
+Shaftesbury, after whom it was for some time called. The act, while a
+most important landmark in the constitutional history of England, in no
+sense creates any right to personal freedom, but is essentially a
+procedure act for improving the legal mechanism by means of which that
+acknowledged right may be enforced.[5] It declares no principles and
+defines no rights, but is for practical purposes worth a hundred
+articles guaranteeing constitutional liberty.[6]
+
+In the manner characteristic of English legislation the act is limited
+to the particular grievances immediately in view and is limited to
+imprisonment for criminal or supposed criminal matters, leaving
+untouched imprisonment on civil process or by private persons. It
+recites that great delays have been used by sheriffs and gaolers in
+making returns of writs of _habeas corpus_ directed to them; and for the
+prevention thereof, and the more speedy relief of all persons imprisoned
+for criminal or supposed criminal matters, it enacts in substance as
+follows: (1) When a writ of _habeas corpus_ is directed to a sheriff or
+other person in charge of a prisoner, he must within 3, 10 or 20 days,
+according to the distance of the place of commitment, bring the body of
+his prisoner to the court, with the true cause of his detainer or
+imprisonment--unless the commitment was for treason or felony plainly
+expressed in the warrant of commitment. (2) If any person be committed
+for any crime--unless for treason or felony plainly expressed in the
+warrant--it shall be lawful for such person or persons (other than
+persons convicted or in execution by legal process) _in time of
+vacation_, to appeal to the lord chancellor as a judge, who shall issue
+a _habeas corpus_ returnable immediately, and on the return thereof
+shall discharge the prisoner on giving security for his appearance
+before the proper court--unless the party so committed is detained upon
+a legal process or under a justice's warrant for a non-bailable offence.
+Persons neglecting for two terms to pray for a _habeas corpus_ shall
+have none in vacation. (3) Persons set at large on _habeas corpus_ shall
+not be recommitted for the same offence unless by the legal order and
+process of the court having cognizance of the case. (4) A person
+committed to prison for treason or felony shall, if he requires it, in
+the first week of the next term or the first day of the next session of
+oyer and terminer, be indicted in that term or session or else admitted
+to bail, unless it appears on affidavit that the witnesses for the crown
+are not ready; and if he is not indicted and tried in the second term or
+session after commitment, or if after trial he is acquitted, he shall be
+discharged from imprisonment. (5) No inhabitant of England (except
+persons contracting, or, after conviction for felony, electing to be
+transported) shall be sent prisoner to Scotland, Ireland, Jersey, &c.,
+or any place beyond the seas. Stringent penalties are provided for
+offences against the act. A judge delaying _habeas corpus_ forfeits £500
+to the party aggrieved. Illegal imprisonment beyond seas renders the
+offender liable in an action by the injured party to treble costs and
+damages to the extent of not less than £500, besides subjecting him to
+the penalties of _praemunire_ and to other disabilities. "The great rank
+of those who were likely to offend against this part of the statute
+was," says Hallam, "the cause of this unusual severity." Indeed as early
+as 1591 the judges had complained of the difficulty of enforcing the
+writ in the case of imprisonment at the instance of magnates of the
+realm. The effect of the act was to impose upon the judges under severe
+sanction the duty of protecting personal liberty in the case of criminal
+charges and of securing speedy trial upon such charges when legally
+framed; and the improvement of their tenure of office at the revolution,
+coupled with the veto put by the Bill of Rights on excessive bail, gave
+the judicature the independence and authority necessary to enable them
+to keep the executive within the law and to restrain administrative
+development of the scope or penalties of the criminal law; and this
+power of the judiciary to control the executive, coupled with the
+limitations on the right to set up "act of state" as an excuse for
+infringing individual liberty is the special characteristic of English
+constitutional law.
+
+It is to be observed that neither at common law nor under the act of
+1679 was the writ the appropriate remedy in the case of a person
+convicted either on indictment or summarily. It properly applied to
+persons detained before or without trial or sentence; and for convicted
+persons the proper remedy was by writs of error or _certiorari_ to
+which a writ of _habeas corpus_ might be used as ancillary.
+
+As regards persons imprisoned for debt or on civil process the writ was
+available at common law to test the legality of the detention: but the
+practice in these cases is unaffected by the act of 1679, and is of no
+present interest, since imprisonment on civil process is almost
+abolished. As regards persons in private custody, e.g. persons not _sui
+juris_ detained by those not entitled to their guardianship or lunatics,
+or persons kidnapped, _habeas corpus ad subjiciendum_ seems not to have
+been the ordinary common law remedy. The appropriate writ for such cases
+was that known as _de homine replegiando_. The use of this writ in most
+if not all criminal cases was forbidden in 1553; but it was used in the
+17th century in a case of kidnapping (Designy's case, 1682), and against
+Lord Grey for abducting his wife's sister (1682), and in the earl of
+Banbury's case to recover his wife (1704). The latest recorded instance
+of its use is Trebilcock's case (1736), in which a ward sought to free
+himself from the custody of his guardian.
+
+Since that date the _habeas corpus ad subjiciendum_ has been used in
+cases of illegal detention in private custody. In 1758 questions arose
+as to its application to persons in naval or military custody, including
+pressed men, which led to the introduction of a bill in parliament and
+to the consultation by the House of Lords of the judges (see Wilmot's
+_Opinions_, p. 77). In the same year the writ was used to release the
+wife of Earl Ferrers from his custody and maltreatment, and was
+unsuccessfully applied for by John Wilkes to get back his wife, who was
+separated from him by mutual agreement. But perhaps the most interesting
+instances of that period are the case of the negro Somerset (1771), who
+was released from a claim to hold him as a slave in England: and that of
+the Hottentot Venus (1810), where an alien woman on exhibition in
+England was brought before the court by Zachary Macaulay in order to
+ascertain whether she was detained against her will.
+
+The experience of the 18th century disclosed defects in the procedure
+for obtaining liberty in cases not covered by the act of 1679. But it
+was not till 1816 that further legislation was passed for more
+effectually securing the liberty of the subject. The act of 1816 (56
+Geo. III. c. 100), does not touch cases covered by the act of 1679. It
+enacts (1) that a writ of _habeas corpus_ shall be issued in vacation
+time in favour of a person restrained of his liberty otherwise than for
+some criminal or supposed criminal matter (except persons imprisoned for
+debt or by civil process); (2) that though the return to the writ be
+good and sufficient in law, the judge shall examine into the truth of
+the facts set forth in such return, and if they appear doubtful the
+prisoner shall be bailed; (3) that the writ shall run to any port,
+harbour, road, creek or bay on the coast of England, although not within
+the body of any county. The last clause was intended to meet doubts on
+the applicability of _habeas corpus_ in cases of illegal detention on
+board ship, which had been raised owing to a case of detention on a
+foreign ship in an English port.
+
+It will appear from the foregoing statement that the issue and
+enforcement of the writ rests on the common law as strengthened by the
+acts of 1627, 1640, 1679 and 1816, and subject also to the regulations
+as to procedure contained in the _Crown Office Rules_, 1906. The effect
+of the statutes is to keep the courts always open for the issue of the
+writ. It is available to put an end to all forms of illegal detention in
+public or private custody. In the case of the Canadian prisoners (1839)
+it was used to obtain the release of persons sentenced in Canada for
+participating in the rebellion of 1837, who were being conveyed
+throughout England in custody on their way to imprisonment in another
+part of the empire, and it is matter of frequent experience for the
+courts to review the legality of commitments under the Extradition Acts
+and the Fugitive Offenders Act 1881, of fugitives from the justice of a
+foreign state or parts of the king's dominions outside the British
+Islands.
+
+In times of public danger it has occasionally been thought necessary to
+"suspend" the Habeas Corpus Act 1679 by special and temporary
+legislation. This was done in 1794 (by an act annually renewed until
+1801) and again in 1817, as to persons arrested and detained by his
+majesty for conspiring against his person and government. The same
+course was adopted in Ireland in 1866 during a Fenian rising. It has
+been the practice to make such acts annual and to follow their
+expiration by an act of indemnity. In cases where martial law exists the
+use of the writ is _ex hypothesi_ suspended during conditions amounting
+to a state of war within the realm or the British possession affected
+(e.g. the Cape Colony and Natal during the South African War), and it
+would seem that the acts of courts martial during the period are not the
+subject of review by the ordinary courts. The so-called "suspension of
+the Habeas Corpus Act" bears a certain similarity to what is called in
+Europe "suspending the constitutional guarantees" or "proclaiming a
+state of siege," but "is not in reality more than suspension of one
+particular remedy for the protection of personal freedom."
+
+  There are various other forms of the writ according to the purpose for
+  which it is granted. Thus _habeas corpus ad respondendum_ is used to
+  bring up a prisoner confined by the process of an inferior court in
+  order to charge him in another proceeding (civil or criminal) in the
+  superior court or some other court. As regards civil proceedings, this
+  form of the writ is now rarely used, owing to the abolition of arrest
+  on mesne process and the restriction of imprisonment for debt, or in
+  execution of a civil judgment. The right to issue the writ depends on
+  the common law, supplemented by an act of 1802. It is occasionally
+  used for the purpose of bringing a person in custody for debt or on a
+  criminal charge before a criminal court to be charged in respect of a
+  criminal proceeding: but the same result may be obtained by means of
+  an order of a secretary of state, made under s. 11 of the Prison Act
+  1898, or by the written order of a court of criminal jurisdiction
+  before which he is required to take his trial on indictment (Criminal
+  Law Amendment Act 30 & 31 Vict. c. 35, s. 10.)
+
+  Other forms are _ad satisfaciendum_; _ad faciendum et recipiendum_, to
+  remove into a superior court proceedings under which the defendant is
+  in custody: _ad testificandum_, where a prisoner is required as a
+  witness, issued under an act of 1804 (s. 11), which is in practice
+  replaced by orders under s. 11 of the Prison Act 1898 (_supra_) or the
+  order of a judge under s. 9 of the Criminal Procedure Act 1853: and
+  _ad deliberandum et recipias_, to authorize the transfer from one
+  custody to another for purposes of trial, which is in practice
+  superseded by the provisions of the Prison Acts 1865, 1871 and 1898,
+  and the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1867 (_supra_).
+
+  The above forms are now of little or no importance; but the procedure
+  for obtaining them and the forms of writ are included in the _Crown
+  Office Rules_ 1906.
+
+  _Ireland._--The common law of Ireland as to the writs of _habeas
+  corpus_ is the same as that in England. The writ has in past times
+  been issued from the English court of king's bench into Ireland; but
+  does not now so issue. The acts of 1803 and 1816 already mentioned
+  apply to Ireland. The Petition of Right is not in terms applicable to
+  Ireland. The Habeas Corpus Act 1679 does not apply to Ireland; but its
+  equivalent is supplied by an act of 1781-1782 of the Irish parliament
+  (21 & 22 Geo. III. c. 11). Sec. 16 contains a provision empowering the
+  chief governor and privy council of Ireland by a proclamation under
+  the great seal of Ireland to suspend the act during such time only as
+  there shall be an actual invasion or rebellion in Ireland; and it is
+  enacted that during the currency of the proclamation no judge or
+  justices shall bail or try any person charged with being concerned in
+  the rebellion or invasion without an order from the lord lieutenant or
+  lord deputy and senior of the privy council. In Ireland by an act of
+  1881 the Irish executive was given an absolute power of arbitrary and
+  preventive arrest on suspicion of treason or of an act tending to
+  interfere with the maintenance of law and order: but the warrant of
+  arrest was made conclusive. This act continued by annual renewals
+  until 1906, when it expired.
+
+  _Scotland._--The writ of _habeas corpus_ is unknown to Scots law, nor
+  will it issue from English courts into Scotland. Under a Scots act of
+  1701 (c. 6) provision is made for preventing wrongous imprisonment and
+  against undue delay in trials. It was applied to treason felony in
+  1848. The right to speedy trial is now regulated by s. 43 of the
+  Criminal Procedure Scotland Act 1887. These enactments are as to
+  Scotland equivalent to the English Act of 1679. Under the Court of
+  Exchequer Scotland Act 1856 (19 & 20 V. c. 56) provision is made for
+  bringing before the court of session persons and proceedings before
+  inferior courts and public officers--which is analogous to the powers
+  to issue _habeas corpus_ in such cases out of the English court of
+  exchequer (now the revenue side of the king's bench division).
+
+  _British Possessions._--The act of 1679 expressly applies to Wales,
+  Berwick-on-Tweed, Jersey and Guernsey, and the act of 1816 also
+  extends to the Isle of Man. The court of king's bench has also issued
+  the writ to the king's foreign dominions beyond seas, e.g. to St
+  Helena, and so late as 1861 to Canada (Anderson's case 1861, 30
+  L.J.Q.B. 129). In consequence of the last decision it was provided by
+  the Habeas Corpus Act 1862 that no writ of _habeas corpus_ should
+  issue out of England by authority of any court or judge "into any
+  colony or foreign dominion of the crown where the crown has a lawfully
+  established court of justice having authority to grant or issue the
+  writ and to ensure its due execution in the 'colony' or dominion" (25
+  & 26 V. c. 20). The expression "foreign dominion" is meant to apply to
+  places outside the British Islands, and does not include the Isle of
+  Man or the Channel Islands (see _re Brown_ [1864], 33 L.J.Q.B. 193).
+
+  In Australasia and Canada and in most if not all the British
+  possessions whose law is based on the common law, the power to issue
+  and enforce the writ is possessed and is freely exercised by colonial
+  courts, under the charters or statutes creating and regulating the
+  courts. The writ is freely resorted to in Canada, and in 1905, 1906,
+  two appeals came to the privy council from the dominion, one with
+  reference to an extradition case, the other with respect to the right
+  to expel aliens.
+
+  Under the Roman-Dutch law as applied in British Guiana the writ was
+  unknown and no similar process existed (2nd report of West Indian law
+  commissioners). But by the Supreme Court Ordinance of 1893 that court
+  possesses (_inter alia_) all the authorities, powers and functions
+  belonging to or incident to a superior court of record in England,
+  which appears to include the power to issue the writ of _habeas
+  corpus_. Under the Roman-Dutch law as applied to South Africa free
+  persons appear to have a right to release under a writ _de libero
+  homine exhibendo_, which closely resembles the writ of _habeas
+  corpus_, and the procedure described as "manifestation" used in the
+  kingdom of Aragon (Hallam, _Middle Ages_, vol. ii., c. iv.). The writ
+  of _habeas corpus_ has not been formally adopted or the Habeas Corpus
+  Acts formally extended to South Africa; but in the Cape Colony, under
+  the charter of justice and colonial legislation, the supreme court on
+  petition grants a remedy equivalent to that obtained in England by
+  writ of _habeas corpus_; and the remedy is sometimes so described
+  (_Koke_ v. _Balie_, 1879, 9 Buchanan, 45, 64, arising out of a rising
+  in Griqualand). During and after the South African War of 1899-1902
+  many attempts were made by this procedure to challenge or review the
+  sentences of courts martial; see _re Fourie_ (1900). 18 _Cape Rep._ 8.
+
+  The laws of Ceylon being derived from the Roman-Dutch law, the writ of
+  _habeas corpus_ is not indigenous: but, under s. 49 of the Supreme
+  Court Ordinance 1889, the court or a judge has power to grant and
+  issue "mandates in the nature of writs of _habeas corpus_." The
+  chartered high courts in India have power to issue and enforce the
+  writ of _habeas corpus_. The earliest record of its use was in 1775,
+  when it was directed to Warren Hastings. It has been used to test the
+  question whether Roman Catholic religious orders could enter India,
+  and in 1870 an attempt was made thereby to challenge the validity of a
+  warrant in the nature of a _lettre de cachet_ issued by the viceroy
+  (Ind. L. Rep. 6 Bengal, 392, 456, 498), and it has also been applied
+  to settle controversies between Hindus and missionaries as to the
+  custody of a young convert (_R._ v. _Vaughan_, 1870, 5 Bengal, 418),
+  and between a Mahommedan husband and his mother-in-law as to the
+  custody of a girl-wife (_Khatija Bibi_, 1870, 5 Bengal, 557).
+
+_United States._--Before the Declaration of Independence some of the
+North American colonies had adopted the act of 1679; and the federal and
+the other state legislatures of the United States have founded their
+procedure on that act. The common law as to the writ of _habeas corpus_
+has been inherited from England, and has been generally made to apply to
+commitments and detentions of all kinds. Difficult questions, unknown to
+English law, have arisen from the peculiar features of the American
+state-system. Thus the constitution provides that "the privilege of the
+writ of _habeas corpus_ shall not be suspended unless when, in cases of
+rebellion or invasion, the public safety may require it"; and it has
+been the subject of much dispute whether the power of suspension under
+this provision is vested in the president or the congress. The weight of
+opinion seems to lean to the latter alternative. Again, conflicts have
+arisen between the courts of individual states and the courts of the
+union. It seems that a state court has no right to issue a _habeas
+corpus_ for the discharge of a person held under the authority of the
+federal government. On the other hand, the courts of the union issue the
+writ only in those cases in which the power is expressly conferred on
+them by the constitution.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Paterson, _Liberty of the Subject_ (1877); Short and
+  Mellor, _Crown Practice_ (1890); American: Church on _Habeas Corpus_
+  (2nd ed. 1893).     (W. F. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See Hallam, _Const. Hist._ vol. i., c. vii. (12th ed.) p. 384.
+
+  [2] Hallam, _Const. Hist._ vol. ii., c. viii. (12th ed.) p. 2.
+
+  [3] _Ibid._ c. ix. (12th ed.) p. 98.
+
+  [4] _Ibid._ vol. iii., c. xiii. (12th ed.) p. 12.
+
+  [5] Dicey, _Law of the Constitution_ (6th ed.), p. 217.
+
+  [6] Dicey, Law of the Constitution (6th ed.), p. 195.
+
+
+
+
+HABERDASHER, a name for a tradesman who sells by retail small articles
+used in the making or wearing of dress, such as sewing cottons or silks,
+tapes, buttons, pins and needles and the like. The sale of such articles
+is not generally carried on alone, and a "haberdashery counter" usually
+forms a department of drapers' shops. The word, found in Chaucer, and
+even earlier (1311), is of obscure origin; the suggestion that it is
+connected with an Icelandic _haprtask_, "haversack," is, according to
+the _New English Dictionary_, impossible. _Haperlas_ occurs in an early
+Anglo-French customs list, which includes articles such as were sold by
+haberdashers, but this word may itself have been a misspelling of
+"haberdash." The obscurity of origin has left room for many conjectures
+such as that of Minsheu that "haberdasher" was perhaps merely a
+corruption of the German _Habt ihr das?_ "Have you that?" or _Habe das,
+Herr_, "Have that, sir," used descriptively for a general dealer in
+miscellaneous wares. The Haberdashers' Company is one of the greater
+Livery Companies of the City of London. Originally a branch of the
+mercers, the fraternity took over the selling of "small wares," which
+included not only articles similar to those sold as "haberdashery" now,
+but such things as gloves, daggers, glass, pens, lanterns, mousetraps
+and the like. They were thus on this side connected with the Milliners.
+On the other hand there was early a fusion with the old gild of the
+"Hurers," or cap makers, and the hatters, and by the reign of Henry VII.
+the amalgamation was complete. There were long recognized two branches
+of the haberdashers, the haberdashers of "small wares," and the
+haberdashers of hats (see further LIVERY COMPANIES). The haberdashers
+are named, side by side with the _capellarii_, in the White Book (_Liber
+Albus_) of the city of London (see _Munimenta Gildhallae Londiniensis_,
+ed. H. T. Riley, Rolls Series, 12, 1859-1862), and a haberdasher forms
+one of the company of pilgrims in the _Canterbury Tales_ (Prologue,
+361).
+
+
+
+
+HABINGTON, WILLIAM (1605-1654), English poet, was born at Hendlip Hall,
+Worcestershire, on the 4th of November 1605. He belonged to a well-known
+Catholic family. His father, Thomas Habington (1560-1647), an antiquary
+and historical scholar, had been implicated in the plots on behalf of
+Mary queen of Scots; his uncle, Edward Habington, was hanged in 1586 on
+the charge of conspiring against Elizabeth in connexion with Anthony
+Babington; while to his mother, Mary Habington, was attributed the
+revelation of the Gunpowder Plot. The poet was sent to the college at St
+Omer, but, pressure being brought to bear on him to induce him to become
+a Jesuit, he removed to Paris. He married about 1632 Lucy, second
+daughter of Sir William Herbert, first Baron Powys. This lady he had
+addressed in the volume of lyrical poems arranged in two parts and
+entitled _Castara_, published anonymously in 1634. In 1635 appeared a
+second edition enlarged by three prose characters, fourteen new lyrics
+and eight touching elegies on his friend and kinsman, George Talbot. The
+third edition (1640) contains a third part consisting of a prose
+character of "A Holy Man" and twenty-two devotional poems. Habington's
+lyrics are full of the far-fetched "conceits" which were fashionable at
+court, but his verse is quite free from the prevailing looseness of
+morals. Indeed his reiterated praises of Castara's virtue grow
+wearisome. He is at his best in his reflective poems on the uncertainty
+of human life and kindred topics. He also wrote a _Historie of Edward
+the Fourth_ (1640), based on notes provided by his father; a
+tragi-comedy, _The Queene of Arragon_ (1640), published without his
+consent by his kinsman, the earl of Pembroke, and revived at the
+Restoration; and six essays on events in modern history, _Observations
+upon History_ (1641). Anthony à Wood insinuated that during the
+Commonwealth the poet "did run with the times, and was not unknown to
+Oliver the usurper." He died on the 30th of November 1654.
+
+  The works of Habington have not been collected. _The Queene of
+  Arragon_ was reprinted in Dodsley's "Old Plays," vol. ix. (1825);
+  _Castara_ was edited by Charles Elton (1812), and by E. Arber with a
+  compact and comprehensive introduction (1870) for his "English
+  Reprints."
+
+
+
+
+HABIT (through the French from Lat. _habitus_, from _habere_, to have,
+hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many
+of the English senses the French use _habitude_, not _habit_), condition
+of body or mind, especially one that has become permanent or settled by
+custom or persistent repetition, hence custom, usage. In botany and
+zoology the term is used both in the above sense of instinctive action
+of animals and tendencies of plants, and also of the manner of growth
+or external appearance of a plant or animal. From the use of the word
+for external appearances comes its use for fashion in dress, and hence
+as a term for a lady's riding dress and for the particular form of
+garment adopted by the members of a religious order, like "cowl" applied
+as the mark of a monk or nun.
+
+
+
+
+HABITAT (a French word derived from _habiter_, Lat. _habitare_, to
+dwell), in botany and zoology, the term for the locality in which a
+particular species of plants or animals thrives.
+
+
+
+
+HABSBURG, or HAPSBURG, the name of the famous family from which have
+sprung the dukes and archdukes of Austria from 1282, kings of Hungary
+and Bohemia from 1526, and emperors of Austria from 1804. They were also
+Roman emperors and German kings from 1438 to 1806, and kings of Spain
+from 1516 to 1700, while the minor dignities held by them at different
+times are too numerous to mention.
+
+The name Habsburg, a variant of an older form, Habichtsburg (hawk's
+castle), was taken from the castle of Habsburg, which was situated on
+the river Aar not far from its junction with the Rhine. The castle was
+built about 1020 by Werner, bishop of Strassburg, and his brother,
+Radbot, the founder of the abbey of Muri. These men were grandsons of a
+certain Guntram, who, according to some authorities, is identical with a
+Count Guntram who flourished during the reign of the emperor Otto the
+Great, and whose ancestry can be traced back to the time of the
+Merovingian kings. This conjecture, however, is extremely problematical.
+Among Radbot's sons was one Werner, and Werner and his son Otto were
+called counts of Habsburg, Otto being probably made landgrave of upper
+Alsace late in the 11th or early in the 12th century. At all events
+Otto's son Werner (d. 1167), and the latter's son Albert (d. 1199), held
+this dignity, and both landgraves increased the area of the Habsburg
+lands. Albert became count of Zürich and protector of the monastery of
+Säckingen, and obtained lands in the cantons of Unterwalden and Lucerne;
+his son Rudolph, having assisted Frederick of Hohenstaufen, afterwards
+the emperor Frederick II., against the emperor Otto IV., received the
+county of Aargau. Both counts largely increased their possessions in the
+districts now known as Switzerland and Alsace, and Rudolph held an
+influential place among the Swabian nobility. After his death in 1232
+his two sons, Albert and Rudolph, divided his lands and founded the
+lines of Habsburg-Habsburg and Habsburg-Laufenburg. Rudolph's
+descendants, counts of Habsburg-Laufenburg, were soon divided into two
+branches, one of which became extinct in 1408 and the other seven years
+later. Before this date, however, Laufenburg and some other districts
+had been sold to the senior branch of the family, who thus managed to
+retain the greater part of the Habsburg lands.
+
+Rudolph's brother Albert (d. 1239), landgrave of Alsace, married Hedwig
+of Kyburg (d. 1260), and from this union there was born in 1218 Rudolph,
+the founder of the greatness of the house of Habsburg, and the first of
+the family to ascend the German throne. Through his mother he inherited
+a large part of the lands of the extinct family of Zähringen; he added
+in other ways to his possessions, and was chosen German king in
+September 1273. Acting vigorously in his new office, he defeated and
+killed his most formidable adversary, Ottakar II., king of Bohemia, in
+1278, and in December 1282 he invested his sons, Albert and Rudolph,
+with the duchies of Austria and Styria, which with other lands had been
+taken from Ottakar. This was an event of supreme moment in the history
+of the Habsburgs, and was the first and most important stage in the
+process of transferring the centre of their authority from western to
+eastern Europe, from the Rhine to the Danube. On Rudolph's death in July
+1291 the German crown passed for a time away from the Habsburgs, but in
+July 1298 it was secured by his son, Albert, whose reign, however, was
+short and uneventful. But before 1308, the year of Albert's death, the
+long and troubled connexion of the Habsburgs with Bohemia had already
+begun. In 1306 Wenceslas III., the last Bohemian king of the
+P[vr]myslide dynasty, was murdered. Seizing the opportunity and
+declaring that the vacant kingdom was an imperial fief, King Albert
+bestowed it upon his eldest son, Rudolph, and married this prince to
+Elizabeth, widow of Wenceslas II. and stepmother of Wenceslas III. But
+Rudolph died in 1307, and his father's attempt to keep the country in
+his own hands was ended by his murder in 1308.
+
+Albert's successor as German king was Henry of Luxemburg (the emperor
+Henry VII.), and this election may be said to initiate the long rivalry
+between the houses of Habsburg and Luxemburg. But the immediate enemy of
+the Habsburgs was not a Luxemburg but a Wittelsbach. Without making any
+definite partition, Albert's five remaining sons spent their time in
+governing their lands until 1314, when one of them, Frederick called the
+Fair, forsook this comparatively uneventful occupation and was chosen by
+a minority of the electors German king in succession to Henry VII. At
+the same time the Wittelsbach duke of Bavaria, Louis, known to history
+as the emperor Louis the Bavarian, was also chosen. War was inevitable,
+and the battle of Mühldorf, fought in September 1322, sealed the fate of
+Frederick. Louis was victorious: his rival went into an honourable
+captivity, and the rising Habsburg sun underwent a temporary eclipse.
+
+For more than a century after Frederick's death in 1330 the Habsburgs
+were exiles from the German throne. But they were not inactive. In 1335
+his two surviving brothers, Albert and Otto, inherited Carinthia and
+part of Carniola by right of their mother, Elizabeth; in 1363 Albert's
+son Rudolph received Tirol; and during the same century part of Istria,
+Trieste and other districts were acquired. All King Albert's six sons
+had died without leaving male issue save Otto, whose family became
+extinct in 1344, and Albert, the ancestor of all the later Habsburgs. Of
+Albert's four sons two also left no male heirs, but the remaining two,
+Albert III. and Leopold III., were responsible for a division of the
+family which is of some importance. By virtue of a partition made upon
+their brother Rudolph's death in 1365 Albert and his descendants ruled
+over Austria, while Leopold and his sons took Styria, Carinthia and
+Tirol, Alsace remaining undivided as heretofore.
+
+Towards the middle of the 15th century the German throne had been
+occupied for nearly a hundred years by members of the Luxemburg family.
+The reigning emperor Sigismund, who was also king of Hungary and
+Bohemia, was without sons, and his daughter Elizabeth was the wife of
+Albert of Habsburg, the grandson and heir of Duke Albert III., who had
+died in 1395. Sigismund died in December 1437, leaving his two kingdoms
+to his son-in-law, who was crowned king of Hungary in January 1438 and
+king of Bohemia in the following June. Albert was also chosen and
+crowned German king in succession to Sigismund, thus beginning the long
+and uninterrupted connexion of his family with the imperial throne, a
+connexion which lasted until the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in
+1806. He did not, however, enjoy his new dignities for long, as he died
+in October 1439 while engaged in a struggle with the Turks. Albert left
+no sons, but soon after his death one was born to him, called Ladislaus,
+who became duke of Austria and king of Hungary and Bohemia. Under the
+guardianship of his kinsman, the emperor Frederick III., the young
+prince's reign was a troubled one, and when he died unmarried in 1457
+his branch of the family became extinct, and Hungary and Bohemia passed
+away from the Habsburgs, who managed, however, to retain Austria.
+
+Leopold III., duke of Carinthia and Styria, who was killed in 1386 at
+the battle of Sempach, had four sons, of whom two only, Frederick and
+Ernest, left male issue. Frederick and his only son, Sigismund, confined
+their attention mainly to Tirol and Alsace, leaving the larger destinies
+of the family in the hands of Ernest of Carinthia and Styria (d. 1424)
+and his sons, Frederick and Albert and after the death of King Ladislaus
+in 1457 these two princes and their cousin Sigismund were the only
+representatives of the Habsburgs. In February 1440 Frederick of Styria
+was chosen German king in succession to his kinsman Albert. He was a
+weak and incompetent ruler, but a stronger and abler man might have
+shrunk from the task of administering his heterogeneous and unruly
+realm. Although very important in the history of the house of Habsburg,
+Frederick's long reign was a period of misfortune, and the motto which
+he assumed, A.E.I.O.U. (_Austriae est imperare orbi universo_), seemed
+at the time a particularly foolish boast. He acted as guardian both to
+Ladislaus of Hungary, Bohemia and Austria, and to Sigismund of Tirol,
+and in all these countries his difficulties were increased by the
+hostility of his brother Albert. Having disgusted the Tirolese he gave
+up the guardianship of their prince in 1446, while in Hungary and
+Bohemia he did absolutely nothing to establish the authority of his
+ward; in 1452 the Austrians besieged him in Vienna Neustadt and
+compelled him to surrender the person of Ladislaus, thus ending even his
+nominal authority. When the young king died in 1457 the Habsburgs lost
+Hungary and Bohemia, but they retained Austria, which, after some
+disputing, Frederick and Albert divided between themselves, the former
+taking lower and the latter upper Austria. This arrangement was of short
+duration. In 1461 Albert made war upon his brother and forced him to
+resign lower Austria, which, however, he recovered after Albert's death
+in December 1463. Still more unfortunate was the German king in
+Switzerland. For many years the Swiss had chafed under the rule of the
+Habsburgs; during the reign of Rudolph I. they had shown signs of
+resentment as the kingly power increased; and the struggle which had
+been carried on for nearly two centuries had been almost uniformly in
+their favour. It was marked by the victory of Morgarten over Duke
+Leopold I. in 1315, and by that of Sempach over Leopold III. in 1386, by
+the conquest of Aargau at the instigation of the emperor Sigismund early
+in the 15th century, and by the final struggle for freedom against
+Frederick III. and Sigismund of Tirol. Taking advantage of some
+dissensions among the Swiss, the king saw an opportunity to recover his
+lost lands, and in 1443 war broke out. But his allies, the men of
+Zürich, were defeated, and when in August 1444 some French mercenaries,
+who had advanced to his aid, suffered the same fate at St Jakob, he was
+compelled to give up the struggle. A few years later Sigismund became
+involved in a war with the same formidable foemen; he too was worsted,
+and the "Perpetual Peace" of 1474 ended the rule of the Habsburgs in
+Switzerland. This humiliation was the second great step in the process
+of removing the Habsburgs from western to eastern Europe. In 1453, just
+after his coronation as emperor at Rome, Frederick legalized the use of
+the title archduke, which had been claimed spasmodically by the
+Habsburgs since 1361. This title is now peculiar to the house of
+Habsburg.
+
+The reverses suffered by the Habsburgs during the reign of Frederick
+III. were many and serious, but an improvement was at hand. The emperor
+died in August 1493, and was followed on the imperial throne by his son
+Maximilian I., perhaps the most versatile and interesting member of the
+family. Before his father's death Maximilian had been chosen German
+king, or king of the Romans, and had begun to repair the fortunes of his
+house. He had married Mary, daughter and heiress of Charles the Bold,
+duke of Burgundy; he had driven the Hungarians from Vienna and the
+Austrian archduchies, which Frederick had, perforce, allowed them to
+occupy; and he had received Tirol on the abdication of Sigismund in
+1490. True it is that upon Mary's death in 1482 part of her inheritance,
+the rich and prosperous Netherlands, held that her husband's authority
+was at an end, while another part, the two Burgundies and Artois, had
+been seized by the king of France; nevertheless, after a protracted
+struggle the German king secured almost the whole of Charles the Bold's
+lands for his son, the archduke Philip, the duchy of Burgundy alone
+remaining in the power of France after the conclusion of the peace of
+Senlis in 1493. Maximilian completed his work by adding a piece of
+Bavaria, Görz and then Gradiska to the Habsburg lands.
+
+After Sigismund's death in 1496 Maximilian and Philip were the only
+living male members of the family. Philip married Joanna, daughter of
+Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, and died in 1506 leaving two sons,
+Charles and Ferdinand. Charles succeeded his father in the Netherlands;
+he followed one grandfather, Ferdinand, as king of Spain in 1516, and
+when the other, Maximilian, died in 1519 he became the emperor Charles
+V., and succeeded to all the hereditary lands of the Habsburgs. But
+provision had to be made for Ferdinand, and in 1521 this prince was
+given the Austrian archduchies, Austria, Styria, Carinthia and Carniola;
+in the same year he married Anne, daughter of Wladislaus, king of
+Hungary and Bohemia, and when his childless brother-in-law, King Louis,
+was killed at the battle of Mohacs in August 1526 he claimed the two
+kingdoms, both by right of his wife and by treaty. After a little
+trouble Bohemia passed under his rule, but Hungary was more
+recalcitrant. A long war took place between Ferdinand and John Zapolya,
+who was also crowned king of Hungary, but in 1538 a treaty was made and
+the country was divided, the Habsburg prince receiving the western and
+smaller portion. However, he was soon confronted with a more formidable
+foe, and he spent a large part of his subsequent life in defending his
+lands from the attacks of the Turks.
+
+The Habsburgs had now reached the summit of their power. The prestige
+which belonged to Charles as head of the Holy Roman Empire was backed by
+the wealth and commerce of the Netherlands and of Spain, and by the
+riches of the Spanish colonies in America. In Italy he ruled over
+Sardinia, Naples and Sicily, which had passed to him with Spain, and the
+duchy of Milan, which he had annexed in 1535; to the Netherlands he had
+added Friesland, the bishopric of Utrecht, Gröningen and Gelderland, and
+he still possessed Franche-Comté and the fragments of the Habsburg lands
+in Alsace and the neighbourhood. Add to this Ferdinand's inheritance,
+the Austrian archduchies and Tirol, Bohemia with her dependent
+provinces, and a strip of Hungary, and the two brothers had under their
+sway a part of Europe the extent of which was great, but the wealth and
+importance of which were immeasurably greater. Able to scorn the rivalry
+of the other princely houses of Germany, the Habsburgs saw in the kings
+of the house of Valois the only foemen worthy of their regard.
+
+When Charles V. abdicated he was succeeded as emperor, not by his son
+Philip, but by his brother Ferdinand. Philip became king of Spain,
+ruling also the Netherlands, Franche-Comté, Naples, Sicily, Milan and
+Sardinia, and the family was definitely divided into the Spanish and
+Austrian branches. For Spain and the Spanish Habsburgs the 17th century
+was a period of loss and decay, the seeds of which were sown during the
+reign of Philip II. The northern provinces of the Netherlands were lost
+practically in 1609 and definitely by the treaty of Westphalia in 1648;
+Roussillon and Artois were annexed to France by the treaty of the
+Pyrenees in 1659, while Franche-Comté and a number of towns in the
+Spanish Netherlands suffered a similar fate by the treaty of Nijmwegen
+in 1678. Finally Charles II., the last Habsburg king of Spain, died
+childless in November 1700, and his lands were the prize of the War of
+the Spanish Succession. The Austrian Habsburgs fought long and valiantly
+for the kingdom of their kinsman, but Louis XIV. was too strong for
+them, and by the peace of Rastatt Spain passed from the Habsburgs to the
+Bourbons. However, the Austrian branch of the family received in 1714
+the Italian possessions of Charles II., except Sicily, which was given
+to the duke of Savoy, and also the southern Netherlands, which are thus
+often referred to as the Austrian Netherlands; and retained the duchy of
+Mantua, which it had seized in 1708.
+
+Ferdinand I., the founder of the line of the Austrian Habsburgs,
+arranged a division of his lands among his three sons before his death
+in 1564. The eldest, Maximilian II., received Austria, Bohemia and
+Hungary, and succeeded his father as emperor; he married Maria, a
+daughter of Charles V., and though he had a large family his male line
+became extinct in 1619. The younger sons were Ferdinand, ruler of Tirol,
+and Charles, archduke of Styria. The emperor Maximilian II. left five
+sons, two of whom, Rudolph and Matthias, succeeded in turn to the
+imperial throne, but, as all the brothers were without male issue, the
+family was early in the 17th century threatened with a serious crisis.
+Rudolph died in 1612, the reigning emperor Matthias was old and ill, and
+the question of the succession to the Empire, to the kingdoms of
+Hungary and Bohemia, and to the hereditary lands of the Habsburgs became
+acute. Turning to the collateral branches of the family, the sons of the
+archduke Ferdinand were debarred from the succession owing to their
+father's morganatic marriage with Philippine Welser, and the only hope
+of the house was in the sons of Charles of Styria. To prevent the
+Habsburg monarchy from falling to pieces the emperor's two surviving
+brothers renounced their rights, and it was decided that Ferdinand, a
+son of Charles of Styria, should succeed his cousin Matthias. The
+difficulties which impeded the completion of this scheme were gradually
+overcome, and the result was that when Matthias died in 1619 the whole
+of the lands of the Austrian Habsburgs was united under the rule of the
+emperor Ferdinand II. Tirol, indeed, a few years later was separated
+from the rest of the monarchy and given to the emperor's brother, the
+archduke Leopold, but this separation was ended when Leopold's son died
+in 1665.
+
+The arbitrary measures which followed Ferdinand's acquisition of the
+Bohemian crown contributed to the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War, but
+in a short time the Bohemians were subdued, and in 1627, following a
+precedent set in 1547, the emperor declared the throne hereditary in the
+house of Habsburg. The treaty of Westphalia which ended this war took
+comparatively little from the Habsburgs, though they ceded Alsace to
+France; but the Empire was greatly weakened, and its ruler was more than
+ever compelled to make his hereditary lands in the east of Europe the
+base of his authority, finding that he derived more strength from his
+position as archduke of Austria than from that of emperor. Ferdinand
+III. succeeded his father Ferdinand II., and during the long reign of
+the former's son, Leopold I., the Austrian, like the Spanish, Habsburgs
+were on the defensive against the aggressive policy of Louis XIV., and
+in addition they had to withstand the assaults of the Turks. In two ways
+they sought to strengthen their position. The unity of the Austrian
+lands was strictly maintained, and several marriages kept up a close and
+friendly connexion with Spain. A series of victories over the sultan
+during the later part of the 17th century rolled back the tide of the
+Turkish advance, and the peace of Karlowitz made in 1699 gave nearly the
+whole of Hungary to the Habsburgs. Against France Austria was less
+successful, and a number of humiliations culminated in 1714 in the
+failure to secure Spain, to which reference has already been made.
+
+The hostility of Austria and France, or rather of Habsburg and Bourbon,
+outlived the War of the Spanish Succession. In 1717 Spain conquered
+Sardinia, which was soon exchanged by Austria for Sicily; other
+struggles and other groupings of the European powers followed, and in
+1735, by the treaty of Vienna, Austria gave up Naples and Sicily and
+received the duchies of Parma and Piacenza. These surrenders were
+doubtless inevitable, but they shook the position of the house of
+Habsburg in Italy. However, a domestic crisis was approaching which
+threw Italian affairs into the shade. Charles VI., who had succeeded his
+brother, Joseph I., as emperor in 1711, was without sons, and his prime
+object in life was to secure the succession of his elder daughter, Maria
+Theresa, to the whole of his lands and dignities. But in 1713, four
+years before the birth of Maria Theresa, he had first issued the famous
+_Pragmatic Sanction_, which declared that the Habsburg monarchy was
+indivisible and that in default of male heirs a female could succeed to
+it. Then after the death of his only son and the birth of Maria Theresa
+the emperor bent all his energies to securing the acceptance of the
+Pragmatic Sanction. Promulgated anew in 1724, it was formally accepted
+by the estates of the different Habsburg lands; in 1731 it was
+guaranteed by the imperial diet. By subordinating every other interest
+to this, Charles at length procured the assent of the various powers of
+Europe to the proposed arrangement; he married the young princess to
+Francis Stephen, duke of Lorraine, afterwards grand-duke of Tuscany, and
+when he died on the 20th of October 1740 he appeared to have realized
+his great ambition. With the emperor's death the house of Habsburg,
+strictly speaking, became extinct, its place being taken by the house of
+Habsburg-Lorraine, which sprang from the union of Maria Theresa and
+Francis Stephen; and it is interesting to note that the present
+Habsburgs are only descended in the female line from Rudolph I. and
+Maximilian I.
+
+
+GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE HOUSE OF HABSBURG-LORRAINE.
+
+                 Maria Theresa (1717-1780) = Francis I., emperor (1708-1765).
+                                           |
+           +-------------------+-----------+----------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
+           |                   |                            |                                                                                                   |
+  Joseph II., emperor   Leopold II., emperor   Maximilian, elector of Cologne                                                                                   |
+      (1741-1790).          (1747-1792).               (1756-1801).                                                                                             |
+                                                                                                                                                                |
+           +--------------------+--------------------+--------------+-------------+-------------+------------+--------------+-------------+--------------+      |
+           |                    |                    |              |             |             |            |              |             |              |      |
+  Francis II., emperor    Ferdinand III.,         Charles        Leopold        Joseph        Antony        John          Rainer        Louis         Rudolph   |
+  (1768-1835).         grand-duke of Tuscany     (1771-1847).  (1772-1795).  (1776-1847).  (1780-1835).  (1782-1859).  (1783-1853).  (1784-1864).  (1788-1831). |
+              |            (1769-1824).              |                            |                                         |                                   |
+              |           (see below.)               |                            |              +-------------+------------+-+------------+-----------+        |
+              |                                      |                            |              |             |              |            |           |        |
+         +----+-----------------+                    |                          Joseph        Leopold        Ernest      Sigismund      Rainer      Henry       |
+         |                      |                    |                        (1833-1905).  (1823-1898).  (1824-1899).  (1826-1891).  (b. 1827).  (1828-1891).  |
+    Ferdinand I.         Francis Charles             |                            |                                                                             |
+  emperor of Austria     (1802-1878).                |                            |                                                                             |
+     (1793-1875).               |                    +-------------------+    Joseph Augustus                                                 +-----------------+
+                                |                                        |      (b. 1872).                                                    |
+         +------------------+---+---------------+--------------+         |           |                                                        |
+         |                  |                   |              |         |        +--+--------------+                                         |
+    Francis Joseph,      Maximilian,      Charles Louis   Louis Victor   |        |                 |                                         |
+  emperor of Austria   emperor of Mexico   (1833-1896).    (b. 1842).    |  Joseph Francis      Ladislaus                          Ferdinand, duke of Modena
+      (b. 1830).          (1832-1867).           |                       |  (b. 1895).          (b. 1901).                               (1754-1806).
+         |                                       |                       |                                                                    |
+      Rudolph           +-----------------+------+--------+              +--+----------------+---------------+                +---------------+-----------+
+    (1858-1889).        |                 |               |                 |                |               |                |               |           |
+               Francis Ferdinand        Otto          Ferdinand          Albert,      Charles Ferdinand   William        Francis IV.     Maximilian   Ferdinand
+                   (b. 1863).        (1865-1906).    Charles Louis   duke of Teschen     (1818-1874).    (1827-1894).   duke of Modena     Joseph    (1781-1850).
+                                          |           (b. 1868).      (1817-1895).            |                           (1779-1846).  (1782-1863).
+                                          |                                                   |                               |
+                               +----------+-----------+                                       |                               |
+                               |                      |                                       |                               |
+                      Charles Francis Joseph   Maximilian Eugene           +------------------+-+-----------+              +--+-----------+
+                         (b. 1887).               (b. 1895).               |                    |           |              |              |
+                                                                       Frederick        Charles Stephen   Eugene      Francis V.,     Ferdinand
+                                                                    duke of Teschen        (b. 1860).    (b. 1863).  duke of Modena  (1821-1849).
+                                                                       (b. 1856).               |                     (1819-1875).
+                                                                          |                     |
+                                                                          |               +-----+---------+------------+
+                                                                          |               |               |            |
+                                                                       Albert       Charles Albert   Leo Charles     William
+                                                                      (b. 1897).     (b. 1888).       (b. 1893).    (b. 1895).
+
+
+                                                                                     TUSCANY.
+
+                                                                      Ferdinand III., grand-duke of Tuscany
+                                                                                    (1769-1824).
+                                                                                         |
+                                                                       Leopold II., grand-duke of Tuscany
+                                                                                    (1797-1870).
+                                                                                         |
+                                           +------------------------+--------------------+----------+--------------------+
+                                           |                        |                               |                    |
+                                     Ferdinand IV.          Louis Salvator                  Charles Salvator    John Nepomuck Salvator
+                                 grand-duke of Tuscany         (b. 1847).                      (1839-1892).           (1852-1891).
+                                       (b. 1835).                                                   |
+                                           |                                               +--------+-------------+----------------+
+                  +--------------------+---+--------------+-----------------+              |                      |                |
+                  |                    |                  |                 |       Leopold Salvator       Francis Salvator  Albert Salvator
+          Leopold Ferdinand    Joseph Ferdinand   Peter Ferdinand   Henry Ferdinand     (b. 1863).             (b. 1866).      (1871-1896).
+                                   (b. 1872).         (b. 1874).        (b. 1878).         |                      |
+                                                          |                                |         +----------+-+--------+-----------+
+                                                  +-------+----+                           |         |          |          |           |
+                                                  |            |                           |  Francis Charles  Hubert    Theodore    Clement
+                                               Godfrey      George                         |     Salvator     Salvator   Salvator    Salvator
+                                              (b. 1902).   (b. 1905).                      |    (b. 1893).    (b. 1894). (b. 1899). (b. 1904).
+                                                                                           |
+                                                                            +--------------+-----------+--------------+
+                                                                            |              |           |              |
+                                                                      Rainer Charles    Leopold     Antony     Francis Joseph
+                                                                         (b. 1895).    (b. 1897).  (b. 1901).    (b. 1905).
+
+Immediately after the death of Charles the Pragmatic Sanction was
+forgotten. A crowd of claimants called for various parts of the Habsburg
+lands; Frederick the Great, talking less but acting more, invaded and
+conquered Silesia, and it seemed likely that the dissolution of the
+Habsburg monarchy would at no long interval follow the extinction of the
+Habsburg race. A Wittelsbach prince, Charles Albert, elector of Bavaria,
+the emperor Charles VII., and not Francis Stephen, was chosen emperor in
+January 1742, and by the treaty of Breslau, made later in the same year,
+nearly all Silesia was formally surrendered to Prussia. But the worst
+was now over, and when in 1748 the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, which
+practically confirmed the treaty of Breslau, had cleared away the dust
+of war, Maria Theresa and her consort were found to occupy a strong
+position in Europe. In the first place, in September 1745, Francis had
+been chosen emperor; then the imperial pair ruled Hungary and Bohemia,
+although the latter kingdom was shorn of Silesia; in spite of French
+conquests the Austrian Netherlands remained in their hands; and in Italy
+Francis had added Tuscany to his wife's heritage, although Parma and
+Piacenza had been surrendered to Spain and part of Milan to the king of
+Sardinia. The diplomatic _volte-face_ and the futile attempts of Maria
+Theresa to recover Silesia which followed this treaty belong to the
+general history of Europe.
+
+The emperor Francis I. died in 1765 and was succeeded by his son Joseph
+II., an ambitious and able prince, whose aim was to restore the
+Habsburgs and the Empire to their former great positions in Europe, and
+whose pride did not prevent him from learning from Frederick the Great,
+the despoiler of his house. His projects, however, including one of
+uniting Bavaria with Austria, which was especially cherished, failed
+completely, and when he died in February 1790 he left his lands in a
+state of turbulence which reflected the general condition of Europe. The
+Netherlands had risen against the Austrians, and in January 1790 had
+declared themselves independent; Hungary, angered by Joseph's despotic
+measures, was in revolt, and the other parts of the monarchy were hardly
+more contented. But the 18th century saw a few successes for the
+Habsburgs. In 1718 a successful war with Turkey was ended by the peace
+of Passarowitz, which advanced the Austrian boundary very considerably
+to the east, and although by the treaty of Belgrade, signed twenty-one
+years later, a large part of this territory was surrendered, yet a
+residuum, the banate of Temesvar, was permanently incorporated with
+Hungary. The struggle over the succession to Bavaria, which was
+concluded in 1779 by the treaty of Teschen, was responsible for adding
+Innviertel, or the quarter of the Inn, to Austria; the first partition
+of Poland brought eastern Galicia and Lodomeria, and in 1777 the sultan
+ceded Bukovina. Joseph II. was followed by his brother, Leopold II., who
+restored the Austrian authority in the Netherlands, and the latter by
+his son Francis II., who resigned the crown of the Holy Roman Empire in
+August 1806, having two years before taken the title of emperor of
+Austria as Francis I.
+
+Before the abdication of the emperor Francis in 1806 Austria had met and
+suffered from the fury of revolutionary France, but the cessions of
+territory made by her at the treaties of Campo Formio (1797), of
+Lunéville (1801) and of Pressburg (1805) were of no enduring importance.
+This, however, cannot be said for the treaties of Paris and of Vienna,
+which in 1814 and 1815 arranged the map of Europe upon the conclusion of
+the Napoleonic wars. These were highly favourable to the Habsburgs. In
+eastern and central Europe Austria regained her former position, the
+lands ceded to Bavaria and also eastern Galicia, which had been in the
+hands of Russia since 1809, being restored; she gave up the Austrian
+Netherlands, soon to be known as Belgium, to the new kingdom of the
+Netherlands, and acquiesced in the arrangement which had taken from her
+the Breisgau and the remnant of the Habsburg lands upon the Rhine. In
+return for these losses Austria became the dominant power In Italy. A
+mass of northern Italy, including her former possessions in Milan and
+the neighbourhood, and also the lands recently forming the republic of
+Venice, was made into the kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia, and this owned
+the emperor of Austria as king. Across the Adriatic Dalmatia was added
+to the Habsburg monarchy, the population of which, it has been
+estimated, was increased at this time by over four millions.
+
+The illiberal and oppressive character of the Austrian rule in Italy
+made it very unpopular; it was hardly less so in Hungary and Bohemia,
+and the advent of the year 1848 found the subject kingdoms eager to
+throw off the Habsburg yoke. The whole monarchy was quickly in a state
+of revolution, in the midst of which the emperor Ferdinand, who had
+succeeded his father Francis in 1835, abdicated, and his place was taken
+by his young nephew Francis Joseph. The position of the Habsburg
+monarchy now seemed desperate. But it was strong in its immemorial
+tradition, which was enough to make the efforts of the Frankfort
+parliament to establish German unity under Prussian hegemony abortive;
+it was strong also in the general loyalty to the throne of the imperial
+army; and its counsels were directed by statesmen who knew well how to
+exploit in the interests of the central power the national rivalries
+within the monarchy. With the crushing of the Hungarian revolt by the
+emperor Nicholas I. of Russia in 1849 the monarchy was freed from the
+most formidable of its internal troubles; in 1850 the convention of
+Olmütz restored its influence in Germany.
+
+Though the _status quo_ was thus outwardly re-established, the
+revolutions of 1848 had really unchained forces which made its
+maintenance impossible. In Germany Prussia was steadily preparing for
+the inevitable struggle with Austria for the mastery; in France Napoleon
+III. was preparing to pose as the champion of the oppressed
+nationalities which had once more settled down sullenly under the
+Habsburg yoke. The alliance of the French emperor and the king of
+Sardinia, and the Italian war of 1859 ended in the loss of Lombardy to
+the Habsburgs. Seven years later the crushing defeat of Königgrätz not
+only ended their long rule in Italy, based on the tradition of the
+medieval empire, by leading to the cession of Venetia to the new Italian
+kingdom, but led to their final exclusion from the German confederation,
+soon to become, under the headship of Prussia, the German empire.
+
+By the loss of the predominance in Germany conceded to it by the
+treaties of Vienna, and by the shifting of its "centre of gravity"
+eastward, the Habsburg monarchy, however, perhaps gained more than it
+lost. One necessary result, indeed, was the composition (_Ausgleich_)
+with Hungary in 1867, by which the latter became an independent state
+(Francis Joseph being crowned king at Pest in June 1867) bound to the
+rest of the monarchy only by the machinery necessary for the carrying
+out of a common policy in matters of common interest. This at least
+restored the loyalty of the Hungarians to the Habsburg dynasty; it is
+too soon yet to say that it secured permanently the essential unity of
+the Habsburg monarchy. By the system of the Dual Monarchy the rest of
+the Austrian emperor's dominions (Cis-Leithan) were consolidated under a
+single central government, the history of which has been mainly that of
+the rival races within the empire struggling for political predominance.
+Since the development of the constitution has been consistently in a
+democratic direction and the Slavs are in a great majority, the tendency
+has been for the German element--strong in its social status and
+tradition of predominance--to be swamped by what it regards as an
+inferior race; and a considerable number of Austrian "Germans" have
+learned to look not to their Habsburg rulers, but to the power of the
+German empire for political salvation. The tendency eastwards of the
+monarchy was increased when in 1878 the congress of Berlin placed Bosnia
+and Herzegovina under Austrian rule. Old ambitions were now revived at
+the expense of the Ottoman empire, the goal of which was the port of
+Salonica; and not the least menacing aspect of the question of the near
+East has been that the rivalry of Italy and the Habsburg monarchy has
+been transferred to the Balkan peninsula. Yet, in spite of internal
+dissensions arising out of questions fundamentally insoluble, and in
+spite of the constant threat of external complications that may lead to
+war, the Habsburg monarchy as the result of the changes in the 19th and
+20th centuries is seemingly stronger than ever. The shadow of universal
+claims to empire and sonorous but empty titles have vanished, but so
+have the manifold rivalries and entanglements which accompanied the
+Habsburg rule in Italy and the Netherlands and Habsburg preponderance in
+Germany. The monarchy is stronger because its sphere is more defined;
+because as preserving the _pax Romana_ among the jostling races of
+eastern Europe, it is more than ever recognized as an essential element
+in the maintenance of European peace, and is recognized as necessary and
+beneficial even by the ambitious and restless nationalities that chafe
+under its rule.
+
+A few words must be said about the cadet branches of the Habsburg
+family. When, in 1765, Francis I. died and Joseph II. became emperor,
+the grand-duchy of Tuscany passed by special arrangement not to Joseph,
+but to his younger brother Leopold. Then in 1791, after Leopold had
+succeeded Joseph as emperor, he handed over the grand-duchy to his
+second son, Ferdinand (1769-1824). In 1801 this prince was deposed by
+Napoleon and Tuscany was seized by France. Restored to the Habsburgs in
+the person of Ferdinand in 1814, it remained under his rule, and then
+under that of his son Leopold (1797-1870), until the rising of 1859,
+when the Austrians were driven out and the grand-duchy was added to the
+kingdom of Sardinia. A similar fate attended the duchy of Modena, which
+had passed to the Habsburgs through the marriage of its heiress Mary
+Beatrice of Este (d. 1829) with the archduke Ferdinand (1754-1806),
+brother of the emperor Leopold II. From 1814 to 1846 this duchy was
+governed by Ferdinand's son, Duke Francis IV., and from 1846 to 1859 by
+his grandson, Francis V. This family became extinct on the death of
+Francis V. in 1875.
+
+In addition to his successor Francis II., and to Ferdinand, grand-duke
+of Tuscany, the emperor Leopold II. had eight sons, five of whom,
+including the archduke John (1782-1859), who saw a good deal of service
+during the Napoleonic Wars and was chosen regent (_Reichsverweser_) of
+Germany in 1848, have now no living male descendants. Thus the existing
+branches of the family are descended from Leopold's five other sons. The
+descendants of Leopold, the dispossessed grand-duke of Tuscany, were in
+1909 represented by his son, Ferdinand (b. 1835), who still claimed the
+title of grand-duke of Tuscany, and his son and grandsons; by the
+numerous descendants of the archduke Charles Salvator (1830-1892); and
+by the archduke Louis Salvator (b. 1847), a great traveller and a
+voluminous writer. The grand-duke's fourth son was the archduke John
+Nepomuck Salvator, who, after serving in the Austrian army, resigned all
+his rights and titles and under the name of Johann Orth took command of
+a sailing vessel. He is supposed to have been drowned off the coast of
+South America in 1891, but reports of his continued existence were
+circulated from time to time after that date. Of the emperor Leopold's
+other sons the archduke Charles, perhaps the most distinguished soldier
+of the family, left four sons, including Albert, duke of Teschen
+(1817-1895), who inherited some of his father's military ability.
+Charles's family was in 1909 represented by his grandsons, the sons of
+the archduke Charles Ferdinand (1818-1874). The archduke Joseph
+(1776-1847), palatine of Hungary, was represented by a grandson, Joseph
+Augustus (b. 1872), and the archduke Rainer (1783-1853), viceroy of
+Lombardy-Venetia, by a son Rainer (b. 1827), and by several grandsons.
+
+The eldest and reigning branch of the family was in 1909 represented by
+the emperor Francis Joseph, whose father was the archduke Francis
+Charles (1802-1878), and whose grandfather was the emperor Francis II.
+Francis Joseph's only son Rudolph died in 1889; consequently the heir to
+the Habsburg monarchy was the emperor's nephew Francis Ferdinand (b.
+1863), the eldest of the three sons of his brother Charles Louis
+(1833-1896). In 1875 Francis Ferdinand inherited the wealth of the Este
+family and took the title of archduke of Austria-Este; in 1900 he
+contracted a morganatic marriage with Sophia, countess of Chotek,
+renouncing for his sons the succession to the monarchy. Thus after
+Francis Ferdinand this would pass to the sons of his brother, the
+archduke Otto (1865-1906). One of the emperor's three brothers was
+Maximilian, emperor of Mexico from 1863 to 1867.
+
+With the exception of Charles V. the Habsburgs have produced no
+statesmen of great ability, while several members of the family have
+displayed marked traces of insanity. Nevertheless they secured, and for
+over 350 years they kept, the first place among the potentates of
+Europe; a dignity in origin and theory elective becoming in practice
+hereditary in their house. This position they owe to some extent to the
+tenacity with which they have clung to the various lands and dignities
+which have passed into their possession, but they owe it much more to a
+series of fortunate marriages and opportune deaths. The union of
+Maximilian and Mary of Burgundy, of Philip the Handsome and Joanna of
+Spain, of Ferdinand and Anna of Hungary and Bohemia; the death of
+Ottakar of Bohemia, of John, the only son of Ferdinand and Isabella of
+Spain, of Louis of Hungary and Bohemia--these are the corner-stones upon
+which the Habsburg monarchy has been built.
+
+  For the origin and early history of the Habsburgs see G. de Roo,
+  _Annales rerum ab Austriacis Habsburgicae gentis principibus a
+  Rudolpho I. usque ad Carolum V. gestarum_ (Innsbruck, 1592, fol.); M.
+  Herrgott, _Genealogia diplomatica augustae gentis Habsburgicae_
+  (Vienna, 1737-1738); E. M. Fürst von Lichnowsky, _Geschichte des
+  Hauses Habsburg_ (Vienna, 1836-1844); A. Schulte, _Geschichte der
+  Habsburger in den ersten drei Jahrhunderten_ (Innsbruck, 1887); T. von
+  Liebenau, _Die Anfänge des Hauses Habsburg_ (Vienna, 1883); W. Merz,
+  _Die Habsburg_ (Aarau, 1896); W. Gisi, _Der Ursprung der Häuser
+  Zähringen und Habsburg_ (1888); and F. Weihrich, _Stammtafel zur
+  Geschichte des Hauses Habsburg_ (Vienna, 1893). For the history of the
+  Habsburg monarchy see Langl, _Die Habsburg und die denkwürdigen
+  Stätten ihrer Umgebung_ (Vienna, 1895); and E. A. Freeman, _Historical
+  Geography of Europe_ (1881). Two English books on the subject are J.
+  Gilbart-Smith, _The Cradle of the Hapsburgs_ (1907); and A. R. and E.
+  Colquhoun, _The Whirlpool of Europe, Austria-Hungary and the
+  Hapsburgs_ (1906).     (A. W. H.*)
+
+
+
+
+HACHETTE, JEAN NICOLAS PIERRE (1769-1834), French mathematician, was
+born at Mézières, where his father was a bookseller, on the 6th of May
+1769. For his early education he proceeded first to the college of
+Charleville, and afterwards to that of Reims. In 1788 he returned to
+Mézières, where he was attached to the school of engineering as
+draughtsman to the professors of physics and chemistry. In 1793 he
+became professor of hydrography at Collioure and Port-Vendre. While
+there he sent several papers, in which some questions of navigation were
+treated geometrically, to Gaspard Monge, at that time minister of
+marine, through whose influence he obtained an appointment in Paris.
+Towards the close of 1794, when the École Polytechnique was established,
+he was appointed along with Monge over the department of descriptive
+geometry. There he instructed some of the ablest Frenchmen of the day,
+among them S. D. Poisson, F. Arago and A. Fresnel. Accompanying Guyton
+de Morveau in his expedition, earlier in the year, he was present at the
+battle of Fleurus, and entered Brussels with the French army. In 1816,
+on the accession of Louis XVIII., he was expelled from his chair by
+government. He retained, however, till his death the office of professor
+in the faculty of sciences in the École Normale, to which he had been
+appointed in 1810. The necessary royal assent was in 1823 refused to the
+election of Hachette to the Académie des Sciences, and it was not till
+1831, after the Revolution, that he obtained that honour. He died at
+Paris on the 16th of January 1834. Hachette was held in high esteem for
+his private worth, as well as for his scientific attainments and great
+public services. His labours were chiefly in the field of descriptive
+geometry, with its application to the arts and mechanical engineering.
+It was left to him to develop the geometry of Monge, and to him also is
+due in great measure the rapid advancement which France made soon after
+the establishment of the École Polytechnique in the construction of
+machinery.
+
+  Hachette's principal works are his _Deux Supplements à la Géométrie
+  descriptive de Monge_ (1811 and 1818); _Éléments de géométrie à trois
+  dimensions_ (1817); _Collection des épures de géométrie_, &c. (1795
+  and 1817); _Applications de géométrie descriptive_ (1817); _Traité de
+  géométrie descriptive_, &c. (1822); _Traité élémentaire des machines_
+  (1811); _Correspondance sur l'École Polytechnique_ (1804-1815). He
+  also contributed many valuable papers to the leading scientific
+  journals of his time.
+
+  For a list of Hachette's writings see the _Catalogue of Scientific
+  Papers of the Royal Society of London_; also F. Arago, _Oeuvres_
+  (1855); and Silvestre, _Notice sur J. N. P. Hachette_ (Bruxelles,
+  1836).
+
+
+
+
+HACHETTE, JEANNE, French heroine. Jeanne Lainé, or Fourquet, called
+Jeanne Hachette, was born about 1454. We have no precise information
+about her family or origin. She is known solely for her act of heroism
+which on the 27th of June 1472 saved Beauvais when it was on the point
+of being taken by the troops of Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy. The
+town was defended by only 300 men-at-arms, commanded by Louis de
+Balagny. The Burgundians were making an assault, and one of their number
+had actually planted a flag upon the battlements, when Jeanne, axe in
+hand, flung herself upon him, hurled him into the moat, tore down the
+flag, and revived the drooping courage of the garrison. In gratitude for
+this heroic deed, Louis XI. instituted a procession in Beauvais called
+the Procession of the Assault, and married Jeanne to her chosen lover
+Colin Pilon, loading them with favours.
+
+  See Georges Vallat, _Jeanne Hachette_ (Abbeville, 1898).
+
+
+
+
+HACHETTE, LOUIS CHRISTOPHE FRANÇOIS (1800-1864), French publisher, was
+born at Rethel in the Ardennes on the 5th of May 1800. After studying
+three years at a normal school with the view of becoming a teacher, he
+was in 1822 on political grounds expelled from the seminary. He then
+studied law, but in 1826 he established in Paris a publishing business
+for the issue of works adapted to improve the system of school
+instruction, or to promote the general culture of the community. He
+published manuals in various departments of knowledge, dictionaries of
+modern and ancient languages, educational journals, and French, Latin
+and Greek classics annotated with great care by the most eminent
+authorities. Subsequently to 1850 he, in conjunction with other
+partners, published a cheap railway library, scientific and
+miscellaneous libraries, an illustrated library for the young, libraries
+of ancient literature, of modern foreign literature, and of modern
+foreign romance, a series of guide-books and a series of dictionaries of
+universal reference. In 1855 he also founded _Le Journal pour tous_, a
+publication with a circulation of 150,000 weekly. Hachette also
+manifested great interest in the formation of mutual friendly societies
+among the working classes, in the establishment of benevolent
+institutions, and in other questions relating to the amelioration of the
+poor, on which subjects he wrote various pamphlets; and he lent the
+weight of his influence towards a just settlement of the question of
+international literary copyright. He died on the 31st of July 1864.
+
+
+
+
+HACHURE (French for "hatching"), the term for the conventional lines
+used in hill or mountain shading upon a map (q.v.) to indicate the slope
+of the surface, the depth of shading being greatest where the slope is
+steepest. The method is less accurate than that of contour lines, but
+gives an indication of the trend and extent of a range or mountain
+system, especially upon small-scale maps.
+
+
+
+
+HACIENDA (O. Span, _facienda_, from the Latin, meaning "things to be
+done"), a Spanish term for a landed estate. It is commonly applied in
+Spanish America to a country estate, on which stock-raising,
+manufacturing or mining may be carried on, usually with a dwelling-house
+for the owner's residence upon it. It is thus used loosely for a country
+house.
+
+
+
+
+HACKBERRY, a name given to the fruit of _Celtis occidentalis_, belonging
+to the natural botanical order _Ulmaceae_, to which also belongs the elm
+(_Ulmus_). It is also known under the name of "sugar-berry,"
+"beaver-wood" and "nettle-tree." The hackberry tree is of middle size,
+attaining from 60 to 80 ft. in height (though sometimes reaching 130
+ft.), and with the aspect of an elm. The leaves are ovate in shape, with
+a very long taper point, rounded and usually very oblique at the base,
+usually glabrous above and soft-pubescent beneath. The soft filmy
+flowers appear early in the spring before the expansion of the leaves.
+The fruit is oblong, about half to three-quarters of an inch long, of a
+reddish or yellowish colour when young, turning to a dark purple in
+autumn. This tree is distributed through the deep shady forests
+bordering river banks from Canada (where it is very rare) to the
+southern states. The fruit has a sweetish and slightly astringent taste,
+and is largely eaten in the United States. The seeds contain an oil like
+that of almonds. The bark is tough and fibrous like hemp, and the wood
+is heavy, soft, fragile and coarse-grained, and is used for making
+fences and furniture. The root has been used as a dye for linens.
+
+
+
+
+HACKENSACK, a town and the county-seat of Bergen county, New Jersey,
+U.S.A., on the Hackensack river, 13 m. N. of Jersey City. Pop. (1890),
+6004; (1900), 9443, of whom 2009 were foreign-born and 515 were negroes;
+(1905) 11,098; (1910) 14,050. It is served by the New York, Susquehanna
+& Western, and the New Jersey & New York railways, both being controlled
+by the Erie Company; and indirectly by the West Shore (at Bogota, ½ m.
+S.E.). Electric lines connect Hackensack with Newark, Passaic and
+Paterson, and with New York ferries. The town extends from the low bank
+of the river W. to the top of a ridge, about 40 ft. higher up, from
+which there are good views to the S. and E. Hackensack is principally a
+residential town, though there are a number of manufacturing
+establishments in and near it. Silk and silk goods and wall-paper are
+the principal manufactures. In 1905 the value of the town's factory
+product was $1,488,358, an increase of 90.3% since 1900. There are an
+historic mansion-house and an interesting old Dutch church, both erected
+during the 18th century; and a monument marks the grave of General Enoch
+Poor (1736-1780), an officer in the War of Independence, who was born at
+Andover, Mass., entered the Continental Army from New Hampshire, and
+took part in the campaign against Burgoyne, in the battle of Monmouth
+and in General Sullivan's expedition against the Iroquois. Hackensack
+was settled by the Dutch about 1640, and was named after the Hackensack
+Indians, a division of the Unami Delawares, who lived in the valleys of
+the Hackensack and Passaic rivers, and whose best-known chief was
+Oritany, a friend of the whites. Hackensack is coextensive with the
+township of New Barbadoes, first incorporated with considerably larger
+territory in 1693.
+
+
+
+
+HACKET, JOHN (1592-1670), bishop of Lichfield and Coventry, was born in
+London and educated at Westminster and Trinity College, Cambridge. On
+taking his degree he was elected a fellow of his college, and soon
+afterwards wrote the comedy of _Loiola_ (London, 1648), which was twice
+performed before James I. He was ordained in 1618, and through the
+influence of John Williams (1582-1650) became rector in 1621 of Stoke
+Hammond, Bucks, and Kirkby Underwood, Lincolnshire. In 1623 he was
+chaplain to James, and in 1624 Williams presented him to the livings of
+St Andrew's, Holborn, and Cheam, Surrey. When the so-called
+"root-and-branch bill" was before parliament in 1641, Hacket was
+selected to plead in the House of Commons for the continuance of
+cathedral establishments. In 1645 his living of St Andrew's was
+sequestered, but he was allowed to retain the rectory of Cheam. On the
+accession of Charles II. his fortunes improved; he frequently preached
+before the king, and in 1661 was consecrated bishop of Lichfield and
+Coventry. His best-known book is the excellent biography of his patron,
+Archbishop Williams, entitled _Scrinia reserata: a Memorial offered to
+the great Deservings of John Williams, D.D._ (London, 1693).
+
+
+
+
+HACKETT, HORATIO BALCH (1808-1875), American biblical scholar, was born
+in Salisbury, Massachusetts, on the 27th of December 1808. He was
+educated at Phillips-Andover Academy, at Amherst College, where he
+graduated as valedictorian in 1830, and at Andover Theological Seminary,
+where he graduated in 1834. He was adjunct professor of Latin and Greek
+Languages and Literature at Brown University in 1835-1838 and professor
+of Hebrew Literature there in 1838-1839, was ordained to the Baptist
+ministry in 1839--he had become a Baptist at Andover as the result of
+preparing a paper on baptism in the New Testament and the Fathers--and
+in 1839-1868 he was professor of Biblical literature and interpretation
+in Newton Theological Institution where his most important work was the
+introduction of the modern German methods of Biblical criticism, which
+he had learned from Moses Stuart at Andover and with which he made
+himself more familiar in Germany (especially under Tholuck at Halle) in
+1841. He travelled in Egypt and Palestine in 1852, and in 1858-1859 in
+Greece, becoming proficient in modern Greek. From 1870 until his death
+in Rochester, New York, on the 2nd of November 1875, he was professor of
+Biblical literature and New Testament exegesis in the Rochester
+Theological Seminary. He was a great teacher but a greater critical and
+exegetical scholar.
+
+  He wrote _Christian Memorials of the War_ (1864); an English version
+  of Winer's _Grammar of the Chaldee Language_ (1844); _Exercises in
+  Hebrew Grammar_ (1847); and various articles on the Semitic language
+  and literature in periodicals; but his best-known work was in general
+  commentary on the Bible and translation, and in the special text study
+  of the New Testament. Under these two headings fall: _Illustrations of
+  Scripture; suggested by a Tour through the Holy Land_ (1855); the
+  American revision, with Ezra Abbot, of Smith's _Dictionary of the
+  Bible_, to the British edition of which he had contributed about
+  thirty articles; _Commentary on the Original Text of the Acts of the
+  Apostles_ (1852; 2nd edition, 1858), for many years the best English
+  commentary; _Notes on the Greek Text of the Epistle of Paul to
+  Philemon_, and a _Revised Version_ of Philemon, both published in
+  1860; the English versions, in Schaff's edition of Lange's
+  _Commentaries_, of Van Oosterzee's _Philemon_ and Braune's
+  _Philippians_; and for the American Bible Union Version of the Bible
+  he translated the books of Ruth and Judges, and aided T. J. Conant in
+  editorial revision; and he was one of the American translators for the
+  English Bible revision.
+
+  See _Memorials of Horatio Batch Hackett_ (Rochester, N.Y., 1876),
+  edited by G. H. Whittemore.
+
+
+
+
+HACKETT, JAMES HENRY (1800-1871), American actor, was born in New York.
+After an unsuccessful entry into business, in 1826 he went on the stage,
+where he soon established a reputation as a player of eccentric
+character parts. As Falstaff he was no less successful in England than
+in America. At various times he went into management, and he was the
+author of _Notes and Comments on Shakespeare_ (1863).
+
+His son, JAMES KETELTAS HACKETT (1869-   ), born at Wolfe Island,
+Ontario, and educated at the College of the City of New York, also
+became an actor. He came into prominence at the Lyceum in Daniel
+Frohman's company, and afterwards had considerable success in romantic
+parts. As a manager he stood outside the American syndicate of theatres,
+and organized several companies to play throughout the United States. In
+1897 he married Mary Mannering, the Anglo-American actress.
+
+
+
+
+HACKLÄNDER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM VON (1816-1877), German novelist and
+dramatist, was born at Burtscheid near Aix-la-Chapelle on the 1st of
+November 1816. Having served an apprenticeship in a commercial house, he
+entered the Prussian artillery, but, disappointed at not finding
+advancement, returned to business. A soldier's life had a fascination
+for him, and he made his début as an author with _Bilder aus dem
+Soldatenleben im Frieden_ (1841). After a journey to the east, he was
+appointed secretary to the crown prince of Württemberg, whom he
+accompanied on his travels. _Wachtstubenabenteuer_, a continuation of
+his first work, appeared in 1845, and it was followed by _Bilder aus dem
+Soldatenleben im Kriege_ (1849-1850). As a result of a tour in Spain in
+1854, appeared _Ein Winter in Spanien_ (1855). In 1857 he founded, in
+conjunction with Edmund von Zoller, the illustrated weekly, _Über Land
+und Meer_. In 1859 Hackländer was appointed director of royal parks and
+public gardens at Stuttgart, and in this post did much towards the
+embellishment of the city. In 1859 he was attached to the headquarters
+staff of the Austrian army during the Italian war; in 1861 he was raised
+to an hereditary knighthood in Austria; in 1864 he retired into private
+life, and died on the 6th of July 1877. Hackländer's literary talent is
+confined within narrow limits. There is much in his works of lively,
+adventurous and even romantic description, but the character-drawing is
+feeble and superficial.
+
+  Hackländer was a voluminous writer; the most complete edition of his
+  works is the third, published at Stuttgart in 1876, in 60 volumes.
+  There is also a good selection in 20 volumes (1881). Among his novels,
+  _Namenlose Geschichten_ (1851); _Eugen Stillfried_ (1852); _Krieg und
+  Frieden_ (1859), and the comedies _Der geheime Agent_ (1850) and
+  _Magnetische Kuren_ (1851) may be specially mentioned. His
+  autobiography appeared in 1878 under the title, _Der Roman meines
+  Lebens_ (2 vols.). See H. Morning, _Erinnerungen an F. W. Hackländer_
+  (1878).
+
+
+
+
+HACKNEY, a north-eastern metropolitan borough of London, England,
+bounded W. by Stoke Newington and Islington, and S. by Shoreditch,
+Bethnal Green and Poplar, and extending N. and E. to the boundary of the
+county of London. Pop. (1901), 219,272. It is a poor and populous
+district, in which the main thoroughfares are Kingsland Road, continued
+N. as Stoke Newington Road and Stamford Hill; Mare Street, continued
+N.W. as Clapton Road to join Stamford Hill; and Lea Bridge Road running
+N.E. towards Walthamstow and Low Leyton. The borough includes the
+districts of Clapton in the north, Homerton in the east, and Dalston and
+part of Kingsland in the west. On the east lies the open flat valley of
+the Lea, which flows in several branches, and is bordered, immediately
+outside the confines of the borough, by the extensive reservoirs of the
+East London water-works. In these low lands lie the Hackney Marshes (338
+acres; among several so-called marshes in the Lea valley), and the
+borough also contains part of Victoria Park and a number of open spaces
+collectively called the Hackney Commons, including Mill Fields, Hackney
+Downs, London Fields, &c. The total area of open spaces exceeds 500
+acres. The tower of the ancient parish church of St Augustine, with the
+chapel of the Rowe family, still stands, and is the only historic
+building of importance. Among institutions are the German hospital,
+Dalston, Metropolitan hospital, Kingsland Road, and Eastern Fever
+hospital, Homerton; and the Hackney polytechnic institute, with which is
+incorporated the Sir John Cass institute. Cass (1666-1718), a merchant
+of the city of London, also a member of parliament and sheriff,
+bequeathed £1000 for the foundation of a free school; in 1732 the
+bequest was increased in accordance with an unfinished codicil to his
+will; and the income provided from it is now about £6000, some 250 boys
+and girls being educated. The parliamentary borough of Hackney comprises
+north, central and south divisions, each returning one member; and the
+northern division includes the metropolitan borough of Stoke Newington.
+The metropolitan borough of Hackney includes part of the Hornsey
+parliamentary division of Middlesex. The borough council consists of a
+mayor, 10 aldermen and 60 councillors. Area, 3288.9 acres.
+
+In the 13th century the name appears as _Hackenaye_ or _Hacquenye_, but
+no certain derivation is advanced. Roman and other remains have been
+found in Hackney Marshes. In 1290 the bishop of London was lord of the
+manor, which was so held until 1550, when it was granted to Thomas, Lord
+Wentworth. In 1697 it came into the hands of the Tyssen family.
+Extensive property in the parish also belonged to the priory of the
+Knights Hospitallers of St John of Jerusalem at Clerkenwell. From the
+16th to the early 19th century there were many fine residences in
+Hackney. The neighbourhood of Hackney had at one time an evil reputation
+as the haunt of highwaymen.
+
+
+
+
+HACKNEY (from Fr. _haquenée_, Lat. _equus_, an ambling horse or mare,
+especially for ladies to ride; the English "hack" is simply an
+abbreviation), originally a riding-horse. At the present day, however,
+the hackney (as opposed to a thoroughbred) is bred for driving as well
+as riding (see HORSE: _Breeds_). From the hiring-out of hackneys, the
+word came to be associated with employment for hire (so "a hack," as a
+general term for "drudge"), especially in combination, e.g.
+hackney-chair, hackney-coach, hackney-boat. The hackney-coach, a coach
+with four wheels and two horses, was a form of hired public conveyance
+(see CARRIAGE).
+
+
+
+
+HADAD, the name of a Syrian deity, is met with in the Old Testament as
+the name of several human persons; it also occurs in compound forms like
+Benhadad and Hadadezer. The divinity primarily denoted by it is the
+storm-god who was known also as Ramman, Bir and Dadda. The Syrian kings
+of Damascus seem to have habitually assumed the title of Benhadad, or
+son of Hadad (three of this name are mentioned in Scripture), just as a
+series of Egyptian monarchs are known to have been accustomed to call
+themselves sons of Amon-Ra. The word Hadadrimmon, for which the inferior
+reading Hadarrimmon is found in some MSS. in the phrase "the mourning of
+(or at) Hadadrimmon" (Zech. xii. 11), has been a subject of much
+discussion. According to Jerome and all the older Christian
+interpreters, the mourning for something that occurred at a place called
+Hadadrimmon (Maximianopolis) in the valley of Megiddo is meant, the
+event alluded to being generally held to be the death of Josiah (or, as
+in the Targum, the death of Ahab at the hands of Hadadrimmon); but more
+recently the opinion has been gaining ground that Hadadrimmon is merely
+another name for Adonis (q.v.) or Tammuz, the allusion being to the
+mournings by which the Adonis festivals were usually accompanied (Hitzig
+on Zech. xii. 11, Isa. xvii. 8; Movers, _Phönizier_, i. 196). T. K.
+Cheyne (_Encycl. Bibl._ s.v.) points out that the Septuagint reads
+simply Rimmon, and argues that this may be a corruption of Migdon
+(Megiddo), in itself a corruption of Tammuz-Adon. He would render the
+verse, "In that day there shall be a great mourning in Jerusalem, as the
+mourning of the women who weep for Tammuz-Adon" (_Adon_ means lord).
+
+
+
+
+HADDINGTON, EARL OF, a Scottish title bestowed in 1627 upon Thomas
+Hamilton, earl of Melrose (1563-1637). Thomas, who was a member of the
+great family of Hamilton, being a son of Thomas Hamilton of Priestfield,
+was a lawyer who became a lord of session as Lord Drumcairn in 1592. He
+was on very friendly terms with James VI., his legal talents being
+useful to the king, and he was one of the eight men who, called the
+Octavians, were appointed to manage the finances of Scotland in 1596.
+Having also become king's advocate in 1596, Hamilton was entrusted with
+a large share in the government of his country when James went to London
+in 1603; in 1612 he was appointed secretary of state for Scotland, and
+in 1613 he was created Lord Binning and Byres. In 1616 he became lord
+president of the court of session, and three years later was created
+earl of Melrose, a title which he exchanged in 1627 for that of earl of
+Haddington. After the death of James I. the earl resigned his offices of
+president of the court of session and secretary of state, but he served
+Charles I. as lord privy seal. He died on the 29th of May 1637.
+Haddington, who was both scholarly and wealthy, left a large and
+valuable collection of papers, which is now in the Advocates' library at
+Edinburgh. James referred familiarly to his friend as _Tam o' the
+Cowgate_, his Edinburgh residence being in this street.
+
+The earl's eldest son THOMAS, the 2nd earl (1600-1640), was a covenanter
+and a soldier, being killed by an explosion at Dunglass castle on the
+30th of August 1640. His sons, THOMAS (d. 1645) and JOHN (d. 1669),
+became respectively the 3rd and 4th earls of Haddington, and John's
+grandson THOMAS (1679-1735) succeeded his father CHARLES (c. 1650-1685),
+as 6th earl in 1685, although he was not the eldest but the second son.
+This curious circumstance arose from the fact that when Charles married
+Margaret (d. 1700), the heiress of the earldom of Rothes, it was agreed
+that the two earldoms should be left separate; thus the eldest son John
+became earl of Rothes while Thomas became earl of Haddington. Thomas was
+a supporter of George I. during the rising of 1715, and was a
+representative peer for Scotland from 1716 to 1734. He died on the 28th
+of November 1735.
+
+The 6th earl was a writer, but in this direction his elder son, CHARLES,
+Lord Binning (1697-1732), is perhaps more celebrated. After fighting by
+his father's side at Sheriffmuir in 1715 and serving as member of
+parliament for St Germans, Binning died at Naples on the 27th of
+December 1732. His eldest son, THOMAS (c. 1720-1794), became the 7th
+earl in 1735, and the latter's grandson THOMAS (1780-1858) became the
+9th earl in 1828. The 9th earl had been a member of parliament from 1802
+to 1827, when he was made a peer of the United Kingdom as Baron Melros
+of Tyninghame, a title which became extinct upon his death. In 1834 he
+became lord-lieutenant of Ireland under Sir Robert Peel, leaving office
+in the following year, and in Peel's second administration (1841-1846)
+he served as first lord of the admiralty and then as lord privy seal.
+When he died without sons on the 1st of December 1858 the earldom
+passed to his kinsman, GEORGE BAILLIE (1802-1870), a descendant of the
+6th earl. This nobleman took the name of Baillie-Hamilton, and his son
+GEORGE (b. 1827) became 11th earl of Haddington in 1870.
+
+  See _State Papers of Thomas, Earl of Melrose_, published by the
+  Abbotsford Club in 1837, and Sir W. Fraser, _Memorials of the Earls of
+  Haddington_ (1889).
+
+
+
+
+HADDINGTON, a royal, municipal and police burgh, and county town of
+Haddingtonshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901), 3993. It is situated on the
+Tyne, 18 m. E. of Edinburgh by the North British railway, being the
+terminus of a branch line from Longniddry Junction. Five bridges cross
+the river, on the right bank of which lies the old and somewhat decayed
+suburb of Nungate, interesting as having contained the Giffordgate,
+where John Knox was born, and where also are the ruins of the
+pre-Reformation chapel of St Martin. The principal building in the town
+is St Mary's church, a cruciform Decorated edifice in red sandstone,
+probably dating from the 13th century. It is 210 ft. long, and is
+surmounted by a square tower 90 ft. high. The nave, restored in 1892, is
+used as the parish church, but the choir and transepts are roofless,
+though otherwise kept in repair. In a vault is a fine monument in
+alabaster, consisting of the recumbent figures of John, Lord Maitland of
+Thirlestane (1545-1595), chancellor of Scotland, and his wife. The
+laudatory sonnet composed by James VI. is inscribed on the tomb. In the
+same vault John, duke of Lauderdale (1616-1682), is buried. In the choir
+is the tombstone which Carlyle erected over the grave of his wife, Jane
+Baillie Welsh (1801-1866), a native of the town. Other public edifices
+include the county buildings in the Tudor style, in front of which
+stands the monument to George, 8th marquess of Tweeddale (1787-1876),
+who was such an expert and enthusiastic coachman that he once drove the
+mail from London to Haddington without taking rest; the corn exchange,
+next to that of Edinburgh the largest in Scotland; the town house, with
+a spire 150 ft. high, in front of which is a monument to John Home, the
+author of _Douglas_; the district asylum to the north of the burgh; the
+western district hospital; the Tenterfield home for children; the free
+library and the Knox Memorial Institute. This last-named building was
+erected in 1879 to replace the old and famous grammar school, where John
+Knox, William Dunbar, John Major and possibly George Buchanan and Sir
+David Lindsay were educated. John Brown (1722-1787), a once celebrated
+dissenting divine, author of the _Self-Interpreting Bible_, ministered
+in the burgh for 36 years and is buried there; his son John the
+theologian (1754-1832), and his grandson Samuel (1817-1856), the
+chemist, noted for his inquiries into the atomic theory, were natives.
+Samuel Smiles (1812-1904), author of _Character, Self-Help_ and other
+works, was also born there, and Edward Irving was for years mathematical
+master in the grammar school. In Hardgate Street is "Bothwell Castle,"
+the town house of the earl of Bothwell, where Mary Queen of Scots rested
+on her way to Dunbar. The ancient market cross has been restored. The
+leading industries are the making of agricultural implements,
+manufactures of woollens and sacking, brewing, tanning and
+coach-building, besides corn mills and engineering works.
+
+The burgh is the retail centre for a large district, and its grain
+markets, once the largest in Scotland, are still of considerable
+importance. Haddington was created a royal burgh by David I. It also
+received charters from Robert Bruce, Robert II. and James VI. In 1139 it
+was given as a dowry to Ada, daughter of William de Warenne, earl of
+Surrey, on her marriage to Prince Henry, the only son of David I. It was
+occasionally the residence of royalty, and Alexander II. was born there
+in 1198. Lying in the direct road of the English invaders, the town was
+often ravaged. It was burned by King John in 1216 and by Henry III. in
+1244. Fortified in 1548 by Lord Grey of Wilton, the English commander,
+it was besieged next year by the Scots and French, who forced the
+garrison to withdraw. So much slaughter had gone on during that period
+of storm and stress that it was long impossible to excavate in any
+direction without coming on human remains. The town has suffered much
+periodically from floods. One of the most memorable of these occurred on
+the 4th of October 1775, when the Tyne rose 8 ft. 9 in. above its bed
+and inundated a great part of the burgh. An inscription in the centre of
+the town records the event and marks the point to which the water rose.
+
+  There are many interesting places within a few miles of Haddington.
+  Five miles E. is Whittingehame House, and 5 m. N.E. is the thriving
+  village of East Linton (pop. 919). About 2½ m. N. lies Athelstaneford
+  (locally, Elshinford), so named from the victory of Hungus, king of
+  the Picts, in the 8th century over the Northumbrian Athelstane. On a
+  hill near Drem, 3½ m. N. by W., are traces of a Romano-British
+  settlement, and the remains of the priest's house of the Knights
+  Templars, to whom the barony once belonged. On the coast is the pretty
+  village of Aberlady on a fine bay, and in the neighbourhood are some
+  of the finest golf links in Scotland, such as Luffness, Gullane,
+  Archerfield and Muirfield. On Gosford Bay is Gosford House, an
+  18th-century mansion, the seat of the earl of Wemyss. At Gladsmuir, 3½
+  m. W. of Haddington, alleged by some to have been the birthplace of
+  George Heriot. Principal Robertson was minister and wrote most of his
+  _History of Scotland_. Of the old seat of the Douglases at Longniddry
+  few traces remain, and in the chapel, now in ruins, at the eastern end
+  of the village, John Knox is said to have preached occasionally. At
+  Gifford, 4 m. to the S., John Witherspoon (1722-1794), president of
+  the College of New Jersey (Princeton), and Charles Nisbet (1736-1804),
+  president of Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pennsylvania, were born. A
+  little to the south of Gifford are Yester House, a seat of the
+  marquess of Tweeddale, finely situated in a park of old trees, and the
+  ruins of Yester Castle. The cavern locally known as Hobgoblin Hall is
+  described in _Marmion_, and is associated with all kinds of
+  manifestations of the black art. Lennoxlove, 1½ m. to the S., a seat
+  of Lord Blantyre, was originally called Lethington, and for a few
+  centuries was associated with the Maitlands. Amisfield, adjoining
+  Haddington on the N.E., is another seat of the earl of Wemyss.
+
+
+
+
+HADDINGTONSHIRE, or _East Lothian_, a south-eastern county of Scotland,
+bounded N. by the Firth of Forth, N.E. by the North Sea, E., S.E. and S.
+by Berwickshire, and S.W. and W. by Edinburghshire. It covers an area of
+171,011 acres, or 267 sq. m. Its sea-coast measures 41 m. The Bass Rock
+and Fidra Isle belong to the shire, and there are numerous rocks and
+reefs off the shore, especially between Dunbar and Gullane Bay. Broadly
+speaking, the northern half of the shire slopes gently to the coast, and
+the southern half is hilly. Several of the peaks of the Lammermuirs
+exceed 1500 ft., and the more level tract is broken by Traprain Law
+(724) in the parish of Prestonkirk, North Berwick Law (612), and
+Garleton Hill (590) to the north of the county town. The only important
+river is the Tyne, which rises to the south-east of Borthwick in
+Mid-Lothian, and, taking a generally north-easterly direction, reaches
+the sea just beyond the park of Tynninghame House, after a course of 28
+m., for the first 7 m. of which it belongs to its parent shire. It is
+noted for a very fine variety of trout, and salmon are sometimes taken
+below the linn at East Linton. The Whiteadder rises in the parish of
+Whittingehame, but, flowing towards the south-east, leaves the shire and
+at last joins the Tweed near Berwick. There are no natural lakes, but in
+the parish of Stenton is found Pressmennan Loch, an artificial sheet of
+water of somewhat serpentine shape, about 2 m. in length, with a width
+of some 400 yds., which was constructed in 1819 by damming up the ravine
+in which it lies. The banks are wooded and picturesque, and the water
+abounds with trout.
+
+  _Geology._--The higher ground in the south, including the Lammermuir
+  Hills, is formed by shales, greywackes and grits of Ordovician and
+  Silurian age; a narrow belt of the former lying on the north-western
+  side of the latter, the strike being S.W. to N.E. The granitic mass of
+  Priestlaw and other felsitic rocks have been intruded into these
+  strata. The lower Old Red Sandstone has not been observed in this
+  county, but the younger sandstones and conglomerates fill up ancient
+  depressions in the Silurian and Ordovician, such as that running
+  northward from Oldhamstocks towards Dunbar and the valley of
+  Lauderdale. A faulted-in tract of the same formation, about 1 m. in
+  breadth, runs westward from Dunbar to near Gifford. Carboniferous
+  rocks form the remainder of the county. The Calciferous Sandstone
+  series, shales, thin limestones and sandstones, is exposed on the
+  south-eastern coast; but between Gifford and North Berwick and from
+  Aberlady to Dunbar it is represented by a great thickness of volcanic
+  rocks consisting of tuffs and coarse breccias in the lower beds, and
+  of porphyritic and andesitic lavas above. These rocks are well exposed
+  on the coast, in the Garleton Hills and Traprain Law; the latter and
+  North Berwick Law are volcanic necks or vents. The Carboniferous
+  Limestone series which succeeds the Calciferous Sandstone consists of
+  a middle group of sandstones, shales, coals and ironstones, with a
+  limestone group above and below. The coal-field is synclinal in
+  structure, Port Seton being about the centre; it contains ten seams of
+  coal, and the area covered by it is some 30 sq. m. Glacial boulder
+  clay lies over much of the lower ground, and ridges of gravel and sand
+  flank the hills and form extensive sheets. Traces of old raised
+  sea-beaches are found at several points along the coast. At North
+  Berwick, Tynninghame and elsewhere there are stretches of blown sand.
+  Limestone is worked at many places, and hematite was formerly obtained
+  from the Garleton Hills.
+
+_Climate and Agriculture._--Though the county is exposed to the full
+sweep of the east wind during March, April and May, the climate is on
+the whole mild and equable. The rainfall is far below the average of
+Great Britain, the mean for the year being 25 in., highest in midsummer
+and lowest in spring. The average temperature for the year is 47°.5 F.,
+for January 38° and for July 59°. Throughout nearly the whole of the
+19th century East Lothian agriculture was held to be the best in
+Scotland, not so much in consequence of the natural fertility of the
+soil as because of the enterprise of the cultivators, several of whom,
+like George Hope of Fenton Barns (1811-1876), brought scientific farming
+almost to perfection. Mechanical appliances were adopted with
+exceptional alacrity, and indeed some that afterwards came into general
+use were first employed in Haddington. Drill sowing of turnips dates
+from 1734. The threshing machine was introduced by Andrew Meikle
+(1719-1811) in 1787, the steam plough in 1862, and the reaping machine
+soon after its invention, while tile draining was first extensively used
+in the county. East Lothian is famous for the richness of its grain and
+green crops, the size of its holdings (average 200 acres) and the good
+housing of its labourers. The soils vary. Much of the Lammermuirs is
+necessarily unproductive, though the lower slopes are cultivated, a
+considerable tract of the land being very good. In the centre of the
+shire occurs a belt of tenacious yellow clay on a tilly subsoil which is
+not adapted for agriculture. Along the coast the soil is sandy, but
+farther inland it is composed of rich loam and is very fertile. The land
+about Dunbar is the most productive, yielding a potato--the "Dunbar
+red"--which is highly esteemed in the markets. Of the grain crops oats
+and barley are the principal, and their acreage is almost a constant,
+but wheat, after a prolonged decline, has experienced a revival. Turnips
+and potatoes are cultivated extensively, and with marked success, and
+constitute nearly all the green crops raised. Although pasture-land is
+below the average, live-stock are reared profitably. About one-sixteenth
+of the total area is under wood.
+
+_Other Industries._--Fisheries are conducted from Dunbar, North Berwick,
+Port Seton and Prestonpans, the catch consisting chiefly of cod,
+haddock, whiting and shellfish. Fireclay as well as limestone is worked,
+and there are some stone quarries, but the manufactures are mainly
+agricultural implements, pottery, woollens, artificial manures,
+feeding-stuffs and salt, besides brewing. Coal of a very fair quality is
+extensively worked at Tranent, Ormiston, Macmerry and near Prestonpans,
+the coal-field having an area of about 30 sq. m. Limestone is found
+throughout the greater part of the shire. A vein of hematite of a
+peculiarly fine character was discovered in 1866 at Garleton Hill, and
+wrought for some years. Ironstone has been mined at Macmerry.
+
+The North British Company possess the sole running powers in the county,
+through which is laid their main line to Berwick and the south. Branches
+are sent off at Drem to North Berwick, at Longniddry to Haddington and
+also to Gullane, at Smeaton (in Mid-Lothian) to Macmerry, and at
+Ormiston to Gifford.
+
+_Population and Government._--The population was 37,377 in 1891, and
+38,665 in 1901, when 459 persons spoke Gaelic and English, and 7 spoke
+Gaelic only. The chief towns are Dunbar (pop. in 1901, 3581), Haddington
+(3993), North Berwick (2899), Prestonpans (2614) and Tranent (2584). The
+county, which returns one member to Parliament, forms part of the
+sheriffdom of the Lothians and Peebles, and there is a resident
+sheriff-substitute at Haddington, who sits also at Dunbar, Tranent and
+North Berwick. The shire is under school-board jurisdiction, and besides
+high schools at Haddington and North Berwick, some of the elementary
+schools earn grants for higher education. The county council spends a
+proportion of the "residue" grant in supporting short courses of
+instruction in technical subjects (chiefly agriculture), in experiments
+in the feeding of cattle and the growing of crops, and in defraying the
+travelling expenses of technical students.
+
+_History._--Of the Celts, who were probably the earliest inhabitants,
+traces are found in a few place names and circular camps (in the
+parishes of Garvald and Whittinghame) and hill forts (in the parish of
+Bolton). After the Roman occupation, of which few traces remain, the
+district formed part of the Saxon kingdom of Northumbria until 1018,
+when it was joined to Scotland by Malcolm II. It was comparatively
+prosperous till the wars of Bruce and Baliol, but from that period down
+to the union of the kingdoms it suffered from its nearness to the Border
+and from civil strife. The last battles fought in the county were those
+of Dunbar (1650) and Prestonpans (1745).
+
+  See J. Miller, _History of Haddington_ (1844); D. Croal, _Sketches of
+  East Lothian_ (Haddington, 1873); John Martine, _Reminiscences of the
+  County of Haddington_ (Haddington, 1890, 1894); Dr Wallace James,
+  _Writs and Charters of Haddington_ (Haddington, 1898).
+
+
+
+
+HADDOCK (_Gadus aeglefinus_), a fish which differs from the cod in
+having the mental barbel very short, the first anal fin with 22 to 25
+rays, instead of 17 to 20, and the lateral line dark instead of whitish;
+it has a large blackish spot above each pectoral fin--associated in
+legend with the marks of St Peter's finger and thumb, the haddock being
+supposed to be the fish from whose mouth he took the tribute-money. It
+attains to a weight of 15 [lb] and is one of the most valuable food
+fishes of Europe, both fresh and smoked, the "finnan haddie" of Scotland
+being famous. It is common round the British and Irish coasts, and
+generally distributed along the shores of the North Sea, extending
+across the Atlantic to the coast of North America.
+
+
+
+
+HADDON HALL, one of the most famous ancient mansions in England. It lies
+on the left bank of the river Wye, 2 m. S.E. of Bakewell in Derbyshire.
+It is not now used as a residence, but the fabric is maintained in
+order. The building is of stone and oblong in form, and encloses two
+quadrangles separated by the great banqueting-hall and adjoining
+chambers. The greater part is of two storeys, and surmounted by
+battlements. To the south and south-east lie terraced gardens, and the
+south front of the eastern quadrangle is occupied by the splendid
+ball-room or long gallery. At the south-west corner of the mansion is
+the chapel; at the north-east the Peveril tower. The periods of building
+represented are as follows. Norman work appears in the chapel (which
+also served as a church for the neighbouring villagers), also in certain
+fundamental parts of the fabric, notably the Peveril tower. There are
+Early English and later additions to the chapel; the banqueting-hall,
+with the great kitchen adjacent to it, and part of the Peveril tower are
+of the 14th century. The eastern range of rooms, including the
+state-room, are of the 15th century; the western and north-western parts
+were built shortly after 1500. The ball-room is of early 17th-century
+construction, and the terraces and gardens were laid out at this time. A
+large number of interesting contemporary fittings are preserved,
+especially in the banqueting-hall and kitchen; and many of the rooms are
+adorned with tapestries of the 16th and 17th centuries, some of which
+came from the famous works at Mortlake in Surrey.
+
+A Roman altar was found and is preserved here, but no trace of Roman
+inhabitants has been discovered. Haddon was a manor which before the
+Conquest and at the time of the Domesday Survey belonged to the king,
+but was granted by William the Conqueror to William Peverel, whose son,
+another William Peverel, forfeited it for treason on the accession of
+Henry II. Before that time, however, the manor of Haddon had been
+granted to the family of Avenell, who continued to hold it until one
+William Avenell died without male issue and his property was divided
+between his two daughters and heirs, one of whom married Richard Vernon,
+whose successors acquired the other half of the manor in the reign of
+Edward III. Sir George Vernon, who died in 1561, was known as the "King
+of the Peak" on account of his hospitality. His daughter Dorothy married
+John Manners, second son of the earl of Rutland, who is said to have
+lived for some time in the woods round Haddon Hall, disguised as a
+gamekeeper, until he persuaded Dorothy to elope with him. On Sir
+George's death without male issue Haddon passed to John Manners and
+Dorothy, who lived in the Hall. Their grandson John Manners succeeded to
+the title of earl of Rutland in 1641, and the duke of Rutland is still
+lord of the manor.
+
+  See _Victoria County History, Derbyshire_; S. Rayner, _History and
+  Antiquities of Haddon Hall_ (1836-1837); Haddon Hall, _History and
+  Antiquities of Haddon Hall_ (1867); G. le Blanc Smith, _Haddon, the
+  Manor, the Hall, its Lords and Traditions_ (London, 1906).
+
+
+
+
+HADEN, SIR FRANCIS SEYMOUR (1818-1910), English surgeon and etcher, was
+born in London on the 16th of September 1818, his father, Charles Thomas
+Haden, being a well-known doctor and amateur of music. He was educated
+at University College school and University College, London, and also
+studied at the Sorbonne, Paris, where he took his degree in 1840. He was
+admitted as a member of the College of Surgeons in London in 1842.
+Besides his many-sided activities in the scientific world, during a busy
+and distinguished career as a surgeon, he followed the art of original
+etching with such vigour that he became not only the foremost British
+exponent of that art but was the principal cause of its revival in
+England. By his strenuous efforts and perseverance, aided by the
+secretarial ability of Sir W. R. Drake, he founded the Royal Society of
+Painter-Etchers and Engravers. As president he ruled the destinies of
+that society with a strong hand from its first beginnings in 1880. In
+1843-1844, with his friends Duval, Le Cannes and Col. Guibout, he had
+travelled in Italy and made his first sketches from nature. Haden
+attended no art school and had no art teachers, but in 1845, 1846, 1847
+and 1848 he studied portfolios of prints belonging to an old second-hand
+dealer named Love, who had a shop in Bunhill Row, the old Quaker quarter
+of London. These portfolios he would carry home, and arranging the
+prints in chronological order, he studied the works of the great
+original engravers, Dürer, Lucas van Leyden and Rembrandt. These
+studies, besides influencing his original work, led to his important
+monograph on the etched work of Rembrandt. By lecture and book, and with
+the aid of the memorable exhibition at the Burlington Fine Arts Club in
+1877, he endeavoured to give a just idea of Rembrandt's work, separating
+the true from the false, and giving altogether a nobler idea of the
+master's mind by taking away from the list of his works many dull and
+unseemly plates that had long been included in the lists. His reasons
+are founded upon the results of a study of the master's works in
+chronological order, and are clearly expressed in his monograph, _The
+Etched Work of Rembrandt critically reconsidered_, privately printed in
+1877, and in _The Etched Work of Rembrandt True and False_ (1895).
+Notwithstanding all this study of the old masters of his art, Haden's
+own plates are perhaps more individual than any artist's, and are
+particularly noticeable for a fine original treatment of landscape
+subjects, free and open in line, clear and well divided in mass, and
+full of a noble and dignified style of his own. Even when working from a
+picture his personality dominates the plate, as for example in the large
+plate he etched after J. M. W. Turner's "Calais Pier," which is a
+classical example of what interpretative work can do in black and white.
+Of his original plates, more than 250 in number, one of the most notable
+was the large "Breaking up of the Agamemnon." An early plate, rare and
+most beautiful, is "Thames Fisherman." "Mytton Hall" is broad in
+treatment, and a fine rendering of a shady avenue of yew trees leading
+to an old manor-house in sunlight. "Sub Tegmine" was etched in Greenwich
+Park in 1859; and "Early Morning--Richmond," full of the poetry and
+freshness of the hour, was done, the artist has said, actually at
+sunrise. One of the rarest and most beautiful of his plates is "A
+By-Road in Tipperary"; "Combe Bottom" is another; and "Shere Mill Pond"
+(both the small study and the larger plate), "Sunset in Ireland,"
+"Penton Hook," "Grim Spain" and "Evening Fishing, Longparish," are also
+notable examples of his genius. A catalogue of his works was begun by
+Sir William Drake and completed by Mr N. Harrington (1880). During later
+years Haden began to practise the sister art of mezzotint engraving,
+with a measure of the same success that he had already achieved in pure
+etching and in dry-point. Some of his mezzotints are: "An Early Riser,"
+a stag seen through the morning mists, "Grayling Fishing" and "A Salmon
+Pool on the Spey." He also produced some remarkable drawings of trees
+and park-like country in charcoal.
+
+Other books by Haden not already mentioned are--_Études à l'eau forte_
+(Paris, 1865); _About Etching_ (London, 1878-1879); _The Art of the
+Painter-Etcher_ (London, 1890); _The Relative Claims of Etching and
+Engraving to rank as Fine Arts and to be represented in the Royal
+Academy_ (London, 1883); _Address to Students of Winchester School of
+Art_ (Winchester, 1888); _Cremation: a Pamphlet_ (London, 1875); and
+_The Disposal of the Dead, a Plea for Legislation_ (London, 1888). As
+the last two indicate, he was an ardent champion of a system of "earth
+to earth" burial.
+
+Among numerous distinctions he received the Grand Prix, Paris, in 1889
+and 1900, and was made a member of the Institut de France, Académie des
+Beaux-Arts and Société des Artistes Français. He was knighted in 1894,
+and died on the 1st of June 1910. He married in 1847 a sister of the
+artist J. A. M. Whistler; and his elder son, Francis Seymour Haden (b.
+1850), had a distinguished career as a member of the government in Natal
+from 1881 to 1893, being made a C.M.G. in 1890.     (C. H.*)
+
+
+
+
+HADENDOA (from Beja _Hada_, chief, and _endowa_, people), a nomad tribe
+of Africans of "Hamitic" origin. They inhabit that part of the eastern
+Sudan extending from the Abyssinian frontier northward nearly to Suakin.
+They belong to the Beja people, of which, with the Bisharin and the
+Ababda, they are the modern representatives. They are a pastoral people,
+ruled by a hereditary chief who is directly responsible to the
+(Anglo-Egyptian) Sudan government. Although the official capital of the
+Hadendoa country is Miktinab, the town of Fillik on an affluent of the
+Atbara is really their headquarters. A third of the total population is
+settled in the Suakin country. Osman Digna, one of the best-known chiefs
+during the Madhia, was a Hadendoa, and the tribe contributed some of the
+fiercest of the dervish warriors in the wars of 1883-98. So determined
+were they in their opposition to the Anglo-Egyptian forces that the name
+Hadendoa grew to be nearly synonymous with "rebel." But this was the
+result of Egyptian misgovernment rather than religious enthusiasm; for
+the Hadendoa are true Beja, and Mahommedans only in name. Their
+elaborate hairdressing gained them the name of "Fuzzy-wuzzies" among the
+British troops. They earned an unenviable reputation during the wars by
+their hideous mutilations of the dead on the battlefields. After the
+reconquest of the Egyptian Sudan (1896-98) the Hadendoa accepted the new
+order without demur.
+
+  See _Anglo-Egyptian Sudan_, edited by Count Gleichen (London, 1905);
+  Sir F. R. Wingate, _Mahdism and the Egyptian Sudan_ (London, 1891); G.
+  Sergi, _Africa: Anthropology of the Hamitic Race_ (1897); A. H. Keane,
+  _Ethnology of the Egyptian Sudan_ (1884).
+
+
+
+
+HADERSLEBEN (Dan. _Haderslev_), a town of Germany, in the Prussian
+province of Schleswig-Holstein, 31 m. N. from Flensburg. Pop. (1905)
+9289. It lies in a pleasant valley on the Hadersleben fjord, which is
+about 9 m. in length, and communicates with the Little Belt, and at the
+junction of the main line of railway from Woyens with three vicinal
+lines. The principal buildings are the beautiful church of St Mary,
+dating from the 13th century, the theological seminary established in
+1870, the gymnasium and the hospital. The industries include
+iron-founding, tanning, and the manufacture of machines, tobacco and
+gloves. The harbour is only accessible to small vessels.
+
+Hadersleben is first mentioned in 1228, and received municipal rights
+from Duke Waldemar II. in 1292. It suffered considerably during the wars
+between Schleswig and Holstein in the 15th century. In November 1864 it
+passed with Schleswig to Prussia. Two Danish kings, Frederick II. and
+Frederick III., were born at Hadersleben.
+
+  See A. Sach, _Der Ursprung der Stadt Hadersleben_ (Hadersleben, 1892).
+
+
+
+
+HADING, JANE (1859-   ), French actress, whose real name was Jeanne
+Alfrédine Tréfouret, was born on the 25th of November 1859 at
+Marseilles, where her father was an actor at the Gymnase. She was
+trained at the local Conservatoire and was engaged in 1873 for the
+theatre at Algiers, and afterwards for the Khedivial theatre at Cairo,
+where she played, in turn, coquette, soubrette and _ingénue_ parts.
+Expectations had been raised by her voice, and when she returned to
+Marseilles she sang in operetta, besides acting in _Ruy Blas_. Her Paris
+début was in _La Chaste Suzanne_ at the Palais Royal, and she was again
+heard in operetta at the Renaissance. In 1883 she had a great success at
+the Gymnase in _Le Maître de forges_. In 1884 she married Victor Koning
+(1842-1894), the manager of that theatre, but divorced him in 1887. In
+1888 she toured America with Coquelin, and on her return helped to give
+success to Lavedan's _Prince d'Aurec_, at the Vaudeville. Her reputation
+as one of the leading actresses of the day was now established not only
+in France but in America and England. Her later répertoire included _Le
+Demi-monde_, Capus's _La Châtelaine_, Maurice Donnay's _Retour de
+Jérusalem_, _La Princesse Georges_ by Dumas fils, and Émile Bergerat's
+_Plus que reine_.
+
+
+
+
+HADLEIGH, a market town in the Sudbury parliamentary division of
+Suffolk, England; 70 m. N.E. from London, the terminus of a branch of
+the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of Urban district (1901), 3245. It lies
+pleasantly in a well-wooded country on the small river Brett, a
+tributary of the Stour. The church of St Mary is of good Perpendicular
+work, with Early English tower and Decorated spire. The Rectory Tower, a
+turreted gate-house of brick, dates from c. 1495. The gild-hall is a
+Tudor building, and there are other examples of this period. There are a
+town-hall and corn exchange, and an industry in the manufacture of
+matting and in malting. Hadleigh was one of the towns in which the
+woollen industry was started by Flemings, and survived until the 18th
+century. Among the rectors of Hadleigh several notable names appear,
+such as Rowland Taylor, the martyr, who was burned at the stake outside
+the town in 1555, and Hugh James Rose, during whose tenancy of the
+rectory an initiatory meeting of the leaders of the Oxford Movement took
+place here in 1833.
+
+Hadleigh, called by the Saxons Heapde-leag, appears in Domesday Book as
+Hetlega. About 885 Æthelflæd, lady of the Mercians, with the consent of
+Æthelred her husband, gave Hadleigh to Christ Church, Canterbury. The
+dean and chapter of Canterbury have held possession of it ever since the
+Dissolution. In the 17th century Hadleigh was famous for the manufacture
+of cloth, and in 1618 was sufficiently important to receive
+incorporation. It was constituted a free borough under the title of the
+mayor, aldermen and burgesses of Hadleigh. In 1635, in a list of the
+corporate towns of Suffolk to be assessed for ship money, Hadleigh is
+named as third in importance. In 1636, owing to a serious visitation of
+the plague, 200 families were thrown out of work, and in 1687 so much
+had its importance declined that it was deprived of its charter. An
+unsuccessful attempt to recover it was made in 1701. There is evidence
+of the existence of a market here as early as the 13th century. James
+I., in his charter of incorporation, granted fairs on Monday and Tuesday
+in Whitsun week, and confirmed an ancient fair at Michaelmas and a
+market on Monday.
+
+
+
+
+HADLEY, ARTHUR TWINING (1856-   ), American political economist and
+educationist, president of Yale University, was born in New Haven,
+Connecticut, on the 23rd of April 1856. He was the son of James Hadley,
+the philologist, from whom, as from his mother--whose brother, Alexander
+Catlin Twining (1801-1884), was an astronomer and authority on
+constitutional law--he inherited unusual mathematical ability. He
+graduated at Yale in 1876 as valedictorian, having taken prizes in
+English, classics and astronomy; studied political science at Yale
+(1876-1877) and at Berlin (1878-1879); was a tutor at Yale in 1879-1883,
+instructor in political science in 1883-1886, professor of political
+science in 1886-1891, professor of political economy in 1891-1899, and
+dean of the Graduate School in 1892-1895; and in 1899 became president
+of Yale University--the first layman to hold that office. He was
+commissioner of the Connecticut bureau of labour statistics in
+1885-1887. As an economist he first became widely known through his
+investigation of the railway question and his study of railway rates,
+which antedated the popular excitement as to rebates. His _Railroad
+Transportation, its History and Laws_ (1885) became a standard work, and
+appeared in Russian (1886) and French (1887); he testified as an expert
+on transportation before the Senate committee which drew up the
+Interstate Commerce Law; and wrote on railways and transportation for
+the Ninth and Tenth Editions (of which he was one of the editors) of the
+_Encyclopaedia Britannica_, for Lalor's _Cyclopaedia of Political
+Science, Political Economy, and Political History of the United Stales_
+(3 vols., 1881-1884), for _The American Railway_ (1888), and for _The
+Railroad Gazette_ in 1884-1891, and for other periodicals. His idea of
+the broad scope of economic science, especially of the place of ethics
+in relation to political economy and business, is expressed in his
+writings and public addresses. In 1907-1908 he was Theodore Roosevelt
+professor of American History and Institutions in the university of
+Berlin.
+
+  Among his other publications are: _Economics: an Account of the
+  Relations between Private Property and Public Welfare_ (1896); _The
+  Education of the American Citizen_ (1901); _The Relations between
+  Freedom and Responsibility in the Evolution of Democratic Government_
+  (1903, in Yale Lectures on the Responsibilities of Citizenship);
+  _Baccalaureate Addresses_ (1907); and _Standards of Public Morality_
+  (1907), being the Kennedy Lectures for 1906.
+
+
+
+
+HADLEY, JAMES (1821-1872), American scholar, was born on the 30th of
+March 1821 in Fairfield, Herkimer county, New York, where his father was
+professor of chemistry in Fairfield Medical College. At the age of nine
+an accident lamed him for life. He graduated from Yale in 1842, having
+entered the Junior class in 1840; studied in the Theological Department
+of Yale, and in 1844-1845 was a tutor in Middlebury College. He was
+tutor at Yale in 1845-1848, assistant professor of Greek in 1848-1851,
+and professor of Greek, succeeding President Woolsey, from 1851 until
+his death in Hew Haven on the 14th of November 1872. As an undergraduate
+he showed himself an able mathematician, but the influence of Edward
+Elbridge Salisbury, under whom Hadley and W. D. Whitney studied Sanskrit
+together, turned his attention toward the study of language. He knew
+Greek, Latin, Sanskrit, Hebrew, Arabic, Armenian, several Celtic
+languages and the languages of modern Europe; but he published little,
+and his scholarship found scant outlet in the college class-room. His
+most original written work was an essay on Greek accent, published in a
+German version in Curtius's _Studien zur griechischen und lateinischen
+Grammatik_. Hadley's _Greek Grammar_ (1860; revised by Frederic de
+Forest Allen, 1884) was based on Curtius's _Schulgrammatik_ (1852, 1855,
+1857, 1859), and long held its place in American schools. Hadley was a
+member of the American Committee for the revision of the New Testament,
+was president of the American Oriental Society (1871-1872), and
+contributed to Webster's dictionary an essay on the _History of the
+English Language_. In 1873 were published his _Introduction to Roman
+Law_ (edited by T. D. Woolsey) and his _Essays, Philological and
+Critical_ (edited by W. D. Whitney).
+
+  See the memorial by Noah Porter in _The New Englander_, vol. xxxii.
+  (Jan. 1873), pp. 35-55; and the sketch by his son, A. T. Hadley, in
+  _Biographical Memoirs_ of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. v.
+  (1905), pp. 247-254.
+
+
+
+
+HADLEY, a township of Hampshire county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., on the
+Connecticut river, about 20 m. N. of Springfield, served by the Boston &
+Maine railway. Pop. (1900), 1789; (1905, state census), 1895; (1910)
+1999. Area, about 20 sq. m. The principal villages are Hadley (or Hadley
+Center) and North Hadley. The level country along the river is well
+adapted to tobacco culture, and the villages are engaged in the
+manufacture of tobacco and brooms. Hadley was settled in 1659 by members
+of the churches in Hartford and Wethersfield, Connecticut, who were
+styled "Strict Congregationalists" and withdrew from these Connecticut
+congregations because of ecclesiastical and doctrinal laxity there. At
+first the town was called Norwottuck, but within a year or two it was
+named after Hadleigh in England, and was incorporated under this name in
+1661. Hopkins Academy (1815) developed from Hopkins school, founded here
+in 1664. The English regicides Edward Whalley and his son-in-law William
+Goffe found a refuge at Hadley from 1664 apparently until their deaths,
+and there is a tradition that Goffe or Whalley in 1675 led the people in
+repelling an Indian attack. From 1675 to 1713 Hadley, being in almost
+constant danger of attack from the Indians, was protected by a palisade
+enclosure and by stockades around the meeting-house. From Hadley,
+Hatfield was set apart in 1670, South Hadley in 1753, and Amherst in
+1759.
+
+  See Alice M. Walker, _Historic Hadley_ (New York, 1906); and Sylvester
+  Judd, _History of Hadley_ (Northampton, 1863; new ed., 1905).
+
+
+
+
+HADRAMUT, a district on the south coast of Arabia, bounded W. by Yemen,
+E. by Oman and N. by the Dahna desert. The modern Arabs restrict the
+name to the coast between Balhaf and Sihut, and the valley of the Wadi
+Hadramut in the interior; in its wider and commonly accepted
+signification it includes also the Mahra and Gara coasts extending
+eastwards to Mirbat; thus defined, its limits are between 14° and 18° N.
+and 47° 30´ to 55° E., with a total length of 550 m. and a breadth of
+150 m.
+
+  The coastal plain is narrow, rarely exceeding 10 m. in width, and in
+  places the hills extend to the seashore. The principal ports are
+  Mukalla and Shihr, both considerable towns, and Kusair and Raida,
+  small fishing villages; inland there are a few villages near the foot
+  of the hills, with a limited area of cultivation irrigated by springs
+  or wells in the hill torrent beds. Behind the littoral plain a range
+  of mountains, or rather a high plateau, falling steeply to the south
+  and more gently to the north, extends continuously from the Yemen
+  highlands on the west to the mouth of the Hadramut valley, from which
+  a similar range extends with hardly a break to the border of Oman. Its
+  crest-line is generally some 30 m. from the coast, and its average
+  height between 4000 and 5000 ft. A number of wadis or ravines cutting
+  deeply into the plateau run northward to the main Wadi Hadramut, a
+  broad valley lying nearly east and west, with a total length from its
+  extreme western heads on the Yemen highlands to its mouth near Sihut
+  of over 500 m. Beyond the valley and steadily encroaching on it lies
+  the great desert extending for 300 m. to the borders of Nejd. The most
+  westerly village in the main valley is Shabwa, in ancient days the
+  capital, but now almost buried by the advancing desert. Lower down the
+  first large villages are Henan and Ajlania, near which the wadis 'Amd,
+  Duwan and el 'Ain unite, forming the W. Kasr. In the W. Duwan and its
+  branches are the villages of Haura, el Hajren, Kaidun and al Khureba.
+  Below Haura for some 60 m. there is a succession of villages with
+  fields, gardens and date groves; several tributaries join on either
+  side, among which the W. bin Ali and W. Adim from the south contain
+  numerous villages. The principal towns are Shibam, al Ghurfa, Saiyun,
+  Tariba, el Ghuraf, Tarim, formerly the chief place, 'Ainat and el
+  Kasm. Below the last-named place there is little cultivation Or
+  settled population. The shrines of Kabr Salih and Kabr Hud are looked
+  on as specially sacred, and are visited by numbers of pilgrims. The
+  former, which is in the Wadi Ser about 20 m. N.W. of Shibam, was
+  explored by Theodore Bent in 1894; the tomb itself is of no interest,
+  but in the neighbourhood there are extensive ruins with Himyaritic
+  inscriptions on the stones. Kabr Hud is in the main valley some
+  distance east of Kasm; not far from it is Bir Borhut, a natural
+  grotto, where fumes of burning sulphur issue from a number of volcanic
+  vents; al-Masudi mentions it in the 10th century as an active volcano.
+  Except after heavy rain, there is no running water in the Hadramut
+  valley, the cultivation therefore depends on artificial irrigation
+  from wells. The principal crops are wheat, millet, indigo, dates and
+  tobacco; this latter, known as Hamumi tobacco, is of excellent
+  quality.
+
+Hadramut has preserved its name from the earliest times; it occurs in
+Genesis as Hazarmaveth and Hadoram, sons of Joktan; and the old Greek
+geographers mention Adramytta and Chadramotites in their accounts of the
+frankincense country. The numerous ruins discovered in the W. Duwan and
+Adim, as well as in the main valley, are evidences of its former
+prosperity and civilization.
+
+The people, known as Hadrami (plural Hadarim), belong generally to the
+south Arabian stock, claiming descent from Ya'rab bin Kahtan. There is,
+however, a large number of Seyyids or descendants of the Prophet, and
+of townsmen of northern origin, besides a considerable class of African
+or mixed descent. Van den Berg estimates the total population of
+Hadramut (excluding the Mahra and Gara) at 150,000, of which he locates
+50,000 in the valley between Shibam and Tarim, 25,000 in the W. Duwan
+and its tributaries, and 25,000 in Mukalla, Shihr and the coast
+villages, leaving 50,000 for the non-agricultural population scattered
+over the rest of the country, probably an excessive estimate.
+
+The Seyyids, descendants of [H.]osain, grandson of Mahomet, form a
+numerous and highly respected aristocracy. They are divided into
+families, the chiefs of which are known as Munsibs, who are looked on as
+the religious leaders of the people, and are even in some cases
+venerated as saints. Among the leading families are the Sheikh Abu Bakr
+of Ainat, the el-Aidrus of Shihr and the Sakkaf of Saiyun. They do not
+bear arms, nor occupy themselves in trade or manual labour or even
+agriculture; though owning a large proportion of the land, they employ
+slaves or hired labourers to cultivate it. As compared with the other
+classes, they are well educated, and are strict in their observance of
+religious duties, and owing to the respect due to their descent, they
+exercise a strong influence both in temporal and spiritual affairs.
+
+The tribesmen, as in Arabia generally, are the predominant class in the
+population; all the adults carry arms; some of the tribes have settled
+towns and villages, others lead a nomadic life, keeping, however, within
+the territory which is recognized as belonging to the tribe. They are
+divided into sections or families, each headed by a chief or abu (lit.
+father), while the head of the tribe is called the mukaddam or sultan;
+the authority of the chief depends largely on his personality: he is the
+leader in peace and in war, but the tribesmen are not his subjects; he
+can only rule with their support. The most powerful tribe at present in
+Hadramut is the Kaiti, a branch of the Yafa tribe whose settlements lie
+farther west. Originally invited by the Seyyids to protect the settled
+districts from the attacks of marauding tribes, they have established
+themselves as practically the rulers of the country, and now possess the
+coast district with the towns of Shihr and Mukalla, as well as Haura,
+Hajren and Shibam in the interior. The head of the family has
+accumulated great wealth, and risen to the highest position in the
+service of the nizam of Hyderabad in India, as Jamadar, or commander of
+an Arab levy composed of his tribesmen, numbers of whom go abroad to
+seek their fortune. The Kathiri tribe was formerly the most powerful;
+they occupy the towns of Saiyun, Tarim and el-Ghuraf in the richest part
+of the main Hadramut valley. The chiefs of both the Kaiti and Kathiri
+are in political relations with the British government, through the
+resident at Aden (q.v.). The 'Amudi in the W. Duwan, and the Nahdi,
+Awamir and Tamimi in the main valley, are the principal tribes
+possessing permanent villages; the Saiban, Hamumi and Manahil occupy the
+mountains between the main valley and coast.
+
+The townsmen are the free inhabitants of the towns and villages as
+distinguished from the Seyyids and the tribesmen: they do not carry
+arms, but are the working members of the community, merchants,
+artificers, cultivators and servants, and are entirely dependent on the
+tribes and chiefs under whose protection they live. The servile class
+contains a large African element, brought over formerly when the slave
+trade flourished on this coast; as in all Mahommedan countries they are
+well treated, and often rise to positions of trust.
+
+As already mentioned, a large number of Arabs from Hadramut go abroad;
+the Kaiti tribesmen take service in India in the irregular troops of
+Hyderabad; emigration on a large scale has also gone on, to the Dutch
+colonies in Java and Sumatra, since the beginning of the 19th century.
+According to the census of 1885, quoted by Van den Berg in his _Report_
+published by the government of the Dutch East Indies in 1886, the number
+of Arabs in those colonies actually born in Arabia was 2500, while those
+born in the colonies exceeded 20,000; nearly all of the former are from
+the towns in the Hadramut valley between Shibam and Tarim. Mukalla and
+Shihr have a considerable trade with the Red Sea and Persian Gulf
+ports, as well as with the ports of Aden, Dhafar and Muscat; a large
+share of this is in the hands of Parsee and other British Indian traders
+who have established themselves in the Hadramut ports. The principal
+imports are wheat, rice, sugar, piece goods and hardware. The exports
+are small; the chief items are honey, tobacco and sharks' fins. In the
+towns in the interior the principal industries are weaving and dyeing.
+
+  The Mahra country adjoins the Hadramut proper, and extends along the
+  coast from Sihut eastwards to the east of Kamar Bay, where the Gara
+  coast begins and stretches to Mirbat. The sultan of the Mahra, to whom
+  Sokotra also belongs, lives at Kishin, a poor village consisting of a
+  few scattered houses about 30 m. west of Ras Fartak. Sihut is a
+  similar village 20 m. farther west. The mountains rise to a height of
+  4000 ft. within a short distance of the coast, covered in places with
+  trees, among which are the myrrh- and frankincense-bearing shrubs.
+  These gums, for which the coast was celebrated in ancient days, are
+  still produced; the best quality is obtained in the Gara country, on
+  the northern slope of the mountains. Dhafar and the mountains behind
+  it were visited and surveyed by Mr Bent's party in 1894. There are
+  several thriving villages on the coast, of which el-Hafa is the
+  principal port of export for frankincense; 9000 cwt. is exported
+  annually to Bombay.
+
+  Ruins of Sabaean buildings were found by J. T. Bent in the
+  neighbourhood of Dhafar, and a remarkable cove or small harbour was
+  discovered at Khor Rori, which he identified with the ancient port of
+  Moscha.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--L. Van den Berg, _Le Hadramut et les colonies arabes_
+  (Batavia, 1885); L. Hirsch, _Reise in Südarabien_ (Leiden, 1897); J.
+  T. Bent, _Southern Arabia_ (London, 1895); A. von Wrede, _Reise in
+  Hadhramut_ (Brunswick, 1870); H. J. Carter, _Trans. Bombay As. Soc._
+  (1845), 47-51; _Journal R.G.S._ (1837).     (R. A. W.)
+
+
+
+
+HADRIA [mod. _Atri_ (q.v.)], perhaps the original terminal point of the
+Via Caecilia, Italy. It belonged to the Praetutii. It became a colony of
+Rome in 290 B.C. and remained faithful to Rome. The coins which it
+issued (probably during the Punic Wars), are remarkable. The crypt of
+the cathedral of the modern town was originally a large Roman cistern;
+another forms the foundation of the ducal palace; and in the eastern
+portion of the town there is a complicated system of underground
+passages for collecting and storing water.
+
+  See _Notizie degli scavi_ (1902), 3.     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+HADRIAN (PUBLIUS AELIUS HADRIANUS), Roman emperor A.D. 117-138, was born
+on the 24th of January A.D. 76, at Italica in Hispania Baetica
+(according to others, at Rome), where his ancestors, originally from
+Hadria in Picenum, had been settled since the time of the Scipios. On
+his father's death in 85 or 86 he was placed under the guardianship of
+two fellow-countrymen, his kinsman Ulpius Trajanus (afterwards the
+emperor Trajan), and Caelius Attianus (afterwards prefect of the
+praetorian guard). He spent the next five years at Rome, but at the age
+of fifteen he returned to his native place and entered upon a military
+career. He was soon, however, recalled to Rome by Trajan, and appointed
+to the offices of _decemvir stlitibus judicandis_, _praefectus feriarum
+Latinarum_, and _sevir turmae equitum Romanorum_. About 95 he was
+military tribune in lower Moesia. In 97 he was sent to upper Germany to
+convey the congratulations of the army to Trajan on his adoption by
+Nerva; and, in January of the following year, he hastened to announce
+the death of Nerva to Trajan at Cologne. Trajan, who had been set
+against Hadrian by reports of his extravagance, soon took him into
+favour again, chiefly owing to the goodwill of the empress Plotina, who
+brought about the marriage of Hadrian with (Vibia) Sabina, Trajan's
+great-niece. In 101 Hadrian was quaestor, in 105 tribune of the people,
+in 106 praetor. He served with distinction in both Dacian campaigns: in
+the second Trajan presented him with a valuable ring which he himself
+had received from Nerva, a token of regard which seemed to designate
+Hadrian as his successor. In 107 Hadrian was _legatus praetorius_ of
+lower Pannonia, in 108 _consul suffectus_, in 112 _archon_ at Athens,
+_legatus_ in the Parthian campaign (113-117), in 117 _consul designatus_
+for the following year, in 119 consul for the third and last time only
+for four months. When Trajan, owing to a severe illness, decided to
+return home from the East, he left Hadrian in command of the army and
+governor of Syria. On the 9th of August 117, Hadrian, at Antioch, was
+informed of his adoption by Trajan, and, on the 11th, of the death of
+the latter at Selinus in Cilicia. According to Dio Cassius (lxix. 1) the
+adoption was entirely fictitious, the work of Plotina and Attianus, by
+whom Trajan's death was concealed for a few days in order to facilitate
+the elevation of Hadrian. Whichever may have been the truth, his
+succession was confirmed by the army and the senate. He hastened to
+propitiate the former by a donative of twice the usual amount, and
+excused his hasty acceptance of the throne to the senate by alleging the
+impatient zeal of the soldiers and the necessity of an imperator for the
+welfare of the state.
+
+Hadrian's first important act was to abandon as untenable the conquests
+of Trajan beyond the Euphrates (Assyria, Mesopotamia and Armenia), a
+recurrence to the traditional policy of Augustus. The provinces were
+unsettled, the barbarians on the borders restless and menacing, and
+Hadrian wisely judged that the old limits of Augustus afforded the most
+defensible frontier. Mesopotamia and Assyria were given back to the
+Parthians, and the Armenians were allowed a king of their own. From
+Antioch Hadrian set out for Dacia to punish the Roxolani, who, incensed
+by a reduction of the tribute hitherto paid them, had invaded the
+Danubian provinces. An arrangement was patched up, and while Hadrian was
+still in Dacia he received news of a conspiracy against his life. Four
+citizens of consular rank were accused of being concerned in it, and
+were put to death by order of the senate before he could interfere.
+Hurrying back to Rome, Hadrian endeavoured to remove the unfavourable
+impression produced by the whole affair and to gain the goodwill of
+senate and people. He threw the responsibility for the executions upon
+the prefect of the praetorian guard, and swore that he would never
+punish a senator without the assent of the entire body, to which he
+expressed the utmost deference and consideration. Large sums of money
+and games and shows were provided for the people, and, in addition, all
+the arrears of taxation for the last fifteen years (about £10,000,000)
+were cancelled and the bonds burnt in the Forum of Trajan. Trajan's
+scheme for the "alimentation" of poor children was carried out upon a
+larger scale under the superintendence of a special official called
+_praefectus alimentorum_.
+
+The record of Hadrian's journeys[1] through all parts of the empire
+forms the chief authority for the events of his life down to his final
+settlement in the capital during his last years. They can only be
+briefly touched upon here. His first great journey probably lasted from
+121 to 126. After traversing Gaul he visited the Germanic provinces on
+the Rhine, and crossed over to Britain (spring, 122), where he built the
+great rampart from the Tyne to the Solway, which bears his name (see
+BRITAIN: _Roman_). He returned through Gaul into Spain, and then
+proceeded to Mauretania, where he suppressed an insurrection. A war with
+the Parthians was averted by a personal interview with their king (123).
+From the Parthian frontier he travelled through Asia Minor and the
+islands of the Aegean to Athens (autumn, 125), where he introduced
+various political and commercial changes, was initiated at the
+Eleusinia, and presided at the celebration of the greater Dionysia.
+After visiting Central Greece and Peloponnesus, he returned by way of
+Sicily to Rome (end of 126). The next year was spent at Rome, and, after
+a visit to Africa, he set out on his second great journey (September
+128). He travelled by way of Athens, where he completed and dedicated
+the buildings (see ATHENS) begun during his first visit, chief of which
+was the Olympieum or temple of Olympian Zeus, on which occasion Hadrian
+himself assumed the name of Olympius. In the spring of 129 he visited
+Asia Minor and Syria, where he invited the kings and princes of the East
+to a meeting (probably at Samosata). Having passed the winter at
+Antioch, he set out for the south (spring, 130). He ordered Jerusalem to
+be rebuilt (see JERUSALEM) under the name of Aelia Capitolina, and made
+his way through Arabia to Egypt, where he restored the tomb of Pompey
+at Pelusium with great magnificence. After a short stay at Alexandria he
+took an excursion up the Nile, during which he lost his favourite
+Antinous. On the 21st of November 130, Hadrian (or at any rate his wife
+Sabina) heard the music which issued at sunrise from the statue of
+Memnon at Thebes (see MEMNON). From Egypt Hadrian returned through Syria
+to Europe (his movements are obscure), but was obliged to hurry back to
+Palestine (spring, 133) to give his personal attention (this is denied
+by some historians) to the revolt of the Jews, which had broken out
+(autumn, 131, or spring, 132) after he had left Syria. The founding of a
+Roman colony on the site of Jerusalem (Dio Cass. lxix. 12) and the
+prohibition of circumcision (Spartianus, _Hadrianus_, 14) are said to
+have been the causes of the war, but authorities differ considerably as
+to this and as to the measures which followed the revolt (see art. JEWS;
+also E. Schürer, _Hist. of the Jewish People_, Eng. tr., div. 1, vol.
+ii. p. 288; and S. Krauss in _Jewish Encyc. s.v._ "Hadrian"), which
+lasted till 135. Leaving the conduct of affairs in the hands of his most
+capable general, Julius Severus, in the spring of 134 Hadrian returned
+to Rome. The remaining years of his life were spent partly in the
+capital, partly in his villa at Tibur. His health now began to fail, and
+it became necessary for him to choose a successor, as he had no children
+of his own. Against the advice of his relatives and friends he adopted
+L. Ceionius Commodus under the name of L. Aelius Caesar, who was in a
+feeble state of health and died on the 1st of January 138, before he had
+an opportunity of proving his capabilities. Hadrian then adopted Arrius
+Antoninus (see ANTONINUS PIUS) on condition that he should adopt M.
+Annius Verus (afterwards the emperor Marcus Aurelius) and the son of L.
+Aelius Caesar, L. Ceionius Commodus (afterwards the emperor Commodus).
+Hadrian died at Baiae on the 10th of July 138.
+
+He was without doubt one of the most capable emperors who ever occupied
+the throne, and devoted his great and varied talents to the interests of
+the state. One of his chief objects was the abolition of distinctions
+between the provinces and the mother country, finally carried out by
+Caracalla, while at the same time he did not neglect reforms that were
+urgently called for in Italy. Provincial governors were kept under
+strict supervision; extortion was practically unheard of; the _jus
+Latii_ was bestowed upon several communities; special officials were
+instituted for the control of the finances; and the emperor's interest
+in provincial affairs was shown by bis personal assumption of various
+municipal offices. New towns were founded and old ones restored; new
+streets were laid out, and aqueducts, temples and magnificent buildings
+constructed. In Italy itself the administration of justice and the
+finances required special attention. Four _legati juridici_ (or simply
+_juridici_) of consular rank were appointed for Italy, who took over
+certain important judicial functions formerly exercised by local
+magistrates (cases of _fideicommissa_, the nomination of guardians). The
+judicial council (_consiliarii Augusti_, later called _consistorium_),
+composed of persons of the highest rank (especially jurists), became a
+permanent body of advisers, although merely consultative. Roman law owes
+much to Hadrian, who instructed Salvius Julianus to draw up an _edictum
+perpetuum_, to a great extent the basis of Justinian's _Corpus juris_
+(see M. Schanz, _Geschichte der römischen Literatur_, iii. p. 167). In
+the administration of finance, in addition to the remission of arrears
+already mentioned, a revision of claims was ordered to be made every
+fifteen years, thereby anticipating the "indictions" (see CALENDAR;
+CHRONOLOGY). Direct collection of taxes by imperial procurators was
+substituted for the system of farming, and a special official
+(_advocatus fisci_) was instituted to look after the interests of the
+imperial treasury. The gift of "coronary gold" (_aurum coronarium_),
+presented to the emperor on certain occasions, was entirely remitted in
+the case of Italy, and partly in the case of the provinces. The
+administration of the postal service throughout the empire was taken
+over by the state, and municipal officials were relieved from the burden
+of maintaining the imperial posts. Humane regulations as to the
+treatment of slaves were strictly enforced; the master was forbidden to
+put his slave to death, but was obliged to bring him before a court of
+justice; if he ill-treated him it was a penal offence. The sale of
+slaves (male and female) for immoral and gladiatorial purposes was
+forbidden; the custom of putting all the household to death when their
+master was murdered was modified. The public baths were kept under
+strict supervision; the toga was ordered to be worn in public by
+senators and equites on solemn occasions; extravagant banquets were
+prohibited; rules were made to prevent the congestion of traffic in the
+streets. In military matters Hadrian was a strict disciplinarian, but
+his generosity and readiness to share their hardships endeared him to
+the soldiers. He effected a material and moral improvement in the
+conditions of service and mode of life, but in other respects he does
+not appear to have introduced any important military reforms. During his
+reign an advance was made in the direction of creating an organized body
+of servants at the disposal of the emperor by the appointment of equites
+to important administrative posts, without their having performed the
+_militiae equestres_ (see EQUITES). Among these posts were various
+procuratorships (chief of which was that of the imperial fisc), and the
+offices _ab epistulis_, _a rationibus_ and _a libellis_ (secretary,
+accountant, receiver of petitions). The prefect of the praetorian guard
+was now the most important person in the state next to the emperor, and
+subsequently became a supreme judge of appeal. Among the magnificent
+buildings erected by Hadrian mention may be made of the following: In
+the capital, the temple of Venus and Roma; his splendid mausoleum, which
+formed the groundwork of the castle of St Angelo; the pantheon of
+Agrippa; the Basilica Neptuni; at Tibur the great villa 8 m. in extent,
+a kind of epitome of the world, with miniatures of the most celebrated
+places in the provinces. Athens, however, was the favourite site of his
+architectural labours; here he built the temple of Olympian Zeus, the
+Panhellenion, the Pantheon, the library, a gymnasium and a temple of
+Hera.
+
+Hadrian was fond of the society of learned men--poets, scholars,
+rhetoricians and philosophers--whom he alternately humoured and
+ridiculed. In painting, sculpture and music he considered himself the
+equal of specialists. The architect Apollodorus of Damascus owed his
+banishment and death to his outspoken criticism of the emperor's plans.
+The sophist Favorinus was more politic; when reproached for yielding too
+readily to the emperor in some grammatical discussion, he replied that
+it was unwise to contradict the master of thirty legions. The Athenaeum
+(q.v.) owed its foundation to Hadrian. He was a man of considerable
+intellectual attainments, of prodigious memory, master of both Latin and
+Greek, and wrote prose and verse with equal facility. His taste,
+however, was curious; he preferred Cato the elder, Ennius and Caelius
+Antipater to Cicero, Virgil and Sallust, the obscure poet Antimachus to
+Homer and Plato. As a writer he displayed great versatility. He composed
+an autobiography, published under the name of his freedman Phlegon;
+wrote speeches, fragments of two of which are preserved in inscriptions
+(a panegyric on his mother-in-law Matidia, and an address to the
+soldiers at Lambaesis in Africa). In imitation of Antimachus he wrote a
+work called _Catachannae_, probably a kind of miscellanea. The Latin and
+Greek anthologies contain about a dozen epigrams under his name. The
+letter of Hadrian to the consul Servianus (in Vopiscus, _Vita
+Saturnini_, 8) is no longer considered genuine. Hadrian's celebrated
+dying address to his soul may here be quoted:--
+
+  "Animula vagula, blandula,
+   Hospes comesque corporis,
+   Quae nunc abibis in loca
+   Pallidula, rigida, nudula;
+   Nec, ut soles, dabis iocos?"
+
+The character of Hadrian exhibits a mass of contradictions, well summed
+up by Spartianus (14, 11). He was grave and gay, affable and dignified,
+cruel and gentle, mean and generous, eager for fame yet not vain,
+impulsive and cautious, secretive and open. He hated eminent qualities
+in others, but gathered round him the most distinguished men of the
+state; at one time affectionate towards his friends, at another he
+mistrusted and put them to death. In fact, he was only consistent in his
+inconsistency (_semper in omnibus varius_). Although he endeavoured to
+win the popular favour, he was more feared than loved. A man of
+unnatural passions and grossly superstitious, he was an ardent lover of
+nature. But, with all his faults, he devoted himself so indefatigably to
+the service of the state, that the period of his reign could be
+characterized as a "golden age."
+
+  The chief ancient authorities for the reign of Hadrian are: the life
+  by Aelius Spartianus in the _Scriptores historiae Augustae_ (see
+  AUGUSTAN HISTORY and bibliography); the epitome of Dio Cassius (lxix.)
+  by Xiphilinus; Aurelius Victor, Epit. 14, probably based on Marius
+  Maximus; Eutropius viii. 6; Zonaras xi. 23; Suidas, _s.v._ [Greek:
+  Adrianos]: and numerous inscriptions and coins. The autobiography was
+  used by both Dio Cassius and Marius Maximus. Modern authorities: C.
+  Merivale, _Hist. of the Romans under the Empire_, ch. lxvi.; H.
+  Schiller, _Geschichte der römischen Kaiserzeit_, i. 2, p. 602 (1883);
+  J. B. Bury, _The Student's Roman Empire_ (1893), where a concise table
+  of the journeys is given; P. von Rohden, _s.v._ "Aelius" (No. 64) in
+  Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopädie_, i. 1 (1894); J. Dürr, _Die Reisen
+  des Kaisers Hadrian_ (1881); F. Gregorovius, _The Emperor Hadrian_
+  (Eng. tr. by Mary E. Robinson, 1898); A. Hausrath, _Neutestamentliche
+  Zeitgeschichte_, iii. (1874); W. Schurz, _De mutationibus in imperio
+  ordinando ab imp. Hadr. factis_, i. (Bonn, 1883); J. Plew,
+  _Quellenuntersuchungen zur Geschichte des Kaisers Hadrian_
+  (Strassburg, 1890); O. T. Schulz, "Leben des Kaisers Hadrian,"
+  _Quellenanalysen_ [of Spartianus' _Vita_] (1904); E. Kornemann,
+  _Kaiser Hadrian und der letzte grosse Historiker von Rom_ (1905); W.
+  Weber, _Untersuchungen zur Geschichte des Kaisers Hadrianus_ (1908);
+  H. F. Hitzig, _Die Stellung Kaiser Hadrians in der römischen
+  Rechtsgeschichte_ (1892); C. Schultess, _Bauten des Kaisers Hadrian_
+  (1898); G. Doublet, _Notes sur les oeuvres littéraires de l'empéreur
+  Hadrien_ (Toulouse, 1893); J. B. Lightfoot, _Apostolic Fathers_, ii.
+  1, 476 seq.; Sir W. M. Ramsay, _Church in the Roman Empire_, pp. 320
+  seq.; V. Schultze, in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopädie_, vii. 315;
+  histories of Roman literature by Teuffel-Schwabe and Schanz. On Aelius
+  Caesar, see _Class. Quart._, 1908, i.     (T. K.; J. H. F.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The chronology of Hadrian's journeys--indeed, of the whole
+    reign--is confused and obscure. In the above the article by von
+    Rohden in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopädie_ has been followed.
+    Weber's (see Bibliog.) is the most important discussion.
+
+
+
+
+HADRIAN'S WALL, the name usually given to the remains of the Roman
+fortifications which defended the northern frontier of the Roman
+province of Britain, between the Tyne and the Solway. The works
+consisted of (1) a continuous defensive rampart with a ditch in front
+and a road behind; (2) various forts, blockhouses and towers along the
+rampart; and (3) an earthwork to the south of it, generally called the
+Vallum, of uncertain use. The defensive wall was probably first erected
+by Hadrian about A.D. 122 as a turf wall, and rebuilt in stone by
+Septimius Severus about A.D. 208. See further BRITAIN: _Roman_.
+
+
+
+
+HADRUMETUM, a town of ancient Africa on the southern extremity of the
+_sinus Neapolitanus_ (mod. Gulf of Hammamet) on the east coast of
+Tunisia. The site is partly occupied by the modern town of Susa (q.v.).
+The form of the name Hadrumetum varied much in antiquity; the Greeks
+called it [Greek: Adrymês, Adrymêtos, Adramytês, Adramêtos]: the Romans
+_Adrumetum_, _Adrimetum_, _Hadrumetum_, _Hadrymetum_, &c.; inscriptions
+and coins gave _Hadrumetum_. The town was originally a Phoenician colony
+founded by Tyrians long before Carthage (Sallust, _Jug._ 19). It became
+subject to Carthage, but lost none of its prosperity. Often mentioned
+during the Punic Wars, it was captured by Agathocles in 310, and was the
+refuge of Hannibal and the remnants of his army after the battle of Zama
+in 202. During the last Punic War it gave assistance to the Romans;
+after the fall of Carthage in 146 it received an accession of territory
+and the title of _civitas libera_ (Appian, _Punica_, xciv.; _C.I.L._ i.
+p. 84). Caesar landed there in 46 B.C. on his way to the victory of
+Thapsus (_De bello Afric._ iii.; Suetonius, _Div. Jul._ lix.).
+
+In the organization of the African provinces Hadrumetum became a capital
+of the province of Byzacena. Its harbour was extremely busy and the
+surrounding country unusually fertile. Trajan made it a Latin colony
+under the title of _Colonia Concordia Ulpia Trajana Augusta Frugifera
+Hadrumetina_; a dedication to the emperor Gordian the Good, found by M.
+Cagnat at Susa in 1883 gives these titles to the town, and at the same
+time identifies it with Susa. Quarrels arose between Hadrumetum and its
+neighbour Thysdrus in connexion with the temple of Minerva situated on
+the borders of their respective territories (Frontinus, _Gromatici_, ed.
+Lachmannus, p. 57); Vespasian when pro-consul of Africa had to repress
+a sedition among its inhabitants (Suetonius, _Vesp._ iv.; Tissot,
+_Fastes de la prov. d'Afrique_, p. 66); it was the birthplace of the
+emperor Albinus. At this period the metropolis of Byzacena was after
+Carthage the most important town in Roman Africa. It was the seat of a
+bishopric, and its bishops are mentioned at the councils of 258, 348,
+393 and even later. Destroyed by the Vandals in 434 it was rebuilt by
+Justinian and renamed Justinianopolis (Procop. _De aedif._ vi. 6). The
+Arabic invasion at the end of the 7th century destroyed the Byzantine
+towns, and the place became the haunt of pirates, protected by the
+Kasbah (citadel); it was built on the substructions of the Punic, Roman
+and Byzantine acropolis, and is used by the French for military
+purposes. The Arabic geographer Bakri gave a description of the chief
+Roman buildings which were standing in his time (Bakri, _Descr. de
+l'Afrique_, tr. by de Slane, p. 83 et seq.). The modern town of Susa,
+despite its commercial prosperity, occupies only a third of the old
+site.
+
+In 1863 the French engineer, A. Daux, discovered the jetties and the
+moles of the commercial harbour, and the line of the military harbour
+(Cothon); both harbours, which were mainly artificial, are entirely
+silted up. There remains a fragment of the fortifications of the Punic
+town, which had a total length of 6410 metres, and remains of the
+substructions of the Byzantine acropolis, of the circus, the theatre,
+the water cisterns, and of other buildings, notably the interesting
+Byzantine basilica which is now used as an Arab café (Kahwat-el-Kubba).
+In the ruins there have been found numerous columns of Punic
+inscriptions, Roman inscriptions and mosaic, among which is one
+representing Virgil seated, holding the _Aeneid_ in his hand; another
+represents the Cretan labyrinth with Theseus and the Minotaur (Héron de
+Villefosse, _Revue de l'Afrique française_, v., December 1887, pp. 384
+and 394; _Comptes rendus de l'Acad. des Inscr. et Belles-Lettres_, 1892,
+p. 318; other mosaics, _ibid._, 1896, p. 578; _Revue archéol._, 1897).
+In 1904 Dr Carton and the abbé Leynaud discovered huge Christian
+catacombs with several miles of subterranean galleries to which access
+is obtained by a small vaulted chamber. In these catacombs we find
+numerous sarcophagi and inscriptions painted or engraved of the Roman
+and Byzantine periods (_Comptes rendus de l'Acad. des Inscr. et
+Belles-Lettres_, 1904-1907; Carton and Leynaud, _Les Catacombes
+d'Hadrumète_, Susa, 1905). We can recognize also the Punic and
+Pagan-Roman cemeteries (_C. R. de l'Acad. des Inscr. et Belles-Lettres_,
+1887; _Bull. archéol. du Comité_, 1885, p. 149; 1903, p. 157). The town
+had no Punic coins, but under the Roman domination there were coins from
+the time of the Republic. These are of bronze and bear the name of the
+city in abbreviations, HADR or HADRVM accompanying the head of Neptune
+or the Sun. We find also the names of local duumvirs. Under Augustus the
+coins have on the obverse the imperial effigy, and on the reverse the
+names and often the effigies of the pro-consuls who governed the
+province, P. Quintilius Varus, L. Volusius Saturninus and Q. Fabius
+Maximus Africanus. After Augustus the mint was finally closed.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--A. Daux, _Recherches sur l'origine et l'emplacement des
+  emporia phéniciens dans le Zeugis et le Byzacium_ (Paris, 1869); Ch.
+  Tissot, _Géographie comparée de la province romaine d'Afrique_, ii. p.
+  149; Cagnat, _Explorations archéol. en Tunisie_ (2nd and 3rd fasc.,
+  1885); Lud. Müller, _Numismatique de l'Afrique ancienne_, ii p. 51; M.
+  Palat, in the _Bulletin arch. du Comité des travaux historiques_
+  (1885), pp. 121 and 150; _Revue archéologique_ (1884 and 1897);
+  _Bulletin des antiquités africaines_ (1884 and 1885); _Bulletin de la
+  Société archéologique de Sousse_ (first published in 1903); _Atlas
+  archéol. de Tunisie_ (4th fascicule, with the plan of Hadrumetum).
+       (E. B.*)
+
+
+
+
+HAECKEL, ERNST HEINRICH (1834-   ), German biologist, was born at
+Potsdam on the 16th of February 1834. He studied medicine and science at
+Würzburg, Berlin and Vienna, having for his masters such men as Johannes
+Müller, R. Virchow and R. A. Kölliker, and in 1857 graduated at Berlin
+as M.D. and M.Ch. At the wish of his father he began to practise as a
+doctor in that city, but his patients were few in number, one reason
+being that he did not wish them to be many, and after a short time he
+turned to more congenial pursuits. In 1861, at the instance of Carl
+Gegenbaur, he became _Privatdozent_ at Jena; in the succeeding year he
+was chosen extraordinary professor of comparative anatomy and director
+of the Zoological Institute in the same university; in 1865 he was
+appointed to a chair of zoology which was specially established for his
+benefit. This last position he retained for 43 years, in spite of
+repeated invitations to migrate to more important centres, such as
+Strassburg or Vienna, and at Jena he spent his life, with the exception
+of the time he devoted to travelling in various parts of the world,
+whence in every case he brought back a rich zoological harvest.
+
+As a field naturalist Haeckel displayed extraordinary power and
+industry. Among his monographs may be mentioned those on _Radiolaria_
+(1862), _Siphonophora_ (1869), _Monera_ (1870) and _Calcareous Sponges_
+(1872), as well as several _Challenger_ reports, viz. _Deep-Sea Medusae_
+(1881), _Siphonophora_ (1888), _Deep-Sea Keratosa_ (1889) and
+_Radiolaria_ (1887), the last being accompanied by 140 plates and
+enumerating over four thousand new species. This output of systematic
+and descriptive work would alone have constituted a good life's work,
+but Haeckel in addition wrote copiously on biological theory. It
+happened that just when he was beginning his scientific career Darwin's
+_Origin of Species_ was published (1859), and such was the influence it
+exercised over him that he became the apostle of Darwinism in Germany.
+He was, indeed, the first German biologist to give a whole-hearted
+adherence to the doctrine of organic evolution and to treat it as the
+cardinal conception of modern biology. It was he who first brought it
+prominently before the notice of German men of science in his first
+memoir on the _Radiolaria_, which was completely pervaded with its
+spirit, and later at the congress of naturalists at Stettin in 1863.
+Darwin himself has placed on record the conviction that Haeckel's
+enthusiastic propagandism of the doctrine was the chief factor of its
+success in Germany. His book on _General Morphology_ (1866), published
+when he was only thirty-two years old, was called by Huxley a suggestive
+attempt to work out the practical application of evolution to its final
+results; and if it does not take rank as a classic, it will at least
+stand out as a landmark in the history of biological doctrine in the
+19th century. Although it contains a statement of most of the views with
+which Haeckel's name is associated, it did not attract much attention on
+its first appearance, and accordingly its author rewrote much of its
+substance in a more popular style and published it a year or two later
+as the _Natural History of Creation (Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte)_,
+which was far more successful. In it he divided morphology into two
+sections--tectology, the science of organic individuality; and
+promorphology, which aims at establishing a crystallography of organic
+forms. Among other matters, he laid particular stress on the
+"fundamental biogenetic law" that ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny, that
+the individual organism in its development is to a great extent an
+epitome of the form-modifications undergone by the successive ancestors
+of the species in the course of their historic evolution. His well-known
+"gastraea" theory is an outcome of this generalization. He divided the
+whole animal creation into two categories--the Protozoa or unicellular
+animals, and the Metazoa or multicellular animals, and he pointed out
+that while the former remain single-celled throughout their existence,
+the latter are only so at the beginning, and are subsequently built up
+of innumerable cells, the single primitive egg-cell (_ovum_) being
+transformed by cleavage into a globular mass of cells (_morula_), which
+first becomes a hollow vesicle and then changes into the _gastrula_. The
+simplest multicellular animal he conceived to resemble this gastrula
+with its two primary layers, ectoderm and endoderm, and the earliest
+hypothetical form of this kind, from which the higher animals might be
+supposed to be actually descended, he called the "gastraea." This theory
+was first put forward in the memoir on the calcareous sponges, which in
+its sub-title was described as an attempt at an analytical solution of
+the problem of the origin of species, and was subsequently elaborated in
+various _Studies on the Gastraea Theory_ (1873-1884). Haeckel, again,
+was the first to attempt to draw up a genealogical tree (_Stammbaum_)
+exhibiting the relationship between the various orders of animals with
+regard both to one another and their common origin. His earliest attempt
+in the _General Morphology_ was succeeded by many others, and his
+efforts in this direction may perhaps be held to culminate in the paper
+he read before the fourth International Zoological Congress, held at
+Cambridge in 1898, when he traced the descent of the human race in
+twenty-six stages from organisms like the still-existing _Monera_,
+simple structureless masses of protoplasm, and the unicellular
+_Protista_, through the chimpanzees and the _Pithecanthropus erectus_,
+of which a few fossil bones were discovered in Java in 1894, and which
+he held to be undoubtedly an intermediate form connecting primitive man
+with the anthropoid apes.
+
+Not content with the study of the doctrine of evolution in its
+zoological aspects, Haeckel also applied it to some of the oldest
+problems of philosophy and religion. What he termed the integration of
+his views on these subjects he published under the title of _Die
+Welträtsel_ (1899), which in 1901 appeared in English as _The Riddle of
+the Universe_. In this book, adopting an uncompromising monistic
+attitude, he asserted the essential unity of organic and inorganic
+nature. According to his "carbon-theory," which has been far from
+achieving general acceptance, the chemico-physical properties of carbon
+in its complex albuminoid compounds are the sole and the mechanical
+cause of the specific phenomena of movement which distinguish organic
+from inorganic substances, and the first development of living
+protoplasm, as seen in the _Monera_, arises from such nitrogenous
+carbon-compounds by a process of spontaneous generation. Psychology he
+regarded as merely a branch of physiology, and psychical activity as a
+group of vital phenomena which depend solely on physiological actions
+and material changes taking place in the protoplasm of the organism in
+which it is manifested. Every living cell has psychic properties, and
+the psychic life of multicellular organisms is the sum-total of the
+psychic functions of the cells of which they are composed. Moreover,
+just as the highest animals have been evolved from the simplest forms of
+life, so the highest faculties of the human mind have been evolved from
+the soul of the brute-beasts, and more remotely from the simple
+cell-soul of the unicellular Protozoa. As a consequence of these views
+Haeckel was led to deny the immortality of the soul, the freedom of the
+will, and the existence of a personal God.
+
+Haeckel's literary output was enormous, and at the time of the
+celebration of his sixtieth birthday at Jena in 1894 he had produced 42
+works with 13,000 pages, besides numerous scientific memoirs. In
+addition to the works already mentioned, he wrote _Freie Wissenschaft
+und freie Lehre_ (1877) in reply to a speech in which Virchow objected
+to the teaching of the doctrine of evolution in schools, on the ground
+that it was an unproved hypothesis; _Die systematische Phylogenie_
+(1894), which has been pronounced his best book; _Anthropogenie_ (1874,
+5th and enlarged edition 1903), dealing with the evolution of man; _Über
+unsere gegenwärtige Kenntnis vom Ursprung des Menschen_ (1898,
+translated into English as _The Last Link_, 1898); _Der Kampf um den
+Entwickelungsgedanken_ (1905, English version, _Last Words on
+Evolution_, 1906); _Die Lebenswunder_ (1904), a supplement to the
+_Riddle of the Universe_; books of travel, such as _Indische
+Reisebriefe_ (1882) and _Aus Insulinde_ (1901), the fruits of journeys
+to Ceylon and to Java; _Kunstformen der Natur_ (1904), with plates
+representing beautiful marine animal forms; and _Wanderbilder_ (1905),
+reproductions of his oil-paintings and water-colour landscapes.
+
+  There are biographies by W. Bölsche (Dresden, 1900, translated into
+  English by Joseph McCabe, with additions, London, 1906) and by
+  Breitenbach (Odenkirchen, 1904). See also Walther May, _Ernst
+  Haeckel_; _Versuch einer Chronik seines Lebens und Werkens_ (Leipzig,
+  1909).
+
+
+
+
+HAEMATITE, or HEMATITE, a mineral consisting of ferric oxide (Fe2O3),
+named from the Greek word [Greek: haima] "blood," in allusion to its
+typical colour, whence it is called also red iron ore. When
+crystallized, however, haematite often presents a dark colour, even
+iron-black; but on scratching the surface, the powder of the streak
+shows the colour of dried blood. Haematite crystallizes in the
+rhombohedral system, and is isomorphous with corundum (Al2O3). The
+habit of the crystals may be rhombohedral, pyramidal or tabular, rarely
+prismatic. In fig. 1 the crystal, from Elba, shows a combination of the
+fundamental rhombohedron (R), an obtuse rhombohedron (s), and the
+hexagonal bi-pyramid (n). Fig. 2 is a tabular crystal in which the basal
+pinacoid (o) predominates. Haematite has no distinct cleavage, but may
+show, in consequence of a lamellar structure, a tendency to parting
+along certain planes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+Crystallized haematite, such as that from the iron-mines of Elba,
+presents a steel-grey or iron-black colour, with a brilliant metallic
+lustre, sometimes beautifully iridescent. The splendent surface has
+suggested for this mineral such names as specular iron ore,
+looking-glass ore, and iron glance (_fer oligiste_ of French writers).
+The hardness of the crystallized haematite is about 6, and the specific
+gravity 5.2. The so-called "iron roses" (_Eisenrosen_) of Switzerland
+are rosette-like aggregates of hexagonal tabular crystals, from fissures
+in the gneissose rocks of the Alps. Specular iron ore occurs in the form
+of brilliant metallic scales on many lavas, as at Vesuvius and Etna, in
+the Auvergne and the Eifel, and notably in the Island of Ascension,
+where the mineral forms beautiful tabular crystals. It seems to be a
+sublimation-product formed in volcanoes by the interaction of the vapour
+of ferric chloride and steam.
+
+Specular haematite forms a constituent of certain schistose rocks, such
+as the Brazilian itabirite. In the Marquette district of Michigan (Lake
+Superior) schistose specular ore occurs in important deposits,
+associated with a jasper rock, in which the ore alternates with bands of
+red quartzite. Micaceous iron ore consists of delicate steel-grey scales
+of specular haematite, unctuous to the touch, used as a lubricant and
+also as a pigment. It is worked in Devonshire under the name of shining
+ore. Very thin laminae of haematite, blood-red by transmitted light,
+occur as microscopic enclosures in certain minerals, such as carnallite
+and sun-stone, to which they impart colour and lustre.
+
+Much haematite occurs in a compact or massive form, often mammillary,
+and presenting on fracture a fibrous structure. The reniform masses are
+known as kidney ore. Such red ore is generally neither so dense nor so
+hard as the crystals. It often passes into an earthy form, termed soft
+red ore, and when mixed with more or less clay constitutes red ochre,
+ruddle or reddle (Ger. _Rötel_).
+
+The hard haematite is occasionally cut and polished as an ornamental
+stone, and certain kinds have been made into beads simulating black
+pearls. It was worked by the Assyrians for their engraved
+cylinder-seals, and was used by the gnostics for amulets. Some of the
+native tribes in the Congo basin employ it as a material for axes. The
+hard fibrous ore of Cumberland is known as pencil ore, and is employed
+for the burnishers used by bookbinders and others. Santiago de
+Compostela in Spain furnishes a considerable supply of haematite
+burnishers.
+
+Haematite is an important ore of iron (q.v.), and is extensively worked
+in Elba, Spain (Bilbao), Scandinavia, the Lake Superior region and
+elsewhere. In England valuable deposits occur in the Carboniferous
+Limestone of west Cumberland (Whitehaven district) and north Lancashire
+(Ulverston district). The hard ore is siliceous, and fine crystallized
+specimens occur in association with smoky quartz. The ore is remarkably
+free from phosphorus, and is consequently valued for the production of
+pig-iron to be converted into Bessemer steel.     (F. W. R.*)
+
+
+
+
+HAEMATOCELE (Gr. [Greek: haima], blood, and [Greek: kêlê], tumour), the
+medical term for a localized collection of blood in the tunica vaginalis
+or cord. It is usually the result of a sudden blow or severe strain, but
+may arise from disease. At first it forms a smooth, fluctuating, opaque
+swelling, but later becomes hard and firm. In chronic cases the walls of
+the tunica vaginalis undergo changes. The treatment of a case seen soon
+after the injury is directed towards keeping the patient at rest,
+elevating the parts, and applying an evaporating lotion or ice-bag. In
+chronic cases it may be necessary to lay open the cavity and remove the
+coagulum.
+
+
+
+
+HAEMOPHILIA, the medical term for a condition of the vascular system,
+often running in families, the members of which are known as "bleeders,"
+characterized by a disposition towards bleeding, whether with or without
+the provocation of an injury to the tissue. When this bleeding is
+spontaneous it comes from the mucous membranes, especially from the
+nose, but also from the mouth, bowel and bronchial tubes. Slight bruises
+are apt to be followed by extravasations of blood into the tissues; the
+swollen joints (knee especially) of a bleeder are probably due, in the
+first instance, to the escape of blood into the joint cavity or synovial
+membrane. It is always from the smallest vessels that the blood escapes,
+and may do so in such quantities as to cause death in a few hours.
+
+
+
+
+HAEMORRHAGE (Gr. [Greek: haima], blood, and [Greek: rhêgnynai], to
+burst), a general term for any escape of blood from a blood-vessel (see
+Blood). It commonly results from injury, as the tearing or cutting of a
+blood-vessel, but certain forms result from disease, as in scurvy and
+purpura. The chief varieties of haemorrhage are _arterial_, _venous_ and
+_capillary_. Bleeding from an artery is of a bright red colour, and
+escapes from the end of the vessel nearest the heart in jets synchronous
+with the heart's beat. Bleeding from a vein is of a darker colour; the
+flow is steady, and the bleeding is from the distal end of the vessel.
+Capillary bleeding is a general oozing from a raw surface. By
+_extravasation of blood_ is meant the pouring out of blood into the
+areolar tissues, which become boggy. This is termed a _bruise_ or
+_ecchymosis_. _Epistaxis_ is a term given to bleeding from the nose.
+_Haematemesis_ is vomiting of blood, the colour of which may be altered
+by digestion, as is also the case in _melaena_, or passage of blood with
+the faeces, in which the blood becomes dark and tarry-looking from the
+action of the intestinal fluids. _Haemoptysis_ denotes an escape of
+blood from the air-passages, which is usually bright red and frothy from
+admixture with air. _Haematuria_ means passage of blood with the urine.
+
+Cessation of bleeding may take place from natural or from artificial
+means. Natural arrest of haemorrhage arises from (1) the coagulation of
+the blood itself, (2) the diminution of the heart's action as in
+fainting, (3) changes taking place in the cut vessel causing its
+retraction and contraction. In the surgical treatment of haemorrhage
+minor means of arresting bleeding are: cold, which is most valuable in
+general oozing and local extravasations; very hot water, 130° to 160°
+F., a powerful haemostatic; position, such as elevation of the limb,
+valuable in bleeding from the extremities; styptics or astringents,
+applied locally, as perchloride of iron, tannic acid and others, the
+most valuable being suprarenal extract. In arresting haemorrhage
+temporarily the chief thing is to press directly on the bleeding part.
+The pressure to be effectual need not be severe, but must be accurately
+applied. If the bleeding point cannot be reached, the pressure should be
+applied to the main artery between the bleeding point and the heart. In
+small blood-vessels pressure will be sufficient to arrest haemorrhage
+permanently. In large vessels it is usual to pass a ligature round the
+vessel and tie it with a reef-knot. Apply the ligature, if possible, at
+the bleeding point, tying both ends of the cut vessel. If this cannot be
+done, the main artery of the limb must be exposed by dissection at the
+most accessible point between the wound and the heart, and there
+ligatured.
+
+Haemorrhage has been classified as--(1) primary, occurring at the time
+of the injury; (2) reactionary, or within twenty-four hours of the
+accident, during the stage of reaction; (3) secondary, occurring at a
+later period and caused by faulty application of a ligature or septic
+condition of the wound. In severe haemorrhage, as from the division of a
+large artery, the patient may collapse and death ensue from syncope. In
+this case stimulants and strychnine may be given, but they should be
+avoided until it is certain the bleeding has been properly controlled,
+as they tend to increase it. Transfusion of blood directly from the
+vein of a healthy person to the blood-vessels of the patient, and
+infusion of saline solution into a vein, may be practised (see Shock).
+In a congenital condition known as _haemophylia_ (q.v.) it is difficult
+to stop the flow of blood.
+
+The surgical procedure for the treatment of an open wound is--(1) arrest
+of haemorrhage; (2) cleansing of the wound and removal of any foreign
+bodies; (3) careful apposition of its edges and surfaces--the edges
+being best brought in contact by sutures of aseptic silk or catgut, the
+surfaces by carefully applied pressure; (4) free drainage, if necessary,
+to prevent accumulation either of blood or serous effusion; (5)
+avoidance of sepsis; (6) perfect rest of the part. These methods of
+treatment require to be modified for wounds in special situations and
+for those in which there is much contusion and laceration. When a
+special poison has entered the wound at the time of its infliction or at
+some subsequent date, it is necessary to provide against septic
+conditions of the wound itself and blood-poisoning of the general
+circulation.
+
+
+
+
+HAEMORRHOIDS, or Hemorrhoids (from Gr. [Greek: haima], blood, and [Greek:
+rhein], to flow), commonly called _piles_, swellings formed by the
+dilatation of veins of the lowest part of the bowel, or of those just
+outside the margin of its aperture. The former, _internal piles_, are
+covered by mucous membrane; the latter, _external piles_, are just
+beneath the skin. As the veins of the lining of the bowel become dilated
+they form definite bulgings within the bowel, and, at last increasing in
+size, escape through the anus when a motion is being passed. Growing
+still larger, they may come down spontaneously when the individual is
+standing or walking, and they are apt to be a grave source of pain or
+annoyance. Eventually they may remain constantly protruded--nevertheless,
+they are still _internal_ piles because they arise from the interior of
+the bowel. Though a pile is sometimes solitary, there are usually several
+of them. They are apt to become inflamed, and the inflammation is
+associated with heat, pain, discharge and general uneasiness; ulceration
+and bleeding are also common symptoms, hence the term "bleeding piles."
+The _external pile_ is covered by the thin dark-coloured skin of the anal
+margin. Severe pressure upon the large abdominal veins may retard the
+upward flow of blood to the heart and so give rise to piles; this is apt
+to happen in the case of disease of the liver, malignant and other
+tumours, and pregnancy. General weakness of the constitution or of the
+blood-vessels and habitual constipation may be predisposing causes of
+piles. The exciting cause may be vigorous straining at stool or exposure
+to damp, as from sitting on the wet ground. Piles are often only a
+symptom, and in their treatment this fact should be kept in view; if the
+cause is removed the piles may disappear. But in some cases it may be
+impossible to remove the cause, as when a widely-spreading cancerous
+growth of the rectum, or of the interior of the pelvis or abdomen, is
+blocking the upward flow of blood in the veins. Sometimes when a pile has
+been protruded, as during defaecation, it is tightly grasped by spasmodic
+contraction of the circular muscular fibres which guard the outlet of the
+bowel, and it then becomes swollen, engorged and extremely painful; the
+strangulation may be so severe that the blood in the vessels coagulates
+and the pile mortifies. This, indeed, is nature's attempt at curing a
+pile, but it is distressing, and, as a rule, it is not entirely
+successful.
+
+The palliative treatment of piles consists in obtaining a daily and easy
+action of the bowels, in rest, cold bathing, astringent injections,
+lotions and ointments. The radical treatment consists in their removal
+by operation, but this should not be contemplated until palliative
+treatment has failed. The operation consists in drawing the pile well
+down, and strangling the vessels entering and leaving its base, either
+by a strong ligature tightly applied, by crushing, or by cautery. Before
+dealing with the pile the anus is vigorously dilated in order that the
+pile may be dealt with with greater precision, and also that the
+temporary paralysis of the sphincter muscle, which follows the
+stretching, may prevent the occurrence of painful and spasmodic
+contractions subsequently. The ligatures by which the base of the piles
+are strangulated slough off with the pile in about ten days, and in
+about ten days more the individual is, as a rule, well enough to return
+to his work. If, for one reason or another, no operation is to be
+undertaken, and the piles are troublesome, relief may be afforded by
+warm sponging and by sitz-baths, the pile being gently dried afterwards
+by a piece of soft linen, smeared with vaseline, and carefully returned
+into the bowel. Under surgical advice, cocaine or morphia may be brought
+in contact with the tender parts, either in the form of lotion,
+suppository or ointment. In operating upon internal piles it is
+undesirable to remove all the external piles around the anus, lest the
+contraction of the circumferential scar should cause permanent narrowing
+of the orifice. If, as often happens, blood clots in the vein of an
+external pile, the small, hard, tender swelling may be treated with
+anodyne fomentations, or it may be rendered insensitive by the ether
+spray and opened by a small incision, the clot being turned out.
+     (E. O.*)
+
+
+
+
+HAEMOSPORIDIA, in zoology, an order of Ectospora, which although
+comparatively few in number and very inconspicuous in size and
+appearance, have of late years probably attracted greater attention and
+been more generally studied than any other Sporozoa; the reason being
+that they include the organisms well known as malarial parasites. In
+spite, however, of much and careful recent research--to a certain
+extent, rather, as a result of it--it remains the case that the
+Haemosporidia are, in some respects, the group of the Ectospora about
+which our knowledge is, for the time being, in the most unsatisfactory
+condition. Such important questions, indeed, as the scope and boundaries
+of the group, its exact origin and affinities, the rank and
+interclassification of the forms admittedly included in it, are answered
+quite differently by different workers. For example, one well-known
+Sporozoan authority (M. Lühe) has recently united the two groups,
+Haemosporidia and Haemoflagellates, bodily into one, while others (e.g.
+Novy and McNeal) deny that there is any connexion whatever between
+"Cytozoa" and Trypanosomes. Again, the inclusion or exclusion of forms
+like _Piroplasma_ and _Halteridium_ is also the subject of much
+discussion. The present writer accepts here the view that the
+Haemosporidia are derived from Haemoflagellates which have developed a
+gregariniform (Sporozoan) phase at the expense, largely or entirely, of
+the flagelliform one. The not inconsiderable differences met with among
+different types are capable of explanation on the ground that certain
+forms have advanced farther than others along this particular line of
+evolution. In other words, it is most probable that the Haemosporidia
+are to be regarded as comprising various parasites which represent
+different stages intermediate between, on the one side, a Flagellate,
+and on the other, a typical chlamydospore-forming Ectosporan parasite.
+While, however, it is easy enough sharply to separate off all
+Haemosporidia from other Ectospora, it is a very difficult matter to
+define their limits on the former side. Two principal criteria which a
+doubtful haemal parasite might very well be required to satisfy in order
+to be considered as a Haemosporidian rather than a Haemoflagellate are
+(a) the occurrence of schizogony during the "corpuscular" phase in the
+Vertebrate host, and (b) the formation of many germs ("sporozoites")
+from the zygote; so long as these conditions were complied with, the
+present writer, at all events, would not feel he was countenancing any
+protozoological heresy in allowing for the possibility of a Flagellate
+(perhaps trypaniform) phase or features being present at some period or
+other in the life-cycle.[1] To render this article complete, however,
+one or two well-known parasites, hitherto referred to this order, must
+also be mentioned, which, judged by the above (arbitrary) standard, are,
+it may be, on the Haemoflagellate side of the dividing line (e.g.
+_Halteridium_, according to Schaudinn).
+
+The chief characters which distinguish the Haemosporidia from other
+Ectospora are the following. They are invariably blood parasites, and
+for part or all of the trophic period come into intimate relation with
+the cellular elements in the blood. There is always an alternation of
+hosts and of generations, an Invertebrate being the definitive host, in
+which sexual conjugation is undergone and which is to be regarded as the
+primary one, a Vertebrate being the intermediate or secondary one. The
+zygote or sporont is at first capable of movement and known as an
+ookinete. No resistant spores (chlamydospores) are formed, the ultimate
+germs or sporozoites always being free in the oocyst and not enclosed by
+sporocysts.
+
+To Sir E. Ray Lankester is due the honour of discovering the first
+Haemosporidian, a discovery which did not take place until after most of
+the other kinds of Sporozoa were known. In 1871 this author described
+the parasite of the frog, which he later termed _Drepanidium ranarum_.
+The next discovery was the great and far-reaching one of Laveran, who in
+1883 described all the characteristic phases of the malarial parasite
+which are met with in human blood. While regarding the organism as the
+cause of the disease, Laveran did not at once recognize its animal and
+Sporozoan nature, but considered it rather as a vegetable, and termed it
+_Oscillaria malariae_. As in the case of the Trypanosomes, we owe to
+Danilewsky (1885-1889) the first serious attempts to study the
+comparative anatomy and life-history of these parasites, from a
+zoological point of view. Danilewsky first named them Haemosporidia, and
+distinguished between _Haemocytozoa_ and _Leucocytozoa_. To the
+brilliant researches of R. Ross and Grassi in the closing years of the
+19th century is due the realization of the essential part played by the
+gnat or mosquito in the life-cycle and transmission of the parasites;
+and to MacCallum belongs the credit of first observing the true sexual
+conjugation, in the case of a _Halteridium_. Since then, thanks to the
+labours of Argutinsky and Schaudinn, our knowledge of the malarial
+parasites has steadily increased. Until quite recently, however, very
+little was known about the Haemosporidia of cold-blooded Vertebrates;
+but in 1903 Siegel and Schaudinn demonstrated that the same rôle is
+performed in their case by a leech or a tick, and since then many new
+forms have been described.
+
+
+  Occurrence: habitat; effects on host.
+
+The Haemosporidia are widely distributed and of very general occurrence
+among the chief classes of Vertebrates. Among Invertebrates they are
+apparently limited to bloodsucking insects, ticks and leeches.[2] As
+already stated, the universal habitat of the parasites in the Vertebrate
+is the blood; as a result, of course, they are to be met with in the
+capillaries of practically all the important organs of the body; and it
+is to be noted that while certain phases (e.g. growing trophozoites,
+mature gametocytes) are found in the peripheral circulation, others
+(e.g. schizogonous "rosettes," young gametocytes) occur in the internal
+organs, liver, kidneys, &c., where the circulation is sluggish. The
+relation of the parasites to the blood-cells varies greatly. Most
+attack, probably exclusively, the red blood corpuscles (haematids); a
+few, however, select the leucocytes, and are therefore known as
+Leucocytozoa. In the case of Mammalian and Avian forms (malarial
+parasites) Schaudinn and Argutinsky have shown that the trophic and
+schizogonic phases are not really endoglobular but closely attached to
+the corpuscle, hollowing out a depression or space into which they
+nestle; the gametocytes, on the other hand, are actually intercellular.
+Forms parasitic in cold-blooded Vertebrates, on the contrary, are
+always, so far as is known, endoglobular when in relation with the
+corpuscles; and the same is apparently the case with the Mammalian
+parasite, _Piroplasma_. Although in no instance so far described is the
+parasite actually intranuclear (as certain Coccidia are), in one or two
+cases (e.g. _Karyolysus_ of lizards and certain species of
+_Haemogregarina_) it reacts markedly upon the nucleus and soon causes
+its disintegration. While many Haemosporidia (e.g. malarial parasites,
+with the exception of _Halteridium_) remain in connexion with the same
+corpuscle throughout the whole period of growth and schizogony, the new
+generation of merozoites first being set free from the broken-down cell,
+others (the Haemogregarines, broadly speaking, and also _Halteridium_)
+leave one corpuscle after a short time, wander about free in the plasma,
+and then seek out another; and this may be repeated until the parasite
+is ready for schizogony, which generally occurs in the corpuscle.
+
+As in the case of Trypanosomes (q.v.), normally--that is to say, when in
+an accustomed, tolerant host, and under natural conditions--Haemosporidia
+are non-pathogenic and do not give rise to any ill-effects in the animals
+harbouring them. When, however, the parasites gain an entry into the
+blood of man or other unadapted animals,[3] they produce, as is well
+known, harmful and often very serious effects. There are three recognized
+types of malarial fever, each caused by a distinct form and characterized
+by the mode of manifestation. Two, the so-called benign fevers, are
+intermittent; namely, tertian and quartan fever, in which the fever
+recurs every second and third day respectively. This is due to the fact
+that schizogony takes different lengths of time in the two cases, 48
+hours in the one, 72 in the other; the height of the fever-period
+coincides with the break-down of the corpuscle at the completion of the
+process, and the liberation of great numbers of merozoites in the blood.
+The third type is the dangerous aestivo-autumnal or pernicious malaria,
+in which the fever is irregular or continuous during long periods.
+
+A very general symptom is anaemia, which is sometimes present to a
+marked extent, when it may lead to a fatal termination. This is the
+result of the very considerable destruction of the blood-corpuscles
+which takes place, the haemoglobin of which is absorbed by the parasites
+as nutriment. A universal feature connected with this mode of nutrition
+is the production, in the cytoplasm of the parasite, of a brown pigment,
+termed melanin; this does not represent reserve material, but is an
+excreted by-product derived from the haemoglobin. These pigment-grains
+are at length liberated into the blood-stream and become deposited in
+the various organs, spleen, liver, kidneys, brain, causing pronounced
+pigmentation.
+
+Another type of fever, more acute and more generally fatal, is that
+produced by forms belonging to the genus _Piroplasma_, in cattle, dogs,
+horses and other domestic animals in different regions of the globe; and
+recently Wilson and Chowning have stated that the "spotted fever of the
+Rockies" is a human piroplasmosis caused by _P. hominis_. The disease of
+cattle is known variously as Texas-fever, Tristeza, Red-water, Southern
+cattle-fever, &c. In this type of illness the endogenous multiplication
+of the parasites is very great and rapid, and brings about an enormous
+diminution in the number of healthy red blood corpuscles. Their sudden
+destruction results in the liberation of large quantities of haemoglobin
+in the plasma, which turns deep-red in colour; and hence
+haemoglobinuria, which occurs only rarely in malaria, is a constant
+symptom in piroplasmosis.
+
+
+  Example of the life-history.
+
+The parasite of pernicious malaria, here termed _Laverania malariae_,
+will serve very well as a type of the general life-cycle (fig. 1).
+Slight differences shown by the other malarial parasites (_Plasmodium_)
+will be mentioned in passing, but the main divergences which other
+Haemosporidian types exhibit are best considered separately. With the
+bite of an infected mosquito, the minute sickle-like sporozoites are
+injected into the blood. They rapidly penetrate into the blood
+corpuscles, in which they appear as small irregular, more or less
+amoeboid trophozoites. A vacuole next arises in the cytoplasm, which
+increases greatly in size, and gives rise to the well-known, much
+discussed ring-form of the parasite, in which it resembles a
+signet-ring, the nucleus forming a little thickening to one side. Some
+authorities (e.g. Argutinsky) have regarded this structure as being
+really a greatly distended vesicular nucleus, and, to a large extent,
+indeed, an artifact, resulting from imperfect fixation; but Schaudinn
+considers it is a true vacuole, and explains it on the ground of the
+rapid nutrition and growth. Later on this vacuole disappears, and the
+grains of pigment make their appearance. The trophozoite is now large
+and full-grown, and has become rounded and ready for schizogony. The
+nucleus of the schizont divides several times (more or less directly, by
+simple or multiple fission) to form a number of daughter-nuclei, which
+take up a regular position near the periphery. Around these the
+cytoplasm becomes segmented, giving rise to the well-known _corps en
+rosace_. Eventually the merozoites, in the form of little round
+uninuclear bodies, are liberated from the now broken-down corpuscle,
+leaving behind a certain amount of residual cytoplasm containing the
+pigment grains. Besides the difference in the time taken by the complete
+process of schizogony in the various species (see above), there are
+distinctions in the composition of the rosettes. Thus, in _Laverania_,
+the number of merozoites formed is very variable; in _Plasmodium vivax_
+(the tertian parasite) there are only few (9 to 12) merozoites, but in
+_P. malariae_ (the quartan form) they are more numerous, from 12 to 24.
+The liberated merozoites proceed to infect fresh blood corpuscles and a
+new endogenous cycle is started.
+
+After asexual multiplication has gone on for some time, sexual forms
+become developed. According to Schaudinn, the stimulus which determines
+the production of gametocytes instead of schizonts is the reaction of
+the host (at the height of a fever period) upon the parasites. A young
+trophozoite which is becoming a gametocyte is distinguished from one
+which gives rise to a schizont by its much slower rate of growth, and
+the absence of any vacuoles in its cytoplasm. The gametocytes themselves
+are characterized by their peculiar shape, like that of a sausage,
+whence they are very generally known as "crescents." Male and female
+gametocytes are distinguished (roughly) by the arrangement of the
+pigment-grains; in the former, they are fairly evenly scattered
+throughout the cytoplasm, but in the megagametocytes the pigment tends
+to be aggregated centrally, around the nucleus. As they become
+full-grown and mature, however, the gametocytes lose their crescentic
+form and assume that of an oval, and finally of a sphere. At the same
+time, they are set free from the remains of the blood corpuscle. The
+spherical stage is practically the limit of development in the
+Vertebrate host, although, sometimes, the nucleus of the microgametocyte
+may proceed to division. The "crescents" of the pernicious parasite
+afford a very important diagnostic difference from the gametocytes of
+both species of _Plasmodium_, which have the ordinary, rounded shape of
+the schizonts. In the case of the latter, points such as their slower
+growth, their less amoeboid character, and their size furnish the means
+of distinction.
+
+When a gnat or mosquito sucks blood, all phases of the parasite in the
+peripheral circulation at that point may succeed in passing into the
+insect. If this occurs all trophic and schizogonic phases are forthwith
+digested, and the survival of the sexual phases depends entirely upon
+whether the insect is a gnat or mosquito. Only in the latter case can
+further development of the gametocytes go on; in other words, only the
+genus _Anopheles_, and not the genus _Culex_, furnishes specific hosts
+for the malarial parasites. This is a biological fact of considerable
+importance in connexion with the prophylactic measures against malaria.
+In the stomach of an _Anopheles_, the gametocytes quickly proceed to
+gamete-formation. The nucleus of the microgametocyte divides up, and the
+daughter-nuclei pass to the periphery. The surface of the body grows out
+into long, whip-like processes, of which there are usually 6 to 8
+(probably the typical number is 8); each is very motile, in this respect
+strongly resembling a flagellum. This phase may also develop in drawn
+blood, which has, of course, become suddenly cooled by the exposure; and
+it seems evident that it is the change in temperature, from the warm to
+the cold-blooded host, which brings about the development of the actual
+sexual elements. Earlier observers regarded the phase just described as
+representing another parasite altogether, of a Flagellate nature--whence
+the well-known term, _Polymitus_-form; and even more recent workers,
+such as Labbé who connected it with the malarial parasite, failed to
+appreciate its true significance, and considered it rather as a
+degeneration-appearance. The micro-gametes soon liberate themselves from
+the residual cytoplasm of the parent and swim away in search of a
+megagamete; each is a very slender, wavy filament, composed largely of
+chromatic substance. The finer details of structure of the microgamete
+of a malarial parasite cannot be said, however, to be thoroughly known,
+and it is by no means impossible that its structure is really
+trypaniform, as, according to Schaudinn's great work, is the case with
+the merozoites and sporozoites.
+
+[Illustration: From Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_.
+
+FIG. 1.--Diagram of the complete life-cycle of the parasite of
+pernicious malaria, _Laverania malariae_, Gr. et Fel. The stages on the
+upper side of the dotted line are those found in human blood; below the
+dotted line are seen the phases through which the parasite passes in the
+intermediate host, the mosquito. Plan and arrangement chiefly after
+Neveu-Lemaire; details of the figures founded on those of Grassi,
+Schaudinn (Leuckart's _Zoologische Wandtafeln_), Ross and others.
+
+  I.-V. and 6-10 show the schizogony.
+  VI.-XII., The sexual generation.
+  XIII., The motile zygote.
+  XIV.-XIX., Sporogony.
+  I.-III., Young amoebulae in blood-corpuscles.
+  IV., Older, actively amoeboid trophozoite.
+  V., Still older, less amoeboid trophozoite.
+  6, Mature schizont.
+  7, Schizont, with nucleus dividing up.
+  8, Young rosette stage.
+  9, Fully formed rosette stage.
+  10, Merozoites free in the blood by breaking down of the corpuscle.
+  VI., Young indifferent gametocyte.
+  VII., a, Male crescent.
+  VII., b, Female crescent.
+  VIII., a and b, The gametocytes becoming oval.
+  IX., a and b, Spherical gametocytes; in the male (IX. a) the nucleus
+    has divided up.
+  X., a and b, Formation of gametes; in the male (X. a) the so-called
+    flagella or male gametes (fl) are thrown out, one of them is seen
+    detached; in the female (X. b) a portion of the nucleus has been
+    expelled.
+  XI., A male gamete penetrating a female gamete at a cone of reception
+    formed near the nucleus.
+  XII., Zygote with two pronuclei in proximity.
+  XIII., Zygote in the motile stage (vermicule or oökinete).
+  XIV., Encysted zygote (oöcyst).
+  XV., Commencing multiplication of the nuclei in the oöcyst.
+  XVI., Oöcyst with numerous sporoblasts.
+  XVII., Commencing formation of sporozoites.
+  XVIII., Full-grown oocyst crammed with ripe sporozoites; on one side
+    the cyst has burst and the sporozoites are escaping.
+  XIX., Free sporozoites, showing their changes of form.
+  n, Nucleus of the parasite.
+  p, Melanin pigment.
+  fl, "Flagella."
+  sp. bl., Sporoblasts.
+  r. n., Residual nuclei.
+  r. p., Residual protoplasm.]
+
+[Illustration: From Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_.
+
+FIG. 2.--Stomach of a mosquito, with cysts of Haemosporidia. (After
+Ross.)
+
+  oes, Oesophagus.
+  st, Stomach.
+  cy, Cysts.
+  Mt, Malpighian tubules.
+  int, Intestine.]
+
+The megagametocyte becomes a megagamete directly after a process of
+maturation, which consists in the expulsion of a certain amount of
+nuclear substance. The actual conjugation is quite similar to the
+process in Coccidia, and the resulting zygote perfectly homologous. In
+the present case, however, the zygote does not at once secrete an
+oöcyst, with a thick resistant wall; on the contrary, it changes its
+shape, and becomes markedly gregariniform and active, and is known for
+this reason as an ookinete. The ookinete passes through the epithelial
+layer of the stomach, the thinner and more pointed end leading the way,
+and comes to rest in the connective tissue forming the outer layer of
+the stomach-wall (fig. 2). Here it becomes rounded and cyst-like, and
+grows considerably; for only a thin, delicate cyst-membrane is secreted,
+which does not impede the absorption of nutriment. Meanwhile, the
+nucleus has divided into several, around each of which the cytoplasm
+becomes segmented. Each of these segments ("blastophores,"
+"zoidophores") is entirely comparable to a sporoblast in the Coccidian
+oocyst, the chief difference being that it never forms a spore; moreover
+the segments or sporoblasts in the oocyst of a malarial parasite are
+irregular in shape and do not become completely separated from one
+another, but remain connected by thin cytoplasmic strands. Repeated
+multiplication of the sporoblast-nuclei next takes place, with the
+result that a great number of little nuclei are found all round the
+periphery. A corresponding number of fine cytoplasmic processes grow out
+from the surface, each carrying a nucleus with it, and in this manner a
+huge number of slender, slightly sickle-shaped germs or sporozoites
+("blasts," "zoids," &c.) are formed. Each oocyst may contain from
+hundreds to thousands of sporozoites.
+
+When the sporogony (which lasts about 10 days) is completed, the oocyst
+ruptures and the sporozoites are set free into the body-cavity, leaving
+behind a large quantity of residual cytoplasm, including pigment grains,
+&c. The sporozoites are carried about by the blood-stream; ultimately,
+however, apparently by virtue of some chemotactic attraction, they
+practically all collect in the salivary glands, filling the secretory
+cells and also invading the ducts. When the mosquito next bites a man,
+numbers of them are injected, together with the minute drop of saliva,
+into his blood, where they begin a fresh endogenous cycle.
+
+There is only one other point with regard to the life-history that need
+be mentioned. With the lapse of time all trophic and schizogonic
+(asexual) phases of the parasite in the blood die off. But it has long
+been known that malarial patients, apparently quite cured, may suddenly
+exhibit all the symptoms again, without having incurred a fresh
+infection. Schaudinn has investigated the cause of this recurrence, and
+finds that it is due to the power of the megagametocytes, which are very
+resistant and long-lived, to undergo a kind of parthenogenesis under
+favourable conditions and give rise to the ordinary asexual schizonts,
+which in turn can repopulate the host with all the other phases.
+Microgametocytes, on the other hand, die off in time if they cannot pass
+into a mosquito.
+
+  [Illustration: From Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_.
+
+  FIG. 3.--_Haemogregarina bigemina_, Laveran, from the blood of
+  blennies. (After Laveran, magnified about 1800 diameters.)
+
+    a, The form of the parasite found free in the blood-plasma.
+    b, Parasite within a blood-corpuscle, preparing for division; the
+      nucleus has already divided.
+    c, The parasite has divided into two rounded corpuscles, which
+      assume the form of the free parasite, as seen in d, e and f.
+    N, Nucleus of the blood-corpuscle.
+    n, Nucleus of the parasite. The outline of the blood-corpuscle is
+      indicated by a thick black line.]
+
+
+    Comparative Morphology; variations in the life-cycle where known.
+
+  Various types of form are to be met with among the Haemosporidia. In
+  one, characteristic of most (though not of absolutely all) parasites
+  of warm-blooded Vertebrates, the trophozoites are of irregular
+  amoeboid shape; hence this section is generally known as the
+  _Haemamoebidae_. In another type, characteristic of the parasites of
+  cold-blooded Vertebrates, the body possesses a definite, vermiform,
+  i.e. gregariniform shape, which is retained during the
+  intracorpuscular as well as during the free condition; this section
+  comprises the _Haemogregarinidae_. Allied to this latter type of form
+  are the trophozoites of _Piroplasma_, which are normally pear-shaped;
+  they differ, however, in being very minute, and, moreover, exhibit
+  considerable polymorphism, rod-like (so-called bacillary) and
+  ring-forms being of common occurrence. It is important to note that in
+  a certain species of _Haemogregarina_ (fig. 3) the young trophozoites
+  markedly resemble _Piroplasma_ in their pyriform appearance; and a
+  further point of agreement between the two forms is mentioned below.
+  Lastly there is the Avian genus _Halteridium_, the trophozoites of
+  which are characteristically bean-shaped or reniform. True
+  Haemogregarines also differ in other slight points from "Haemamoebae."
+  Thus the young endoglobular trophozoite does not exhibit a ring
+  (vacuolar) phase; and the cytoplasm never contains, at any period, the
+  characteristic melanin pigment above noted. In some species of
+  _Haemogregarina_ the parasite, while intracorpuscular, becomes
+  surrounded by a delicate membrane, the cytocyst; on entering upon an
+  active, "free" period, the cytocyst is ruptured and left behind with
+  the remains of the corpuscle. A very interesting cytological feature
+  is the occurrence, in one or two Haemosporidia, of nuclear dimorphism,
+  i.e. of a larger and smaller chromatic body, probably comparable to
+  the trophic and kinetic nuclei of a Trypanosome, or of the
+  "Leishman-Donovan" bodies. Schaudinn was the first to notice this
+  character, in _Piroplasma canis_, and his observation has since been
+  confirmed by Lühe.[4] Moreover, Brumpt has also noticed nuclear
+  dimorphism in the ookinete of a species of _Haemogregarina_ in a leech
+  (as the Invertebrate host)--a highly important observation.
+
+  As regards the life-history, the endogenous (schizogonous) cycle is
+  known in many cases. Sometimes schizogony takes the primitive form of
+  simple binary (probably) longitudinal fission; this is the case in
+  _Piroplasma_ (fig. 4) and also in _Haemogregarina bigemina_ just
+  referred to. From this result the pairs of individuals ("twins") so
+  often found in the corpuscles. In addition, however, at any rate in
+  _Piroplasma_, it is probable that multiple division (more allied to
+  ordinary schizogony) also takes place; such is the case, according to
+  Laveran, in _P. equi_, and the occurrence at times of four parasites
+  in a corpuscle, arranged in a cruciform manner, is most likely to be
+  thus explained. Labbé has described schizogony in _Halteridium
+  danilewskyi_ as taking place in a rather peculiar manner; the parasite
+  becomes much drawn-out and halter-like, and the actual division is
+  restricted to its two ends, two clumps of merozoites being formed, at
+  first connected by a narrow strand of unused cytoplasm, which
+  subsequently disappears. Some doubt, however, attaches to this
+  account, as no one else appears to have seen the process. For the
+  rest, schizogony takes place more or less in the customary way,
+  allowing for variations in the mode of arrangement of the merozoites.
+  It remains to be noted that in _Karyolysus lacertarum_, according to
+  Labbé, two kinds of schizont are developed, which give rise,
+  respectively, to micromerozoites and megamerozoites, in either case
+  enclosed in a delicate cytocyst. This probably corresponds to an early
+  sexual differentiation (such as is found among certain Coccidia
+  (q.v.), the micromerozoites producing eventually micro-gametocytes,
+  the others megagametocytes.
+
+  [Illustration: From Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_.
+
+  FIG. 4.--Development and schizogony of _Piroplasma bigeminum_ in the
+  blood-corpuscles of the ox. (After Laveran and Nicolle.)
+
+    a, Youngest form.
+    b, Slightly older.
+    c and d. Division of the nucleus.
+    e and f, Division of the body of the parasite.
+    g, h, i, j, Various forms of the twin parasite.
+    k and l, Doubly infected corpuscles.]
+
+  It has now been recognized for some time that the sexual (exogenous)
+  part of the life-cycle of all the _Haemamoebidae_ takes place in an
+  Invertebrate (Insectan) host, and is fundamentally similar to that
+  above described in those cases where it has been followed. In
+  contradistinction to the malarial parasites, this host, in the Avian
+  forms (_Haemoproteus_ and _Halteridium_)[5] is a species of _Culex_
+  and not of _Anopheles_; in other words, gamete-formation, conjugation
+  and subsequent sporozoite-formation in these cases will only go on in
+  the former. On the other hand, in the case of the Haemogregarines, it
+  was thought until quite lately that the entire life-history, including
+  conjugation and sporogony, went on in the Vertebrate host; and only in
+  1902 Hintze described what purported to be the complete life-history
+  of _Lankesterella (Drepanidium) ranarum_ undergone in the frog. This
+  view was rendered obsolete by the work of Siegel and Schaudinn, who
+  demonstrated the occurrence of an alternation of hosts and of
+  generations in the case of _Haemogregarina stepanovi_, parasitic in a
+  tortoise, and in _Karyolysus lacertarum_; the Invertebrate hosts, in
+  which, in both cases, the sexual process is undergone, being
+  respectively a leech (_Placobdella_) and a tick (_Ixodes_). With this
+  discovery the main distinction (as supposed) between the Haemosporidia
+  of warm and of cold-blooded Vertebrates vanished. It was further
+  acknowledged by Schaudinn (under whom Hintze had worked) that the
+  latter had been misled by Coccidian cysts and spores, which he took
+  for those of _Lankesterella_. The gametogony and sporogony of
+  _Haemogregarina stepanovi_ in the leech agree in essential particulars
+  with the process above described. The microgametes are extremely
+  minute, and the sporozoites, which are developed in the salivary
+  glands, where the motile ookinetes finally come to rest, are extremely
+  "spirochaetiform"--the full significance of this latter fact being,
+  perhaps, not appreciated.
+
+  Christophers recently described some remarkable phases which he
+  regarded as belonging to the cycle of _Haemogregarina gerbilli_ (one
+  of the few Mammalian Haemogregarines known) in a louse
+  (_Haematopinus_). In a private communication, however, the author
+  states that he has probably mistaken phases in the development of an
+  ordinary gregarine parasite in the louse for part of the life-cycle of
+  this Haemogregarine.
+
+  The Mammalian parasite _Piroplasma_ is the one about whose
+  life-history our knowledge is most vague. Besides the typical and
+  generally occurring forms, others have also been observed in the
+  blood, but it is doubtful how far these are to be looked upon as
+  normal; for instance, Bowhill and Le Doux have described, in various
+  species, a phase in which a long, slender pseudopodial-like outgrowth
+  is present, with a swelling at the distal end. It is, moreover, quite
+  uncertain which are the sexual forms, comparable to gametocytes.
+  Doflein regards large pear-shaped forms as such (megagametocytes?),
+  which become spherical when maturing; and Nocard and Motas have
+  figured amoeboid, irregular forms, with the nucleus fragmented and
+  possessing flagella-like processes (possibly microgametes?). The
+  Invertebrate host is well known to be, in the case of all species, a
+  tick; thus bovine piroplasmosis (_P. bigeminum_) in America is
+  conveyed by _Rhipicephalus annulatus_ (_Boophilus bovis_), canine
+  piroplasmosis (_P. canis_) in South Africa by _Haemaphysalis leachi_
+  (and perhaps _Dermacentor reticulatus_), and so on. The manner in
+  which the infection is transmitted by the tick varies greatly. In some
+  cases (e.g. _P. bigeminum_ and _P. canis_) only the generation
+  subsequent to that which receives the infection (by feeding on an
+  infected ox) can transmit it back again to another ox; in other words,
+  true hereditary infection of the ova in the mother-tick is found to
+  occur. The actual period in the life of the daughter-tick at which it
+  can convey the infection apparently varies. On the other hand, in the
+  case of East African coast-fever, Theiler found that hereditary
+  infection does not occur, the same generation transmitting the
+  parasite (_P. parvum_) at different periods of life. Little is
+  certainly known regarding the phases of the parasite which are passed
+  through in the tick. Lignières has observed a kind of multiple fission
+  in the stomach, several very minute bodies, consisting mostly of
+  chromatin, being formed, which may serve for endogenous reproduction.
+  Koch has published an account of certain curious forms of _P.
+  bigeminum_, in which the body is produced into many stiff, ray-like
+  processes, giving the appearance of a star; according to him fusion of
+  such forms takes place, and the resulting zygote becomes rounded,
+  perhaps transitional to the pear-shaped forms.
+
+
+    Classification.
+
+  The classification and nomenclature of the Haemosporidia are in a very
+  unsettled condition. For an account of the various systems and
+  modifications hitherto adopted, the article of Minchin (see under
+  SPOROZOA: _Bibliography_) should be consulted. With the realization
+  that the life-history in the case of the "Haemamoebae" and the
+  Haemogregarines is fundamentally similar in type, the chief reason for
+  grouping them as distinct suborders has disappeared. It is most
+  convenient to regard them as separate, but closely allied families,
+  the _Plasmodidae_ ("_Haemamoebidae_") and the _Haemogregarinidae_. The
+  _Piroplasmata_, on the other hand, constitute another family, which is
+  better placed in a distinct section or sub-order. In addition there
+  are, as already noted, two or three genera whose systematic position
+  must be considered as quite uncertain. One is the well-known
+  _Halteridium_ of Labbé, parasitic in various birds; the type-species
+  is _H. danilewskyi_ (Gt. and Fel.). Another is the much-debated
+  parasite of white blood-corpuscles (leucocytes), originally described
+  in birds by Danilewsky under the name of _Leucocytozoon_, a form of
+  which has been recently observed in Mammals.
+
+  In conclusion, the chief members of the above-mentioned families may
+  be enumerated.
+
+  Fam. _Plasmodidae_ ("_Haemamoebidae_").
+
+  Genus _Laverania_, Gr. and Fel. (syn. _Haemamoenas_, Ross), for L.
+  _malariae_, Gr. and Fel. (synn. L. s. _Plasmodium_, s. "_Haemamoeba_,"
+  &c., _praecox_ s. _immaculatum_, &c.), the parasite of pernicious
+  malaria. Genus _Plasmodium_, March. and Celli (syn. "_Haemamoeba_")
+  for _P. vivax_ and _P. malariae_, the tertian and quartan parasite,
+  respectively. There is also a form known in apes, _P. kochi_. Genus
+  _Haemoproteus_, Kruse (syn. _Proteosoma_), for _H. danilewskyi_ (syn.
+  _Proteosoma grassi_, _Plasmodium praecox_, &c.), parasitic in numerous
+  birds. Recently, another form has been described, from reptiles, which
+  Castellani and Willey have termed _Haemocystidium simondi_.
+
+  _Remarks._--The distinguishing characters of the malarial parasites
+  have been mentioned above. Some authorities would include _Laverania_
+  in the genus _Plasmodium_, as differing only specifically from the
+  other two forms. It has, moreover, been suggested by Sergent that all
+  three are merely different phases of the same parasite, predominating
+  at different seasons; this idea cannot be regarded, however, as in any
+  way proved so far. From what is known of the morphology and mode of
+  manifestation of these forms, the differences between _Laverania_ and
+  the two species of _Plasmodium_ are considerably more pronounced than
+  those between _P. vivax_ and _P. malariae_; if the latter are to be
+  considered as distinct species, the first-named is probably
+  generically distinct. Lühe, it may be noted, in his recent
+  comprehensive account of the Haematozoa, also takes this view. Lastly,
+  whatever be the correct solution of the above problem, there is
+  certainly not sufficient justification for including the Avian genus
+  _Haemoproteus_, as also only a species of _Plasmodium_, which is done
+  by some. Its different Vertebrate habitat, and also the fact that its
+  Insectan definitive host is Culex and not _Anopheles_, differentiate
+  it sharply from _Laverania_ and _Plasmodium_.
+
+  [Illustration: From Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_.
+
+  FIG. 5.--_Haemoproteus danilewskyi_, Kruse (parasite of various
+  birds). × about 1200. a, b, c and d from the chaffinch; d and e from
+  the lark. (After Labbé.)
+
+    a, Young trophozoite in a blood-corpuscle,
+    b and c, Older trophozoite.
+    d and e, Sporulation.
+    d, Precocious sporulation with few merozoites.
+    e, Sporulation of a full-grown schizont, with numerous merozoites.
+    f, Gametocyte.
+    N, Nucleus of blood-corpuscle.
+    n, Nucleus of parasite.
+    p, Pigment.
+    mz, Merozoites.
+    r.p, Residual protoplasm.]
+
+  [Illustration: From Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_.
+
+  FIG. 6.--_Haemogregarina stepanovi_, Danilewsky (par. _Emys_ and
+  _Cistudo_), phases of the schizogony. (a-e and j after Laveran; f-i
+  after Börner.) × 1000 to 1200 diameters.
+
+    a, Blood-corpuscle with young trophozoite.
+    b, Older trophozoite.
+    c, Full-grown trophozoite, ready to leave the corpuscle.
+    d and e, Trophozoites free in the blood-plasma, showing changes of
+      form.
+    f-i, Trophozoites, still within the blood-corpuscle (not drawn),
+      showing the structure of the nucleus, the coarse chromatoid
+      granules in the protoplasm and the manner in which the parasite
+      grows into the U-shaped Haemogregarine without increase of
+      body-mass.
+    j, Commencement of sporulation; the nucleus has divided into eight
+      nuclei, and the body of the parasite is beginning to divide up
+      into as many merozoites within a blood-corpuscle.
+    N, Nucleus of the blood-corpuscle.
+    n, Nucleus of the parasite.]
+
+  Fam. _Haemogregarinidae._--The different genera are characterized
+  chiefly by their size relative to the blood-corpuscles, and their
+  disposition in the latter. Here, again, it has been suggested to unite
+  the various types all in one genus, _Haemogregarina_, but this seems
+  at least premature when it is remembered how little is known in most
+  cases of the life-cycle, which may prove to exhibit important
+  divergences.
+
+  Genus _Haemogregarina_, Danilewsky (syn. _Danilewskya_, Labbé). The
+  body of the parasite exceeds the blood-corpuscle in length, when
+  adult, and is bent upon itself, like a U. A very great number of
+  species are known, mostly from reptiles and fishes; among them may be
+  mentioned _H. stepanovi_ (fig. 6), from _Emys_ and _Cistudo_, whose
+  sexual-cycle in a leech has been worked out by Siegel (see above), _H.
+  delagei_, from _Raja_, _H. bigemina_, from blennies, and _H. simondi_,
+  from soles. Recently one or two Mammalian forms have been observed,
+  _H. gerbilli_, from an Indian rat (_Gerbillus_), and _H. jaculi_, from
+  the jerboa.
+
+  Genus _Lankesterella_, Labbé (syn. _Drepanidium_, Lankester). The
+  parasite is not more than three-quarters the length of the corpuscle.
+  _L. ranarum_ from _Rana_ is the type-species; another, recently
+  described by Fantham, is _L. tritonis_, from the newt.
+
+  [Illustration: From Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_.
+
+  FIG. 7.--_Karyolysus lacertarum_ (Danil.), in the blood-corpuscles of
+  Lacerta muralis, showing the effects of the parasite upon the nucleus
+  of the corpuscle. In c and d the nucleus is broken up. N, Nucleus of
+  the corpuscle; n, nucleus of the parasite, seen as a number of masses
+  of chromatin, not enclosed by a distinct membrane. (After Marceau.)]
+
+  Genus _Karyolysus_, Labbé. The parasite does not exceed the corpuscle
+  in length; the forms included in this genus, moreover, although not
+  actually intranuclear, have a marked karyolytic and disintegrating
+  action upon the nucleus of the corpuscle. The type-species is the
+  well-known _K. lacertarum_, of lizards; another is _K.
+  (Haemogregarina) viperini_, from _Tropidonotus_.
+
+  In the section of the _Piroplasmata_ there is only the genus
+  _Piroplasma_, Patton (synn. _Babesia_, Starcovici, _Pyrosoma_, Smith
+  and Kilborne), the principal species of which are as follows: _P.
+  bigeminum_, the cause of Texas cattle-fever, tick-fever
+  (Rinder-malaria) of South Africa, and _P. bovis_, causing
+  haemoglobinuria of cattle in Southern Europe; there is some
+  uncertainty as to whether these two are really distinct; _P. canis_,
+  _P. ovis_ and _P. equi_ associated, respectively, with those animals.
+  Lately, a very small form, _P. parvum_, has been described by Theiler
+  in Rhodesia, which causes East-African coast-fever; and another, _P.
+  muris_, has been observed in white rats by Fantham.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--(The older literature is enumerated in most treatises
+  on Sporozoa--see bibliography under SPOROZOA). P. Argutinsky,
+  "Malariastudien," _Arch. mikr. Anat._ 59, p. 315, pls. 18-21 (1901),
+  and _op. cit._ 61, p. 331, pl. 18 (1902); A. Balfour, "Haemogregarine
+  of Mammals," _J. Trop. Med._ 8, p. 241, 8 figs. (1905); C. A. Bentley,
+  "Leucocytozoan of the Dog," _B.M.J._ (1905), 1, pp. 988 and 1078; N.
+  Berestneff, "Über einen neuen Blutparasiten der indischen Frösche,"
+  _Arch. Protistenk._ 2, p. 343, pl. 8 (1903); "Über das
+  _'Leucocytozoan' danilewskyi_," _op. cit._ 3, p. 376, pl. 15 (1904);
+  A. Billet, "Contribution à l'étude du paludisme et de son hématozoaire
+  en Algérie," _Ann. Inst. Pasteur_, 16, p. 186 (1902); (Notes on
+  various Haemogregarines). _C. R. Soc. Biol._ 56, pp. 482, 484, 607 and
+  741 (1904); C. Börner, "Untersuchungen über Hämosporidien," _Zeitschr.
+  wiss. Zool._ 69, p. 398, 1 pl. (1901); T. Bowhill, "Equine
+  piroplasmosis," &c., _J. Hyg._ 5, p. 7, pls. 1-3 (1905); Bowhill and
+  C. le Doux, "Contribution to the Study of '_Piroplasmosis canis_,'"
+  _op. cit._ 4, p. 217, pl. 11 (1904); E. Brumpt and C. Lebailly,
+  "Description de quelques nouvelles espèces de trypanosomes et
+  d'hémogrégarines," &c., C. R. Ac. Sci. 139, p. 613 (1904); A.
+  Castellani and A. Willey, "Observations on the Haematozoa of
+  Vertebrates in Ceylon," _Spolia Zeylan_. 2, p. 78, 1 pl. (1904), and
+  _Q. J. Micr. Sci._ 49, p. 383, pl. 24 (1905); S. R. Christophers,
+  "_Haemogregarina gerbilli_," _Sci. Mem. India_, 18, 15 pp., 1 pl.
+  (1905); H. B. Fantham, "_Lankesterella tritonis_, n. sp.," &c., _Zool.
+  Anz._ 29, p. 257, 17 figs. (1905); "_Piroplasma muris_," &c., _Q. J.
+  Micr. Sci._ 50, p. 493, pl. 28 (1906); C. Graham-Smith, "A new Form of
+  Parasite found in the Red Blood-Corpuscles of Moles," _J. Hyg._ 5, p.
+  453, pls. 13 and 14 (1905); R. Hintze, "Lebensweise und Entwickelung
+  von _Lankesterella minima_," _Zool. Jahrb. Anat._ 15, p. 693, pl. 36
+  (1902); S. James, "On a Parasite found in the White Blood-Corpuscles
+  of Dogs," _Sci. Mem. India_, 14, 12 pp. 1 pl. (1905); R. Koch,
+  "Vorläufige Mitteilungen über die Ergebnisse einer Forschungsreise
+  nach Ostafrika," _Deutsch. med. Wochenschr._, 1905, p. 1865, 24 figs.;
+  A. Labbé, "Recherches sur les parasites endoglobulaires du sang des
+  vertébrés," _Arch. zool. exp._ (3) ii. p. 55, 10 pls. (1894); A.
+  Laveran, "Sur quelques hémogrégarines des ophidiens," _C. R. Ac. Sci._
+  135, p. 1036, 13 figs. (1902); "Sur une _Haemamoeba_ d'une mésange
+  (_Parus major_)," _C. R. Soc. Biol._ 54, p. 1121, 10 figs. (1902);
+  "Sur la piroplasmose bovine bacilliforme," _C. R. Ac. Sci._ 138, p.
+  648, 18 figs. (1903); "Contribution à l'étude de _Haemamoeba
+  ziemanni_," _C. R. Soc. Biol._ 55, p. 620, 7 figs. (1903); "Sur une
+  hémogrégarine des gerboises," _C. R. Ac. Sci._ 141, p. 295, 9 figs.
+  (1905); (On different Haemogregarines) _C. R. Soc. Biol._ 59, pp. 175,
+  176, with figs. (1905); "Haemocytozoa. Essai de classification,"
+  _Bull. Inst. Pasteur_, 3, p. 809 (1905); Laveran and F. Mesnil, "Sur
+  les hématozoaires des poissons marins," _C. R. Ac. Sci._ 135, p. 567
+  (1902); "Sur quelques protozoaires parasites d'une tortue d'Asie,"
+  _t.c._ p. 609, 14 figs. (1902); Laveran and Nègre, "Sur un protozoaire
+  parasite de _Hyalomma aegyptium_," _C. R. Soc. Biol._ 58, p. 964, 6
+  figs. (1905); (for various earlier papers by these authors, reference
+  should be made to the C. R. Ac. Sci. and C R. Soc. Biol. for previous
+  years); C. Lebailly (On Piscine Haemogregarines) _C. R. Ac. Sci._ 139,
+  p. 576 (1904), and _C. R. Soc. Biol._ 59, p. 304 (1905); J. Lignières,
+  "Sur la 'Tristeza,'" _Ann. Inst. Pasteur_, 15, p. 121, pl. 6 (1901);
+  "La Piroplasmose bovine; nouvelles recherches," &c., _Arch. parasit._
+  7, p. 398, pl. 4 (1903); M. Lühe, "Die im Blute schmarotzenden
+  Protozoen," in Mense's _Handbuch der Tropenkrankheiten_ (Leipzig,
+  1906), 3, 1; F. Marceau, "Note sur le _Karyolysus lacertarum_," _Arch.
+  parasitol._ 4, p. 135, 46 figs. (1901); W. MacCallum, "On the
+  Haematozoan Infection of Birds," _J. Exp. Med._ 3, p. 117, pl. 12
+  (1898); G. Mauser, "Die Malaria perniciosa," _Centrbl. Bakter._ (1)
+  32, Orig. p. 695, 3 pls. (1902); C. Nicolle (On various Reptilian
+  Haemogregarines), _C. R. Soc. Biol._ 56, pp. 330, 608 and 912, with
+  figs. (1904); Nicolle and C. Comte, "Sur le rôle ... de _Hyalomma_ ...
+  dans l'infection hémogrégarinienne," op. cit. 58, p. 1045 (1905);
+  Norcard and Motas, "Contribution à l'étude de la piroplasmose canine,"
+  _Ann. Inst. Pasteur_, 16, p. 256, pls. 5 and 6 (1902); G. Nuttall and
+  G. Graham-Smith, "Canine piroplasmosis," _J. Hygiene_, p. 237, pl. 9
+  (1905); F. Schaudinn, "Der Generationswechsel der Coccidien und
+  Hämosporidien," _Zool. Centrbl._ 6, p. 675 (1899); "Studien über
+  krankheitserregende Protozoen--II. _Plasmodium vivax_," _Arb. Kais.
+  Gesundheitsamte_, 19, p. 169, pls. 4-6 (1902); E. and E. Sergent (On
+  different Haemogregarines), _C. R. Soc. Biol._ 56, pp. 130, 132
+  (1904), _op. cit._ 58, pp. 56, 57, 670 (1905); J. Siegel, "Die
+  geschlechtliche Entwickelung von _Haemogregarina_," &c., _Arch.
+  Protistenk._ 2, p. 339, 7 figs. (1903); P. L. Simond, "Contribution à
+  l'étude des hématozoaires endoglobulaires des reptiles," _Ann. Inst.
+  Pasteur_, 15, p. 319, 1 pl. (1901); T. Smith and F. Kilborne,
+  "Investigations into the Nature, Causation and Prevention of Texas
+  Cattle Fever," _Rep. Bureau Animal Industry_, U.S.A., 9 and 10, p.
+  177, pls. (1893); A. Theiler, "The _Piroplasma bigeminum_ of the
+  Immune Ox," _J. Army Med. Corps_, 3, pp. 469, 599, 1 pl. (1904); J.
+  Vassal, "Sur une hématozoaire endoglobulaire nouveau d'un mammifère,"
+  _Ann. Inst. Pasteur_, 19, p. 224, pl. 10 (1905); L. B. Wilson and W.
+  Chowning, "Studies in _Piroplasmosis hominis_," _J. Infect. Diseases_,
+  1, p. 31, 2 pls. (1904).     (H. M. Wo.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Compare, for example, the flagellated granules of certain
+    Coccidia, which point unmistakably to a Flagellate ancestry.
+
+  [2] A possible exception is a doubtful species of _Haemogregarina_,
+    which has been described from the walls of the blood-vessels of an
+    Annelid.
+
+  [3] For an interesting account of the biological relations between
+    parasites and their hosts, and the penalty Man pays for his roving
+    propensities, the reader should see Lankester's article in the
+    _Quarterly Review_, July 1904.
+
+  [4] This does away with one of the principal reasons on account of
+    which some authorities consider _Piroplasma (Leishmania) donovani_ as
+    quite distinct from other _Piroplasmata_ (see TRYPANOSOMES).
+
+  [5] It must not be forgotten that one species of _Halteridium (H.
+    [Trypanomorpha] noctuae)_ is said to have well-marked trypaniform
+    phases in its life-cycle; these are preferably considered under
+    _Trypanosomes_ (q.v.), and therefore, to avoid repetition, are only
+    thus alluded to here. Whether _H. danilewskyi_ also becomes
+    trypaniform in certain phases, and how far it really agrees with the
+    criteria of a Haemosporidian above postulated, are matters which are
+    not yet definitely known.
+
+
+
+
+HAETZER, or HETZER, LUDWIG (d. 1529), Swiss divine, was born in
+Switzerland, at Bischofszell, in Thurgau. He studied at
+Freiburg-im-Breisgau, and began his career in a chaplaincy at Wadenswil,
+on the Lake of Zürich. At this time his attachment to the old faith was
+tempered by a mystical turn, and by a devotion to the prophetical
+writings of the Old Testament, which he studied in the original. By 1523
+we find him in Zürich, where he published, at first anonymously and in
+Latin (_Judicium Dei_), later with his name and in German (Sept. 24,
+1523), a small tract against the religious use of images, and bearing
+the motto attached to all his subsequent works, "O Got erlösz die (or
+dein) Gefangnen" ("O God, set the prisoners free"). An attempt to give
+effect to the teaching of this (frequently reprinted) tract was followed
+by a public religious disputation, of which Haetzer drew up the official
+account. In 1524 he brought out a tract on the conversion of the Jews,
+and published a German version of Johann Bugenhagen's brief exposition
+of the epistles of St Paul (Ephesians to Hebrews); in the dedication
+(dated Zürich, June 29, 1524) he undertakes to translate Bugenhagen's
+comment on the Psalter. He then went to Augsburg, bearing Zwingli's
+introduction to Johann Frosch. Here he came for a time under the
+influence of Urbanus Regius, and was for a short time the guest of Georg
+Regel. Returning to Zürich, he was in intercourse with leading
+Anabaptists (though his own position was simply the disuse of infant
+baptism) till their expulsion in January 1525. Again resorting to
+Augsburg, and resuming work as corrector of the press for his printer
+Silvan Ottmar, he pushed his views to the extreme of rejecting all
+sacraments, reaching something like the mystical standpoint of the early
+Quakers. He was expelled from Augsburg in the autumn of 1525, and made
+his way through Constance to Basel, where Oecolampadius received him
+kindly. He translated into German the first treatise of Oecolampadius on
+the Lord's Supper (in which the words of institution are taken
+figuratively), and proceeding to Zürich in November, published his
+version there in February 1526, with a preface disclaiming connexion
+with the Anabaptists. His relations with Zwingli were difficult;
+returning to Basel he published (July 18, 1526) his translation of
+Malachi, with Oecolampadius's exposition, and with a preface reflecting
+on Zwingli. This he followed by a version of Isaiah xxxvi.-xxxvii. He
+next went to Strassburg, and was received by Wolfgang Capito. At
+Strassburg in the late autumn of 1526 he fell in with Hans Dengk or
+Denck, who collaborated with him in the production of his _opus magnum_,
+the translation of the Hebrew Prophets, _Alle Propheten nach hebraischer
+Sprach vertuetscht_. The preface is dated Worms, 3 April 1527; and there
+are editions, Worms, 13 April 1527, folio; Augsburg, 22 June 1527,
+folio; Worms, 7 Sept. 1527, 16º; and Augsburg, 1528, folio. It was the
+first Protestant version of the prophets in German, preceding Luther's
+by five years, and highly spoken of by him. Haetzer and Denck now
+entered on a propagandist mission from place to place, with some
+success, but of short duration. Denck died at Basel in November 1527.
+Haetzer was arrested at Constance in the summer of 1528. After long
+imprisonment and many examinations he was condemned on the 3rd of
+February 1529 to die by the sword, and the sentence was executed on the
+following day. His demeanour on the scaffold impressed impartial
+witnesses, Hans Zwick and Thomas Blaurer, who speak warmly of his
+fervour and courage. The Dutch Baptist Martyrology describes him as "a
+servant of Jesus Christ." The Moravian Chronicle says "he was condemned
+for the sake of divine truth." His papers included an unpublished
+treatise against the essential deity of Christ, which was suppressed by
+Zwingli; the only extant evidence of his anti-trinitarian views being
+contained in eight quaint lines of German verse preserved in Sebastian
+Frank's _Chronica_. The discovery of his heterodox Christology (which
+has led modern Unitarians to regard him as their proto-martyr) was
+followed by charges of loose living, never heard of in his lifetime, and
+destitute of evidence or probability.
+
+  See Breitinger, "Anecdota quaedam de L. H." in _Museum Helveticum_
+  (1746), parts 21 and 23; Wallace, _Antitrinitarian Biography_ (1850);
+  _Dutch Martyrology_ (Hanserd Knollys Society) (1856); Th. Keim, in
+  Hauck's _Realencyklopädie_ (1899).     (A. Go.*)
+
+
+
+
+HAFIZ. Shams-ud-din Mahommed, better known by his _takhallus_ or _nom de
+plume_ of Hafiz, was one of the most celebrated writers of Persian
+lyrical poetry. He was born at Shiraz, the capital of Fars, in the early
+part of the 8th century of the Mahommedan era, that is to say, in the
+14th of our own. The exact date of his birth is uncertain, but he
+attained a ripe old age and died in 791 A.H. (A.D. 1388). This is the
+date given in the chronogram which is engraved on his tomb, although
+several Persian biographers give a different year. Very little is
+actually known about his life, which appears to have been passed in
+retirement in Shiraz, of which he always speaks in terms of affectionate
+admiration. He was a subject of the Muzaffar princes, who ruled in
+Shiraz, Yazd, Kirman and Ispahan, until the dynasty was overthrown by
+Timur (Tamerlane). Of these princes his especial patrons were Shah
+Shuja' and Shah Mansur. He early devoted himself to the study of poetry
+and theology, and also became learned in mystic philosophy, which he
+studied under Shaik Mahmud 'Attar, chief of an order of dervishes. Hafiz
+afterwards enrolled himself in the same order and became a professor of
+Koranic exegesis in a college which his friend and patron Haji
+Kiwam-ud-din, the vizier, specially founded for him. This was probably
+the reason of his adopting the sobriquet of Hafiz ("one who remembers"),
+which is technically applied to any person who has learned the Koran by
+heart. The restraints of an ascetic life seem to have been very little
+to Hafiz's taste, and his loose conduct and wine-bibbing propensities
+drew upon him the severe censure of his monastic colleagues. In revenge
+he satirizes them unmercifully in his verses, and seldom loses an
+opportunity of alluding to their hypocrisy. Hafiz's fame as a poet was
+soon rapidly spread throughout the Mahommedan world, and several
+powerful monarchs sent him presents and pressing invitations to visit
+them. Amongst others he was invited by Mahmud Shah Bahmani, who reigned
+in the south of India. After crossing the Indus and passing through
+Lahore he reached Hurmuz, and embarked on board a vessel sent for him by
+the Indian prince. He seems, however, to have been a bad sailor, and,
+having invented an excuse for being put ashore, made the best of his way
+back to Shiraz. Some biographies narrate a story of an interview between
+Hafiz and the invader Timur. The latter sent for him and asked angrily,
+"Art thou he who was so bold as to offer my two great cities Samarkand
+and Bokhara for the black mole on thy mistress's cheek?" alluding to a
+well-known verse in one of his odes. "Yes, sire," replied Hafiz, "and it
+is by such acts of generosity that I have brought myself to such a state
+of destitution that I have now to solicit your bounty." Timur was so
+pleased at his ready wit that he dismissed the poet with a handsome
+present. Unfortunately for the truth of this story Timur did not capture
+Shiraz till A.D. 1393, while the latest date that can be assigned to
+Hafiz's death is 1391. Of his private life little or nothing is known.
+One of his poems is said to record the death of his wife, another that
+of a favourite unmarried son, and several others speak of his love for a
+girl called _Shakh i Nabat_, "Sugar-cane branch," and this is almost all
+of his personal history that can be gathered from his writings. He was,
+like most Persians, a Shi'ite by religion, believing in the transmission
+of the office of Imam (head of the Moslem Church) in the family of Ali,
+cousin of the prophet, and rejecting the _Hadith_ (traditional sayings)
+of Mahomet, which form the Sunna or supplementary code of Mahommedan
+ceremonial law. One of his odes which contains a verse in praise of Ali
+is engraved on the poet's tomb, but is omitted by Sudi, the Turkish
+editor and commentator, who was himself a rigid Sunnite. Hafiz's
+heretical opinions and dissipated life caused difficulties to be raised
+by the ecclesiastical authorities on his death as to his interment in
+consecrated ground. The question was at length settled by Hafiz's own
+works, which had then already begun to be used, as they are now
+throughout the East, for the purposes of divination, in the same manner
+as Virgil was employed in the middle ages for the divination called
+_Sortes Virgilianae_. Opening the book at random after pronouncing the
+customary formula asking for inspiration, the objectors hit upon the
+following verse--"Turn not away thy foot from the bier of Hafiz, for
+though immersed in sin, he will be admitted into Paradise." He was
+accordingly buried in the centre of a small cemetery at Shiraz, now
+included in an enclosure called the Hafiziyeh.
+
+His principal work is the _Diwan_, that is, a collection of short odes
+or sonnets called _ghazals_, and consisting of from five to sixteen
+_baits_ or couplets each, all the couplets in each ode having the same
+rhyme in the last hemistich, and the last couplet always introducing the
+poet's own _nom de plume_. The whole of these are arranged in
+alphabetical order, an arrangement which certainly facilitates reference
+but makes it absolutely impossible to ascertain their chronological
+order, and therefore detracts from their value as a means of throwing
+light upon the growth and development of his genius or the incidents of
+his career. They are often held together by a very slender thread of
+continuous thought, and few editions agree exactly in the order of the
+couplets. Still, a careful study of them, especially from the point of
+view indicated by the Sufiistic system of philosophy, will always show
+that a single idea does run throughout the whole. The nature of these
+poems has been the subject of much discussion in the West, some scholars
+seeing in their anacreontic utterances nothing but sensuality and
+materialism, while others, following the Oriental school, maintain that
+they are wholly and entirely mystic and philosophic. Something between
+the two would probably be nearer the truth. It must be remembered that
+Hafiz was a professed dervish and Sufi, and that his _ghazals_ were in
+all probability published from a _takia_, and arranged with at least a
+view to Sufiistic interpretation. At the same time it is ridiculous to
+suppose that the glowing imagery, the gorgeous and often tender
+descriptions of natural beauties, the fervent love passages, and the
+roystering drinking songs were composed in cool blood or with deliberate
+ascetic purpose. The beauty of Hafiz's poetry is that it is natural. It
+is the outcome of a fervent soul and a lofty genius delighting in
+nature and enjoying life; and it is the poet's misfortune that he lived
+in an age and amongst a people where rigid conventionality demanded that
+his free and spontaneous thoughts should be recast in an artificial
+mould.
+
+  Besides the _Diwan_, Hafiz wrote a number of other poems; the Leipzig
+  edition of his works contains 573 _ghazals_ (forming the _Diwan_), 42
+  _kit'as_ or fragments, 69 _ruba'iyat_ or tetrastics, 6 _masnaviyat_ or
+  poems in rhyming couplets, 2 _kasaïd_, idylls or panegyrics, and 1
+  _mukhammes_ or poem in five-line strophes. Other editions contain
+  several _tarji'-band_ or poems with a refrain. The whole _Diwan_ was
+  translated into English prose by H. Wilberforce Clarke in 1891, with
+  introduction and exhaustive commentary and bibliography; a few rhyming
+  versions of single poems by Sir William Jones, J. Nott, J. Hindley,
+  Falconer, &c., are to be found scattered through the pages of the
+  _Oriental Miscellany_ and other periodicals, and a fine edition
+  containing a verse rendering of the principal poems by H. Bicknell
+  appeared in 1875. Other selections by S. Robinson (1875), A. Rogers
+  (1889), J. H. M'Carthy (1893), and Gertrude L. Bell (1897). The
+  principal German versions are by von Hammer Purgstall (1812), which
+  gave the first impulse to Goethe's _Westöstlicher Diwan_; a rhyming
+  and rhythmical translation of a large portion of Hafiz's works by
+  Vincenz von Rosenzweig of Vienna (Vienna, 1858), which contains also
+  the Persian text and notes; _Der Diwan des Schemseddin Muhammed
+  Hafis_, by G. H. F. Nesselmann (Berlin, 1865), in which the rhyming
+  system of the original is imitated. Besides these, the reader may
+  consult d'Herbelot, _Bibliothèque orientale_, article "Hafiz"; Sir
+  William Ouseley's _Oriental Collections_ (1797-1798); _A Specimen of
+  Persian Poetry, or Odes of Hafiz_, by John Richardson (London, 1802);
+  _Biographical Notices of Persian Poets_, by Sir Gore Ouseley (Oriental
+  Translation Fund, 1846); and an excellent article by Professor E. B.
+  Cowell in _Macmillan's Magazine_ (No. 177, July 1874); J. A. Vullers,
+  _Vitae poëtarum Persicorum_ (1839, translated from Daulatshah); S.
+  Robinson, _Persian Poetry for English Readers_ (1883). The best
+  edition of the text is perhaps that edited by Hermann Brockhaus of
+  Leipzig (1854-1856). which is based on the recension of the Turkish
+  editor Sudi, and contains his commentary in Turkish on the first
+  eighty _ghazals_. See also H. Ethé in _Grundriss der iranischen
+  Philologie_, ii. (Strassburg, 1896); P. Horn, _Geschichte der
+  persischen Literatur_ (Leipzig, 1901).     (E. H. P.)
+
+
+
+
+HAG. (1) (Probably a shortened form of the O. Eng. _hægtesse_, _hegtes_,
+cognate with Ger. _Hexe_, witch, Dutch _hecse_), a word common during
+the 16th and 17th centuries for a female demon or evil spirit, and so
+particularly applied to such supernatural beings as the harpies and
+fairies of classical mythology, and also to witches. In modern usage the
+word is generally used of a hideous old woman whose repulsive exterior
+is accompanied by malice or wickedness. The name is also used of an
+eel-like parasitic fish, _Myxine glutinosa_, allied to the lamprey.
+
+(2) A word common in Scottish and northern English dialects for an
+enclosed piece of wood, a copse. This is the same word as "hedge" (see
+HEDGES) and "haw." "Hag" also means "to cut," and is used in Scotland of
+an extent of woodland marked out for felling, and of a quantity of
+felled wood. This word is also used of a cutting in the peat of a "moss"
+or "bog," and hence applied to the small plots of firm ground or heather
+in a bog; it is common in the form "moss-hags."
+
+
+
+
+HAGEDORN, FRIEDRICH VON (1708-1754), German poet, was born on the 23rd
+of April 1708 at Hamburg, where his father, a man of scientific and
+literary taste, was Danish minister. He was educated at the gymnasium of
+Hamburg, and later (1726) became a student of law at Jena. Returning to
+Hamburg in 1729, he obtained the appointment of unpaid private secretary
+to the Danish ambassador in London, where he lived till 1731. Hagedorn's
+return to Hamburg was followed by a period of great poverty and
+hardship, but in 1733 he was appointed secretary to the so-called
+"English Court" (_Englischer Hof_) in Hamburg, a trading company founded
+in the 13th century. He shortly afterwards married, and from this time
+had sufficient leisure to pursue his literary occupations till his death
+on the 28th of October 1754. Hagedorn is the first German poet who bears
+unmistakable testimony to the nation's recovery from the devastation
+wrought by the Thirty Years' War. He is eminently a social poet. His
+light and graceful love-songs and anacreontics, with their undisguised
+_joie de vivre_, introduced a new note into the German lyric; his fables
+and tales in verse are hardly inferior in form and in delicate
+persiflage to those of his master La Fontaine, and his moralizing poetry
+re-echoes the philosophy of Horace. He exerted a dominant influence on
+the German lyric until late in the 18th century.
+
+  The first collection of Hagedorn's poems was published at Hamburg
+  shortly after his return from Jena in 1729, under the title _Versuch
+  einiger Gedichte_ (reprinted by A. Sauer, Heilbronn, 1883). In 1738
+  appeared _Versuch in poetischen Fabeln und Erzählungen_; in 1742 a
+  collection of his lyric poems, under the title _Sammlung neuer Oden
+  und Lieder_; and his _Moralische Gedichte_ in 1750. A collection of
+  his entire works was published at Hamburg after his death in 1757. The
+  best is J. J. Eschenburg's edition (5 vols., Hamburg, 1800).
+  Selections of his poetry with an excellent introduction in F.
+  Muncker's _Anakreontiker und preussisch-patriotische Lyriker_
+  (Stuttgart, 1894). See also H. Schuster, _F. von Hagedorn und seine
+  Bedeutung für die deutsche Literatur_ (Leipzig, 1882); W. Eigenbrodt,
+  _Hagedorn und die Erzählung in Reimversen_ (Berlin, 1884).
+
+
+
+
+HAGEN, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH VON DER (1780-1856), German philologist,
+chiefly distinguished for his researches in Old German literature, was
+born at Schmiedeberg In Brandenburg on the 19th of February 1780. After
+studying law at the university of Halle, he obtained a legal appointment
+in the state service at Berlin, but in 1806 resigned this office in
+order to devote himself exclusively to letters. In 1810 he was appointed
+_professor extraordinarius_ of German literature in the university of
+Berlin; in the following year he was transferred in a similar capacity
+to Breslau, and in 1821 returned to Berlin as _professor ordinarius_. He
+died at Berlin on the 11th of June 1856. Although von der Hagen's
+critical work is now entirely out of date, the chief merit of awakening
+an interest in old German poetry belongs to him.
+
+  His principal publications are the _Nibelungenlied_, of which he
+  issued four editions, the first in 1810 and the last in 1842; the
+  _Minnesinger_ (Leipzig, 1838-1856, 4 vols, in 5 parts); _Lieder der
+  ältern Edda_ (Berlin, 1812); _Gottfried von Strassburg_ (Berlin,
+  1823); a collection of Old German tales under the title
+  _Gesamtabenteuer_ (Stuttgart, 1850, 3 vols.) and _Das Heldenbuch_
+  (Leipzig, 1855). He also published _Über die ältesten Darstellungen
+  der Faustsage_ (Berlin, 1844); and from 1835 he edited _Das neue
+  Jahrbuch der Berlinischen Gesellschaft für deutsche Sprache und
+  Altertumskunde_. His correspondence with C. G. Heyne and G. F. Benecke
+  was published by K. Dziatzko (Leipzig, 1893).
+
+
+
+
+HAGEN, a town of Germany, In the Prussian province of Westphalia. Pop.
+(1905), 77,498. It lies amid well-wooded hills at the confluence of the
+Ennepe with the Volme, 15 m. N.E. of Elberfeld, on the main line to
+Brunswick and Berlin, and at the junction of important lines of railway,
+connecting it with the principal towns of the Westphalian iron district.
+It has five Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic church, an Old
+Catholic church, a synagogue, a gymnasium, realgyrnnasium, and a
+technical school with special classes for machine-building. There are
+also a museum, a theatre, and a prettily arranged municipal park. Hagen
+is one of the most flourishing commercial towns in Westphalia, and
+possesses extensive iron and steel works, large cotton print works,
+woollen and cotton factories, manufactures of leather, paper, tobacco,
+and iron and steel wares, breweries and distilleries. There are large
+limestone quarries in the vicinity and also an alabaster quarry.
+
+
+
+
+HAGENAU, a town of Germany, in the imperial province of Alsace-Lorraine,
+situated in the middle of the Hagenau Forest, on the Moder, and on the
+railway from Strassburg to Weissenburg, 10 m. N.N.E. of the former city.
+Pop. (1905), 18,500. It has two Evangelical and two ancient Catholic
+churches (one dating from the 12th, the other from the 13th century), a
+gymnasium, a public library, a hospital, and a theatre. The principal
+industries are wool and cotton spinning, and the manufacture of
+porcelain, earthenware, boots, soap, oil, sparkling wines and beer.
+There is also considerable trade in hops and vegetables. Hagenau is an
+important military centre and has a large garrison, including three
+artillery battalions.
+
+Hagenau dates from the beginning of the 12th century, and owes its
+origin to the erection of a hunting lodge by the dukes of Swabia. The
+emperor Frederick I. surrounded it with walls and gave it town rights in
+1154. On the site of the hunting lodge he founded an imperial palace, in
+which were preserved the jewelled imperial crown, sceptre, imperial
+globe, and sword of Charlemagne. Subsequently it became the seat of the
+_Landvogt_ of Hagenau, the imperial _advocatus_ in Lower Alsace.
+Richard of Cornwall, king of the Romans, made it an imperial city in
+1257. In 1648 it came into the possession of France, and in 1673 Louis
+XIV. caused the fortifications to be razed. In 1675 it was captured by
+imperial troops, but in 1677 it was retaken by the French and nearly all
+destroyed by fire. In 1871 it fell, with the rest of Alsace-Lorraine,
+into the possession of Germany.
+
+
+
+
+HAGENBACH, KARL RUDOLF (1801-1874). German church historian, was born on
+the 4th of March 1801 at Basel, where his father was a practising
+physician. His preliminary education was received at a Pestalozzian
+school, and afterwards at the gymnasium, whence in due course he passed
+to the newly reorganized local university. He early devoted himself to
+theological studies and the service of the church, while at the same
+time cherishing and developing broad "humanistic" tendencies which found
+expression in many ways and especially in an enthusiastic admiration for
+the writings of Herder. The years 1820-1823 were spent first at Bonn,
+where G. C. F. Lücke (1791-1855) exerted a powerful influence on his
+thought, and afterwards at Berlin, where Schleiermacher and Neander
+became his masters. Returning in 1823 to Basel, where W. M. L. de Wette
+had recently been appointed to a theological chair, he distinguished
+himself greatly by his trial-dissertation, _Observationes
+historico-hermeneuticae circa Origenis methodum interpretendae sacrae
+Scripturae_; in 1824 he became professor extraordinarius, and in 1829
+professor ordinarius of theology. Apart from his academic labours in
+connexion with the history of dogma and of the church, he lived a life
+of great and varied usefulness as a theologian, a preacher and a
+citizen; and at his "jubilee" in 1873, not only the university and town
+of Basel but also the various churches of Switzerland united to do him
+honour. He died at Basel on the 7th of June 1874.
+
+Hagenbach was a voluminous author in many departments, but he is
+specially distinguished as a writer on church history. Though neither so
+learned and condensed as the contributions of Gieseler, nor so original
+and profound as those of Neander, his lectures are clear, attractive and
+free from narrow sectarian prejudice. In dogmatics, while avowedly a
+champion of the "mediation theology" (_Vermittelungstheologie_), based
+upon the fundamental conceptions of Herder and Schleiermacher, he was
+much less revolutionary than were many others of his school. He sought
+to maintain the old confessional documents, and to make the objective
+prevail over the purely subjective manner of viewing theological
+questions. But he himself was aware that in the endeavour to do so he
+was not always successful, and that his delineations of Christian dogma
+often betrayed a vacillating and uncertain hand.
+
+  His works include _Tabellarische Übersicht der Dogmengeschichte_
+  (1828); _Encyclopädie u. Methodologie der theol. Wissenschaften_
+  (1833); _Vorlesungen über Wesen u. Geschichte der Reformation u. des
+  Protestantismus_ (1834-1843); _Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte_
+  (1840-1841, 5th ed., 1867; English transl., 1850); _Vorlesungen über
+  die Geschichte der alien Kirche_ (1853-1855); _Vorlesungen über die
+  Kirchengeschichte des Mittelalters_ (1860-1861); _Grundlinien der
+  Homiletik u. Liturgik_ (1863); biographies of Johannes Oecolampadius
+  (1482-1564) and Oswald Myconius (1488-1552) and a _Geschichte der
+  theol. Schule Basels_ (1860); his _Predigten_ (1858-1875), two volumes
+  of poems entitled _Luther u. seine Zeit_ (1838), and _Gedichte_
+  (1846). The lectures on church history under the general title
+  _Vorlesungen über die Kirchengeschichte von der ältesten Zeit bis zum
+  19ten Jahrhundert_ were reissued in seven volumes (1868-1872).
+
+  See especially the article in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_.
+
+
+
+
+HAGENBECK, CARL (1844-   ), wild-animal collector and dealer, was born
+at Hamburg in 1844. In 1848 his father purchased some seals and a Polar
+bear brought to Hamburg by a whaler, and subsequently acquired many
+other wild animals. At the age of twenty-one Carl Hagenbeck was given
+the whole collection, and before long had greatly extended the business,
+so that in 1873 he had to erect large buildings in Hamburg to house his
+animals. In 1875 he began to exhibit a collection of the representative
+animals of many countries, accompanied by troupes of the natives of the
+respective countries, throughout all the large cities of Europe. The
+educational value of these exhibitions was officially recognized by the
+French government, which in 1891 awarded Hagenbeck the diploma of the
+Academy. Most of the wild animals exhibited in music-halls and other
+popular places of entertainment throughout the world have come from
+Hagenbeck's collection at Stellingen, near Hamburg.
+
+
+
+
+HAGERSTOWN, a city and the county-seat of Washington county, Maryland,
+U.S.A., near Antietam Creek, about 86 m. by rail W.N.W. from Baltimore.
+Pop. (1890), 10,118; (1900), 13,591, of whom 1277 were negroes; (1910,
+census), 16,507. Hagerstown is served by the Baltimore & Ohio, the
+Western Maryland, the Norfolk & Western, and the Cumberland Valley
+railways, and by an interurban electric line. It lies in a fertile
+valley overlooked by South Mountain to the E. and North Mountain, more
+distant, to the W. The city is the seat of Kee Mar College (1852;
+non-sectarian) for women. Hagerstown is a business centre for the
+surrounding agricultural district, has good water power, and as a
+manufacturing centre ranked third in the state in 1905, its factory
+products being valued in that year at $3,026,901, an increase of 66.3%
+over their value in 1900. Among the manufactures are flour, shirts,
+hosiery, gloves, bicycles, automobiles, agricultural implements, print
+paper, fertilizers, sash, doors and blinds, furniture, carriages, spokes
+and wheels. The municipality owns and operates its electric lighting
+plant. Hagerstown was laid out as a town in 1762 by Captain Jonathan
+Hager (who had received a patent to 200 acres here from Lord Baltimore
+in 1739), and was incorporated in 1791. It was an important station on
+the old National (or Cumberland) Road. General R. E. Lee concentrated
+his forces at Hagerstown before the battle of Gettysburg.
+
+
+
+
+HAG-FISH, GLUTINOUS HAG, Or BORER (_Myxine_), a marine fish which forms
+with the lampreys one of the lowest orders of vertebrates
+(_Cyclostomata_). Similar in form to a lamprey, it is usually found
+within the body of dead cod or haddock, on the flesh of which it feeds
+after having buried itself in the abdomen. When caught, it secretes a
+thick glutinous slime in such quantity that it is commonly believed to
+have the power of converting water into glue. It is found in the North
+Atlantic and other temperate seas of the globe, being taken in some
+localities in large numbers, e.g. off the east coast of Scotland and the
+west coast of California (see CYCLOSTOMATA).
+
+
+
+
+HAGGADA, or 'AGADA (literally "narrative"), includes the more homiletic
+elements of rabbinic teaching. It is not logically distinguishable from
+the halakha (q.v.), for the latter or forensic element makes up with the
+haggada the Midrash (q.v.), but, being more popular than the halakha, is
+often itself styled the Midrash. It may be described as the poetical and
+ethical element as contrasted with the legal element in the Talmud
+(q.v.), but the two elements are always closely connected. From one
+point of view the haggada, amplifying and developing the contents of
+Hebrew scripture in response to a popular religious need, may be termed
+a rabbinical commentary on the Old Testament, containing traditional
+stories and legends, sometimes amusing, sometimes trivial, and often
+beautiful. The haggada abounds in parables. The haggadic passages of the
+Talmud were collected in the _Eye of Jacob_, a very popular compilation
+completed by Jakob ibn Habib in the 16th century.
+
+
+
+
+HAGGAI, in the Bible, the tenth in order of the "minor prophets," whose
+writings are preserved in the Old Testament. The name Haggai ([Hebrew:
+Haggai], Gr. [Greek: 'Aggaios], whence Aggeus in the English version of
+the Apocrypha) perhaps means "born on the feast day," "festive." But
+Wellhausen[1] is probably right in taking the word as a contraction for
+Hagariah ("Yahweh hath girded"), just as Zaccai (Zacchaeus) is known to
+be a contraction of Zechariah.
+
+The book of Haggai contains four short prophecies delivered between the
+first day of the sixth month and the twenty-fourth day of the ninth
+month--that is, between September and December--of the second year of
+Darius the king. The king in question must be Darius Hystaspis (521-485
+B.C.). The language of the prophet in ii. 3 suggests the probability
+that he was himself one of those whose memories reached across the
+seventy years of the captivity, and that his prophetic work began in
+extreme old age. This supposition agrees well with the shortness of the
+period covered by his book, and with the fact that Zechariah, who began
+to prophesy in the same autumn and was associated with Haggai's labours
+(Ezra v. 1), afterwards appears as the leading prophet in Jerusalem
+(Zech. vii. 1-4). We know nothing further of the personal history of
+Haggai from the Bible. Later traditions may be read in Carpzov's
+_Introductio_, pars 3, cap. xvi. Epiphanius (_Vitae prophetarum_) says
+that he came up from Babylon while still young, prophesied the return,
+witnessed the building of the temple and received an honoured burial
+near the priests. Haggai's name is mentioned in the titles of several
+psalms in the Septuagint (Psalms cxxxvii., cxlv.-cxlviii.) and other
+versions, but these titles are without value, and moreover vary in MSS.
+Eusebius did not find them in the Hexaplar Septuagint.[2]
+
+In his first prophecy (i. 1-11) Haggai addresses Zerubbabel and Joshua,
+rebuking the people for leaving the temple unbuilt while they are busy
+in providing panelled houses for themselves. The prevalent famine and
+distress are due to Yahweh's indignation at such remissness. Let them
+build the house, and Yahweh will take pleasure in it and acknowledge the
+honour paid to Him. The rebuke took effect, and the people began to work
+at the temple, strengthened by the prophet's assurance that the Lord was
+with them (i. 12-15). In a second prophecy (ii. 1-9) delivered in the
+following month, Haggai forbids the people to be disheartened by the
+apparent meanness of the new temple. The silver and gold are the Lord's.
+He will soon shake all nations and their choicest gifts will be brought
+to adorn His house. Its glory shall be greater than that of the former
+temple, and in this place He will give peace. A third prophecy (ii.
+10-19) contains a promise, enforced by a figure drawn from the priestly
+ritual, that God will remove famine and bless the land from the day of
+the foundation of the temple onwards. Finally, in ii. 20-23, Zerubbabel
+is assured of God's special love and protection in the impending
+catastrophe of kingdoms and nations to which the prophet had formerly
+pointed as preceding the glorification of God's house on Zion. In thus
+looking forward to a shaking of all nations Haggai agrees with earlier
+prophecies, especially Isa. xxiv.-xxvii., while his picture of the glory
+and peace of the new Zion and its temple is drawn from the great
+anonymous prophet who penned Isa. lx and lxvi. The characteristic
+features of the book are the importance assigned to the personality of
+Zerubbabel, who, though a living contemporary, is marked out as the
+Messiah; and the almost sacramental significance attached to the temple.
+The hopes fixed on Zerubbabel, the chosen of the Lord, dear to Him as
+His signet ring (cf. Jer. xxii. 24), are a last echo in Old Testament
+prophecy of the theocratic importance of the house of David. In the book
+of Zechariah Zerubbabel has already fallen into the background and the
+high priest is the leading figure of the Judean community.[3] The stem
+of David is superseded by the house of Zadok, the kingship has yielded
+to the priesthood, and the extinction of national hopes gives new
+importance to that strict organization of the hierarchy for which
+Ezekiel had prepared the way by his sentence of disfranchisement against
+the non-Zadokite priests.
+
+The indifference of the Jews to the desolate conditions of their
+sanctuary opens up a problem of some difficulty. It is strange that
+neither Haggai nor his contemporary Zechariah mentions or implies any
+return of exiles from Babylon, and the suggestion has accordingly been
+made that the return under Cyrus described in Ezra i.-iv. is
+unhistorical, and that the community addressed by Haggai consisted of
+the remnant that had been left in Jerusalem and its neighbourhood after
+the majority had gone into exile or fled to Egypt (Jer. xliii.). Such a
+remnant, amongst whom might be members of the priestly and royal
+families, would gather strength and boldness as the troubles of Babylon
+increased and her vigilance was relaxed, and might receive from Babylon
+and other lands both refugees and some account at least of the writings
+of Ezekiel and the Second Isaiah. Stimulated by such causes and
+obtaining formal permission from the Persian government, they would
+arise as a new Israel and enter on a new phase of national life and
+divine revelation.
+
+In spite, however, of the plausibility of this theory, it seems
+preferable to adhere to the story of Ezra i.-iv. Apart from the weighty
+objections that the Edomites would have frustrated such a recrudescence
+of the remnant Jews as has been described, it must be remembered that
+the main stream of Jewish life and thought had been diverted to Babylon.
+Thence, when the opportunity came under Cyrus, some 50,000 Jews, the
+spiritual heirs of the best elements of the old Israel, returned to
+found the new community. With them were all the resources, and the only
+people they found at Jerusalem were hostile gentiles and Samaritans.
+Full of enthusiasm, they set about rebuilding the temple and realizing
+the glowing promises about the prosperity and dominance of Zion that had
+fallen from the lips of the Second Isaiah (xlix. 14-26, xlv. 14). Bitter
+disappointment, however, soon overcame them, the Samaritans were strong
+enough to thwart and hinder their temple-building, and it seemed as
+though the divine favour was withdrawn. Apathy took the place of
+enthusiasm, and sordid worries succeeded to high hopes. "The like
+collapse has often been experienced in history when bands of religious
+men, going forth, as they thought, to freedom and the immediate erection
+of a holy commonwealth, have found their unity wrecked and their
+enthusiasm dissipated by a few inclement seasons on a barren and hostile
+shore."[4]
+
+From this torpor they were roused by tidings which might well be
+interpreted as the restoration of divine favour. Away in the East Cyrus
+had been succeeded in 529 B.C. by Cambyses, who had annexed Egypt and on
+whose death in 522 a Magian impostor, Gaumata, had seized the throne.
+The fraud was short-lived, and Darius I. became king and the founder of
+a new dynasty. These events shook the whole Persian empire; Babylon and
+other subject states rose in revolt, and to the Jews it seemed that
+Persia was tottering and that the Messianic era was nigh. It was
+therefore natural that Haggai and Zechariah should urge the speedy
+building of the temple, in order that the great king might be fittingly
+received.
+
+It is sometimes levied as a reproach against Haggai that he makes no
+direct reference to moral duties. But it is hardly fair to contrast his
+practical counsel with the more ethical and spiritual teaching of the
+earlier Hebrew prophets. One thing was needful--the temple. "Without a
+sanctuary Yahweh would have seemed a foreigner to Israel. The Jews would
+have thought that He had returned to Sinai, the holy mountain; and that
+they were deprived of the temporal blessings which were the gifts of a
+God who literally dwelt in the midst of his people." Haggai argued that
+material prosperity was conditioned by zeal in worship; the prevailing
+distress was an indication of divine anger due to the people's religious
+apathy. Haggai's reproofs touched the conscience of the Jews, and the
+book of Zechariah enables us in some measure to follow the course of a
+religious revival which, starting with the restoration of the temple,
+did not confine itself to matters of ceremony and ritual worship. On the
+other hand, Haggai's treatment of his theme, practical and effective as
+it was for the purpose in hand, moves on a far lower level than the
+aspirations of the prophet who wrote the closing chapters of Isaiah. To
+the latter the material temple is no more than a detail in the picture
+of a work of restoration eminently ideal and spiritual, and he expressly
+warns his hearers against attaching intrinsic importance to it (Isa.
+lxvi. 1). To Haggai the temple appears so essential that he teaches that
+while it lay waste, the people and all their works and offerings were
+unclean (Hag. ii. 14). In this he betrays his affinity with Ezekiel, who
+taught that it is by the possession of the sanctuary that Israel is
+sanctified (Ezek. xxxvii. 28). In truth the new movement of religious
+thought and feeling which started from the fall of the Hebrew state took
+two distinct lines, of which Ezekiel and the anonymous authors of Isa.
+xl.-lxvi. are the respective representatives. While the latter developed
+their great picture of Israel the mediatorial nation, the systematic and
+priestly mind of Ezekiel had shaped a more material conception of the
+religious vocation of Israel in that picture of the new theocracy where
+the temple and its ritual occupy the largest place, with a sanctity
+which is set in express contrast to the older conception of the holiness
+of the city of Jerusalem (cf. Ezek. xliii. 7 seq. with Jer. xxxi. 40,
+Isa. iv. 5), and with a supreme significance for the religious life of
+the people which is expressed in the figure of the living waters issuing
+from under the threshold of the house (Ezek. xlvii.). It was the
+conception of Ezekiel which permanently influenced the citizens of the
+new Jerusalem, and took final shape in the institutions of Ezra. To this
+consummation, with its necessary accompaniment in the extinction of
+prophecy, the book of Haggai already points.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The elaborate and valuable German commentary of A.
+  Köhler (Erlangen, 1860) forms the first part of his work on the
+  _Nachexilische Propheten_. Reinke's _Commentary_ (Münster, 1868) is
+  the work of a scholarly Roman Catholic. Haggai has generally been
+  treated in works on all the prophets, as by Ewald (2nd ed., 1868; Eng.
+  trans., vol. iii., 1878); or along with the other minor prophets, as
+  by Hitzig (3rd ed., by H. Steiner, Leipzig, 1881), Keil (1866, 3rd
+  ed., 1888, Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1868), and Pusey (1875), S. R.
+  Driver (1906), W. Nowack (2nd ed., 1905), K. Marti (1904), J.
+  Wellhausen (3rd ed., 1898); or with the other post-exile prophets, as
+  by Köhler, Pressel (Gotha, 1870), Dods (1879) and others. The older
+  literature will be found in books of introduction or in Rosenmüller's
+  _Scholia_. The learned commentary of Marckius may be specially
+  mentioned. On the place of Haggai in the history of Old Testament
+  prophecy, see Duhm, _Theologie der Propheten_ (Bonn, 1875); A. B.
+  Davidson, _The Theology of the Old Testament_ (1904); A. F.
+  Kirkpatrick, _The Doctrine of the Prophets_; G. A. Smith, _The Book of
+  the Twelve Prophets_, vol. 2 (1903); Tony Andrée, _Le Prophète Aggée_;
+  Ed. Meyer, _Entstehung des Judentums_ (1896).     (W. R. S.; A. J. G.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] In Bleek's _Einleitung_, 4th ed., p. 434.
+
+  [2] See the note on Ps. cxlv. 1 in Field's _Hexapla_; Köhler,
+    _Weissagungen Haggai's_, 32; Wright, _Zechariah and his Prophecies_,
+    xix.
+
+  [3] After the foundation of the temple Zerubbabel disappears from
+    history and lives only in legend, which continued to busy itself with
+    his story, as we see from the apocryphal book of Esdras (cf.
+    Derenbourg, _Hist. de la Palestine_, chap. i).
+
+  [4] G. A. Smith, _Minor Prophets_, ii. 235.
+
+
+
+
+HAGGARD, HENRY RIDER (1856-   ), English novelist, was born at Bradenham
+Hall, Norfolk, on the 22nd of June 1856. When he was nineteen he went to
+South Africa as secretary to Sir Henry Bulwer, governor of Natal. At the
+time of the first annexation of the Transvaal (1877), he was on the
+staff of the special commissioner, Sir Theophilus Shepstone; and he
+subsequently became a master of the high court of the Transvaal. He
+married in 1879 a Norfolk heiress, Miss Margitson, but returned to the
+Transvaal in time to witness its surrender to the Boers and the
+overthrow of the policy of his former chief. He returned to England and
+read for the bar, but soon took to literary work; he published _Cetywayo
+and his White Neighbours_ (1882), written in defence of Sir T.
+Shepstone's policy. This was followed by the novels _Dawn_ (1884), _The
+Witch's Head_ (1885), which contains an account of the British defeat at
+Isandhlwana; and in 1886 _King Solomon's Mines_, suggested by the
+Zimbabwe ruins, which first made him popular. _She_ (1887), another
+fantastic African story, was also very successful, a sequel, _Ayesha, or
+the Return of She_, being published in 1905. The scene of _Jess_ (1887)
+and of _Allan Quatermain_ (1888) was also laid in Africa. In 1895 he
+unsuccessfully contested the East Norfolk parliamentary division in the
+Unionist interest; he showed great interest in rural and agricultural
+questions, being a practical gardener and farmer on his estate in
+Norfolk. In his _Rural England_ (2 vols., 1902) he exposed the evils of
+depopulation in country districts. In 1905 he was commissioned by the
+colonial office to inquire into the Salvation Army settlements at Fort
+Romie, S. California, and Fort Amity, Colorado, with a view to the
+establishment of similar colonies in South Africa. His report on the
+subject was first published as a blue book, and afterwards, in an
+enlarged form, as _The Poor and the Land_ (1905), with suggestions for a
+scheme of national land settlement in Great Britain itself.
+
+  His other books include _Maiwa's Revenge_ (1888), _Mr Meeson's Will_
+  (1888), _Colonel Quaritch_, V.C. (1888), _Cleopatra_ (1889), _Eric
+  Brighteyes_ (1891), _The World's Desire_ (1890), a romance of Helen of
+  Troy, written with Mr Andrew Lang; _Nada the Lily_ (1892),
+  _Montezuma's Daughter_ (1894), _The People of the Mist_ (1894), _Joan
+  Haste_ (1895), _Heart of the World_ (1896), _Dr Therne_ (1898), _A
+  Farmer's Year_ (1899), _The New South Africa_ (1900), _Lysbeth, A Tale
+  of the Dutch_ (1901). _Stella Fregelius_ (1903), _A Gardener's Year_
+  (1905), _A Farmer's Year_ (1899, revised ed., 1906), _The Way of the
+  Spirit_ (1906).
+
+
+
+
+
+HAGGIS, a dish consisting of a calf's, sheep's or other animal's heart,
+liver and lungs, and also sometimes of the smaller intestines, boiled in
+the stomach of the animal with seasoning of pepper, salt, onions, &c.,
+chopped fine with suet and oatmeal. It is considered peculiarly a
+Scottish dish, but was common in England till the 18th century. The
+derivation of the word is obscure. The Fr. _hachis_, English "hash," is
+of later appearance than "haggis." It may be connected with a verb "to
+hag," meaning to cut in small pieces, and would then be cognate
+ultimately with "hash."
+
+
+
+
+HAGIOLOGY (from Gr. [Greek: hagios], saint, [Greek: logos], discourse),
+that branch of the historical sciences which is concerned with the lives
+of the saints. If hagiology be considered merely in the sense in which
+the term has come to be understood in the later stages of its
+development, i.e. the critical study of hagiographic remains, there
+would be no such science before the 17th century. But the bases of
+hagiology may fairly be said to have been laid at the time when
+hagiographic documents, hitherto dispersed, were first brought together
+into collections. The oldest collection of this kind, the [Greek:
+sunagôgê tôn archaiôn marturiôn] of Eusebius, to which the author refers
+in several passages in his writings (_Hist. Eccl._, v. proem 2; v. 20,
+5), and which has left more than one trace in Christian literature, is
+unfortunately lost in its entirety. The _Martyrs of Palestine_, as also
+the writings of Theodoret, Palladius and others, on the origins of the
+monastic life, and, similarly, the _Dialogues_ of St Gregory (Pope
+Gregory I.), belong to the category of sources rather than to that of
+hagiologic collections. The _In gloria martyrum_ and _In gloria
+confessorum_ of Gregory of Tours are valuable for the sources used in
+their compilation. The most important collections are those which
+comprise the Acts of the Martyrs and the lives of saints, arranged in
+the order of the calendar. In the Greek Church these are called
+menologies (from Gr. [Greek: mên], month, [Greek: logos], discourse),
+and their existence can be traced back with certainty to the 9th century
+(Theodore of Studium, _Epist._ i. 2). One of them, the menology of
+Metaphrastes, compiled in the second half of the 10th century, enjoyed a
+universal vogue (see SYMEON METAPHRASTES). The corresponding works in
+the Western Church are the _passionaries_ or _legendaries_, varieties of
+which are dispersed in libraries and have not been studied collectively.
+They generally draw from a common source, the Roman legendary, and the
+lives of the local saints, i.e. those specially honoured in a church, a
+province or a country. One of the best known is the Austrian legendary
+(_De magno legendario Austriaco_ in the _Analecta Bollandiana_, xvii.
+24-264). From the menologies and legendaries various compilations were
+made: in the Greek Church, the Synaxaria (see SYNAXARIUM); in the
+Western Church, abridgments and extracts such as the _Speculum
+hisloriale_ of Vincent de Beauvais; the _Legenda aurea_ of Jacobus de
+Voragine; the _Sanctorale_ of Bernard Guy [d. 1331] (see L. Delisle,
+_Notice sur les manuscrits de Bernard Guy_, Paris, 1879); the
+_Sanctilogium_ of John of Tynemouth (c. 1366), utilized by John
+Capgrave, and published in 1516 under the name of _Nova legenda Angliae_
+(new edition by C. Horstman, Oxford, 1901); and the _Catalogus
+sanctorum_ of Petrus de Natalibus (c. 1375), published at Vicenza in
+1493, and many times reprinted. The _Sanctuarium_ of B. Mombritius,
+published at Milan about 1480, is particularly valuable because it gives
+a faithful reproduction of the ancient texts according to the
+manuscripts. One of the most zealous collectors of lives of saints was
+John Gielemans of Brabant (d. 1487), whose work is of great value
+(Bollandists, _De codicibus hagiographicis Iohannis Gielemans_,
+Brussels, 1895), and with him must be associated Anton Geens, or
+Gentius, of Groenendael, who died in 1543 (_Analecta Bollandiana_, vi.
+31-34).
+
+Hagiology entered on a new development with the publication of the
+_Sanctorum priscorum patrum vitae_ (Venice and Rome, 1551-1560) of
+Aloysius Lipomanus (Lippomano), bishop of Verona. As a result of the
+co-operation of humanist scholars a great number of Greek hagiographic
+texts became for the first time accessible to the West in a Latin
+translation. The Carthusian, Laurentius Surius, carried on the work of
+Lippomano, completed it, and arranged the materials strictly in the
+order of the calendar (_De probatis sanctorum historiis_, Cologne,
+1570-1575). What prevents the work of Surius from being regarded as an
+improvement upon Lippomano's is that Surius thought it necessary to
+retouch the style of those documents which appeared to him badly
+written, without troubling himself about the consequent loss of their
+documentary value.
+
+The actual founder of hagiologic criticism was the Flemish Jesuit,
+Heribert Rosweyde (d. 1629), who, besides his important works on the
+martyrologies (see MARTYROLOGY), published the celebrated collection of
+the _Vitae patrum_ (Antwerp, 1615), a veritable masterpiece for the time
+at which it appeared. It was he, too, who conceived the plan of a great
+collection of lives of saints, compiled from the manuscripts and
+augmented with notes, from which resulted the collection of the _Acta
+sanctorum_ (see BOLLANDISTS). This last enterprise gave rise to others
+of a similar character but less extensive in scope.
+
+  Dom T. Ruinart collected the best _Acta_ of the martyrs in his _Acta
+  martyrum sincera_ (Paris, 1689). The various religious orders
+  collected the Acta of their saints, often increasing the lists beyond
+  measure. The best publication of this kind, the _Acta sanctorum
+  ordinis S. Benedicti_ (Paris, 1668-1701) of d'Achery and Mabillon,
+  does not entirely escape this reproach. Countries, provinces and
+  dioceses also had their special hagiographic collections, conceived
+  according to various plans and executed with more or less historical
+  sense. Of these, the most important collections are those of O.
+  Caietanus, _Vitae sanctorum Siculorum_ (Palermo, 1657); G. A.
+  Lobineau, _Vie des saints de Bretagne_ (Rennes, 1725); and J. H.
+  Ghesquière, _Acta sanctorum Belgii_ (Brussels and Tongerloo,
+  1783-1794). The principal lives of the German saints are published in
+  the _Monumenta Germaniae_, and a special section of the _Scriptores
+  rerum Merovingicarum_ is devoted to the lives of the saints. For
+  Scotland and Ireland mention must be made of T. Messingham's
+  _Florilegium insulae sanctorum_ (Paris, 1624); I. Colgan's _Acta
+  sanctorum veteris et maioris Scotiae seu Hiberniae_ (Louvain,
+  1645-1647); John Pinkerton's _Vitae antiquae sanctorum ..._ (London,
+  1789, of which a revised and enlarged edition was published by W. M.
+  Metcalfe at Paisley in 1889, under the title of _Lives of the Scottish
+  Saints_); W. J. Rees's _Lives of the Cambro-British Saints_
+  (Llandovery, 1853); _Acta sanctorum Hiberniae_ (Edinburgh, 1888);
+  Whitley Stokes's _Lives of Saints from the Book of Lismore_ (Oxford,
+  1890); and J. O'Hanlon's _Lives of the Irish Saints_ (Dublin,
+  1875-1904). Towards the 13th century vernacular collections of lives
+  of saints began to increase. This literature is more interesting from
+  the linguistic than from the hagiologic point of view, and comes
+  rather within the domain of the philologist.
+
+  The hagiography of the Eastern and the Greek church also has been the
+  subject of important publications. The Greek texts are very much
+  scattered. Of them, however, may be mentioned J. B. Malou's "Symeonis
+  Metaphrastae opera omnia" (_Patrologia Graeca_, 114, 115, 116) and
+  Theophilos Ioannu, [Greek: Mnêmeia agiologika] (Venice, 1884). For
+  Syriac, there are S. E. Assemani's _Acta sanctorum martyrum
+  orientalium_ (Rome, 1748) and P. Bedjan's _Acta martyrum et sanctorum_
+  (Paris, 1890-1897); for Armenian, the acts of martyrs and lives of
+  saints, published in two volumes by the Mechitharist community of
+  Venice in 1874; for Coptic, Hyvernat's _Les Actes des martyrs de
+  l'Égypte_ (Paris, 1886); for Ethiopian, K. Conti Rossini's _Scriptores
+  Aethiopici, vitae sanctorum_ (Paris, 1904 seq.); and for Georgian,
+  Sabinin's _Paradise of the Georgian Church_ (St Petersburg, 1882).
+
+  In addition to the principal collections must be mentioned the
+  innumerable works in which the hagiographic texts have been subjected
+  to detailed critical study.
+
+  To realize the present state of hagiology, the _Bibliotheca
+  hagiographica_, both Latin and Greek, published by the Bollandists,
+  and the _Bulletin hagiographique_, which appears in each number of the
+  _Analecta Bollandiana_ (see BOLLANDISTS), must be consulted. Thanks to
+  the combined efforts of a great number of scholars, the classification
+  of the hagiographic texts has in recent years made notable progress.
+  The criticism of the sources, the study of literary styles, and the
+  knowledge of local history now render it easier to discriminate in
+  this literature between what is really historical and what is merely
+  the invention of the genius of the people or of the imagination of
+  pious writers (see H. Delehaye, _Les Légendes hagiographiques_, 2nd
+  ed., pp. 121-141, Brussels, 1906). "Though the lives of saints," says
+  a recent historian, "are filled with miracles and incredible stories,
+  they form a rich mine of information concerning the life and customs
+  of the people. Some of them are 'memorials of the best men of the time
+  written by the best scholars of the time,'" (C. Gross, _The Sources
+  and Literature of English History_, p. 34, London, 1900).     (H. De.)
+
+
+
+
+HAGIOSCOPE (from Gr. [Greek: hagios], holy, and [Greek: skopein], to
+see), in architecture, an opening through the wall of a church in an
+oblique direction, to enable the worshippers in the transepts or other
+parts of the church, from which the altar was not visible, to see the
+elevation of the Host. As a rule these hagioscopes, or "squints" as they
+are sometimes called, are found on one or both sides of the chancel
+arch. In some cases a series of openings has been cut in the walls in an
+oblique line to enable a person standing in the porch (as in Bridgewater
+church, Somerset) to see the altar; in this case and in other instances
+such openings were sometimes provided for an attendant, who had to ring
+the Sanctus bell when the Host was elevated. Though rarely met with on
+the continent of Europe, there are occasions where they are found, so as
+to enable a monk in one of the vestries to follow the service and
+communicate with the bell-ringers.
+
+
+
+
+HAGONOY, a town of the province of Bulacan, Luzon, Philippine Islands,
+on Manila Bay and on the W. branch and the delta of the Pampanga Grande
+river, about 25 m. N.W. of Manila. Pop. (1903), 21,304. Hagonoy is
+situated in a rich agricultural region, producing rice, Indian corn,
+sugar and a little coffee. Alcohol is made in considerable quantities
+from the fermented juice of the nipa palm, which grows in the
+neighbouring swamps, and from the leaves of which the nipa thatch is
+manufactured. There is good fishing. The women of the town are very
+skilful in weaving the native fabrics. The language is Tagalog. Hagonoy
+was founded in 1581.
+
+
+
+
+HAGUE, THE (in Dutch, _'s Gravenhage_, or, abbreviated, _den Haag_; in
+Fr. _La Haye_; and in Late Lat. _Haga Comitis_), the chief town of the
+province of South Holland, about 2½ m. from the sea, with a junction
+station 9½ m. by rail S.W. by S. of Leiden. Steam tramways connect it
+with the seaside villages of Scheveningen, Kykduin and 's Gravenzande,
+as well as with Delft, Wassenaar and Leiden, and it is situated on a
+branch of the main canal from Rotterdam to Amsterdam. Pop. (1900),
+212,211. The Hague is the chief town of the province, the usual
+residence of the court and diplomatic bodies, and the seat of the
+government, the states-general, the high council of the Netherlands, the
+council of state, the chamber of accounts and various other
+administrative bodies. The characteristics of the town are quite in
+keeping with its political position; it is as handsome as it is
+fashionable, and was rightly described by de Amicis in his _Olanda_ as
+half Dutch, half French. The Hague has grown very largely in modern
+times, especially on its western side, which is situated on the higher
+and more sandy soil, the south-eastern half of the town comprising the
+poorer and the business quarters. The main features in a plan of the
+town are its fine streets and houses and extensive avenues and
+well-planted squares; while, as a city, the neighbourhood of an
+attractive seaside resort, combined with the advantages and importance
+of a large town, and the possession of beautiful and wooded
+surroundings, give it a distinction all its own.
+
+The medieval-looking group of government buildings situated in the
+Binnenhof (or "inner court"), their backs reflected in the pretty sheet
+of water called the Vyver, represent both historically and
+topographically the centre of the Hague. On the opposite side of the
+Vyver lies the parallelogram formed by the fine houses and magnificent
+avenue of trees of the Lange Voorhout, the Kneuterdyk and the Vyverburg,
+representing the fashionable kernel of the city. Close by lies the
+entrance to the Haagsche Bosch, or the wood, on one side of which is
+situated the deer-park, and a little beyond on the other the zoological
+gardens (1862). Away from the Lange Voorhout the fine Park Straat
+stretches to the "1813 Plein" or square, in the centre of which rises the
+large monument (1869) by Jaquet commemorating the jubilee of the
+restoration of Dutch independence in 1813. Beyond this is the Alexander
+Veld, used as a military drill ground, and close by is the entrance to
+the beautiful road called the Scheveningensche Weg, which leads through
+the "little woods" to Scheveningen. Parallel to the Park Straat is the
+busy Noordeinde, in which is situated the royal palace. The palace was
+purchased by the States in 1595, rebuilt by the stadtholder William III.,
+and extended by King William I. in the beginning of the 19th century. In
+front of the building is an equestrian statue of William I. of Orange by
+Count Nieuerkerke (1845), and behind are the gardens and extensive
+stables. The Binnenhof, which has been already mentioned, was once
+surrounded by a moat, and is still entered through ancient gateways. The
+oldest portion was founded in 1249 by William II., count of Holland,
+whose son, Florens V., enlarged it and made it his residence. Several
+centuries later the stadtholders also lived here. The fine old hall of
+the knights, built by Florens, and now containing the archives of the
+home office, is the historic chamber in which the states of the
+Netherlands abjured their allegiance to Philip II. of Spain, and in front
+of which the grey-headed statesman Johan van Oldenbarneveldt was executed
+in 1619. Close by on the one side are the courts of justice, and on the
+other the first and second chambers of the states-general, containing
+some richly painted ceilings and the portraits of various stadtholders.
+Government offices occupy the remainder of the buildings, and in the
+middle of the court is a fountain surmounted by a statuette of William
+II., count of Holland (1227-1256). In the adjoining Buitenhof, or "outer
+court," is a statue of King William II. (d. 1849), and the old Gevangen
+Poort, or prison gate (restored 1875), consisting of a tower and gateway.
+It was here that the brothers Cornelis and Jan de Witt were killed by the
+mob in 1672. On the opposite side of the Binnenhof is the busy square
+called the Plein, where all the tram-lines meet. Round about it are the
+buildings of the ministry of justice and other government buildings,
+including one to contain the state archives, the large club-house of the
+Witte Societeit, and the Mauritshuis. The Mauritshuis was built in
+1633-1644 by Count John Maurice of Nassau, governor of Brazil, and
+contains the famous picture gallery of the Hague. The nucleus of this
+collection was formed by the princes of Orange, notably by the
+stadtholder William V. (1748-1806). King William I. did much to restore
+the losses caused by the removal of many of the pictures during the
+French occupation. Other artistic collections in the Hague are the
+municipal museum (_Gernsente_ Museum), containing paintings by both
+ancient and modern Dutch artists, and some antiquities; the fine
+collection of pictures in the Steengracht gallery, belonging to Jonkheer
+Steengracht; the museum Meermanno-Westreenianum, named after Count
+Meermann and Baron Westreenen (d. 1850), containing some interesting MSS.
+and specimens of early typography and other curiosities; and the Mesdag
+Museum, containing the collection of the painter H. W. Mesdag (b. 1831)
+presented by him to the state. The royal library (1798) contains upwards
+of 500,000 volumes, including some early illuminated MSS., a valuable
+collection of coins and medals and some fine antique gems. In addition to
+the royal palace already mentioned, there are the palaces of the
+queen-dowager, of the prince of Orange (founded about 1720 by Count Unico
+of Wassenaar Twiekels) and of the prince von Wied, dating from 1825, and
+containing some good early Dutch and Flemish masters. There are numerous
+churches of various denominations in the Hague as well as an English
+church, a Russian chapel and two synagogues, one of which is Portuguese.
+The Groote Kerk of St James (15th and 16th centuries) has a fine vaulted
+interior, and contains some old stained glass, a carved wooden pulpit
+(1550), a large organ and interesting sepulchral monuments, and some
+escutcheons of the knights of the Golden Fleece, placed here after the
+chapter of 1456. The Nieuwe Kerk, or new church (first half 17th
+century), contains the tombs of the brothers De Witt and of the
+philosopher Spinoza. Spinoza is further commemorated by a monument in
+front of the house in which he died in 1677. The picturesque town hall
+(built in 1565 and restored and enlarged in 1882) contains a historical
+picture gallery. The principal other buildings are the provincial
+government offices, the royal school of music, the college of art, the
+large building (1874) of the society for arts and sciences, the
+ethnographical institute of the Netherlands Indies with fine library, the
+theatres, civil and military hospitals, orphanage, lunatic asylum and
+other charitable institutions; the fine modern railway station (1892),
+the cavalry and artillery and the infantry barracks, and the cannon
+foundry. The chief industries of the town are iron casting, copper and
+lead smelting, cannon founding, the manufacture of furniture and
+carriages, liqueur distilling, lithographing and printing.
+
+The Hague wood has been described as the city's finest ornament. It is
+composed chiefly of oaks and alders and magnificent avenues of gigantic
+beech-trees. Together with the Haarlem wood it is thought to be a
+remnant of the immense forest which once extended along the coast. At
+the end of one of the avenues which penetrates into it from the town is
+the large summer club-house of the Witte Societeit, under whose auspices
+concerts are given here in summer. Farther into the wood are some pretty
+little lakes, and the famous royal villa called the Huis ten Bosch, or
+"house in the wood." This villa was built by Pieter Post for the
+Princess Amelia of Solms, in memory of her husband the stadtholder,
+Frederick Henry of Orange (d. 1647), and wings were added to it by
+Prince William IV. in 1748. The chief room is the Orange Saloon, an
+octagonal hall 50 ft. high, covered with paintings by Dutch and Flemish
+artists, chiefly of incidents in the life of Prince Frederick. In this
+room the International Peace Conference had its sittings in the summer
+of 1899. The collections in the Chinese and Japanese rooms, and the
+grisailles in the dining-room painted by Jacobus de Wit (1695-1754), are
+also noteworthy.
+
+The history of the Hague is in some respects singular. In the 13th
+century it was no more than a hunting-lodge of the counts of Holland,
+and though Count Floris V. (b. 1254-1296) made it his residence and it
+thus became the seat of the supreme court of justice of Holland and the
+centre of the administration, and from the time of William of Orange
+onward the meeting-place of the states-general, it only received the
+status of a town, from King Louis Bonaparte, early in the 19th century.
+
+In the latter part of the 17th and the first half of the 18th century
+the Hague was the centre of European diplomacy. Among the many treaties
+and conventions signed here may be mentioned the treaty of the Triple
+Alliance (January 23, 1688) between England, Sweden and the Netherlands;
+the concert of the Hague (March 31, 1710) between the Emperor, England
+and Holland, for the maintenance of the neutrality of the Swedish
+provinces in Germany during the war of the northern powers against
+Sweden; the Triple Alliance (January 4, 1717) between France, England
+and Holland for the guarantee of the treaty of Utrecht; the treaty of
+peace (Feb. 17, 1717) between Spain, Savoy and Austria, by which the
+first-named acceded to the principles of the Triple Alliance; the treaty
+of peace between Holland and France (May 16, 1795); the first "Hague
+Convention," the outcome of the "peace conference" assembled on the
+initiative of the emperor Nicholas II. of Russia (July 27, 1899), and
+the series of conventions, the results of the second peace conference
+(June 15-October 18, 1907). The International court of arbitration or
+Hague Tribunal was established in 1899 (see EUROPE: _History_;
+ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL). The Palace of Peace designed to be
+completed in 1913 as the seat of the tribunal, on the Scheveningen
+avenue, is by a French architect, L. M. Cordonnier, and A. Carnegie
+contributed £300,000 towards its cost.
+
+
+
+
+HAHN, AUGUST (1792-1863), German Protestant theologian, was born on the
+27th of March 1792 at Grossosterhausen near Eisleben, and studied
+theology at the university of Leipzig. In 1819 he was nominated
+_professor extraordinarius_ of theology and pastor of Altstadt in
+Königsberg, and in 1820 received a superintendency in that city. In 1822
+he became _professor ordinarius_. In 1826 he removed as professor of
+theology to Leipzig, where, hitherto distinguished only as editor of
+Bardesanes, Marcion (_Marcion's Evangelium in seiner ursprünglichen
+Gestalt_, 1823), and Ephraem Syrus, and the joint editor of a _Syrische
+Chrestomathie_ (1824), he came into great prominence as the author of a
+treatise, _De rationalismi qui dicitur vera indole et qua cum
+naturalismo contineatur ratione_ (1827), and also of an _Offene
+Erklärung an die Evangelische Kirche zunächst in Sachsen u. Preussen_
+(1827), in which, as a member of the school of E. W. Hengstenberg, he
+endeavoured to convince the rationalists that it was their duty
+voluntarily and at once to withdraw from the national church. In 1833
+Hahn's pamphlet against K. G. Bretschneider (_Über die Lage des
+Christenthums in unserer Zeit_, 1832) having attracted the notice of
+Friedrich Wilhelm III., he was called to Breslau as theological
+professor and consistorial councillor, and in 1843 became "general
+superintendent" of the province of Silesia. He died at Breslau on the
+13th of May 1863. Though uncompromising in his "supra-naturalism," he
+did not altogether satisfy the men of his own school by his own
+doctrinal system. The first edition of his _Lehrbuch des christlichen
+Glaubens_ (1828) was freely characterized as lacking in consistency and
+as detracting from the strength of the old positions in many important
+points. Many of these defects, however, he is considered to have
+remedied in his second edition (1857). Among his other works are his
+edition of the Hebrew Bible (1833), his _Bibliothek der Symbole und
+Glaubensregeln der apostolisch-katholischen Kirche_ (1842; 2nd ed. 1877)
+and _Predigten_ (1852).
+
+His eldest son, HEINRICH AUGUST HAHN (1821-1861), after studying
+theology at Breslau and Berlin, became successively _Privatdozent_ at
+Breslau (1845), professor _ad interim_ (1846) at Königsberg on the death
+of Heinrich Hävernick, professor extraordinarius (1851) and professor
+ordinarius (1860) at Greifswald. Amongst his published works were a
+commentary on the Book of Job (1850), a translation of the Song of Songs
+(1852), an exposition of Isaiah xl.-lxvi. (1857) and a commentary on the
+Book of Ecclesiastes (1860).
+
+  See the articles in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_, and the
+  _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_.
+
+
+
+
+HAHNEMANN, SAMUEL CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1755-1843), German physician and
+founder of "homoeopathy," was born at Meissen in Saxony on the 10th of
+April 1755. He was educated at the "elector's school" of Meissen, and
+studied medicine at Leipzig and Vienna, taking the degree of M.D. at
+Erlangen in 1779. After practising in various places, he settled in
+Dresden in 1784, and thence removed to Leipzig in 1789. In the following
+year, while translating W. Cullen's _Materia medica_ into German, he was
+struck by the fact that the symptoms produced by quinine on the healthy
+body were similar to those of the disordered states it was used to cure.
+He had previously felt dissatisfied with the state of the science of
+medicine, and this observation led him to assert the truth of the "law of
+similars," _similia similibus curantur_ or _curentur_--i.e. diseases are
+cured (or should be treated) by those drugs which produce symptoms
+similar to them in the healthy. He promulgated his new principle in a
+paper published in 1796 in C. W. Hufeland's _Journal_, and four years
+later, convinced that drugs in much smaller doses than were generally
+employed effectually exerted their curative powers, he advanced his
+doctrine of their potentization or dynamization. In 1810 he published his
+chief work, _Organon der rationellen Heilkunde_, containing an exposition
+of his system, which he called homoeopathy (q.v.), and in the following
+years appeared the six volumes of his _Reine Arzneimittellehre_, which
+detailed the symptoms produced by "proving" a large number of drugs, i.e.
+by systematically administering them to healthy subjects. In 1821 the
+hostility of established interests, and especially of the apothecaries,
+whose services were not required under his system, forced him to leave
+Leipzig, and at the invitation of the grand-duke of Anhalt-Cöthen he went
+to live at Cöthen. Fourteen years later he removed to Paris, where he
+practised with great success until his death on the 2nd of July 1843.
+Statues were erected to his memory at Leipzig in 1851 and at Cöthen in
+1855. He also wrote, in addition to the works already mentioned,
+_Fragmenta de viribus medicamentorum positivis_ (1805) and _Die
+chronischen Krankheiten_ (1828-1830).
+
+  See the article HOMOEOPATHY; also Albrecht, _Hahnemann's Leben und
+  Werken_ (Leipzig, 1875); Bradford, _Hahnemann's Life and Letters_
+  (Philadelphia, 1895).
+
+
+
+
+HAHN-HAHN, IDA, COUNTESS VON (1805-1880), German author, was born at
+Tressow, in Mecklenburg-Schwerin, on the 22nd of June 1805, daughter of
+Graf (Count) Karl Friedrich von Hahn (1782-1857), well known for his
+enthusiasm for the stage, upon which he squandered a large portion of
+his fortune. She married in 1826 her wealthy cousin Count Adolf von
+Hahn-Hahn. With him she had an extremely unhappy life, and in 1829 her
+husband's irregularities led to a divorce. The countess travelled,
+produced some volumes of poetry indicating true lyrical feeling, and in
+1838 appeared as a novelist with _Aus der Gesellschaft_, a title which,
+proving equally applicable to her subsequent novels, was retained as
+that of a series, the book originally so entitled being renamed _Ida
+Schönholm_. For several years the countess continued to produce novels
+bearing a certain subjective resemblance to those of George Sand, but
+less hostile to social institutions, and dealing almost exclusively with
+aristocratic society. The author's patrician affectations at length drew
+upon her the merciless ridicule of Fanny Lewald in a parody of her style
+entitled _Diogena_ (1847), and this and the revolution of 1848 together
+seem to have co-operated in inducing her to embrace the Roman Catholic
+religion in 1850. She justified her step in a polemical work entitled
+_Von Babylon nach Jerusalem_ (1851), which elicited a vigorous reply
+from H. Abeken. In 1852 she retired into a convent at Angers, which she,
+however, soon left, taking up her residence at Mainz where she founded a
+nunnery, in which she lived without joining the order, and continued her
+literary labours. For many years her novels were the most popular works
+of fiction in aristocratic circles; many of her later publications,
+however, passed unnoticed as mere party manifestoes. Her earlier works
+do not deserve the neglect into which they have fallen. If their
+sentimentalism is sometimes wearisome, it is grounded on genuine feeling
+and expressed with passionate eloquence. _Ulrich_ and _Gräfin Faustine_,
+both published in 1841, mark the culmination of her power; but
+_Sigismund Forster_ (1843), _Cecil_ (1844), _Sibylle_ (1846) and _Maria
+Regina_ (1860) also obtained considerable popularity. She died at Mainz
+on the 12th of January 1880.
+
+  Her collected works, _Gesammelte Werke_, with an introduction by O.
+  von Schaching, were published in two series, 45 volumes in all
+  (Regensburg, 1903-1904). See H. Keiter, _Gräfin Hahn-Hahn_ (Würzburg,
+  undated); P. Haffner, _Gräfin Ida Hahn-Hahn_, _eine psychologische
+  Studie_ (Frankfort, 1880); A. Jacoby, _Ida Gräfin Hahn-Hahn_ (Mainz,
+  1894).
+
+
+
+
+HAI (939-1038), Jewish Talmudical scholar, was born in 939. He was
+educated by his father Sherira, gaon of Pombeditha (Pumbedita), whom he
+afterwards assisted in his work. They were cast into prison for a short
+time by the caliph Qadir, and subsequently on Sherira's death Hai was
+appointed gaon in his place (998). This office he held till his death on
+the 28th of March 1038. He is famous chiefly for his answers to problems
+of ritual and civil law. He composed important treatises on Talmudic law
+and the _Mishnah_; many poems are also attributed to him on doubtful
+authority. In his _responsa_ he laid stress on custom and tradition
+provided no infringement of the law were involved, and was essentially
+conservative in theology. He had considerable knowledge not only of
+religious movements within the Jewish body, but also of Mahommedan
+theology and controversial method, and frequently consulted theologians
+of other beliefs.
+
+  See Steinschneider, _Hebr. Übersetz_. p. 910, and article in _Jewish
+  Encyclopedia_, vi. 153.
+
+
+
+
+HAIBAK, a town and khanate of Afghan Turkestan. The valley of Haibak,
+which is 3100 ft. above sea level, is fertile and richly cultivated. The
+town, which is famed in Persian legend, consists now of only a couple of
+streets, containing many Hindu shops and a small garrison. The
+inhabitants call themselves Jagatais, a Turki race, though now generally
+mixed with Tajiks and speaking Persian. In the neighbourhood of Haibak
+are some very typical Buddhist ruins. Haibak derives its importance from
+its position on the main line of communication between Kabul and Afghan
+Turkestan.
+
+
+
+
+HAIDA, a tribe of North American Indians of Skittagetan stock. They
+still occupy their original home, the Queen Charlotte islands, British
+Columbia. They are skilful seamen, making long fishing expeditions in
+cedarwood canoes. They are noted for their carving and basket-work. They
+formerly made raids on the coast tribes. Slavery was hereditary, the
+slaves being prisoners of war. The population, some 7000 in the middle
+of the 19th century, is now reduced to a few hundreds.
+
+  See _Handbook of American Indians_ (Washington, 1907). For "Haida
+  Texts and Myths," see _Bull. 29 Smithsonian Institution Bureau Amer.
+  Ethnol._ (1905).
+
+
+
+
+HAIDINGER, WILHELM KARL, RITTER VON (1795-1871), Austrian mineralogist,
+geologist and physicist, was born at Vienna on the 5th of February 1795.
+His father, Karl Haidinger, contributed largely to the development of
+mineralogical science in the latter half of the 18th century. Having
+studied at the normal school of St Anne, and attended classes at the
+university, Wilhelm, at the age of seventeen, joined Professor F. Mohs
+at Gratz, and five years later accompanied the professor to Freiberg on
+the transfer of his labours to the mining academy of that town.
+
+In 1822 Haidinger visited France and England with Count Breunner, and,
+journeying northward, took up his abode in Edinburgh. He translated into
+English, with additions of his own, Mohs's _Grundriss der Mineralogie_,
+published at Edinburgh in three volumes under the title _Treatise on
+Mineralogy_ (1825). After a tour in northern Europe, including the
+Scandinavian mining districts, he undertook the scientific direction of
+the porcelain works at Elbogen, belonging to his brothers. In 1840 he
+was appointed counsellor of mines (Bergrat) at Vienna in the place of
+Professor Mohs, a post which included the charge of the imperial cabinet
+of minerals. He devoted himself to the rearrangement and enrichment of
+the collections, and the museum became the first in Europe. Shortly
+after (1843) Haidinger commenced a series of lectures on mineralogy,
+which was given to the world under the title _Handbuch der bestimmenden
+Mineralogie_ (Vienna, 1845; tables, 1846). On the establishment of the
+imperial geological institute, he was chosen director (1849); and this
+important position he occupied for seventeen years. He was elected a
+member of the imperial board of agriculture and mines, and a member of
+the imperial academy of sciences of Vienna. He organized the society of
+the Freunde der Naturwissenschaften. As a physicist Haidinger ranked
+high, and he was one of the most active promoters of scientific progress
+in Austria. He was the discoverer of the interesting optical appearances
+which have been called after him "Haidinger's brushes." Knighted in
+1865, the following year he retired to his estate at Dornbach near
+Vienna, where he died on the 19th of March 1871.
+
+  In addition to the works already named, Haidinger published
+  _Anfangsgründe der Mineralogie_ (Leipzig, 1829); _Geognostische
+  Übersichtskarte der österreich. Monarchie_ (Vienna, 1847);
+  _Bemerkungen über die Anordnung der kleinsten Theilchen in
+  Christallen_ (Vienna, 1853); _Interferenzlinien am Glimmer_ (Vienna,
+  1855); _Vergleichungen von Augit und Amphibol_ (Vienna, 1855). He also
+  edited the _Naturwissenschaftliche Abhandlungen_ (Vienna, 1847); the
+  _Berichte über die Mittheilungen von Freunden der Naturwissenschaften
+  in Wien_ (Vienna, 1847-1851); and the _Jahrbuch_ of the Vienna K. K.
+  Geologische Reichsanstalt (1850), &c. Some of his papers will be found
+  in the _Transactions_ of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (vol. x.) and
+  of the Wernerian Society (1822-1823), _Edinburgh Phil. Journal,
+  Brewster's Journal of Science_, and _Poggendorff's Annalen_.
+       (H. B. Wo.)
+
+
+
+
+HAIDUK (also written _Hayduk, Heiduc, Heyduke_ and _Heyduque_), a term
+which appears originally to have meant "robber" or "brigand," a sense it
+retains in Servia and some other parts of the Balkan Peninsula. It is
+probably derived from the Turkish _haidud_, "marauder," but its origin
+is not absolutely certain. Most of the European races with which the
+Turks came into close contact during the 15th and 16th centuries seem to
+have adopted it as a loan-word, and it appears in Magyar as _hajdú_
+(plural _hajduk_), in Serbo-Croatian, Rumanian, Polish and [)C]ech as
+_hajduk_, in Bulgarian as _hajdutin_ and in Greek as [Greek:
+chaintoutês]. By the beginning of the 17th century its use had spread
+north and west as far as Sweden and Great Britain. In Hungary it was
+applied to a class of mercenary foot-soldiers of Magyar stock. In 1605
+these haiduks were rewarded for their fidelity to the Protestant party
+(see HUNGARY: _History_) with titles of nobility and territorial rights
+over a district situated on the left bank of the river Theiss, known
+thenceforward as the Haiduk region. This was enlarged in 1876 and
+converted into the county of Hajdú (Ger. _Hajduken_). _Hajdú_ is also a
+common prefix in Hungarian place-names, e.g. Hajdú-Szoboszló,
+Hajdú-Námás. In Austria-Hungary, Germany, Poland, Sweden and some other
+countries, _haiduk_ came to mean an attendant in a court of law, or a
+male servant, dressed in Hungarian semi-military costume. It is also
+occasionally used as a synonym for "footman" or "lackey."
+
+
+
+
+HAIFA, a town of Palestine at the foot of Mt. Carmel, on the south of
+the Bay of Acre. It represents the classical Sycaminum, but the present
+town is entirely modern. It has developed since about 1890 into an
+important port, and is connected by railway with Damascus. The
+population is estimated at 12,000 (Moslems 6000, Christians 4000, Jews
+1500, Germans 500; the last belong for the greater part to the Unitarian
+sect of the "Templars," who have colonies also at Jaffa and Jerusalem).
+The exports (grain and oil) were valued at £178,738 in 1900. Much of the
+trade that formerly went to Acre has been attracted to Haifa. This port
+is the best natural harbour on the Palestine coast.
+
+
+
+
+HAIK (an Arabic word, from _hak_, to weave), a piece of cloth, usually
+of coarse hand-woven wool, worn by Arabs, Moors and other Mahommedan
+peoples. It is generally 6 to 6½ yds. long, and about 2 broad. It is
+either striped or plain, and is worn equally by both sexes, usually as
+an outer covering; but it is often the only garment of the poorer
+classes. By women the "haik" is arranged to cover the head and, in the
+presence of men, is held so as to conceal the face. A thin "haik" of
+silk, like a veil, is used by brides at their marriage.
+
+
+
+
+HAIL (O. Eng. _hægl_ and _hagol_,[1] cf. the cognate Teutonic _hagel_,
+as in German, Dutch, Swedish, &c.; the Gr. [Greek: kachlêx], pebble, is
+probably allied), the name for rounded masses or single pellets of ice
+falling from the clouds in a shower. True hail has a concentric
+structure caused by the frozen particles of moisture first descending
+into a warm cloud, whence they are carried upwards on an ascending
+current of heated air into a cold stratum where the fresh coating of
+water vapour deposited in the cloud is frozen. The hailstone descends
+again, receives a fresh coating, is carried up once more, refrozen, and
+again descends. Thus the hailstone grows until the current is no longer
+strong enough to support it when it falls to the ground. At times masses
+of hail are frozen together, and a very sudden cooling will sometimes
+result in the formation of ragged masses of ice that fall with
+disastrous results. Hail must be distinguished from the frozen snow,
+"soft-hail" or "graupel," that often falls at the rear of a spring
+cyclone, since true hail is almost entirely a summer phenomenon, and
+falls most frequently in thunderstorms which are produced under the
+conditions that are favourable to the formation of hail, i.e. great
+heat, a still atmosphere, the production of strong local convection
+currents in consequence, and the passage of a cold upper drift.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] "Hail," a call of greeting or salutation, a shout to attract
+    attention, must, of course, be distinguished. This word represents
+    the Old Norwegian _heill_, prosperity, cognate with O. Eng. _hal_,
+    whence "hale," "whole," and _hæl_, whence "health," "heal."
+
+
+
+
+HAILES, DAVID DALRYMPLE, LORD (1726-1792), Scottish lawyer and
+historian, was born at Edinburgh on the 28th of October 1726. His
+father, Sir James Dalrymple, Bart., of Hailes, in the county of
+Haddington, auditor-general of the exchequer of Scotland, was a grandson
+of James, first Viscount Stair; and his mother, Lady Christian Hamilton,
+was a daughter of Thomas, 6th earl of Haddington. David was the eldest
+of sixteen children. He was educated at Eton, and studied law at
+Utrecht, being intended for the Scottish bar, to which he was admitted
+shortly after his return to Scotland in 1748. As a pleader he attained
+neither high distinction nor very extensive practice, but he rapidly
+established a well-deserved reputation for sound knowledge, unwearied
+application and strict probity; and in 1766 he was elevated to the
+bench, when he assumed the title of Lord Hailes. Ten years later he was
+appointed a lord of justiciary. He died on the 29th of November 1792. He
+was twice married, and had a daughter by each wife. The baronetcy to
+which he had succeeded passed to the son of his brother John, provost of
+Edinburgh. Another brother was Alexander Dalrymple (1737-1808), the
+first admiralty hydrographer, who distinguished himself in the East
+India Company's service and as a geographer. Lord Hailes's younger
+daughter married Sir James Fergusson; and their grandson, Sir Charles
+Dalrymple, 1st Bart. (cr. 1887), M.P. for Bute from 1868 to 1885,
+afterwards came into Lord Hailes's estate and took his family name.
+
+Lord Hailes's most important contribution to literature was the _Annals
+of Scotland_, of which the first volume, "From the accession of Malcolm
+III., surnamed Canmore, to the accession of Robert I.," appeared in
+1776, and the second, "From the accession of Robert I., surnamed Bruce,
+to the accession of the house of Stewart," in 1779. It is, as Dr Johnson
+justly described this work at the time of its appearance, a "Dictionary"
+of carefully sifted facts, which tells all that is wanted and all that
+is known, but without any laboured splendour of language or affected
+subtlety of conjecture. The other works of Lord Hailes include
+_Historical Memoirs concerning the Provincial Councils of the Scottish
+Clergy_ (1769); _An Examination of some of the Arguments for the High
+Antiquity of Regiam Majestatem_ (1769); three volumes entitled _Remains
+of Christian Antiquity_ ("Account of the Martyrs of Smyrna and Lyons in
+the Second Century," 1776; "The Trials of Justin Martyr, Cyprian, &c.,"
+1778; "The History of the Martyrs of Palestine, translated from
+Eusebius," 1780); _Disquisitions concerning the Antiquities of the
+Christian Church_ (1783); and editions or translations of portions of
+Lactantius, Tertullian and Minucius Felix. In 1786 he published _An
+Inquiry into the Secondary Causes which Mr Gibbon has assigned for the
+Rapid Growth of Christianity_ (Dutch translation, Utrecht, 1793), one of
+the most respectable of the very many replies which were made to the
+famous 15th and 16th chapters of the _Decline and Fall of the Roman
+Empire_.
+
+A "Memoir" of Lord Hailes is prefixed to the 1808 reprint of his
+_Inquiry into the Secondary Causes_.
+
+
+
+
+HAILSHAM, a market-town in the Eastbourne parliamentary division of
+Sussex, England, 54 m. S.S.E. from London by the London, Brighton &
+South Coast railway. Pop. (1901), 4197. The church of St Mary is
+Perpendicular. The picturesque Augustinian priory of Michelham lies 2 m.
+W. by the Cuckmere river; it is altered into a dwelling house, but
+retains a gate-house, crypt and other portions of Early English date.
+There was also a Premonstratensian house at Otham, 3 m. S., but the
+remains are scanty. Hailsham has a considerable agricultural trade, and
+manufactures of rope and matting are carried on.
+
+
+
+
+HAINAN, or, as it is usually called in Chinese, _K'iung-chow-fu_, a
+large island belonging to the Chinese province of Kwang-tung, and
+situated between the Chinese Sea and the Gulf of Tong-king from 20° 8´
+to 17° 52´ N., and from 108° 32´ to 111° 15´ E. It measures 160 m. from
+N.E. to S.W., and the average breadth is about 90 m. The area is
+estimated at from 1200 to 1400 sq. m., or two-thirds the size of Sicily.
+From the peninsula of Lei-chow on the north it is separated by the
+straits of Hainan, which have a breadth of 15 or 20 m.
+
+With the exception of a considerable area in the north, and broad tracts
+on the north-east and north-west sides, the whole island is occupied by
+jungle-covered mountains, with rich valleys between. The central range
+bears the name of Li-mou shan or Wu-tchi shan (the Five-Finger
+Mountain), and attains a height of 6000 or 7000 ft. Its praises are
+celebrated in a glowing ode by Ch'iu, a native poet. The island appears
+to be well watered, and some of its rivers are not without importance as
+possible highways of commerce; but the details of its hydrography are
+very partially ascertained. A navigable channel extends in an irregular
+curve from the bay of Hoi-how (Hai-K'ow) in the north to Tan-chow on the
+west coast. Being exposed to the winter monsoon, the northern parts of
+the island enjoy much the same sort of temperate climate as the
+neighbouring provinces of the mainland, but in the southern parts,
+protected from the monsoon by the mountain ranges, the climate is almost
+or entirely tropical. Snow falls so rarely that its appearance in 1684
+is reported in the native chronicles as a remarkable event. Earthquakes
+are a much more familiar phenomenon, having occurred, according to the
+same authority, in 1523, 1526, 1605, 1652, 1677, 1681, 1684, 1702, 1704,
+1725, 1742, 1816, 1817 and 1822. Excellent timber of various
+kinds--eagle-wood, rose-wood, liquidambar, &c.--is one of the principal
+products of the island, and has even been specially transported to
+Peking for imperial purposes. The coco palm flourishes freely even in
+the north, and is to be found growing in clumps with the _Pinus
+sinensis_. Rice, cotton, sugar, indigo, cinnamon, betel-nuts, sweet
+potatoes, ground-nuts and tobacco are all cultivated in varying
+quantities. The aboriginal inhabitants collect a kind of tea called
+t'ien ch'a, or celestial tea, which looks like the leaves of a wild
+camellia, and has an earthy taste when infused. Lead, silver, copper and
+iron occur in the Shi-lu shan or "stone-green-hill"; the silver at least
+was worked till 1850. Gold and lapis lazuli are found in other parts of
+the island.
+
+The ordinary cattle of Hainan are apparently a cross between the little
+yellow cow of south China and the zebu of India. Buffaloes are common,
+and in the neighbourhood of Nanlu at least they are frequently albinos.
+Horses are numerous but small. Hogs and deer are both common wild
+animals, and of the latter there are three species, _Cervus Eldi, Cervus
+hippelaphus_ and _Cervus vaginalis_. Among the birds, of which 172
+species are described by Mr Swinhoe in his paper in _The Ibis_ (1870),
+there are eagles, notably a new species _Spilornis Rutherfordi_,
+buzzards, harriers, kites, owls, goatsuckers and woodpeckers. The _Upupa
+ceylonensis_ is familiar to the natives as the "bird of the Li matrons,"
+and the _Palaeornis javanica_ as the "sugar-cane bird."
+
+Hainan forms a fu or department of the province of Kwang-tung, though
+strictly it is only a portion of the island that is under Chinese
+administration, the remainder being still occupied by unsubjugated
+aborigines. The department contains three _chow_ and ten _hien_
+districts. K'iung-chow-hien, in which the capital is situated;
+Ting-an-hien, the only inland district; Wen-ch'ang-hien, in the
+north-east of the island; Hui-t'ung-hien, Lo-hui-hien, Ling-shu-hien,
+Wan-chow, Yai-chow (the southmost of all), Kan-en-hien, Ch'ang-hwa-hien,
+Tan-chow, Lin-kao-hien and Ch'eng-mai-hien. The capital K'iung-chow-fu
+is situated in the north about 10 li (or 3 m.) from the coast on the
+river. It is a well-built compact city, and its temples and examination
+halls are in good preservation. Carved articles in coco-nuts and scented
+woods are its principal industrial product. In 1630 it was made the seat
+of a Roman Catholic mission by Benoit de Mathos, a Portuguese Jesuit,
+and the old cemetery still contains about 113 Christian graves. The port
+of K'iung-chow-fu at the mouth of the river, which is nearly dry at low
+water, is called simply Hoi-how, or in the court dialect Hai-K'ow, i.e.
+seaport. The two towns are united by a good road, along which a large
+traffic is maintained partly by coolie porters but more frequently by
+means of wheel-barrows, which serve the purpose of cabs and carts. The
+value of the trade of the port has risen from £670,600 in 1899 to
+£719,333 in 1904. In the same year 424 vessels, representing a tonnage
+of 312,554, visited the port. This trade is almost entirely with the
+British colony of Hong-Kong, with which the port is connected by small
+coasting steamers, but since 1893 it has had regular steamboat
+communication with Haiphong in Tongking. The population of K'iung-chow,
+including its shipping port of Hoi-how, is estimated at 52,000. The
+number of foreign residents in 1900 was about 30, most of them officials
+or missionaries.
+
+The inhabitants of Hainan may be divided into three classes, the Chinese
+immigrants, the civilized aborigines or Shu-li and the wild aborigines
+or Sheng-li. The Chinese were for the most part originally from Kwang-si
+and the neighbouring provinces, and they speak a peculiar dialect, of
+which a detailed account by Mr Swinhoe was given in _The Phoenix, a
+Monthly Magazine for China, &c._ (1870). The Shu-li as described by Mr
+Taintor are almost of the same stature as the Chinese, but have a more
+decided copper colour, higher cheek-bones and more angular features,
+while their eyes are not oblique. Their hair is long, straight and
+black, and their beards, if they have any, are very scanty. They till
+the soil and bring rice, fuel, timber, grass-cloth, &c., to the Chinese
+markets. The Sheng-li or Li proper, called also La, Le or Lauy, are
+probably connected with the Laos of Siam and the Lolos of China. Though
+not gratuitously aggressive, they are highly intractable, and have given
+great trouble to the Chinese authorities. Among themselves they carry on
+deadly feuds, and revenge is a duty and an inheritance. Though they are
+mainly dependent on the chase for food, their weapons are still the
+spear and the bow, the latter being made of wood and strung with bamboo.
+In marriage no avoidance of similarity of name is required. The bride's
+face is tattooed according to a pattern furnished by the bridegroom.
+Their funeral mourning consists of abstaining from drink and eating raw
+beef, and they use a wooden log for a coffin. When sick they sacrifice
+oxen. In the spring-time there is a festival in which the men and women
+from neighbouring settlements move about in gay clothing hand in hand
+and singing songs. The whole population of the island is estimated at
+about 2½ millions. At its first conquest 23,000 families were introduced
+from the mainland. In 1300 the Chinese authorities assign 166,257
+inhabitants; in 1370, 291,000; in 1617, 250,524; and in 1835, 1,350,000.
+
+It was in 111 B.C. that Lu-Po-Teh, general of the emperor Wu-ti, first
+made the island of Hainan subject to the Chinese, who divided it into
+the two prefectures, Tan-urh or Drooping Ear in the south, so-called
+from the long ears of the native "king," and Chu-yai or Pearl Shore in
+the north. During the decadence of the elder branch of the Han dynasty
+the Chinese supremacy was weakened, but in A.D. 43 the natives were led
+by the success of Ma-yuan in Tong-king to make a new tender of their
+allegiance. About this time the whole island took the name of Chu-yai.
+In A.D. 627 the name of K'iung-chow came into use. On its conquest by
+the generals of Kublai Khan in 1278 the island was incorporated with the
+western part of the province of Kwang-tung in a new satrapy, Hai-peh
+Hai-nan Tao, i.e. the circuit north of the sea and south of the sea. It
+was thus that Hai-nan-Tao, or district south of the sea or strait, came
+into use as the name of the island, which, however, has borne the
+official title of K'iung-chow-fu, probably derived from the Kiung shan
+or Jade Mountains, ever since 1370, the date of its erection into a
+department of Kwang-tung. For a long time Hainan was the refuge of the
+turbulent classes of China and the place of deportation for delinquent
+officials. It was there, for example, that Su-She or Su-Tung-po was
+banished in 1097. From the 15th to the 19th century pirates made the
+intercourse with the mainland dangerous, and in the 17th they were
+considered so formidable that merchants were allowed to convey their
+goods only across the narrow Hainan Strait. Since 1863 the presence of
+English men-of-war has put an end to this evil. According to the treaty
+of Tientsin, the capital K'iung-chow and the harbour Hoi-how (Hai-Kow)
+were opened to European commerce; but it was not till 1876 that
+advantage was taken of the permission.
+
+
+
+
+HAINAU (officially HAYNAU), a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
+of Silesia, on the Schnelle Deichsa and the railway from Breslau to
+Dresden, 12 m. N.W. of Liegnitz. Pop. 10,500. It has an Evangelical and
+a Roman Catholic church, manufactories of gloves, patent leather, paper,
+metal ware and artificial manures, and a considerable trade in cereals.
+Near Hainau the Prussian cavalry under Blücher inflicted a defeat on the
+French rearguard on the 26th of May 1813.
+
+
+
+
+HAINAUT (Flem. _Henegouwen_, Ger. _Hennegau_), a province of Belgium
+formed out of the ancient county of Hainaut. Modern Hainaut is famous as
+containing the chief coal and iron mines of Belgium. There are about
+150,000 men and women employed in the mines, and about as many more in
+the iron and steel works of the province. About 1880 these numbers were
+not more than half their present totals. The principal towns of Hainaut
+are Mons, the capital, Charleroi, Tournai, Jumet and La Louvière. The
+province is watered by both the Scheldt and the Sambre, and is connected
+with Flanders by the Charleroi-Ghent canal. The area of the province is
+computed at 930,405 acres or 1453 sq. m. In 1904 the population was
+1,192,967, showing an average of 821 per square mile.
+
+Under the successors of Clovis Hainaut formed part, first of the kingdom
+of Metz, and then of that of Lotharingia. It afterwards became part of
+the duchy of Lorraine. The first to bear the title of count of Hainaut
+was Reginar "Long-Neck" (c. 875), who, later on, made himself master of
+the duchy of Lorraine and died in 916. His eldest son inherited Lower
+Lorraine, the younger, Reginar II., the countship of Hainaut, which
+remained in the male line of his descendants, all named Reginar, until
+the death of Reginar V. in 1036. His heiress, Richildis, married _en
+secondes noces_ Baldwin VI. of Flanders, and, by him, became the
+ancestress of the Baldwin (VI. of Hainaut) who in 1204 was raised by the
+Crusaders to the empire of Constantinople. The emperor Baldwin's elder
+daughter Jeanne brought the countship of Hainaut to her husbands
+Ferdinand of Portugal (d. 1233) and Thomas of Savoy (d. 1259). On her
+death in 1244, however, it passed to her sister Margaret, on whose death
+in 1279 it was inherited by her grandson, John of Avesnes, count of
+Holland (d. 1304). The countship of Hainaut remained united with that of
+Holland during the 14th and 15th centuries. It was under the counts
+William I. "the Good" (1304-1337), whose daughter Philippa married
+Edward III. of England, and William II. (1337-1345) that the communes of
+Hainaut attained great political importance. Margaret, who succeeded her
+brother William II. in 1345, by her marriage with the emperor Louis IV.
+brought Hainaut with the rest of her dominions to the house of
+Wittelsbach. Finally, early in the 15th century, the countess Jacqueline
+was dispossessed by Philip the Good of Burgundy, and Hainaut
+henceforward shared the fate of the rest of the Netherlands.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The _Chronicon Hanoniense_ or _Chronica Honnoniae_ of
+  Giselbert of Mons (d. 1223-1225), chancellor of Count Baldwin V.,
+  covering the period between 1040 and 1195, is published in Pertz,
+  _Monum. Germ._ (Hanover, 1840, &c.). The _Chronicon Hanoniense_,
+  ascribed to Baldwin, count of Avesnes (d. 1289), and written between
+  1278 and 1281, was published under the title _Hist. genealogica
+  comitum Hannoniae_, &c., at Antwerp (1691 and 1693) and Brussels
+  (1722). The Annals of Jacques de Guise (b. 1334; d. 1399) were
+  published by de Fortia d'Urban under the title, _Histoire de Hainault
+  par Jacques de Guyse_, in 19 vols. (Paris, 1826-1838); C. Delacourt,
+  "Bibliographie de l'hist. du Hainaut," in the _Annales du cercle
+  archéologique de Mons_, vol. v. (Mons, 1864); T. Bernier, _Dict.
+  géograph. historique, &c., de Hainault_ (Mons, 1891). See also Ulysse
+  Chevalier, _Répertoire des sources_ s.v.
+
+
+
+
+HAINBURG, or HAIMBURG, a town of Austria, in Lower Austria, 38 m. E.S.E
+of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900), 5134. It is situated on the Danube, only
+2½ m. from the Hungarian frontier, and since the fire of 1827 Hainburg
+has been much improved, being now a handsomely built town. It has one of
+the largest tobacco manufactories in Austria, employing about 2000
+hands, and a large needle factory. It occupies part of the site of the
+old Celtic town Carnuntum (q.v.). It is still surrounded by ancient
+walls, and has a gate guarded by two old towers. There are numerous
+Roman remains, among which may be mentioned the altar and tower at the
+town-house, on the latter of which is a statue, said to be of Attila. A
+Roman aqueduct is still used to bring water to the town. On the
+neighbouring Hainberg is an old castle, built of Roman remains, which
+appears in German tradition under the name of Heimburc; it was wrested
+from the Hungarians in 1042 by the emperor Henry III. At the foot of the
+same hill is a castle of the 12th century, where Ottakar of Bohemia was
+married to Margaret of Austria in 1252; earlier it was the residence of
+the dukes of Babenberg. Outside the town, on an island in the Danube, is
+the ruined castle of Röthelstein or Rothenstein, held by the Knights
+Templars. Hainburg was besieged by the Hungarians in 1477, was captured
+by Matthias Corvinus in 1482, and was sacked and its inhabitants
+massacred by the Turks in 1683.
+
+
+
+
+HAINICHEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, on the Kleine
+Striegis, 15 m. N.E. of Chemnitz, on the railway to Rosswein. Pop.
+(1905), 7752. It has two Evangelical churches, a park, and commercial
+and technical schools. Hainichen is a place of considerable industry.
+Its chief manufacture is that of flannels, baize, and similar fabrics;
+indeed it may be called the centre of this industry in Germany. The
+special whiteness and excellence of the flannel made in Hainichen are
+due to the peculiar nature of the water used in the manufacture. There
+are also large dye-works and bleaching establishments. Hainichen is the
+birthplace of Gellert, to whose memory a bronze statue was erected in
+the market-place in 1865. The Gellert institution for the poor was
+erected in 1815.
+
+
+
+
+HAI-PHONG, a seaport of Tongking, French Indo-China, on the Cua-Cam, a
+branch of the Song-koi (Red river) delta. The population numbers between
+21,000 and 22,000, of whom 12,500 are Annamese, 7500 Chinese (attracted
+by the rice trade of the port) and 1200 Europeans. It is situated about
+20 m. from the Gulf of Tongking and 58 m. E. by S. of Hanoi, with which
+it communicates by river and canal and by railway. It is the second
+commercial port of French Indo-China, is a naval station, and has
+government and private ship-building yards. The harbour is accessible at
+all times to vessels drawing 19 to 20 ft., but is obstructed by a bar.
+Hai-phong is the seat of a resident who performs the functions of mayor,
+and the residency is the chief building of the town. A civil tribunal, a
+tribunal of commerce and a branch of the Bank of Indo-China are also
+among its institutions. It is the headquarters of the river steamboat
+service (_Messageries fluviales_) of Tongking, which plies as far as
+Lao-kay on the Song-koi, to the other chief towns of Tongking and
+northern Annam, and also to Hong-kong. Cotton-spinning and the
+manufacture of cement are carried on.
+
+
+
+
+HAIR (a word common to Teutonic languages), the general term for the
+characteristic outgrowth of the epidermis forming the coat of mammals.
+The word is also applied by analogy to the filamentous outgrowths from
+the body of insects, &c., plants, and metaphorically to anything of like
+appearance.
+
+For anatomy, &c. of animal hair see SKIN AND EXOSKELETON; FIBRES and
+allied articles; FUR, and LEATHER.
+
+_Anthropology._--The human hair has an important place among the
+physical criteria of race. While its general structure and quantity vary
+comparatively little, its length in individuals and relatively in the
+two sexes, its form, its colour, its general consistency and the
+appearance under the microscope of its transverse section show
+persistent differences in the various races. It is the persistence of
+these differences and specially in regard to its colour and texture,
+which has given to hair its ethnological importance. So obvious a racial
+differentiation had naturally long ago attracted the attention of
+anthropologists. But it was not until the 19th century that microscopic
+examination showed the profound difference in structure between the hair
+characteristic of the great divisions of mankind. It was in 1863 that Dr
+Pruner-Bey read a paper before the Paris Anthropological Society
+entitled "On the Human Hair as a Race Character, examined by aid of the
+Microscope." This address established the importance of hair as a racial
+criterion. He demonstrated that the structure of the hair is
+threefold:--
+
+(1) Short and crisp, generally termed "woolly," elliptical or
+kidney-shaped in section, with no distinguishable medulla or pith. Its
+colour is almost always jet black, and it is characteristic of all the
+black races except the Australians and aborigines of India. This type of
+hair has two varieties. When the hairs are relatively long and the
+spiral of the curls large, the head has the appearance of being
+completely covered, as with some of the Melanesian races and most of the
+negroes. Haeckel has called this "_eriocomous_" or "woolly" proper. In
+some negroid peoples, however, such as the Hottentots and Bushmen, the
+hair grows in very short curls with narrow spirals and forms little
+tufts separated by spaces which appear bare. The head looks as if it
+were dotted over with pepper-seed, and thus this hair has gained the
+name of "peppercorn-growth." Haeckel has called it "_lophocomous_" or
+"crested." Most negroes have this type of hair in childhood and, even
+when fully grown, signs of it around the temples. The space between each
+tuft is not bald, as was at one time generally assumed. The hair grows
+uniformly over the head, as in all races.
+
+2. Straight, lank, long and coarse, round or nearly so in section, with
+the medulla or pith easily distinguishable, and almost without exception
+black. This is the hair of the yellow races, the Chinese, Mongols and
+Indians of the Americas.
+
+3. Wavy and curly, or smooth and silky, oval in section, with medullary
+tube but no pith. This is the hair of Europeans, and is mainly fair,
+though black, brown, red or towy varieties are found.
+
+There is a fourth type of hair describable as "frizzy." It is easily
+distinguishable from the Asiatic and European types, but not from the
+negroid wool. It is always thick and black, and is characteristic of the
+Australians, Nubians, and certain of the Mulattos. Generally hair curls
+in proportion to its flatness. The rounder it is the stiffer and lanker.
+These extremes are respectively represented by the Papuans and the
+Japanese. Of all hair the woolly type is found to be the most
+persistent, as in the case of the Brazilian Cafusos, negro and native
+hybrids. Quatrefages quotes the case of a triple hybrid, "half negro,
+quarter Cherokee, quarter English," who had short crisp furry-looking
+hair.
+
+Wavy types of hair vary most in colour: almost the deepest hue of black
+being found side by side with the most flaxen and towy. Colour varies
+less in the lank type, and scarcely at all in the woolly. The only
+important exception to the uniform blackness of the negroid wool is to
+be found among the Wochuas, a tribe of African pigmies whose hair is
+described by Wilhelm Junker (_Travels in Africa_, iii. p. 82) as "of a
+dark, rusty brown hue." Fair hair in all its shades is frequent among
+the populations of northern Europe, but much rarer in the south.
+According to Dr John Beddoe there are sixteen blonds out of every
+hundred Scotch, thirteen out of every hundred English, and two only out
+of a hundred Italians. The percentage of brown hair is 75% among
+Spaniards, 39 among French and 16 only in Scandinavia. Among the
+straight-haired races fair hair is far rarer; it is, however, found
+among the western Finns. Among those races with frizzy hair, red is
+almost as common as among those with wavy hair. Red hair, however, is an
+individual anomaly associated ordinarily with freckles. There are no
+red-haired races.
+
+A certain correlation appears to exist between the nature of hair and
+its absolute or relative length in the two sexes. Thus straight hair is
+the longest (Chinese, Red Indians), while woolly is shortest. Wavy hair
+holds an intermediate position. In the two extremes the difference of
+length in man and woman is scarcely noticeable. In some lank-haired
+races, men's tresses are as long as women's, e.g. the Chinese pigtail,
+and the hair of Redskins which grows to the length sometimes of upwards
+of 9 ft. In the frizzy-haired peoples, men and women have equally short
+growths. Bushwomen, the female Hottentot and negresses have hair no
+longer than men's. It is only in the wavy, and now and again in the
+frizzy types, that the difference in the sexes is marked. Among European
+men the length rarely exceeds 12 to 16 in., while with women the mean
+length is between 25 and 30 in. and in some cases has been known to
+reach 6 ft. or more.
+
+The growth of hair on the body corresponds in general with that on the
+head. The hairiest races are the Australians and Tasmanians, whose heads
+are veritable mops in the thickness and unkempt luxuriance of the locks.
+Next to them are the Todas, and other hill-tribesmen of India, and the
+Hairy Ainu of Japan. Traces, too, of the markedly hairy race, now
+extinct, supposed to be the ancestor of Toda and Ainu alike, are to be
+found here and there in Europe, especially among the Russian peasantry.
+The least hairy peoples are the yellow races, the men often scarcely
+having rudimentary beards, e.g. Indians of America and the Mongols.
+Negroid peoples may be said to be intermediate, but usually incline to
+hairlessness. The wavy-haired populations hold also an intermediate
+position, but somewhat incline to hairiness. Among negroes especially no
+rule can be formulated. Bare types such as the Bushmen and western
+negroes are found contiguous to hairy types such as the inhabitants of
+Ashantee. Neither is there any rule as to baldness. From statistics
+taken in America it would seem that it is ten times less frequent among
+negroes than among whites between the ages of thirty-three and
+forty-five years, and thirty times less between twenty-one and
+thirty-two years. Among Mulattos it is more frequent than among negroes
+but less than among whites. It is rarer among Redskins than among
+negroes. The _lanugo_ or downy hairs, with which the human foetus is
+covered for some time before birth and which is mostly shed in the womb,
+and the minute hairs which cover nearly every part of the adult human
+body, may be regarded as rudimentary remains of a complete hairy
+covering in the ancestors of mankind. The Pliocene, or at all events
+Miocene precursor of man, was a furred creature. The discovery of
+Egyptian mummies six thousand years old or more has proved that this
+physical criterion remains unchanged, and that it is to-day what it was
+so many scores of centuries back. Perhaps, then, the primary divisions
+of mankind were distinguished by hair the same in texture and colour as
+that which characterizes to-day the great ethnical groups. The wavy type
+bridges the gulf between the lank and woolly types, all in turn derived
+from a common hair-covered being. In this connexion it is worth mention,
+as pointed out by P. Topinard, that though the regions occupied by the
+negroid races are the habitat of the anthropoid apes, the hair of the
+latter is real hair, not wool. Further in the eastern section of the
+dark domain, while the Papuan is still black and dolichocephalic, his
+presumed progenitor, the orang-utan, is brachycephalic with decidedly
+red hair. Thus the white races are seen to come nearest the higher apes
+in this respect, yellow next, and black farthest removed.
+
+No test has proved, on repeated examination, to be a safer one of racial
+purity than the quality of hair, and Pruner-Bey goes so far as to
+suggest that "a single hair presenting the average form characteristic
+of the race might serve to define it." At any rate a hair of an
+individual bears the stamp of his origin.
+
+  See Dr Pruner-Bey in _Mémoires de la société d'anthropologie_, ii. P.
+  A. Brown, _Classification of Mankind by the Hair_; P. Topinard,
+  _L'Homme dans la nature_ (1891), chap. vi.
+
+  _Commerce._--Hair enters into a considerable variety of manufactures.
+  Bristles are the stout elastic hairs obtained from the backs of
+  certain breeds of pigs. The finest qualities, and the greatest
+  quantities as well, are obtained from Russia, where a variety of pig
+  is reared principally on account of its bristles. The best and most
+  costly bristles are used by shoemakers, secondary qualities being
+  employed for toilet and clothes-brushes, while inferior qualities are
+  worked up into the commoner kinds of brushes used by painters and for
+  many mechanical purposes. For artists' use and for decorative
+  painting, brushes or pencils of hair from the sable, camel, badger,
+  polecat, &c., are prepared. The hair of various animals which is too
+  short for spinning into yarn is utilized for the manufacture of felt.
+  For this use the hair of rabbits, hares, beavers and of several other
+  rodents is largely employed, especially in France, in making the finer
+  qualities of felt hats. Cow hair, obtained from tanneries, is used in
+  the preparation of roofing felts, and felt for covering boilers or
+  steam-pipes, and for other similar purposes. It is also largely used
+  by plasterers for binding the mortar of the walls and roofs of houses;
+  and it is to some extent being woven up into coarse friezes,
+  horse-cloths, railway rugs and inferior blankets. The tail hair of
+  oxen is also of value for stuffing cushions and other upholstery work,
+  for which purpose, as well as for making the official wigs of law
+  officers, barristers, &c., the tail and body hair of the yak or Tibet
+  ox is also sometimes imported into Europe. The tail and mane hair of
+  horses is in great demand for various purposes. The long tail hair is
+  especially valuable for weaving into hair-cloth, mane hair and the
+  short tail hair being, on the other hand, principally prepared and
+  curled for stuffing the chairs, sofas and couches which are covered
+  with the cloth manufactured from the long hair. The horse hair used in
+  Great Britain is principally obtained from South America, Germany and
+  Russia, and its sorting, cleaning and working up into the various
+  manufactures dependent on the material are industries of some
+  importance. In addition to the purposes already alluded to, horse hair
+  is woven into crinoline for ladies' bonnets, plaited into fishing
+  lines, woven into bags for oil and cider pressers, and into straining
+  cloths for brewers, &c., and for numerous other minor uses. The
+  manufactures which arise in connexion with human hair are more
+  peculiar than important, although occasionally fashions arise which
+  cause a large demand for human hair. The fluctuations of such fashions
+  determine the value of hair; but at all times long tresses are of
+  considerable value. Grey, light, pale and auburn hair are
+  distinguished as extra colours, and command much higher prices than
+  the common shades. The light-coloured hair is chiefly obtained in
+  Germany and Austria, and the south of France is the principal source
+  of the darker shades. In the south of France the cultivation and sale
+  of heads of hair by peasant girls is a common practice; and hawkers
+  attend fairs for the special purpose of engaging in this traffic. Hair
+  5 and even 6 ft. long is sometimes obtained. Scarcely any of the "raw
+  material" is obtained in the United Kingdom except in the form of
+  ladies' "combings." Bleaching of hair by means of peroxide of hydrogen
+  is extensively practised, with the view of obtaining a supply of
+  golden locks, or of preparing white hair for mixing to match grey
+  shades; but in neither case is the result very successful. Human hair
+  is worked up into a great variety of wigs, scalps, artificial fronts,
+  frizzets and curls, all for supplementing the scanty or failing
+  resources of nature. The plaiting of human hair into articles of
+  jewellery, watch-guards, &c., forms a distinct branch of trade.
+
+
+
+
+
+HAIR-TAIL (_Trichiurus_), a marine fish belonging to the
+_Acanthopterygii scombriformes_, with a long band-like body terminating
+in a thread-like tail, and with strong prominent teeth in both jaws.
+Several species are known, of which one, common in the tropical
+Atlantic, not rarely reaches the British Islands.
+
+
+
+
+HAITI [HAÏTI, HAYTI, SAN DOMINGO, or _Hispaniola_], an island in the
+West Indies. It lies almost in the centre of the chain and, with the
+exception of Cuba, is the largest of the group. Its greatest length
+between Cape Engano on the east and Cape des Irois on the west is 407
+m., and its greatest breadth between Cape Beata on the south and Cape
+Isabella on the north 160 m. The area is 28,000 sq. m., being rather
+less than that of Ireland. From Cuba, 70 m. W.N.W., and from Jamaica,
+130 m. W.S.W., it is separated by the Windward Passage; and from Porto
+Rico, 60 m. E., by the Mona Passage. It lies between 17° 37´ and 20° 0´
+N. and 68° 20´ and 74° 28´ W. From the west coast project two
+peninsulas. The south-western, of which Cape Tiburon forms the
+extremity, is the larger. It is 150 m. long and its width varies from 20
+to 40 m. Columbus landed at Mole St Nicholas at the point of the
+north-western peninsula, which is 50 m. long, with an average breadth of
+40 m. Between these lies the Gulf of Gonaïve, a triangular bay, at the
+apex of which stands the city of Port-au-Prince. The island of Gonaïve,
+opposite the city at a distance of 27 m., divides the entrance to
+Port-au-Prince into two fine channels, and forms an excellent harbour,
+200 sq. m. In extent, the coral reefs along the coast being its only
+defect. On the north-east coast is the magnificent Bay of Samana, formed
+by the peninsula of that name, a mountain range projecting into the sea;
+its mouth is protected by a coral reef stretching 8½m. from the south
+coast. There is however, a good passage for ships, and within lies a
+safe and beautiful expanse of water 300 sq. m. in extent. Beyond Samana,
+with the exception of the poor harbour of Santo Domingo, there are no
+inlets on the east and south coasts until the Bays of Ocoa and Neyba are
+reached. The south coast of the Tiburon peninsula has good harbours at
+Jacmel, Bainet, Aquin and Les Cayes or Aux Cayes. The only inlets of any
+importance between Aux Cayes and Port-au-Prince are Jeremie and the Bay
+of Baraderes. The coast line is estimated at 1250 m.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Haiti.]
+
+  Haiti is essentially a mountainous island. Steep escarpments, leading
+  to the rugged uplands of the interior, reach almost everywhere down to
+  the shores, leaving only here and there a few strips of beach. There
+  are three fairly distinct mountain ranges, the northern, central and
+  southern, with parallel axes from E. to W.; while extensive and
+  fertile plains lie between them. The northern range usually called the
+  Sierra de Monti Cristi, extends from Cape Samana on the east to Cape
+  Fragata on the west. It has a mean elevation of 3000 ft., culminating
+  in the Loma Diego Campo (3855 ft.), near the centre of the range. The
+  central range runs from Cape Engano to Cape St Nicholas, some 400 m.
+  in an oblique direction from E. to W. Towards the centre of the island
+  it broadens and forms two distinct chains; the northern, the Sierra
+  del Cibao, constituting the backbone of Haiti; the southern curving
+  first S.W., then N.W., and reaching the sea near St Marc. In addition
+  to these there are a number of secondary crests, difficult to trace to
+  the backbone of the system, since the loftiest peaks are usually on
+  some lateral ridge. Such for instance is Loma Tina (10,300 ft.) the
+  highest elevation on the island, which rises as a spur N.W. of the
+  city of Santo Domingo. In the Sierra del Cibao, the highest summit is
+  the Pico del Yaqui (9700 ft.). The southern range runs from the Bay of
+  Neyba due W. to Cape Tiburon. Its highest points are La Selle (8900
+  ft.) and La Hotte (7400 ft.). The plain of Seybo or Los Llanos is the
+  largest of the Haitian plains. It stretches eastwards from the river
+  Ozama for 95 m. and has an average width of 16 m. It is perfectly
+  level, abundantly watered, and admirably adapted for the rearing of
+  cattle. But perhaps the grandest is the Vega Real, or Royal Plain, as
+  it was called by Columbus, which lies between the Cibao and Monti
+  Cristi ranges. It stretches from Samana Bay to Manzanillo Bay, a
+  distance of 140 m., but is interrupted in the centre by a range of
+  hills in which rise the rivers which drain it. The northern part of
+  this plain, however, is usually known as the Valley of Santiago. Most
+  of the large valleys are in a state of nature, in part savanna, in
+  part wooded, and all very fertile.
+
+  There are four large rivers. The Yaqui, rising in the Pico del Yaqui,
+  falls, after a tortuous north-westerly course through the valley of
+  Santiago, into Manzanillo Bay; its mouth is obstructed by shallows,
+  and it is navigable only for canoes. The Neyba, or South Yaqui, also
+  rises in the Pico del Yaqui and flows S. into the Bay of Neyba. In the
+  mountains within a few miles from the sources of these rivers, rise
+  the Yuna and the Artibonite. The Yuna drains the Vega Real, flows into
+  Samana Bay, and is navigable by light-draught vessels for some
+  distance from its mouth. The Artibonite flows through the valley of
+  its name into the Gulf of Gonaïve. Of the smaller rivers the Ozama, on
+  which the city of Santo Domingo stands, is the most important. The
+  greatest lake is that of Enriquillo or Xaragua, at a height of 300 ft.
+  above sea-level. It is 27 m. long by 8 m. broad and very deep. Though
+  25 m. from the sea its waters are salt, and the Haitian negroes call
+  it Etang Salé. After heavy rains it occasionally forms a continuous
+  sheet of water with another lake called Azuey, or Etang Saumatre,
+  which is 16 m. long by 4 m. broad; on these occasions the united lake
+  has a total length of 60 m. and is larger than the Lake of Geneva.
+  Farther S. is the Icoten de Limon, 5 m. long by 2 m. broad, a
+  fresh-water lake with no visible outlet. Smaller lakes are Rincon and
+  Miragoane. There are no active volcanoes, but earthquakes are not
+  infrequent.
+
+  _Geology._--The geology of Haiti is still very imperfectly known, and
+  large tracts of the island have never been examined by a geologist. It
+  is possible that the schists that have been observed in some parts of
+  the island may be of Pre-cretaceous age, but the oldest rocks in which
+  fossils have yet been found belong to the Cretaceous System, and the
+  geological sequence is very similar to that of Jamaica. Excluding the
+  schists of doubtful age, the series begins with sandstones and
+  conglomerates, containing pebbles of syenite, granite, diorite, &c.;
+  and these are overlaid by marls, clays and limestones containing
+  _Hippurites_. Then follows a series of sandstones, clays and
+  limestones with occasional seams of lignite, evidently of
+  shallow-water origin. These are referred by R. T. Hill to the Eocene,
+  and they are succeeded by chalky beds which were laid down in a deeper
+  sea and which probably correspond with the Montpelier beds of Jamaica
+  (Oligocene). Finally, there are limestones and marls composed largely
+  of corals and molluscs, which are probably of very late Tertiary or
+  Post-tertiary age. Until, however, the island has been more thoroughly
+  examined, the correlation of the various Tertiary and Post-tertiary
+  deposits must remain doubtful. Some of the beds which Hill has placed
+  in the Eocene have been referred by earlier writers to the Miocene.
+  Tippenhauer describes extensive eruptions of basalt of Post-pliocene
+  age.
+
+  _Fauna and Flora._--The fauna is not extensive. The agouti is the
+  largest wild mammal. Birds are few, excepting water-fowl and pigeons.
+  Snakes abound, though few are venomous. Lizards are numerous, and
+  insects swarm in the low parts, with tarantulas, scorpions and
+  centipedes. Caymans are found in the lakes and rivers, and the waters
+  teem with fish and other sea food. Wild cattle, hogs and dogs,
+  descendants of those brought from Europe, roam at large on the plains
+  and in the forests. The wild hogs furnish much sport to the natives,
+  who hunt them with dogs trained for the purpose.
+
+  In richness and variety of vegetable products Haiti is not excelled by
+  any other country in the world. All tropical plants and trees grow in
+  perfection, and nearly all the vegetables and fruits of temperate
+  climates may be successfully cultivated in the highlands. Among
+  indigenous products are cotton, rice, maize, tobacco, cocoa, ginger,
+  native indigo (_indigo marron_ or _sauvage_), arrowroot, manioc or
+  cassava, pimento, banana, plantain, pine-apple, artichoke, yam and
+  sweet potato. Among the important plants and fruits are sugarcane,
+  coffee, indigo (called _indigo franc_, to distinguish it from the
+  native), melons, cabbage, lucerne, guinea grass and the bread-fruit,
+  mango, caimite, orange, almond, apple, grape, mulberry and fig. Most
+  of the imported fruits have degenerated from want of care, but the
+  mango, now spread over nearly the whole island, has become almost a
+  necessary article of food; the bread-fruit has likewise become common,
+  but is not so much esteemed. Haiti is also rich in woods, especially
+  in cabinet and dye woods; among the former are mahogany, manchineel,
+  satinwood, rosewood, cinnamon wood (_Canella alba_), yellow acoma
+  (_Sideroxylon mastichodendron_) and gri-gri; and among the latter are
+  Brazil wood, logwood, fustic and sassafras. On the mountains are
+  extensive forests of pine and a species of oak; and in various parts
+  occur the locust, ironwood, cypress or Bermuda cedar, palmetto and
+  many kinds of palms.
+
+  _Climate._--Owing to the great diversity of its relief Haiti presents
+  a wider range of climate than any other part of the Antilles. The
+  yearly rainfall is abundant, averaging about 120 in., but the wet and
+  dry seasons are clearly divided. At Port-au-Prince the rainy season
+  lasts from April to October, but varies in other parts of the island,
+  so that there is never a season when rain is general. The mountain
+  districts are constantly bathed in dense mists and heavy dews, while
+  other districts are almost rainless. Owing to its sheltered position
+  the heat at Port-au-Prince is greater than elsewhere. In summer the
+  temperature there ranges between 80° and 95° F. and in winter between
+  70° and 80° F. Even in the highlands the mercury never falls below 45°
+  F. Hurricanes are not so frequent as in the Windward Isles, but
+  violent gales often occur. The prevailing winds are from the east.
+
+_The Republic of Haiti._--Haiti is divided into two parts, the negro
+republic of Haiti owning the western third of the island, while the
+remainder belongs to Santo Domingo (q.v.) or the Dominican Republic.
+Between these two governments there exists the strongest political
+antipathy.
+
+Although but a small state, with an area of only 10,204 sq. m., the
+republic of Haiti is, in many respects, one of the most interesting
+communities in the world, as it is the earliest and most successful
+example of a state peopled, and governed on a constitutional model, by
+negroes. At its head is a president assisted by two chambers, the
+members of which are elected and hold office under a constitution of
+1889. This constitution, thoroughly republican in form, is French in
+origin, as are also the laws, language, traditions and customs of Haiti.
+In practice, however, the government resolves itself into a military
+despotism, the power being concentrated in the hands of the president.
+The Haitians seem to possess everything that a progressive and civilized
+nation can desire, but corruption is spread through every portion and
+branch of the government. Justice is venal, and the police are brutal
+and inefficient. Since 1869 the Roman Catholic has been the state
+religion, but all classes of society seem to be permeated with a thinly
+disguised adherence to the horrid rites of _Voodoo_ (q.v.), although
+this has been strenuously denied. The country is divided into 5
+_départements_, 23 _arrondissements_ and 67 _communes_. Each
+_département_ and _arrondissement_ is governed by a general in the army.
+The army numbers about 7000 men, and the navy consists of a few small
+vessels. Elementary education is free, and there are some 400 primary
+schools; secondary education is mainly in the hands of the church. The
+Sisters of Charity and the Christian Brothers have schools at
+Port-au-Prince, where there is also a lyceum, a medical and a law
+school. The children of the wealthier classes are usually sent to France
+for their education. The unit of money is the _gourde_, the nominal
+value of which is the same as the American dollar, but it is subject to
+great fluctuations. The revenue is almost entirely derived from customs,
+paid both on imports and exports. There being a lack of capital and
+enterprise, the excessive customs dues produce a very depressed
+condition of trade. Imports are consequently confined to bare
+necessaries, the cheapest sorts of dry and fancy goods, matches, flour,
+salt beef and pork, codfish, lard, butter and similar provisions. The
+exports are coffee, cocoa, logwood, cotton, gum, honey, tobacco and
+sugar. The island is one of the most fertile in the world, and if it had
+an enlightened and stable government, an energetic people, and a little
+capital, its agricultural possibilities would seem to be endless.
+Communications are bad; the roads constructed during the French
+occupation have degenerated into mere bridle tracks. There is a coast
+service of steamers, maintained since 1863, and 26 ports are regularly
+visited every ten days. Foreign communication is excellent, more foreign
+steamships visiting this island than any other in the West Indies. A
+railway from Port-au-Prince runs through the Plain of Cul de Sac for 28
+m. to Manneville on the Etang Saumatre, another runs from Cap Haitien to
+La Grande Rivière, 15 m. distant.
+
+The people are almost entirely pure-blooded negroes, the mulattoes, who
+form about 10% of the population, being a rapidly diminishing and
+much-hated class. The negroes are a kindly, hospitable people, but
+ignorant and lazy. They have a passion for dancing weird African dances
+to the accompaniment of the tom-tom. Marriage is neither frequent nor
+legally prescribed, since children of looser unions are regarded by the
+state as legitimate. In the interior polygamy is frequent. The people
+generally speak a curious but not unattractive _patois_ of French
+origin, known as Creole. French is the official language, and by a few
+of the educated natives it is written and spoken in its purity. On the
+whole it must be owned that, after a century of independence and
+self-government, the Haitian people have made no progress, if they have
+not actually shown signs of retrogression. The chief towns ate
+Port-au-Prince (pop. 75,000), Cap Haitien (29,000), Les Cayes (25,000),
+Gonaïve (18,000), and Port de Paix (10,000). Jeremie was the birthplace
+of the elder Dumas. The ruins of the wonderful palace of Sans-Souci and
+of the fortress of La Ferrière, built by King Henri Christophe
+(1807-1825), can be seen near Millot, a town 9 m. inland from Cap
+Haitien. Plaisance (25,000), Gros Morne (22,000) and La Croix des
+Bouquets (20,000) are the largest towns in the interior. The entire
+population of the republic is about 1,500,000.
+
+_History._--The history of Haiti begins with its discovery by Columbus,
+who landed from Cuba at Mole St Nicholas on the 6th of December 1492.
+The natives called the country Haiti (mountainous country), and
+Quisquica (vast country). Columbus named it Espagnola (Little Spain),
+which was latinized into Hispaniola. At the time of its discovery, the
+island was inhabited by about 2,000,000 Indians, who are described by
+the Spaniards as feeble in intellect and physically defective. They
+were, however, soon exterminated, and their place was supplied (as early
+as 1512) by slaves imported from Africa, the descendants of whom now
+possess the land. Six years after its discovery Columbus had explored
+the interior of the island, founded the present capital, and had
+established flourishing settlements at Isabella, Santiago, La Vega,
+Porto Plata and Bonao. Mines had been opened up, and advances made in
+agriculture. Sugar was introduced in 1506, and in a few years became the
+staple product. About 1630, a mixed company of French and English,
+driven by the Spaniards from St Kitts, settled on the island of Tortuga,
+where they became formidable under the name of Buccaneers. They soon
+obtained a footing on the mainland of Haiti, and by the treaty of
+Ryswick, 1697, the part they occupied was ceded to France. This new
+colony, named Saint Dominique, subsequently attained a high degree of
+prosperity, and was in a flourishing state when the French Revolution
+broke out in 1789. The population was then composed of whites, free
+coloured people (mostly mulattoes) and negro slaves. The mulattoes
+demanded civil rights, up to that time enjoyed only by the whites; and
+in 1791 the National Convention conferred on them all the privileges of
+French citizens. The whites at once adopted the most violent measures,
+and petitioned the home government to reverse the decree, which was
+accordingly revoked. In August 1791, the plantation slaves broke out
+into insurrection, and the mulattoes threw in their lot with them. A
+period of turmoil followed, lasting for several years, during which both
+parties were responsible for acts of the most revolting cruelty.
+Commissioners were sent out from France with full powers to settle the
+dispute, but although in 1793 they proclaimed the abolition of slavery,
+they could effect nothing. To add further to the troubles of the colony,
+it was invaded by a British force, which, in spite of the climate and
+the opposition of the colonists, succeeded in maintaining itself until
+driven out in 1798 by Toussaint l'Ouverture. By treaty with Spain, in
+1795, France had acquired the title to the entire island.
+
+By 1801, Toussaint l'Ouverture, an accomplished negro of remarkable
+military genius, had succeeded in restoring order. He then published,
+subject to the approval of France, a form of constitutional government,
+under which he was to be governor for life. This step, however, roused
+the suspicions of Bonaparte, then first consul, who determined to reduce
+the colony and restore slavery. He sent out his brother-in-law, General
+Leclerc, with 25,000 troops; but the colonists offered a determined, and
+often ferocious, resistance. At length, wearied of the struggle, Leclerc
+proposed terms, and Toussaint, induced by the most solemn guarantees on
+the part of the French, laid down his arms. He was seized and sent to
+France, where he died in prison in 1803. The blacks, infuriated by this
+act of treachery, renewed the struggle, under Jean Jacques Dessalines
+(1758-1806), with a barbarity unequalled in previous contests. The
+French, further embarrassed by the appearance of a British fleet, were
+only too glad to evacuate the island in November 1803.
+
+The opening of the following year saw the declaration of independence,
+and the restoration of the aboriginal name of Haiti. Dessalines, made
+governor for life, inaugurated his rule with a bloodthirsty massacre of
+all the whites. In October 1804, he proclaimed himself emperor and was
+crowned with great pomp; but in 1806 his subjects, growing tired of his
+tyranny, assassinated him. His position was now contended for by several
+chiefs, one of whom, Henri Christophe (1767-1820), established himself
+in the north, while Alexandre Sabes Pétion (1770-1818) took possession
+of the southern part. The Spaniards re-established themselves in the
+eastern part of the island, retaining the French name, modified to Santo
+Domingo. Civil war now raged between the adherents of Christophe and
+Pétion, but in 1810 hostilities were suspended. Christophe declared
+himself king of Haiti under the title of Henry I.; but his cruelty
+caused an insurrection, and in 1820 he committed suicide. Pétion was
+succeeded in 1818 by General Jean Pierre Boyer (1776-1850), who, after
+Christophe's death, made himself master of all the French part of the
+island. In 1821 the eastern end of the island proclaimed its
+independence of Spain, and Boyer, taking advantage of dissensions there,
+invaded it, and in 1822 the dominion of the whole island fell into his
+hands. Boyer held the presidency of the new government, which was called
+the republic of Haiti, until 1843, when he was driven from the island by
+a revolution. In 1844 the people at the eastern end of the island again
+asserted their independence. The republic of Santo Domingo was
+established, and from that time the two political divisions have been
+maintained. Meanwhile in Haiti revolution followed revolution, and
+president succeeded president, in rapid succession. Order, however, was
+established in 1849, when Soulouque, who had previously obtained the
+presidency, proclaimed himself emperor, under the title of Faustin I.
+After a reign of nine years he was deposed and exiled, the republic
+being restored under the mulatto president Fabre Geffrard. His firm and
+enlightened rule rendered him so unpopular that in 1867 he was forced to
+flee to Jamaica. He was succeeded by Sylvestre Salnave, who, after a
+presidency of two years, was shot. Nissage-Saget (1870), Dominique
+(1874), and Boisrond-Canal (1876) followed, each to be driven into exile
+by revolution. The next president, Salomon, maintained himself in office
+for ten years, but he too was driven from the country and died in exile.
+Civil war raged in 1888-1889 between Generals Légitime and Hippolyte,
+and the latter succeeded in obtaining the vacant presidency. He ruled
+with the most absolute authority till his death in 1896. General
+Tiresias Simon Sam followed and ruled till his flight to Paris in 1902.
+The usual civil war ensued, and after nine months of turmoil, order was
+restored by the election of Nord Alexis in December 1902.
+
+Alexis' administration was unsuccessful, and was marked by many
+disturbances, culminating in his expulsion. In 1904 there was an attack
+by native soldiery on the French and German representatives, and
+punishment was exacted by these powers. In December 1904 ex-president
+Sam, his wife and members of his ministry were sentenced to long terms
+of imprisonment for fraudulently issuing bonds. In December 1907 a
+conspiracy against the government was reported and the ringleaders were
+sentenced to death. But in January 1908 the revolution spread, and
+Gonaïve and St Marc and other places were reported to be in the hands of
+the insurgents. Prompt measures were taken, the rising was checked, and
+Alexis announced the pardon of the revolutionaries. In March, however,
+this pacific policy was reversed by a new ministry; some suspects were
+summarily executed, and the attitude of the government was only modified
+when the powers sent war-ships to Port-au-Prince. In September the
+criminal court at the capital sentenced to death, by default, a large
+number of persons implicated in the risings earlier in the year, and in
+November revolution broke out again. General Antoine Simon raised his
+standard at Aux Cayes. Disaffection was rife among the government
+troops, who deserted to him in great numbers. On the 2nd of December
+Port-au-Prince was occupied without bloodshed by the revolutionaries,
+and Alexis took to flight, escaping violence with some difficulty, and
+finding refuge on a French ship. General Simon then assumed the
+presidency. At the end of April 1910 Alexis died in Jamaica, in
+circumstances of some obscurity; it had just been discovered that a plot
+was on foot to depose Simon, and further trouble was threatened.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--B. Edwards, _Hist. Survey of the Island of S. Domingo_
+  (London, 1801); Jordan, _Geschichte der Insel Haiti_ (Leipzig, 1846);
+  Linstant Pradin, _Recueil général des lois et actes du gouvernement
+  d'Haiti_ (Paris, 1851-1865); Monte y Tejada, Historia de Santo Domingo
+  (Havana, 1853); Saint Amand, _Hist. des révolutions d'Haiti_ (Paris,
+  1859); Sam. Hazard, _Santo Domingo, Past and Present_ (London, 1873),
+  with bibliography; Sir Spencer St John, _Haiti, or the Black Republic_
+  (London, 1889); L. Gentil Tippenhauer, _Die Insel Haiti_ (Leipzig,
+  1893); Marcelin, _Haiti, études économiques, sociales, et politiques_;
+  and _Haiti, ses guerres civiles, leurs causes_ (Paris, 1893); Hesketh
+  Pritchard, _Where Black Rules White_ (London, 1900). For geology, see
+  W. M. Gabb, "On the Topography and Geology of Santo Domingo," _Trans.
+  Amer. Phil. Soc._, Philadelphia, new series, vol. xv. (1881). pp.
+  49-259, with map; L. G. Tippenhauer, _Die Insel Haiti_ (Leipzig,
+  1893); see also several articles by L. G. Tippenhauer in _Peterm.
+  Mitt._ 1899 and 1901. A comparison with the Jamaican succession will
+  be found in R. T. Hill, "The Geology and Physical Geography of
+  Jamaica," _Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool._, Harvard, vol. xxxiv. (1899).
+
+
+
+
+HAJIPUR, a town of British India, in the Muzaffarpur district of Bengal,
+on the Gandak, just above its confluence with the Ganges opposite Patna.
+Pop. (1901), 21,398. Hajipur figures conspicuously in the history of the
+struggles between Akbar and his rebellious Afghan governors of Bengal,
+being twice besieged and captured by the imperial troops, in 1572 and
+1574. Within the limits of the old fort is a small stone mosque, very
+plain, but of peculiar architecture, and attributed to Haji Ilyas, its
+traditional founder (c. 1350). Its command of water traffic in three
+directions makes the town a place of considerable commercial importance.
+Hajipur has a station on the main line of the Bengal and North-western
+railway.
+
+
+
+
+HAJJ or HADJ, the Arabic word, meaning literally a "setting out," for
+the greater pilgrimage of Mahommedans to Mecca, which takes place from
+the 8th to the 10th of the twelfth month of the Mahommedan year; the
+lesser pilgrimage, called _umrah_ or _omra_, may be made to the mosque
+at Mecca at any time other than that of the hajj proper, and is also a
+meritorious act. The term _hajji_ or _hadji_ is given to those who have
+performed the greater pilgrimage. The word _hajj_ is sometimes loosely
+used of any Mahommedan pilgrimage to a sacred place or shrine, and is
+also applied to the pilgrimages of Christians of the East to the Holy
+Sepulchre at Jerusalem (see MECCA; MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION).
+
+
+
+
+HAJJI KHALIFA [in full Mustafa ibn 'Abdallah Katib Chelebi Hajji
+Khalifa] (ca. 1599-1658), Arabic and Turkish author, was born at
+Constantinople. He became secretary to the commissariat department of
+the Turkish army in Anatolia, was with the army in Bagdad in 1625, was
+present at the siege of Erzerum, and returned to Constantinople in 1628.
+In the following year he was again in Bagdad and Hamadan, and in 1633 at
+Aleppo, whence he made the pilgrimage to Mecca (hence his title Hajji).
+The following year he was in Erivan and then returned to Constantinople.
+Here he obtained a post in the head office of the commissariat
+department, which afforded him time for study. He seems to have attended
+the lectures of great teachers up to the time of his death, and made a
+practice of visiting bookshops and noting the titles and contents of all
+books he found there. His largest work is the _Bibliographical
+Encyclopaedia_ written in Arabic. In this work, after five chapters
+dealing with the sciences generally, the titles of Arabian, Persian and
+Turkish books written up to his own time are arranged in alphabetical
+order. With the titles are given, where possible, short notes on the
+author, his date, and sometimes the introductory words of his work. It
+was edited by G. Flügel with Latin translation and a useful appendix (7
+vols. Leipzig, 1835-1858). The text alone of this edition has been
+reproduced at Constantinople (1893).
+
+  Hajji Khalifa also wrote in Turkish: a chronological conspectus of
+  general history (translated into Italian by G. R. Carli, Venice,
+  1697); a history of the Turkish empire from 1594 to 1655
+  (Constantinople, 1870); a history of the naval wars of the Turks
+  (Constantinople, 1729; chapters 1-4 translated by J. Mitchell, London,
+  1831); a general geography published at Constantinople, 1732 (Latin
+  trans. by M. Norberg, London and Gotha, 1818; German trans. of part by
+  J. von Hammer, Vienna, 1812; French trans. of part by V. de St Martin
+  in his _Geography of Asia Minor_, vol. 1).
+
+  For his life see the preface to Flügel's edition; list of his works in
+  C. Brockelmann's _Gesch. d. arabischen Literatur_ (Berlin, 1902), vol.
+  ii., pp. 428-429.     (G. W. T.)
+
+
+
+
+HAKE, EDWARD (fl. 1579), English satirist, was educated under John
+Hopkins, the part-author of the metrical version of the Psalms. He
+resided in Gray's Inn and Barnard's Inn, London. In the address "To the
+Gentle Reader" prefixed to his _Newes out of Powles Churchyard ...
+Otherwise entitled Syr Nummus_ (2nd ed., 1579) he mentions the "first
+three yeeres which I spent in the Innes of Channcery, being now about a
+dosen of yeeres passed." In 1585 and 1586 he was mayor of New Windsor,
+and in 1588 he represented the borough in parliament. His last work was
+published in 1604. He was protected by the earl of Leicester, whose
+policy it was to support the Puritan party, and who no doubt found a
+valuable ally in so vigorous a satirist of error in clerical places as
+was Hake. _Newes out of Paules Churchyarde, A Trappe for Syr Monye_,
+first appeared in 1567, but no copy of this impression is known, and it
+was re-issued in 1579 with the title quoted above. The book takes the
+form of a dialogue between Bertulph and Paul, who meet in the aisles of
+the cathedral, and is divided into eight "satyrs," dealing with the
+corruption of the higher clergy and of judges, the greed of attorneys,
+the tricks of physicians and apothecaries, the sumptuary laws,
+extravagant living, Sunday sports, the abuse of St Paul's cathedral as a
+meeting-place for business and conversation, usury, &c. It is written in
+rhymed fourteen-syllable metre, which is often more comic than the
+author intended. It contains, amid much prefatory matter, a note to the
+"carping and scornefull Sicophant," in which he attacks his enemies with
+small courtesy and much alliteration. One is described as a "carping
+careless cankerd churle."
+
+  He also wrote a translation from Thomas à Kempis, _The Imitation, or
+  Following of Christ_ (1567, 1568); _A Touchstone for this Time
+  Present_ (1574), a scurrilous attack on the Roman Catholic Church,
+  followed by a treatise on education; _A Commemoration of the ...
+  Raigne of ... Elizabeth_ (1575), enlarged in 1578 to _A Joyfull
+  Continuance of the Commemoration, &c._; and of _Gold's Kingdom, and
+  this Unhelping Age_ (1604), a collection of pieces in prose and verse,
+  in which the author inveighs against the power of gold. A bibliography
+  of these and of Hake's other works was compiled by Mr Charles Edmonds
+  for his edition in 1872 of the _Newes_ (Isham Reprints, No. 2, 1872).
+
+
+
+
+HAKE, THOMAS GORDON (1800-1895), English poet, was born at Leeds, of an
+old Devonshire family, on the 10th of March 1809. His mother was a
+Gordon of the Huntly branch. He studied medicine at St George's hospital
+and at Edinburgh and Glasgow, but had given up practice for many years
+before his death, and had devoted himself to a literary life. In 1839 he
+published a prose epic _Vates_, republished in Ainsworth's magazine as
+_Valdarno_, which attracted the attention of D. G. Rossetti. In after
+years he became an intimate member of the circle of friends and
+followers gathered round Rossetti, who so far departed from his usual
+custom as to review Hake's poems in the _Academy_ and in the
+_Fortnightly Review_. In 1871 he published _Madeline_; 1872, _Parables
+and Tales_; 1883, _The Serpent Play_; 1890, _New Day Sonnets_; and in
+1892 his _Memoirs of Eighty Years_. Dr Hake's works had much subtlety
+and felicity of expression, and were warmly appreciated in a somewhat
+restricted literary circle. In his last published verse, the sonnets, he
+shows an advance in facility on the occasional harshness of his earlier
+work. He was given a Civil List literary pension in 1893, and died on
+the 11th of January 1895.
+
+
+
+
+HAKE (_Merluccius vulgaris_), a fish which differs from the cod in
+having only two dorsal fins, and one anal. It is very common on the
+coasts of Europe and eastern North America, but its flesh is much less
+esteemed than that of the true _Gadi_. Specimens 4 ft. in length are not
+scarce. There are local variations in the use of "hake" as a name; in
+America the "silver hake" (_Merluccius bilinearis_), sometimes called
+"whiting," and "Pacific hake" (_Merluccius productus_) are also
+food-fishes of inferior quality.
+
+
+
+
+HAKKAS ("Guests," or "Strangers"), a people of S.W. China, chiefly found
+in Kwang-Tung, Fu-Kien and Formosa. Their origin is doubtful, but there
+is some ground for believing that they may be a cross between the
+aboriginal Mongolic element of northern China and the Chinese proper.
+According to their tradition, they were in Shantung and northern China
+as early as the 3rd century B.C. In disposition, appearance and customs
+they differ from the true Chinese. They speak a distinct dialect. Their
+women, who are prettier than the pure Chinese, do not compress their
+feet, and move freely about in public. The Hakkas are a most industrious
+people and furnish at Canton nearly all the coolie labour employed by
+Europeans. Their intelligence is great, and many noted scholars have
+been of Hakka birth. Hung Sin-tsuan, the leader in the Taiping
+rebellion, was a Hakka. In Formosa they serve as intermediaries between
+the Chinese and European traders and the natives. From time immemorial
+they seem to have been persecuted by the Chinese, whom they regard as
+"foreigners," and with whom their means of communication is usually
+"pidgin English." The earliest persecution occurred under the "first
+universal emperor" of China, Shi-Hwang-ti (246-210 B.C.). From this time
+the Hakkas appear to have become wanderers. Sometimes for generations
+they were permitted to live unmolested, as under the Han dynasty, when
+some of them held high official posts. During the Tang dynasty (7th,
+8th, and 9th centuries) they settled in the mountains of Fu-kien and on
+the frontiers of Kwang-Tung. On the invasion of Kublai Khan, the Hakkas
+distinguished themselves by their bravery on the Chinese side. In the
+14th century further persecutions drove them into Kwang-Tung.
+
+  See "An Outline History of the Hakkas," _China Review_ (London,
+  1873-1874), vol. ii.; Pitou, "On the Origin and History of the
+  Hakkas," ib.; Dyer Ball, _Easy Lessons in the Hakka Dialect_ (1884),
+  _Things Chinese_ (London, 1893); Schaub, "Proverbs in Daily Use among
+  the Hakkas," in _China Review_ (London, 1894-1895), vol. xxi.; Rev. J.
+  Edkins, _China's Place in Philology_; Girard de Rialle, _Rev. d.
+  anthrop._ (Jan. and April, 1885); G. Taylor, "The Aborigines of
+  Formosa," _China Review_, xiv. p. 198 seq., also xvi. No. 3, "A Ramble
+  through Southern Formosa."
+
+
+
+
+HAKLUYT, RICHARD (c. 1553-1616), British geographer, was born of good
+family in or near London about 1553. The Hakluyts were of Welsh
+extraction, not Dutch as has been supposed. They appear to have settled
+in Herefordshire as early as the 13th century. The family seat was
+Eaton, 2 m. S.E. of Leominster. Hugo Hakelute was returned M.P. for that
+borough in 1304/5. Richard went to school at Westminster, where he was a
+queen's scholar; while there his future bent was determined by a visit
+to his cousin and namesake, Richard Hakluyt of the Middle Temple. His
+cousin's discourse, illustrated by "certain bookes of cosmographie, an
+universall mappe, and the Bible," made young Hakluyt resolve to
+"prosecute that knowledge and kind of literature." Entering Christ
+Church, Oxford, in 1570, "his exercises of duty first performed," he
+fell to his intended course of reading, and by degrees perused all the
+printed or written voyages and discoveries that he could find. He took
+his B.A. In 1573/4. It is probable that, shortly after taking his M.A.
+(1577), he began at Oxford the first public lectures in geography that
+"shewed both the old imperfectly composed and the new lately reformed
+mappes, globes, spheares, and other instruments of this art." That this
+was not in London is certain, as we know that the first lecture of the
+kind was delivered in the metropolis on the 4th of November 1588 by
+Thomas Hood.
+
+Hakluyt's first published work was his _Divers Voyages touching the
+Discoverie of America_ (London, 1582, 4to.). This brought him to the
+notice of Lord Howard of Effingham, and so to that of Sir Edward
+Stafford, Lord Howard's brother-in-law; accordingly at the age of
+thirty, being acquainted with "the chiefest captaines at sea, the
+greatest merchants, and the best mariners of our nation," he was
+selected as chaplain to accompany Stafford, now English ambassador at
+the French court, to Paris (1583). In accordance with the instructions
+of Secretary Walsingham, he occupied himself chiefly in collecting
+information of the Spanish and French movements, and "making diligent
+inquirie of such things as might yield any light unto our westerne
+discoverie in America." The first fruits of Hakluyt's labours in Paris
+are embodied in his important work entitled _A particuler discourse
+concerning Westerne discoveries written in the yere 1584, by Richarde
+Hackluyt of Oxforde, at the requeste and direction of the righte
+worshipfull Mr Walter Raghly before the comynge home of his twoo
+barkes_. This long-lost MS. was at last printed in 1877. Its object was
+to recommend the enterprise of planting the English race in the
+unsettled parts of North America. Hakluyt's other works consist mainly
+of translations and compilations, relieved by his dedications and
+prefaces, which last, with a few letters, are the only material we
+possess out of which a biography of him can be framed. Hakluyt revisited
+England in 1584, laid before Queen Elizabeth a copy of the _Discourse_
+"along with one in Latin upon Aristotle's _Politicks_," and obtained,
+two days before his return to Paris, the grant of the next vacant
+prebend at Bristol, to which he was admitted in 1586 and held with his
+other preferments till his death.
+
+While in Paris Hakluyt interested himself in the publication of the MS.
+journal of Laudonnière, the _Histoire notable de la Florida_, edited by
+Bassanier (Paris, 1586, 8vo.). This was translated by Hakluyt and
+published in London under the title of _A notable historie containing
+foure voyages made by certayne French captaynes into Florida_ (London,
+1587, 4to.). The same year _De orbe novo Petri Martyris Anglerii decades
+octo illustratae labore et industria Richardi Hackluyti_ saw the light
+at Paris. This work contains the exceedingly rare copperplate map
+dedicated to Hakluyt and signed F. G. (supposed to be Francis Gualle);
+it is the first on which the name of "Virginia" appears.
+
+In 1588 Hakluyt finally returned to England with Lady Stafford, after a
+residence in France of nearly five years. In 1589 he published the first
+edition of his chief work, _The Principall Navigations, Voiages and
+Discoveries of the English Nation_ (fol., London, 1 vol.). In the
+preface to this we have the announcement of the intended publication of
+the first terrestrial globe made in England by Molyneux. In 1598-1600
+appeared the final, reconstructed and greatly enlarged edition of _The
+Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques and Discoveries of the
+English Nation_ (fol., 3 vols.). Some few copies contain an exceedingly
+rare map, the first on the Mercator projection made in England according
+to the true principles laid down by Edward Wright. Hakluyt's great
+collection, though but little read, has been truly called the "prose
+epic of the modern English nation." It is an invaluable treasure of
+material for the history of geographical discovery and colonization,
+which has secured for its editor a lasting reputation. In 1601 Hakluyt
+edited a translation from the Portuguese of Antonio Galvano, _The
+Discoveries of the World_ (4to., London). In the same year his name
+occurs as an adviser to the East India Company, supplying them with
+maps, and informing them as to markets. Meantime in 1590 (April 20th) he
+had been instituted to the rectory of Withering-sett-cum-Brockford,
+Suffolk. In 1602, on the 4th of May, he was installed prebendary of
+Westminster, and in the following year he was elected archdeacon of
+Westminster. In the licence of his second marriage (30th of March 1604)
+he is also described as one of the chaplains of the Savoy, and his will
+contains a reference to chambers occupied by him there up to the time of
+his death; in another official document he is styled D.D. In 1605 he
+secured the prospective living of James Town, the intended capital of
+the intended colony of Virginia. This benefice he supplied, when the
+colony was at last established in 1607, by a curate, one Robert Hunt. In
+1606 he appears as one of the chief promoters of the petition to the
+king for patents to colonize Virginia. He was also a leading adventurer
+in the London or South Virginia Company. His last publication was a
+translation of Fernando de Soto's discoveries in Florida, entitled
+_Virginia richly valued by the description of Florida her next
+neighbour_ (London, 1609, 4to). This work was intended to encourage the
+young colony of Virginia; to Hakluyt, it has been said, "England is more
+indebted for its American possession than to any man of that age." We
+may notice that it was at Hakluyt's suggestion that Robert Parke
+translated Mendoza's _History of China_ (London, 1588-1589) and John
+Pory made his version of _Leo Africanus_ (_A Geographical History of
+Africa_, London, 1600). Hakluyt died in 1616 (November 23rd) and was
+buried in Westminster Abbey (November 26th); by an error in the abbey
+register his burial is recorded under the year 1626. Out of his various
+emoluments and preferments (of which the last was Gedney rectory,
+Lincolnshire, in 1612) he amassed a small fortune, which was squandered
+by a son. A number of his MSS., sufficient to form a fourth volume of
+his collections of 1598-1600, fell into the hands of Samuel Purchas, who
+inserted them in an abridged form in his _Pilgrimes_ (1625-1626, fol.).
+Others are preserved at Oxford (Bib. Bod. MS. Seld. B. 8). which consist
+chiefly of notes gathered from contemporary authors.
+
+  Besides the MSS. or editions noticed in the text (_Divers Voyages_
+  (1582); _Particuler Discourse_ (1584); Laudonnière's _Florida_ (1587);
+  Peter Martyr, _Decades_ (1587); _Principal Navigations_ (1589 and
+  1598-1600); Galvano's _Discoveries_ (1601); De Soto's Florida record,
+  the _Virginia richly valued_ (1609, &c.), we may notice the Hakluyt
+  Society's London edition of the _Divers Voyages_ in 1850, the edition
+  of the _Particuler Discourse_, by Charles Deane in the _Collections of
+  the Maine Historical Society_ (Cambridge, Mass., 1870, with an
+  introduction by Leonard Woods); also, among modern issues of the
+  _Principal Navigations_, those of 1809 (5 vols., with much additional
+  matter), and of 1903-1905 (Glasgow, 12 vols.). The new title-page
+  issued for the first volume of the final edition of the _Principal
+  Navigations_, in 1599, merely cancelled the former 1598 title with its
+  reference to the Cadiz expedition of 1596; but from this has arisen
+  the mistaken supposition that a new _edition_ was then (1599)
+  published. Hakluyt's Galvano was edited for the Hakluyt Society by
+  Admiral C. R. D. Bethune in 1862. This Society, which was founded in
+  1846 for printing rare and unpublished voyages and travels, includes
+  the Glasgow edition of the _Principal Navigations_ in its _extra
+  series_, as well as C. R. Beazley's edition of _Carpini_, _Rubruquis_,
+  and other medieval texts from Hakluyt (Cambridge, 1903, 1 vol.).
+  Reckoning in these and an issue of Purchas's _Pilgrimes_ by the
+  Glasgow publisher of the Hakluyt of 1903-1905, the society has now
+  published or "fathered" 150 vols. See also _Voyages of the Elizabethan
+  Seamen to America, being Select Narratives from the Principal
+  Navigations_, by E. J. Payne (Oxford, 1880; 1893; new edition by C. R.
+  Beazley, 1907).
+
+  For Hakluyt's life the dedications of the 1589 and 1598 editions of
+  the _Principal Navigations_ should be especially consulted; also
+  Winter Jones's introduction to the Kakluyt Society edition of the
+  _Divers Voyages_; Fuller's _Worthies of England_, "Herefordshire";
+  _Oxford Univ. Reg._ (Oxford Hist. Soc), ii., iii. 39; _Historical MSS.
+  Commission, 4th report, appendix_, p. 614, the last giving us the
+  Towneley MSS. referring to payments (prizes?) awarded to Hakluyt when
+  at Oxford, May 12th and June 4th, 1575.     (C. H. C; C. R. B.)
+
+
+
+
+HAKODATE, a town on the south of the island of Yezo, Japan, for many
+years regarded as the capital of the island until Sapporo was officially
+raised to that rank. Pop. (1903) 84,746. Its position, as has been
+frequently remarked, is not unlike that of Gibraltar, as the town is
+built along the north-western base of a rocky promontory (1157 ft. in
+height) which forms the eastern boundary of a spacious bay, and is
+united to the mainland by a narrow sandy isthmus. The summit of the
+rock, called the Peak, is crowned by a fort. Hakodate is one of the
+ports originally opened to foreign trade. The Bay of Hakodate, an inlet
+of Tsugaru Strait, is completely land-locked, easy of access and
+spacious, with deep water almost up to the shore, and good
+holding-ground. The Russians formerly used Hakodate as a winter port.
+The staple exports are beans, pulse and peas, marine products, sulphur,
+furs and timber; the staple imports, comestibles (especially salted
+fish), kerosene and oil-cake. The town is not situated so as to profit
+largely by the development of the resources of Yezo, and as a port of
+foreign trade its outlook is indifferent. Frequent steamers connect
+Hakodate and Yokohama and other ports, and there is daily communication
+with Aomori, 56 m. distant, whence there is rail-connexion with Tokyo.
+Hakodate was opened to American commerce in 1854. In the civil war of
+1868 the town was taken by the rebel fleet, but it was recovered by the
+mikado in 1869.
+
+
+
+
+HAL, a town of Brabant, Belgium, about 9 m. S.W. of Brussels, situated
+on the river Senne and the Charleroi canal. Pop. (1904) 13,541. The
+place is interesting chiefly on account of its fine church of Notre
+Dame, formerly dedicated to St Martin. This church, a good example of
+pure Gothic, was begun in 1341 and finished in 1409. Its principal
+ornament is the alabaster altar, by J. Mone, completed in 1533. The
+bronze font dates from 1446. Among the monuments is one in black marble
+to the dauphin Joachim, son of Louis XI., who died in 1460. In the
+treasury of the church are many costly objects presented by illustrious
+personages, among others by the emperor Charles V., King Henry VIII. of
+England, Charles the Bold of Burgundy, and several popes. The church is
+chiefly celebrated, however, for its miraculous image of the Virgin.
+Legend says that during a siege the bullets fired into the town were
+caught by her in the folds of her dress. Some of these are still shown
+in a chest that stands in a side chapel. In consequence of this belief a
+great pilgrimage, attended by many thousands from all parts of Belgium,
+is paid annually to this church. The hôtel de ville dates from 1616 and
+has been restored with more than ordinary good taste.
+
+
+
+
+HALA, or HALLA (formerly known as Murtazabad), a town of British India
+in Hyderabad district, Sind. Pop. (1901) 4985. It has long been famous
+for its glazed pottery and tiles, made from a fine clay obtained from
+the Indus, mixed with powdered flints. The town has also a manufacture
+of susis or striped trouser-cloths.
+
+
+
+
+HALAESA, an ancient town on the north coast of Sicily, about 14 m. E. of
+Cephaloedium [Cefalu], to the east of the modern Castel di Tusa, founded
+in 403 B.C. by Archonides, tyrant of Herbita, whose name it sometimes
+bore: we find, e.g. _Halaisa Archonida_ on a coin of the time of
+Augustus (_Corp. inscrip. Lat._ x., Berlin, 1883, p. 768). It was the
+first town to surrender to the Romans in the First Punic War, and was
+granted freedom and immunity from tithe. It became a place of some
+importance in Roman days, especially as a port, and entirely outstripped
+its mother city. Halaesa is the only place in Sicily where an
+inscription dedicated to a Roman governor of the republican period
+(perhaps in 93 B.C.) has come to light. (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+HALAKHA, or HALACHA (literally "rule of conduct"), the rabbinical
+development of the Mosaic law; with the haggada it makes up the Talmud
+and Midrash (q.v.). As the haggada is the poetic, so the halakha is the
+legal element of the Talmud (q.v.), and arose out of the faction between
+the Sadducees, who disputed the traditions, and the Pharisees, who
+strove to prove their derivation from scripture. Among the chief
+attempts to codify the halakha were the _Great Rules (Halakhoth
+Gedoloth)_ of Simon Kayyara (9th century), based on the letters written
+by the Gaonim, the heads of the Babylonian schools, to Jewish inquirers
+in many lands, the work of Jacob Alfassi (1013-1103), the _Strong Hand
+of_ Maimonides (1180), and the _Table Prepared_ (_Shulhan Aruch_) of
+Joseph Qaro (1565), which from its practical scope and its clarity as a
+work of general reference became the universal handbook of Jewish life
+in many of its phases.     (I. A.)
+
+
+
+
+HALBERSTADT, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Saxony, 56
+m. by rail N.W. of Halle, and 29 S.W. of Magdeburg. It lies in a fertile
+country to the north of the Harz Mountains, on the Holzemme, at the
+junction of railways to Halle, Goslar and Thale. Pop. (1905) 45,534. The
+town has a medieval appearance, many old houses decorated with beautiful
+wood-carving still surviving. The Gothic cathedral (now Protestant),
+dating from the 13th and 14th centuries, is remarkable for the majestic
+impression made by the great height of the interior, with its slender
+columns and lofty, narrow aisles. The treasure, preserved in the former
+chapter-house, is rich in reliquaries, vestments and other objects of
+medieval church art. The beautiful spires, which had become unsafe, were
+rebuilt in 1890-1895. Among the other churches the only one of special
+interest is the Liebfrauenkirche (Church of Our Lady), a basilica, with
+four towers, in the later Romanesque style, dating from the 12th and
+13th centuries and restored in 1848, containing old mural frescoes and
+carved figures. Remarkable among the other old buildings are the
+town-hall, of the 14th century and restored in the 17th century, with a
+crypt, and the Petershof, formerly the episcopal palace, but now
+utilized as law courts and a prison. The principal educational
+establishment is the gymnasium, with a library of 40,000 volumes. Close
+to the cathedral lies the house of the poet Gleim (q.v.), since 1899 the
+property of the municipality and converted into a museum. It contains a
+collection of the portraits of the friends of the poet-scholar and some
+valuable manuscripts. The principal manufactures of the town are sugar,
+cigars, paper, gloves, chemical products, beer and machinery. About a
+mile and a half distant are the Spiegelsberge, from which a fine view of
+the surrounding country is obtained, and the Klusberge, with prehistoric
+cave-dwellings cut out in the sandstone rocks.
+
+  The history of Halberstadt begins with the transfer to it, by Bishop
+  Hildegrim I., in 820 of the see founded by Charlemagne at
+  Seligenstadt. At the end of the 10th century the bishops were granted
+  by the emperors the right to exercise temporal jurisdiction over their
+  see, which became one of the most considerable of the ecclesiastical
+  principalities of the Empire. As such it survived the introduction of
+  the Reformation in 1542; but in 1566, on the death of Sigismund of
+  Brandenburg (also archbishop of Madgeburg from 1552 to 1566), the last
+  Catholic bishop, the chapter from motives of economy elected the
+  infant Henry Julius of Brunswick-Lüneburg. In 1589 he became duke of
+  Brunswick, and two years later he abolished the Catholic rites in
+  Halberstadt. The see was governed by lay bishops until 1648, when it
+  was formally converted by the treaty of Westphalia into a secular
+  principality for the elector of Brandenburg. By the treaty of Tilsit
+  in 1807 it was annexed to the kingdom of Westphalia, but came again to
+  Prussia on the downfall of Napoleon.
+
+  The town received a charter from Bishop Arnulf in 998. In 1113 it was
+  burnt by the emperor Henry V., and in 1179 by Henry the Lion. During
+  the Thirty Years' War it was occupied alternately by the Imperialists
+  and the Swedes, the latter of whom handed it over to Brandenburg.
+
+  See Lucanus, _Der Dom zu Halberstadt_ (1837), _Wegweiser durch
+  Halberstadt_ (2nd ed., 1866) and _Die Liebfrauenkirche zu Halberstadt_
+  (1872); Scheffer, _Inschriften und Legenden halberstädtischer Bauten_
+  (1864); Schmidt, _Urkundenbuch der Stadt Halberstadt_ (Halle, 1878);
+  and Zschiesche, _Halberstadt, sonst und jetzi_ (1882).
+
+
+
+
+HALBERT, HALBERD or HALBARD, a weapon consisting of an axe-blade
+balanced by a pick and having an elongated pike-head at the end of the
+staff, which was usually about 5 or 6 ft. in length. The utility of such
+a weapon in the wars of the later middle ages lay in this, that it gave
+the foot soldier the means of dealing with an armoured man on horseback.
+The pike could do no more than keep the horseman at a distance. This
+ensured security for the foot soldier but did not enable him to strike a
+mortal blow, for which firstly a long-handled and secondly a powerful
+weapon, capable of striking a heavy cleaving blow, was required. Several
+different forms of weapon responding to these requirements are described
+and illustrated below; it will be noticed that the thrusting pike is
+almost always combined with the cutting-bill hook or axe-head, so that
+the individual billman or halberdier should not be at a disadvantage if
+caught alone by a mounted opponent, or if his first descending blow
+missed its object. It will be noticed further that, concurrently with
+the disuse of complete armour and the development of firearms, the pike
+or thrusting element gradually displaces the axe or cleaving element in
+these weapons, till at last we arrive at the court halberts and
+partizans of the late 16th and early 17th centuries and the so-called
+"halbert" of the infantry officer and sergeant in the 18th, which can
+scarcely be classed even as partizans.
+
+Figs. 1-6 represent types of these long cutting, cut and thrust weapons
+of the middle ages, details being omitted for the sake of clearness. The
+most primitive is the _voulge_ (fig. 1), which is simply a heavy cleaver
+on a pole, with a point added. The next form, the _gisarme_ or
+_guisarme_ (fig. 2), appears in infinite variety but is always
+distinguished from voulges, &c. by the hook, which was used to pull down
+mounted men, and generally resembles the agricultural bill-hook of
+to-day. The _glaive_ (fig. 3 is late German) is a broad, heavy, slightly
+curved sword-blade on a stave; it is often combined with the hooked
+gisarme as a _glaive-gisarme_ (fig. 4, Burgundian, about 1480). A
+_gisarme-voulge_ is shown in fig. 5 (Swiss, 14th century).
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. 1-6.]
+
+The weapon best known to Englishmen is the _bill_, which was originally
+a sort of scythe-blade, sharp on the concave side (whereas the glaive
+has the cutting edge on the convex side), but in its best-known form it
+should be called a bill-gisarme (fig. 6). The _partizans_, _ranseurs_
+and _halberts_ proper developed naturally from the earlier types. The
+feature common to all, as has been said, is the combination of spear and
+axe. In the halberts the axe predominates, as the examples (fig. 10,
+Swiss, early 15th century; fig. 11, Swiss, middle 16th century; and fig.
+12, German court halbert of the same period as fig. 11) show. In the
+_partizan_ the pike is the more important, the axe-heads being reduced
+to little more than an ornamental feature. A south German specimen (fig.
+9, 1615) shows how this was compensated by the broadening of the
+spear-head, the edges of which in such weapons were sharpened. Fig. 8, a
+service weapon of simple form, merely has projections on either side,
+and from this developed the _ranseur_ (fig. 7), a partizan with a very
+long and narrow point, like the blade of a rapier, and with fork-like
+projections intended to act as "sword-breakers," instead of the
+atrophied axe-heads of the partizan proper.
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. 7-12.]
+
+The halbert played almost as conspicuous a part in the military history
+of Middle Europe during the 15th and early 16th centuries as the pike.
+But, even in a form distinguishable from the voulge and the glaive, it
+dates from the early part of the 13th century, and for many generations
+thereafter it was the special weapon of the Swiss. Fauchet, in his
+_Origines des dignitez_, printed in 1600, states that Louis XI. of
+France ordered certain new weapons of war called _hallebardes_ to be
+made at Angers and other places in 1475. The Swiss had a mixed armament
+of pikes and halberts at the battle of Morat in 1476. In the 15th and
+16th centuries the halberts became larger, and the blades were formed in
+many varieties of shape, often engraved, inlaid, or pierced in open
+work, and exquisitely finished as works of art. This weapon was in use
+in England from the reign of Henry VII. to the reign of George III.,
+when it was still carried (though in shape it had certainly lost its
+original characteristics, and had become half partizan and half pike) by
+sergeants in the guards and other infantry regiments. It is still
+retained as the symbol of authority borne before the magistrates on
+public occasions in some of the burghs of Scotland. The Lochaber axe may
+be called a species of halbert furnished with a hook on the end of the
+staff at the back of the blade. The godendag (Fr. _godendart_) is the
+Flemish name of the halbert in its original form.
+
+The derivation of the word is as follows. The O. Fr. _hallebarde_, of
+which the English "halberd," "halbert," is an adaptation, was itself
+adapted from the M.H.G. _helmbarde_, mod. _Hellebarde_; the second part
+is the O.H.G. _barta_ or _parta_, broad-axe, probably the same word as
+_Bart_, beard, and so called from its shape; the first part is either
+_helm_, handle, cf. "helm," tiller of a ship, the word meaning "hafted
+axe," or else _helm_, helmet, an axe for smiting the helmet. A common
+derivation was to take the word as representing a Ger. _halb-barde_,
+half-axe; the early German form shows this to be an erroneous guess.
+
+
+
+
+HALDANE, JAMES ALEXANDER (1768-1851), Scottish divine, the younger son
+of Captain James Haldane of Airthrey House, Stirlingshire, was born at
+Dundee on the 14th of July 1768. Educated first at Dundee and afterwards
+at the high school and university of Edinburgh, at the age of seventeen
+he joined the "Duke of Montrose" East Indiaman as a midshipman. After
+four voyages to India he was nominated to the command of the "Melville
+Castle" in the summer of 1793; but having during a long and unexpected
+detention of his ship begun a careful study of the Bible, and also come
+under the evangelical influence of David Bogue of Gosport, one of the
+founders of the London Missionary Society, he abruptly resolved to quit
+the naval profession for a religious life, and returned to Scotland
+before his ship had sailed. About the year 1796 he became acquainted
+with the celebrated evangelical divine, Charles Simeon of Cambridge, in
+whose society he made several tours through Scotland, endeavouring by
+tract-distribution and other means to awaken others to some of that
+interest in religious subjects which he himself so strongly felt. In May
+1797 he preached his first sermon, at Gilmerton near Edinburgh, with
+encouraging success. In the same year he established a non-sectarian
+organization for tract distribution and lay preaching called the
+"Society for the Propagation of the Gospel at Home." During the next few
+years he made repeated missionary journeys, preaching wherever he could
+obtain hearers, and generally in the open air. Not originally disloyal
+to the Church of Scotland, he was gradually driven by the hostility of
+the Assembly and the exigencies of his position into separation. In 1799
+he was ordained as pastor of a large Independent congregation in
+Edinburgh. This was the first congregational church known by that name
+in Scotland. In 1801 a permanent building replaced the circus in which
+the congregation had at first met. To this church he continued to
+minister gratuitously for more than fifty years. In 1808 he made public
+avowal of his conversion to Baptist views. As advancing years compelled
+him to withdraw from the more exhausting labours of itineracy and
+open-air preaching, he sought more and more to influence the discussion
+of current religious and theological questions by means of the press. He
+died on the 8th of February 1851.
+
+His son, DANIEL RUTHERFORD HALDANE (1824-1887), by his second wife, a
+daughter of Professor Daniel Rutherford, was a prominent Scottish
+physician, who became president of the Edinburgh College of Physicians.
+
+  Among J. A. Haldane's numerous contributions to current theological
+  discussions were: _The Duty of Christian Forbearance in Regard to
+  Points of Church Order_ (1811); _Strictures on a Publication upon
+  Primitive Christianity by Mr John Walker_ (1819); _Refutation of
+  Edward Irving's Heretical Doctrines respecting the Person and
+  Atonement of Jesus Christ_. His _Observations on Universal Pardon_,
+  &c., was a contribution to the controversy regarding the views of
+  Thomas Erskine of Linlathen and Campbell of Row; _Man's
+  Responsibility_ (1842) is a reply to Howard Hinton on the nature and
+  extent of the Atonement. He also published: _Journal of a Tour in the
+  North_; _Early Instruction Commended_ (1801); _Views of the Social
+  Worship of the First Churches_ (1805); _The Doctrine and Duty of
+  Self-Examination_ (1806); _The Doctrine of the Atonement_ (1845);
+  _Exposition of the Epistle to the Galatians_ (1848).
+
+
+
+
+HALDANE, RICHARD BURDON (1856-   ), British statesman and philosopher,
+was the third son of Robert Haldane of Cloanden, Perthshire, a writer to
+the signet, and nephew of J. S. Burdon-Sanderson. He was a grand-nephew
+of the Scottish divines J. A. and Robert Haldane. He was educated at
+Edinburgh Academy and the universities of Edinburgh and Göttingen, where
+he studied philosophy under Lotze. He took first-class honours in
+philosophy at Edinburgh, and was Gray scholar and Ferguson scholar in
+philosophy of the four Scottish Universities (1876). He was called to
+the bar in 1879, and so early as 1890 became a queen's counsel. In 1885
+he entered parliament as liberal member for Haddingtonshire, for which
+he was re-elected continuously up to and including 1910. He was included
+in 1905 in Sir H. Campbell-Bannerman's cabinet as secretary for war, and
+was the author of the important scheme for the reorganization of the
+British army, by which the militia and the volunteer forces were
+replaced by a single territorial force. Though always known as one of
+the ablest men of the Liberal party and conspicuous during the Boer War
+of 1899-1902 as a Liberal Imperialist, the choice of Mr Haldane for the
+task of thinking out a new army organization on business lines had
+struck many people as curious. Besides being a chancery lawyer, he was
+more particularly a philosopher, conspicuous for his knowledge of
+Hegelian metaphysics. But with German philosophy he had also the German
+sense of thoroughness and system, and his scheme, while it was much
+criticized, was recognized as the best that could be done with a
+voluntary army. Mr Haldane's chief literary publications were: _Life of
+Adam Smith_ (1887); _Education and Empire_ (1902); _The Pathway to
+Reality_ (1903). He also translated, jointly with J. Kemp,
+Schopenhauer's _Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung_ (_The World as Will
+and Idea_, 3 vols., 1883-1886).
+
+
+
+
+HALDANE, ROBERT (1764-1842), Scottish divine, elder brother of J. A.
+Haldane (q.v.), was born in London on the 28th of February 1764. After
+attending classes in the Dundee grammar school and in the high school
+and university of Edinburgh in 1780, he joined H.M.S. "Monarch," of
+which his uncle Lord Duncan was at that time in command, and in the
+following year was transferred to the "Foudroyant," on board of which,
+during the night engagement with the "Pegase," he greatly distinguished
+himself. Haldane was afterwards present at the relief of Gibraltar, but
+at the peace of 1783 he finally left the navy, and soon afterwards
+settled on his estate of Airthrey, near Stirling. He put himself under
+the tuition of David Bogue of Gosport and carried away deep impressions
+from his academy. The earlier phases of the French Revolution excited
+his deepest sympathy, a sympathy which induced him to avow his strong
+disapproval of the war with France. As his over-sanguine visions of a
+new order of things to be ushered in by political change disappeared, he
+began to direct his thoughts to religious subjects. Resolving to devote
+himself and his means wholly to the advancement of Christianity, his
+first proposal for that end, made in 1796, was to organize a vast
+mission to Bengal, of which he was to provide the entire expense; with
+this view the greater part of his estate was sold, but the East India
+Company refused to sanction the scheme, which therefore had to be
+abandoned. In December 1797 he joined his brother and some others in the
+formation of the "Society for the Propagation of the Gospel at Home," in
+building chapels or "tabernacles" for congregations, in supporting
+missionaries, and in maintaining institutions for the education of young
+men to carry on the work of evangelization. He is said to have spent
+more than £70,000 in the course of the following twelve years
+(1798-1810). He also initiated a plan for evangelizing Africa by
+bringing over native children to be trained as Christian teachers to
+their own countrymen. In 1816 he visited the continent, and first at
+Geneva and afterwards in Montauban (1817) he lectured and interviewed
+large numbers of theological students with remarkable effect; among them
+were Malan, Monod and Merle d'Aubigné. Returning to Scotland in 1819, he
+lived partly on his estate of Auchengray and partly in Edinburgh, and
+like his brother took an active part, chiefly through the press, in many
+of the religious controversies of the time. He died on the 12th of
+December 1842.
+
+  In 1816 he published a work on the _Evidences and Authority of Divine
+  Revelation_, and in 1819 the substance of his theological prelections
+  in a _Commentaire sur l'Épître aux Romains_. Among his later writings,
+  besides numerous pamphlets on what was known as "the Apocrypha
+  controversy," are a treatise _On the Inspiration of Scripture_ (1828),
+  which has passed through many editions, and a later _Exposition of the
+  Epistle to the Romans_ (1835), which has been frequently reprinted,
+  and has been translated into French and German.
+
+  See _Memoirs of R. and J. A. Haldane_, by Alexander Haldane (1852).
+
+
+
+
+HALDEMAN, SAMUEL STEHMAN (1812-1880), American naturalist and
+philologist, was born on the 12th of August 1812 at Locust Grove, Pa. He
+was educated at Dickinson College, and in 1851 was appointed professor
+of the natural sciences in the university of Pennsylvania. In 1855 he
+went to Delaware College, where he filled the same position, but in 1869
+he returned to the university of Pennsylvania as professor of
+comparative philology and remained there till his death, which occurred
+at Chickies, Pa., on the 10th of September 1880. His writings include
+_Freshwater Univalve Mollusca of the United States_ (1840); _Zoological
+Contributions_ (1842-1843); _Analytic Orthography_ (1860); _Tours of a
+Chess Knight_ (1864); _Pennsylvania Dutch, a Dialect of South German
+with an Infusion of English_ (1872); _Outlines of Etymology_ (1877); and
+_Word-Building_ (1881).
+
+
+
+
+HALDIMAND, SIR FREDERICK (1718-1791), British general and administrator,
+was born at Yverdun, Neuchâtel, Switzerland, on the 11th of August 1718,
+of Huguenot descent. After serving in the armies of Sardinia, Russia and
+Holland, he entered British service in 1754, and subsequently
+naturalized as an English citizen. During the Seven Years' War he served
+in America, was wounded at Ticonderoga (1758) and was present at the
+taking of Montreal (1760). After filling with credit several
+administrative positions in Canada, Florida and New York, in 1778 he
+succeeded Sir Guy Carleton (afterwards Lord Dorchester) as
+governor-general of Canada. His measures against French sympathizers
+with the Americans have incurred extravagant strictures from
+French-Canadian historians, but he really showed moderation as well as
+energy. In 1785 he returned to London. He died at his birthplace on the
+5th of June 1791.
+
+  His life has been well written by Jean McIlwraith in the "Makers of
+  Canada" series (Toronto, 1904). His Correspondence and Diary fill 262
+  volumes in the Canadian Archives, and are catalogued in the Annual
+  Reports (1884-1889).
+
+
+
+
+HALE, EDWARD EVERETT (1822-1909), American author, was born in Boston on
+the 3rd of April 1822, son of Nathan Hale (1784-1863), proprietor and
+editor of the Boston _Daily Advertiser_, nephew of Edward Everett, the
+orator and statesman, and grand-nephew of Nathan Hale, the martyr spy.
+He graduated from Harvard in 1839; was pastor of the church of the
+Unity, Worcester, Massachusetts, in 1846-1856, and of the South
+Congregational (Unitarian) church, Boston, in 1856-1899; and in 1903
+became chaplain of the United States Senate. He died at Roxbury
+(Boston), Massachusetts, on the 10th of June 1909. His forceful
+personality, organizing genius, and liberal practical theology, together
+with his deep interest in the anti-slavery movement (especially in
+Kansas), popular education (especially Chautauqua work), and the
+working-man's home, were active in raising the tone of American life for
+half a century. He was a constant and voluminous contributor to the
+newspapers and magazines. He was an assistant editor of the Boston
+_Daily Advertiser_, and edited the _Christian Examiner, Old and New_
+(which he assisted in founding in 1869; in 1875 it was merged in
+_Scribner's Magazine_), _Lend a Hand_ (founded by him in 1886 and merged
+in the _Charities Review_ in 1897), and the _Lend a Hand Record_; and he
+was the author or editor of more than sixty books--fiction, travel,
+sermons, biography and history.
+
+He first came into notice as a writer in 1859, when he contributed the
+short story "My Double and How He Undid Me" to the _Atlantic Monthly_.
+He soon published in the same periodical other stories, the best known
+of which was "The Man Without a Country" (1863), which did much to
+strengthen the Union cause in the North, and in which, as in some of his
+other non-romantic tales, he employed a minute realism which has led his
+readers to suppose the narrative a record of fact. The two stories
+mentioned, and such others as "The Rag-Man and the Rag-Woman" and "The
+Skeleton in the Closet," gave him a prominent position among the
+short-story writers of America. The story _Ten Times One is Ten_ (1870),
+with its hero Harry Wadsworth, and its motto, first enunciated in 1869
+in his Lowell Institute lectures, "Look up and not down, look forward
+and not back, look out and not in, and lend a hand," led to the
+formation among young people of "Lend-a-Hand Clubs," "Look-up Legions"
+and "Harry Wadsworth Clubs." Out of the romantic Waldensian story _In
+His Name_ (1873) there similarly grew several other organizations for
+religious work, such as "King's Daughters," and "King's Sons."
+
+  Among his other books are _Kansas and Nebraska_ (1854); _The Ingham
+  Papers_ (1869); _His Level Best, and Other Stories_ (1870); _Sybaris
+  and Other Homes_ (1871); _Philip Nolan's Friends_ (1876), his
+  best-known novel, and a sequel to _The Man Without a Country; The
+  Kingdom of God_ (1880); _Christmas at Narragansett_ (1885); _East and
+  West_, a novel (1892); _For Fifty Years_ (poems, 1893); _Ralph Waldo
+  Emerson_ (1899); _We, the People_ (1903); _Prayers Offered in the
+  Senate of the United States_ (1904), and _Tarry-at-Home Travels_
+  (1906). He edited Lingard's _History of England_ (1853), and
+  contributed to Winsor's _Memorial History of Boston_ (1880-1881), and
+  to his _Narrative and Critical History of America_ (1886-1889). With
+  his son, Edward Everett Hale, Jr., he published _Franklin in France_
+  (2 vols., 1887-1888), based largely on original research. The most
+  charming books of his later years were _A New England Boyhood_ (1893),
+  _James Russell Lowell and His Friends_ (1899), and _Memories of a
+  Hundred Years_ (1902).
+
+  A uniform and revised edition of his principal writings, in ten
+  volumes, appeared in 1899-1901.
+
+
+
+
+HALE, HORATIO (1817-1896), American ethnologist, was born in Newport,
+New Hampshire, on the 3rd of May 1817. He was the son of David Hale, a
+lawyer, and of Sarah Josepha Hale (1790-1879), a popular poet, who,
+besides editing _Godey's Lady's Magazine_ for many years and publishing
+some ephemeral books, is supposed to have written the verses "Mary had a
+little lamb," and to have been the first to suggest the national
+observance of Thanksgiving Day. The son graduated in 1837 at Harvard,
+and during 1838-1842 was philologist to the United States Exploring
+Expedition, which under Captain Charles Wilkes sailed around the world.
+Of the reports of that expedition Hale prepared the sixth volume,
+_Ethnography and Philology_ (1846), which is said to have "laid the
+foundations of the ethnography of Polynesia." He was admitted to the
+Chicago bar in 1855, and in the following year removed to Clinton,
+Ontario, Canada, where he practised his profession, and where on the
+28th of December 1896 he died. He made many valuable contributions to
+the science of ethnology, attracting attention particularly by his
+theory of the origin of the diversities of human languages and
+dialects--a theory suggested by his study of "child-languages," or the
+languages invented by little children. He also emphasized the importance
+of languages as tests of mental capacity and as "criteria for the
+classification of human groups." He was, moreover, the first to discover
+that the Tutelos of Virginia belonged to the Siouan family, and to
+identify the Cherokee as a member of the Iroquoian family of speech.
+Besides writing numerous magazine articles, he read a number of valuable
+papers before learned societies. These include: _Indian Migrations as
+Evidenced by Language_ (1882); _The Origin of Languages and the
+Antiquity of Speaking Man_ (1886); _The Development of Language_ (1888);
+and _Language as a Test of Mental Capacity: Being an Attempt to
+Demonstrate the True Basis of Anthropology_ (1891). He also edited for
+Brinton's "Library of Aboriginal Literature," the _Iroquois Book of
+Rites_ (1883).
+
+
+
+
+HALE, JOHN PARKER (1806-1873), American statesman, was born at
+Rochester, New Hampshire, on the 31st of March 1806. He graduated at
+Bowdoin College in 1827, was admitted to the New Hampshire bar in 1830,
+was a member of the state House of Representatives in 1832, and from
+1834 to 1841 was United States district attorney for New Hampshire. In
+1843-1845 he was a Democratic member of the national House of
+Representatives, and, though his earnest co-operation with John Quincy
+Adams in securing the repeal of the "gag rule" directed against the
+presentation to Congress of anti-slavery petitions estranged him from
+the leaders of his party, he was renominated without opposition. In
+January 1845, however, he refused in a public statement to obey a
+resolution (28th of December 1844) of the state legislature directing
+him and his New Hampshire associates in Congress to support the cause of
+the annexation of Texas, a Democratic measure which Hale regarded as
+being distinctively in the interest of slavery. The Democratic State
+convention was at once reassembled, Hale was denounced, and his
+nomination withdrawn. In the election which followed Hale ran
+independently, and, although the Democratic candidates were elected in
+the other three congressional districts of the state, his vote was large
+enough to prevent any choice (for which a majority was necessary) in his
+own. Hale then set out in the face of apparently hopeless odds to win
+over his state to the anti-slavery cause. The remarkable canvass which
+he conducted is known in the history of New Hampshire as the "Hale
+Storm of 1845." The election resulted in the choice of a legislature
+controlled by the Whigs and the independent Democrats, he himself being
+chosen as a member of the state House of Representatives, of which in
+1846 he was speaker. He is remembered, however, chiefly for his long
+service in the United States Senate, of which he was a member from 1847
+to 1853 and again from 1855 to 1865. At first he was the only
+out-and-out anti-slavery senator,--he alone prevented the vote of thanks
+to General Taylor and General Scott for their Mexican war victories from
+being made unanimous in the Senate (February 1848)--but in 1849 Salmon
+P. Chase and William H. Seward, and in 1851 Charles Sumner joined him,
+and the anti-slavery cause became for the first time a force to be
+reckoned with in that body. In October 1847 he had been nominated for
+president by the Liberty party, but he withdrew in favour of Martin Van
+Buren, the Free Soil candidate, in 1848. In 1851 he was senior counsel
+for the rescuers of the slave Shadrach in Boston. In 1852 he was the
+Free Soil candidate for the presidency, but received only 156,149 votes.
+In 1850 he secured the abolition of flogging in the U.S. navy, and
+through his efforts in 1862 the spirit ration in the navy was abolished.
+He was one of the organizers of the Republican party, and during the
+Civil War was an eloquent supporter of the Union and chairman of the
+Senate naval committee. From 1865 to 1869 he was United States minister
+to Spain. He died at Dover, New Hampshire, on the 19th of December 1873.
+A statue of Hale, presented by his son-in-law William Eaton Chandler (b.
+1835), U.S. senator from New Hampshire in 1887-1901, was erected in
+front of the Capitol in Concord, New Hampshire, in 1892.
+
+
+
+
+HALE, SIR MATTHEW (1609-1676), lord chief justice of England, was born
+on the 1st of November 1609 at Alderley in Gloucestershire, where his
+father, a retired barrister, had a small estate. His paternal
+grandfather was a rich clothier of Wotton-under-Edge; on his mother's
+side he was connected with the noble family of the Poyntzes of Acton.
+Left an orphan when five years old, he was placed by his guardian under
+the care of the Puritan vicar of Wotton-under-Edge, with whom he
+remained till he attained his sixteenth year, when he entered Magdalen
+Hall, Oxford. At Oxford, Hale studied for several terms with a view to
+holy orders, but suddenly there came a change. The diligent student, at
+first attracted by a company of strolling players, threw aside his
+studies, and plunged carelessly into gay society. He soon decided to
+change his profession; and resolved to trail a pike as a soldier under
+the prince of Orange in the Low Countries. Before going abroad, however,
+Hale found himself obliged to proceed to London in order to give
+instructions for his defence in a legal action which threatened to
+deprive him of his patrimony. His leading counsel was the celebrated
+Serjeant Glanville (1586-1661), who, perceiving in the acuteness and
+sagacity of his youthful client a peculiar fitness for the legal
+profession, succeeded, with much difficulty, in inducing him to renounce
+his military for a legal career, and on the 8th of November 1629 Hale
+became a member of the honourable society of Lincoln's Inn.
+
+He immediately resumed his habits of intense application. The rules
+which he laid down for himself, and which are still extant in his
+handwriting, prescribe sixteen hours a day of close application, and
+prove, not only the great mental power, but also the extraordinary
+physical strength he must have possessed, and for which indeed, during
+his residence at the university, he had been remarkable. During the
+period allotted to his preliminary studies, he read over and over again
+all the yearbooks, reports, and law treatises in print, and at the Tower
+of London and other antiquarian repositories examined and carefully
+studied the records from the foundation of the English monarchy down to
+his own time. But Hale did not confine himself to law. He dedicated no
+small portion of his time to the study of pure mathematics, to
+investigations in physics and chemistry, and even to anatomy and
+architecture; and there can be no doubt that this varied learning
+enhanced considerably the value of many of his judicial decisions.
+
+Hale was called to the bar in 1637, and almost at once found himself in
+full practice. Though neither a fluent speaker nor bold pleader, in a
+very few years he was at the head of his profession. He entered public
+life at perhaps the most critical period of English history. Two parties
+were contending in the state, and their obstinacy could not fail to
+produce a most direful collision. But amidst the confusion Hale steered
+a middle course, rising in reputation, and an object of solicitation
+from both parties. Taking Pomponius Atticus as his political model, he
+was persuaded that a man, a lawyer and a judge could best serve his
+country and benefit his countrymen by holding aloof from partisanship
+and its violent prejudices, which are so apt to distort and confuse the
+judgment. But he is best vindicated from the charges of selfishness and
+cowardice by the thoughts and meditations contained in his private
+diaries and papers, where the purity and honour of his motives are
+clearly seen. It has been said, but without certainty, that Hale was
+engaged as counsel for the earl of Strafford; he certainly acted for
+Archbishop Laud, Lord Maguire, Christopher Love, the duke of Hamilton
+and others. It is also said that he was ready to plead on the side of
+Charles I. had that monarch submitted to the court. The parliament
+having gained the ascendancy, Hale signed the Solemn League and
+Covenant, and was a member of the famous assembly of divines at
+Westminster in 1644; but although he would undoubtedly have preferred a
+Presbyterian form of church government, he had no serious objection to
+the system of modified Episcopacy, proposed by Usher. Consistently with
+his desire to remain neutral, Hale took the engagement to the
+Commonwealth as he had done to the king, and in 1653, already serjeant,
+he became a judge in the court of common pleas. Two years afterwards he
+sat in Cromwell's parliament as one of the members for Gloucestershire.
+After the death of the protector, however, he declined to act as a judge
+under Richard Cromwell, although he represented Oxford in Richard's
+parliament. At the Restoration in 1660 Hale was very graciously received
+by Charles II., and in the same year was appointed chief baron of the
+exchequer, and accepted, with extreme reluctance, the honour of
+knighthood. After holding the office of chief baron for eleven years he
+was raised to the higher dignity of lord chief justice, which he held
+till February 1676, when his failing health compelled him to resign. He
+retired to his native Alderley, where he died on the 25th of December of
+the same year. He was twice married and survived all his ten children
+save two.
+
+As a judge Sir Matthew Hale discharged his duties with resolute
+independence and careful diligence. His sincere piety made him the
+intimate friend of Isaac Barrow, Archbishop Tillotson, Bishop Wilkins
+and Bishop Stillingfleet, as well as of the Nonconformist leader,
+Richard Baxter. He is chargeable, however, with the condemnation and
+execution of two poor women tried before him for witchcraft in 1664, a
+kind of judicial murder then falling under disuse. He is also reproached
+with having hastened the execution of a soldier for whom he had reason
+to believe a pardon was preparing.
+
+  Of Hale's legal works the only two of importance are his _Historia
+  placitorum coronae, or History of the Pleas of the Crown_ (1736); and
+  the _History of the Common Law of England, with an Analysis of the
+  Law_, &c. (1713). Among his numerous religious writings the
+  _Contemplations, Moral and Divine_, occupy the first place. Others are
+  _The Primitive Origination of Man_ (1677); _Of the Nature of True
+  Religion_, &c. (1684); _A Brief Abstract of the Christian Religion_
+  (1688). One of his most popular works is the collection of _Letters of
+  Advice to his Children and Grandchildren_. He also wrote an _Essay
+  touching the Gravitation or Nongravitation of Fluid Bodies_ (1673);
+  _Difficiles Nugae, or Observations touching the Torricellian
+  Experiment_, &c. (1675); and a translation of the _Life of Pomponius
+  Atticus_, by Cornelius Nepos (1677). His efforts in poetry were
+  inauspicious. He left his valuable collection of MSS. and records to
+  the library of Lincoln's Inn. His life has been written by G. Burnet
+  (1682); by J. B. Williams (1835); by H. Roscoe, in his _Lives of
+  Eminent Lawyers_, in 1838; by Lord Campbell, in his _Lives of the
+  Chief Justices_, in 1849; and by E. Foss in his _Lives of the Judges_
+  (1848-1870).
+
+
+
+
+HALE, NATHAN (1756-1776). American hero of the War of Independence, was
+born at Coventry, Conn., and educated at Yale, then becoming a school
+teacher. He joined a Connecticut regiment after the breaking out of the
+war, and served in the siege of Boston, being commissioned a captain at
+the opening of 1776. When Heath's brigade departed for New York he went
+with them, and the tradition is that he was one of a small and daring
+band who captured an English provision sloop from under the very guns of
+a man-of-war. But on the 21st of September, having volunteered to enter
+the British lines to obtain information concerning the enemy, he was
+captured in his disguise of a Dutch school-teacher and on the 22nd was
+hanged. The penalty was in accordance with military law, but young
+Hale's act was a brave one, and he has always been glorified as a
+martyr. Tradition attributes to him the saying that he only regretted
+that he had but one life to lose for his country; and it is said that
+his request for a Bible and the services of a minister was refused by
+his captors. There is a fine statue of Hale by Macmonnies in New York.
+
+  See H. P. Johnston, _Nathan Hale_ (1901).
+
+
+
+
+HALE, WILLIAM GARDNER (1849-   ), American classical scholar, was born
+on the 9th of February 1849 in Savannah, Georgia. He graduated at
+Harvard University in 1870, and took a post-graduate course in
+philosophy there in 1874-1876; studied classical philology at Leipzig
+and Göttingen in 1876-1877; was tutor in Latin at Harvard from 1877 to
+1880, and professor of Latin in Cornell University from 1880 to 1892,
+when he became professor of Latin and head of the Latin department of
+the University of Chicago. From 1894 to 1899 he was chairman and in
+1895-1896 first director of the American School of Classical Studies at
+Rome. He is best known as an original teacher on questions of syntax. In
+The _Cum-Constructions: Their History and Functions_, which appeared in
+_Cornell University Studies in Classical Philology_ (1888-1889; and in
+German version by Neizert in 1891), he attacked Hoffmann's distinction
+between absolute and relative temporal clauses as published in
+_Lateinische Zeitpartikeln_ (1874); Hoffmann replied in 1891, and the
+best summary of the controversy is in Wetzel's _Der Streit zwischen
+Hoffmann und Hale_ (1892). Hale wrote also _The Sequence of Tenses in
+Latin_ (1887-1888), _The Anticipatory Subjunctive in Greek and Latin_
+(1894), and a _Latin Grammar_ (1903), to which the parts on sounds,
+inflection and word-formation were contributed by Carl Darling Buck.
+
+
+
+
+HALEBID, a village in Mysore state, southern India; pop. (1901), 1524.
+The name means "old capital," being the site of Dorasamudra, the capital
+of the Hoysala dynasty founded early in the 11th century. In 1310 and
+again in 1326 it was taken and plundered by the first Mahommedan invader
+of southern India. Two temples, still standing, though never completed
+and greatly ruined, are regarded as the finest examples of the
+elaborately carved Chalukyan style of architecture.
+
+
+
+
+HALES, or HAYLES, JOHN (d. 1571), English writer and politician, was a
+son of Thomas Hales of Hales Place, Halden, Kent. He wrote his _Highway
+to Nobility_ about 1543, and was the founder of a free school at
+Coventry for which he wrote _Introductiones ad grammaticam_. In
+political life Hales, who was member of parliament for Preston, was
+specially concerned with opposing the enclosure of land, being the most
+active of the commissioners appointed in 1548 to redress this evil; but
+he failed to carry several remedial measures through parliament. When
+the protector, the duke of Somerset, was deprived of his authority in
+1550, Hales left England and lived for some time at Strassburg and
+Frankfort, returning to his own country on the accession of Elizabeth.
+However he soon lost the royal favour by writing a pamphlet, _A
+Declaration of the Succession of the Crowne Imperiall of Inglande_,
+which declared that the recent marriage between Lady Catherine Grey and
+Edward Seymour, earl of Hertford, was legitimate, and asserted that,
+failing direct heirs to Elizabeth, the English crown should come to Lady
+Catherine as the descendant of Mary, daughter of Henry VII. The author
+was imprisoned, but was quickly released, and died on the 28th of
+December 1571. The _Discourse of the Common Weal_, described as "one of
+the most informing documents of the age," and written about 1549, has
+been attributed to Hales. This has been edited by E. Lamond (Cambridge,
+1893).
+
+Hales is often confused with another John Hales, who was clerk of the
+hanaper under Henry VIII. and his three immediate successors.
+
+
+
+
+HALES, JOHN (1584-1656), English scholar, frequently referred to as "the
+ever memorable," was born at Bath on the 19th of April 1584, and was
+educated at Corpus Christi College, Oxford. He was elected a fellow of
+Merton in 1605, and in 1612 he was appointed public lecturer on Greek.
+In 1613 he was made a fellow of Eton. Five years later he went to
+Holland, as chaplain to the English ambassador, Sir Dudley Carleton, who
+despatched him to Dort to report upon the proceedings of the synod then
+sitting. In 1619 he returned to Eton and spent his time among his books
+and in the company of literary men, among whom he was highly reputed for
+his common sense, his erudition and his genial charity. Andrew Marvell
+called him "one of the clearest heads and best-prepared breasts in
+Christendom." His eirenical tract entitled _Schism and Schismaticks_
+(1636) fell into the hands of Archbishop Laud, and Hales, hearing that
+he had disapproved of it, is said to have written to the prelate a
+vindication of his position. This led to a meeting, and in 1639 Hales
+was made one of Laud's chaplains and also a canon of Windsor. In 1642 he
+was deprived of his canonry by the parliamentary committee, and two
+years later was obliged to hide in Eton with the college documents and
+keys. In 1649 he refused to take the "Engagement" and was ejected from
+his fellowship. He then retired to Buckinghamshire, where he found a
+home with Mrs Salter, the sister of the bishop of Salisbury (Brian
+Duppa), and acted as tutor to her son. The issue of the order against
+harbouring malignants led him to return to Eton. Here, having sold his
+valuable library at great sacrifice, he lived in poverty until his death
+on the 19th of May 1656.
+
+  His collected works (3 vols.) were edited by Lord Hailes, and
+  published in 1765.
+
+
+
+
+HALES, STEPHEN (1677-1761), English physiologist, chemist and inventor,
+was born at Bekesbourne in Kent on the 7th or 17th of September 1677,
+the fifth (or sixth) son of Thomas Hales, whose father, Sir Robert
+Hales, was created a baronet by Charles II. in 1670. In June 1696 he was
+entered as a pensioner of Benet (now Corpus Christi) College, Cambridge,
+with the view of taking holy orders, and in February 1703 was admitted
+to a fellowship. He received the degree of master of arts in 1703 and of
+bachelor of divinity in 1711. One of his most intimate friends was
+William Stukeley (1687-1765) with whom he studied anatomy, chemistry,
+&c. In 1708-1709 Hales was presented to the perpetual curacy of
+Teddington in Middlesex, where he remained all his life, notwithstanding
+that he was subsequently appointed rector of Porlock in Somerset, and
+later of Faringdon in Hampshire. In 1717 he was elected fellow of the
+Royal Society, which awarded him the Copley medal in 1739. In 1732 he
+was named one of a committee for establishing a colony in Georgia, and
+the next year he received the degree of doctor of divinity from Oxford.
+He was appointed almoner to the princess-dowager of Wales in 1750. On
+the death of Sir Hans Sloane in 1753, Hales was chosen foreign associate
+of the French Academy of Sciences. He died at Teddington on the 4th of
+January 1761.
+
+Hales is best known for his _Statical Essays_. The first volume,
+_Vegetable Staticks_ (1727), contains an account of numerous experiments
+in plant-physiology--the loss of water in plants by evaporation, the
+rate of growth of shoots and leaves, variations in root-force at
+different times of the day, &c. Considering it very probable that plants
+draw "through their leaves some part of their nourishment from the air,"
+he undertook experiments to show in "how great a proportion air is
+wrought into the composition of animal, vegetable and mineral
+substances"; though this "analysis of the air" did not lead him to any
+very clear ideas about the composition of the atmosphere, in the course
+of his inquiries he collected gases over water in vessels separate from
+those in which they were generated, and thus used what was to all
+intents and purposes a "pneumatic trough." The second volume (1733) on
+_Haemostaticks_, containing experiments on the "force of the blood" in
+various animals, its rate of flow, the capacity of the different
+vessels, &c., entitles him to be regarded as one of the originators of
+experimental physiology. But he did not confine his attention to
+abstract inquiries. The quest of a solvent for calculus in the bladder
+and kidneys was pursued by him as by others at the period, and he
+devised a form of forceps which, on the testimony of John Ranby
+(1703-1773), sergeant-surgeon to George II., extracted stones with
+"great ease and readiness." His observations of the evil effect of
+vitiated air caused him to devise a "ventilator" (a modified
+organ-bellows) by which fresh air could be conveyed into gaols,
+hospitals, ships'-holds, &c.; this apparatus was successful in reducing
+the mortality in the Savoy prison, and it was introduced into France by
+the aid of H. L. Duhamel du Monceau. Among other things Hales invented a
+"sea-gauge" for sounding, and processes for distilling fresh from sea
+water, for preserving corn from weevils by fumigation with brimstone,
+and for salting animals whole by passing brine into their arteries. His
+_Admonition to the Drinkers of Gin, Brandy, &c._, published anonymously
+in 1734, has been several times reprinted.
+
+
+
+
+HALESOWEN, a market town in the Oldbury parliamentary division of
+Worcestershire, England, on a branch line of the Great Western and
+Midland railways, 6½ m. W.S.W. of Birmingham. Pop. (1901), 4057. It lies
+in a pleasant country among the eastern foothills of the Lickey Hills.
+There are extensive iron and steel manufactures. The church of SS Mary
+and John the Baptist has rude Norman portions; and the poet William
+Shenstone, buried in 1763 in the churchyard, has a memorial in the
+church. His delight in landscape gardening is exemplified in the
+neighbouring estate of the Leasowes, which was his property. There is a
+grammar school founded in 1652, and in the neighbourhood is the
+Methodist foundation of Bourne College (1883). Close to the town, on the
+river Stour, which rises in the vicinity, are slight ruins of a
+Premonstratensian abbey of Early English date. Within the parish and 2
+m. N.W. of Halesowen is Cradley, with iron and steel works, fire-clay
+works and a large nail and chain industry.
+
+
+
+
+HALEVI, JUDAH BEN SAMUEL (c. 1085-c. 1140), the greatest Hebrew poet of
+the middle ages, was born in Toledo c. 1085, and died in Palestine after
+1140. In his youth he wrote Hebrew love poems of exquisite fancy, and
+several of his Wedding Odes are included in the liturgy of the
+Synagogue. The mystical connexion between marital affection and the love
+of God had, in the view of older exegesis, already expressed itself in
+the scriptural _Song of Songs_ and Judah Halevi used this book as his
+model. In this aspect of his work he found inspiration also in Arabic
+predecessors. The second period of his literary career was devoted to
+more serious pursuits. He wrote a philosophical dialogue in five books,
+called the _Cuzari_, which has been translated into English by
+Hirschfeld. This book bases itself on the historical fact that the
+Crimean Kingdom of the Khazars adopted Judaism, and the Hebrew
+poet-philosopher describes what he conceives to be the steps by which
+the Khazar king satisfied himself as to the claims of Judaism. Like many
+other medieval Jewish authors, Judah Halevi was a physician. His real
+fame depends on his liturgical hymns, which are the finest written in
+Hebrew since the Psalter, and are extensively used in the Septardic
+rite. A striking feature of his thought was his devotion to Jerusalem.
+To the love of the Holy City he devoted his noblest genius, and he wrote
+some memorable Odes to Zion, which have been commemorated by Heine, and
+doubly appreciated recently under the impulse of Zionism (q.v.). He
+started for Jerusalem, was in Damascus in 1140, and soon afterwards
+died. Legend has it that he was slain by an Arab horseman just as he
+arrived within sight of what Heine called his "Woebegone poor darling,
+Desolation's very image,--Jerusalem."
+
+  Excellent English renderings of some of Judah Halevi's poems may be
+  read in Mrs H. Lucas's _The Jewish Year_, and Mrs R. N. Solomon's
+  _Songs of Exile_.     (I. A.)
+
+
+
+
+HALÉVY, JACQUES FRANÇOIS FROMENTAL ÉLIE (1799-1862), French composer,
+was born on the 27th of May 1799, at Paris, of a Jewish family. He
+studied at the Paris Conservatoire under Berton and Cherubini, and in
+1819 gained the grand prix de Rome with his cantata _Herminie_. In
+accordance with the conditions of his scholarship he started for Rome,
+where he devoted himself to the study of Italian music, and wrote an
+opera and various minor works. In 1827 his opera _L'Artisan_ was
+performed at the Théâtre Feydeau in Paris, apparently without much
+success. Other works of minor importance, and now forgotten, followed,
+amongst which _Manon Lescaut_, a ballet, produced in 1830, deserves
+mention. In 1834 the Opéra-Comique produced _Ludovic_, the score of
+which had been begun by Hérold and had been completed by Halévy. In 1835
+Halévy composed the tragic opera _La Juive_ and the comic opera
+_L'Éclair_, and on these works his fame is mainly founded. The famous
+air of Eléazar and the anathema of the cardinal in _La Juive_ soon
+became popular all over France. _L'Éclair_ is a curiosity of musical
+literature. It is written for two tenors and two soprani, without a
+chorus, and displays the composer's mastery over the most refined
+effects of instrumentation and vocalization in a favourable light. After
+these two works he wrote numerous operas of various genres, amongst
+which only _La Reine de Chypre_, a spectacular piece analyzed by Wagner
+in one of his Paris letters (1841), and _La Tempesta_, in three acts,
+written for Her Majesty's theatre, London (1850), need be mentioned. In
+addition to his productive work Halévy also rendered valuable services
+as a teacher. He was professor at the Conservatoire from 1827 till his
+death--some of the most successful amongst the younger composers in
+France, such as Gounod, Victor Massé and Georges Bizet, the author of
+_Carmen_, being amongst his pupils. He was _maestro al cembalo_ at the
+Théâtre Italien from 1827 to 1829; then director of singing at the Opera
+House in Paris until 1845, and in 1836 he succeeded Reicha at the
+Institut de France. Halévy also tried his hand at literature. In 1857 he
+became permanent secretary to the Académie des Beaux Arts, and there
+exists an agreeable volume of _Souvenirs et portraits_ from his pen. He
+died at Nice, on the 17th of March 1862.
+
+
+
+
+HALÉVY, LUDOVIC (1834-1908), French author, was born in Paris on the 1st
+of January 1834. His father, Léon Halévy (1802-1883), was a clever and
+versatile writer, who tried almost every branch of literature--prose and
+verse, vaudeville, drama, history--without, however, achieving decisive
+success in any. His uncle, J. F. Fromental E. Halévy (q.v.), was for
+many years associated with the opéra; hence the double and early
+connexion of Ludovic Halévy with the Parisian stage. At the age of six
+he might have been seen playing in that _Foyer de la danse_ with which
+he was to make his readers so familiar, and, when a boy of twelve, he
+would often, of a Sunday night, on his way back to the College Louis le
+Grand, look in at the Odéon, where he had free admittance, and see the
+first act of the new play. At eighteen he joined the ranks of the French
+administration and occupied various posts, the last being that of
+secrétaire-rédacteur to the Corps Législatif. In that capacity he
+enjoyed the special favour and friendship of the famous duke of Morny,
+then president of that assembly. In 1865 Ludovic Halévy's increasing
+popularity as an author enabled him to retire from the public service.
+Ten years earlier he had become acquainted with the musician Offenbach,
+who was about to start a small theatre of his own in the Champs Élysées,
+and he wrote a sort of prologue, _Entrez, messieurs, mesdames_, for the
+opening night. Other little productions followed, _Ba-ta-clan_ being the
+most noticeable among them. They were produced under the pseudonym of
+Jules Servières. The name of Ludovic Halévy appeared for the first time
+on the bills on the 1st of January 1856. Soon afterwards the
+unprecedented run of _Orphée aux enfers_, a musical parody, written in
+collaboration with Hector Crémieux, made his name famous. In the spring
+of 1860 he was commissioned to write a play for the manager of the
+Variétés in conjunction with another vaudevillist, Lambert Thiboust. The
+latter having abruptly retired from the collaboration, Halévy was at a
+loss how to carry out the contract, when on the steps of the theatre he
+met Henri Meilhac (1831-1897), then comparatively a stranger to him. He
+proposed to Meilhac the task rejected by Lambert Thiboust, and the
+proposal was immediately accepted. Thus began a connexion which was to
+last over twenty years, and which proved most fruitful both for the
+reputation of the two authors and the prosperity of the minor Paris
+theatres. Their joint works may be divided into three classes: the
+_opérettes_, the farces, the comedies. The _opérettes_ afforded
+excellent opportunities to a gifted musician for the display of his
+peculiar humour. They were broad and lively libels against the society
+of the time, but savoured strongly of the vices and follies they were
+supposed to satirize. Amongst the most celebrated works of the joint
+authors were _La Belle Hélène_ (1864), _Barbe Bleue_ (1866), _La Grande
+Duchesse de Gerolstein_ (1867), and _La Périchole_ (1868). After 1870
+the vogue of Parody rapidly declined. The decadence became still more
+apparent when Offenbach was no longer at hand to assist the two authors
+with his quaint musical irony, and when they had to deal with
+interpreters almost destitute of singing powers. They wrote farces of
+the old type, consisting of complicated intrigues, with which they
+cleverly interwove the representation of contemporary whims and social
+oddities. They generally failed when they attempted comedies of a more
+serious character and tried to introduce a higher sort of emotion. A
+solitary exception must be made in the case of _Frou-frou_ (1869),
+which, owing perhaps to the admirable talent of Aimée Desclée, remains
+their unique _succès de larmes_.
+
+Meilhac and Halévy will be found at their best in light sketches of
+Parisian life, _Les Sonnettes_, _Le Roi Candaule_, _Madame attend
+Monsieur_, _Toto chez Tata_. In that intimate association between the
+two men who had met so opportunely on the _perron des variétés_, it was
+often asked who was the leading partner. The question was not answered
+until the connexion was finally severed and they stood before the
+public, each to answer for his own work. It was then apparent that they
+had many gifts in common. Both had wit, humour, observation of
+character. Meilhac had a ready imagination, a rich and whimsical fancy;
+Halévy had taste, refinement and pathos of a certain kind. Not less
+clever than his brilliant comrade, he was more human. Of this he gave
+evidence in two delightful books, _Monsieur et Madame Cardinal_ (1873)
+and _Les Petites Cardinal_, in which the lowest orders of the Parisian
+middle class are faithfully described. The pompous, pedantic, venomous
+Monsieur Cardinal will long survive as the true image of sententious and
+self-glorifying immorality. M. Halévy's peculiar qualities are even more
+visible in the simple and striking scenes of the _Invasion_, published
+soon after the conclusion of the Franco-German War, in _Criquette_
+(1883) and _L'Abbé Constantin_ (1882), two novels, the latter of which
+went through innumerable editions. Zola had presented to the public an
+almost exclusive combination of bad men and women; in _L'Abbé
+Constantin_ all are kind and good, and the change was eagerly welcomed
+by the public. Some enthusiasts still maintain that the _Abbé_ will rank
+permanently in literature by the side of the equally chimerical _Vicar
+of Wakefield_. At any rate, it opened for M. Ludovic Halévy the doors of
+the French Academy, to which he was elected in 1884.
+
+Halévy remained an assiduous frequenter of the Academy, the
+Conservatoire, the Comédie Française, and the Society of Dramatic
+Authors, but, when he died in Paris on the 8th of May 1908, he had
+produced practically nothing new for many years. His last romance, _Kari
+Kari_, appeared in 1892.
+
+  The _Théâtre_ of MM. Meilhac and Halévy was published in 8 vols.
+  (1900-1902).
+
+
+
+
+HALFPENNY, WILLIAM, English 18th-century architectural designer--he
+described himself as "architect and carpenter." He was also known as
+Michael Hoare; but whether his real name was William Halfpenny or
+Michael Hoare is uncertain. His books, of which he published a score,
+deal almost entirely with domestic architecture, and especially with
+country houses in those Gothic and Chinese fashions which were so
+greatly in vogue in the middle of the 18th century. His most important
+publications, from the point of view of their effect upon taste, were
+_New Designs for Chinese Temples_, in four parts (1750-1752); _Rural
+Architecture in the Gothic Taste_ (1752); _Chinese and Gothic
+Architecture Properly Ornamented_ (1752); and _Rural Architecture in the
+Chinese Taste_ (1750-1752). These four books were produced in
+collaboration with John Halfpenny, who is said to have been his son.
+_New Designs for Chinese Temples_ is a volume of some significance in
+the history of furniture, since, having been published some years before
+the books of Thomas Chippendale and Sir Thomas Chambers, it disproves
+the statement so often made that those designers introduced the Chinese
+taste into this country. Halfpenny states distinctly that "the Chinese
+manner" had been "already introduced here with success." The work of the
+Halfpennys was by no means all contemptible. It is sometimes distinctly
+graceful, but is marked by little originality.
+
+
+
+
+HALF-TIMBER WORK, an architectural term given to those buildings in
+which the framework is of timber with vertical studs and cross pieces
+filled in between with brickwork, rubble masonry or plaster work on oak
+laths; in the first two, brick nogging or nogging are the terms
+occasionally employed (see CARPENTRY). Sometimes the timber structure is
+raised on a stone or brick foundation, as at Ledbury town hall in
+Herefordshire, where the lower storey is open on all sides; but more
+often it is raised on a ground storey, either in brick or stone, and in
+order to give additional size to the upper rooms projects forward, being
+carried on the floor joists. Sometimes the masonry or brickwork rises
+through two or three storeys and the half-brick work is confined to the
+gables. There seems to be some difference of opinion as to whether the
+term applies to the mixture of solid walling with the timber structure
+or to the alternation of wood posts and the filling in, but the latter
+definition is that which is generally understood. The half-timber
+throughout England is of the most picturesque description, and the
+earliest examples date from towards the close of the 15th century. In
+the earliest example, Newgate House, York (c. 1450), the timber framing
+is raised over the ground floor. The finest specimen is perhaps that of
+Moreton Old Hall, Cheshire (1570), where there is only a stone
+foundation about 12 in. high, and the same applies to Bramall Hall, near
+Manchester, portions of which are very early. Among other examples are
+Speke Hall, Lancashire; Park Hall, Shropshire (1553-1558); Hall i' th'
+Wood, Lancashire (1591); St Peter's Hospital, Bristol (1607); the Ludlow
+Feather's Inn (1610); many of the streets at Chester and Shrewsbury; the
+Sparrowe's Home, Ipswich; and Staple Inn, Holborn, from which in recent
+years the plaster coat which was put on many years ago has been removed,
+displaying the ancient woodwork. A similar fate has overtaken a very
+large number of half-timber buildings to keep out the driving winds;
+thus in Lewes nearly all the half-timbered houses have had slates hung
+on the timbers, others tiles, the greater number having been covered
+with plaster or stucco. Although there are probably many more
+half-timber houses in England than on the continent of Europe, in the
+north of France and in Germany are examples in many of the principal
+towns, and in some cases in better preservation than in England. They
+are also enriched with carving of a purer and better type, especially in
+France; thus at Chartres, Angers, Rouen, Caen, Lisieux, Bayeux, St Lô
+and Beauvais, are many extremely fine examples of late Flamboyant and
+early Transitional examples. Again on the borders of the Rhine in all
+the small towns most of the houses are in half-timber work, the best
+examples being at Bacharach, Rhense and Boppart. Far more elaborate
+examples, however, are found in the vicinity of the Harz Mountains; the
+supply of timber from the forests there being very abundant; thus at
+Goslar, Wernigerode and Quedlingburg there is an endless variety, as
+also farther on at Gelnhausen and Hameln, the finest series of all being
+at Hildesheim. In Bavaria at Nuremberg, Rothenburg and Dinkelsbühl,
+half-timber houses dating from the 16th century are still well
+preserved; and throughout Switzerland the houses constructed in timber
+and plaster are the most characteristic features of the country.
+
+
+
+
+HALFWAY COVENANT, an expedient adopted in the Congregational churches of
+New England between 1657 and 1662. Under its terms baptized persons of
+moral life and orthodox belief might receive the privilege of baptism
+for their children and other church benefits, without the full enrolment
+in membership which admitted them to the communion of the Lord's Supper.
+
+  See CONGREGATIONALISM: _American_.
+
+
+
+
+HALHED, NATHANIEL BRASSEY (1751-1830), English Orientalist and
+philologist, was born at Westminster on the 25th of May 1751. He was
+educated at Harrow, where he began his intimacy with Richard Brinsley
+Sheridan (see SHERIDAN FAMILY) continued after he entered Christ Church,
+Oxford, where, also, he made the acquaintance of Sir William Jones, the
+famous Orientalist, who induced him to study Arabic. Accepting a
+writership in the service of the East India Company, Halhed went out to
+India, and here, at the suggestion of Warren Hastings, by whose orders
+it had been compiled, translated the Gentoo code from a Persian version
+of the original Sanskrit. This translation was published in 1776 under
+the title _A Code of Gentoo Laws_. In 1778 he published a Bengali
+grammar, to print which he set up, at Hugli, the first press in India.
+It is claimed for him that he was the first writer to call attention to
+the philological connexion of Sanskrit with Persian, Arabic, Greek and
+Latin. In 1785 he returned to England, and from 1790-1795 was M.P. for
+Lymington, Hants. For some time he was a disciple of Richard Brothers
+(q.v.), and his unwise speech in parliament in defence of Brothers made
+it impossible for him to remain in the House, from which he resigned in
+1795. He subsequently obtained a home appointment under the East India
+Company. He died in London on the 18th of February 1830.
+
+  His collection of Oriental manuscripts was purchased by the British
+  Museum, and there is an unfinished translation by him of the
+  _Mahabharata_ in the library of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.
+
+
+
+
+HALIBURTON, THOMAS CHANDLER (1796-1865), British writer, long a judge of
+Nova Scotia, was born at Windsor, Nova Scotia, in 1796, and received his
+education there, at King's College. He was called to the bar in 1820,
+and became a member of the House of Assembly. He distinguished himself
+as a barrister, and in 1828 was promoted to the bench as a chief-justice
+of the common pleas. In 1829 he published _An Historical and Statistical
+Account of Nova Scotia_. But it is as a brilliant humourist and satirist
+that he is remembered, in connexion with his fictitious character "Sam
+Slick." In 1835 he contributed anonymously to a local paper a series of
+letters professedly depicting the peculiarities of the genuine Yankee.
+These sketches, which abounded in clever picturings of national and
+individual character, drawn with great satirical humour, were collected
+in 1837, and published under the title of _The Clockmaker, or Sayings
+and Doings of Samuel Slick of Slickville_. A second series followed in
+1838, and a third in 1840. _The Attaché, or Sam Slick in England_
+(1843-1844), was the result of a visit there in 1841. His other works
+include: _The Old Judge, or Life in a Colony_ (1843); _The Letter Bag of
+the Great Western_ (1839); _Rule and Misrule of the English in America_
+(1851); _Traits of American Humour_ (1852); and _Nature and Human
+Nature_ (1855).
+
+Meanwhile he continued to secure popular esteem in his judicial
+capacity. In 1840 he was promoted to be a judge of the supreme court;
+but within two years he resigned his seat on the bench, removed to
+England, and in 1859 entered parliament as the representative of
+Launceston, in the Conservative interest. But the tenure of his seat for
+Launceston was brought to an end by the dissolution of the parliament in
+1865, and he did not again offer himself to the constituency. He died on
+the 27th of August of the same year, at Gordon House, Isleworth,
+Middlesex.
+
+  A memoir of Haliburton, by F. Blake Crofton, appeared in 1889.
+
+
+
+
+HALIBUT, or HOLIBUT (_Hippoglossus vulgaris_), the largest of all
+flat-fishes, growing to a length of 10 ft. or more, specimens of 5 ft.
+in length and of 100 [lb] in weight being frequently exposed for sale in
+the markets. Indeed, specimens under 2 ft. in length are very rarely
+caught, and singularly enough, no instance is known of a very young
+specimen having been obtained. Small ones are commonly called "chicken
+halibut." The halibut is much more frequent in the higher latitudes of
+the temperate zone than in its southern portion; it is a circumpolar
+species, being found on the northern coasts of America, Europe and Asia,
+extending in the Pacific southwards to California. On the British coasts
+it keeps at some distance from the shore, and is generally caught in
+from 50 to 150 fathoms. Its flesh is generally considered coarse, but it
+is white and firm, and when properly served is excellent for the table.
+The name is derived from "holy" (M.E. _haly_), and recalls its use for
+food on holy days.
+
+
+
+
+HALICARNASSUS (mod. _Budrum_), an ancient Greek city on the S.W. coast
+of Caria, Asia Minor, on a picturesque and advantageous site on the
+Ceramic Gulf or Gulf of Cos. It originally occupied only the small
+island of Zephyria close to the shore, now occupied by the great castle
+of St Peter, built by the Knights of Rhodes in 1404; but in course of
+time this island was united to the mainland and the city extended so as
+to incorporate Salmacis, an older town of the Leleges and Carians.
+
+About the foundation of Halicarnassus various traditions were current;
+but they agree in the main point as to its being a Dorian colony, and
+the figures on its coins, such as the head of Medusa, Athena and
+Poseidon, or the trident, support the statement that the mother cities
+were Troezen and Argos. The inhabitants appear to have accepted as their
+legendary founder Anthes, mentioned by Strabo, and were proud of the
+title of Antheadae. At an early period Halicarnassus was a member of the
+Doric Hexapolis, which included Cos, Cnidus, Lindus, Camirus and
+Ialysus; but one of the citizens, Agasicles, having taken home the prize
+tripod which he had won in the Triopian games instead of dedicating it
+according to custom to the Triopian Apollo, the city was cut off from
+the league. In the early 5th century Halicarnassus was under the sway of
+Artemisia, who made herself famous at the battle of Salamis. Of
+Pisindalis, her son and successor, little is known; but Lygdamis, who
+next attained to power, is notorious for having put to death the poet
+Panyasis and caused Herodotus, the greatest of Halicarnassians, to leave
+his native city (c. 457 B.C.). In the 5th century B.C. Halicarnassus and
+other Dorian cities of Asia were to some extent absorbed by the Delian
+League, but the peace of Antalcidas in 387 made them subservient to
+Persia; and it was under Mausolus, a Persian satrap who assumed
+independent authority, that Halicarnassus attained its highest
+prosperity. Struck by the natural strength and beauty of its position,
+Mausolus removed to Halicarnassus from Mylasa, increasing the population
+of the city by the inhabitants of six towns of the Leleges. He was
+succeeded by Artemisia, whose military ability was shown in the
+stratagem by which she captured the Rhodian vessels attacking her city,
+and whose magnificence and taste have been perpetuated by the
+"Mausoleum," the monument she erected to her husband's memory (see
+MAUSOLUS). One of her successors, Pixodarus, tried to ally himself with
+the rising power of Macedon, and is said to have gained the momentary
+consent of the young Alexander to wed his daughter. The marriage,
+however, was forbidden by Philip. Alexander, as soon as he had reduced
+Ionia, summoned Halicarnassus, where Memnon, the paramount satrap of
+Asia Minor, had taken refuge with the Persian fleet, to surrender; and
+on its refusal took the city after hard fighting and devastated it, but
+not being able to reduce the citadel, was forced to leave it blockaded.
+He handed the government of the city back to the family of Mausolus, as
+represented by Ada, sister of the latter. Not long afterwards we find
+the citizens receiving the present of a gymnasium from Ptolemy, and
+building in his honour a stoa or portico; but the city never recovered
+altogether from the disasters of the siege, and Cicero describes it as
+almost deserted. The site is now occupied in part by the town of Budrum;
+but the ancient walls can still be traced round nearly all their
+circuit, and the position of several of the temples, the theatre, and
+other public buildings can be fixed with certainty.
+
+From the ruins of the Mausoleum sufficient has been recovered by the
+excavations carried out in 1857 by C. T. Newton to enable a fairly
+complete restoration of its design to be made. The building consisted of
+five parts--a basement or podium, a pteron or enclosure of columns, a
+pyramid, a pedestal and a chariot group. The basement, covering an area
+of 114 ft. by 92, was built of blocks of greenstone and cased with
+marble. Round the base of it were probably disposed groups of statuary.
+The pteron consisted (according to Pliny) of thirty-six columns of the
+Ionic order, enclosing a square _cella_. Between the columns probably
+stood single statues. From the portions that have been recovered, it
+appears that the principal frieze of the pteron represented combats of
+Greeks and Amazons. In addition to these, there are also many life-size
+fragments of animals, horsemen, &c., belonging probably to pedimental
+sculptures, but formerly supposed to be parts of minor friezes. Above
+the pteron rose the pyramid, mounting by 24 steps to an apex or
+pedestal. On this apex stood the chariot with the figure of Mausolus
+himself and an attendant. The height of the statue of Mausolus in the
+British Museum is 9 ft. 9½ in. without the plinth. The hair rising from
+the forehead falls in thick waves on each side of the face and descends
+nearly to the shoulder; the beard is short and close, the face square
+and massive, the eyes deep set under overhanging brows, the mouth well
+formed with settled calm about the lips. The drapery is grandly
+composed. All sorts of restorations of this famous monument have been
+proposed. The original one, made by Newton and Pullan, is obviously in
+error in many respects; and that of Oldfield, though to be preferred for
+its lightness (the Mausoleum was said anciently to be "suspended in
+mid-air"), does not satisfy the conditions postulated by the remains.
+The best on the whole is that of the veteran German architect, F. Adler,
+published in 1900; but fresh studies have since been made (see below).
+
+  See C T. Newton and R. P. Pullan, _History of Discoveries at
+  Halicarnassus_ (1862-1863); J. Fergusson, _The Mausoleum at
+  Halicarnassus_ restored (1862); E. Oldfield, "The Mausoleum," in
+  _Archaeologia_ (1895); F. Adler, _Mausoleum zu Halikarnass_ (1900); J.
+  P. Six in _Journ. Hell. Studies_ (1905); W. B. Dinsmoor, in _Amer.
+  Journ. of Arch._ (1908); J. J. Stevenson, _A Restoration of the
+  Mausoleum of Halicarnassus_ (1909); J. B. K. Preedy, "The Chariot
+  Group of the Mausoleum," in _Journ. Hell. Stud._, 1910.     (D. G. H.)
+
+
+
+
+HALICZ, a town of Austria, in Galicia, 70 m. by rail S.S.E. of Lemberg.
+Pop. (1900), 4809. It is situated at the confluence of the Luckow with
+the Dniester and its principal resources are the recovery of salt from
+the neighbouring brine wells, soap-making and the trade in timber. In
+the neighbourhood are the ruins of the old castle, the seat of the ruler
+of the former kingdom from which Galicia derived its Polish name.
+Halicz, which is mentioned in annals as early as 1113, was from 1141 to
+1255 the residence of the princes of that name, one of the
+principalities into which western Russia was then divided. The town was
+then much larger, as is shown by excavations in the neighbourhood made
+during the 19th century, and probably met its doom during the Mongol
+invasion of 1240. In 1349 it was incorporated in the kingdom of Poland.
+
+
+
+
+HALIFAX, CHARLES MONTAGUE, EARL OF (1661-1715), English statesman and
+poet, fourth son of the Hon. George Montague, fifth son of the first
+earl of Manchester, was born at Horton, Northamptonshire, on the 16th of
+April 1661. In his fourteenth year he was sent to Westminster school,
+where he was chosen king's scholar in 1677, and distinguished himself in
+the composition of extempore epigrams made according to custom upon
+theses appointed for king's scholars at the time of election. In 1679 he
+entered Trinity College, Cambridge, where he acquired a solid knowledge
+of the classics and surpassed all his contemporaries at the university
+in logic and ethics. Latterly, however, he preferred to the abstractions
+of Descartes the practical philosophy of Sir Isaac Newton; and he was
+one of the small band of students who assisted Newton in forming the
+Philosophical Society of Cambridge. But it was his facility in
+verse-writing, and neither his scholarship nor his practical ability,
+that first opened up to him the way to fortune. His clever but absurdly
+panegyrical poem on the death of Charles II. secured for him the notice
+of the earl of Dorset, who invited him to town and introduced him to the
+principal wits of the time; and in 1687 his joint authorship with Prior
+of the _Hind and Panther transversed to the Story of the Country Mouse
+and the City Mouse_, a parody of Dryden's political poem, not only
+increased his literary reputation but directly helped him to political
+influence.
+
+In 1689, through the patronage of the earl of Dorset, he entered
+parliament as member for Maldon, and sat in the convention which
+resolved that William and Mary should be declared king and queen of
+England. About this time he married the countess-dowager of Manchester,
+and it would appear, according to Johnson, that it was still his
+intention to take orders; but after the coronation he purchased a
+clerkship to the council. On being introduced by Earl Dorset to King
+William, after the publication of his poetical _Epistle occasioned by
+his Majesty's Victory in Ireland_, he was ordered to receive an
+immediate pension of £500 per annum, until an opportunity should present
+itself of "making a man of him." In 1691 he was chosen chairman of the
+committee of the House of Commons appointed to confer with a committee
+of the Lords in regard to the bill for regulating trials in cases of
+high treason; and he displayed in these conferences such tact and
+debating power that he was made one of the commissioners of the treasury
+and called to the privy council. But his success as a politician was
+less due to his oratorical gifts than to his skill in finance, and in
+this respect he soon began to manifest such brilliant talents as
+completely eclipsed the painstaking abilities of Godolphin. Indeed it
+may be affirmed that no other statesman has initiated schemes which have
+left a more permanent mark on the financial history of England. Although
+perhaps it was inevitable that England should sooner or later adopt the
+continental custom of lightening the annual taxation in times of war by
+contracting a national debt, the actual introduction of the expedient
+was due to Montague, who on the 15th of December 1692 proposed to raise
+a million of money by way of loan. Previous to this the Scotsman William
+Paterson (q.v.) had submitted to the government his plan of a national
+bank, and when in the spring of 1694 the prolonged contest with France
+had rendered another large loan absolutely necessary, Montague
+introduced a bill for the incorporation of the Bank of England. The bill
+after some opposition passed the House of Lords in May, and immediately
+after the prorogation of parliament Montague was rewarded by the
+chancellorship of the exchequer. In 1695 he was triumphantly returned
+for the borough of Westminster to the new parliament, and succeeded in
+passing his celebrated measure to remedy the depreciation which had
+taken place in the currency on account of dishonest manipulations. To
+provide for the expense of recoinage, Montague, instead of reviving the
+old tax of hearth money, introduced the window tax, and the difficulties
+caused by the temporary absence of a metallic currency were avoided by
+the issue for the first time of exchequer bills. His other expedients
+for meeting the emergencies of the financial crisis were equally
+successful, and the rapid restoration of public credit secured him a
+commanding influence both in the House of Commons and at the board of
+the treasury; but although Godolphin resigned office in October 1696,
+the king hesitated for some time between Montague and Sir Stephen Fox as
+his successor, and it was not till 1697 that the former was appointed
+first lord. In 1697 he was accused by Charles Duncombe, and in 1698 by a
+Col. Granville, of fraud, but both charges broke down, and Duncombe was
+shown to have been guilty of extreme dishonesty himself. In 1698 and
+1699 he acted as one of the council of regency during the king's absence
+from England. With the accumulation of his political successes his
+vanity and arrogance became, however, so offensive that latterly they
+utterly lost him the influence he had acquired by his administrative
+ability and his masterly eloquence; and when his power began to be on
+the wane he set the seal to his political overthrow by conferring the
+lucrative sinecure office of auditor of the exchequer on his brother in
+trust for himself should he be compelled to retire from power. This
+action earned him the offensive nickname of "Filcher," and for some time
+afterwards, in attempting to lead the House of Commons, he had to submit
+to constant mortifications, often verging on personal insults. After the
+return of the king in 1699 he resigned his offices in the government and
+succeeded his brother in the auditorship.
+
+On the accession of the Tories to power he was removed in 1701 to the
+House of Lords by the title of Lord Halifax. In the same year he was
+impeached for malpractices along with Lord Somers and the earls of
+Portland and Oxford, but all the charges were dismissed by the Lords;
+and in 1703 a second attempt to impeach him was still more unsuccessful.
+He continued out of office during the reign of Queen Anne, but in 1706
+he was named one of the commissioners to negotiate the union with
+Scotland; and after the passing of the Act of Settlement in favour of
+the house of Hanover, he was appointed ambassador to the elector's court
+to convey the insignia of order of the garter to George I. On the death
+of Anne (1714) he was appointed one of the council of regency until the
+arrival of the king from Hanover; and after the coronation he received
+the office of first lord of the treasury in the new ministry, being at
+the same time created earl of Halifax and Viscount Sunbury. He died on
+the 19th of May 1715 and left no issue. He was buried in the vault of
+the Albemarle family in Westminster Abbey. His nephew George (d. 1739)
+succeeded to the barony, and was created Viscount Sunbury and earl of
+Halifax in 1715.
+
+Montague's association with Prior in the travesty of Dryden's _Hind and
+Panther_ has no doubt largely aided in preserving his literary
+reputation; but he is perhaps indebted for it chiefly to his subsequent
+influential position and to the fulsome flattery of the men of letters
+who enjoyed his friendship, and who, in return for his liberal donations
+and the splendid banqueting which they occasionally enjoyed at his villa
+on the Thames, "fed him," as Pope says, "all day long with dedications."
+Swift says he gave them nothing but "good words, and good dinners."
+That, however, his beneficence to needy talent, if sometimes
+attributable to an itching ear for adulation, was at others prompted by
+a sincere appreciation of intellectual merit, is sufficiently attested
+by the manner in which he procured from Godolphin a commissionership for
+Addison, and also by his life-long intimacy with Newton, for whom he
+obtained the mastership of the mint. The small fragments of poetry which
+he left behind him, and which were almost solely the composition of his
+early years, display a certain facility and vigour of diction, but their
+thought and fancy are never more than commonplace, and not unfrequently
+in striving to be eloquent and impressive he is only grotesquely and
+extravagantly absurd. In administrative talent he was the superior of
+all his contemporaries, and his only rival in parliamentary eloquence
+was Somers; but the skill with which he managed measures was superior to
+his tact in dealing with men, and the effect of his brilliant financial
+successes on his reputation was gradually almost nullified by the
+affected arrogance of his manner and by the eccentricities of his
+sensitive vanity. So eager latterly was his thirst for fame and power
+that perhaps Marlborough did not exaggerate when he said that "he had no
+other principle but his ambition, so that he would put all in
+distraction rather than not gain his point."
+
+  Among the numerous notices of Halifax by contemporaries may be
+  mentioned the eulogistic reference which concludes Addison's account
+  of the "greatest of English poets"; the dedications by Steel to the
+  second volume of the _Spectator_ and to the fourth of the _Tatler_;
+  Pope's laudatory mention of him in the epilogue to his _Satires_ and
+  in the preface to the _Iliad_, and his portrait of him as "Full-blown
+  Bufo" in the _Epistle to Arbuthnot_. Various allusions to him are to
+  be found in Swift's works and in Marlborough's _Letters_. See also
+  Burnet's _History of his Own Times; The Parliamentary History_;
+  Howell's _State Trials_; Johnson's _Lives of the Poets_; and
+  Macaulay's _History of England_. His _Miscellaneous Works_ were
+  published at London in 1704; his _Life and Miscellaneous Works_ in
+  1715; and his _Poetical Works_, to which also his "Life" is attached,
+  in 1716. His poems were reprinted in the 9th volume of Johnson's
+  _English Poets_.
+
+
+
+
+HALIFAX, GEORGE MONTAGU DUNK, 2ND EARL OF (1716-1771), son of George
+Montagu, 1st earl of Halifax (of the second creation), was born on the
+5th or 6th of October 1716, becoming earl of Halifax on his father's
+death in 1739. Educated at Eton and at Trinity College, Cambridge, he
+was married in 1741 to Anne Richards (d. 1753), a lady who had inherited
+a great fortune from Sir Thomas Dunk, whose name was taken by Halifax.
+After having been an official in the household of Frederick, prince of
+Wales, the earl was made master of the buckhounds, and in 1748 he became
+president of the Board of Trade. While filling this position he helped
+to found Halifax, the capital of Nova Scotia, which was named after him,
+and in several ways he rendered good service to trade, especially with
+North America. About this time he sought to become a secretary of state,
+but in vain, although he was allowed to enter the cabinet in 1757. In
+March 1761 Halifax was appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland, and during
+part of the time which he held this office he was also first lord of the
+admiralty. He became secretary of state for the northern department
+under the earl of Bute in October 1762, retaining this post under George
+Grenville and being one of the three ministers to whom George III.
+entrusted the direction of affairs. He signed the general warrant under
+which Wilkes was arrested in 1763, for which action he was mulcted in
+damages by the courts of law in 1769, and he was mainly responsible for
+the exclusion of the name of the king's mother, Augusta, princess of
+Wales, from the Regency Bill of 1765. With his colleagues the earl left
+office in July 1765, returning to the cabinet as lord privy seal under
+his nephew, Lord North, in January 1770. He had just been transferred to
+his former position of secretary of state when he died on the 8th of
+June 1771. Halifax, who was lord-lieutenant of Northamptonshire and a
+lieutenant-general in the army, showed some disinterestedness in money
+matters, but was very extravagant. He left no children, and his titles
+became extinct on his death. Horace Walpole speaks slightingly of the
+earl, and says he and his mistress, Mary Anne Faulkner, "had sold every
+employment in his gift."
+
+  See the _Memoirs_ of his secretary, Richard Cumberland (1807).
+
+
+
+
+HALIFAX, GEORGE SAVILE, 1ST MARQUESS OF (1633-1695), English statesman
+and writer, great-grandson of Sir George Savile of Lupset and Thornhill
+in Yorkshire (created baronet in 1611), was the eldest son of Sir
+William Savile, 3rd baronet, who distinguished himself in the civil war
+in the royalist cause and who died in 1644, and of Anne, eldest daughter
+of Lord Keeper Coventry. He was thus nephew of Sir William Coventry, who
+is said to have influenced his political opinions, and of Lord
+Shaftesbury, afterwards his most bitter opponent, and great-nephew of
+the earl of Strafford; by his marriage with the Lady Dorothy Spencer, he
+was brother-in-law to Lord Sunderland. He entered public life with all
+the advantages of lineage, political connexions, great wealth and
+estates, and uncommon abilities. He was elected member of the Convention
+parliament for Pontefract in 1660, and this was his only appearance in
+the Lower House. A peerage was sought for him by the duke of York in
+1665, but was successfully opposed by Clarendon, on the ground of his
+"ill-reputation amongst men of piety and religion," the real motives of
+the chancellor's hostile attitude being probably Savile's connexion with
+Buckingham and Coventry. The honours were, however, only deferred for a
+short time and were obtained after the fall of Clarendon on the 31st of
+December 1667,[1] when Savile was created Baron Savile of Eland and
+Viscount Halifax.
+
+He supported zealously the anti-French policy formulated in the Triple
+Alliance of January 1668. He was at this time in favour at court, was
+created a privy councillor in 1672, and, while ignorant of the
+disgraceful secret clauses in the treaty of Dover, was chosen envoy to
+negotiate terms of peace with Louis XIV. and the Dutch at Utrecht. His
+mission was still further deprived of importance by Arlington and
+Buckingham, who were in the king's counsels, and who anticipated his
+arrival and took the negotiations out of his hands; and though he signed
+the compact, he had no share in the harsh terms imposed upon the Dutch,
+and henceforth became a bitter opponent of the policy of subservience to
+French interests and of the Roman Catholic claims.
+
+He took an active part in passing through parliament the great Test Act
+of 1673[2] and forfeited in consequence his friendship with James. In
+1674 he brought forward a motion for disarming "popish recusants," and
+supported one by Lord Carlisle for restricting the marriages in the
+royal family to Protestants; but he opposed the bill introduced by Lord
+Danby (see LEEDS, 1ST DUKE OF) in 1675, which imposed a test oath on
+officials and members of parliament, speaking "with that quickness,
+learning and elegance that are inseparable from all his discourses," and
+ridiculing the multiplication of oaths, since "no man would ever sleep
+with open doors ... should all the town be sworn not to rob." He was now
+on bad terms with Danby, and a witty sally at that minister's expense
+caused his dismissal from the council in January 1676. In 1678 he took
+an active part in the investigation of the "Popish Plot," to which he
+appears to have given excessive credence, but opposed the bill which was
+passed on the 30th of October 1678, to exclude Roman Catholics from the
+House of Lords.
+
+In 1679, as a consequence of the fall of Danby, he became a member of
+the newly constituted privy council. With Charles, who had at first
+"kicked at his appointment," he quickly became a favourite, his lively
+and "libertine" (i.e. free or sceptical) conversation being named by
+Bishop Burnet as his chief attraction for the king. His dislike of the
+duke of York and of the Romanist tendencies of the court did not induce
+him to support the rash attempt of Lord Shaftesbury to substitute the
+illegitimate duke of Monmouth for James in the succession. He feared
+Shaftesbury's ascendancy in the national councils and foresaw nothing
+but civil war and confusion as a result of his scheme. He declared
+against the exclusion of James, was made an earl in 1679, and was one of
+the "Triumvirate" which now directed public affairs. He assisted in
+passing into law the Habeas Corpus Bill. According to Sir W. Temple he
+showed great severity in putting into force the laws against the Roman
+Catholics, but this statement is considered a misrepresentation.[3] In
+1680 he voted against the execution of Lord Stafford.
+
+Meanwhile (1679) his whole policy had been successfully directed towards
+uniting all parties with the object of frustrating Shaftesbury's plans.
+Communications were opened with the prince of Orange, and the illness of
+the king was made the occasion for summoning James from Brussels.
+Monmouth was compelled to retire to Holland, and Shaftesbury was
+dismissed. On the other hand, while Halifax was so far successful, James
+was given an opportunity of establishing a new influence at the court.
+It was with great difficulty that his retirement to Scotland was at last
+effected; the ministers lost the confidence and support of the "country
+party," and Halifax, fatigued and ill, at the close of this year,
+retired to Rufford Abbey, the country home of the Saviles since the
+destruction of Thornhill Hall in 1648, and for some time took little
+part in affairs. He returned in September 1680 on the occasion of the
+introduction of the Exclusion Bill in the Lords. The debate which
+followed, one of the most famous in the whole annals of parliament,
+became a duel of oratory between Halifax and his uncle Shaftesbury, the
+finest two speakers of the day, watched by the Lords, the Commons at the
+bar, and the king, who was present. It lasted seven hours. Halifax spoke
+sixteen times, and at last, regardless of the menaces of the more
+violent supporters of the bill, who closed round him, vanquished his
+opponent. The rejection of the bill by a majority of 33 was attributed
+by all parties entirely to the eloquence of Halifax. His conduct
+transformed the allegiance to him of the Whigs into bitter hostility,
+the Commons immediately petitioning the king to remove him from his
+councils for ever, while any favour which he might have regained with
+James was forfeited by his subsequent approval of the regency scheme.
+
+He retired to Rufford again in January 1681, but was present at the
+Oxford parliament, and in May returned suddenly to public life and held
+for a year the chief control of affairs. The arrest of Shaftesbury on
+the 2nd of July was attributed to his influence, but in general, during
+the period of Tory reaction, he seems to have urged a policy of
+conciliation and moderation upon the king. He opposed James's return
+from Scotland and, about this time (Sept.), made a characteristic but
+futile attempt to persuade the duke to attend the services of the
+Church of England and thus to end all difficulties. He renewed relations
+with the prince of Orange, who in July paid a visit to England to seek
+support against the French designs upon Luxemburg. The influence of
+Halifax procured for the Dutch a formal assurance from Charles of his
+support; but the king informed the French ambassador that he had no
+intention of fulfilling his engagements, and made another secret treaty
+with Louis. Halifax opposed in 1682 James's vindictive prosecution of
+the earl of Argyll, arousing further hostility in the duke, while the
+same year he was challenged to a duel by Monmouth, who attributed to him
+his disgrace.
+
+His short tenure of power ended with the return of James in May.
+Outwardly he still retained the king's favour and was advanced to a
+marquisate (Aug. 17) and to the office of lord privy seal (Oct. 25).
+Being still a member of the administration he must share responsibility
+for the attack now made upon the municipal franchises, a violation of
+the whole system of representative government, especially as the new
+charters passed his office. In January 1684 he was one of the
+commissioners "who supervise all things concerning the city and have
+turned out those persons who are whiggishly inclined" (N. Luttrell's
+_Diary_, i. 295). He made honourable but vain endeavours to save
+Algernon Sidney and Lord Russell. "My Lord Halifax," declared Tillotson
+in his evidence before the later inquiry, "showed a very compassionate
+concern for my Lord Russell and all the readiness to serve them that
+could be wished."[4] The Rye-House Plot, in which it was sought to
+implicate them, was a disastrous blow to his policy, and in order to
+counteract its consequences he entered into somewhat perilous
+negotiations with Monmouth, and endeavoured to effect his reconciliation
+with the king. On the 12th of February 1684, he procured the release of
+his old antagonist, Lord Danby. Shortly afterwards his influence at the
+court revived. Charles was no longer in receipt of his French pension
+and was beginning to tire of James and Rochester. The latter, instead of
+becoming lord treasurer, was, according to the epigram of Halifax which
+has become proverbial, "kicked upstairs," to the office of lord
+president of the council. Halifax now worked to establish intimate
+relations between Charles and the prince of Orange and opposed the
+abrogation of the recusancy laws. In a debate in the cabinet of November
+1684, on the question of the grant of a fresh constitution to the New
+England colonies, he urged with great warmth "that there could be no
+doubt whatever but that the same laws which are in force in England
+should also be established in a country inhabited by Englishmen and that
+an absolute government is neither so happy nor so safe as that which is
+tempered by laws and which sets bounds to the authority of the prince,"
+and declared that he could not "live under a king who should have it in
+his power to take, whenever he thought proper, the money he has in his
+pocket." The opinions thus expressed were opposed by all the other
+ministers and highly censured by Louis XIV., James and Judge Jeffreys.
+
+At the accession of James he was immediately deprived of all power and
+relegated to the presidency of the council. He showed no compliance,
+like other Lords, with James's Roman Catholic preferences. He was
+opposed to the parliamentary grant to the king of a revenue for life; he
+promoted the treaty of alliance with the Dutch in August 1685; he
+expostulated with the king on the subject of the illegal commissions in
+the army given to Roman Catholics; and finally, on his firm refusal to
+support the repeal of the Test and Habeas Corpus Acts, he was dismissed,
+and his name was struck out of the list of the privy council (Oct.
+1685). He corresponded with the prince of Orange, conferred with
+Dykveldt, the latter's envoy, but held aloof from plans which aimed at
+the prince's personal interference in English affairs. In 1687 he
+published the famous _Letter to a Dissenter_, in which he warns the
+Nonconformists against being beguiled by the "Indulgence" into joining
+the court party, sets in a clear light the fatal results of such a step,
+and reminds them that under their next sovereign their grievances would
+in all probability be satisfied by the law. The tract, which has
+received general and unqualified admiration, must be classed amongst the
+few known writings which have actually and immediately altered the
+course of history. Copies to the number of 20,000 were circulated
+through the kingdom, and a great party was convinced of the wisdom of
+remaining faithful to the national traditions and liberties. He took the
+popular side on the occasion of the trial of the bishops in June 1688,
+visited them in the Tower, and led the cheers with which the verdict of
+"not guilty" was received in court; but the same month he refrained from
+signing the invitation to William, and publicly repudiated any share in
+the prince's plans. On the contrary he attended the court and refused
+any credence to the report that the prince born to James was
+supposititious. After the landing of William he was present at the
+council called by James on the 27th of November. He urged the king to
+grant large concessions, but his speech, in contrast to the harsh and
+overbearing attitude of the Hydes, was "the most tender and obliging ...
+that ever was heard." He accepted the mission with Nottingham and
+Godolphin to treat with William at Hungerford, and succeeded in
+obtaining moderate terms from the prince. The negotiations, however,
+were abortive, for James had from the first resolved on flight. In the
+crisis which ensued, when the country was left without a government,
+Halifax took the lead. He presided over the council of Lords which
+assembled and took immediate measures to maintain public order. On the
+return of James to London on the 16th of November, after his capture at
+Faversham, Halifax repaired to William's camp and henceforth attached
+himself unremittingly to his cause. On the 17th he carried with Lords
+Delamere and Shrewsbury a message from William to the king advising his
+departure from London, and, after the king's second flight, directed the
+proceedings of the executive. On the meeting of the convention on the
+22nd of January 1689, he was formally elected speaker of the House of
+Lords. He voted against the motion for a regency (Jan. 20), which was
+only defeated by two votes. The moderate and comprehensive character of
+the settlement at the revolution plainly shows his guiding hand, and it
+was finally through his persuasion that the Lords yielded to the Commons
+and agreed to the compromise whereby William and Mary were declared
+joint sovereigns. On the 13th of February in the Banqueting House at
+Whitehall, he tendered the crown to them in the name of the nation, and
+conducted the proclamation of their accession in the city.
+
+At the opening of the new reign he had considerable influence, was made
+lord privy seal, while Danby his rival was obliged to content himself
+with the presidency of the council, and controlled the appointments to
+the new cabinet which were made on a "trimming" or comprehensive basis.
+His views on religious toleration were as wide as those of the new king.
+He championed the claims of the Nonconformists as against the high or
+rigid Church party, and he was bitterly disappointed at the miscarriage
+of the Comprehension Bill. He thoroughly approved also at first of
+William's foreign policy; but, having excited the hostility of both the
+Whig and Tory parties, he now became exposed to a series of attacks in
+parliament which finally drove him from power. He was severely censured,
+as it seems quite unjustly, for the disorder in Ireland, and an attempt
+was made to impeach him for his conduct with regard to the sentences on
+the Whig leaders. The inquiry resulted in his favour; but
+notwithstanding, and in spite of the king's continued support, he
+determined to retire. He had already resigned the speakership of the
+House of Lords, and he now (Feb. 8, 1690) quitted his place in the
+cabinet. He still nominally retained his seat in the privy council, but
+in parliament he became a bitter critic of the administration; and the
+rivalry of Halifax (the Black Marquess) with Danby, now marquess of
+Carmarthen (the White Marquess) threw the former at this time into
+determined opposition. He disapproved of William's total absorption in
+European politics, and his open partiality for his countrymen. In
+January 1691 Halifax had an interview with Henry Bulkeley, the Jacobite
+agent, and is said to have promised "to do everything that lay in his
+power to serve the king." This was probably merely a measure of
+precaution, for he had no serious Jacobite leanings. He entered bail for
+Lord Marlborough, accused wrongfully of complicity in a Jacobite plot in
+May 1692, and in June, during the absence of the king from England, his
+name was struck off the privy council.
+
+He spoke in favour of the Triennial Bill (Jan. 12, 1693) which passed
+the legislature but was vetoed by William, suggested a proviso in the
+Licensing Act, which restricted its operation to anonymous works,
+approved the Place Bill (1694), but opposed, probably on account of the
+large sums he had engaged in the traffic of annuities, the establishment
+of the bank of England in 1694. Early in 1695 he delivered a strong
+attack on the administration in the House of Lords, and, after a short
+illness arising from a neglected complaint, he died on the 5th of April
+at the age of sixty-one. He was buried in Henry VII.'s chapel in
+Westminster Abbey.
+
+The influence of Halifax, both as orator and as writer, on the public
+opinion of his day was probably unrivalled. His intellectual powers, his
+high character, his urbanity, vivacity and satirical humour made a great
+impression on his contemporaries, and many of his witty sayings have
+been recorded. But the superiority of his statesmanship could not be
+appreciated till later times. Maintaining throughout his career a
+complete detachment from party, he never acted permanently or
+continuously with either of the two great factions, and exasperated both
+in turn by deserting their cause at the moment when their hopes seemed
+on the point of realization. To them he appeared weak, inconstant,
+untrustworthy. They could not see what to us now is plain and clear,
+that Halifax was as consistent in his principles as the most rabid Whig
+or Tory. But the principle which chiefly influenced his political
+action, that of compromise, differed essentially from those of both
+parties, and his attitude with regard to the Whigs or Tories was thus by
+necessity continually changing. Measures, too, which in certain
+circumstances appeared to him advisable, when the political scene had
+changed became unwise or dangerous. Thus the regency scheme, which
+Halifax had supported while Charles still reigned, was opposed by him
+with perfect consistency at the revolution. He readily accepted for
+himself the character of a "trimmer," desiring, he said, to keep the
+boat steady, while others attempted to weigh it down perilously on one
+side or the other; and he concluded his tract with these assertions:
+"that our climate is a Trimmer between that part of the world where men
+are roasted and the other where they are frozen; that our Church is a
+Trimmer between the frenzy of fanatic visions and the lethargic
+ignorance of Popish dreams; that our laws are Trimmers between the
+excesses of unbounded power and the extravagance of liberty not enough
+restrained; that true virtue hath ever been thought a Trimmer, and to
+have its dwelling in the middle between two extremes; that even God
+Almighty Himself is divided between His two great attributes, His Mercy
+and His Justice. In such company, our Trimmer is not ashamed of his
+name...."[5]
+
+His powerful mind enabled him to regard the various political problems
+of his time from a height and from a point of view similar to that from
+which distance from the events enables us to consider them at the
+present day; and the superiority of his vision appears sufficiently from
+the fact that his opinions and judgments on the political questions of
+his time are those which for the most part have ultimately triumphed and
+found general acceptance. His attitude of mind was curiously modern.[6]
+Reading, writing and arithmetic, he thinks, should be taught to all and
+at the expense of the state. His opinions again on the constitutional
+relations of the colonies to the mother country, already cited, were
+completely opposed to those of his own period. For that view of his
+character which while allowing him the merit of a brilliant political
+theorist denies him the qualities of a man of action and of a practical
+politician, there is no solid basis. The truth is that while his
+political ideas are founded upon great moral or philosophical
+generalizations, often vividly recalling and sometimes anticipating the
+broad conceptions of Burke, they are at the same time imbued with
+precisely those practical qualities which have ever been characteristic
+of English statesmenship, and were always capable of application to
+actual conditions. He was no star-gazing philosopher, with thoughts
+superior to the contemplation of mundane affairs. He had no taste for
+abstract political dogma. He seems to venture no further than to think
+that "men should live in some competent state of freedom," and that the
+limited monarchical and aristocratic government was the best adapted for
+his country. "Circumstances," he writes in the _Rough Draft of a New
+Model at Sea_, "must come in and are to be made a part of the matter of
+which we are to judge; positive decisions are always dangerous, more
+especially in politics." Nor was he the mere literary student buried in
+books and in contemplative ease. He had none of the "indecisiveness
+which commonly renders literary men of no use in the world" (Sir John
+Dalrymple). The incidents of his career show that there was no
+backwardness or hesitation in acting when occasion required. The
+constant tendency of his mind towards antithesis and the balancing of
+opinions did not lead to paralysis in time of action. He did not shrink
+from responsibility, nor show on any occasion lack of courage. At
+various times of crisis he proved himself a great leader. He returned to
+public life to defeat the Exclusion Bill. At the revolution it was
+Halifax who seized the reins of government, flung away by James, and
+maintained public security. His subsequent failure in collaborating with
+William is, it is true, disappointing. But the cause was one that has
+not perhaps received sufficient attention. Party government had come to
+the birth during the struggles over the Exclusion Bill, and there had
+been unconsciously introduced into politics a novel element of which the
+nature and importance were not understood or suspected. Halifax had
+consistently ignored and neglected party; and it now had its revenge.
+Detested by the Whigs and by the Tories alike, and defended by neither,
+the favour alone of the king and his own transcendent abilities proved
+insufficient to withstand the constant and violent attacks made upon him
+in parliament, and he yielded to the superior force. He seems indeed
+himself to have been at last convinced of the necessity in English
+political life of party government, for though in his Cautions to
+electors he warns them against men "tied to a party," yet in his last
+words he declares "If there are two parties a man ought to adhere to
+that which he disliked least though in the whole he doth not approve it;
+for whilst he doth not list himself in one or the other party, he is
+looked upon as such a straggler that he is fallen upon by both.... Happy
+those that are convinced so as to be of the general opinions"
+(_Political Thoughts and Reflections of Parties_).
+
+The private character of Lord Halifax was in harmony with the greatness
+of his public career. He was by no means the "voluptuary" described by
+Macaulay. He was on the contrary free from self-indulgence; his manner
+of life was decent and frugal, and his dress proverbially simple. He was
+an affectionate father and husband. "His heart," says Burnet (i.
+492-493, ed. 1833), "was much set on raising his family"--his last
+concern even while on his deathbed was the remarriage of his son Lord
+Eland to perpetuate his name; and this is probably the cause of his
+acceptance of so many titles for which he himself affected a
+philosophical indifference. He was estimable in his social relations and
+habits. He showed throughout his career an honourable independence, and
+was never seen to worship the rising sun. In a period when even great
+men stooped to accept bribes, Halifax was known to be incorruptible; at
+a time when animosities were especially bitter, he was too great a man
+to harbour resentments. "Not only from policy," says Reresby (_Mem._ p.
+231), "(which teaches that we ought to let no man be our enemy when we
+can help it), but from his disposition I never saw any man more ready to
+forgive than himself." Few were insensible to his personal charm and
+gaiety. He excelled especially in quick repartee, in "exquisite
+nonsense," and in spontaneous humour. When quite a young man, just
+entering upon political life he is described by Evelyn as "a witty
+gentleman, if not a little too prompt and daring." The latter
+characteristic was not moderated by time but remained through life. He
+was incapable of controlling his spirit of raillery, from jests on
+Siamese missionaries to sarcasms at the expense of the heir to the
+throne and ridicule of hereditary monarchy, and his brilliant paradoxes,
+his pungent and often profane epigrams were received by graver persons
+as his real opinions and as evidences of atheism. This latter charge he
+repudiated, assuring Burnet that he was "a Christian in submission," but
+that he could not digest iron like an ostrich nor swallow all that the
+divines sought to impose upon the world.
+
+The speeches of Halifax have not been preserved, and his political
+writings on this account have all the greater value. _The Character of a
+Trimmer_ (1684 or 1685), the authorship of which, long doubtful, is now
+established,[7] was his most ambitious production, written seemingly as
+advice to the king and as a manifesto of his own opinions. In it he
+discusses the political problems of the time and their solution on broad
+principles. He supports the Test Act and, while opposing the Indulgence,
+is not hostile to the repeal of the penal laws against the Roman
+Catholics by parliament. Turning to foreign affairs he contemplates with
+consternation the growing power of France and the humiliation of
+England, exclaiming indignantly at the sight of the "Roses blasted and
+discoloured while lilies triumph and grow insolent upon the comparison."
+The whole is a masterly and comprehensive summary of the actual
+political situation and its exigencies; while, when he treats such
+themes as liberty, or discusses the balance to be maintained between
+freedom and government in the constitution, he rises to the political
+idealism of Bolingbroke and Burke. _The Character of King Charles II._
+(printed 1750), to be compared with his earlier sketch of the king in
+the _Character of a Trimmer_, is perhaps from the literary point of view
+the most admirable of his writings. The famous _Letter to a Dissenter_
+(1687) was thought by Sir James Mackintosh to be unrivalled as a
+political pamphlet. _The Lady's New Year's Gift: or Advice to a
+Daughter_, refers to his daughter Elizabeth, afterwards wife of the 3rd
+and mother of the celebrated 4th earl of Chesterfield (1688). In _The
+Anatomy of an Equivalent_ (1688) he treats with keen wit and power of
+analysis the proposal to grant a "perpetual edict" in favour of the
+Established Church in return for the repeal of the test and penal laws.
+_Maxims of State_ appeared about 1692. _The Rough Draft of a New Model
+at Sea_ (c. 1694), though apparently only a fragment, is one of the most
+interesting and characteristic of his writings. It opens with the
+question: "'What shall we do to be saved in this world?' There is no
+other answer but this, 'Look to your moat.' The first article of an
+Englishman's political creed must be that he believeth in the sea." He
+discusses the naval establishment, not from the naval point of view
+alone, but from the general aspect of the constitution of which it is a
+detail, and is thus led on to consider the nature of the constitution
+itself, and to show that it is not an artificial structure but a growth
+and product of the natural character. We may also mention _Some
+Cautions_ to the electors of the parliament (1694), and _Political,
+Moral and Miscellaneous Thoughts and Reflections_ (n.d.), a collection
+of aphorisms in the style of the maxims of La Rochefoucauld, inferior in
+style--but greatly excelling the French author in breadth of view and in
+moderation. (For other writings attributed to Halifax, see Foxcroft,
+_Life of Sir G. Savile_, ii. 529 sqq.).
+
+Halifax was twice married, first in 1656 to the Lady Dorothy
+Spencer--daughter of the 1st earl of Sunderland and of Dorothy Sidney,
+"Sacharissa"--who died in 1670, leaving a family; and secondly, in 1672,
+to Gertrude, daughter of William Pierrepont of Thoresby, who survived
+him, and by whom he had one daughter, Elizabeth, Lady Chesterfield, who
+seems to have inherited a considerable portion of her father's
+intellectual abilities. On the death of his son William, 2nd marquess of
+Halifax, in August 1700 without male issue, the peerage became extinct,
+and the baronetcy passed to the Saviles of Lupset, the whole male line
+of the Savile family ending in the person of Sir George Savile, 8th
+baronet, in 1784. Henry Savile, British envoy at Versailles, who died
+unmarried in 1687, was a younger brother of the first marquess. Halifax
+has been generally supposed to have been the father of the illegitimate
+Henry Carey, the poet, but this is doubtful.
+
+  See _Life and Letters of Sir George Savile, 1st Marquis of Halifax_ (2
+  vols., 1898), by Miss H. C. Foxcroft, who has collected and made
+  excellent use of all the material available at that date, including
+  hitherto unexplored Savile MSS., at Devonshire House, in the Spencer
+  Archives, in the Longleat and other collections, and who has edited
+  the works of Halifax and printed a memorandum of conversations with
+  King William of 1688-1690, left in MS. by Halifax. Macaulay, in his
+  _History of England_, misjudged Halifax on some points, but
+  nevertheless understood and did justice to the greatness of his
+  statesmanship, and pronounced on him a well-merited and eloquent
+  eulogy (iv. 545). Contemporary characters of Halifax which must be
+  accepted with caution are Burnet's in the _History of His Own Times_
+  (ed. 1833, vol. i. pp. 491-493, and iv. 268), that by the author of
+  "Savilianal," identified as William Mompesson, and "Sacellum
+  Apollinare," a panegyric in verse by Elkanah Settle (1695).
+       (P. C. Y.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Cal. State Papers, Dom._ (Nov. 1667-Sep. 1668). p. 106.
+
+  [2] _Lords' Journals_, 12, p. 567; _Savile Correspondence_, ed. by W.
+    D. Cooper, p. 136; "Character of a Trimmer," in _Life of Sir G.
+    Savile_, by H. C. Foxcroft, ii. 316.
+
+  [3] Foxcroft i. 160, where Hallam is quoted to this effect.
+
+  [4] _Hist. MSS. Comm. House of Lords MSS._ 1689-1690, p. 287.
+
+  [5] _Character of a Trimmer_, conclusion.
+
+  [6] Saviliana quoted by Foxcroft i. 115.
+
+  [7] Foxcroft, ii. 273 et seq., and _Hist. MSS. Comm. MSS._ of F. W.
+    Leyborne-Popham, p. 264.
+
+
+
+
+HALIFAX, a city and port of entry, capital of the province of Nova
+Scotia, Canada. It is situated in 44° 59´ N. and 63° 35´ W., on the
+south-east coast of the province, on a fortified hill, 225 ft. in
+height, which slopes down to the waters of Chebucto Bay, now known as
+Halifax Harbour. The harbour, which is open all the year, is about 6 m.
+long by 1 m. in width, and has excellent anchorage in all parts; to the
+north a narrow passage connects it with Bedford Basin, 6 m. in length by
+4 m., and deep enough for the largest men-of-war. At the harbour mouth
+lies McNab's Island, thus forming two entrances; the eastern passage is
+only employed by small vessels, though in 1862 the Confederate cruiser,
+"Tallahassee," slipped through by night, and escaped the northern
+vessels which were watching off the western entrance. The population in
+1901 was 40,832.
+
+The town was originally built of wood, plastered or stuccoed, but though
+the wooden houses largely remain, the public buildings are of stone.
+Inferior in natural strength to Quebec alone, the city and its
+approaches have been fortified till it has become the strongest position
+in Canada, and one of the strongest in the British Empire. Till 1906 it
+was garrisoned by British troops, but in that year, with Esquimalt, on
+the Pacific coast, it was taken over by the Canadian government, an
+operation necessitating a large increase in the Canadian permanent
+military force. At the same time, the royal dockyard, containing a
+dry-dock 610 ft. in length, and the residences in connexion, were also
+taken over for the use of the department of marine and fisheries. Till
+1905 Halifax was the summer station of the British North American
+squadron. In that year, in consequence of a redistribution of the fleet,
+the permanent North American squadron was withdrawn; but Halifax is
+still visited periodically by powerful squadrons of cruisers.
+
+Though, owing to the growth of Sydney and other outports, it no longer
+monopolizes the foreign trade of the province, Halifax is still a
+thriving town, and has the largest export trade of the Dominion in fish
+and fish products, the export of fish alone, in 1904, amounting to over
+three-fifths that of the entire Dominion. Lumber (chiefly spruce deals)
+and agricultural products (especially apples) are also exported in large
+quantities. The chief imports are manufactures from Great Britain and
+the United States, and sugar, molasses, rum and fruit from the West
+Indies. Its industrial establishments include foundries, sugar
+refineries, manufactures of furniture and other articles of wood, a
+skate factory and rope and cordage works, the produce of which are all
+exported. It is the Atlantic terminus of the Intercolonial, Canadian
+Pacific and several provincial railways, and the chief winter port of
+Canada, numerous steamship lines connecting it with Great Britain,
+Europe, the West Indies and the United States. The public gardens,
+covering 14 acres, and Point Pleasant Park, left to a great extent in
+its natural state, are extremely beautiful. Behind the city is an arm of
+the sea (known as the North-West Arm), 5 m. in length and 1 m. in
+breadth, with high, well-wooded shores, and covered in summer with
+canoes and sailing craft. The educational institutions include a
+ladies' college, several convents, a Presbyterian theological college
+and Dalhousie University, with faculties of arts, law, medicine and
+science. Established by charter in 1818 by the earl of Dalhousie, then
+lieutenant governor, and reorganized in 1863, it has since become much
+the most important seat of learning in the maritime provinces. Other
+prominent buildings are Government House, the provincial parliament and
+library, and the Roman Catholic cathedral. St Paul's church (Anglican)
+dates from 1750, and though not striking architecturally, is interesting
+from the memorial tablets and the graves of celebrated Nova Scotians
+which it contains. The city is the seat of the Anglican bishop of Nova
+Scotia and Prince Edward Island, and of the Roman Catholic bishop of
+Halifax.
+
+Founded in 1749 by the Hon. Edward Cornwallis as a rival to the French
+town of Louisburg in Cape Breton, it was named after the 2nd earl of
+Halifax, president of the board of trade and plantations. In the
+following year it superseded Annapolis as capital of the province. Its
+privateers played a prominent part in the war of 1812-15 with the United
+States, and during the American Civil War it was a favourite base of
+operations for Confederate blockade-runners. The federation of the North
+American provinces in 1867 lessened its relative importance, but its
+merchants have gradually adapted themselves to the altered conditions.
+
+
+
+
+HALIFAX, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough in the West
+Riding of Yorkshire, England, 194 m. N.N.W. from London and 7 m. S.W.
+from Bradford, on the Great Northern and the Lancashire & Yorkshire
+railways. Pop. (1891), 97,714; (1901) 104,936. It lies in a bare hilly
+district on and above the small river Hebble near its junction with the
+Calder. Its appearance is in the main modern, though a few picturesque
+old houses remain. The North Bridge, a fine iron structure, spans the
+valley, giving connexion between the opposite higher parts of the town.
+The principal public building is the town hall, completed in 1863 after
+the designs of Sir Charles Barry; it is a handsome Palladian building
+with a tower. Of churches the most noteworthy is that of St John the
+Baptist, the parish church, a Perpendicular building with lofty western
+tower. Two earlier churches are traceable on this side, the first
+perhaps pre-Norman, the second of the Early English period. The old
+woodwork is fine, part being Perpendicular, but the greater portion
+dates from 1621. All Souls' church was built in 1859 from the designs of
+Sir Gilbert Scott, of whose work it is a good example, at the expense of
+Mr Edward Akroyd. The style is early Decorated, and a rich ornamentation
+is carried out in Italian marble, serpentine and alabaster. A graceful
+tower and spire 236 ft. high rise at the north-west angle. The Square
+chapel, erected by the Congregationalists in 1857, is a striking
+cruciform building with a tower and elaborate crocketed spire. Both the
+central library and museum and the Akroyd museum and art gallery occupy
+buildings which were formerly residences, the one of Sir Francis
+Crossley (1817-1872) and the other of Mr Edward Akroyd. Among charitable
+institutions the principal is the handsome royal infirmary, a
+Renaissance building. The Heath grammar school was founded in 1585 under
+royal charter for instruction in classical languages. It possesses close
+scholarships at Oxford and Cambridge universities. The Waterhouse
+charity school occupies a handsome set of buildings forming three sides
+of a quadrangle, erected in 1855. The Crossley almshouses were erected
+and endowed by Sir Francis and Mr Joseph Crossley, who also endowed the
+Crossley orphan home and school. Technical schools are maintained by the
+corporation. Among other public buildings may be noted the Piece-Hall,
+erected in 1799 for the lodgment and sale of piece goods, now used as a
+market, a great quadrangular structure occupying more than two acres;
+the bonding warehouse, court-house, and mechanics' institute. There are
+six parks, of which the People's Park of 12½ acres, presented by Sir
+Francis Crossley in 1858, is laid out in ornate style from designs by
+Sir Joseph Paxton.
+
+Halifax ranks with Leeds, Bradford and Huddersfield as a seat of the
+woollen and worsted manufacture. The manufacture of carpets is a large
+industry, one establishment employing some 5000 hands. The worsted,
+woollen and cotton industries, and the iron, steel and machinery
+manufactures are very extensive. There are collieries and freestone
+quarries in the neighbourhood.
+
+The parliamentary borough returns two members. The county borough was
+created in 1888. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 15 aldermen and
+45 councillors. Area, 13,967 acres.
+
+At the time of the Conquest Halifax formed part of the extensive manor
+of Wakefield, which belonged to the king, but in the 13th century was in
+the hands of John, earl Warrenne (c. 1245-1305). The prosperity of the
+town began with the introduction of the cloth trade in the 15th century,
+when there are said to have been only thirteen houses, which before the
+end of the 16th century had increased to 520. Camden, about the end of
+the 17th century, wrote that "the people are very industrious, so that
+though the soil about it be barren and improfitable, not fit to live on,
+they have so flourished ... by the clothing trade that they are very
+rich and have gained a reputation for it above their neighbours." The
+trade is said to have been increased by the arrival of certain merchants
+driven from the Netherlands by the persecution of the duke of Alva.
+Among the curious customs of Halifax was the Gibbet Law, which was
+probably established by a prescriptive right to protect the wool trade,
+and gave the inhabitants the power of executing any one taken within
+their liberty, who, when tried by a jury of sixteen of the
+frith-burgesses, was found guilty of the theft of any goods of the value
+of more than 13d. The executions took place on market days on a hill
+outside the town, the gibbet somewhat resembling a guillotine. The first
+execution recorded under this law took place in 1541, and the right was
+exercised in Halifax longer than in any other town, the last execution
+taking place in 1650. In 1635 the king granted the inhabitants of
+Halifax licence to found a workhouse in a large house given to them for
+that purpose by Nathaniel Waterhouse, and incorporated them under the
+name of the master and governors. Nathaniel Waterhouse was appointed the
+first master, his successors being elected every year by the twelve
+governors from among themselves. Halifax was a borough by prescription,
+its privileges growing up with the increased prosperity brought by the
+cloth trade, but it was not incorporated until 1848. Since the Reform
+Act of 1832 the burgesses have returned two members to parliament. In
+1607 David Waterhouse, lord of the manor of Halifax, obtained a grant of
+two markets there every week on Friday and Saturday and two fairs every
+year, each lasting three days, one beginning on the 24th of June, the
+other on the 11th of November. Later these fairs and markets were
+confirmed with the addition of an extra market on Thursday to Sir
+William Ayloffe, baronet, who had succeeded David Waterhouse as lord of
+the manor. The market rights were sold to the Markets Company in 1810
+and purchased from them by the corporation in 1853.
+
+During the Civil War Halifax was garrisoned by parliament, and a field
+near it is still called the Bloody Field on account of an engagement
+which took place there between the forces of parliament and the
+Royalists.
+
+  See _Victoria County History_, "Yorkshire"; T. Wright, _The
+  Antiquities of the Town of Halifax_ (Leeds, 1738); John Watson, _The
+  History and Antiquities of the Parish of Halifax_ (London, 1775); John
+  Crabtree, _A Concise History of the Parish and Vicarage of Halifax_
+  (Halifax and London, 1836).
+
+
+
+
+HALISAH (Hebrew, [Hebrew: halitza] "untying"), the ceremony by which a
+Jewish widow releases her brother-in-law from the obligation to marry
+her in accordance with Deuteronomy xxv. 5-10, and obtains her own
+freedom to remarry. By the law of Moses it became obligatory upon the
+brother of a man dying childless to take his widow as wife. If he
+refused, "then shall his brother's wife come unto him in the presence of
+the elders and loose his shoe from off his foot, and spit in his face,
+and shall answer and say, So shall it be done unto that man that will
+not build up his brother's house." By Rabbinical law the ceremony was
+later made more complex. The parties appear before a court of three
+elders with two assessors. The place is usually the synagogue house, or
+that of the Rabbi, sometimes that of the widow. After inquiry as to the
+relationship of the parties and their status (for if either be a minor
+or deformed, halisah cannot take place), the shoe is produced. It is
+usually the property of the community and made entirely of leather from
+the skin of a "clean" animal. It is of two pieces, the upper part and
+the sole, sewn together with leathern threads. It has three small straps
+in front, and two white straps to bind it on the leg. After it is
+strapped on, the man must walk four cubits in the presence of the court.
+The widow then loosens and removes the shoe, throwing it some distance,
+and spits on the ground, repeating thrice the Biblical formula "So shall
+it be done," &c. Halisah, which is still common among orthodox Jews,
+must not take place on the Sabbath, a holiday, or the eve of either, or
+in the evening. To prevent brothers-in-law from extorting money from a
+widow as a price for releasing her from perpetual widowhood, Jewish law
+obliges all brothers at the time of a marriage to sign a document
+pledging themselves to submit to halisah without payment. (Compare
+LEVIRATE).
+
+
+
+
+HALKETT, HUGH, FREIHERR VON (1783-1863), British soldier and general of
+infantry in the Hanoverian service, was the second son of Major-General
+F. G. Halkett, who had served many years in the army, and whose
+ancestors had for several generations distinguished themselves in
+foreign services. With the "Scotch Brigade" which his father had been
+largely instrumental in raising, Hugh Halkett served in India from 1798
+to 1801. In 1803 his elder brother Colin was appointed to command a
+battalion of the newly formed King's German Legion, and in this he
+became senior captain and then major. Under his brother's command he
+served with Cathcart's expeditions to Hanover, Rügen and Copenhagen,
+where his bold initiative on outpost duty won commendation. He was in
+the Peninsula in 1808-1809, and at Walcheren. At Albuera, Salamanca,
+&c., he commanded the 2nd Light Infantry Battalion, K.G.L., in
+succession to his brother, and at Venta del Pozo in the Burgos retreat
+he greatly distinguished himself. In 1813 he left the Peninsula and was
+subsequently employed in the organization of the new Hanoverian army. He
+led a brigade of these troops in Count Wallmoden's army, and bore a
+marked part in the battle of Göhrde and the action of Schestedt, where
+he took with his own hand a Danish standard. In the Waterloo campaign he
+commanded two brigades of Hanoverian militia which were sent to the
+front with the regulars, and during the fight with the Old Guard
+captured General Cambronne. After the fall of Napoleon he elected to
+stay in the Hanoverian service, though he retained his half-pay
+lieutenant-colonelcy in the English army. He rose to be general and
+inspector-general of infantry. In his old age he led the Xth Federal
+Army Corps in the Danish War of 1848, and defeated the Danes at Oversee.
+He had the G.C.H., the C.B. and many foreign orders, including the
+Prussian order of the Black Eagle and _pour le Mérite_ and the Russian
+St Anne.
+
+  See Knesebeck, _Leben des Freiherrn Hugh von Halkett_ (Stuttgart,
+  1865).
+
+His brother, SIR COLIN HALKETT (1774-1856), British soldier, began his
+military career in the Dutch Guards and served in various "companies"
+for three years, leaving as a captain in 1795. From 1800 to the peace of
+Amiens he served with the Dutch troops in English pay in Guernsey. In
+August 1803 Halkett was one of the first officers assigned to the
+service of raising the King's German Legion, and he became major, and
+later lieutenant-colonel, commanding the 2nd Light Infantry Battalion.
+His battalion was employed in the various expeditions mentioned above,
+from Hanover to Walcheren, and in 1811 Colin Halkett succeeded Charles
+Alten in the command of the Light Brigade, K.G.L., which he held
+throughout the Peninsula War from Albuera to Toulouse. In 1815
+Major-General Sir Colin Halkett commanded the 5th British Brigade of
+Alten's division, and at Waterloo he received four wounds. Unlike his
+brother, he remained in the British service, in which he rose to
+general. At the time of his death he was governor of Chelsea hospital.
+He had honorary general's rank in the Hanoverian service, the G.C.B. and
+G.C.H., as well as numerous foreign orders.
+
+  For information about both the Halketts, see Beamish, _History of the
+  King's German Legion_ (1832).
+
+
+
+
+HALL, BASIL (1788-1844), British naval officer, traveller and
+miscellaneous writer, was born at Edinburgh on the 31st of December
+1788. His father was Sir James Hall of Dunglass, the geologist. Basil
+Hall was educated at the High School, Edinburgh, and in 1802 entered the
+navy, where he rose to the rank of post-captain in 1817, after seeing
+active service in several fields. By observing the ethnological as well
+as the physical peculiarities of the countries he visited, he collected
+the materials for a very large number of scientific papers. In 1816 he
+commanded the sloop "Lyra," which accompanied Lord Amherst's embassy to
+China; and he described his cruise in _An Account of a Voyage of
+Discovery to the West Coast of Corea and the Great Loo-choo Island in
+the Japan Sea_ (London, 1818). In 1820 he held a command on the Pacific
+coast of America, and in 1824 published two volumes of _Extracts from a
+Journal written on the Coasts of Chili, Peru and Mexico in the Years
+1820-21-22_. Retiring on half-pay in 1824, Hall in 1825 married
+Margaret, daughter of Sir John Hunter, and in her company travelled
+(1827-1828) through the United States. In 1829 he published his _Travels
+in North America in the Years 1827 and 1828_, which was assailed by the
+American press for its views of American society. _Schloss Hainfeld, or
+a Winter in Lower Styria_ (1836), is partly a romance, partly a
+description of a visit paid by the author to the castle of the countess
+Purgstall. _Spain and the Seat of War in Spain_ appeared in 1837. _The
+Fragments of Voyages and Travels_ (9 vols.) were issued in three
+detachments between 1831 and 1840. Captain Hall was a fellow of the
+Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh, and of the Royal Astronomical,
+Royal Geographical and Geological Societies. His last work, a collection
+of sketches and tales under the name of _Patchwork_ (1841), had not been
+long published before its author became insane, and he died in Haslar
+hospital, Portsmouth, on the 11th of September 1844.
+
+
+
+
+HALL, CARL CHRISTIAN (1812-1888), Danish statesman, son of the highly
+respected artisan and train-band colonel Mads Hall, was born at
+Christianshavn on the 25th of February 1812. After a distinguished
+career at school and college, he adopted the law as his profession, and
+in 1837 married the highly gifted but eccentric Augusta Marie, daughter
+of the philologist Peter Oluf Bröndsted. A natural conservatism
+indisposed Hall at first to take any part in the popular movement of
+1848, to which almost all his friends had already adhered; but the
+moment he was convinced of the inevitability of popular government, he
+resolutely and sympathetically followed in the new paths. Sent to the
+_Rigsforsamling_ of 1848 as member for the first district of Copenhagen,
+a constituency he continued to represent in the _Folketing_ till 1881,
+he immediately took his place in the front rank of Danish politicians.
+From the first he displayed rare ability as a debater, his inspiring and
+yet amiable personality attracted hosts of admirers, while his
+extraordinary tact and temper disarmed opposition and enabled him to
+mediate between extremes without ever sacrificing principles.
+
+Hall was not altogether satisfied with the fundamental law of June; but
+he considered it expedient to make the best use possible of the existing
+constitution and to unite the best conservative elements of the nation
+in its defence. The aloofness and sulkiness of the aristocrats and
+landed proprietors he deeply deplored. Failing to rally them to the good
+cause he determined anyhow to organize the great cultivated middle class
+into a political party. Hence the "June Union," whose programme was
+progress and reform in the spirit of the constitution, and at the same
+time opposition to the one-sided democratism and party-tyranny of the
+_Bondevenner_ or peasant party. The "Union" exercised an essential
+influence on the elections of 1852, and was, in fact, the beginning of
+the national Liberal party, which found its natural leader in Hall.
+During the years 1852-1854 the burning question of the day was the
+connexion between the various parts of the monarchy. Hall was
+"eiderdansk" by conviction. He saw in the closest possible union
+between the kingdom and a Schleswig freed from all risk of German
+interference the essential condition for Denmark's independence; but he
+did not think that Denmark was strong enough to carry such a policy
+through unsupported, and he was therefore inclined to promote it by
+diplomatic means and international combinations, and strongly opposed to
+the Conventions of 1851-1852 (See DENMARK: _History_), though he was
+among the first, subsequently, to accept them as an established fact and
+the future basis for Denmark's policy.
+
+Hall first took office in the Bang administration (12th of December
+1854) as minister of public worship. In May 1857 he became president of
+the council after Andrae, Bang's successor, had retired, and in July
+1858 he exchanged the ministry of public worship for the ministry of
+foreign affairs, while still retaining the premiership.
+
+Hall's programme, "den Konstitutionelle Helstat," i.e. a single state
+with a common constitution, was difficult enough in a monarchy which
+included two nationalities, one of which, to a great extent, belonged to
+a foreign and hostile jurisdiction. But as this political monstrosity
+had already been guaranteed by the Conventions of 1851-1852, Hall could
+not rid himself of it, and the attempt to establish this "Helstat" was
+made accordingly by the Constitution of the 13th of November 1863. The
+failure of the attempt and its disastrous consequences for Denmark are
+described elsewhere. Here it need only be said that Hall himself soon
+became aware of the impossibility of the "Helstat," and his whole policy
+aimed at making its absurdity patent to Europe, and substituting for it
+a constitutional Denmark to the Eider which would be in a position to
+come to terms with an independent Holstein. That this was the best thing
+possible for Denmark is absolutely indisputable, and "the diplomatic
+Seven Years' War" which Hall in the meantime conducted with all the
+powers interested in the question is the most striking proof of his
+superior statesmanship. Hall knew that in the last resort the question
+must be decided not by the pen but by the sword. But he relied,
+ultimately, on the protection of the powers which had guaranteed the
+integrity of Denmark by the treaty of London, and if words have any
+meaning at all he had the right to expect at the very least the armed
+support of Great Britain.[1] But the great German powers and the force
+of circumstances proved too strong for him. On the accession of the new
+king, Christian IX., Hall resigned rather than repeal the November
+Constitution, which gave Denmark something to negotiate upon in case of
+need. But he made matters as easy as he could for his successors in the
+Monrad administration, and the ultimate catastrophe need not have been
+as serious as it was had his advice, frankly given, been intelligently
+followed.
+
+After 1864 Hall bore more than his fair share of the odium and
+condemnation which weighed so heavily upon the national Liberal party,
+making no attempt to repudiate responsibility and refraining altogether
+from attacking patently unscrupulous opponents. But his personal
+popularity suffered not the slightest diminution, while his clear,
+almost intuitive, outlook and his unconquerable faith in the future of
+his country made him, during those difficult years, a factor of
+incalculable importance in the public life of Denmark. In 1870 he joined
+the Holstein-Holsteinborg ministry as minister of public worship, and in
+that capacity passed many useful educational reforms, but on the fall of
+the administration, in 1873, he retired altogether from public life. In
+the summer of 1879 Hall was struck down by apoplexy, and for the
+remaining nine years of his life he was practically bedridden. He died
+on the 14th of August 1888. In politics Hall was a practical, sagacious
+"opportunist," in the best sense of that much abused word, with an eye
+rather for things than for persons. Moreover, he had no very pronounced
+political ambition, and was an utter stranger to that longing for power,
+which drives so many men of talent to adopt extreme expedients. His
+urbanity and perfect equilibrium at the very outset incited sympathy,
+while his wit and humour made him the centre of every circle within
+which he moved.
+
+  See Vilhelm Christian Sigurd Topsöe, _Polit. Portraetstudier_
+  (Copenhagen, 1878); Schöller Parelius Vilhelm Birkedal, _Personlige
+  Oplevelser_ (Copenhagen, 1890-1891).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] On this head see the 3rd marquess of Salisbury's _Political
+    Essays_, reprinted from the _Quarterly Review_.
+
+
+
+
+HALL, CHARLES FRANCIS (1821-1871), American Arctic explorer, was born at
+Rochester, New Hampshire. After following the trade of blacksmith he
+became a journalist in Cincinnati; but his enthusiasm for Arctic
+exploration led him in 1859 to volunteer to the American Geographical
+Society to "go in search for the bones of Franklin." With the proceeds
+of a public subscription he was equipped for his expedition and sailed
+in May 1860 on board a whaling vessel. The whaler being ice-bound, Hall
+took up his abode in the regions to the north of Hudson Bay, where he
+found relics of Frobisher's 16th-century voyages, and living with the
+Eskimo for two years he acquired a considerable knowledge of their
+habits and language. He published an account of these experiences under
+the title of _Arctic Researches, and Life among the Esquimaux_ (1864).
+Determined, however, to learn more about the fate of the Franklin
+expedition he returned to the same regions in 1864, and passing five
+years among the Eskimo was successful in obtaining a number of Franklin
+relics, as well as information pointing to the exact fate of 76 of the
+crew, whilst also performing some geographical work of interest. In 1871
+he was given command of the North Polar expedition fitted out by the
+United States Government in the "Polaris." Making a remarkably rapid
+passage up Smith Sound at the head of Baffin Bay, which was found to be
+ice-free, the "Polaris" reached on the 30th of August the lat. of 82°
+11´, at that time, and until the English expedition of 1876 the highest
+northern latitude attained by vessel. The expedition went into winter
+quarters in a sheltered cove on the Greenland coast. On the 24th of
+October, Hall on his return from a successful sledge expedition to the
+north was suddenly seized by an illness of which he died on the 8th of
+November. Capt. S. O. Buddington (1823-1888) assumed command, and
+although the "Polaris" was subsequently lost after breaking out of the
+ice, with only part of the crew aboard, the whole were ultimately
+rescued, and the scientific results of the expedition proved to be of
+considerable importance.
+
+
+
+
+HALL, CHRISTOPHER NEWMAN (1816-1902), English Nonconformist divine, was
+born at Maidstone on the 22nd of May 1816. His father was John Vine
+Hall, proprietor and printer of the _Maidstone Journal_, and the author
+of a popular evangelical work called _The Sinner's Friend_. Christopher
+was educated at University College, London, and took the London B.A.
+degree. His theological training was gained at Highbury College, whence
+he was called in 1842 to his first pastorate at the Albion
+Congregational Church, Hull. During the twelve years of his ministry
+there the membership was greatly increased, and a branch chapel and
+school were opened. At Hull Newman Hall first began his active work in
+temperance reform, and in defence of his position wrote _The Scriptural
+Claims of Teetotalism_. In 1854 he accepted a call to Surrey chapel,
+London, founded in 1783 by the Rev. Rowland Hill. A considerable sum had
+been bequeathed by Hill for the perpetuation of his work on the
+expiration of the lease; but, owing to some legal flaw in the will, the
+money was not available, and Newman Hall undertook to raise the
+necessary funds for a new church. By weekly offertories and donations
+the money for the beautiful building called Christ Church at the
+junction of the Kennington and Westminster Bridge Roads was collected,
+and within four years of opening (1876) the total cost (£63,000) was
+cleared. In 1892 Newman Hall resigned his charge and devoted himself to
+general evangelical work. Most of his writings are small booklets or
+tracts of a distinctly evangelical character. The best known of these is
+_Come to Jesus_, of which over four million copies have been circulated
+in forty different languages. Newman Hall visited the United States
+during the Civil War, and did much to promote a friendly understanding
+between England and America. A Liberal in politics, and a keen admirer
+of John Bright, few preachers of any denomination have exercised so
+far-reaching an influence as the "Dissenters' Bishop," as he came to be
+termed. He died on the 18th of February 1902.
+
+  See his _Autobiography_ (1898); obituary notice in _The Congregational
+  Year Book_ for 1903.
+
+
+
+
+HALL, EDWARD (c. 1498-1547), English chronicler and lawyer, was born
+about the end of the 15th century, being a son of John Hall of Northall,
+Shropshire. Educated at Eton and King's College, Cambridge, he became a
+barrister and afterwards filled the offices of common sergeant of the
+city of London and judge of the sheriff's court. He was also member of
+parliament for Bridgnorth. Hall's great work, _The Union of the Noble
+and Illustre Famelies of Lancastre and York_, commonly called _Hall's
+Chronicle_, was first published in 1542. Another edition was issued by
+Richard Grafton in 1548, the year after Hall's death, and another in
+1550; these include a continuation from 1532 compiled by Grafton from
+the author's notes. In 1809 an edition was published under the
+supervision of Sir Henry Ellis, and in 1904 the part dealing with the
+reign of Henry VIII. was edited by C. Whibley. The _Chronicle_ begins
+with the accession of Henry IV. to the English throne in 1399; it
+follows the strife between the houses of Lancaster and York, and with
+Grafton's continuation carries the story down to the death of Henry
+VIII. in 1547. Hall presents the policy of this king in a very
+favourable light and shows his own sympathy with the Protestants. For
+all kinds of ceremonial he has all a lawyer's respect, and his pages are
+often adorned and encumbered with the pageantry and material garniture
+of the story. The value of the _Chronicle_ in its early stages is not
+great, but this increases when dealing with the reign of Henry VII. and
+is very considerable for the reign of Henry VIII. Moreover, the work is
+not only valuable, it is attractive. To the historian it furnishes what
+is evidently the testimony of an eye-witness on several matters of
+importance which are neglected by other narrators; and to the student of
+literature it has the exceptional interest of being one of the prime
+sources of Shakespeare's historical plays.
+
+  See J. Gairdner, _Early Chroniclers of Europe; England_ (1879).
+
+
+
+
+HALL, FITZEDWARD (1825-1901), American Orientalist, was born in Troy,
+New York, on the 21st of March 1825. He graduated with the degree of
+civil engineer from the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute at Troy in
+1842, and entered Harvard in the class of 1846; just before his class
+graduated he left college and went to India in search of a runaway
+brother. In January 1850 he was appointed tutor, and in 1853 professor
+of Sanskrit and English, in the government college at Benares; and in
+1855 was made inspector of public instruction in Ajmere-Merwara and in
+1856 in the Central Provinces. He settled in England in 1862 and
+received the appointment to the chair of Sanskrit, Hindustani and Indian
+jurisprudence in King's College, London, and to the librarianship of the
+India Office. He died at Marlesford, Suffolk, on the 1st of February
+1901. Hall was the first American to edit a Sanskrit text, the
+_Vishnupurana_; his library of a thousand Oriental MSS. he gave to
+Harvard University.
+
+  His works include: in Sanskrit, _Atmabodha_ (1852),
+  _Sankhyapravachana_ (1856), _Saryasiddhanta_ (1859), _Vasavadattu_
+  (1859), _Sankhyasara_ (1862) and _Dasarupa_ (1865); in Hindi,
+  Ballantynes' _Hindi Grammar_ (1868) and a _Reader_ (1870); on English
+  philology, _Recent Exemplifications of False Philology_ (1872),
+  attacking Richard Grant White, _Modern English_ (1873), "On English
+  Adjectives in -able, with Special Reference to Reliable" (_Am. Jour.
+  Philology_, 1877), _Doctor Indoctus_ (1880).
+
+
+
+
+HALL, ISAAC HOLLISTER (1837-1896), American Orientalist, was born in
+Norwalk, Connecticut, on the 12th of December 1837. He graduated at
+Hamilton College in 1859, was a tutor there in 1859-1863, graduated at
+the Columbia Law School in 1865, practised law in New York City until
+1875, and in 1875-1877 taught in the Syrian Protestant College at
+Beirut, where he discovered a valuable Syriac manuscript of the
+Philoxenian version of a large part of the New Testament, which he
+published in part in facsimile in 1884. He worked with General di
+Cesnola in classifying the famous Cypriote collection in the
+Metropolitan Museum of New York City, and was a curator of that museum
+from 1885 until his death in Mount Vernon, New York, on the 2nd of July
+1896. He was an eminent authority on Oriental inscriptions. Following
+the scanty clues given by George Smith and Samuel Birch, and working on
+the data furnished by the di Cesnola collection, he succeeded about 1874
+in deciphering an entire Cypriote inscription, and in establishing the
+Hellenic character of the dialect and the syllabic nature of the script.
+
+  His work in Cypriote epigraphy is described in his articles in
+  _Scribner's Magazine_, vol. 20 (June, 1880), pp. 205-211 and in the
+  _Journal of the American Oriental Society_, vol. 10, No. 2 (1880), pp.
+  201-218. He published in facsimile the Antilegomena epistles (1886),
+  which he deciphered from the W. F. Williams manuscript, and edited _A
+  Critical Bibliography of the Greek New Testament as Published in
+  America_ (1884).
+
+
+
+
+HALL, SIR JAMES (1761-1832), Scottish geologist and physicist, eldest
+son of Sir John Hall, Bart., was born at Dunglass on the 17th of January
+1761; and became distinguished as the first to establish experimental
+research as an aid to geological investigation. He was intimately
+acquainted with James Hutton and John Playfair, and having studied rocks
+in various parts of Europe he was eventually led to accept and to
+demonstrate the truth of Hutton's views with regard to intrusive rocks.
+He commenced a series of experiments to illustrate the fusion of rocks,
+their vitreous and crystalline characters, and the influence of molten
+rocks in altering adjacent strata. He thus assisted in proving that
+granitic veins had been injected into overlying deposits after their
+consolidation. He studied the volcanic rocks in Italy and recognized
+that the old lava flows and the numerous dikes in Scotland must have had
+a similar origin. He made further experiments to illustrate the
+contortions of rocks. The results were brought before the Royal Society
+of Edinburgh. He died at Edinburgh on the 23rd of June 1832. He
+represented in parliament (1807-1812) the old borough of Michael in
+Cornwall; he also wrote an Essay on the _Origin, History and Principles
+of Gothic Architecture_ (1813).
+
+His eldest son, John Hall (1787-1860), who succeeded him, was a Fellow
+of the Royal Society; the second son, Captain Basil Hall (q.v.), was the
+distinguished traveller; the third son, James Hall (1800-1854), was a
+painter, art-patron, and a friend of Sir David Wilkie.
+
+
+
+
+HALL, JAMES (1793-1868), American judge and man of letters, was born at
+Philadelphia on the 19th of August 1793. After for some time prosecuting
+the study of law, he in 1812 joined the army, and in the war with Great
+Britain distinguished himself in engagements at Lundy's Lane, Niagara
+and Fort Erie. On the conclusion of the war he accompanied an expedition
+against Algiers, but in 1818 he resigned his commission, and continued
+the study of law at Pittsburg. In 1820 he removed to Shawneetown,
+Illinois, where he commenced practice at the bar and also edited the
+_Illinois Gazette_. Soon after he was appointed public prosecutor of the
+circuit, and in 1824 state circuit judge. In 1827 he became state
+treasurer, and held that office till 1831, but he continued at the same
+time his legal practice and also edited the _Illinois Intelligencer_.
+Subsequently he became editor of the _Western Souvenir_, an annual
+publication, and of the _Illinois Monthly Magazine_, afterwards the
+_Western Monthly Magazine_. He died near Cincinnati on the 5th of July
+1868.
+
+  The following are his principal works:--_Letters from the West_,
+  originally contributed to the _Portfolio_, and collected and published
+  in London in 1828; _Legends of the West_ (1832); _The Soldier's Bride
+  and other Tales_ (1832); _The Harpe's Head, a Legend of Kentucky_
+  (1833); _Sketches of the West_ (2 vols., 1835); _Tales of the Border_
+  (1835); _Notes on the Western States_ (1838); _History of the Indian
+  Tribes_, in conjunction with T. L. M'Keeney (3 vols., 1838-1844); _The
+  Wilderness and the War-Path_ (1845); _Romance of Western History_
+  (1857).
+
+
+
+
+HALL, JAMES (1811-1898). American geologist and palaeontologist, was
+born at Hingham, Massachusetts, on the 12th of September 1811. In early
+life he became attached to the study of natural history, and he
+completed his education at the polytechnic institute at Troy in New
+York, where he graduated in 1832, and afterwards became professor of
+chemistry and natural science, and subsequently of geology. In 1836 he
+was appointed one of the geologists on the Geological Survey of the
+state of New York, and he was before long charged with the
+palaeontological work. Eventually he became state geologist and director
+of the museum of natural history at Albany. His published papers date
+from 1836, and include numerous reports on the geology and palaeontology
+of various portions of the United States and Canada. He dealt likewise
+with physical geology, and in 1859 discussed the connexion between the
+accumulation of sedimentary deposits and the elevation of
+mountain-chains. His chief work was the description of the invertebrate
+fossils of New York--in which he dealt with the graptolites,
+brachiopods, mollusca, trilobites, echini and crinoids of the Palaeozoic
+formations. The results were published in a series of quarto volumes
+entitled _Palaeontology of New York_ (1847-1894), in which he was
+assisted in course of time by R. P. Whitfield and J. M. Clarke. He
+published also reports on the geology of Oregon and California (1845),
+Utah (1852), Iowa (1859) and Wisconsin (1862). He received the Wollaston
+medal from the Geological Society of London in 1858. He was a man of
+great energy and untiring industry, and in 1897, when in his
+eighty-sixth year, he journeyed to St Petersburg to take part in the
+International Geological Congress, and then joined the excursion to the
+Ural mountains. He died at Albany on the 7th of August 1898.
+
+  See _Life and Work of James Hall_, by H. C. Hovey, _Amer. Geol._
+  xxiii., 1899, p. 137 (portraits).
+
+
+
+
+HALL, JOSEPH (1574-1656), English bishop and satirist, was born at
+Bristow park, near Ashby de la Zouch, Leicestershire, on the 1st of July
+1574. His father, John Hall, was agent in the town for Henry, earl of
+Huntingdon, and his mother, Winifred Bambridge, was a pious lady, whom
+her son compared to St Monica. Joseph Hall received his early education
+at the local school, and was sent (1589) to Emmanuel College, Cambridge.
+Hall was chosen for two years in succession to read the public lecture
+on rhetoric in the schools, and in 1595 became fellow of his college.
+During his residence at Cambridge he wrote his _Virgidemiarum_ (1597),
+satires written after Latin models. The claim he put forward in the
+prologue to be the earliest English satirist:--
+
+  "I first adventure, follow me who list
+   And be the second English satirist"--
+
+gave bitter offence to John Marston, who attacks him in the satires
+published in 1598. The archbishop of Canterbury gave an order (1599)
+that Hall's satires should be burnt with works of John Marston, Marlowe,
+Sir John Davies and others on the ground of licentiousness, but shortly
+afterwards Hall's book, certainly unjustly condemned, was ordered to be
+"staied at the press," which may be interpreted as reprieved (see _Notes
+and Queries_, 3rd series, xii. 436). Having taken holy orders, Hall was
+offered the mastership of Blundell's school, Tiverton, but he refused it
+in favour of the living of Halsted, Essex, to which he was presented
+(1601) by Sir Robert Drury. In his parish he had an opponent in a Mr
+Lilly, whom he describes as "a witty and bold atheist." In 1603 he
+married; and in 1605 he accompanied Sir Edmund Bacon to Spa, with the
+special aim, he says, of acquainting himself with the state and practice
+of the Romish Church. At Brussels he disputed at the Jesuit College on
+the authentic character of modern miracles, and his inquiring and
+argumentative disposition more than once threatened to produce serious
+results, so that his patron at length requested him to abstain from
+further discussion. His devotional writings had attracted the notice of
+Henry, prince of Wales, who made him one of his chaplains (1608). In
+1612 Lord Denny, afterwards earl of Norwich, gave him the curacy of
+Waltham-Holy-Cross, Essex, and in the same year he received the degree
+of D.D. Later he received the prebend of Willenhall in the collegiate
+church of Wolverhampton, and in 1616 he accompanied James Hay, Lord
+Doncaster, afterwards earl of Carlisle, to France, where he was sent to
+congratulate Louis XIII. on his marriage, but Hall was compelled by
+illness to return. In his absence the king nominated him dean of
+Worcester, and in 1617 he accompanied James to Scotland, where he
+defended the five points of ceremonial which the king desired to impose
+upon the Scots. In the next year he was one of the English deputies at
+the synod of Dort. In 1624 he refused the see of Gloucester, but in 1627
+became bishop of Exeter.
+
+He took an active part in the Arminian and Calvinist controversy in the
+English church. He did his best in his _Via media, The Way of Peace_, to
+persuade the two parties to accept a compromise. In spite of his
+Calvinistic opinions he maintained that to acknowledge the errors which
+had arisen in the Catholic Church did not necessarily imply disbelief in
+her catholicity, and that the Church of England having repudiated these
+errors should not deny the claims of the Roman Catholic Church on that
+account. This view commended itself to Charles I. and his episcopal
+advisers, but at the same time Archbishop Laud sent spies into Hall's
+diocese to report on the Calvinistic tendencies of the bishop and his
+lenience to the Puritan and low-church clergy. Hall says he was thrice
+down on his knees to the King to answer Laud's accusations and at length
+threatened to "cast up his rochet" rather than submit to them. He was,
+however, amenable to criticism, and his defence of the English Church,
+entitled _Episcopacy by Divine Right_ (1640), was twice revised at
+Laud's dictation. This was followed by _An Humble Remonstrance to the
+High Court of Parliament_ (1640 and 1641), an eloquent and forceful
+defence of his order, which produced a retort from the syndicate of
+Puritan divines, who wrote under the name of "Smectymnuus," and was
+followed by a long controversy to which Milton contributed five
+pamphlets, virulently attacking Hall and his early satires.
+
+In 1641 Hall was translated to the see of Norwich, and in the same year
+sat on the Lords' Committee on religion. On the 30th of December he was,
+with other bishops, brought before the bar of the House of Lords to
+answer a charge of high treason of which the Commons had voted them
+guilty. They were finally convicted of an offence against the Statute of
+Praemunire, and condemned to forfeit their estates, receiving a small
+maintenance from the parliament. They were immured in the Tower from New
+Year to Whitsuntide, when they were released on finding bail for £5000
+each. On his release Hall proceeded to his new diocese at Norwich, the
+revenues of which he seems for a time to have received, but in 1643,
+when the property of the "malignants" was sequestrated, Hall was
+mentioned by name. Mrs Hall had difficulty in securing a fifth of the
+maintenance (£400) assigned to the bishop by the parliament; they were
+eventually ejected from the palace, and the cathedral was dismantled.
+Hall retired to the village of Higham, near Norwich, where he spent the
+time preaching and writing until "he was first forbidden by man, and at
+last disabled by God." He bore his many troubles and the additional
+burden of much bodily suffering with sweetness and patience, dying on
+the 8th of September 1656. Thomas Fuller says: "He was commonly called
+our English Seneca, for the purenesse, plainnesse, and fulnesse of his
+style. Not unhappy at _Controversies_, more happy at _Comments_, very
+good in his _Characters_, better in his _Sermons_, best of all in his
+_Meditations_."
+
+  Bishop Hall's polemical writings, although vigorous and effective,
+  were chiefly of ephemeral interest, but many of his devotional
+  writings have been often reprinted. It is by his early work as the
+  censor of morals and the unsparing critic of contemporary literary
+  extravagance and affectations that he is best known. _Virgidemiarum._
+  _Sixe Bookes. First three Bookes. Of Toothlesse Satyrs._ (1)
+  _Poeticall_, (2) _Academicall_, (3) _Morall_ (1597) was followed by an
+  amended edition in 1598, and in the same year by _Virgidemiarum_. _The
+  three last bookes. Of byting Satyres_ (reprinted 1599). His claim to
+  be reckoned the earliest English satirist, even in the formal sense,
+  cannot be justified. Thomas Lodge, in his _Fig for Momus_ (1593), had
+  written four satires in the manner of Horace, and John Marston and
+  John Donne both wrote satires about the same time, although the
+  publication was in both cases later than that of _Virgidemiae_. But if
+  he was not the earliest, Hall was certainly one of the best. He writes
+  in the heroic couplet, which he manoeuvres with great ease and
+  smoothness. In the first book of his satires (_Poeticall_) he attacks
+  the writers whose verses were devoted to licentious subjects, the
+  bombast of _Tamburlaine_ and tragedies built on similar lines, the
+  laments of the ghosts of the _Mirror for Magistrates_, the metrical
+  eccentricities of Gabriel Harvey and Richard Stanyhurst, the
+  extravagances of the sonneteers, and the sacred poets (Southwell is
+  aimed at in "Now good St Peter weeps pure Helicon, And both the Mary's
+  make a music moan"). In Book II. Satire 6 occurs the well-known
+  description of the trencher-chaplain, who is tutor and hanger-on in a
+  country manor. Among his other satirical portraits is that of the
+  famished gallant, the guest of "Duke Humfray."[1] Book VI. consists of
+  one long satire on the various vices and follies dealt with in the
+  earlier books. If his prose is sometimes antithetical and obscure, his
+  verse is remarkably free from the quips and conceits which mar so much
+  contemporary poetry.
+
+  He also wrote _The King's Prophecie; or Weeping Joy_ (1603), a
+  gratulatory poem on the accession of James I.; _Epistles_, both the
+  first and second volumes of which appeared in 1608 and a third in
+  1611; _Characters of Virtues and Vices_ (1608), versified by Nahum
+  Tate (1691); _Solomons Divine Arts ..._ (1609); and, probably _Mundus
+  alter et idem sive Terra Australis antehac semper incognita ...
+  lustrata_ (1605? and 1607), by "Mercurius Britannicus," translated
+  into English by John Healy (1608) as _The Discovery of a New World or
+  A Description of the South Indies ... by an English Mercury_. _Mundus
+  alter_ is an excuse for a satirical description of London, with some
+  criticism of the Romish church, its manners and customs, and is said
+  to have furnished Swift with hints for _Gulliver's Travels_. It was
+  not ascribed to him by name until 1674, when Thomas Hyde, the
+  librarian of the Bodleian, identified "Mercurius Britannicus" with
+  Joseph Hall. For the question of the authorship of this pamphlet, and
+  the arguments that may be advanced in favour of the suggestion that it
+  was written by Alberico Gentili, see E. A. Petherick, _Mundus alter et
+  idem_, reprinted from the _Gentleman's Magazine_ (July 1896). His
+  controversial writings, not already mentioned, include:--_A Common
+  Apology ... against the Brownists_ (1610), in answer to John
+  Robinson's _Censorious Epistle_; _The Olde Religion: A treatise,
+  wherein is laid downe the true state of the difference betwixt the
+  Reformed and the Romane Church; and the blame of this schisme is cast
+  upon the true Authors ..._ (1628); _Columba Noae olivam adferens ..._,
+  a sermon preached at St Paul's in 1623; _Episcopacie by Divine Right_
+  (1640); _A Short Answer to the Vindication of Smectymnuus_ (1641); _A
+  Modest Confutation of ... (Milton's) Animadversions_ (1642).
+
+  His devotional works include:--_Holy Observations Lib. I. Some few of
+  David's Psalmes Metaphrased_ (1607 and 1609); three centuries of
+  _Meditations and Vowes, Divine and Morall_ (1606, 1607, 1609), edited
+  by Charles Sayle (1901); _The Arte of Divine Meditation_ (1607);
+  _Heaven upon Earth, or of True Peace and Tranquillitie of Mind_
+  (1606), reprinted with some of his letters in John Wesley's _Christian
+  Library_, vol. iv. (1819); _Occasional Meditations ..._ (1630), edited
+  by his son Robert Hall; _Henochisme; or a Treatise showing how to walk
+  with God_ (1639), translated from Bishop Hall's Latin by Moses Wall;
+  _The Devout Soul; or Rules of Heavenly Devotion_ (1644), often since
+  reprinted; _The Balm of Gilead ..._ (1646, 1752); _Christ Mysticall;
+  or the blessed union of Christ and his Members_ (1647), of which
+  General Gordon was a student (reprinted from Gordon's copy, 1893);
+  _Susurrium cum Deo_ (1659); _The Great Mysterie of Godliness_ (1650);
+  _Resolutions and Decisions of Divers Practicall cases of Conscience_
+  (1649, 1650, 1654).
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The chief authority for Hall's biography is to be found
+  in his autobiographical tracts: _Observations of some Specialities of
+  Divine Providence in the Life of Joseph Hall, Bishop of Norwich,
+  Written with his own hand_; and his _Hard Measure_, a reprint of which
+  may be consulted in Dr Christopher Wordsworth's _Ecclesiastical
+  Biography_. The best criticism of his satires is to be found in Thomas
+  Warton's _History of English Poetry_, vol. iv. pp. 363-409 (ed.
+  Hazlitt, 1871), where a comparison is instituted between Marston and
+  Hall. In 1615 Hall published _A Recollection of such treatises as have
+  been ... published ..._ (1615, 1617, 1621); in 1625 appeared his Works
+  (reprinted 1627, 1628, 1634, 1662). The first complete _Works_
+  appeared in 1808, edited by the Rev. Josiah Pratt. Other editions are
+  by Peter Hall (1837) and by Philip Wynter (1863). See also _Bishop
+  Hall, his Life and Times_ (1826), by Rev. John Jones; _Life of Joseph
+  Hall_, by Rev. George Lewis (1886); A. B. Grosart, _The Complete Poems
+  of Joseph Hall ... with introductions, &c._ (1879); _Satires, &c._
+  (_Early English Poets_, ed. S. W. Singer, 1824). Many of Hall's works
+  were translated into French, and some into Dutch, and there have been
+  numerous selections from his devotional works.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The tomb of Sir John Beauchamp (d. 1358) in old St Paul's was
+    commonly known, in error, as that of Duke Humphrey of Gloucester. "To
+    dine with Duke Humphrey" was to go hungry among the debtors and
+    beggars who frequented "Duke Humphrey's Walk" in the cathedral.
+
+
+
+
+HALL, MARSHALL (1790-1857). English physiologist, was born on the 18th
+of February 1790, at Basford, near Nottingham, where his father, Robert
+Hall, was a cotton manufacturer. Having attended the Rev. J. Blanchard's
+academy at Nottingham, he entered a chemist's shop at Newark, and in
+1809 began to study medicine at Edinburgh University. In 1811 he was
+elected senior president of the Royal Medical Society; the following
+year he took the M.D. degree, and was immediately appointed resident
+house physician to the Royal Infirmary, Edinburgh. This appointment he
+resigned after two years, when he visited Paris and its medical schools,
+and, on a walking tour, those also of Berlin and Göttingen. In 1817,
+when he settled at Nottingham, he published his _Diagnosis_, and in 1818
+he wrote the _Mimoses_, a work on the affections denominated bilious,
+nervous, &c. The next year he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society
+of Edinburgh, and in 1825 he became physician to the Nottingham general
+hospital. In 1826 he removed to London, and in the following year he
+published his _Commentaries_ on the more important diseases of females.
+In 1830 he issued his _Observations on Blood-letting, founded on
+researches on the morbid and curative effects of loss of blood_, which
+were acknowledged by the medical profession to be of vast practical
+value, and in 1831 his _Experimental Essay on the Circulation of the
+Blood in the Capillary Vessels_, in which he showed that the
+blood-channels intermediate between arteries and veins serve the office
+of bringing the fluid blood into contact with the material tissues of
+the system. In the following year he read before the Royal Society a
+paper "On the inverse ratio which subsists between Respiration and
+Irritability in the Animal Kingdom." His most important work in
+physiology was concerned with the theory of reflex action, embodied in a
+paper "On the reflex Function of the Medulla Oblongata and the Medulla
+Spinalis" (1832), which was supplemented in 1837 by another "On the True
+Spinal Marrow, and the Excito-motor System of Nerves." The "reflex
+function" excited great attention on the continent of Europe, though in
+England some of his papers were refused publication by the Royal
+Society. Hall thus became the authority on the multiform deranged states
+of health referable to an abnormal condition of the nervous system, and
+he gained a large practice. His "ready method" for resuscitation in
+drowning and other forms of suspended respiration has been the means of
+saving innumerable lives. He died at Brighton of a throat affection,
+aggravated by lecturing, on the 11th of August 1857.
+
+  A list of his works and details of his "ready method," &c., are given
+  in his _Memoirs_ by his widow (London, 1861).
+
+
+
+
+HALL, ROBERT (1764-1831), English Baptist divine, was born on the 2nd of
+May 1764, at Arnesby near Leicester, where his father, Robert Hall
+(1728-1791), a man whose cast of mind in some respects resembled closely
+that of the son, was pastor of a Baptist congregation. Robert was the
+youngest of a family of fourteen. While still at the dame's school his
+passion for books absorbed the greater part of his time, and in the
+summer it was his custom after school hours to retire to the churchyard
+with a volume, which he continued to peruse there till nightfall, making
+out the meaning of the more difficult words with the help of a pocket
+dictionary. From his sixth to his eleventh year he attended the school
+of Mr Simmons at Wigston, a village four miles from Arnesby. There his
+precocity assumed the exceptional form of an intense interest in
+metaphysics, partly perhaps on account of the restricted character of
+his father's library; and before he was nine years of age he had read
+and re-read Jonathan Edwards's _Treatise on the Will_ and Butler's
+_Analogy_. This incessant study at such an early period of life seems,
+however, to have had an injurious influence on his health. After he left
+Mr Simmons's school his appearance was so sickly as to awaken fears of
+the presence of phthisis. In order, therefore, to obtain the benefit of
+a change of air, he stayed for some time in the house of a gentleman
+near Kettering, who with an impropriety which Hall himself afterwards
+referred to as "egregious," prevailed upon the boy of eleven to give
+occasional addresses at prayer meetings. As his health seemed rapidly to
+recover, he was sent to a school at Northampton conducted by the Rev.
+John Ryland, where he remained a year and a half, and "made great
+progress in Latin and Greek." On leaving school he for some time studied
+divinity under the direction of his father, and in October 1778 he
+entered the Bristol academy for the preparation of students for the
+Baptist ministry. Here the self-possession which had enabled him in his
+twelfth year to address unfalteringly various audiences of grown-up
+people seems to have strangely forsaken him; for when, in accordance
+with the arrangements of the academy, his turn came to deliver an
+address in the vestry of Broadmead chapel, he broke down on two
+separate occasions and was unable to finish his discourse. On the 13th
+of August 1780 he was set apart to the ministry, but he still continued
+his studies at the academy; and in 1781, in accordance with the
+provisions of an exhibition which he held, he entered King's College,
+Aberdeen, where he took the degree of master of arts in March 1785. At
+the university he was without a rival of his own standing in any of the
+classes, distinguishing himself alike in classics, philosophy and
+mathematics. He there formed the acquaintance of Mackintosh (afterwards
+Sir James), who, though a year his junior in age, was a year his senior
+as a student. While they remained at Aberdeen the two were inseparable,
+reading together the best Greek authors, especially Plato, and
+discussing, either during their walks by the sea-shore and the banks of
+the Don or in their rooms until early morning, the most perplexed
+questions in philosophy and religion.
+
+During the vacation between his last two sessions at Aberdeen, Hall
+acted as assistant pastor to Dr Evans at Broadmead chapel, Bristol, and
+three months after leaving the university he was appointed classical
+tutor in the Bristol academy, an office which he held for more than five
+years. Even at this period his extraordinary eloquence had excited an
+interest beyond the bounds of the denomination to which he belonged, and
+when he preached the chapel was generally crowded to excess, the
+audience including many persons of intellectual tastes. Suspicions in
+regard to his orthodoxy having in 1789 led to a misunderstanding with
+his colleague and a part of the congregation, he in July 1790 accepted
+an invitation to make trial of a congregation at Cambridge, of which he
+became pastor in July of the following year. From a statement of his
+opinions contained in a letter to the congregation which he left, it
+would appear that, while a firm believer in the proper divinity of
+Christ, he had at this time disowned the cardinal principles of
+Calvinism--the federal headship of Adam, and the doctrine of absolute
+election and reprobation; and that he was so far a materialist as to
+"hold that man's thinking powers and faculties are the result of a
+certain organization of matter, and that after death he ceases to be
+conscious till the resurrection." It was during his Cambridge ministry,
+which extended over a period of fifteen years, that his oratory was most
+brilliant and most immediately powerful. At Cambridge the intellectual
+character of a large part of the audience supplied a stimulus which was
+wanting at Leicester and Bristol.
+
+His first published compositions had a political origin. In 1791
+appeared _Christianity consistent with the Love of Freedom_, in which he
+defended the political conduct of dissenters against the attacks of the
+Rev. John Clayton, minister of Weighhouse, and gave eloquent expression
+to his hopes of great political and social ameliorations as destined to
+result nearly or remotely from the subversion of old ideas and
+institutions in the maelstrom of the French Revolution. In 1793 he
+expounded his political sentiments in a powerful and more extended
+pamphlet entitled an _Apology for the Freedom of the Press_. On account,
+however, of certain asperities into which the warmth of his feelings had
+betrayed him, and his conviction that he had treated his subject in too
+superficial a manner, he refused to permit the publication of the
+pamphlet beyond the third edition, until the references of political
+opponents and the circulation of copies without his sanction induced him
+in 1821 to prepare a new edition, from which he omitted the attack on
+Bishop Horsley, and to which he prefixed an advertisement stating that
+his political opinions had undergone no substantial change. His other
+publications while at Cambridge were three sermons--_On Modern
+Infidelity_ (1801), _Reflections on War_ (1802), and _Sentiments proper
+to the present Crisis_ (1803). He began, however, to suffer from mental
+derangement in November 1804. He recovered so speedily that he was able
+to resume his duties in April 1805, but a recurrence of the malady
+rendered it advisable for him on his second recovery to resign his
+pastoral office in March 1806.
+
+On leaving Cambridge he paid a visit to his relatives in Leicestershire,
+and then for some time resided at Enderby, preaching occasionally in
+some of the neighbouring villages. Latterly he ministered to a small
+congregation in Harvey Lane, Leicester, from whom at the close of 1806
+he accepted a call to be their stated pastor. In the autumn of 1807 he
+changed his residence from Enderby to Leicester, and in 1808 he married
+the servant of a brother minister. His proposal of marriage had been
+made after an almost momentary acquaintance, and, according to the
+traditionary account, in very abrupt and peculiar terms; but, judging
+from his subsequent domestic life, his choice did sufficient credit to
+his penetration and sagacity. His writings at Leicester embraced various
+tracts printed for private circulation; a number of contributions to the
+_Eclectic Review_, among which may be mentioned his articles on
+"Foster's Essays" and on "Zeal without Innovation"; several sermons,
+including those _On the Advantages of Knowledge to the Lower Classes_
+(1810), _On the Death of the Princess Charlotte_ (1817), and _On the
+Death of Dr Ryland_ (1825); and his pamphlet on _Terms of Communion_, in
+which he advocated intercommunion with all those who acknowledged the
+"essentials" of Christianity. In 1819 he published an edition in one
+volume of his sermons formerly printed. On the death of Dr Ryland, Hall
+was invited to return to the pastorate of Broadmead chapel, Bristol, and
+as the peace of the congregation at Leicester had been to some degree
+disturbed by a controversy regarding several cases of discipline, he
+resolved to accept the invitation, and removed there in April 1826. The
+malady of renal calculus had for many years rendered his life an almost
+continual martyrdom, and henceforth increasing infirmities and
+sufferings afflicted him. Gradually the inability to take proper
+exercise, by inducing a plethoric habit of body and impeding the
+circulation, led to a diseased condition of the heart, which resulted in
+his death on the 21st of February 1831. He is remembered as a great
+pulpit orator, of a somewhat laboured, rhetorical style in his written
+works, but of undeniable vigour in his spoken sermons.
+
+  See _Works of Robert Hall, A.M., with a Brief Memoir of his Life, by
+  Olinthus Gregory, LL.D., and Observations on his Character as Preacher
+  by John Foster_, originally published in 6 vols. (London, 1832);
+  _Reminiscences of the Rev. Robert Hall, A.M._, by John Greene,
+  (London, 1832); _Biographical Recollections of the Rev. Robert Hall_,
+  by J. W. Morris (1848); _Fifty Sermons of Robert Hall from Notes taken
+  at the time of their Delivery_, by the Rev. Thomas Grinfield, M.A.
+  (1843); _Reminiscences of College Life in Bristol during the Ministry
+  of the Rev. Robert Hall, A.M._, by Frederick Trestrail (1879).
+
+
+
+
+HALL, SAMUEL CARTER (1800-1889), English journalist, was born at
+Waterford on the 9th of May 1800, the son of an army officer. In 1821 he
+went to London, and in 1823 became a parliamentary reporter. From 1826
+to 1837 he was editor of a great number and variety of public prints,
+and in 1839 he founded and edited _The Art Journal_. His exposure of the
+trade in bogus "Old Masters" earned for this publication a considerable
+reputation. Hall resigned the editorship in 1880, and was granted a
+Civil List pension "for his long and valuable services to literature and
+art." He died in London on the 16th of March 1889. His wife, Anna Maria
+Fielding (1800-1881), became well known as Mrs S. C. Hall, for her
+numerous novels, sketches of Irish life, and plays. Two of the last,
+_The Groves of Blarney_ and _The French Refugee_, were produced in
+London with success. She also wrote a number of children's books, and
+was practically interested in various London charities, several of which
+she helped to found.
+
+
+
+
+HALL, WILLIAM EDWARD (1835-1894), English writer on international law,
+was the only child of William Hall, M.D., a descendant of a junior
+branch of the Halls of Dunglass, and of Charlotte, daughter of William
+Cotton, F.S.A. He was born on the 22nd of August 1835, at Leatherhead,
+Surrey, but passed his childhood abroad, Dr Hall having acted as
+physician to the king of Hanover, and subsequently to the British
+legation at Naples. Hence, perhaps, the son's taste in after life for
+art and modern languages. He was educated privately till, at the early
+age of seventeen, he matriculated at Oxford, where in 1856 he took his
+degree with a first class in the then recently instituted school of law
+and history, gaining, three years afterwards, the chancellor's prize for
+an essay upon "the effect upon Spain of the discovery of the precious
+metals in America." In 1861 he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn,
+but devoted his time less to any serious attempt to obtain practice than
+to the study of Italian art, and to travelling over a great part of
+Europe, always bringing home admirable water-colour drawings of
+buildings and scenery. He was an early and enthusiastic member of the
+Alpine Club, making several first ascents, notably that of the Lyskamm.
+He was always much interested in military matters, and was under fire,
+on the Danish side, in the war of 1864. In 1867 he published a pamphlet
+entitled "A Plan for the Reorganization of the Army," and, many years
+afterwards, he saw as much as he was permitted to see of the expedition
+sent for the rescue of Gordon. He would undoubtedly have made his mark
+in the army, but in later life his ideal, which he realized, with much
+success, first at Llanfihangel in Monmouthshire, and then at Coker Court
+in Somersetshire, was, as has been said, "the English country gentleman,
+with cosmopolitan experiences, encyclopaedic knowledge, and artistic
+feeling." His travels took him to Lapland, Egypt, South America and
+India. He had done good work for several government offices, in 1871 as
+inspector of returns under the Elementary Education Act, in 1877 by
+reports to the Board of Trade upon Oyster Fisheries, in France as well
+as in England; and all the time was amassing materials for ambitious
+undertakings upon the history of civilization, and of the colonies. His
+title to lasting remembrance rests, however, upon his labours in the
+realm of international law, recognized by his election as _associé_ in
+1875, and as _membre_ in 1882, of the _Institut de Droit International_.
+In 1874 he published a thin 8vo upon the _Rights and Duties of
+Neutrals_, and followed it up in 1880 by his _magnum opus_, the
+_Treatise on International Law_, unquestionably the best book upon the
+subject in the English language. It is well planned, free from the
+rhetorical vagueness which has been the besetting vice of older books of
+a similar character, full of information, and everywhere bearing traces
+of the sound judgment and statesmanlike views of its author. In 1894
+Hall published a useful monograph upon a little-explored topic, "the
+Foreign Jurisdictions of the British Crown," but on the 30th of November
+of the same year, while apparently in the fullest enjoyment of bodily as
+well as mental vigour, he suddenly died. He married, in 1866, Imogen,
+daughter of Mr (afterwards Mr Justice) Grove, who died in 1886; and in
+1891, Alice, daughter of Colonel Hill of Court Hill, Shropshire, but
+left no issue.
+
+  See T. E. Holland in _Law Quarterly Review_, vol. xi. p. 113; and in
+  _Studies in International Law_, p. 302.     (T. E. H.)
+
+
+
+
+HALL, or BAD-HALL, a market-place and spa of Austria, in Upper Austria,
+25 m. S. of Linz by rail. Pop. (1900) 984. It is renowned for its saline
+springs, strongly impregnated with iodine and bromine, which are
+considered very efficacious in scrofulous affections and venereal skin
+diseases. Although the springs are known since the 8th century, Hall
+attained its actual importance only since 1855, when the springs became
+the property of the government. The number of visitors in 1901 was 4300.
+
+
+
+
+HALL (generally known as SCHWÄBISCH-HALL, to distinguish it from the
+small town of Hall in Tirol and Bad-Hall, a health resort in Upper
+Austria), a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Württemberg, situated in
+a deep valley on both sides of the Kocher, and on the railway from
+Heilbronn to Krailsheim, 35 m. N.E. of Stuttgart. Pop. (1905) 9400. It
+possesses four Evangelical churches (of which the Michaeliskirche dates
+from the 15th century and has fine medieval carving), a Roman Catholic
+church, a handsome town hall and classical and modern schools. A short
+distance south from the town is the royal castle of Komburg, formerly a
+Benedictine abbey and now used as a garrison for invalid soldiers, with
+a church dating from the 12th century. The town is chiefly known for its
+production of salt, which is converted into brine and piped from
+Wilhelmsglück mine, 5 m. distant. Connected with the salt-works there is
+a salt-bath and whey-diet establishment. The industries of the town also
+include cotton-spinning, iron founding, tanning, and the manufacture of
+soap, starch, brushes, machines, carriages and metal ware.
+
+Hall was early of importance on account of its salt-mines, which were
+held as a fief of the Empire by the so-called Salzgrafen (Salt-graves),
+of whom the earliest known, the counts of Westheim, had their seat in
+the castle of Hall. Later the town belonged to the Knights Templars. It
+was made a free imperial city in 1276 by Rudolph of Habsburg. In 1802 it
+came into the possession of Württemberg.
+
+
+
+
+HALL (O. E. _heall_, a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. _Halle_), a term
+which has two significations in England and is applied sometimes to the
+manor house, the residence of the lord of the manor, which implied a
+territorial possession, but more often to the entrance hall of a
+mansion. In the latter case it was the one large room in the feudal
+castle up to the middle of the 15th century, when it served as audience
+chamber, dining-room, and dormitory. The hall was generally a
+parallelogram on plan, with a raised daïs at the farther end, a large
+bow window on one side, and in one or two cases on both sides. At the
+entrance end was a passage, which was separated from the hall by a
+partition screen often elaborately decorated, and over which was
+provided a minstrels' gallery; on the opposite side of the passage were
+the hatches communicating with the serveries. This arrangement is still
+found in some of the colleges at Oxford and Cambridge, such as those of
+New College, Christchurch, Wadham and Magdalen, Oxford, and in Trinity
+College, Cambridge. In private mansions, however, the kitchen and
+offices have been removed to a greater distance, and the great hall is
+only used for banquets. Among the more remarkable examples are the halls
+of Audley End; Hatfield; Brougham Castle; Hardwick; Knole Stanway in
+Gloucestershire; Wollaton, where it is situated in the centre of the
+mansion and lighted by clerestory windows; Burton Agnes in Yorkshire;
+Canons Ashley, Northamptonshire; Westwood Park, Worcestershire;
+Fountains, Yorkshire; Sydenham House, Devonshire; Cobham, Kent;
+Montacute, Somersetshire; Bolsover Castle, Derbyshire (vaulted and with
+two columns in the centre of the hall to carry the vault); Longford
+Castle, Wiltshire; Barlborough, Derbyshire; Rushton Hall,
+Northamptonshire, with a bow window at each end of the daïs and a third
+bow window at the other end; Knole, Kent; and at Mayfield, Sussex (with
+stone arches across to carry the roof), now converted into a Roman
+Catholic chapel. Many of these halls have hammer-beam roofs, the most
+remarkable of which is found in the Middle Temple Hall, London, where
+both the tie and collar beams have hammer-beams. Of other halls,
+Westminster is the largest, being 238 ft. long; followed by the
+Banqueting Hall, Whitehall, 110 ft.; Wolsey's Hall, Hampton Court, 106
+ft.; the Egyptian Hall at the Mansion House; the hall at Lambeth, now
+the library; Crosby Hall; Gray's Inn Hall; the Guildhall; Charterhouse;
+and the following halls of the London City Companies--Clothworkers,
+Brewers, Goldsmiths, Fishmongers. The term hall is also given to the
+following English mansions:--Haddon, Hardwick, Apethorpe, Aston,
+Blickling, Brereton, Burton Agnes, Cobham, Dingley, Rushton, Kirby,
+Litford and Wollaton; and it was the name of some of the earlier
+colleges at Oxford and Cambridge, most of which have now been absorbed
+in other colleges, so that there remain only St Edmund's Hall, Oxford,
+and Trinity Hall, Cambridge.
+
+
+
+
+HALLAM, HENRY (1777-1859), English historian, was the only son of John
+Hallam, canon of Windsor and dean of Bristol, and was born on the 9th of
+July 1777. He was educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, where he
+graduated in 1799. Called to the bar, he practised for some years on the
+Oxford circuit; but his tastes were literary, and when, on the death of
+his father in 1812, he inherited a small estate in Lincolnshire, he gave
+himself up wholly to the studies of his life. He had early become
+connected with the brilliant band of authors and politicians who then
+led the Whig party, a connexion to which he owed his appointment to the
+well-paid and easy post of commissioner of stamps; but in practical
+politics, for which he was by nature unsuited, he took no active share.
+But he was an active supporter of many popular movements--particularly
+of that which ended in the abolition of the slave trade; and he was
+throughout his entire life sincerely and profoundly attached to the
+political principles of the Whigs, both in their popular and in their
+aristocratic aspect.
+
+Hallam's earliest literary work was undertaken in connexion with the
+great organ of the Whig party, the _Edinburgh Review_, where his review
+of Scott's _Dryden_ attracted much notice. His first great work, _The
+View of the State of Europe during the Middle Ages_, was produced in
+1818, and was followed nine years later by the _Constitutional History
+of England_. In 1838-1839 appeared the _Introduction to the Literature
+of Europe in the 15th, 16th and 17th Centuries_. These are the three
+works on which the fame of Hallam rests. They at once took a place in
+English literature which has never been seriously challenged. A volume
+of supplemental notes to his _Middle Ages_ was published in 1848. These
+facts and dates represent nearly all the events of Hallam's career. The
+strongest personal interest in his life was the affliction which befell
+him in the loss of his children, one after another. His eldest son,
+Arthur Henry Hallam,--the "A.H.H." of Tennyson's _In Memoriam_, and by
+the testimony of his contemporaries a man of the most brilliant
+promise,--died in 1833 at the age of twenty-two. Seventeen years later,
+his second son, Henry Fitzmaurice Hallam, was cut off like his brother
+at the very threshold of what might have been a great career. The
+premature death and high talents of these young men, and the association
+of one of them with the most popular poem of the age, have made Hallam's
+family afflictions better known than any other incidents of his life. He
+survived wife, daughter and sons by many years. In 1834 Hallam published
+_The Remains in Prose and Verse of Arthur Henry Hallam, with a Sketch of
+his Life_. In 1852 a selection of _Literary Essays and Characters_ from
+the _Literature of Europe_ was published. Hallam was a fellow of the
+Royal Society, and a trustee of the British Museum, and enjoyed many
+other appropriate distinctions. In 1830 he received the gold medal for
+history, founded by George IV. He died on the 21st of January 1859.
+
+The _Middle Ages_ is described by Hallam himself as a series of
+historical dissertations, a comprehensive survey of the chief
+circumstances that can interest a philosophical inquirer during the
+period from the 5th to the 15th century. The work consists of nine long
+chapters, each of which is a complete treatise in itself. The history of
+France, of Italy, of Spain, of Germany, and of the Greek and Saracenic
+empires, sketched in rapid and general terms, is the subject of five
+separate chapters. Others deal with the great institutional features of
+medieval society--the development of the feudal system, of the
+ecclesiastical system, and of the free political system of England. The
+last chapter sketches the general state of society, the growth of
+commerce, manners, and literature in the middle ages. The book may be
+regarded as a general view of early modern history, preparatory to the
+more detailed treatment of special lines of inquiry carried out in his
+subsequent works, although Hallam's original intention was to continue
+the work on the scale on which it had been begun.
+
+The _Constitutional History of England_ takes up the subject at the
+point at which it had been dropped in the _View of the Middle Ages_,
+viz. the accession of Henry VII.,[1] and carries it down to the
+accession of George III. Hallam stopped here for a characteristic
+reason, which it is impossible not to respect and to regret. He was
+unwilling to excite the prejudices of modern politics which seemed to
+him to run back through the whole period of the reign of George III. As
+a matter of fact they ran back much farther, as Hallam soon found. The
+sensitive impartiality which withheld him from touching perhaps the most
+interesting period in the history of the constitution did not save him
+from the charge of partisanship. The _Quarterly Review_ for 1828
+contains an article on the _Constitutional History_, written by Southey,
+full of railing and reproach. The work, he says, is the "production of a
+decided partisan," who "rakes in the ashes of long-forgotten and a
+thousand times buried slanders, for the means of heaping obloquy on all
+who supported the established institutions of the country." No
+accusation made by a critic ever fell so wide of the mark. Absolute
+justice is the standard which Hallam set himself and maintained. His
+view of constitutional history was that it should contain only so much
+of the political and general history of the time as bears directly on
+specific changes in the organization of the state, including therein
+judicial as well as ecclesiastical institutions. But while abstaining
+from irrelevant historical discussions, Hallam dealt with statesmen and
+policies with the calm and fearless impartiality of a judge. It was his
+cool treatment of such sanctified names as Charles, Cranmer and Laud
+that provoked the indignation of Southey and the _Quarterly_, who forgot
+that the same impartial measure was extended to statesmen on the other
+side. If Hallam can ever be said to have deviated from perfect fairness,
+it was in the tacit assumption that the 19th-century theory of the
+constitution was the right theory in previous centuries, and that those
+who departed from it on one side or the other were in the wrong. He did
+unconsciously antedate the constitution, and it is clear from incidental
+allusions in his last work that he did not regard with favour the
+democratic changes which he thought to be impending. Hallam, like
+Macaulay, ultimately referred all political questions to the standard of
+Whig constitutionalism. But though his work is thus, like that of many
+historians, coloured by his opinions, this was not the outcome of a
+conscious purpose, and he was scrupulously conscientious in collecting
+and weighing his materials. In this he was helped by his legal training,
+and it was doubtless this fact which made the _Constitutional History_
+one of the text-books of English politics, to which men of all parties
+appealed, and which, in spite of all the work of later writers, still
+leaves it a standard authority.
+
+Like the _Constitutional History_, the _Introduction to the Literature of
+Europe_ continues one of the branches of inquiry which had been opened in
+the _View of the Middle Ages_. In the first chapter of the _Literature_,
+which is to a great extent supplementary to the last chapter of the
+_Middle Ages_, Hallam sketches the state of literature in Europe down to
+the end of the 14th century: the extinction of ancient learning which
+followed the fall of the Roman empire and the rise of Christianity; the
+preservation of the Latin language in the services of the church; and the
+slow revival of letters, which began to show itself soon after the 7th
+century--"the _nadir_ of the human mind"--had been passed. For the first
+century and a half of his special period he is mainly occupied with a
+review of classical learning, and he adopts the plan of taking short
+decennial periods and noticing the most remarkable works which they
+produced. The rapid growth of literature in the 16th century compels him
+to resort to a classification of subjects. Thus in the period 1520-1550 we
+have separate chapters on ancient literature, theology, speculative
+philosophy and jurisprudence, the literature of taste, and scientific and
+miscellaneous literature; and the subdivisions of subjects is carried
+further of course in the later periods. Thus poetry, the drama and polite
+literature form the subjects of separate chapters. One inconvenient result
+of this arrangement is that the same author is scattered over many
+chapters, according as his works fall within this category or that period
+of time. Names like Shakespeare, Grotius, Bacon, Hobbes appear in half a
+dozen different places. The individuality of great authors is thus
+dissipated except when it has been preserved by an occasional sacrifice of
+the arrangement--and this defect, if it is to be esteemed a defect, is
+increased by the very sparing references to personal history and character
+with which Hallam was obliged to content himself. His plan excluded
+biographical history, nor is the work, he tells us, to be regarded as one
+of reference. It is rigidly an account of the books which would make a
+complete library of the period,[2] arranged according to the date of their
+publication and the nature of their subjects. The history of institutions
+like universities and academies, and that of great popular movements like
+the Reformation, are of course noticed in their immediate connexion with
+literary results; but Hallam had little taste for the spacious
+generalization which such subjects suggest. The great qualities displayed
+in this work have been universally acknowledged--conscientiousness,
+accuracy, judgment and enormous reading. Not the least striking testimony
+to Hallam's powers is his mastery over so many diverse forms of
+intellectual activity. In science and theology, mathematics and poetry,
+metaphysics and law, he is a competent and always a fair if not a profound
+critic. The bent of his own mind is manifest in his treatment of pure
+literature and of political speculation--which seems to be inspired with
+stronger personal interest and a higher sense of power than other parts of
+his work display. Not less worthy of notice in a literary history is the
+good sense by which both his learning and his tastes have been held in
+control. Probably no writer ever possessed a juster view of the relative
+importance of men and things. The labour devoted to an investigation is
+with Hallam no excuse for dwelling on the result, unless that is in itself
+important. He turns away contemptuously from the mere curiosities of
+literature, and is never tempted to make a display of trivial erudition.
+Nor do we find that his interest in special studies leads him to assign
+them a disproportionate place in his general view of the literature of a
+period.
+
+Hallam is generally described as a "philosophical historian." The
+description is justified not so much by any philosophical quality in his
+method as by the nature of his subject and his own temper. Hallam is a
+philosopher to this extent that both in political and in literary
+history he fixed his attention on results rather than on persons. His
+conception of history embraced the whole movement of society. Beside
+that conception the issue of battles and the fate of kings fall into
+comparative insignificance. "We can trace the pedigree of princes," he
+reflects, "fill up the catalogue of towns besieged and provinces
+desolated, describe even the whole pageantry of coronations and
+festivals, but we cannot recover the genuine history of mankind." But,
+on the other hand, there is no trace in Hallam of anything like a
+philosophy of history or society. Wise and generally melancholy
+reflections on human nature and political society are not infrequent in
+his writings, and they arise naturally and incidentally out of the
+subject he is discussing. His object is the attainment of truth in
+matters of fact. Sweeping theories of the movement of society, and broad
+characterizations of particular periods of history seem to have no
+attraction for him. The view of mankind on which such generalizations
+are usually based, taking little account of individual character, was
+highly distasteful to him. Thus he objects to the use of statistics
+because they favour that tendency to regard all men as mentally and
+morally equal which is so unhappily strong in modern times. At the same
+time Hallam by no means assumes the tone of the mere scholar. He is even
+solicitous to show that his point of view is that of the cultivated
+gentleman and not of the specialist of any order. Thus he tells us that
+Montaigne is the first French author whom an English gentleman is
+ashamed not to have read. In fact, allusions to the necessary studies of
+a gentleman meet us constantly, reminding us of the unlikely erudition
+of the schoolboy in Macaulay. Hallam's prejudices, so far as he had any,
+belong to the same character. His criticism is apt to assume a tone of
+moral censure when he has to deal with certain extremes of human
+thought--scepticism in philosophy, atheism in religion and democracy in
+politics.
+
+Hallam's style is singularly uniform throughout all his writings. It is
+sincere and straightforward, and obviously innocent of any motive beyond
+that of clearly expressing the writer's meaning. In the _Literature of
+Europe_ there are many passages of great imaginative beauty.     (E. R.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Lord Brougham, overlooking the constitutional chapter in the
+    _Middle Ages_, censured Hallam for making an arbitrary beginning at
+    this point, and proposed to write a more complete history himself.
+
+  [2] Technical subjects like painting or English law have been
+    excluded by Hallam, and history and theology only partially treated.
+
+
+
+
+HALLAM, ROBERT (d. 1417), bishop of Salisbury and English representative
+at the council of Constance, was educated at Oxford, and was chancellor
+of the university from 1403 to 1405. In the latter year the pope
+nominated him to be archbishop of York, but the king objected. However,
+in 1407 he was consecrated by Gregory XII. at Siena as bishop of
+Salisbury. At the council of Pisa in 1409 he was one of the English
+representatives. On the 6th of June 1411 Pope John XXIII. made Hallam a
+cardinal, but there was some irregularity, and his title was not
+recognized. At the council of Constance (q.v.), which met in November
+1414, Hallam was the chief English envoy. There he at once took a
+prominent position, as an advocate of the cause of Church reform, and of
+the superiority of the council to the pope. In the discussions which led
+up to the deposition of John XXIII. on the 29th of May 1415 he had a
+leading share. With the trials of John Hus and Jerome of Prague he had
+less concern. The emperor Sigismund, through whose influence the council
+had been assembled, was absent during the whole of 1416 on a diplomatic
+mission in France and England; but when he returned to Constance in
+January 1417, as the open ally of the English king, Hallam as Henry's
+trusted representative obtained increased importance. Hallam contrived
+skilfully to emphasize English prestige by delivering the address of
+welcome to Sigismund on his formal reception. Afterwards, under his
+master's direction, he gave the emperor vigorous support in the
+endeavour to secure a reform of the Church, before the council proceeded
+to the election of a new pope. This matter was still undecided when
+Hallam died suddenly, on the 4th of September 1417. After his death the
+direction of the English nation fell into less skilful hands, with the
+result that the cardinals were able to secure the immediate election of
+a new pope (Martin V., elected on the 11th of November). It has been
+supposed that the abandonment of the reformers by the English was due
+entirely to Hallam's death; but it is more likely that Henry V.,
+foreseeing the possible need for a change of front, had given Hallam
+discretionary powers which the bishop's successors used with too little
+judgment. Hallam himself, who had the confidence of Sigismund and was
+generally respected for his straightforward independence, might have
+achieved a better result. Hallam was buried in the cathedral at
+Constance, where his tomb near the high altar is marked by a brass of
+English workmanship.
+
+  For the acts of the council of Constance see H. von der Hardt's
+  _Concilium Constantiense_, and H. Finke's _Acta concilii
+  Constanciensis_. For a modern account see Mandell Creighton's _History
+  of the Papacy_ (6 vols., London, 1897).     (C. L. K.)
+
+
+
+
+HALLÉ, SIR CHARLES (originally KARL HALLE) (1819-1895), English pianist
+and conductor, German by nationality, was born at Hagen, in Westphalia,
+on the 11th of April 1819. He studied under Rink at Darmstadt in 1835,
+and as early as 1836 went to Paris, where for twelve years he lived in
+constant intercourse with Cherubini, Chopin, Liszt and other musicians,
+and enjoyed the friendship of such great literary figures as Alfred de
+Musset and George Sand. He had started a set of chamber concerts with
+Alard and Franchomme with great success, and had completed one series of
+them when the revolution of 1848 drove him from Paris, and he settled,
+with his wife and two children, in London. His pianoforte recitals,
+given at first from 1850 in his own house, and from 1861 in St James's
+Hall, were an important feature of London musical life, and it was due
+in great measure to them that a knowledge of Beethoven's pianoforte
+sonatas became general in English society. At the Musical Union founded
+by John Ella, and at the Popular Concerts from their beginning, Hallé
+was a frequent performer, and from 1853 was director of the Gentlemen's
+Concerts in Manchester, where, in 1857, he started a series of concerts
+of his own, raising the orchestra to a pitch of perfection quite unknown
+at that time in England. In 1888 he married Madame Norman Neruda (b.
+1839), the violinist, widow of Ludwig Norman, and daughter of Josef
+Neruda, members of whose family had long been famous for musical talent.
+In the same year he was knighted; and in 1890 and 1891 he toured with
+his wife in Australia and elsewhere. He died at Manchester on the 25th
+of October 1895. Hallé exercised an important influence in the musical
+education of England; if his pianoforte-playing, by which he was mainly
+known to the public in London, seemed remarkable rather for precision
+than for depth, for crystal clearness rather than for warmth, and for
+perfect realization of the written text rather than for strong
+individuality, it was at least of immense value as giving the
+composer's idea with the utmost fidelity. Those who were privileged to
+hear him play in private, like those who could appreciate the power,
+beauty and imaginative warmth of his conducting, would have given a very
+different verdict; and they were not wrong in judging Hallé to be a man
+of the widest and keenest artistic sympathies, with an extraordinary
+gift of insight into music of every school, as well as a strong sense of
+humour. He fought a long and arduous battle for the best music, and
+never forgot the dignity of his art. In spite of the fact that his
+technique was that of his youth, of the period before Liszt, the ease
+and certainty he attained in the most modern music was not the less
+wonderful because he concealed the mechanical means so completely.
+
+Lady Hallé, who from 1864 onwards had been one of the leading solo
+violinists of the time, was constantly associated with her husband on
+the concert stage till his death; and in 1896 a public subscription was
+organized in her behalf, under royal patronage. She continued to appear
+occasionally in public, notably as late as 1907, when she played at the
+Joachim memorial concert. In 1901 she was given by Queen Alexandra the
+title of "violinist to the queen." A fine classical player and artist,
+frequently associated with Joachim, Lady Hallé was the first of the
+women violinists who could stand comparison with men.
+
+
+
+
+HALLE (known as HALLE-AN-DER-SAALE, to distinguish it from the small
+town of Halle in Westphalia), a town of Germany, in the Prussian
+province of Saxony, situated in a sandy plain on the right bank of the
+Saale, which here divides into several arms, 21 m. N.W. from Leipzig by
+the railway to Magdeburg. Pop. (1875), 60,503; (1885) 81,982; (1895)
+116,304; (1905) 160,031. Owing to its situation at the junction of six
+important lines of railway, bringing it into direct communication with
+Berlin, Breslau, Leipzig, Frankfort-on-Main, the Harz country and
+Hanover, it has greatly developed in size and in commercial and
+industrial importance. It consists of the old, or inner, town surrounded
+by promenades, which occupy the site of the former fortifications, and
+beyond these of two small towns, Glaucha in the south and Neumarkt in
+the north, and five rapidly increasing suburbs. The inner town is
+irregularly built and presents a somewhat unattractive appearance, but
+it has been much improved and modernized by the laying out of new
+streets.
+
+The centre of the town proper is occupied by the imposing market square,
+on which stand the fine medieval town hall (restored in 1883) and the
+handsome Gothic Marienkirche, dating mainly from the 16th century, with
+two towers connected by a bridge. In the middle of the square are a
+clock-tower (_Der rote Turm_) 276 ft. in height, and a bronze statue of
+Handel, the composer, a native of Halle. West of the market-square lies
+the Halle, or the Tal, where the brine springs (see below) issue. Among
+the eleven churches, nine Protestant and two Roman Catholic, may also be
+mentioned the St Moritzkirche, dating from the 12th century, with fine
+wood carvings and sculptures, and the cathedral (belonging since 1689 to
+the Reformed or Calvinistic church), built in the 16th century and
+containing an altar-piece representing Duke Augustus of Saxony and his
+family. Of secular buildings the most noticeable are the ruins of the
+castle of Moritzburg, formerly a citadel and the residence of the
+archbishops of Magdeburg, destroyed by fire in the Thirty Years' War,
+with the exception of the left wing now used for military purposes, the
+university buildings, the theatre and the new railway station. The
+famous university was founded by the elector Frederick III. of
+Brandenburg (afterwards king of Prussia), in 1694, on behalf of the
+jurist, Christian Thomasius (1655-1728), whom many students followed to
+Halle, when he was expelled from Leipzig through the enmity of his
+fellow professors. It was closed by Napoleon in 1806 and again in 1813,
+but in 1815 was re-established and augmented by the removal to it of the
+university of Wittenberg, with which it thus became united. It has
+faculties of theology, law, medicine and philosophy. From the first it
+has been recognized as one of the principal seats of Protestant
+theology, originally of the pietistic and latterly of the rationalistic
+and critical school. In connexion with the university there are a
+botanical garden, a theological seminary, anatomical, pathological and
+physical institutes, hospitals, an agricultural institute--one of the
+foremost institutions of the kind in Germany--a meteorological
+institute, an observatory and a library of 180,000 printed volumes and
+800 manuscripts. Among other educational establishments must be
+mentioned the Francke'sche Stiftungen, founded in 1691 by August Hermann
+Francke (1663-1727), a bronze statue of whom by Rauch was erected in
+1829 in the inner court of the building. They embrace an orphanage, a
+laboratory where medicines are prepared and distributed, a Bible press
+from which Bibles are issued at a cheap rate, and eight schools of
+various grades, attended in all by over 3000 pupils. The other principal
+institutions are the city gymnasium, the provincial lunatic asylum, the
+prison, the town hospital and infirmary, and the deaf and dumb
+institute. The salt-springs of Halle have been known from a very early
+period. Some rise within the town and others on an island in the Saale;
+and together their annual yield of salt is about 8500 tons.
+
+The workmen employed at the salt-works are of a peculiar race and are
+known as the _Halloren_. They have been usually regarded as descendants
+of the original Wendish inhabitants, or as Celtic immigrants, with an
+admixture of Frankish elements. They wear a distinct dress, the ordinary
+costume of about 1700, observe several ancient customs, and enjoy
+certain exemptions and privileges derived from those of the ancient
+_Pfannerschaft_ (community of the salt-panners).
+
+Among the other industries of Halle are sugar refining, machine
+building, the manufacture of spirits, malt, chocolate, cocoa,
+confectionery, cement, paper, chicory, lubricating and illuminating oil,
+wagon grease, carriages and playing cards, printing, dyeing and coal
+mining (soft brown coal). The trade, which is supervised by a chamber of
+commerce, is very considerable, the principal exports being machinery,
+raw sugar and petroleum. Halle is also noted as the seat of several
+important publishing firms. The Bibelanstalt (Bible institution) of von
+Castein is the central authority for the revision of Luther's Bible, of
+which it sells annually from 60,000 to 70,000 copies.
+
+  Halle is first mentioned as a fortress erected on the Saale in 806 by
+  Charles, son of Charlemagne, during his expedition against the Sorbs.
+  The place was, however, known long before, and owes its origin as well
+  as its name to the salt springs (_Halis_). In 968 Halle, with the
+  valuable salt works, was given by the emperor Otto I. to the newly
+  founded archdiocese of Magdeburg, and in 981 Otto II. gave it a
+  charter as a town. The interests of the archbishop were watched over
+  by a _Vogt (advocatus)_ and a burgrave, and from the first there were
+  separate jurisdictions for the Halloren and the German settlers in the
+  town, the former being under that of the _Salzgraf_ (comes salis), the
+  latter of a _Schultheiss_ or bailiff, both subordinate to the
+  burgrave. The conflict of interests and jurisdictions led to the usual
+  internecine strife during the middle ages. The panners (_Pfänner_) of
+  the Tal, feudatories or officials, became a close hereditary
+  aristocracy in perpetual rivalry with the gilds in the town; and both
+  resisted the pretensions of the archbishops. At the beginning of the
+  12th century Halle had attained considerable importance, and in the
+  13th and 14th centuries as a member of the Hanseatic League it carried
+  on successful wars with the archbishops of Magdeburg; and in 1435 it
+  resisted an army of 30,000 men under the elector of Saxony. Its
+  liberty perished, however, as a result of the internal feud between
+  the democratic gilds and the patrician panners. On the 20th of
+  September 1478 a demagogue and cobbler named Jakob Weissak, a member
+  of the town council, with his confederates opened the gates to the
+  soldiers of the archbishop. The townsmen were subdued, and to hold
+  them in check the archbishop, Ernest of Saxony, built the castle of
+  Moritzburg. Notwithstanding the efforts of the archbishops of Mainz
+  and Magdeburg, the Reformation found an entrance into the city in
+  1522; and in 1541 a Lutheran superintendent was appointed. After the
+  peace of Westphalia in 1648 the city came into the possession of the
+  house of Brandenburg. In 1806 it was stormed and taken by the French,
+  after which, at the peace of Tilsit, it was united to the new kingdom
+  of Westphalia. After the battle between the Prussians and French, in
+  May 1813, it was taken by the Prussians. The rise of Leipzig was for a
+  long time hurtful to the prosperity of Halle, and its present rapid
+  increase in population and trade is principally due to its position as
+  the centre of a network of railways.
+
+  See Dreyhaupt, _Ausführliche Beschreibung des Saalkreises_ (Halle, 2
+  vols., 1755; 3rd edition, 1842-1844); Hoffbauer, _Geschichte der
+  Universität zu Halle_ (1806); _Halle in Vorzeit und Gegenwart_ (1851);
+  Knauth, _Kurze Geschichte und Beschreibung der Stadt Halle_ (3rd ed.,
+  1861); vom Hagen, _Die Stadt Halle_ (1866-1867); Hertzberg,
+  _Geschichte der Vereinigung der Universitäten von Wittenberg und
+  Halle_ (1867); Voss, _Zur Geschichte der Autonomie der Stadt Halle_
+  (1874); Schrader, _Geschichte der Friedrichs-Universität zu Halle_
+  (Berlin, 1894); Karl Hegel, _Städte und Gilden der germanischen
+  Völker_ (Leipzig, 1891), ii. 444-449.
+
+
+
+
+HALLECK, FITZ-GREENE (1790-1867), American poet, was born at Guilford,
+Connecticut, on the 8th of July 1790. By his mother he was descended
+from John Eliot, the "Apostle to the Indians." At an early age he became
+clerk in a store at Guilford, and in 1811 he entered a banking-house in
+New York. Having made the acquaintance of Joseph Rodman Drake, in 1819
+he assisted him under the signature of "Croaker junior" in contributing
+to the New York _Evening Post_ the humorous series of "Croaker Papers."
+In 1821 he published his longest poem, _Fanny_, a satire on local
+politics and fashions in the measure of Byron's _Don Juan_. He visited
+Europe in 1822-1823, and after his return published anonymously in 1827
+_Alnwick Castle, with other Poems_. From 1832 to 1841 he was
+confidential agent of John Jacob Astor, who named him one of the
+trustees of the Astor library. In 1864 he published in the _New York
+Ledger_ a poem of 300 lines entitled "Young America." He died at
+Guilford, on the 19th of November 1867. The poems of Halleck are written
+with great care and finish, and manifest the possession of a fine sense
+of harmony and of genial and elevated sentiments.
+
+  His _Life and Letters_, by James Grant Wilson, appeared in 1869. His
+  _Poetical Writings_, together with extracts from those of Joseph
+  Rodman Drake, were edited by Wilson in the same year.
+
+
+
+
+HALLECK, HENRY WAGER (1815-1872), American general and jurist, was born
+at Westernville, Oneida county, N.Y., in 1815, entered the West Point
+military academy at the age of twenty, and on graduating in 1839 was
+appointed to the engineers, becoming at the same time assistant
+professor of engineering at the academy. In the following year he was
+made an assistant to the Board of Engineers at Washington, from 1841 to
+1846 he was employed on the defence works at New York, and in 1845 he
+was sent by the government to visit the principal military
+establishments of Europe. After his return, Halleck delivered a course
+of lectures on the science of war, published in 1846 under the title
+_Elements of Military Art and Science_. A later edition of this work was
+widely used as a text-book by volunteer officers during the Civil War.
+On the outbreak of the Mexican War in 1846, he served with the
+expedition to California and the Pacific coast, in which he
+distinguished himself not only as an engineer, but by his skill in civil
+administration and by his good conduct before the enemy. He served for
+several years in California as a staff officer, and as secretary of
+state under the military government, and in 1849 he helped to frame the
+state constitution of California, on its being admitted into the Union.
+In 1852 he was appointed inspector and engineer of lighthouses, and in
+1853 was employed in the fortification of the Pacific coast. In 1854
+Captain Halleck resigned his commission and took up the practice of law
+with great success. He was also director of a quicksilver mine, and in
+1855 he became president of the Pacific & Atlantic railway. On the
+outbreak of the Civil War he returned to the army as a major-general,
+and in November 1861 he was charged with the supreme command in the
+western theatre of war. There can be no question that his administrative
+skill was mainly instrumental in bringing order out of chaos in the
+hurried formation of large volunteer armies in 1861, but the strategical
+and tactical successes of the following spring were due rather to the
+skill and activity of his subordinate generals Grant, Buell and Pope,
+than to the plans of the supreme commander, and when he assumed command
+of the united forces of these three generals before Corinth, the
+methodical slowness of his advance aroused much criticism. In July,
+however, he was called to Washington as general-in-chief of the armies.
+At headquarters his administrative powers were conspicuous, but he
+proved to be utterly wanting in any large grasp of the military problem;
+the successive reverses of Generals McClellan, Pope, Burnside and Hooker
+in Virginia were not infrequently traceable to the defects of the
+general-in-chief. No co-ordination of the military efforts of the Union
+was seriously undertaken by Halleck, and eventually in March 1864 Grant
+was appointed to replace him, Major-General Halleck becoming chief of
+staff at Washington. This post he occupied with credit until the end of
+the war. In April 1865 he held the command of the military division of
+the James and in August of the same year of the military division of the
+Pacific, which he retained till June 1869, when he was transferred to
+that of the South, a position he held till his death at Louisville, Ky.,
+on the 9th of January 1872. Halleck's position as a soldier is easily
+defined by bis uniform success as an administrative official, his
+equally uniform want of success as an officer at the head of large
+armies in the field, and the popularity of his theoretical writings on
+war. His influence, for good or evil, on the course of the greatest war
+of modern times was greater than that of any soldier on either side save
+Grant and Lee, and whilst his interference with the dispositions of the
+commanders in the field was often disastrous, his services in organizing
+and instructing the Union forces were always of the highest value, and
+in this respect he was indispensable.
+
+  Besides _Military Art and Science_, Halleck wrote _Bitumen, its
+  Varieties, Properties and Uses_ (1841); _The Mining Laws of Spain and
+  Mexico_ (1859); _International Law_ (1861; new edition, 1908); and
+  _Treatise on International Law and the Laws of War, prepared for the
+  use of Schools and Colleges_, abridged from the larger work. He
+  translated Jomini's _Vie politique et militaire de Napoléon_ (1864)
+  and de Fooz _On the Law of Mines_ (1860). The works on international
+  law mentioned above entitle General Halleck to be considered as one of
+  the great jurists of the 19th century.
+
+
+
+
+HÄLLEFLINTA (a Swedish word meaning rock-flint), a white, grey, yellow,
+greenish or pink, fine-grained rock consisting of an intimate mixture of
+quartz and felspar. Many examples are banded or striated; others contain
+porphyritic crystals of quartz which resemble those of the felsites and
+porphyries. Mica, iron oxides, apatite, zircon, epidote and hornblende
+may also be present in small amount. The more micaceous varieties form
+transitions to granulite and gneiss. Hälleflinta under the microscope is
+very finely crystalline, or even cryptocrystalline, resembling the
+felsitic matrix of many acid rocks. It is essentially metamorphic and
+occurs with gneisses, schists and granulites, especially in the
+Scandinavian peninsula, where it is regarded as being very
+characteristic of certain horizons. Of its original nature there is some
+doubt, but its chemical composition and the occasional presence of
+porphyritic crystals indicate that it has affinities to the fine-grained
+acid intrusive rocks. In this group there may also have been placed
+metamorphosed acid tuffs and a certain number of adinoles (shales,
+contact altered by intrusions of diabase). The assemblage is not a
+perfectly homogeneous one but includes both igneous and sedimentary
+rocks, but the former preponderate. Rocks very similar to the typical
+Swedish hälleflintas occur in Tirol, in Galicia and eastern Bohemia.
+
+
+
+
+HALLEL (Heb. [Hebrew: hallel] a Mishnic derivative from [Hebrew: hillel]
+hillel, "to praise"), a term in synagogal liturgy for (a) Psalms
+cxiii.-cxviii., often called "the Egyptian Hallel" because of its
+recitation during the paschal meal on the night of the Passover, (b)
+Psalm cxxxvi. "the Great Hallel." C. A. Briggs[1] points out that the
+term "Hallelujah" (Praise ye Yah) is found at the close of Pss. civ.,
+cv., cxv., cxvi., cxvii., at the beginning of Pss. cxi., cxii. and at
+both ends of Pss. cvi., cxiii., cxxxv., cxlvi. to cl. The Septuagint
+also gives it at the beginning of Pss. cv., cvii., cxiv., cxvi. to
+cxix., cxxxvi. There are thus four groups of Hallel psalms:--civ.-cvii.
+(a tetralogy on creation, the patriarchal age, the Exodus, and the
+Restoration); cxi.-cxvii. which includes most of the "Egyptian Hallel";
+cxxxv.-cxxxvi.; cxlvi.-cl. All of these Hallels (except cxlvii. and
+cxlix. which are Maccabean) belong to the Greek period, forming a
+collection of sixteen psalms composed for public use by the choirs,
+especially at the great feasts. Their distribution into four groups was
+the work of the final editor of the psalter. Later liturgical use
+regarded Pss. cxviii. and even cxix. as Hallels, as well as Pss. cxx. to
+cxxxiv.
+
+It will be observed that the extent of the official Hallel varied from
+time to time. It would appear that in the time of Gamaliel (_Pesahim_
+x. 5) the custom of its recitation at the paschal meal was still of
+recent innovation. While the school of Shammai advised only Ps. cxiii.,
+the school of Hillel favoured Pss. cxiii. and cxiv.[2] The further
+extension so as to include Pss. cxv. to cxviii. probably dates from the
+first half of the 2nd century A.D., and these four psalms were recited
+after the pouring out of the fourth cup, the two earlier ones being
+taken at the beginning of the meal. From the 3rd century the use of the
+Hallel was extended to other occasions, and was gradually incorporated
+into the liturgy of eighteen festal days.
+
+The "Great Hallel" (Ps. cxxxvi. and its later extension to cxx.-cxxxvi.)
+always served the wider purpose of a more general thanksgiving.
+According to Rabbi Johanan it derived its name from the allusion in v.
+25 to the Holy One who sits in heaven and thence distributes food to all
+bis creatures.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _International Critical Commentary_, "Psalms," Intro. lxxviii.
+
+  [2] The reference to a hymn at the institution of the Eucharist
+    (Matt. xxvi. 30, Mark xiv. 26) must be interpreted in the light of
+    this inceptive stage of the Hallel.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 12, Slice 7, by Various
+
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+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 12, Slice 7, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 12, Slice 7
+       "Gyantse" to "Hallel"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: December 24, 2011 [EBook #38401]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 12 SLICE 7 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber&rsquo;s note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+A few typographical errors have been corrected. They
+appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<h3>VOLUME XII SLICE VII<br /><br />
+Gyantse to Hallel</h3>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p>
+<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">GYANTSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">HAHNEMANN, SAMUEL CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">GYGES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">HAHN-HAHN, IDA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">GYLIPPUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">HAI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">GYLLEMBOURG-EHRENSVÄRD, THOMASINE CHRISTINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">HAIBAK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">GYLLENSTJERNA, JOHAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">HAIDA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">GYMKHANA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">HAIDINGER, WILHELM KARL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">GYMNASTICS AND GYMNASIUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">HAIDUK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">GYMNOSOPHISTS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">HAIFA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">GYMNOSPERMS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">HAIK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">GYMNOSTOMACEAE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">HAIL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">GYMPIE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">HAILES, DAVID DALRYMPLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">GYNAECEUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">HAILSHAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">GYNAECOLOGY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">HAINAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">GYÖNGYÖSI, ISTVÁN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">HAINAU</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">GYÖR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">HAINAUT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">GYP</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">HAINBURG</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">GYPSUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">HAINICHEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">GYROSCOPE AND GYROSTAT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">HAI-PHONG</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">GYTHIUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">HAIR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">GYULA-FEHÉRVÁR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">HAIR-TAIL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">H</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">HAITI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">HAAG, CARL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">HAJIPUR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">HAAKON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">HAJJ</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">HAARLEM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">H&#256;JJ&#298; KHAL&#298;FA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">HAARLEM LAKE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">HAKE, EDWARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25a">HAASE, FRIEDRICH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">HAKE, THOMAS GORDON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">HAASE, FRIEDRICH GOTTLOB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">HAKE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">HAAST, SIR JOHANN FRANZ JULIUS VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">HAKKAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">HABABS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">HAKLUYT, RICHARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">HABAKKUK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">HAKODATE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">HABDALA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">HAL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">HABEAS CORPUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">HALA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">HABERDASHER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">HALAESA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">HABINGTON, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">HALAKHA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">HABIT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">HALBERSTADT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">HABITAT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">HALBERT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">HABSBURG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">HALDANE, JAMES ALEXANDER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">HACHETTE, JEAN NICOLAS PIERRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">HALDANE, RICHARD BURDON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">HACHETTE, JEANNE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">HALDANE, ROBERT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">HACHETTE, LOUIS CHRISTOPHE FRANÇOIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">HALDEMAN, SAMUEL STEHMAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">HACHURE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">HALDIMAND, SIR FREDERICK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">HACIENDA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">HALE, EDWARD EVERETT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">HACKBERRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">HALE, HORATIO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">HACKENSACK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">HALE, JOHN PARKER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">HACKET, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">HALE, SIR MATTHEW</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">HACKETT, HORATIO BALCH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">HALE, NATHAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">HACKETT, JAMES HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">HALE, WILLIAM GARDNER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">HACKLÄNDER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">HALEBID</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">HACKNEY</a> (borough of London)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">HALES, JOHN</a> (d. 1571)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">HACKNEY</a> (riding-horse)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">HALES, JOHN</a> (1584-1656)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">HADAD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">HALES, STEPHEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">HADDINGTON, EARL OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">HALESOWEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">HADDINGTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">HALEVI, JUDAH BEN SAMUEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">HADDINGTONSHIRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">HALÉVY, JACQUES FRANÇOIS FROMENTAL ÉLIE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">HADDOCK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">HALÉVY, LUDOVIC</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">HADDON HALL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">HALFPENNY, WILLIAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">HADEN, SIR FRANCIS SEYMOUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">HALF-TIMBER WORK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">HADENDOA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">HALFWAY COVENANT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">HADERSLEBEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">HALHED, NATHANIEL BRASSEY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">HADING, JANE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">HALIBURTON, THOMAS CHANDLER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">HADLEIGH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">HALIBUT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">HADLEY, ARTHUR TWINING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">HALICARNASSUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">HADLEY, JAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">HALICZ</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">HADLEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">HALIFAX, CHARLES MONTAGUE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">HADRAMUT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">HALIFAX, GEORGE MONTAGU DUNK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">HADRIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">HALIFAX, GEORGE SAVILE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">HADRIAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">HALIFAX (Canada)</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">HADRIAN'S WALL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">HALIFAX (Yorkshire, England)</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">HADRUMETUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">&#7716;ALI&#7778;AH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">HAECKEL, ERNST HEINRICH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">HALKETT, HUGH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">HAEMATITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">HALL, BASIL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">HAEMATOCELE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">HALL, CARL CHRISTIAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">HAEMOPHILIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">HALL, CHARLES FRANCIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">HAEMORRHAGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">HALL, CHRISTOPHER NEWMAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">HAEMORRHOIDS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">HALL, EDWARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">HAEMOSPORIDIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">HALL, FITZEDWARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">HAETZER, LUDWIG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">HALL, ISAAC HOLLISTER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">H&#256;FIZ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">HALL, SIR JAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">HAG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">HALL, JAMES</a> (American judge)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">HAGEDORN, FRIEDRICH VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">HALL, JAMES</a> (American geologist)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">HAGEN, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH VON DER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">HALL, JOSEPH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">HAGEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">HALL, MARSHALL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">HAGENAU</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">HALL, ROBERT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">HAGENBACH, KARL RUDOLF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">HALL, SAMUEL CARTER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">HAGENBECK, CARL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">HALL, WILLIAM EDWARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">HAGERSTOWN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">HALL</a> (spa of Austria)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">HAG-FISH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">HALL</a> (town of Germany)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">HAGGADA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">HALL</a> (of a mansion)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">HAGGAI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">HALLAM, HENRY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">HAGGARD, HENRY RIDER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">HALLAM, ROBERT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">HAGGIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">HALLÉ, SIR CHARLES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">HAGIOLOGY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">HALLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">HAGIOSCOPE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">HALLECK, FITZ-GREENE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">HAGONOY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">HALLECK, HENRY WAGER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">HAGUE, THE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">HÄLLEFLINTA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">HAHN, AUGUST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">HALLEL</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page750" id="page750"></a>750</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">GYANTSE,<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> one of the large towns of Tibet. It lies S.E. of
+Shigatse, 130 m. from the Indian frontier and 145 m. from Lhasa.
+Its central position at the junction of the roads from India and
+Bhutan with those from Ladakh and Central Asia leading to
+Lhasa makes it a considerable distributing trade centre. Its
+market is the third largest in Tibet, coming after Lhasa and
+Shigatse, and is especially celebrated for its woollen cloth and
+carpet manufactures. Here caravans come from Ladakh,
+Nepal and upper Tibet, bringing gold, borax, salt, wool, musk
+and furs, to exchange for tea, tobacco, sugar, cotton goods,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page751" id="page751"></a>751</span>
+broadcloth and hardware. The town is compactly built of stone
+houses, with wooden balconies facing the main street, whence
+narrow lanes strike off into uninviting slums, and contains a fort
+and monastery. In the British expedition of 1904 Gyantse
+formed the first objective of the advance, and the force was
+besieged here in the mission post of Changlo for some time. The
+Tibetans made a night attack on the post, and were beaten off
+with some difficulty, but subsequently the British attacked and
+stormed the fort or jong. Under the treaty of 1904 a British
+trade agent is stationed at Gyantse.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GYGES,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> founder of the third or Mermnad dynasty of Lydian
+kings, he reigned 687-652 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> according to H. Geizer, 690-657
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span> according to H. Winckler. The chronology of the Lydian
+kings given by Herodotus has been shown by the Assyrian
+inscriptions to be about twenty years in excess. Gyges was the
+son of Dascylus, who, when recalled from banishment in Cappadocia
+by the Lydian king Sadyattes&mdash;called Candaules &ldquo;the
+Dog-strangler&rdquo; (a title of the Lydian Hermes) by the Greeks&mdash;sent
+his son back to Lydia instead of himself. Gyges soon became
+a favourite of Sadyattes and was despatched by him to fetch
+Tudo, the daughter of Arnossus of Mysia, whom the Lydian king
+wished to make his queen. On the way Gyges fell in love with
+Tudo, who complained to Sadyattes of his conduct. Forewarned
+that the king intended to punish him with death, Gyges assassinated
+Sadyattes in the night and seized the throne with the
+help of Arselis of Mylasa, the captain of the Carian bodyguard,
+whom he had won over to his cause. Civil war ensued, which
+was finally ended by an appeal to the oracle of Delphi and the
+confirmation of the right of Gyges to the crown by the Delphian
+god. Further to secure his title he married Tudo. Many legends
+were told among the Greeks about his rise to power. That
+found in Herodotus, which may be traced to the poet Archilochus
+of Paros, described how &ldquo;Candaules&rdquo; insisted upon showing
+Gyges his wife when unrobed, which so enraged her that she gave
+Gyges the choice of murdering her husband and making himself
+king, or of being put to death himself. Plato made Gyges a
+shepherd, who discovered a magic ring by means of which he
+murdered his master and won the affection of his wife (Hdt. i.
+8-14; Plato, <i>Rep.</i> 359; Justin i. 7; Cicero, <i>De off.</i> iii. 9).
+Once established on the throne Gyges devoted himself to consolidating
+his kingdom and making it a military power. The
+Troad was conquered, Colophon captured from the Greeks,
+Smyrna besieged and alliances entered into with Ephesus and
+Miletus. The Cimmerii, who had ravaged Asia Minor, were
+beaten back, and an embassy was sent to Assur-bani-pal at
+Nineveh (about 650 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) in the hope of obtaining his help against
+the barbarians. The Assyrians, however, were otherwise
+engaged, and Gyges turned to Egypt, sending his faithful Carian
+troops along with Ionian mercenaries to assist Psammetichus in
+shaking off the Assyrian yoke (660 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). A few years later he
+fell in battle against the Cimmerii under Dugdamm&#275; (called
+Lygdamis by Strabo i. 3. 21), who took the lower town of Sardis.
+Gyges was succeeded by his son Ardys.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Nicolaus Damascenus, quoting from the Lydian historian
+Xanthus, in C. Müller, <i>Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum</i>, iii.;
+R. Schubert, <i>Geschichte der Könige von Lydien</i> (1884); M. G.
+Radet, <i>La Lydie et le monde grec au temps de Mermnades</i> (1892-1893):
+H. Gelzer, &ldquo;Das Zeitalter des Gyges&rdquo; (<i>Rhein. Mus.</i>, 1875);
+H. Winckler, <i>Altorientalische Forschungen</i>, i. (1893); Macan&rsquo;s edition
+of Herodotus.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. H. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GYLIPPUS,<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> a Spartan general of the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; he
+was the son of Cleandridas, who had been expelled from Sparta
+for accepting Athenian bribes (446 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and had settled at Thurii.
+His mother was probably a helot, for Gylippus is said to have
+been, like Lysander and Callicratidas, a <i>mothax</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Helot</a></span>).
+When Alcibiades urged the Spartans to send a general to lead the
+Syracusan resistance against the Athenian expedition, Gylippus
+was appointed, and his arrival was undoubtedly the turning point
+of the struggle (414-413). Though at first his long hair, his threadbare
+cloak and his staff furnished the subject of many a jest, and
+his harsh and overbearing manner caused grave discontent,
+yet the rapidity and decisiveness of his movements, won the
+sympathy and respect of the Syracusans. Diodorus (xiii. 28-32),
+probably following Timaeus, represents him as inducing the
+Syracusans to pass sentence of death on the captive Athenian
+generals, but we need have no hesitation in accepting the statement
+of Philistus (Plutarch, <i>Nicias</i>, 28), a Syracusan who
+himself took part in the defence, and Thucydides (vii. 86), that
+he tried, though without success, to save their lives, wishing to
+take them to Sparta as a signal proof of his success. Gylippus
+fell, as his father had done, through avarice; entrusted by
+Lysander with an immense sum which he was to deliver to the
+ephors at Sparta, he could not resist the temptation to enrich
+himself and, on the discovery of his guilt, went into exile.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Thucydides vi. 93. 104, vii.; Plutarch, <i>Nicias</i>, 19, 21, 27, 28,
+<i>Lysander</i>, 16, 17; Diodorus xiii. 7, 8, 28-32; Polyaenus i. 39. 42.
+See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Syracuse</a></span> (for the siege operations), commentaries on Thucydides
+and the Greek histories.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GYLLEMBOURG-EHRENSVÄRD, THOMASINE CHRISTINE,<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span>
+Baroness (1773-1856), Danish author, was born on the 9th of
+November 1773, at Copenhagen. Her maiden name was Buntzen.
+Her great beauty early attracted notice, and before she was
+seventeen she married the famous writer Peter Andreas Heiberg.
+To him she bore in the following year a son, afterwards illustrious
+as the poet and critic Johan Ludvig Heiberg. In 1800 her
+husband was exiled, and she obtained a divorce, marrying in
+December 1801 the Swedish Baron K. F. Ehrensvärd, himself
+a political fugitive. Her second husband, who presently adopted
+the name of Gyllembourg, died in 1815. In 1822 she followed
+her son to Kiel, where he was appointed professor, and in 1825
+she returned with him to Copenhagen. In 1827 she first appeared
+as an author by publishing her romance of <i>The Polonius Family</i>
+in her son&rsquo;s newspaper <i>Flyvende Post</i>. In 1828 the same journal
+contained <i>The Magic Ring</i>, which was immediately followed
+by <i>En Hverdags historie</i> (<i>An Everyday Story</i>). The success of
+this anonymous work was so great that the author adopted
+until the end of her career the name of &ldquo;The Author of <i>An
+Everyday Story</i>.&rdquo; In 1833-1834 she published three volumes
+of <i>Old and New Novels</i>. <i>New Stories</i> followed in 1835 and 1836.
+In 1839 appeared two novels, <i>Montanus the Younger</i> and <i>Ricida</i>;
+in 1840, <i>One in All</i>; in 1841, <i>Near and Far</i>; in 1843, <i>A Correspondence</i>;
+in 1844, <i>The Cross Ways</i>; in 1845, <i>Two Generations</i>.
+From 1849 to 1851 the Baroness Ehrensvärd-Gyllembourg was
+engaged in bringing out a library edition of her collected works
+in twelve volumes. On the 2nd of July 1856 she died in her son&rsquo;s
+house at Copenhagen. Not until then did the secret of her
+authorship transpire; for throughout her life she had preserved
+the closest reticence on the subject even with her nearest friends.
+The style of Madame Ehrensvärd-Gyllembourg is clear and
+sparkling; for English readers no closer analogy can be found
+than between her and Mrs Gaskell, and <i>Cranford</i> might well
+have been written by the witty Danish authoress.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. L. Heiberg, <i>Peter Andreas Heiberg og Thomasine Gyllembourg</i>
+(Copenhagen, 1882), and L. Kornelius-Hybel, <i>Nogle Bemaerkninger
+om P. A. Heiberg og Fru Gyllembourg</i> (Copenhagen, 1883).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GYLLENSTJERNA, JOHAN,<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1635-1680), Swedish
+statesman, completed his studies at Upsala and then visited
+most of the European states and laid the foundations of that deep
+insight into international politics which afterwards distinguished
+him. On his return home he met King Charles X. in the Danish
+islands and was in close attendance upon him till the monarch&rsquo;s
+death in 1660. He began his political career at the diet which
+assembled in the autumn of the same year. An aristocrat by
+birth and inclination, he was nevertheless a true patriot and
+demanded the greatest sacrifices from his own order in the
+national interests. He was therefore one of those who laboured
+most zealously for the recovery of the crown lands. In the
+Upper House he was the spokesman of the gentry against the
+magnates, whose inordinate privileges he would have curtailed
+or abolished. His adversaries vainly endeavoured to gain him
+by favour, for as court-marshal and senator he was still more
+hostile to the dominant patricians who followed the adventurous
+policy of Magnus de la Gardie. Thus he opposed the French
+alliance which de la Gardie carried through in 1672, and consistently
+advocated economy in domestic and neutrality in
+foreign affairs. On the outbreak of the war in 1675 he was the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page752" id="page752"></a>752</span>
+most loyal and energetic supporter of the young Charles XI.,
+and finally his indispensable counsellor. Indeed, it may be said,
+that the political principles which he instilled into the youthful
+monarch were faithfully followed by Charles during the whole
+of his reign. In 1679 Gyllenstjerna was appointed the Swedish
+plenipotentiary at the peace congress of Lund. The alliance
+which he then concluded with Denmark bound the two northern
+realms together in a common foreign policy, and he sought
+besides to facilitate their harmonious co-operation by every
+means in his power. In 1680, after bringing home Charles XI.&rsquo;s
+Danish bride from Copenhagen, he was appointed governor-general
+of Scania (Skåne), but expired a few weeks later.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See M. Höjer, <i>Öfversigt af Sveriges yttre politik under åren 1676-1680</i>
+(Upsala, 1875).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GYMKHANA,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> a display of miscellaneous sports, originally at
+the military stations of India. The word would seem to be
+a colloquial remodelling of the Hindustani <i>gend-khana</i>, ball-house
+or racquet-court, by substituting for <i>gend</i> the first syllable
+of the English word &ldquo;gymnastics.&rdquo; The definition given in
+Yule&rsquo;s <i>Glossary</i> is as follows: &ldquo;A place of public resort at a
+station, where the needful facilities for athletics and games ... are
+provided.&rdquo; The name of the place was afterwards
+applied to the games themselves, and the word is now used almost
+exclusively in this sense. According to Yule the first use of it
+that can be traced was, on the authority of Major John Trotter,
+at Rurki in the year 1861, when a gymkhana was instituted
+there. Gymkhana sports were invented to relieve the monotony
+of Indian station life, and both officers and men from the ranks
+took part in them. The first meetings consisted of promiscuous
+horse and pony races at catch weights. To these were soon
+added a second variety, originally called the <i>p&#257;g&#335;l</i> (funny races),
+the one generally known outside India, which consisted of
+miscellaneous races and competitions of all kinds, some serious
+and some amusing, on horseback, on foot and on bicycles.
+Among these may be mentioned the usual military sports; such
+as tent-pegging, lemon-cutting and obstacle racing; rickshaw
+racing; tilting at the ring sack, pillion, hurdle, egg-and-spoon,
+blindfold, threading-the-needle and many other kinds of races
+depending upon the inventive powers of the committees in charge.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GYMNASTICS AND GYMNASIUM,<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> terms signifying respectively
+a system of physical exercises practised either for recreation
+or for the purpose of promoting the health and development
+of the body, and the building where such exercises are carried
+on. The gymnasium of the Greeks was originally the school
+where competitors in the public games received their training,
+and was so named from the circumstance that these competitors
+exercised naked (<span class="grk" title="gymnos">&#947;&#965;&#956;&#957;&#972;&#962;</span>). The gymnasium was a public institution
+as distinguished from the palaestra, which was a
+private school where boys were trained in physical exercises,
+though the term palaestra is also often used for the part of a
+gymnasium specially devoted to wrestling and boxing. The
+athletic contests for which the gymnasium supplied the means
+of training and practice formed part of the social life of the
+Greeks from the earliest times. They were held in honour of
+heroes and gods; sometimes forming part of a periodic festival,
+sometimes of the funeral rites of a deceased chief. In course of
+time the Greeks grew more attached to such sports; their free
+active life, spent to a great extent in the open air, fostered the
+liking almost into a passion. The victor in any athletic contest,
+though he gained no money prize, was rewarded with the honour
+and respect of his fellow citizens; and a victory in the great
+religious festivals was counted an honour for the whole state.
+In these circumstances the training of competitors for the
+greater contests became a matter of public concern; and
+accordingly special buildings were provided by the state, and
+their management entrusted to public officials. The regulation
+of the gymnasium at Athens is attributed by Pausanias (i. 39. 3)
+to Theseus. Solon made several laws on the subject; but
+according to Galen it was reduced to a system in the time of
+Cleisthenes. Ten <i>gymnasiarchs</i>, one from each tribe, were
+appointed annually. These performed in rotation the duties
+of their office, which were to maintain and pay the persons who
+were training for public contests, to conduct the games at the
+great Athenian festivals, to exercise general supervision over
+the morals of the youths, and to adorn and keep up the gymnasium.
+This office was one of the ordinary <span class="grk" title="leitourgiai">&#955;&#949;&#953;&#964;&#959;&#965;&#961;&#947;&#943;&#945;&#953;</span> (public
+services), and great expense was entailed on the holders. Under
+them were ten <i>sophronistae</i>, whose duty was to watch the conduct
+of the youths at all times, and especially to be present at all
+their games. The practical teaching and selecting of the suitable
+exercises for each youth were in the hands of the <i>paedotribae</i> and
+<i>gymnastae</i>, the latter of whom also superintended the effect on the
+constitution of the pupils, and prescribed for them when they were
+unwell. The <i>aleiptae</i> oiled and rubbed dust on the bodies of the
+youths, acted as surgeons, and administered the drugs prescribed.
+According to Galen there was also a teacher of the various
+games of ball. The gymnasia built to suit these various purposes
+were large buildings, which contained not merely places for each
+kind of exercise, but also a stadium, baths, covered porticos for
+practice in bad weather, and outer porticos where the philosophers
+and men of letters read public lectures and held disputations.</p>
+
+<p>The gymnasium of the Greeks did not long remain an institution
+exclusively devoted to athletic exercises. It soon began
+to be applied to other uses even more important. The development
+arose naturally through the recognition by the Greeks of
+the important place in education occupied by physical culture,
+and of the relation between exercise and health. The gymnasium
+accordingly became connected with education on the one hand
+and with medicine on the other. Due training of the body and
+maintenance of the health and strength of children were the
+chief part of earlier Greek education. Except the time devoted
+to letters and music, the education of boys was conducted in
+the gymnasia, where provision was made, as already mentioned,
+for their moral as well as their physical training. As they grew
+older, conversation and social intercourse took the place of the
+more systematic discipline. Philosophers and sophists assembled
+to talk and to lecture in the gymnasia, which thus became places
+of general resort for the purpose of all less systematic intellectual
+pursuits, as well as for physical exercises. In Athens there were
+three great public gymnasia&mdash;Academy, Lyceum and Cynosarges&mdash;each
+of which was consecrated to a special deity with whose
+statue it was adorned; and each was rendered famous by
+association with a celebrated school of philosophy. Plato&rsquo;s
+teaching in the Academy has given immortality to that gymnasium;
+Aristotle conferred lustre on the Lyceum; and the
+Cynosarges was the resort of the Cynics. Plato when treating
+of education devotes much consideration to gymnastics (see
+especially <i>Rep.</i> iii. and various parts of <i>Laws</i>); and according
+to Plato it was the sophist Prodicus who first pointed out the
+connexion between gymnastics and health. Having found such
+exercises beneficial to his own weak health, he formulated a
+method which was adopted generally, and which was improved by
+Hippocrates. Galen lays the greatest stress on the proper use of
+gymnastics, and throughout ancient medical writers we find that
+special exercises are prescribed as the cure for special diseases.</p>
+
+<p>The Greek institution of the gymnasium never became popular
+with the Romans, who regarded the training of boys in gymnastics
+with contempt as conducive to idleness and immorality, and of
+little use from a military point of view; though at Sparta
+gymnastic training had been chiefly valued as encouraging
+warlike tastes and promoting the bodily strength needed for the
+use of weapons and the endurance of hardship. Among the
+Romans of the republic, the games in the Campus Martius, the
+duties of camp life, and the enforced marches and other hardships
+of actual warfare, served to take the place of the gymnastic
+exercises required by the Greeks. The first public gymnasium
+at Rome was built by Nero and another by Commodus. In the
+middle ages, though jousts and feats of horsemanship and field
+sports of various kinds were popular, the more systematic training
+of the body which the Greeks had associated with the gymnasium
+fell into neglect; while the therapeutic value of special exercises
+as understood by Hippocrates and Galen appears to have been
+lost sight of. Rousseau, in his <i>Émile</i>, was the first in modern
+times to call attention to the injurious consequences of such
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page753" id="page753"></a>753</span>
+indifference, and he insisted on the importance of physical
+culture as an essential part of education. It was probably due
+in some measure to his influence that F. L. Jahn and his followers
+in Germany, encouraged by the Prussian minister Stein, established
+the <i>Turnplätze</i>, or gymnastic schools, which played an
+important part during the War of Liberation, and in the political
+agitations which followed the establishment of the German
+confederation by the Congress of Vienna. The educational
+reformers Pestalozzi and Froebel emphasized the need for
+systematic physical training in any complete scheme of education.</p>
+
+<p>The later development of the classical gymnasium (when it had
+become the school of Intellectual culture rather than of exclusively
+physical exercise), and not the original idea, has been
+perpetuated in the modern use of the word in Germany, where
+the name &ldquo;gymnasium&rdquo; is given to the highest grade of secondary
+school, and the association of the word with athleticism has
+been entirely abandoned. On the other hand, in England,
+France and elsewhere in Europe, as well as in America, the
+history of the word has been precisely the reverse; the connexion
+of the gymnasium with philosophy and mental culture
+has been dropped, and it indicates a building exclusively intended
+for the practice of physical exercises. But whereas the Greeks
+received training in the gymnasium for contests which are now
+designated as <i>athletic sports</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), gymnastics in the modern
+sense is a term restricted to such exercises as are usually practised
+indoors, with or without the aid of mechanical appliances, as
+distinguished from sports or games practised in the open air.</p>
+
+<p>It was not until near the end of the 19th century that gymnastics
+were recognized in England as anything more than a
+recreation; their value as a specifically therapeutic agent, or as
+an article in the curriculum of elementary schools, was not
+realized. More recently, however, educationists have urged with
+increasing insistence the need for systematic physical training,
+and their views received greater attention when evidence of
+deterioration in the physique of the people began to accumulate.
+During the first decade of the 20th century more than one commission
+reported to parliament in England in favour of more
+systematic and general physical training being encouraged or
+even made compulsory by public authority. Voluntary associations
+were formed for encouraging such training and providing
+facilities for it. Gymnastics had already for several years been
+an essential part of the training of army recruits with exceedingly
+beneficial results, and gymnasia had been established at Aldershot
+and other military centres. Physical exercises, although
+not compulsory, obtained a permanent place in the code for
+elementary schools in Great Britain; and much care has been
+taken to provide a syllabus of exercises adapted for the improvement
+of the physique of the children. These exercises are partly
+gymnastic and partly of the nature of drill; they do not in most
+cases require the use of appliances, and are on that account
+known as &ldquo;free movements,&rdquo; which numbers of children go
+through together, accompanied whenever possible by music.
+On the other hand at the larger public schools and universities
+there are elaborate gymnasia equipped with a great variety of
+apparatus, the skilful use of which demands assiduous practice;
+and this is encouraged by annual contests between teams of
+gymnasts representing rival institutions.</p>
+
+<p>The appliances vary to some extent in different gymnasia,
+some of the more complicated requiring a greater amount of
+space and involving a larger cost than is often practicable.
+But where these considerations are negligible,
+substantial uniformity is to be found in the equipment
+<span class="sidenote">Gymnastic apparatus.</span>
+of gymnasia not designed for specifically medical
+purposes. The simplest, and in many respects the most generally
+useful, of all gymnastic apparatus is the dumb-bell. It was in
+use in England as early as the time of Elizabeth, and it has the
+advantage that it admits of being exactly proportioned to the
+individual strength of each learner, and can be adjusted in
+weight as his strength increases. The exercises that may be
+performed with the dumb-bell, combined with a few simple
+drill-like movements, give employment to all parts of the body
+and to both sides equally. Dumb-bell exercises, therefore, when
+arranged judiciously and with knowledge, are admirably suited
+for developing the physique, and are extensively employed in
+schools both for boys and girls. The bar-bell is merely a two-handed
+dumb-bell, and its use is similar in principle. The
+Indian club is also in use in most gymnasia; but the risk of
+overstraining the body by its unskilful handling makes it less
+generally popular than the dumb-bell. All these appliances
+may be, and often are, used either in ordinary schoolrooms or
+elsewhere outside the gymnasium. The usual fixed sorts of
+apparatus, the presence of which (or of some of them) in a building
+may be said to constitute it a gymnasium, are the following: a
+leaping-rope; a leaping-pole; a vaulting-horse; a horizontal
+bar, so mounted between two upright posts that its height from
+the ground may be adjusted as desired; parallel bars, used for
+exercises to develop the muscles of the trunk and arms; the
+trapeze consisting of a horizontal bar suspended by ropes at a
+height of 4 to 5 ft. from the ground; the bridge ladder; the
+plank; the inclined plane; the mast; swinging rings; the
+prepared wall; the horizontal beam.</p>
+
+<p>Before the end of the 19th century the therapeutic value of
+gymnastics was fully realized by the medical profession; and a
+number of medical or surgical gymnasia came into existence,
+provided with specially devised apparatus for the treatment of
+different physical defects or weaknesses. The exercises practised
+in them are arranged upon scientific principles based on
+anatomical and physiological knowledge; and these principles
+have spread thence to influence largely the practice of gymnastics
+in schools and in the army. A French medical writer
+enumerates seven distinct groups of maladies, each including a
+number of different complaints, for which gymnastic exercises
+are a recognized form of treatment; and there are many malformations
+of the human body, formerly believed to be incurable,
+which are capable of being greatly remedied if not entirely
+corrected by regular gymnastic exercises practised under medical
+direction.</p>
+
+<p>The value of gymnastics both for curing defects, and still more
+for promoting health and the development of normal physique,
+is recognized even more clearly on the continent of Europe than
+in Great Britain. In Germany the government not only controls
+the practice of gymnastics but makes it compulsory for every
+child and adult to undergo a prescribed amount of such
+physical training. In France also, physical training by gymnastics
+is under state control; in Sweden, Denmark, Switzerland,
+Italy, Russia, systems more or less distinct enjoy
+a wide popularity; and in Finland gymnastics are practised
+on lines that exhibit national peculiarities. The Finns introduce
+an exceptional degree of variety into their exercises as
+well as into the appliances devised to assist them; women are
+scarcely less expert than men in the performance of them; and
+the enthusiasm with which the system is supported produces
+the most beneficial results in the physique of the people. International
+gymnastic contests have become a feature of the revived
+Olympic Games (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Athletic Sports</a></span>), and in those held at
+Athens in 1906 a team of Danish ladies took part in the competition
+and proved by their skilful performance that gymnastics
+may be practised with as much success by women as by men.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The chief work on the ancient gymnastics is Krause, <i>Gymnastik
+und Agonistik der Hellenen</i> (1841); of more recent works mention
+may be made of Jäger, <i>Gymnastik der Hellenen</i> (1881); L. Grasberger,
+<i>Erziehung und Unterricht im klassischen Altertum</i> (1881); J. P.
+Mahaffy, <i>Old Greek Education</i> (1883); A. S. Wilkins, <i>National
+Education in Greece</i> (1873); E. Paz, <i>Histoire de la gymnastique</i>
+(1886); Wickenhagen, <i>Antike und moderne Gymnastik</i> (1891); Becker-Göll,
+<i>Charicles</i> ii.; Brugsma, <i>Gymnasiorum apud Graecos descriptio</i>
+(1855); Petersen, <i>Das Gymnasium der Griechen</i> (1858). See also
+N. Laisné, <i>Gymnastique pratique</i> (Paris, 1879); Collineau, <i>La
+Gymnastique</i> (Paris, 1884); <i>L&rsquo;Hygiène à l&rsquo;école</i> (Paris, 1889); P. de
+Coubertin, <i>La Gymnastique utilitaire</i> (Paris, 1905); H. Nissen,
+<i>Rational Home Gymnastics</i> (Boston, 1903).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. J. M.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GYMNOSOPHISTS<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (Lat. <i>gymnosophistae</i>, from Gr. <span class="grk" title="gymnos,
+sophistês">&#947;&#965;&#956;&#957;&#972;&#962;, &#963;&#959;&#966;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#942;&#962;</span>, &ldquo;naked philosophers&rdquo;), the name given by the
+Greeks to certain ancient Hindu philosophers who pursued
+asceticism to the point of regarding food and clothing as detrimental
+to purity of thought. From the fact that they often
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page754" id="page754"></a>754</span>
+lived as hermits in forests, the Greeks also called them <i>Hylobioi</i>
+(cf. the <i>V&#257;na-prasth&#257;s</i> in Sanskrit writings). Diogenes Laërtius
+(ix. 61 and 63) refers to them, and asserts that Pyrrho of Elis,
+the founder of pure scepticism, came under their influence, and
+on his return to Elis imitated their habits of life, to what extent
+does not appear. Strabo (xv. 711, 714) divides them into
+Brahmans and Sarmans (or Shamans). See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jains</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GYMNOSPERMS,<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> in Botany. The Gymnosperms, with the
+Angiosperms, constitute the existing groups of seed-bearing
+plants or Phanerogams: the importance of the seed as a distinguishing
+feature in the plant kingdom may be emphasized
+by the use of the designation Spermophyta for these two groups,
+in contrast to the Pteridophyta and Bryophyta in which true
+seeds are unknown. Recent discoveries have, however, established
+the fact that there existed in the Palaeozoic era fern-like
+plants which produced true seeds of a highly specialized
+type; this group, for which Oliver and Scott proposed the term
+Pteridospermae in 1904, must also be included in the Spermophyta.
+Another instance of the production of seeds in an
+extinct plant which further reduces the importance of this
+character as a distinguishing feature is afforded by the Palaeozoic
+genus <i>Lepidocarpon</i> described by Scott in 1901; this lycopodiaceous
+type possessed an integumented megaspore, to which
+the designation seed may be legitimately applied (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palaeobotany</a></span>:
+<i>Palaeozoic</i>).</p>
+
+<p>As the name Gymnosperm (Gr. <span class="grk" title="gymnos">&#947;&#965;&#956;&#957;&#972;&#962;</span>, naked, <span class="grk" title="sperma">&#963;&#960;&#941;&#961;&#956;&#945;</span>, seed)
+implies, one characteristic of this group is the absence of an ovary
+or closed chamber containing the ovules. It was the English
+botanist Robert Brown who first recognized this important
+distinguishing feature in conifers and cycads in 1825; he established
+the gymnospermy of these seed-bearing classes as distinct
+from the angiospermy of the monocotyledons and dicotyledons.
+As Sachs says in his history of botany, &ldquo;no more important
+discovery was ever made in the domain of comparative morphology
+and systematic botany.&rdquo; As Coulter and Chamberlain
+express it, &ldquo;the habitats of the Gymnosperms to-day indicate
+that they either are not at home in the more genial conditions
+affected by Angiosperms, or have not been able to maintain
+themselves in competition with this group of plants.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>These naked-seeded plants are of special interest on account
+of their great antiquity, which far exceeds that of the Angiosperms,
+and as comprising different types which carry us back
+to the Palaeozoic era and to the forests of the coal period. The
+best known and by far the largest division of the Gymnosperms
+is that of the cone-bearing trees (pines, firs, cedars, larches,
+&amp;c.), which play a prominent part in the vegetation of the present
+day, especially in the higher latitudes of the northern hemisphere;
+certain members of this class are of considerable antiquity, but
+the conifers as a whole are still vigorous and show but little
+sign of decadence. The division known as the Cycadophyta
+is represented by a few living genera of limited geographical
+range and by a large number of extinct types which in the
+Mesozoic era (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palaeobotany</a></span>: <i>Mesozoic</i>) played a conspicuous
+part in the vegetation of the world. Among existing Cycadophyta
+we find surviving types which, in their present isolation,
+their close resemblance to fossil forms, and in certain morphological
+features, constitute links with the past that not only
+connect the present with former periods in the earth&rsquo;s history,
+but serve as sign-posts pointing the way back along one of the
+many lines which evolution has followed.</p>
+
+<p>It is needless to discuss at length the origin of the Gymnosperms.
+The two views which find most favour in regard to
+the Coniferales and Cycadophyta are: (1) that both have been
+derived from remote filicinean ancestors; (2) that the cycads
+are the descendants of a fern-like stock, while conifers have been
+evolved from lycopodiaceous ancestors. The line of descent
+of recent cycads is comparatively clear in so far as they have
+undoubted affinity with Palaeozoic plants which combined
+cycadean and filicinean features; but opinion is much more
+divided as to the nature of the phylum from which the conifers
+are derived. The Cordaitales (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palaeobotany</a></span>: <i>Palaeozoic</i>)
+are represented by extinct forms only, which occupied a prominent
+position in the Palaeozoic period; these plants exhibit certain
+features in common with the living Araucarias, and others which
+invite a comparison with the maidenhair tree (<i>Ginkgo biloba</i>),
+the solitary survivor of another class of Gymnosperms, the
+Ginkgoales (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palaeobotany</a></span>: <i>Mesozoic</i>). The Gnetales are
+a class apart, including three living genera, of which we know
+next to nothing as regards their past history or line of descent.
+Although there are several morphological features in the three
+genera of Gnetales which might seem to bring them into line
+with the Angiosperms, it is usual to regard these resemblances
+as parallel developments along distinct lines rather than to
+interpret them as evidence of direct relationship.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Gymnospermae.</i>&mdash;Trees or shrubs; leaves vary considerably in
+size and form. Flowers unisexual, except in a few cases (Gnetales)
+without a perianth. Monoecious or dioecious. Ovules naked,
+rarely without carpellary leaves, usually borne on carpophylls,
+which assume various forms. The single megaspore enclosed in the
+nucellus is filled with tissue (prothallus) before fertilization, and
+contains two or more archegonia, consisting usually of a large egg-cell
+and a small neck, rarely of an egg-cell only and no neck (<i>Gnetum</i> and
+<i>Welwitschia</i>). Microspore spherical or oval, with or without a
+bladder-like extension of the exine, containing a prothallus of two
+or more cells, one of which produces two non-motile or motile male
+cells. Cotyledons two or several. Secondary xylem and phloem
+produced by a single cambium, or by successive cambial zones; no
+true vessels (except in the Gnetales) in the wood, and no companion-cells
+in the phloem.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcr">I.</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Pteridospermae</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palaeobotany</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palaeozoic</a></span>).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">II.</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Cycadophyta</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl"> &emsp;&emsp; A. Cycadales (recent and extinct).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl"> &emsp;&emsp; B. Bennettitales (see Palaeobotany: <i>Mesozoic</i>).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">III.</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Cordaitales</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palaeobotany</a></span>: <i>Palaeozoic</i>).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">IV.</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Ginkgoales</i> (recent and extinct).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">V.</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Coniferales</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl"> &emsp;&emsp; A. Taxaceae.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl"> &emsp;&emsp; B. Pinaceae.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>There is no doubt that the result of recent research and of work
+now in progress will be to modify considerably the grouping of the
+conifers. The family <i>Araucarieae</i>, represented by <i>Araucaria</i> and
+<i>Agathis</i>, should perhaps be separated as a special class and a rearrangement
+of other genera more in accord with a natural system of
+classification will soon be possible; but for the present its twofold
+subdivision may be retained.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcr">VI.</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Gnetales</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl"> &emsp;&emsp; A. Ephedroideae.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl"> &emsp;&emsp; B. Gnetoideae.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl"> &emsp;&emsp; C. Welwitschioideae (Tumboideae).</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Cycadophyta.</span>&mdash;A. <i>Cycadales</i>.&mdash;Stems tuberous or columnar, not
+infrequently branched, rarely epiphytic (Peruvian species of <i>Zamia</i>);
+fronds pinnate, bi-pinnate in the Australian genus <i>Bowenia</i>. Dioecious;
+flowers in the form of cones, except the female flowers of <i>Cycas</i>,
+which consist of a rosette of leaf-like carpels at the apex of the stem.
+Seeds albuminous, with one integument; the single embryo, usually
+bearing two partially fused cotyledons, is attached to a long tangled
+suspensor. Stems and roots increase in diameter by secondary
+thickening, the secondary wood being produced by one cambium or
+developed from successive cambium-rings.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:162px; height:265px" src="images/img754.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Stem of
+<i>Cycas</i>. <i>F</i>, foliage-leaf
+bases; <i>S</i>, scale-leaf
+bases.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:298px; height:319px" src="images/img755a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;<i>Cycas siamensis.</i></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The cycads constitute a homogeneous group of a few living
+members confined to tropical and sub-tropical regions. As a fairly
+typical and well-known example of the Cycadaceae,
+a species of the genus <i>Cycas</i> (<i>e.g.</i> <i>C.
+circinalis</i>, <i>C. revoluta</i>, &amp;c.) is briefly described.
+The stout columnar stem may
+reach a height of 20 metres, and a diameter
+of half a metre; it remains either unbranched
+or divides near the summit into several short
+and thick branches, each branch terminating
+in a crown of long pinnate leaves. The surface
+of the stem is covered with rhomboidal
+areas, which represent the persistent bases
+of foliage- and scale-leaves. In some species
+of <i>Cycas</i> there is a well-defined alternation of
+transverse zones on the stem, consisting of
+larger areas representing foliage-leaf bases,
+and similar but smaller areas formed by the
+bases of scale-leaves (<i>F</i> and <i>S</i>, fig. 1). The
+scale-leaves clothing the terminal bud are
+linear-lanceolate in form, and of a brown or
+yellow colour; they are pushed aside as the
+stem-axis elongates and becomes shrivelled,
+finally falling off, leaving projecting bases
+which are eventually cut off at a still lower
+level. Similarly, the dead fronds fall off, leaving a ragged petiole, which
+is afterwards separated from the stem by an absciss-layer a short
+distance above the base. In some species of <i>Cycas</i> the leaf-bases
+do not persist as a permanent covering to the stem, but the surface
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page755" id="page755"></a>755</span>
+is covered with a wrinkled bark, as in <i>Cycas siamensis</i>, which has a
+stem of unusual form (fig. 2). Small tuberous shoots, comparable on
+a large scale with the bulbils of <i>Lycopodium Selago</i>, are occasionally
+produced in the axils of some of the persistent leaf-bases; these are
+characteristic of sickly plants, and serve as a means of vegetative
+reproduction. In the genus <i>Cycas</i> the female flower is peculiar
+among cycads in consisting of a terminal crown of separate leaf-like
+carpels several inches in length; the apical portion of each carpellary
+leaf may be broadly triangular in form, and deeply dissected on the
+margins into narrow woolly appendages like rudimentary pinnae.
+From the lower part of a
+carpel are produced several
+laterally placed ovules,
+which become bright red
+or orange on ripening; the
+bright fleshy seeds, which
+in some species are as large
+as a goose&rsquo;s egg, and the
+tawny spreading carpels
+produce a pleasing combination
+of colour in the
+midst of the long dark-green
+fronds, which curve gracefully
+upwards and outwards
+from the summit of the
+columnar stem. In <i>Cycas</i>
+the stem apex, after producing
+a cluster of carpellary
+leaves, continues to elongate
+and produces more bud-scales,
+which are afterwards
+pushed aside as a fresh
+crown of fronds is developed.
+The young leaves of <i>Cycas</i> consist of a straight rachis bearing numerous
+linear pinnae, traversed by a single midrib; the pinnae are
+circinately coiled like the leaf of a fern (fig. 3). The male flower of
+<i>Cycas</i> conforms to the type of structure characteristic of the cycads,
+and consists of a long cone of numerous sporophylls bearing many
+oval pollen-sacs on their lower faces. The type described serves as a
+convenient representative of its class. There are eight other living
+genera, which may be classified as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:63px; height:456px" src="images/img755b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;<i>Cycas.</i>
+Young Frond.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Classification.</i>&mdash;A. <i>Cycadeae</i>.&mdash;Characterized by (<i>a</i>) the alternation
+of scale- and foliage-leaves (fig. 1) on the branched or unbranched
+stem; (<i>b</i>) the growth of the main stem through the female flower;
+(<i>c</i>) the presence of a prominent single vein in the linear pinnae; (<i>d</i>)
+the structure of the female flower, which is peculiar
+in not having the form of a cone, but consists of
+numerous independent carpels, each of which bears
+two or more lateral ovules. Represented by a single
+genus, <i>Cycas</i>. (Tropical Asia, Australia, &amp;c.).</p>
+
+<p>B. <i>Zamieae.</i>&mdash;The stem does not grow through
+the female flower; both male and female flowers
+are in the form of cones. (<i>a</i>) <i>Stangerieae</i>.&mdash;Characterized
+by the fern-like venation of the
+pinnae, which have a prominent midrib, giving
+off at a wide angle simple or forked and
+occasionally anastomosing lateral veins. A single
+genus, <i>Stangeria</i>, confined to South Africa, (<i>b</i>)
+<i>Euzamieae</i>.&mdash;The pinnae are traversed by several
+parallel veins. <i>Bowenia</i>, an Australian cycad, is
+peculiar in having bi-pinnate fronds (fig. 5). The
+various genera are distinguished from one another
+by the shape and manner of attachment of the
+pinnae, the form of the carpellary scales, and to
+some extent by anatomical characters. <i>Encephalartos</i>
+(South and Tropical Africa).&mdash;Large cones;
+the carpellary scales terminate in a peltate distal
+expansion. <i>Macrozamia</i> (Australia).&mdash;Similar to
+<i>Encephalartos</i> except in the presence of a spinous
+projection from the swollen distal end of the carpels.
+<i>Zamia</i> (South America, Florida, &amp;c.).&mdash;Stem short
+and often divided into several columnar branches.
+Each carpel terminates in a peltate head. <i>Ceratozamia</i>
+(Mexico).&mdash;Similar in habit to <i>Macrozamia</i>,
+but distinguished by the presence of two horn-like
+spinous processes on the apex of the carpels.
+<i>Microcycas</i> (Cuba).&mdash;Like <i>Zamia</i>, except that the
+ends of the stamens are flat, while the apices of the carpels are
+peltate. <i>Dioon</i> (Mexico) (fig. 4).&mdash;Characterized by the woolly scale-leaves
+and carpels; the latter terminate in a thick laminar expansion
+of triangular form, bearing two placental cushions, on which
+the ovules are situated. <i>Bowenia</i> (Australia).&mdash;Bi-pinnate fronds;
+stem short and tuberous (fig. 5).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:290px; height:269px" src="images/img755c.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:447px; height:450px" src="images/img755d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From a photograph of a plant in Peradeniya
+Gardens, Ceylon, by Professor R. H. Yapp.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;<i>Bowenia spectabilis</i>: frond.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;<i>Dioon edule.</i></td>
+<td class="caption">&nbsp;</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:189px; height:258px" src="images/img755e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;<i>Macrozamia
+heteromera</i>. <i>A</i>, part of
+frond; <i>B</i>, single pinna.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The stems of cycads are often described as unbranched; it is true
+that in comparison with conifers, in which the numerous branches,
+springing from the main stem, give a characteristic form
+to the tree, the tuberous or columnar stem of the Cycadaceae
+<span class="sidenote">Stem and leaf.</span>
+constitutes a striking distinguishing feature.
+Branching, however, occurs not infrequently: in <i>Cycas</i>
+the tall stem often produces several candelabra-like arms; in <i>Zamia</i>
+the main axis may break up near the base into several cylindrical
+branches; in species of <i>Dioon</i> (fig. 4) lateral branches are occasionally
+produced. The South African <i>Encephalartos</i> frequently produces
+several branches. Probably the oldest example of this genus in
+cultivation is in the Botanic
+Garden of Amsterdam, its
+age is considered by Professor
+de Vries to be about
+two thousand years:
+although an accurate determination
+of age is impossible,
+there is no doubt that
+many cycads grow very
+slowly and are remarkable
+for longevity. The thick
+armour of petiole-bases enveloping
+the stem is a
+characteristic Cycadean
+feature; in <i>Cycas</i> the alternation
+of scale-leaves and
+fronds is more clearly shown
+than in other cycads; in
+<i>Encephalartos</i>, <i>Dioon</i>, &amp;c.,
+the persistent scale-leaf
+bases are almost equal in
+size to those of the foliage-leaves,
+and there is no
+regular alternation of zones such as characterizes some species of
+<i>Cycas</i>. Another type of stem is illustrated by <i>Stangeria</i> and <i>Zamia</i>,
+also by a few forms of <i>Cycas</i> (fig. 2), in which the fronds fall off
+completely, leaving a comparatively smooth stem. The <i>Cyas</i> type of
+frond, except as regards the presence of a midrib in each pinna,
+characterizes the cycads generally, except <i>Bowenia</i> and <i>Stangeria</i>.
+In the monotypic genus <i>Bowenia</i> the large
+fronds, borne singly on the short and thick
+stem, are bi-pinnate (fig. 5); the segments,
+which are broadly ovate or rhomboidal,
+have several forked spreading veins, and
+resemble the large pinnules of some species
+of <i>Adiantum</i>. In <i>Stangeria</i>, also a genus
+represented by one species (<i>S. paradoxa</i> of
+South Africa), the long and comparatively
+broad pinnae, with an entire or irregularly
+incised margin, are very fern-like, a circumstance
+which led Kunze to describe the
+plant in 1835 as a species of the fern
+<i>Lomaria</i>. In rare cases the pinnae of cycads
+are lobed or branched: in <i>Dioon spinulosum</i>
+(Central America) the margin of the
+segments bears numerous spinous processes;
+in some species of <i>Encephalartos</i>,
+<i>e.g.</i> <i>E. horridus</i>, the lamina is deeply lobed;
+and in a species of the Australian genus
+<i>Macrozamia</i>, <i>M. heteromera</i>, the narrow
+pinnae are dichotomously branched almost to the base (fig. 6), and resemble
+the frond of some species of the fern <i>Schizaea</i>, or the fossil genus
+<i>Baiera</i> (Ginkgoales). An interesting species of <i>Cycas</i>, <i>C. Micholitzii</i>, has
+recently been described by Sir William Thiselton-Dyer from Annam,
+where it was collected by one of Messrs Sanders &amp; Son&rsquo;s collectors,
+in which the pinnae instead of being of the usual simple type are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page756" id="page756"></a>756</span>
+dichotomously branched as in <i>Macrozamia heteromera</i>. In <i>Ceratozamia</i>
+the broad petiole-base is characterized by the presence of two
+lateral spinous processes, suggesting stipular appendages, comparable,
+on a reduced scale, with the large stipules of the Marattiaceae
+among Ferns. The vernation varies in different genera; in <i>Cycas</i>
+the rachis is straight and the pinnae circinately coiled (fig. 3); in
+<i>Encephalartos</i>, <i>Dioon</i>, &amp;c., both rachis and segments are straight; in
+<i>Zamia</i> the rachis is bent or slightly coiled, bearing straight pinnae.
+The young leaves arise on the stem-apex as conical protuberances
+with winged borders on which the pinnae appear as rounded humps,
+usually in basipetal order; the scale-leaves in their young condition
+resemble fronds, but the lamina remains undeveloped. A feature of
+interest in connexion with the phylogeny of cycads is the presence of
+long hairs clothing the scale-leaves, and forming a cap on the summit
+of the stem-apex or attached to the bases of petioles; on some fossil
+cycadean plants these outgrowths have the form of scales, and are
+identical in structure with the ramenta (paleae) of the majority of ferns.</p>
+
+<p>The male flowers of cycads are constructed on a uniform plan,
+and in all cases consist of an axis bearing crowded, spirally disposed
+sporophylls. These are often wedge-shaped and
+angular; in some cases they consist of a short, thick
+<span class="sidenote">Flower.</span>
+stalk, terminating in a peltate expansion, or prolonged upwards in
+the form of a triangular lamina. The sporangia (pollen-sacs), which
+occur on the under-side of the stamens, are often arranged in more or
+less definite groups or sori, interspersed with hairs (paraphyses);
+dehiscence takes place along a line marked out by the occurrence of
+smaller and thinner-walled cells bounded by larger and thicker-walled
+elements, which form a fairly prominent cap-like &ldquo;annulus&rdquo;
+near the apex of the sporangium, not unlike the annulus characteristic
+of the Schizaeaceae among ferns. The sporangial wall, consisting
+of several layers of cells, encloses a cavity containing numerous oval
+spores (pollen-grains). In structure a cycadean sporangium recalls
+those of certain ferns (Marattiaceae, Osmundaceae and Schizaeaceae),
+but in the development of the spores there are certain peculiarities
+not met with among the Vascular Cryptogams. With the exception
+of <i>Cycas</i>, the female flowers are also in the form of cones, bearing
+numerous carpellary scales. In <i>Cycas revoluta</i> and <i>C. circinalis</i> each
+leaf-like carpel may produce several laterally attached ovules, but
+in <i>C. Normanbyana</i> the carpel is shorter and the ovules are reduced
+to two; this latter type brings us nearer to the carpels of <i>Dioon</i>, in
+which the flower has the form of a cone, and the distal end of the
+carpels is longer and more leaf-like than in the other genera of the
+<i>Zamieae</i>, which are characterized by shorter carpels with thick
+peltate heads bearing two ovules on the morphologically lower
+surface. The cones of cycads attain in some cases (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Encephalartos</i>)
+a considerable size, reaching a length of more than a foot. Cases have
+been recorded (by Thiselton-Dyer in <i>Encephalartos</i> and by Wieland
+in <i>Zamia</i>) in which the short carpellary cone-scales exhibit a foliaceous
+form. It is interesting that no monstrous cycadean cone has
+been described in which ovuliferous and staminate appendages are
+borne on the same axis: in the Bennettitales (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palaeobotany</a></span>:
+<i>Mesozoic</i>) flowers were produced bearing on the same axis both
+androecium and gynoecium.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:299px; height:219px" src="images/img756a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>&mdash;<i>Zamia.</i> Part of Ovule in longitudinal
+section. (After Webber.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>P</i>,  Prothallus.</p>
+<p><i>A</i>,  Archegonia.</p>
+<p><i>N</i>,  Nucellus.</p>
+<p><i>C</i>,  Pollen-chamber.</p></td>
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>Pt</i>, Pollen-tube.</p>
+<p><i>Pg</i>, Pollen-grain.</p>
+<p><i>G</i>, Generative cell (second cell of pollen-tube).</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:127px; height:273px" src="images/img756b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>&mdash;<i>Zamia.</i>
+Proximal end of
+Pollen-tube, <i>a</i>,
+<i>a</i>, Spermatozoids
+from <i>G</i> of fig. 7;
+<i>Pg</i>, pollen-grain;
+<i>c</i>, proximal cell
+(first cell). (After
+Webber.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The pollen-grains when mature consist of three cells, two small
+and one large cell; the latter grows into the pollen-tube, as in the
+Coniferales, and from one of the small cells two large
+ciliated spermatozoids are eventually produced. A
+<span class="sidenote">Microspores and megaspores.</span>
+remarkable exception to this rule has recently been
+recorded by Caldwell, who found that in <i>Microcycas
+Calocoma</i> the body-cells may be eight or even ten in
+number and the sperm-cells twice as numerous. One of
+the most important discoveries made during the latter part of the
+19th century was that by Ikeno, a Japanese botanist, who first
+demonstrated the existence of motile male cells in the genus <i>Cycas</i>.
+Similar spermatozoids were observed in some species of <i>Zamia</i> by
+H. J. Webber, and more recent work enables us to assume that all
+cycads produce ciliated male gametes. Before following the growth
+of the pollen-grain after pollination, we will briefly describe the
+structure of a cycadean ovule. An ovule consists of a conical nucellus
+surrounded by a single integument. At an early stage of development
+a large cell makes its appearance in the central region of the
+nucellus; this increases in size and eventually forms three cells; the
+lowest of these grows vigorously and constitutes the megaspore
+(embryo-sac), which ultimately absorbs the greater part of the nucellus.
+The megaspore-nucleus divides repeatedly, and cells are produced
+from the peripheral region inwards, which eventually fill the spore-cavity
+with a homogeneous tissue (prothallus); some of the superficial
+cells at the micropylar end of the megaspore increase in size and
+divide by a tangential wall into two, an upper cell which gives rise
+to the short two-celled neck of the archegonium, and a lower cell
+which develops into a large egg-cell. Each megaspore may contain
+2 to 6 archegonia. During the growth of the ovum nourishment is
+supplied from the contents of the cells immediately surrounding the
+egg-cell, as in the development of the ovum of <i>Pinus</i> and other
+conifers. Meanwhile the tissue in the apical region of the nucellus
+has been undergoing disorganization, which results in the formation
+of a pollen-chamber (fig. 7, <i>C</i>) immediately above the megaspore.
+Pollination in cycads has always been described as
+anemophilous, but according to recent observations by Pearson
+on South African species it seems probable that, at least in some
+cases, the pollen is conveyed to the ovules by animal agency.
+The pollen-grains find their way between the carpophylls, which at
+the time of pollination are slightly apart owing to the elongation of
+the internodes of the flower-axis, and pass into the pollen-chamber;
+the large cell of the pollen-grain grows out into a tube (<i>Pt</i>), which
+penetrates the nucellar tissue and often branches repeatedly; the
+pollen-grain itself, with the prothallus-cells, projects freely into the
+pollen-chamber (fig. 7). The nucleus of the outermost (second)
+small cell (fig. 7, <i>G</i>) divides, and one of the daughter-nuclei passes
+out of the cell, and may enter the lowest (first) small cell. The
+outermost cell, by the division of the remaining nucleus, produces
+two large spermatozoids
+(fig. 8, <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>). In <i>Microcycas</i>
+16 sperm-cells are
+produced. In the course
+of division two bodies appear
+in the cytoplasm,
+and behave as centrosomes
+during the karyokinesis;
+they gradually
+become threadlike and
+coil round each daughter
+nucleus. This thread
+gives rise to a spiral ciliated
+band lying in a depression
+on the body of
+each spermatozoid; the
+large spermatozoids
+eventually escape from
+the pollen-tube, and are
+able to perform ciliary
+movements in the watery
+liquid which occurs between
+the thin papery
+remnant of nucellar tissue
+and the archegonial necks. Before fertilization a neck-canal cell is
+formed by the division of the ovum-nucleus. After the body of a
+spermatozoid has coalesced with the egg-nucleus the latter divides
+repeatedly and forms a mass of tissue which grows more vigorously
+in the lower part of the fertilized ovum, and extends upwards
+towards the apex of the ovum as a peripheral layer of parenchyma
+surrounding a central space. By further growth this
+tissue gives rise to a proembryo, which consists, at the micropylar
+end, of a sac; the tissue at the chalazal end grows into a long
+and tangled suspensor, terminating in a mass of cells, which is
+eventually differentiated into a radicle, plumule and two cotyledons.
+In the ripe seed the integument assumes the form of a fleshy envelope,
+succeeded internally by a hard woody shell, internal to which is
+a thin papery membrane&mdash;the apical portion of the nucellus&mdash;which
+is easily dissected out as a conical cap covering the apex of the
+endosperm. A thorough examination of cycadean
+seeds has recently been made by Miss Stopes,
+more particularly with a view to a comparison of
+their vascular supply with that in Palaeozoic
+gymnospermous seeds (<i>Flora</i>, 1904). The first
+leaves borne on the seedling axis are often scale-like,
+and these are followed by two or more larger
+laminae, which foreshadow the pinnae of the adult
+frond.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:224px; height:333px" src="images/img757a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>&mdash;<i>Macrozamia.</i>
+Diagrammatic transverse
+section of part of Stem.
+(After Worsdell.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>pd</i>, Periderm in leaf-bases.</p>
+<p><i>lt</i>, Leaf-traces in cortex.</p>
+<p><i>ph</i>, Phloem.</p>
+<p><i>x</i>,  Xylem.</p>
+<p><i>m</i>,  Medullary bundles.</p>
+<p><i>c</i>,  Cortical bundles.</p></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:301px; height:255px" src="images/img757b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span>&mdash;<i>Ginkgo biloba.</i> Leaves.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:220px; height:164px" src="images/img757c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span>&mdash;<i>Ginkgo adiantoides.</i>
+Fossil (Eocene) leaf from the
+Island of Mull.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The anatomical structure of the vegetative
+organs of recent cycads is of special interest as
+affording important evidence of relationship
+with extinct types, and with
+other groups of recent plants. Brongniart, who
+<span class="sidenote">Anatomy.</span>
+was the first to investigate in detail the anatomy
+of a cycadean stem, recognized an agreement, as
+regards the secondary wood, with Dicotyledons
+and Gymnosperms, rather than with Monocotyledons.
+He drew attention also to certain
+structural similarities between <i>Cycas</i> and <i>Ginkgo</i>.
+The main anatomical features of a cycad stem
+may be summarized as follows: the centre is
+occupied by a large parenchymatous pith traversed
+by numerous secretory canals, and in some genera
+by cauline vascular bundles (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Encephalartos</i>
+and <i>Macrozamia</i>). In addition to these cauline
+strands (confined to the stem and not connected
+with the leaves), collateral bundles are often met with in the
+pith, which form the vascular supply of terminal flowers borne at
+intervals on the apex of the stem. These latter bundles may be seen
+in sections of old stems to pursue a more or less horizontal course,
+passing outwards through the main woody cylinder. This lateral
+course is due to the more vigorous growth of the axillary branch
+formed near the base of each flower, which is a terminal structure,
+and, except in the female flower of <i>Cycas</i>, puts a limit to the
+apical growth of the stem. The vigorous lateral branch therefore
+continues the line of the main axis. The pith is encircled by a
+cylinder of secondary wood, consisting of single or multiple radial
+rows of tracheids separated by broad medullary rays composed of
+large parenchymatous cells; the tracheids bear numerous bordered
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page757" id="page757"></a>757</span>
+pits on the radial walls. The large medullary rays give to the wood
+a characteristic parenchymatous or lax appearance, which is in
+marked contrast to the more compact wood of a conifer. The
+protoxylem-elements are situated at the extreme inner edge of the
+secondary wood, and may occur as small groups of narrow, spirally-pitted
+elements scattered among the parenchyma which abuts on the
+main mass of wood. Short and reticulately-pitted tracheal cells,
+similar to tracheids, often occur in the circummedullary region of
+cycadean stems. In an old stem of <i>Cycas</i>, <i>Encephalartos</i> or <i>Macrozamia</i>
+the secondary wood consists of
+several rather unevenly concentric
+zones, while in some other genera it
+forms a continuous mass as in conifers
+and normal dicotyledons. These
+concentric rings of secondary xylem
+and phloem (fig. 9) afford a characteristic
+cycadean feature. After the
+cambium has been active for some
+time producing secondary xylem and
+phloem, the latter consisting of sieve-tubes,
+phloem-parenchyma and frequently
+thick-walled fibres, a second
+cambium is developed in the pericycle;
+this produces a second vascular
+zone, which is in turn followed by a
+third cambium, and so on, until several
+hollow cylinders are developed. It
+has been recently shown that several
+cambium-zones may remain in a state
+of activity, so that the formation of a
+new cambium does not necessarily
+mark a cessation of growth in the
+more internal meristematic rings. It
+occasionally happens that groups of
+xylem and phloem are developed
+internally to some of the vascular
+rings; these are characterized by an
+inverse orientation of the tissues,
+the xylem being centrifugal and the
+phloem centripetal in its development.
+The broad cortical region, which contains
+many secretory canals, is traversed
+by numerous vascular bundles (fig. 9, <i>c</i>) some of which pursue
+a more or less vertical course, and by frequent anastomoses with one
+another form a loose reticulum of vascular strands; others are leaf-traces
+on their way from the stele of the stem to the leaves. Most of
+these cortical bundles are collateral in structure, but in some the xylem
+and phloem are concentrically arranged; the secondary origin of
+these bundles from procambium-strands was described by Mettenius
+in his classical paper of 1860. During the increase in thickness of a
+cycadean stem successive layers of cork-tissue are formed by phellogens
+in the persistent bases of leaves (fig. 9, <i>pd</i>), which increase in size
+to adapt themselves to the growth of the vascular zones. The leaf-traces
+of cycads are remarkable both on account of their course and
+their anatomy. In a transverse section of a stem (fig. 9) one sees
+some vascular bundles following a horizontal or slightly oblique
+course in the cortex, stretching
+for a longer or shorter
+distance in a direction concentric
+with the woody
+cylinder. From each leaf-base
+two main bundles
+spread right and left
+through the cortex of the
+stem (fig. 9, <i>lt</i>), and as they
+curve gradually towards the
+vascular ring they present
+the appearance of two
+rather flat ogee curves,
+usually spoken of as the
+leaf-trace girdles (fig. 9, <i>lt</i>).
+The distal ends of these
+girdles give off several
+branches, which traverse
+the petiole and rachis as
+numerous collateral bundles. The complicated girdle-like course is
+characteristic of the leaf-traces of most recent cycads, but in some
+cases, <i>e.g.</i> in <i>Zamia floridana</i>, the traces are described by Wieland
+in his recent monograph on American fossil cycads (<i>Carnegie Institution
+Publications</i>, 1906) as possessing a more direct course similar to
+that in Mesozoic genera. A leaf-trace, as it passes through the cortex,
+has a collateral structure, the protoxylem being situated at the inner
+edge of the xylem; when it reaches the leaf-base the position of the
+spiral tracheids is gradually altered, and the endarch arrangement
+(protoxylem internal) gives place to a mesarch structure (protoxylem
+more or less central and not on the edge of the xylem strand). In a
+bundle examined in the basal portion of a leaf the bulk of the xylem
+is found to be centrifugal in position, but internally to the protoxylem
+there is a group of centripetal tracheids; higher up in the petiole the
+xylem is mainly centripetal, the centrifugal wood being represented
+by a small arc of tracheids external to the protoxylem and separated
+from it by a few parenchymatous elements. Finally, in the pinnae of
+the frond the centrifugal xylem may disappear, the protoxylem being
+now exarch in position and abutting on the phloem. Similarly in
+the sporophylls of some cycads the bundles are endarch near the base
+and mesarch near the distal end of the stamen or carpel. The
+vascular system of cycadean seedlings presents some features worthy
+of note; centripetal xylem occurs in the cotyledonary bundles
+associated with transfusion-tracheids. The bundles from the
+cotyledons pursue a direct course to the stele of the main axis, and
+do not assume the girdle-form characteristic
+of the adult plant. This
+is of interest from the point of view
+of the comparison of recent cycads
+with extinct species (<i>Bennettites</i>), in
+which the leaf-traces follow a much
+more direct course than in modern
+cycads. The mesarch structure of
+the leaf-bundles is met with in a less
+pronounced form in the flower peduncles
+of some cycads. This fact is
+of importance as showing that the
+type of vascular structure, which
+characterized the stems of many
+Palaeozoic genera, has not entirely
+disappeared from the stems of modern cycads; but the mesarch bundle
+is now confined to the leaves and peduncles. The roots of some cycads
+<span class="sidenote">Roots.</span>
+resemble the stems in producing several cambium-rings;
+they possess 2 to 8 protoxylem-groups, and are
+characterized by a broad pericyclic zone. A common phenomenon in
+cycads is the production of roots which grow upwards (apogeotropic),
+and appear as coralline branched structures above the level of the
+ground; some of the cortical cells of these roots are hypertrophied,
+and contain numerous filaments of blue-green Algae (Nostocaceae),
+which live as endoparasites in the cell-cavities.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:300px; height:352px" src="images/img757d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span>&mdash;<i>Ginkgo biloba.</i> <i>A</i>, Male
+flower; <i>B</i>, <i>C</i>, single stamens; <i>D</i>,
+female flower.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Ginkgoales.</span>&mdash;This class-designation has been recently proposed
+to give emphasis to the isolated position of the genus <i>Ginkgo</i>
+(<i>Salisburia</i>) among the Gymnosperms. <i>Ginkgo biloba</i>, the maidenhair
+tree, has usually been placed by botanists in the Taxeae in the
+neighbourhood of the yew (<i>Taxus</i>), but the proposal by Eichler in
+1852 to institute a special family, the <i>Salisburieae</i>, indicated a
+recognition of the existence of special characteristics which distinguish
+the genus from other members of the Coniferae. The
+discovery by the Japanese botanist Hirase of the development of
+ciliated spermatozoids in the pollen-tube of <i>Ginkgo</i>, in place of the
+non-motile male cells of typical conifers, served as a cogent argument
+in favour of separating the genus from the Coniferales and placing it
+in a class of its own. In 1712 Kaempfer published a drawing of a
+Japanese tree, which he described under the name <i>Ginkgo</i>; this term
+was adopted in 1771 by Linnaeus, who spoke of Kaempfer&rsquo;s plant as
+<i>Ginkgo biloba</i>. In 1797
+Smith proposed to use the
+name <i>Salisburia adiantifolia</i>
+in preference to the &ldquo;uncouth&rdquo;
+genus <i>Ginkgo</i> and
+&ldquo;incorrect&rdquo; specific term
+<i>biloba</i>. Both names are still
+in common use. On account
+of the resemblance of the
+leaves to those of some
+species of <i>Adiantum</i>, the
+appellation maidenhair tree
+has long been given to
+<i>Ginkgo biloba</i>. <i>Ginkgo</i> is of
+special interest on account
+of its isolated position among
+existing plants, its restricted
+geographical distribution,
+and its great antiquity (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palaeobotany</a></span>: <i>Mesozoic</i>).
+This solitary survivor of an
+ancient stock is almost extinct,
+but a few old and presumably
+wild trees are recorded
+by travellers in parts
+of China. <i>Ginkgo</i> is common
+as a sacred tree in the gardens
+of temples in the Far East, and often cultivated in North America and
+Europe. <i>Ginkgo biloba</i>, which may reach a height of over 30 metres,
+forms a tree of pyramidal shape with a smooth grey bark. The leaves
+(figs. 10 and 11) have a long, slender petiole terminating in a fan-shaped
+lamina, which may be entire, divided by a median incision into
+two wedge-shaped lobes, or subdivided into several narrow segments.
+The venation is like that of many ferns, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Adiantum</i>; the lowest
+vein in each half of the lamina follows a course parallel to the edge,
+and gives off numerous branches, which fork repeatedly as they
+spread in a palmate manner towards the leaf margin. The foliage-leaves
+occur either scattered on long shoots of unlimited growth, or at
+the apex of short shoots (spurs), which may eventually elongate into
+long shoots.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page758" id="page758"></a>758</span></p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:304px; height:293px" src="images/img758a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>&mdash;<i>Ginkgo.</i> Apex of Ovule, and
+Pollen-grain. (After Hirase.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>p</i>,  Pollen-tube (proximal end).</p>
+<p><i>c</i>,  Pollen-chamber.</p>
+<p><i>e</i>,  Upward prolongation of megaspore.</p>
+<p><i>a</i>,  Archegonia.</p>
+<p><i>Pg</i>, Pollen-grain.</p>
+<p><i>Ex</i>, Exine.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The flowers are dioecious. The male flowers (fig. 12), borne in the
+axil of scale-leaves, consist of a stalked central axis bearing loosely
+disposed stamens; each stamen consists of a slender
+filament terminating in a small apical scale, which bears
+<span class="sidenote">Flowers.</span>
+usually two, but not infrequently three or four pollen-sacs (fig. 12, <i>C</i>).
+The axis of the flower is a shoot bearing leaves in the form of stamens.
+A mature pollen-grain contains a prothallus of 3 to 5 cells (Fig. 13,
+Pg); the exine extends over two-thirds of the circumference, leaving
+a thin portion of the wall,
+which on collapsing produces
+a longitudinal
+groove similar to the
+median depression on the
+pollen-grain of a cycad.
+The ordinary type of
+female flower has the form
+of a long, naked peduncle
+bearing a single ovule on
+either side of the apex
+(fig. 12), the base of each
+being enclosed by a small,
+collar-like rim, the nature
+of which has been variously
+interpreted. A
+young ovule consists of a
+conical nucellus surrounded
+by a single integument
+terminating as a
+two-lipped micropyle. A
+large pollen-chamber
+occupies the apex of the
+nucellus; immediately
+below this, two or more
+archegonia (fig. 13, <i>a</i>) are
+developed in the upper
+region of the megaspore,
+each consisting of a large
+egg-cell surmounted by two neck-cells and a canal-cell which is
+cut off shortly before fertilization. After the entrance of the pollen-grain
+the pollen-chamber becomes roofed over by a blunt protuberance
+of nucellar tissue. The megaspore (embryo-sac) continues
+to grow after pollination until the greater part of the nucellus
+is gradually destroyed; it also gives rise to a vertical outgrowth,
+which projects from the apex of the megaspore as a short, thick
+column (fig. 13, <i>e</i>) supporting the remains of the nucellar tissue
+which forms the roof of the pollen-chamber (fig. 13, <i>c</i>). Surrounding
+the pitted wall of the ovum there is a definite layer of large
+cells, no doubt representing a tapetum, which, as in cycads and
+conifers, plays an important part in nourishing the growing egg-cell.
+The endosperm detached from a large <i>Ginkgo</i> ovule after fertilization
+bears a close resemblance to that of a cycad; the apex is occupied by
+a depression, on the floor of which two small holes mark the position
+of the archegonia, and the outgrowth from the megaspore apex
+projects from the centre as a short peg. After pollination the pollen-tube
+grows into the nucellar tissue, as in cycads, and the pollen-grain
+itself (fig. 13, <i>Pg</i>) hangs down into the pollen-chamber; two large
+spirally ciliated spermatozoids are produced, their manner of development
+agreeing very closely with that of the corresponding cells
+in <i>Cycas</i> and <i>Zamia</i>. After fertilization the ovum-nucleus divides
+and cell-formation proceeds rapidly, especially in the lower part of
+the ovum, in which the cotyledon and axis of the embryo are differentiated;
+the long, tangled suspensor of the cycadean embryo is not
+found in <i>Ginkgo</i>. It is often stated that fertilization occurs after the
+ovules have fallen, but it has been demonstrated by Hirase that this
+occurs while the ovules are still attached to the tree. The ripe seed,
+which grows as large as a rather small plum, is enclosed by a thick,
+fleshy envelope covering a hard woody shell with two or rarely three
+longitudinal keels. A papery remnant of nucellus lines the inner face
+of the woody shell, and, as in cycadean seeds, the apical portion is
+readily separated as a cap covering the summit of the endosperm.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:310px; height:274px" src="images/img758b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span>&mdash;<i>Ginkgo</i>. Abnormal female
+Flowers. <i>A</i>, Peduncle; <i>b</i>, scaly bud;
+<i>B</i>, leaf bearing marginal ovule. (After
+Fujii.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The morphology of the female flowers has been variously interpreted
+by botanists; the peduncle bearing the ovules has been
+described as homologous with the petiole of a foliage-leaf and as a
+shoot-structure, the collar-like envelope at the base of the ovules
+being referred to as a second integument or arillus, or as the representative
+of a carpel. The evidence afforded by normal and abnormal
+flowers appears to be in favour of the following interpretation: The
+peduncle is a shoot bearing two or more carpels. Each ovule is
+enclosed at the base by an envelope or collar homologous with the
+lamina of a leaf; the fleshy and hard coats of the nucellus constitute
+a single integument. The stalk of an ovule, considerably reduced in
+normal flowers and much larger in some abnormal flowers, is homologous
+with a leaf-stalk, with which it agrees in the structure and
+number of vascular bundles. The facts on which this description is
+based are derived partly from anatomical evidence, and in part from
+an account given by a Japanese botanist, Fujii, of several abnormal
+female flowers; in some cases the collar at the base of an ovule,
+often described as an arillus, is found to pass gradually into the
+lamina of a leaf bearing marginal ovules (fig. 14, <i>B</i>). The occurrence
+of more than two ovules on one peduncle is by no means rare; a
+particularly striking example is described by Fujii, in which an
+unusually thick peduncle bearing several stalked ovules terminates
+in a scaly bud (fig. 14, <i>A</i>, <i>b</i>). The frequent occurrence of more than
+two pollen-sacs and the equally common occurrence of additional
+ovules have been regarded by some authors as evidence in favour of
+the view that ancestral types normally possessed a greater number
+of these organs than are usually found in the recent species. This
+<span class="sidenote">Anatomy.</span>
+view receives support from fossil evidence. Close to the
+apex of a shoot the vascular bundles of a leaf make their
+appearance as double strands, and the leaf-traces in the upper part
+of a shoot have the form of distinct bundles, which in the older part of
+the shoot form a continuous ring. Each double leaf-trace passes
+through four internodes
+before becoming a part of
+the stele; the double
+nature of the trace is a
+characteristic feature.
+Secretory sacs occur
+abundantly in the leaf-lamina,
+where they appear
+as short lines between the
+veins; they are abundant
+also in the cortex and pith
+of the shoot, in the fleshy
+integument of the ovule,
+and elsewhere. The
+secondary wood of the
+shoot and root conforms
+in the main to the coniferous
+type; in the short
+shoots the greater breadth
+of the medullary rays in
+the more internal part of
+the xylem recalls the
+cycadean type. The
+secondary phloem contains numerous thick-walled fibres, parenchymatous
+cells, and large sieve-tubes with plates on the radial
+walls; swollen parenchymatous cells containing crystals are
+commonly met with in the cortex, pith and medullary-ray tissues.
+The wood consists of tracheids, with circular bordered pits on
+their radial walls, and in the late summer wood pits are unusually
+abundant on the tangential walls. A point of anatomical
+interest is the occurrence in the vascular bundles of the cotyledons,
+scale-leaves, and elsewhere of a few centripetally developed tracheids,
+which give to the xylem-strands a mesarch structure such as characterizes
+the foliar bundles of cycads. The root is diarch in structure,
+but additional protoxylem-strands may be present at the base of the
+main root; the pericycle consists of several layers of cells.</p>
+
+<p>This is not the place to discuss in detail the past history of <i>Ginkgo</i>
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palaeobotany</a></span>: <i>Mesozoic</i>). Among Palaeozoic genera there are
+some which bear a close resemblance to the recent type in
+the form of the leaves; and petrified Palaeozoic seeds,
+<span class="sidenote">Geological history.</span>
+almost identical with those of the maidenhair tree, have
+been described from French and English localities. During the
+Triassic and Jurassic periods the genus <i>Baiera</i>&mdash;no doubt a representative
+of the Ginkgoales&mdash;was widely spread throughout Europe
+and in other regions; <i>Ginkgo</i> itself occurs abundantly in Mesozoic
+and Tertiary rocks, and was a common plant in the Arctic regions as
+elsewhere during the Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous periods. Some
+unusually perfect <i>Ginkgo</i> leaves have been found in the Eocene leaf-beds
+between the lava-flows exposed in the cliffs of Mull (fig. 11).
+From an evolutionary point of view, it is of interest to note the
+occurrence of filicinean and cycadean characters in the maidenhair tree.
+The leaves at once invite a comparison with ferns; the numerous
+long hairs which form a delicate woolly covering on young leaves recall
+the hairs of certain ferns, but agree more closely with the long
+filamentous hairs of recent cycads. The spermatozoids constitute
+the most striking link with both cycads and ferns. The structure of
+the seed, the presence of two neck-cells in the archegonia, the late
+development of the embryo, the partially-fused cotyledons and
+certain anatomical characters, are features common to <i>Ginkgo</i> and
+the cycads. The maidenhair tree is one of the most interesting
+survivals from the past; it represents a type which, in the Palaeozoic
+era, may have been merged into the extinct class Cordaitales.
+Through the succeeding ages the Ginkgoales were represented by
+numerous forms, which gradually became more restricted in their
+distribution and fewer in number during the Cretaceous and Tertiary
+periods, terminating at the present day in one solitary survivor.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Coniferales.</span>&mdash;Trees and shrubs characterized by a copious
+branching of the stem and frequently by a regular pyramidal form.
+Leaves simple, small, linear or short and scale-like, usually persisting
+for more than one year. Flowers monoecious or dioecious, unisexual,
+without a perianth, often in the form of cones, but never terminal
+on the main stem.</p>
+
+<p>The plants usually included in the Coniferae constitute a less
+homogeneous class than the Cycadaceae. Some authors use the
+term Coniferae in a restricted sense as including those
+genera which have the female flowers in the form of cones,
+<span class="sidenote">External features.</span>
+the other genera, characterized by flowers of a different
+type, being placed in the Taxaceae, and often spoken of as Taxads.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page759" id="page759"></a>759</span>
+In order to avoid confusion in the use of the term Coniferae, we may
+adopt as a class-designation the name Coniferales, including both the
+Coniferae&mdash;using the term in a restricted sense&mdash;and the Taxaceae.
+The most striking characteristic of the majority of the Coniferales is
+the regular manner of the monopodial branching and the pyramidal
+shape. <i>Araucaria imbricata</i>, the Monkey-puzzle tree, <i>A. excelsa</i>, the
+Norfolk Island pine, many pines and firs, cedars and other genera
+illustrate the pyramidal form. The mammoth redwood tree of
+California, <i>Sequoia</i> (<i>Wellingtonia</i>) <i>gigantea</i>, which represents the tallest
+Gymnosperm, is a good example of the regular tapering main stem
+and narrow pyramidal form. The cypresses afford instances of tall
+and narrow trees similar in habit to Lombardy poplars. The common
+cypress (<i>Cupressus sempervirens</i>), as found wild in the mountains of
+Crete and Cyprus, is characterized by long and spreading branches,
+which give it a cedar-like habit. A pendulous or weeping habit is
+assumed by some conifers, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Picea excelsa</i> var. <i>virgata</i> represents
+a form in which the main branches attain a considerable horizontal
+extension, and trail themselves like snakes along the ground. Certain
+species of <i>Pinus</i>, the yews (<i>Taxus</i>) and some other genera grow as
+bushes, which in place of a main mast-like stem possess several
+repeatedly-branched leading shoots. The unfavourable conditions
+in Arctic regions have produced a dwarf form, in which the main
+shoots grow close to the ground. Artificially induced dwarfed plants
+of <i>Pinus</i>, <i>Cupressus</i>, <i>Sciadopitys</i> (umbrella pine) and other genera
+are commonly cultivated by the Japanese. The dying off of older
+branches and the vigorous growth of shoots nearer the apex of the
+stem produce a form of tree illustrated by the stone pine of the
+Mediterranean region (<i>Pinus Pinea</i>), which Turner has rendered
+familiar in his &ldquo;Childe Harold&rsquo;s Pilgrimage&rdquo; and other pictures of
+Italian scenery. Conifers are not infrequently seen in which a lateral
+branch has bent sharply upwards to take the place of the injured
+main trunk. An upward tendency of all the main lateral branches,
+known as fastigiation, is common in some species, producing well-marked
+varieties, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Cephalotaxus pedunculata</i> var. <i>fastigiata</i>; this
+fastigiate habit may arise as a sport on a tree with spreading branches.
+Another departure from the normal is that in which the juvenile or
+seedling form of shoot persists in the adult tree; the numerous
+coniferous plants known as species of <i>Retinospora</i> are examples of
+this. The name <i>Retinospora</i>, therefore, does not stand for a true
+genus, but denotes persistent young forms of <i>Juniperus</i>, <i>Thuja</i>,
+<i>Cupressus</i>, &amp;c., in which the small scaly leaves of ordinary species are
+replaced by the slender, needle-like leaves, which stand out more or
+less at right angles from the branches. The flat branchlets of
+<i>Cupressus</i>, <i>Thuja</i> (arbor vitae), <i>Thujopsis dolabrata</i> (Japanese arbor
+vitae) are characteristic of certain types of conifers; in some cases
+the horizontal extension of the branches induces a dorsiventral
+structure. A characteristic feature of the genus <i>Agathis</i> (<i>Dammara</i>)
+the Kauri pine of New Zealand, is the deciduous habit of the
+branches; these become detached from the main trunk leaving a
+well-defined absciss-surface, which appears as a depressed circular
+scar on the stem. A new genus of conifers, <i>Taiwania</i>, has recently
+been described from the island of Formosa; it is said to agree in
+habit with the Japanese <i>Cryptomeria</i>, but the cones appear to have a
+structure which distinguishes them from those of any other genus.</p>
+
+<p>With a few exceptions conifers are evergreen, and retain the leaves
+for several years (10 years in <i>Araucaria imbricata</i>, 8 to 10 in <i>Picea
+excelsa</i>, 5 in <i>Taxus baccata</i>; in <i>Pinus</i> the needles usually
+fall in October of their third year). The larch (<i>Larix</i>)
+<span class="sidenote">Leaves.</span>
+sheds its leaves in the autumn, in the Chinese larch (<i>Pseudolarix
+Kaempferi</i>) the leaves turn a bright yellow colour before
+falling. In the swamp cypress (<i>Taxodium distichum</i>) the tree
+assumes a rich brown colour in the autumn, and sheds its leaves
+together with the branchlets which bear them; deciduous branches
+occur also in some other species, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Sequoia sempervirens</i> (redwood),
+<i>Thuja occidentalis</i>, &amp;c. The leaves of conifers are characterized by
+their small size, <i>e.g.</i> the needle-form represented by <i>Pinus</i>, <i>Cedrus</i>,
+<i>Larix</i>, &amp;c., the linear flat or angular leaves, appressed to the branches,
+of <i>Thuja</i>, <i>Cupressus</i>, <i>Libocedrus</i>, &amp;c. The flat and comparatively
+broad leaves of <i>Araucaria imbricata</i>, <i>A. Bidwillii</i>, and some species
+of the southern genus <i>Podocarpus</i> are traversed by several parallel
+veins, as are also the still larger leaves of <i>Agathis</i>, which may reach a
+length of several inches. In addition to the foliage-leaves several
+genera also possess scale-leaves of various kinds, represented by bud-scales
+in <i>Pinus</i>, <i>Picea</i>, &amp;c., which frequently persist for a time at the
+base of a young shoot which has pushed its way through the yielding
+cap of protecting scales, while in some conifers the bud-scales adhere
+together, and after being torn near the base are carried up by the
+growing axis as a thin brown cap. The cypresses, araucarias and
+some other genera have no true bud-scales; in some species, <i>e.g.</i>
+<i>Araucaria Bidwillii</i>, the occurrence of small foliage-leaves, which have
+functioned as bud-scales, at intervals on the shoots affords a measure
+of seasonal growth. The occurrence of long and short shoots is a
+characteristic feature of many conifers. In <i>Pinus</i> the needles occur
+in pairs, or in clusters of 3 or 5 at the apex of a small and inconspicuous
+short shoot of limited growth (spur), which is enclosed at
+its base by a few scale-leaves, and borne on a branch of unlimited
+growth in the axil of a scale-leaf. In the Californian <i>Pinus monophylla</i>
+each spur bears usually one needle, but two are not uncommon;
+it would seem that rudiments of two needles are always
+produced, but, as a rule, only one develops into a needle. In
+<i>Sciadopitys</i> similar spurs occur, each bearing a single needle, which
+in its grooved surface and in the possession of a double vascular
+bundle bears traces of an origin from two needle-leaves. A peculiarity
+of these leaves is the inverse orientation of the vascular tissue; each
+of the two veins has its phloem next the upper and the xylem towards
+the lower surface of the leaf; this unusual position of the xylem and
+phloem may be explained by regarding the needle of <i>Sciadopitys</i> as
+being composed of a pair of leaves borne on a short axillary shoot and
+fused by their margins (fig. 15, A). Long and short shoots occur also
+in <i>Cedrus</i> and <i>Larix</i>, but in these genera the spurs are longer and
+stouter, and are not shed with the leaves; this kind of short shoot, by
+accelerated apical growth, often passes into the condition of a long
+shoot on which the leaves are scattered and separated by comparatively
+long internodes, instead of being crowded into tufts such as
+are borne on the ends of the spurs. In the genus <i>Phyllocladus</i> (New
+Zealand, &amp;c.) there are no green foliage-leaves, but in their place
+flattened branches (phylloclades) borne in the axils of small scale-leaves.
+The cotyledons are often two in number, but sometimes (<i>e.g.</i>
+<i>Pinus</i>) as many as fifteen; these leaves are usually succeeded by
+foliage-leaves in the form of delicate spreading needles, and these
+primordial leaves are followed, sooner or later, by the adult type
+of leaf, except in Retinosporas, which retain the juvenile foliage.
+In addition to the first foliage-leaves and the adult type of leaf,
+there are often produced leaves which are intermediate both in shape
+and structure between the seedling and adult foliage. Dimorphism
+or heterophylly is fairly common. One of the best known examples
+is the Chinese juniper (<i>Juniperus chinensis</i>), in which branches with
+spinous leaves, longer and more spreading than the ordinary adult
+leaf, are often found associated with the normal type of branch. In
+some cases, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Sequoia sempervirens</i>, the fertile branches bear leaves
+which are less spreading than those on the vegetative shoots. Certain
+species of the southern hemisphere genus <i>Dacrydium</i> afford particularly
+striking instances of heterophylly, <i>e.g.</i> <i>D. Kirkii</i> of New Zealand,
+in which some branches bear small and appressed leaves, while in
+others the leaves are much longer and more spreading. A well-known
+fossil conifer from Triassic strata&mdash;<i>Voltzia heterophylla</i>&mdash;also
+illustrates a marked dissimilarity in the leaves of the same shoot.
+The variation in leaf-form and the tendency of leaves to arrange
+themselves in various ways on different branches of the same plant
+are features which it is important to bear in mind in the identification
+of fossil conifers. In this connexion we may note the striking
+resemblance between some of the New Zealand Alpine Veronicas,
+<i>e.g.</i> <i>Veronica Hectori</i>, <i>V. cupressoides</i>, &amp;c. (also <i>Polycladus cupressinus</i>,
+a Composite), and some of the cypresses and other conifers with
+small appressed leaves. The long linear leaves of some species of
+<i>Podocarpus</i>, in which the lamina is traversed by a single vein, recall
+the pinnae of Cycas; the branches of some Dacrydiums and other
+forms closely resemble those of lycopods; these superficial resemblances,
+both between different genera of conifers and between
+conifers and other plants, coupled with the usual occurrence of fossil
+coniferous twigs without cones attached to them, render the determination
+of extinct types a very unsatisfactory and frequently an
+impossible task.</p>
+
+<p>A typical male flower consists of a central axis bearing numerous
+spirally-arranged sporophylls (stamens), each of which consists of
+a slender stalk (filament) terminating distally in a more
+or less prominent knob or triangular scale, and bearing
+<span class="sidenote">Flowers.</span>
+two or more pollen-sacs (microsporangia) on its lower surface. The
+pollen-grains of some genera (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Pinus</i>) are furnished with bladder-like
+extensions of the outer wall, which serve as aids to wind-dispersal.
+The stamens of <i>Araucaria</i> and <i>Agathis</i> are peculiar in bearing several
+long, and narrow free pollen-sacs; these may be compared with the
+sporangiophores of the horsetails (<i>Equisetum</i>); in <i>Taxus</i> (yew) the
+filament is attached to the centre of a large circular distal expansion,
+which bears several pollen-sacs on its under surface. In the conifers
+proper the female reproductive organs have the form of cones, which
+may be styled flowers or inflorescences according to different interpretations
+of their morphology. In the Taxaceae the flowers have
+a simpler structure. The female flowers of the <i>Abietineae</i> may be
+taken as representing a common type. A pine cone reaches maturity
+in two years; a single year suffices for the full development in <i>Larix</i>
+and several other genera. The axis of the cone bears numerous
+spirally disposed flat scales (cone-scales), each of which, if examined
+in a young cone, is found to be double, and to consist of a lower and
+an upper portion. The latter is a thin flat scale bearing a median
+ridge or keel (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Abies</i>), on each side of which is situated an inverted
+ovule, consisting of a nucellus surrounded by a single integument.
+As the cone grows in size and becomes woody the lower half of the
+cone-scale, which we may call the carpellary scale, may remain small,
+and is so far outgrown by the upper half (seminiferous scale) that it is
+hardly recognizable in the mature cone. In many species of <i>Abies</i>
+(<i>e.g.</i> <i>Abies pectinata</i>, &amp;c.) the ripe cone differs from those of <i>Pinus</i>,
+<i>Picea</i> and <i>Cedrus</i> in the large size of the carpellary scales, which
+project as conspicuous thin appendages beyond the distal margins of
+the broader and more woody seminiferous scales; the long carpellary
+scale is a prominent feature also in the cone of the Douglas pine
+(<i>Pseudotsuga Douglasii</i>). The female flowers (cones) vary considerably
+in size; the largest are the more or less spherical cones of
+<i>Araucaria</i>&mdash;a single cone of <i>A. imbricata</i> may produce as many as
+300 seeds, one seed to each fertile cone-scale&mdash;and the long pendent
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page760" id="page760"></a>760</span>
+cones, 1 to 2 ft. in length, of the sugar pine of California (<i>Pinus
+Lambertiana</i>) and other species. Smaller cones, less than an inch
+long, occur in the larch, <i>Athrotaxis</i> (Tasmania), <i>Fitzroya</i> (Patagonia
+and Tasmania), &amp;c. In the <i>Taxodieae</i> and <i>Araucarieae</i> the cones are
+similar in appearance to those of the <i>Abietineae</i>, but they differ in
+the fact that the scales appear to be single, even in the young condition;
+each cone-scale in a genus of the <i>Taxodiinae</i> (<i>Sequoia</i>, &amp;c.)
+bears several seeds, while in the <i>Araucariinae</i> (<i>Araucaria</i> and <i>Agathis</i>)
+each scale has one seed. The <i>Cupressineae</i> have cones composed of
+a few scales arranged in alternate whorls; each scale bears two or
+more seeds, and shows no external sign of being composed of two
+distinct portions. In the junipers the scales become fleshy as the
+seeds ripen, and the individual scales fuse together in the form of
+a berry. The female flowers of the Taxaceae assume another form;
+in <i>Microcachrys</i> (Tasmania) the reproductive structures are spirally
+disposed, and form small globular cones made up of red fleshy scales,
+to each of which is attached a single ovule enclosed by an integument
+and partially invested by an arillus; in <i>Dacrydium</i> the carpellary
+leaves are very similar to the foliage leaves&mdash;each bears one ovule
+with two integuments, the outer of which constitutes an arillus.
+Finally in the yew, as a type of the family Taxeae, the ovules occur
+singly at the apex of a lateral branch, enclosed when ripe by a conspicuous
+red or yellow fleshy arillus, which serves as an attraction to
+animals, and thus aids in the dispersal of the seeds.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:454px; height:237px" src="images/img760a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">(C and D after Worsdell.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><p><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span>&mdash;Diagrammatic treatment of:</p>
+
+<p>A, Double needle of <i>Sciadopitys</i> (<i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, leaves; <i>b</i>, shoot; <i>Br</i>, bract).</p>
+<p>B, seminiferous scale as leaf of axillary shoot (<i>b</i>, shoot; <i>Sc</i>, seminiferous
+scale; <i>Br</i>, bract).</p>
+<p>C, seminiferous scale as fused pair of leaves (<i>l</i><span class="sp">1</span>, <i>l</i><span class="sp">2</span>, <i>l</i><span class="sp">3</span>, first, second
+and third leaves; <i>b</i>, shoot; <i>Br</i>, bract).</p>
+<p>D, cone-scale of <i>Araucaria</i> (<i>n</i>, nucellus; <i>i</i>, integument; <i>x</i>,
+xylem).</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:121px; height:221px" src="images/img760b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span>&mdash;Abnormal
+Cone of
+<i>Pinus rigida</i>.
+(After Masters.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">It is important to draw attention to some structural features
+exhibited by certain cone-scales, in which there is no external sign
+indicative of the presence of a carpellary and a seminiferous
+scale. In <i>Araucaria Cookii</i> and some allied species each
+<span class="sidenote">Morphology of female flower.</span>
+scale has a small pointed projection from its upper face
+near the distal end; the scales of <i>Cunninghamia</i> (China)
+are characterized by a somewhat ragged membranous
+projection extending across the upper face between the seeds and the
+distal end of the scale; in the scales of <i>Athrotaxis</i> (Tasmania) a
+prominent rounded ridge occupies a corresponding position. These
+projections and ridges may be homologous with the seminiferous
+scale of the pines, firs, cedars, &amp;c. The simplest interpretation of the
+cone of the <i>Abietineae</i> is that which regards it as a flower consisting
+of an axis bearing several open carpels, which in the adult cone may
+be large and prominent or very small, the scale bearing the ovules
+being regarded as a placental outgrowth from the flat and open carpel.
+In <i>Araucaria</i> the cone-scale is regarded as consisting of a flat carpel,
+of which the placenta has not grown out into the scale-like structure.
+The seminiferous scale of <i>Pinus</i>, &amp;c., is also spoken of sometimes as a
+ligular outgrowth from the carpellary leaf. Robert Brown was the
+first to give a clear description of the morphology of the Abietineous
+cone in which carpels bear naked ovules; he recognized gymnospermy
+as an important distinguishing feature in conifers as well as in
+cycads. Another view is to regard the cone as an inflorescence,
+each carpellary scale being a bract bearing in its axil a shoot the
+axis of which has not been developed; the seminiferous scale is
+believed to represent either a single leaf or a fused pair of leaves
+belonging to the partially suppressed axillary shoot. In 1869 van
+Tieghem laid stress on anatomical evidence as a key to the morphology
+of the cone-scales; he drew attention to the fact that the collateral
+vascular bundles of the seminiferous scale are inversely orientated as
+compared with those of the carpellary scale; in the latter the xylem
+of each bundle is next the upper surface, while in the seminiferous
+scale the phloem occupies that position. The conclusion drawn from
+this was that the seminiferous scale (fig. 15, B, <i>Sc</i>) is the first and only
+leaf of an axillary shoot (<i>b</i>) borne on that side of the shoot, the axis
+of which is suppressed, opposite the subtending bract (fig. 15, A, B, C,
+<i>Br</i>). Another view is to apply to the seminiferous scale an explanation
+similar to that suggested by von Mohl in the case of the double
+needle of <i>Sciadopitys</i>, and to consider the seed-bearing scale as being
+made up of a pair of leaves (fig. 15, A, <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>) of an axillary shoot (<i>b</i>)
+fused into one by their posterior margins (fig. 15, A). The latter view
+receives support from abnormal cones in which carpellary scales
+subtend axillary shoots, of which the first two leaves (fig. 15, C, <i>l</i><span class="sp">1</span>, <i>l</i><span class="sp">1</span>)
+are often harder and browner than the others; forms have been
+described transitional between axillary shoots, in which the leaves are
+separate, and others in which two of the leaves are more or less
+completely fused. In a young cone the seminiferous scale appears as
+a hump of tissue at the base or in the axil of the carpellary scale, but
+Celakovský, a strong supporter of the axillary-bud theory, attaches
+little or no importance to this kind of evidence, regarding the present
+manner of development as being merely an example of a short cut
+adopted in the course of evolution, and replacing the original production
+of a branch in the axil of each carpellary scale. Eichler, one
+of the chief supporters of the simpler view, does not recognize in the
+inverse orientation of the vascular bundles an argument in support
+of the axillary-bud theory, but points out that the seminiferous scale,
+being an outgrowth from the surface of the carpellary scale, would,
+like outgrowths from an ordinary leaf, naturally have its bundles
+inversely orientated. In such cone-scales as show little or no
+external indication of being double in origin, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Araucaria</i> (fig. 15, D)
+Sequoia, &amp;c., there are always two sets of bundles; the upper set,
+having the phloem uppermost, as in the seminiferous scale of <i>Abies</i>
+or <i>Pinus</i>, are regarded as belonging to the outgrowth from the
+carpellary scale and specially developed to supply the ovules.
+Monstrous cones are fairly common; these in some instances lend
+support to the axillary-bud theory, and it has been said that this
+theory owes its existence to evidence furnished by abnormal cones.
+It is difficult to estimate the value of abnormalities as evidence
+bearing on morphological interpretation; the chief danger lies
+perhaps in attaching undue weight to them, but there is also a risk
+of minimizing their importance. Monstrosities at least demonstrate
+possible lines of development, but when the abnormal forms of growth
+in various directions are fairly evenly balanced, trustworthy deductions
+become difficult. The occurrence of buds in the axils of
+carpellary scales may, however, simply mean that buds, which are
+usually undeveloped in the axils of sporophylls, occasionally afford
+evidence of their existence. Some monstrous cones lend no support
+to the axillary-bud theory. In <i>Larix</i> the axis of the cone often
+continues its growth; similarly in <i>Cephalotaxus</i> the cones are often
+proliferous. (In rare cases the proliferated portion produces male
+flowers in the leaf-axils.) In <i>Larix</i> the carpellary scale may become
+leafy, and the seminiferous scale may disappear. Androgynous
+cones may be produced, as in the cone of <i>Pinus rigida</i> (fig. 16), in
+which the lower part bears stamens and the upper portion carpellary
+and seminiferous scales. An interesting case has been figured by
+Masters, in which scales of a cone of <i>Cupressus Lawsoniana</i> bear
+ovules on the upper surface and stamens on the lower face. One
+argument that has been adduced in support of the axillary bud theory
+is derived from the Palaeozoic type <i>Cordaites</i>, in
+which each ovule occurs on an axis borne in the
+axil of a bract. The whole question is still unsolved,
+and perhaps insoluble. It may be that
+the interpretation of the female cone of the
+<i>Abietineae</i> as an inflorescence, which finds favour
+with many botanists, cannot be applied to the
+cones of <i>Agathis</i> and <i>Araucaria</i>. Without expressing
+any decided opinion as to the morphology
+of the double cone-scale of the <i>Abietineae</i>,
+preference may be felt in favour of regarding
+the cone-scale of the <i>Araucarieae</i> as a
+simple carpellary leaf bearing a single ovule. A
+discussion of this question may be found in a
+paper on the <i>Araucarieae</i> by Seward and Ford,
+published in the Transactions of the Royal Society
+of London (1906). <i>Cordaites</i> is an extinct type
+which in certain respects resembles <i>Ginkgo</i>, cycads
+and the <i>Araucarieae</i>, but its agreement with true
+conifers is probably too remote to justify our attributing
+much weight to the bearing of the morphology of its
+female flowers on the interpretation of that of the Coniferae. The
+greater simplicity of the Eichler theory may prejudice us in its
+favour; but, on the other hand, the arguments advanced in favour
+of the axillary-bud theories are perhaps not sufficiently cogent to
+lead us to accept an explanation based chiefly on the uncertain
+evidence of monstrosities.</p>
+
+<p>A pollen-grain when first formed from its mother-cell consists of
+a single cell; in this condition it may be carried to the nucellus of
+the ovule (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Taxus</i>, <i>Cupressus</i>, &amp;c.), or more usually
+(<i>Pinus</i>, <i>Larix</i>, &amp;c.) it reaches maturity before the dehiscence
+<span class="sidenote">Micro-spores and megaspores.</span>
+of the microsporangium. The nucleus of the
+microspore divides and gives rise to a small cell within
+the large cell, a second small cell is then produced; this
+is the structure of the ripe pollen-grain in some conifers (<i>Taxus</i>, &amp;c.).
+The large cell grows out as a pollen-tube; the second of the two
+small cells (body-cell) wanders into the tube, followed by the nucleus
+of the first small cell (stalk-cell). In <i>Taxus</i> the body-cell eventually
+divides into two, in which the products of division are of unequal size,
+the larger constituting the male generative cell, which fuses with the
+nucleus of the egg-cell. In <i>Juniperus</i> the products of division of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page761" id="page761"></a>761</span>
+body-cell are equal, and both function as male generative cells. In
+the <i>Abietineae</i> cell-formation in the pollen-grain is carried farther.
+Three small cells occur inside the cavity of the microspore; two of
+them collapse and the third divides into two, forming a stalk-cell and
+a larger body-cell. The latter ultimately divides in the apex of the
+pollen-tube into two non-motile generative cells. Evidence has lately
+been adduced of the existence of numerous nuclei in the pollen-tubes
+of the <i>Araucarieae</i>, and it seems probable that in this as in several
+other respects this family is distinguished from other members of the
+Coniferales. The precise method of fertilization in the Scots Pine
+was followed by V. H. Blackman, who also succeeded in showing that
+the nuclei of the sporophyte generation contain twice as many
+chromosomes as the nuclei of the gametophyte. Other observers
+have in recent years demonstrated a similar relation in other genera
+between the number of chromosomes in the nuclei of the two generations.
+The ovule is usually surrounded by one integument, which
+projects beyond the tip of the nucellus as a wide-open lobed funnel,
+which at the time of pollination folds inwards, and so assists in bringing
+the pollen-grains on to the nucellus. In some conifers (<i>e.g.</i>
+<i>Taxus</i>, <i>Cephalotaxus</i>, <i>Dacrydium</i>, &amp;c.) the ordinary integument is
+partially enclosed by an arillus or second integument. It is held by
+some botanists (Celakovský) that the seminiferous scale of the
+<i>Abietineae</i> is homologous with the arillus or second integument of the
+Taxaceae, but this view is too strained to gain general acceptance.
+In <i>Araucaria</i> and <i>Saxegothaea</i> the nucellus itself projects beyond the
+open micropyle and receives the pollen-grains direct. During the
+growth of the cell which forms the megaspore the greater part of the
+nucellus is absorbed, except the apical portion, which persists as a
+cone above the megaspore; the partial disorganization of some of the
+cells in the centre of the nucellar cone forms an irregular cavity, which
+may be compared with the larger pollen-chamber of <i>Ginkgo</i> and the
+cycads. In each ovule one megaspore comes to maturity, but,
+exceptionally, two may be present (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Pinus sylvestris</i>). It has been
+shown by Lawson that in <i>Sequoia sempervirens</i> (<i>Annals of Botany</i>,
+1904) and by other workers in the genera that several megaspores
+may attain a fairly large size in one prothallus. The megaspore
+becomes filled with tissue (prothallus), and from some of the superficial
+cells archegonia are produced, usually three to five in number,
+but in rare cases ten to twenty or even sixty may be present. In the
+genus <i>Sequoia</i> there may be as many as sixty archegonia (Arnoldi and
+Lawson) in one megaspore; these occur either separately or in some
+parts of the prothallus they may form groups as in the <i>Cupressineae</i>;
+they are scattered through the prothallus instead of being confined
+to the apical region as in the majority of conifers. Similarly in the
+<i>Araucarieae</i> and in <i>Widdringtonia</i> the archegonia are numerous and
+scattered and often sunk in the prothallus tissue. In <i>Libocedrus
+decurrens</i> (Cupressineae) Lawson describes the archegonia as varying
+in number from 6 to 24 (<i>Annals of Botany</i> xxi., 1907). An archegonium
+consists of a large oval egg-cell surmounted by a short neck composed
+of one or more tiers of cells, six to eight cells in each tier. Before
+fertilization the nucleus of the egg-cell divides and cuts off a ventral
+canal-cell; this cell may represent a second egg-cell. The egg-cells
+of the archegonia may be in lateral contact (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Cupressineae</i>) or
+separated from one another by a few cells of the prothallus, each
+ovum being immediately surrounded by a layer of cells distinguished
+by their granular contents and large nuclei. During the development
+of the egg-cell, food material is transferred from these cells
+through the pitted wall of the ovum. The tissue at the apex of the
+megaspore grows slightly above the level of the archegonia, so that
+the latter come to lie in a shallow depression. In the process of
+fertilization the two male generative nuclei, accompanied by the
+pollen-tube nucleus and that of the stalk-cell, pass through an open
+pit at the apex of the pollen-tube into the protoplasm of the ovum.
+After fertilization the nucleus of the egg divides, the first stages of
+karyokinesis being apparent even before complete fusion of the male
+and female nuclei has occurred. The result of this is the production
+of four nuclei, which eventually take up a position at the bottom of
+the ovum and become separated from one another by vertical cell-walls;
+these nuclei divide again, and finally three tiers of cells are
+produced, four in each tier. In the <i>Abietineae</i> the cells of the middle
+tier elongate and push the lowest tier deeper into the endosperm;
+the cells of the bottom tier may remain in lateral contact and produce
+together one embryo, or they may separate (<i>Pinus</i>, <i>Juniperus</i>, &amp;c.)
+and form four potential embryos. The ripe albuminous seed contains
+a single embryo with two or more cotyledons. The seeds of many
+conifers are provided with large thin wings, consisting in some genera
+(<i>e.g.</i> <i>Pinus</i>) of the upper cell-layers of the seminiferous scale, which
+have become detached and, in some cases, adhere loosely to the seed
+as a thin membrane; the loose attachment may be of use to the seeds
+when they are blown against the branches of trees, in enabling them to
+fall away from the wing and drop to the ground. The seeds of some
+genera depend on animals for dispersal, the carpellary scale (<i>Microcachrys</i>)
+or the outer integument being brightly coloured and
+attractive. In some <i>Abietineae</i> (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Pinus</i> and <i>Picea</i>)&mdash;in which the
+cone-scales persist for some time after the seeds are ripe&mdash;the cones
+hang down and so facilitate the fall of the seeds; in <i>Cedrus</i>, <i>Araucaria</i>
+and <i>Abies</i> the scales become detached and fall with the seeds,
+leaving the bare vertical axis of the cone on the tree. In all cases,
+except some species of <i>Araucaria</i> (sect. <i>Colymbea</i>) the germination is
+epigean. The seedling plants of some Conifers (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Araucaria
+imbricata</i>) are characterized by a carrot-shaped hypocotyl, which
+doubtless serves as a food-reservoir.</p>
+
+<p>The roots of many conifers possess a narrow band of primary
+xylem-tracheids with a group of narrow spiral protoxylem-elements
+at each end (diarch). A striking feature in the roots of
+several genera, excluding the <i>Abietineae</i>, is the occurrence
+<span class="sidenote">Anatomy.</span>
+of thick and somewhat irregular bands of thickening on the
+cell-walls of the cortical layer next to the endodermis. These bands,
+which may serve to strengthen the central cylinder, have been compared
+with the netting surrounding the delicate wall of an inflated
+balloon. It is not always easy to distinguish a root from a stem;
+in some cases (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Sequoia</i>) the primary tetrarch structure is easily
+identified in the centre of an old root, but in other cases the primary
+elements are very difficult to recognize. The sudden termination of
+the secondary tracheids against the pith-cells may afford evidence
+of root-structure as distinct from stem-structure, in which the radial
+rows of secondary tracheids pass into the irregularly-arranged
+primary elements next the pith. The annual rings in a root are often
+less clearly marked than in the stem, and the xylem-elements are
+frequently larger and thinner. The primary vascular bundles in a
+young conifer stem are collateral, and, like those of a Dicotyledon,
+they are arranged in a circle round a central pith and enclosed by a
+common endodermis. It is in the nature of the secondary xylem that
+the Coniferales are most readily distinguished from the Dicotyledons
+and Cycadaceae; the wood is homogeneous in structure, consisting
+almost entirely of tracheids with circular or polygonal bordered
+pits on the radial walls, more particularly in the late summer wood.
+In many genera xylem-parenchyma is present, but never in great
+abundance. A few Dicotyledons, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Drimys</i> (Magnoliaceae) closely
+resemble conifers in the homogeneous character of the wood, but in
+most cases the presence of large spring vessels, wood-fibres and
+abundant parenchyma affords an obvious distinguishing feature.</p>
+
+<p>The abundance of petrified coniferous wood in rocks of various
+ages has led many botanists to investigate the structure of modern
+genera with a view to determining how far anatomical characters
+may be used as evidence of generic distinctions. There are a few
+well-marked types of wood which serve as convenient standards of
+comparison, but these cannot be used except in a few cases to distinguish
+individual genera. The genus <i>Pinus</i> serves as an illustration
+of wood of a distinct type characterized by the absence of xylem-parenchyma,
+except such as is associated with the numerous resin-canals
+that occur abundantly in the wood, cortex and medullary
+rays; the medullary rays are composed of parenchyma and of
+horizontal tracheids with irregular ingrowths from their walls. In
+a radial section of a pine stem each ray is seen to consist in the
+median part of a few rows of parenchymatous cells with large oval
+simple pits in their walls, accompanied above and below by horizontal
+tracheids with bordered pits. The pits in the radial walls of the
+ordinary xylem-tracheids occur in a single row or in a double row,
+of which the pits are not in contact, and those of the two rows are
+placed on the same level. The medullary rays usually consist of a
+single tier of cells, but in the <i>Pinus</i> type of wood broader medullary
+rays also occur and are traversed by horizontal resin-canals. In the
+wood of <i>Cypressus</i>, <i>Cedrus</i>, <i>Abies</i> and several other genera, parenchymatous
+cells occur in association with the xylem-tracheids and take
+the place of the resin-canals of other types. In the Araucarian type
+of wood (<i>Araucaria</i> and <i>Agathis</i>) the bordered pits, which occur in
+two or three rows on the radial walls of the tracheids, are in mutual
+contact and polygonal in shape, the pits of the different rows are
+alternate and not on the same level; in this type of wood the annual
+rings are often much less distinct than in <i>Cupressus</i>, <i>Pinus</i> and other
+genera. In <i>Taxus</i>, <i>Torreya</i> (California and the Far East) and <i>Cephalotaxus</i>
+the absence of resin-canals and the presence of spiral thickening-bands
+on the tracheids constitute well-marked characteristics. An
+examination of the wood of branches, stems and roots of the
+same species or individual usually reveals a fairly wide variation in
+some of the characters, such as the abundance and size of the
+medullary rays, the size and arrangement of pits, the presence of
+wood-parenchyma&mdash;characters to which undue importance has often
+been attached in systematic anatomical work. The phloem consists
+of sieve-tubes, with pitted areas on the lateral as well as on the
+inclined terminal walls, phloem-parenchyma and, in some genera,
+fibres. In the <i>Abietineae</i> the phloem consists of parenchyma and
+sieve-tubes only, but in most other forms tangential rows of fibres
+occur in regular alternation with the parenchyma and sieve-tubes.
+The characteristic companion-cells of Angiosperms are represented by
+phloem-parenchyma cells with albuminous contents; other parenchymatous
+elements of the bast contain starch or crystals of calcium
+oxalate. When tracheids occur in the medullary rays of the xylem
+these are replaced in the phloem-region by irregular parenchymatous
+cells known as albuminous cells. Resin-canals, which occur abundantly
+in the xylem, phloem or cortex, are not found in the wood
+of the yew. <i>Cephalotaxus</i> (<i>Taxeae</i>) is also peculiar in having resin-canals
+in the pith (cf. <i>Ginkgo</i>). One form of <i>Cephalotaxus</i> is
+characterized by the presence of short tracheids in the pith, in shape
+like ordinary parenchyma, but in the possession of bordered pits and
+lignified walls agreeing with ordinary xylem-tracheids; it is probable
+that these short tracheids serve as reservoirs for storing rather than
+for conducting water. The vascular bundle entering the stem from a
+leaf with a single vein passes by a more or less direct course into the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page762" id="page762"></a>762</span>
+central cylinder of the stem, and does not assume the girdle-like form
+characteristic of the cycadean leaf-trace. In species of which the
+leaves have more than one vein (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Araucaria imbricata</i>, &amp;c.) the
+leaf-trace leaves the stele of the stem as a single bundle which splits
+up into several strands in its course through the cortex. In the wood
+of some conifers, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Araucaria</i>, the leaf-traces persist for a considerable
+time, perhaps indefinitely, and may be seen in tangential
+sections of the wood of old stems. The leaf-trace in the Coniferales
+is simple in its course through the stem, differing in this respect from
+the double leaf-trace of <i>Ginkgo</i>. A detailed account of the anatomical
+characters of conifers has been published by Professor
+D. P. Penhallow of Montreal and Dr. Gothan of Berlin which
+will be found useful for diagnostic purposes. The characters of
+leaves most useful for diagnostic purposes are the position of the
+stomata, the presence and arrangement of resin-canals, the structure
+of the mesophyll and vascular bundles. The presence of hypodermal
+fibres is another feature worthy of note, but the occurrence of these
+elements is too closely connected with external conditions to be of
+much systematic value. A pine needle grown in continuous light
+differs from one grown under ordinary conditions in the absence of
+hypodermal fibres, in the absence of the characteristic infoldings of
+the mesophyll cell-walls, in the smaller size of the resin-canals, &amp;c.
+The endodermis in <i>Pinus</i>, <i>Picea</i> and many other genera is usually
+a well-defined layer of cells enclosing the vascular bundles, and
+separated from them by a tissue consisting in part of ordinary parenchyma
+and to some extent of isodiametric tracheids; but this
+tissue, usually spoken of as the pericycle, is in direct continuity with
+other stem-tissues as well as the pericycle. The occurrence of short
+tracheids in close proximity to the veins is a characteristic of coniferous
+leaves; these elements assume two distinct forms&mdash;(1) the short
+isodiametric tracheids (transfusion-tracheids) closely associated with
+the veins; (2) longer tracheids extending across the mesophyll at
+right angles to the veins, and no doubt functioning as representatives
+of lateral veins. It has been suggested that transfusion-tracheids
+represent, in part at least, the centripetal xylem, which forms a
+distinctive feature of cycadean leaf-bundles; these short tracheids
+form conspicuous groups laterally attached to the veins in <i>Cunninghamia</i>,
+abundantly represented in a similar position in the leaves of
+<i>Sequoia</i>, and scattered through the so-called pericycle in <i>Pinus</i>,
+<i>Picea</i>, &amp;c. It is of interest to note the occurrence of precisely similar
+elements in the mesophyll of <i>Lepidodendron</i> leaves. An anatomical
+peculiarity in the veins of <i>Pinus</i> and several other genera is the continuity
+of the medullary rays, which extend as continuous plates from
+one end of the leaf to the other. The mesophyll of <i>Pinus</i> and <i>Cedrus</i>
+is characterized by its homogeneous character and by the presence
+of infoldings of the cell-walls. In many leaves, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Abies</i>, <i>Tsuga</i>,
+<i>Larix</i>, &amp;c., the mesophyll is heterogeneous, consisting of palisade and
+spongy parenchyma. In the leaves of <i>Araucaria imbricata</i>, in which
+palisade-tissue occurs in both the upper and lower part of the
+mesophyll, the resin-canals are placed between the veins; in some
+species of <i>Podocarpus</i> (sect. <i>Nageia</i>) a canal occurs below each vein;
+in <i>Tsuga</i>, <i>Torreya</i>, <i>Cephalotaxus</i>, <i>Sequoia</i>, &amp;c., a single canal occurs
+below the midrib; in <i>Larix</i>, <i>Abies</i>, &amp;c., two canals run through the
+leaf parallel to the margins. The stomata are frequently arranged in
+rows, their position being marked by two white bands of wax on the
+leaf-surface.</p>
+
+<p>The chief home of the Coniferales is in the northern hemisphere,
+where certain species occasionally extend into the Arctic circle
+and penetrate beyond the northern limit of dicotyledonous
+trees. Wide areas are often exclusively occupied by
+<span class="sidenote">Distribution.</span>
+conifers, which give the landscape a sombre aspect,
+suggesting a comparison with the forest vegetation of the Coal
+period. South of the tree-limit a belt of conifers stretches across
+north Europe, Siberia and Canada. In northern Europe this belt
+is characterized by such species as <i>Picea excelsa</i> (spruce), which
+extends south to the mountains of the Mediterranean region; <i>Pinus
+sylvestris</i> (Scottish fir), reaching from the far north to western Spain,
+Persia and Asia Minor; <i>Juniperus communis</i>, &amp;c. In north Siberia
+<i>Pinus Cembra</i> (Cembra or Arolla Pine) has a wide range; also <i>Abies
+sibirica</i> (Siberian silver fir), <i>Larix sibirica</i> and <i>Juniperus Sabina</i> (savin).
+In the North American area <i>Picea alba</i>, <i>P. nigra</i>, <i>Larix americana</i>,
+<i>Abies balsamea</i> (balsam fir), <i>Tsuga canadensis</i> (hemlock spruce),
+<i>Pinus Strobus</i> (Weymouth pine), <i>Thuja occidentalis</i> (white cedar),
+<i>Taxus canadensis</i> are characteristic species. In the Mediterranean
+region occur <i>Cupressus sempervirens</i>, <i>Pinus Pinea</i> (stone pine),
+species of juniper, <i>Cedrus atlantica</i>, <i>C. Libani</i>, <i>Callitris quadrivalvis</i>,
+<i>Pinus montana</i>, &amp;c. Several conifers of economic importance are
+abundant on the Atlantic side of North America&mdash;<i>Juniperus virginiana</i>
+(red cedar, used in the manufacture of lead pencils, and extending
+as far south as Florida), <i>Taxodium distichum</i> (swamp cypress),
+<i>Pinus rigida</i> (pitch pine), <i>P. mitis</i> (yellow pine), <i>P. taeda</i>, <i>P. palustris</i>,
+&amp;c. On the west side of the American continent conifers play a still
+more striking rôle; among them are <i>Chamaecyparis nutkaensis</i>,
+<i>Picea sitchensis</i>, <i>Libocedrus decurrens</i>, <i>Pseudotsuga Douglasii</i> (Douglas
+fir), <i>Sequoia sempervirens</i>, <i>S. gigantea</i> (the only two surviving species
+of this generic type are now confined to a few localities in California,
+but were formerly widely spread in Europe and elsewhere), <i>Pinus
+Coulteri</i>, <i>P. Lambertiana</i>, &amp;c. Farther south, a few representatives
+of such genera as <i>Abies</i>, <i>Cupressus</i>, <i>Pinus</i> and juniper are found in
+the Mexican Highlands, tropical America and the West Indies. In
+the far East conifers are richly represented; among them occur
+<i>Pinus densiflora</i>, <i>Cryptomeria japonica</i>, <i>Cephalotaxus</i>, species of <i>Abies</i>,
+<i>Larix</i>, <i>Thujopsis</i>, <i>Sciadopitys verticillata</i>, <i>Pseudolarix Kaempferi</i>,
+&amp;c. In the Himalaya occur <i>Cedrus deodara</i>, <i>Taxus</i>, species of
+<i>Cupressus</i>, <i>Pinus excelsa</i>, <i>Abies Webbiana</i>, &amp;c. The continent of
+Africa is singularly poor in conifers. <i>Cedrus atlantica</i>, a variety of
+<i>Abies Pinsapo</i>, <i>Juniperus thurifera</i>, <i>Callitris quadrivalvis</i>, occur in
+the north-west region, which may be regarded as the southern limit
+of the Mediterranean region. The greater part of Africa north of the
+equator is without any representatives of the conifers; <i>Juniperus
+procera</i> flourishes in Somaliland and on the mountains of Abyssinia;
+a species of <i>Podocarpus</i> occurs on the Cameroon mountains, and
+<i>P. milanjiana</i> is widely distributed in east tropical Africa. <i>Widdringtonia
+Whytei</i>, a species closely allied to <i>W. juniperoides</i> of the Cedarberg
+mountains of Cape Colony, is recorded from Nyassaland and from
+N.E. Rhodesia; while a third species, <i>W. cupressoides</i>, occurs in
+Cape Colony. <i>Podocarpus elongata</i> and <i>P. Thunbergii</i> (yellow wood)
+form the principal timber trees in the belt of forest which stretches
+from the coast mountains of Cape Colony to the north-east of the
+Transvaal. <i>Libocedrus tetragona</i>, <i>Fitzroya patagonica</i>, <i>Araucaria
+brasiliensis</i>, <i>A. imbricata</i>, <i>Saxegothaea</i> and others are met with in
+the Andes and other regions in South America. <i>Athrotaxis</i> and
+<i>Microcachrys</i> are characteristic Australian types. <i>Phyllocladus</i>
+occurs also in New Zealand, and species of <i>Dacrydium</i>, <i>Araucaria</i>,
+<i>Agathis</i> and <i>Podocarpus</i> are represented in Australia, New Zealand
+and the Malay regions.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Gnetales.</span>&mdash;These are trees or shrubs with simple leaves. The
+flowers are dioecious, rarely monoecious, provided with one or two
+perianths. The wood is characterized by the presence of vessels in
+addition to tracheids. There are no resin-canals. The three existing
+genera, usually spoken of as members of the Gnetales, differ from one
+another more than is consistent with their inclusion in a single
+family; we may therefore better express their diverse characters by
+regarding them as types of three separate families&mdash;(1) <i>Ephedroideae</i>,
+genus <i>Ephedra</i>; (2) <i>Welwitschioideae</i>, genus <i>Welwitschia</i>; (3)
+<i>Gnetoideae</i>, genus <i>Gnetum</i>. Our knowledge of the Gnetales leaves
+much to be desired, but such facts as we possess would seem to
+indicate that this group is of special importance as foreshadowing,
+more than any other Gymnosperms, the Angiospermous type. In
+the more heterogeneous structure of the wood and in the possession
+of true vessels the Gnetales agree closely with the higher flowering
+plants. It is of interest to note that the leaves of <i>Gnetum</i>, while
+typically Dicotyledonous in appearance, possess a Gymnospermous
+character in the continuous and plate-like medullary rays of their
+vascular bundles. The presence of a perianth is a feature suggestive
+of an approach to the floral structure of Angiosperms; the prolongation
+of the integument furnishes the flowers with a substitute for a
+stigma and style. The genus <i>Ephedra</i>, with its prothallus and archegonia,
+which are similar to those of other Gymnosperms, may be
+safely regarded as the most primitive of the Gnetales. In <i>Welwitschia</i>
+also the megaspore is filled with prothallus-tissue, but single egg-cells
+take the place of archegonia. In certain species of <i>Gnetum</i> described
+by Karsten the megaspore contains a peripheral layer of protoplasm,
+in which scattered nuclei represent the female reproductive cells;
+in <i>Gnetum Gnemon</i> a similar state of things exists in the upper half
+of the megaspore, while the lower half agrees with the megaspore of
+<i>Welwitschia</i> in being full of prothallus-tissue, which serves merely as
+a reservoir of food. Lotsy has described the occurrence of special
+cells at the apex of the prothallus of <i>Gnetum Gnemon</i>, which he regards
+as imperfect archegonia (fig. 17, C, <i>a</i>); he suggests they may represent
+vestigial structures pointing back to some ancestral form beyond the
+limits of the present group. The Gnetales probably had a separate
+origin from the other Gymnosperms; they carry us nearer to the
+Angiosperms, but we have as yet no satisfactory evidence that they
+represent a stage in the direct line of Angiospermic evolution. It is
+not improbable that the three genera of this ancient phylum survive
+as types of a blindly-ending branch of the Gymnosperms; but be
+that as it may, it is in the Gnetales more than in any other Gymnosperms
+that we find features which help us to obtain a dim prospect
+of the lines along which the Angiosperms may have been evolved.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ephedra.</i>&mdash;This genus is the only member of the Gnetales represented
+in Europe. Its species, which are characteristic of warm
+temperate latitudes, are usually much-branched shrubs. The finer
+branches are green, and bear a close resemblance to the stems of
+Equisetum and to the slender twigs of <i>Casuarina</i>; the surface of the
+long internodes is marked by fine longitudinal ribs, and at the nodes
+are borne pairs of inconspicuous scale-leaves. The flowers are small,
+and borne on axillary shoots. A single male flower consists of an
+axis enclosed at the base by an inconspicuous perianth formed of two
+concrescent leaves and terminating in two, or as many as eight,
+shortly stalked or sessile anthers. The female flower is enveloped in
+a closely fitting sac-like investment, which must be regarded as a
+perianth; within this is an orthotropous ovule surrounded by a single
+integument prolonged upwards as a beak-like micropyle. The flower
+may be described as a bud bearing a pair of leaves which become
+fused and constitute a perianth, the apex of the shoot forming an
+ovule. In function the perianth may be compared with a unilocular
+ovary containing a single ovule; the projecting integument, which
+at the time of pollination secretes a drop of liquid, serves the same
+purpose as the style and stigma of an angiosperm. The megaspore
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page763" id="page763"></a>763</span>
+is filled with tissue as in typical Gymnosperms, and from some of the
+superficial cells 3 to 5 archegonia are developed, characterized by
+long multicellular necks. The archegonia are separated from one
+another, as in <i>Pinus</i>, by some of the prothallus-tissue, and the cells
+next the egg-cells (tapetal layer) contribute food-material to their
+development. After fertilization, some of the uppermost bracts
+below each flower become red and fleshy; the perianth develops into
+a woody shell, while the integument remains membranous. In some
+species of <i>Ephedra</i>, <i>e.g.</i> <i>E. altissima</i>, the fertilized eggs grow into
+tubular proembryos, from the tip of each of which embryos begin to
+be developed, but one only comes to maturity. In <i>Ephedra helvetica</i>,
+as described by Jaccard, no proembryo or suspensor is formed; but
+the most vigorous fertilized egg, after undergoing several divisions,
+becomes attached to a tissue, termed the columella, which serves the
+purpose of a primary suspensor; the columella appears to be formed
+by the lignification of certain cells in the central region of the embryo-sac.
+At a later stage some of the cells in the upper (micropylar)
+end of the embryo divide and undergo considerable elongation,
+serving the purpose of a secondary suspensor. The secondary wood
+of <i>Ephedra</i> consists of tracheids, vessels and parenchyma; the
+vessels are characterized by their wide lumen and by the large simple
+or slightly-bordered pits on their oblique end-walls.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:454px; height:344px" src="images/img763.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span>&mdash;<i>Gnetum Gnemon.</i> (After Lotsy.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>A,  Female Flower. a, Imperfect Archegonia.</p>
+<p><i>n</i>,  Nucellus. e, Partially developed Megaspore.</p>
+<p><i>pc</i>, Pollen-chamber. F, Fertile half.</p>
+<p><i>i</i>,  Integument. S, Sterile half.</p>
+<p><i>p</i>&prime;, Inner Perianth. pt, Pollen-tube.</p>
+<p><i>p</i>&Prime;, Outer Perianth. z, Zygote.</p>
+<p>B,  C, Megaspore. z&prime;, Prothallus.</p></td>
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>a</i>,  Imperfect Archegonia.</p>
+<p><i>e</i>,  Partially developed Megaspore.</p>
+<p><i>F</i>,  Fertile half.</p>
+<p><i>S</i>,  Sterile half.</p>
+<p><i>pt</i>, Pollen-tube.</p>
+<p><i>z</i>,  Zygote.</p>
+<p><i>z</i>&prime;, Prothallus.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2"><i>Gnetum.</i>&mdash;This genus is represented by several species, most of
+which are climbing plants, both in tropical America and in warm
+regions of the Old World. The leaves, which are borne in pairs at
+the tumid nodes, are oval in form and have a Dicotyledonous type
+of venation. The male and female inflorescences have the form of
+simple or paniculate spikes. The spike of an inflorescence bears
+whorls of flowers at each node in the axils of concrescent bracts
+accompanied by numerous sterile hairs (paraphyses); in a male
+inflorescence numerous flowers occur at each node, while in a female
+inflorescence the number of flowers at each node is much smaller.
+A male flower consists of a single angular perianth, through the open
+apex of which the flower-axis projects as a slender column terminating
+in two anthers. The female flowers, which are more complex in
+structure, are of two types, complete and incomplete; the latter
+occur in association with male flowers in a male inflorescence. A
+complete female flower consists of a nucellus (fig. 17, A, <i>n</i>), surrounded
+by a single integument (fig. 17, A, <i>i</i>), prolonged upwards as a narrow
+tube and succeeded by an inner and an outer perianth (fig. 17, A,
+<i>p</i>&prime; and <i>p</i>&Prime;). The whole flower may be looked upon as an adventitious
+bud bearing two pairs of leaves; each pair becomes concrescent and
+forms a perianth, the apex of the shoot being converted into an
+orthotropous ovule. The incomplete female flowers are characterized
+by the almost complete suppression of the inner perianth.
+Several embryo-sacs (megaspores) are present in the nucellus of a
+young ovule, but one only attains full size, the smaller and partially
+developed megaspores (fig. 17, B and C, <i>e</i>) being usually found in close
+association with the surviving and fully-grown megaspore. In
+<i>Gnetum Gnemon</i>, as described by Lotsy, a mature embryo-sac contains
+in the upper part a large central vacuole and a peripheral layer
+of protoplasm, including several nuclei, which take the place of the
+archegonia of <i>Ephedra</i>; the lower part of the embryo-sac, separated
+from the upper by a constriction, is full of parenchyma. The upper
+part of the megaspore may be spoken of as the fertile half (fig. 17, B
+and C, <i>F</i>) and the lower part, which serves only as food-reservoir
+for the growing embryo, may be termed the sterile half (fig. 17, B and
+C, <i>S</i>). (Coulter, <i>Bot. Gazette</i>, xlvi., 1908, regards this tissue as belonging
+to the nucellus.) At the time of pollination the long tubular
+integument secretes a drop of fluid at its apex, which holds the
+pollen-grains, brought by the wind, or possibly to some extent by
+insect agency, and by evaporation these are drawn on to the top of
+the nucellus, where partial disorganization of the cells has given rise
+to an irregular pollen-chamber (fig. 17, A, <i>pc</i>). The pollen-tube,
+containing two generative and one vegetative nucleus, pierces the
+wall of the megaspore and then becomes swollen (fig. 17, B and C,
+<i>pt</i>); finally the two generative nuclei pass out of the tube and fuse
+with two of the nuclei in the fertile half of the megaspore. As the
+result of fertilization, the fertilized nuclei of the megaspore become
+surrounded by a cell-wall, and constitute zygotes, which may attach
+themselves either to the wall of the megaspore or to the end of a
+pollen-tube (fig. 17, C, <i>z</i> and <i>z</i>&prime;); they then grow into long tubes or
+proembryos, which make their way towards the prothallus (C, <i>z</i>&prime;),
+and eventually embryos are formed from the ends of the proembryo
+tubes. One embryo only comes to maturity. The embryo of
+<i>Gnetum</i> forms an out-growth from the hypocotyl, which serves as a
+feeder and draws nourishment from the prothallus. The fleshy outer
+portion of the seed is formed from the outer perianth, the woody
+shell being derived from the inner perianth. The climbing species
+of <i>Gnetum</i> are characterized by the production of several concentric
+cylinders of secondary wood and bast, the additional cambium-rings
+being products of the pericycle, as in <i>Cycas</i> and <i>Macrozamia</i>. The
+structure of the wood agrees in the main with that of <i>Ephedra</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Welwitschia</i> (<i>Tumboa</i>).&mdash;This is by far the most remarkable
+member of the Gnetales, both as regards habit and the form of its
+flowers. In a supplement to the systematic work of Engler and
+Prantl the well-known name <i>Welwitschia</i>, instituted by Hooker in
+1864 in honour of Welwitsch, the discoverer of the plant, is superseded
+by that of <i>Tumboa</i>, originally suggested by Welwitsch. The
+genus is confined to certain localities in Damaraland and adjoining
+territory on the west coast of tropical South Africa. A well-grown
+plant projects less than a foot above the surface of the ground; the
+stem, which may have a circumference of more than 12 ft., terminates
+in a depressed crown resembling a circular table with a median groove
+across the centre and prominent broad ridges concentric with the
+margin. The thick tuberous stem becomes rapidly narrower, and
+passes gradually downwards into a tap-root. A pair of small strap-shaped
+leaves succeed the two cotyledons of the seedling, and persist
+as the only leaves during the life of the plant; they retain the power
+of growth in their basal portion, which is sunk in a narrow groove near
+the edge of the crown, and the tough lamina, 6 ft. in length, becomes
+split into narrow strap-shaped or thong-like strips which trail on the
+ground. Numerous circular pits occur on the concentric ridges of the
+depressed and wrinkled crown, marking the position of former
+inflorescences borne in the leaf-axil at different stages in the growth
+of the plant. An inflorescence has the form of a dichotomously-branched
+cyme bearing small erect cones; those containing the
+female flowers attain the size of a fir-cone, and are scarlet in colour.
+Each cone consists of an axis, on which numerous broad and thin
+bracts are arranged in regular rows; in the axil of each bract occurs
+a single flower; a male flower is enclosed by two opposite pairs of
+leaves, forming a perianth surrounding a central sterile ovule encircled
+by a ring of stamens united below, but free distally as short
+filaments, each of which terminates in a trilocular anther. The
+integument of the sterile ovule is prolonged above the nucellus as a
+spirally-twisted tube expanded at its apex into a flat stigma-like
+organ. A complete and functional female flower consists of a single
+ovule with two integuments, the inner of which is prolonged into a
+narrow tubular micropyle, like that in the flower of <i>Gnetum</i>. The
+megaspore of <i>Welwitschia</i> is filled with a prothallus-tissue before
+fertilization, and some of the prothallus-cells function as egg-cells;
+these grow upwards as long tubes into the apical region of the
+nucellus, where they come into contact with the pollen-tubes.
+After the egg-cells have been fertilized by the non-motile male cells
+they grow into tubular proembryos, producing terminal embryos.
+The stem is traversed by numerous collateral bundles, which have a
+limited growth, and are constantly replaced by new bundles developed
+from strands of secondary meristem. One of the best-known
+anatomical characteristics of the genus is the occurrence of
+numerous spindle-shaped or branched fibres with enormously-thickened
+walls studded with crystals of calcium oxalate. Additional
+information has been published by Professor Pearson of Cape Town
+based on material collected in Damaraland in 1904 and 1906-1907.
+In 1906 he gave an account of the early stages of development of the
+male and female organs and, among other interesting statements in
+regard to the general biology of <i>Welwitschia</i>, he expressed the
+opinion that, as Hooker suspected, the ovules are pollinated by
+insect-agency. In a later paper Pearson considerably extended our
+knowledge of the reproduction and gametophyte of this genus.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;<b>General</b>: Bentham and Hooker, <i>Genera Plantarum</i>
+(London, 1862-1883); Engler and Prantl, <i>Die natürlichen
+Pflanzenfamilien</i> (Leipzig, 1889 and 1897); Strasburger, <i>Die
+Coniferen und Gnetaceen</i> (Jena, 1872); <i>Die Angiospermen und die
+Gymnospermen</i> (Jena, 1879); <i>Histologische Beiträge</i>, iv. (Jena, 1892);
+Coulter and Chamberlain, <i>Morphology of Spermatophytes</i> (New York,
+1901); Rendle, <i>The Classification of Flowering Plants</i>, vol. i. (Cambridge,
+1904); &ldquo;The Origin of Gymnosperms&rdquo; (A discussion at
+the Linnean Society; <i>New Phytologist</i>, vol. v., 1906). <b>Cycadales</b>:
+Mettenius, &ldquo;Beiträge zur Anatomie der Cycadeen,&rdquo; <i>Abh. k. sächs</i>.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page764" id="page764"></a>764</span>
+<i>Ges. Wiss.</i> (1860); Treub, &ldquo;Recherches sur les Cycadées,&rdquo; <i>Ann.
+Bot. Jard. Buitenzorg</i>, ii. (1884); Solms-Laubach, &ldquo;Die Sprossfolge
+der Stangeria, &amp;c.,&rdquo; <i>Bot. Zeit.</i> xlviii. (1896); Worsdell, &ldquo;Anatomy
+of Macrozamia,&rdquo; <i>Ann. Bot.</i> x. (1896) (also papers by the same
+author, <i>Ann. Bot.</i>, 1898, <i>Trans. Linn. Soc.</i> v., 1900); Scott, &ldquo;The Anatomical
+Characters presented by the Peduncle of Cycadaceae,&rdquo; Ann.
+Bot. xi. (1897); Lang, &ldquo;Studies in the Development and Morphology
+of Cycadean Sporangia, No. I.,&rdquo; Ann. Bot. xi. (1897); No. II., <i>Ann.
+Bot.</i> xiv. (1900); Webber, &ldquo;Development of the Antherozoids of
+Zamia,&rdquo; Bot. Gaz. (1897); Ikeno, &ldquo;Untersuchungen über die
+Entwickelung, &amp;c., bei Cycas revoluta,&rdquo; <i>Journ. Coll. Sci. Japan</i>,
+xii. (1898); Wieland, &ldquo;American Fossil Cycads,&rdquo; Carnegie Institution
+Publication (1906); Stopes, &ldquo;Beiträge zur Kenntnis der
+Fortpflanzungsorgane der Cycadeen,&rdquo; <i>Flora</i> (1904); Caldwell,
+&ldquo;Microcycas Calocoma,&rdquo; <i>Bot. Gaz.</i> xliv., 1907 (also papers on
+this and other Cycads in the <i>Bot. Gaz.</i>, 1907-1909); Matte, <i>Recherches
+sur l&rsquo;appareil libéro-ligneux des Cycadacées</i> (Caen, 1904).
+<b>Ginkgoales</b>: Hirase, &ldquo;Études sur la fécondation, &amp;c., de Ginkgo
+biloba,&rdquo; <i>Journ. Coll. Sci. Japan</i>, xii. (1898); Seward and Gowan,
+&ldquo;Ginkgo biloba,&rdquo; <i>Ann. Bot.</i> xiv. (1900) (with bibliography); Ikeno,
+&ldquo;Contribution à l&rsquo;étude de la fécondation chez le Ginkgo biloba,&rdquo;
+<i>Ann. Sci. Nat.</i> xiii. (1901); Sprecher, <i>Le Ginkgo biloba</i> (Geneva,
+1907). <b>Coniferales</b>: &ldquo;Report of the Conifer Conference&rdquo; (1891)
+<i>Journ. R. Hort. Soc.</i> xiv. (1892); Beissner, <i>Handbuch der Nadelholzkunde</i>
+(Berlin, 1891); Masters, &ldquo;Comparative Morphology of the
+Coniferae,&rdquo; <i>Journ. Linn. Soc.</i> xxvii. (1891); ibid. (1896), &amp;c.;
+Penhallow, &ldquo;The Generic Characters of the North American Taxaceae
+and Coniferae,&rdquo; <i>Proc. and Trans. R. Soc. Canada</i>, ii. (1896); Blackman,
+&ldquo;Fertilization in Pinus sylvestris,&rdquo; <i>Phil. Trans.</i> (1898) (with
+bibliography); Worsdell, &ldquo;Structure of the Female Flowers in
+Conifers,&rdquo; <i>Ann. Bot.</i> xiv. (1900) (with bibliography); ibid. (1899);
+Veitch, <i>Manual of the Coniferae</i> (London, 1900); Penhallow,
+&ldquo;Anatomy of North American Coniferales,&rdquo; <i>American Naturalist</i>
+(1904); Engler and Pilger, <i>Das Pflanzenreich, Taxaceae</i> (1903);
+Seward and Ford, &ldquo;The Araucarieae, recent and extinct,&rdquo; <i>Phil.
+Trans. R. Soc.</i> (1906) (with bibliography); Lawson, &ldquo;Sequoia
+sempervirens,&rdquo; <i>Annals of Botany</i> (1904); Robertson, &ldquo;Torreya
+Californica,&rdquo; <i>New Phytologist</i> (1904); Coker, &ldquo;Gametophyte and
+Embryo of Taxodium,&rdquo; <i>Bot. Gazette</i> (1903); E. C. Jeffrey, &ldquo;The
+Comparative Anatomy and Phylogeny of the Coniferales, part i.
+The Genus Sequoia,&rdquo; <i>Mem. Boston Nat. Hist. Soc.</i> v. No. 10 (1903);
+Gothan, &ldquo;Zur Anatomie lebender und fossiler Gymnospermen-Hölzer,&rdquo;
+<i>K. Preuss. Geol. Landes.</i> (Berlin, 1905) (for more recent papers,
+see <i>Ann. Bot., New Phytologist</i>, and <i>Bot. Gazette</i>, 1906-1909). <b>Gnetales</b>:
+Hooker, &ldquo;On Welwitschia mirabilis.&rdquo; <i>Trans. Linn. Soc.</i> xxiv. (1864);
+Bower, &ldquo;Germination, &amp;., in Gnetum,&rdquo; <i>Journ. Mic. Sci.</i> xxii. (1882);
+ibid. (1881); Jaccard, &ldquo;Recherches embryologiques sur <i>l&rsquo;Ephedra
+helvetica</i>,&rdquo; <i>Diss. Inaug. Lausanne</i> (1894); Karsten, &ldquo;Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte
+der Gattung Gnetum,&rdquo; <i>Cohn&rsquo;s Beiträge</i>, vi. (1893);
+Lotsy, &ldquo;Contributions to the Life-History of the genus Gnetum,&rdquo; <i>Ann.
+Bot. Jard. Buitenzorg</i>, xvi. (1899); Land, &ldquo;Ephedra trifurca,&rdquo; <i>Bot.
+Gazette</i> (1904); Pearson, &ldquo;Some observations on Welwitschia mirabilis,&rdquo;
+<i>Phil. Trans. R. Soc.</i> (1906); Pearson, &ldquo;Further Observations
+on Welwitschia,&rdquo; <i>Phil. Trans. R. Soc.</i> vol. 200 (1909).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. C. Se.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GYMNOSTOMACEAE,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> an order of Ciliate Infusoria (<i>q.v.</i>),
+characterized by a closed mouth, which only opens to swallow
+food actively, and body cilia forming a general or partial investment
+(rarely represented by a girdle of membranellae), but not
+differentiated in different regions. With the Aspirotrochaceae
+(<i>q.v.</i>) it formed the Holotricha of Stein.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GYMPIE,<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> a mining town of March county, Queensland,
+Australia, 107 m. N. of Brisbane, and 61 m. S. of Maryborough
+by rail. Pop. (1901) 11,959. Numerous gold mines are worked
+in the district, which also abounds in copper, silver, antimony,
+cinnabar, bismuth and nickel. Extensive undeveloped coal-beds
+lie 40 m. N. at Miva. Gympie became a municipality in 1880.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GYNAECEUM<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="gynaikeion">&#947;&#965;&#957;&#945;&#953;&#954;&#949;&#8150;&#959;&#957;</span>, from <span class="grk" title="gynê">&#947;&#965;&#957;&#942;</span>, woman), that part
+in a Greek house which was specially reserved for the women,
+in contradistinction to the &ldquo;andron,&rdquo; the men&rsquo;s quarters;
+in the larger houses there was an open court with peristyles
+round, and as a rule all the rooms were on the same level; in
+smaller houses the servants were placed in an upper storey,
+and this seems to have been the case to a certain extent in the
+Homeric house of the Odyssey. &ldquo;Gynaeconitis&rdquo; is the term
+given by Procopius to the space reserved for women in the
+Eastern Church, and this separation of the sexes was maintained
+in the early Christian churches where there were separate
+entrances and accommodation for the men and women, the latter
+being placed in the triforium gallery, or, in its absence, either
+on one side of the church, the men being on the other, or occasionally
+in the aisles, the nave being occupied by the men.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GYNAECOLOGY<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="gynê, gynaikos">&#947;&#965;&#957;&#942;, &#947;&#965;&#957;&#945;&#953;&#954;&#972;&#962;</span>, a woman, and
+<span class="grk" title="logos">&#955;&#972;&#947;&#959;&#962;</span>, discourse), the name given to that branch of medicine
+which concerns the pathology and treatment of affections
+peculiar to the female sex.</p>
+
+<p>Gynaecology may be said to be one of the most ancient
+branches of medicine. The papyrus of Ebers, which is one of
+the oldest known works on medicine and dates from 1550 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>,
+contains references to diseases of women, and it is recorded that
+specialism in this branch was known amongst Egyptian medical
+practitioners. The Vedas contain a list of therapeutic agents
+used in the treatment of gynaecological diseases. The treatises
+on gynaecology formerly attributed to Hippocrates (460 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>)
+are now said to be spurious, but the wording of the famous
+oath shows that he was at least familiar with the use of gynaecological
+instruments. Diocles Carystius, of the Alexandrian
+school (4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), practised this branch, and Praxagoras
+of Cos, who lived shortly after, opened the abdomen by
+laparotomy. While the Alexandrine school represented Greek
+medicine, Greeks began to practise in Rome, and in the first
+years of the Christian era gynaecologists were much in demand
+(Häser). A speculum for gynaecological purposes has been
+found in the ruins of Pompeii, and votive offerings of anatomical
+parts found in the temples show that various gynaecological
+malformations were known to the ancients. Writers who have
+treated of this branch are Celsus (50 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>-<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 7) and Soranus
+of Ephesus (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 98-138), who refers in his works to the fact
+that the Roman midwives frequently called to their aid practitioners
+who made a special study of diseases of women. These
+midwives attended the simpler gynaecological ailments. This
+was no innovation, as in Athens, as mentioned by Hyginus,
+we find one Agnodice, a midwife, disguising herself in man&rsquo;s
+attire so that she might attend lectures on medicine and diseases
+of women. After instruction she practised as a gynaecologist.
+This being contrary to Athenian law she was prosecuted, but
+was saved by the wives of some of the chief men testifying on
+her behalf. Besides Agnodice we have Sotira, who wrote a
+work on menstruation which is preserved in the library at
+Florence, while Aspasia is mentioned by Aetius as the author
+of several chapters of his work. It is evident that during the
+Roman period much of the gynaecological work was in the
+hands of women. Martial alludes to the &ldquo;<i>feminae medicae</i>&rdquo;
+in his epigram on Leda. These women must not be confounded
+with the midwives who on monuments are always described as
+&ldquo;obstetrices.&rdquo; Galen devotes the sixth chapter of his work
+<i>De locis affectis</i> to gynaecological ailments. During the
+Byzantine period may be mentioned the work of Oribasius
+(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 325) and Moschion (2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>) who wrote a book
+in Latin for the use of matrons and midwives ignorant of Greek.</p>
+
+<p>In modern times James Parsons (1705-1770) published his
+<i>Elenchus gynaicopathologicus et obstetricarius</i>, and in 1755 Charles
+Perry published his <i>Mechanical account and explication of the
+hysterical passion and of all other nervous disorders incident to
+the sex, with an appendix on cancers</i>. In the early part of the
+19th century fresh interest in diseases of women awakened.
+Joseph Récamier (1774-1852) by his writings and teachings
+advocated the use of the speculum and sound. This was followed
+in 1840 by the writings of Simpson in England and Huguier in
+France. In 1845 John Hughes Bennett published his great work
+on inflammation of the uterus, and in 1850 Tilt published his
+book on ovarian inflammation. The credit of being the first to
+perform the operation of ovariotomy is now credited to McDowell
+of Kentucky in 1809, and to Robert Lawson Tait (1845-1899)
+in 1883 the first operation for ruptured ectopic gestation.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Menstruation.</i>&mdash;Normal menstruation comprises the escape of from
+4 to 6 oz. of blood together with mucus from the uterus at intervals
+of twenty-eight days (more or less). The flow begins at the age of
+puberty, the average age of which in England is between fourteen
+and sixteen years. It ceases between forty-five and fifty years of
+age, and this is called the menopause or climacteric period, commonly
+spoken of as &ldquo;the change of life.&rdquo; Both the age of puberty and that
+of the menopause may supervene earlier or later according to local
+conditions. At both times the menstrual flow may be replaced by
+haemorrhage from distant organs (epistaxis, haematemesis, haemoptysis);
+this is called <i>vicarious menstruation</i>. Menstruation is
+usually but not necessarily coincident with ovulation. The usual
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page765" id="page765"></a>765</span>
+disorders of menstruation are: (1) <i>amenorrhoea</i> (absence of flow),
+(2) <i>dysmenorrhoea</i> (painful flow), (3) <i>menorrhagia</i> (excessive flow),
+(4) <i>metrorrhagia</i> (excessive and irregular flow). Amenorrhoea may
+arise from physiological causes, such as pregnancy, lactation, the
+menopause; constitutional causes, such as phthisis, anaemia and
+chlorosis, febrile disorders, some chronic intoxications, such as
+morphinomania, and some forms of cerebral disease; local causes,
+which include malformations or absence of one or more of the genital
+parts, such as absence of ovaries, uterus or vagina, atresia of vagina,
+imperforate cervix, disease of the ovaries, or sometimes imperforate
+hymen. The treatment of amenorrhoea must be directed towards the
+cause. In anaemia and phthisis menstruation often returns after
+improvement in the general condition, with good food and good
+sanitary conditions, an outdoor life and the administration of iron
+or other tonics. In local conditions of imperforate hymen, imperforate
+cervix or ovarian disease, surgical interference is necessary.
+Amenorrhoea is permanent when due to absence of the genital parts.
+The causes of dysmenorrhoea are classified as follows: (1) ovarian,
+due to disease of the ovaries or Fallopian tubes; (2) obstructive,
+due to some obstacle to the flow, as stenosis, flexions and malpositions
+of the uterus, or malformations; (3) congestive, due to
+subinvolution, chronic inflammation of the uterus or its lining
+membrane, fibroid growths and polypi of the uterus, cardiac or
+hepatic disease; (4) neuralgic; (5) membranous. The foremost
+place in the treatment of dysmenorrhoea must be given to aperients
+and purgatives administered a day or two before the period is expected.
+By this means congestion is reduced. Hot baths are useful,
+and various drugs such as hyoscyanus, cannabis indica, phenalgin,
+ammonol or phenacetin have been prescribed. Medicinal treatment
+is, however, only palliative, and flexions and malpositions of the
+uterus must be corrected, stenosis treated by dilatation, fibroid
+growths if present removed, and endometritis when present treated
+by local applications or curetting according to its severity. Menorrhagia
+signifies excessive bleeding at the menstrual periods. Constitutional
+causes are purpura, haemophilia, excessive food and alcoholic
+drinks and warm climates; while local causes are congestion and
+displacements of the uterus, endometritis, subinvolution, retention
+of the products of conception, new growths in the uterus such as
+mucous and fibroid polypi, malignant growths, tubo-ovarian inflammation
+and some ovarian tumours. Metrorrhagia is a discharge of
+blood from the uterus, independent of menstruation. It always
+arises from disease of the uterus or its appendages. Local causes are
+polypi, retention of the products of conception, extra uterine gestation,
+haemorrhages in connexion with pregnancy, and new growths
+in the uterus. In the treatment of both menorrhagia and metrorrhagia
+the local condition must be carefully ascertained. When
+pregnancy has been excluded, and constitutional causes treated,
+efforts should be made to relieve congestion. Uterine haemostatics,
+as ergot, ergotin, tincture of hydrastis or hamamelis, are of use,
+together with rest in bed. Fibroid polypi and other new growths
+must be removed. Irregular bleeding in women over forty years of
+age is frequently a sign of early malignant disease, and should on no
+account be neglected.</p>
+
+<p><i>Diseases of the External Genital Organs.</i>&mdash;The vulva comprises
+several organs and structures grouped together for convenience of
+description (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Reproductive System</a></span>). The affections to which
+these structures are liable may be classified as follows: (1) Injuries
+to the vulva, either accidental or occurring during parturition;
+these are generally rupture of the perinaeum. (2) <i>Vulvitis.</i> Simple
+Vulvitis is due to want of cleanliness, or irritating discharges, and in
+children may result from threadworms. The symptoms are heat,
+itching and throbbing, and the parts are red and swollen. The
+treatment consists of rest, thorough cleanliness and fomentations.
+Infective vulvitis is nearly always due to gonorrhoea. The symptoms
+are the same as in simple vulvitis, with the addition of mucopurulent
+yellow discharge and scalding pain on micturition; if neglected,
+extension of the disease may result. The treatment consists of rest
+in bed, warm medicated baths several times a day or fomentations
+of boracic acid. The parts must be kept thoroughly clean and
+discharges swabbed away. Diphtheritic vulvitis occasionally occurs,
+and erysipelas of the vulva may follow wounds, but since the use of
+antiseptics is rarely seen. (3) Vascular disturbances may occur in
+the vulva, including varix, haematoma, oedema and gangrene; the
+treatment is the same as for the same disease in other parts. (4) The
+vulva is likely to be affected by a number of cutaneous affections,
+the most important being erythema, eczema, herpes, lichen, tubercle,
+elephantiasis, vulvitis pruriginosa, syphilis and kraurosis. These
+affections present the same characters as in other parts of the body.
+<i>Kraurosis vulvae</i>, first described by Lawson Tait in 1875, is an atrophic
+change accompanied by pain and a yellowish discharge; the cause
+is unknown. Pruritis vulvae is due to parasites, or to irritating
+discharges, as leucorrhoea, and is frequent in diabetic subjects. The
+hymen may be occasionally imperforate and require incision. Cysts
+and painful carunculae may occur on the clitoris. Any part of the
+vulva may be the seat of new growths, simple or malignant.</p>
+
+<p><i>Diseases of the Vagina.</i>&mdash;(1) Malformations. The vagina may be
+absent in whole or in part or may present a septum. Stenosis of
+the vagina may be a barrier to menstruation. (2) Displacements of
+the vagina; (<i>a</i>) cystocele, which is a hernia of the bladder into the
+vagina; (<i>b</i>) rectocele, a hernia of the rectum into the vagina. The
+cause of these conditions is relaxation of the tissues due to parturition.
+The palliative treatment consists in keeping up the parts by the
+insertion of a pessary; when this fails operative interference is
+called for. (3) Fistulae may form between the vagina and bladder or
+vagina and rectum; they are generally caused by injuries during
+parturition or the late stages of carcinoma. Persistent fistulae
+require operative treatment. The vagina normally secretes a thin
+opalescent acid fluid derived from the lymph serum and the shedding
+of squamous epithelium. This fluid normally contains the vagina
+bacillus. In pathological conditions of the vagina this secretion
+undergoes changes. For practical purposes three varieties of
+<i>vaginitis</i> may be described: (<i>a</i>) simple catarrhal vaginitis is due to
+the same causes as simple vulvitis, and occasionally in children is
+important from a medico-legal aspect when it is complicated by
+vulvitis. The symptoms are heat and discomfort with copious
+mucopurulent discharge. The only treatment required is rest, with
+vaginal douches of warm unirritating lotions such as boracic acid or
+subacetate of lead. (<i>b</i>) Gonorrhoeal vaginitis is most common in
+adults. The patient complains of pain and burning, pain on passing
+water and discharge which is generally green or yellow. The results
+of untreated gonorrhoeal vaginitis are serious and far-reaching.
+The disease may spread up the genital passages, causing endometritis,
+salpingitis and septic peritonitis, or may extend into the bladder,
+causing cystitis. Strict rest should be enjoined, douches of carbolic
+acid (1 in 40) or of perchloride of mercury (1 in 2000) should be
+ordered morning and evening, the vagina being packed with tampons
+of iodoform gauze. Saline purgatives and alkaline diuretics
+should be given, (<i>c</i>) Chronic vaginitis (leucorrhoea or &ldquo;the whites&rdquo;)
+may follow acute conditions and persist indefinitely. The vagina is
+rarely the seat of tumours, but cysts are common.</p>
+
+<p><i>Diseases of the Uterus.</i>&mdash;The uterus undergoes important changes
+during life, chiefly at puberty and at the menopause. At puberty it
+assumes the pear shape characteristic of the mature uterus. At the
+menopause it shares in the general atrophy of the reproductive
+organs. It is subject to various disorders and misplacements.
+(<i>a</i>) <i>Displacements of the Uterus.</i>&mdash;The normal position of the uterus,
+when the bladder is empty, is that of anteversion. We have therefore
+to consider the following conditions as pathological: anteflexion,
+retroflexion, retroversion, inversion, prolapse and procidentia.
+Slight anteflexion or bending forwards is normal; when
+exaggerated it gives rise to dysmenorrhoea, sterility and reflex
+nervous phenomena. This condition is usually congenital and is
+often associated with under-development of the uterus, from which
+the sterility results. The treatment is by dilatation of the canal or
+by a plastic operation. Retroflexion is a bending over of the uterus
+backwards, and occurs as a complication of retroversion (or displacement
+backwards). The causes are (1) any cause tending to
+make the fundus or upper part of the uterus extra heavy, such as
+tumours or congestion, (2) loss of tone of the uterine walls, (3) adhesions
+formed after cellulitis, (4) violent muscular efforts, (5)
+weakening of the uterine supports from parturition. The symptoms
+are dysmenorrhoea, pain on defaecation and constipation from the
+pressure of the fundus on the rectum; the patient is often sterile.
+The treatment is the replacing of the uterus in position, where it can
+be kept by the insertion of a pessary; failing this, operative treatment
+may be required. Retroversion when pathological is rarer
+than retroflexion. It may be the result of injury or is associated with
+pregnancy or a fibroid. The symptoms are those of retroflexion with
+feeling of pain and weight in the pelvis and desire to micturate
+followed by retention of urine due to the pressure of the cervix
+against the base of the bladder. The uterus must be skilfully replaced
+in position; when pessaries fail to keep it there the operation
+of hysteropexy gives excellent results.</p>
+
+<p>Inversion occurs when the uterus is turned inside out. It is only
+possible when the cavity is dilated, either after pregnancy or by a
+polypus. The greater number of cases follow delivery and are
+acute. Chronic inversions are generally due to the weight of a
+polypus. The symptoms are menorrhagia, metrorrhagia and bladder
+troubles; on examination a tumour-like mass occupies the vagina.
+Reduction of the condition is often difficult, particularly when the
+condition has lasted for a long time. The tumour which has caused
+the inversion must be excised. Prolapse and procidentia are different
+degrees of the same variety of displacement. When the uterus lies
+in the vagina it is spoken of as prolapse, when it protrudes through
+the vulva it is procidentia. The causes are directly due to increased
+intra-abdominal pressure, increased weight of the uterus by fibroids,
+violent straining, chronic cough and weakening of the supporting
+structures of the pelvic floor, such as laceration of the vagina and
+perinaeum. Traction on the uterus from below (as a cervical tumour)
+may be a cause; advanced age, laborious occupations and frequent
+pregnancies are indirect causes. The symptoms are a &ldquo;bearing
+down&rdquo; feeling, pain and fatigue in walking, trouble with micturition
+and defaecation. The condition is generally obvious on examination.
+As a rule the uterus is easy to replace in position. A rubber ring
+pessary will often serve to keep it there. If the perinaeum is very
+much torn it may be necessary to repair it. Various operations for
+retaining the uterus in position are described. (<i>b</i>) <i>Enlargements of
+the Uterus</i> (hypertrophy or hyperplasia). This condition may sometimes
+involve the uterus as a whole or may be most marked in the
+body or in the cervix. It follows chronic congestion or inflammatory
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page766" id="page766"></a>766</span>
+prolapse, or any condition interfering with the circulation. The
+symptoms comprise local discomfort and sometimes dysmenorrhoea,
+leucorrhoea or menorrhagia. When the elongation occurs in the
+cervical portion the only possible treatment is amputation of the
+cervix. Atrophy of the uterus is normal after the menopause. It
+may follow the removal of the tubes and ovaries. Some constitutional
+diseases produce the same result, as tuberculosis, chlorosis,
+chronic morphinism and certain diseases of the central nervous
+system.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) <i>Injuries and Diseases resultant from Pregnancy.</i>&mdash;The most
+frequent of these injuries is laceration of the cervix uteri, which is
+frequent in precipitate labour. Once the cervix is torn the raw
+surfaces become covered by granulations and later by cicatricial
+tissue, but as a rule they do not unite. The torn lips may become
+unhealthy, and the congestion and oedema spread to the body of the
+uterus. A lacerated cervix does not usually give rise to symptoms;
+these depend on the accompanying endometritis, and include
+leucorrhoea, aching and a feeling of weight. Lacerations are to be
+felt digitally. As lacerations predispose to abortion the operation of
+trachelorraphy or repair of the cervix is indicated. Perforation of
+the uterus may occur from the use of the sound in diseased conditions
+of the uterine walls. Superinvolution means premature atrophy
+following parturition. Subinvolution is a condition in which the
+uterus fails to return to its normal size and remains enlarged.
+Retention of the products of conception may cause irregular
+haemorrhages and may lead to a diagnosis of tumour. The uterus
+should be carefully explored.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>d</i>) <i>Inflammations Acute and Chronic.</i>&mdash;The mucous membrane
+lining the cervical canal and body of the uterus is called the endometrium.
+Acute inflammation or endometritis may attack it.
+The chief causes are sepsis following labour or abortion, extension of
+a gonorrhoeal vaginitis, or gangrene or infection of a uterine myoma.
+The puerperal endometritis following labour is an avoidable disease
+due to lack of scrupulous aseptic precautions.</p>
+
+<p>Gonorrhoeal endometritis is an acute form associated with copious
+purulent discharge and well-marked constitutional disturbance.
+The temperature ranges from 99° to 105° F., associated with pelvic
+pain, and rigors are not uncommon. The tendency is to recovery
+with more or less protracted convalescence. The most serious complications
+are extension of the disease and later sterility. Rest in
+bed and intrauterine irrigation, followed by the introduction of
+iodoform pencils into the uterine cavity, should be resorted to,
+while pain is relieved by hot fomentations and sitz baths. Chronic
+endometritis may be the sequela of the acute form, or may be septic
+in origin, or the result of chronic congestion, acute retroflection or
+subinvolution following delivery or abortion. The varieties are
+glandular, interstitial, haemorrhagic and senile. The symptoms are
+disturbance of the menstrual function, headache, pain and pelvic
+discomfort, and more or less profuse thick leucorrhoeal discharge.
+The treatment consists in attention to the general health, with suitable
+laxatives and local injections, and in obstinate cases curettage
+is the most effectual measure. The disease is frequently associated
+with adenomatous disease of the cervix, formerly called erosion.
+In this disease there is a new formation of glandular elements, which
+enlarge and multiply, forming a soft velvety areola dotted with pink
+spots. This was formerly erroneously termed ulceration. The
+cause is unknown. It occurs in virgins as well as in mothers, but
+it often accompanies lacerations of the cervix. The symptoms are
+indefinite pain and leucorrhoea. The condition is visible on inspection
+with a speculum. The treatment is swabbing with iodized
+phenol or curettage. The body of the uterus may also be the seat of
+adenomatous disease. Tuberculosis may attack the uterus; this
+usually forms part of a general tuberculosis.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>e</i>) <i>New Growths in the Uterus.</i>&mdash;The uterus is the most common
+seat of new growths. From the researches of von Gurlt, compiled
+from the Vienna Hospital <i>Reports</i>, embracing 15,880 cases of tumour,
+females exceed males in the proportion of seven to three, and of this
+large majority uterine growths account for 25%. When we consider
+its periodic monthly engorgements and the alternate hypertrophy
+and involution it undergoes in connexion with pregnancy, we can
+anticipate the special proneness of the uterus to new growths.
+Tumours of the uterus are divided into benign and malignant.
+The benign tumours known as fibroids or myomata are very common.
+They are stated by Bayle to occur in 20% of women over 35 years of
+age, but happily in a great number of cases they are small and give
+rise to no symptoms. They are definitely associated with the period
+of sexual activity and occur more frequently in married women than
+in single, in the proportion of two to one (Winckel). It is doubtful if
+they ever originate after the menopause. Indeed if uncomplicated
+by changes in them they share in the general atrophy of the sexual
+organs which then takes place. They are divided according to their
+position in the tissues into intramural, subserous and submucous
+(the last when it has a pedicle forms a polypus), or as to the part of
+the uterus in which they develop into fibroids of the cervix and
+fibroids of the body. Intramural and submucous fibroids give
+rise to haemorrhage. The menses may be so increased that the
+patient is scarcely ever free from haemorrhage. The pressure of the
+growth may cause dysmenorrhoea, or pressure on the bladder and
+rectum may cause dysuria, retention or rectal tenesmus. The
+uterus may be displaced by the weight of the tumour. Secondary
+changes take place in fibroids, such as mucous degeneration, fatty
+metamorphosis, calcification, septic infection (sloughing fibroid) and
+malignant (sarcomatous) degeneration.</p>
+
+<p>The modes in which fibroids imperil life are haemorrhage (the
+commonest of all), septic infection, which is one of the most dangerous,
+impaction when it fits the true pelvis so tightly that the tumour
+cannot rise, twisting of the pedicle by rotation, leading to sloughing
+and intestinal and urinary obstruction. When fibroids are complicated
+by pregnancy, impaction and consequent abortion may take
+place, or a cervical myoma may offer a mechanical obstacle to
+delivery or lead to serious post partem haemorrhage. In the treatment
+of fibroids various drugs (ergot, hamamelis, hydrastis canadensis)
+may be tried to control the haemorrhage, and repose and the
+injection of hot water (120° F.) are sometimes successful, together
+with electrical treatment. Surgical measures are needed, however, in
+severe recurrent haemorrhage, intestinal obstruction, sloughing and
+the co-existence of pregnancy. An endeavour must be made if
+possible to enucleate the fibroid, or hysterectomy (removal of the
+uterus) may be required. The operation of removal of the ovaries
+to precipitate the menopause has fallen into disuse.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>f</i>) <i>Malignant Disease of the Uterus.</i>&mdash;The varieties of malignant
+disease met with in the uterus are sarcoma, carcinoma and chorion-epithelioma
+malignum. Sarcomata may occur in the body and in the
+neck. They occur at an earlier age than carcinomata. Marked
+enlargement and haemorrhage are the symptoms. The differential
+diagnosis is microscopic. Extirpation of the uterus is the only
+chance of prolonging life. The age at which women are most subject
+to carcinoma (cancer) of the uterus is towards the decline of sexual
+life. Of 3385 collected cases of cancer of the uterus 1169 occurred
+between 40 and 50, and 856 between 50 and 60. In contradistinction
+to fibroid tumours it frequently arises after the menopause. It may
+be divided into cancer of the body and cancer of the neck (cervix).
+Cancer of the neck of the uterus is almost exclusively confined to
+women who have been pregnant (Bland-Sutton). Predisposing causes
+may be injuries during delivery. The symptoms which induce women
+to seek medical aid are haemorrhage, foetid discharge, and later pain
+and cachexia. An unfortunate belief amongst the public that the
+menopause is associated with irregular bleeding and offensive discharges
+has prevented many women from seeking medical advice
+until too late. It cannot be too widely understood that cancer of
+the cervix is in its early stages a purely local disease, and if removed
+in this stage usually results in cure. So important is the recognition
+of this fact in the saving of human life that at the meeting of the
+British Medical Association in April 1909 the council issued for
+publication a special appeal to medical practitioners, midwives and
+nurses, and directed it to be published in British and colonial medical
+and nursing journals. It will be useful to quote here a part of the
+appeal directed to midwives and nurses: &ldquo;Cancer may occur at
+any age and in a woman who looks quite well, and who may have no
+pain, no wasting, no foul discharge and no profuse bleeding. To
+wait for pain, wasting, foul discharge or profuse bleeding is to throw
+away the chance of successful treatment. The early symptoms of
+cancer of the womb are:&mdash;(1) bleeding which occurs after the change
+of life, (2) bleeding after sexual intercourse or after a vaginal douche,
+(3) bleeding, slight or abundant, even in young women, if occurring
+between the usual monthly periods, and especially when accompanied
+by a bad-smelling or watery blood-tinged discharge, (4) thin watery
+discharge occurring at any age.&rdquo; On examination the cervix
+presents certain characteristic signs, though these may be modified
+according to the variety of cancer present. Hard nodules or definite
+loss of substance, extreme friability and bleeding after slight manipulation,
+are suspicious. Epithelial cancer of the cervix may assume
+a proliferating ulcerative type, forming the well-known &ldquo;cauliflower&rdquo;
+excrescence. The treatment of cancer of the cervix is free removal
+at the earliest possible moment. Cancer of the body of the uterus
+is rare before the 45th year. It is most frequent at or subsequent to
+the menopause. The majority of the patients are nulliparae (Bland-Sutton).
+The signs are fitful haemorrhages after the menopause,
+followed by profuse and offensive discharges. The uterus on examination
+often feels enlarged. The diagnosis being made, hysterectomy
+(removal of the uterus) is the only treatment. Cancer of the
+body of the uterus may complicate fibroids. Chorion-epithelioma
+malignum (deciduoma) was first described in 1889 by Sänger and
+Pfeiffer. It is a malignant disease presenting microscopic characters
+resembling decidual tissue. It occurs in connexion with recent
+pregnancy, and particularly with the variety of abortion termed
+hydatid mole. In many cases it destroys life with a rapidity unequalled
+by any other kind of growth. It quickly ulcerates and
+infiltrates the uterine tissues, forming metastatic growths in the lung
+and vagina. Clinically it is recognized by the occurrence after
+pregnancy of violent haemorrhages, progressive cachexia and fever
+with rigors. Recent suggestions have been made as to chorion-epithelioma
+being the result of pathological changes in the lutein
+tissue of the ovary. The growth is usually primary in the uterus,
+but may be so in the Fallopian tubes and in the vagina. A few cases
+have been recorded unconnected with pregnancy. The virulence of
+chorion-epithelioma varies, but in the present state of our knowledge
+immediate removal of the primary growth along with the affected
+organ is the only treatment.</p>
+
+<p><i>Diseases of the Fallopian Tubes.</i>&mdash;The Fallopian tubes or oviducts
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page767" id="page767"></a>767</span>
+are liable to inflammatory affections, tuberculosis, sarcomata,
+cancer, chorion-epithelioma and tubal pregnancy. Salpingitis
+(inflammation of the oviducts) is nearly always secondary to septic
+infection of the genital tract. The chief causes are septic endometritis
+following labour or abortion, gangrene of a myoma, gonorrhoea,
+tuberculosis and cancer of the uterus; it sometimes follows the
+specific fevers. When the pus escapes from the tubes into the coelom
+it sets up pelvic peritonitis. When the inflammation is adjacent to
+the ostium it leads to the matting together of the tubal fimbriae and
+glues them to an adjacent organ. This seals the ostium. The
+occluded tube may now have an accumulation of pus in it (pyosalpinx).
+When in consequence of the sealing of the ostium the tube
+becomes distended with serous fluid it is termed hydrosalpinx.
+Haematosalpinx is a term applied to the non-gravid tube distended
+with blood; later the tubes may become sclerosed. Acute septic
+salpingitis is ushered in by a rigor, the temperature rising to 103°,
+104° F., with severe pain and constitutional disturbance. The
+symptoms may become merged in those of general peritonitis. In
+chronic disease there is a history of puerperal trouble followed by
+sterility, with excessive and painful menstruation. Acute salpingitis
+requires absolute rest, opium suppositories and hot fomentations.
+With urgent symptoms removal of the inflamed adnexa must be
+resorted to. Chronic salpingitis often renders a woman an invalid.
+Permanent relief can only be afforded by surgical intervention.
+Tuberculous salpingitis is usually secondary to other tuberculous
+infections. The Fallopian tubes may be the seat of malignant
+disease. This is rarely primary. By far the most important of the
+conditions of the Fallopian tubes is tubal pregnancy (or ectopic
+gestation). It is now known that fertilization of the human ovum
+by the spermatozoon may take place even when the ovum is in its
+follicle in the ovary, for oosperms have been found in the ovary and
+Fallopian tubes as well as in the uterus. Belief in ovarian pregnancy
+is of old standing, and had been regarded as possible but unproved,
+no case of an early embryo in its membranes in the sac of an ovary
+being forthcoming, until the remarkable case published by Dr
+Catherine van Tussenboek of Amsterdam in 1899 (Bland-Sutton).
+Tubal pregnancy is most frequent in the left tube; it sometimes
+complicates uterine pregnancy; rarely both tubes are pregnant.
+When the oosperm lodges in the ampulla or isthmus it is called tubal
+gestation; when it is retained in the portion traversing the uterine
+wall it is called tubo-uterine gestation. Wherever the fertilized ovum
+remains and implants its villi the tube becomes turgid and swollen,
+and the abdominal ostium gradually closes. The ovum in this
+situation is liable to apoplexy, forming tubal mole. When the
+abdominal ostium remains pervious the ovum may escape into the
+coelomic cavity (tubal abortion); death from shock and haemorrhage
+into the abdominal cavity may result. When neither of these
+occurrences has taken place the ovum continues to grow inside the
+tube, the rupture of the distended tube usually taking place between
+the sixth and the tenth week. The rupture of the tube may be
+intraperitoneal or extraperitoneal. The danger is death from
+haemorrhage occurring during the rupture, or adhesions may form,
+the retained blood forming a haematocele. The ovum may be destroyed
+or may continue to develop. In rare cases rupture may not
+occur, the tube bulging into the peritoneal cavity; and the foetus
+may break through the membranes and lie free among the intestines,
+where it may die, becoming encysted or calcified. The tubal placenta
+possesses foetal structures, the true decidua forming in the uterus.
+The signs suggestive of tubal pregnancy before rupture are missed
+periods, pelvic pains and the presence of an enlarged tube. When
+rupture takes place it is attended in both varieties with sudden and
+severe pain and more or less marked collapse, and a tumour may or
+may not be felt according to the situation of the rupture. There is a
+general &ldquo;feeling of something having given way.&rdquo; If diagnosed
+before rupture, the sac must be removed by abdominal section. In
+intraperitoneal rupture immediate operation affords the only chance
+of saving life. In extraperitoneal rupture the foetus may occasionally
+remain alive until full term and be rescued by abdominal section,
+if the condition is recognized, or a false labour may take place,
+accompanied by death of the foetus.</p>
+
+<p><i>Diseases of the Ovaries and Parovarium.</i>&mdash;The ovaries undergo
+striking changes at puberty, and again at the menopause, after which
+there is a gradual shrinkage. One or both may be absent or malformed,
+or they are subject to displacements, being either undescended,
+contained in a hernia or prolapsed. Either of these
+conditions, if a source of pain, may necessitate their removal. The
+ovary is also subject to haemorrhage or apoplexy. Acute inflammations
+(oöphorites) are constantly associated with salpingitis or
+other septic conditions of the genital tract or with an attack of
+mumps. The relation of oöphoritis to mumps is at present unknown.
+Acute oöphoritis may culminate in abscess but more usually
+adhesions are formed. The surgical treatment is that of pyosalpinx.
+Chronic inflammation may follow acute or be consequent on pelvic
+cellulitis. Its constant features are more or less pain followed by
+sterility. The ovary may be the seat of tuberculosis, which is
+generally secondary to other lesions. Suppuration and abscess of
+the ovary also occur. Perioöphoritis, or chronic inflammation in
+the neighbourhood, may also involve the gland. The cause of
+cirrhosis of the ovaries is unknown, though it may be associated with
+cirrhotic liver. The change is met with in women between 20 and
+40 years of age, the ovaries being in a shrunken, hard, wrinkled condition.
+Under ovarian neuralgia are grouped indefinite painful
+symptoms occurring frequently in neurotic and alcoholic subjects,
+and often worse during menstruation. The treatment, whether local
+or operative, is usually unsatisfactory. The ovary is frequently the
+seat of tumours, dermoids and cysts. Cysts may be simple, unilocular
+or multilocular, and may attain an enormous size. The largest on
+record was removed by Dr Elizabeth Reifsnyder of Shanghai, and
+contained 100 litres of fluid, and the patient recovered. The operation
+is termed ovariotomy. Dermoid cysts containing skin, bones,
+teeth and hair, are of frequent growth in the ovary, and have attained
+the weight of from 20 to 40 kilogrammes. In one case a girl weighed
+27 kilogrammes and her tumour 44 kilogrammes (Keen). Papillomatous
+cysts also occur in the ovary. Parovarian and Gärtnerian
+cysts are found, and adenomata form 20% of all ovarian cysts.
+Occasionally the tunic of peritoneum surrounding the ovary becomes
+distended with serous fluid. This is termed ovarian hydrocele.
+Ovarian fibroids occur, and malignant disease (sarcoma and carcinoma)
+is fairly frequent, sarcoma being the most usual ovarian tumour
+occurring before puberty. Carcinoma of the ovary is rarely primary,
+but it is a common situation for secondary cancer to that of the
+breast, gall-bladder or gastro-intestinal tract. The treatment of all
+rapidly-growing tumours of the ovary is removal.</p>
+
+<p><i>Diseases of the Pelvic Peritoneum and Connective Tissue.</i>&mdash;Women
+are excessively liable to peritoneal infections. (1) Septic infection
+often follows acute salpingitis and may give rise to pelvic peritonitis
+(perimetritis), which may be adhesive, serous or purulent. It may
+follow the rupture of ovarian or dermoid cysts, rupture of the
+uterus, extra uterine pregnancy or extension from pyosalpinx. The
+symptoms are severe pain, fever, 103° F. and higher, marked constitutional
+disturbances, vomiting, restlessness, even delirium. The
+abdomen is fixed and tympanitic. Its results are the formation of
+adhesions causing abnormal positions of the organs, or chronic
+peritonitis may follow. The treatment is rest in bed, opium, hot
+stupes to the abdomen and quinine. (2) Epithelial infections take
+place in the peritoneum in connexion with other malignant growths.
+(3) Hydroperitoneum, a collection of free fluid in the abdominal
+cavity, may be due to tumours of the abdominal viscera or to
+tuberculosis of the peritoneum. (4) Pelvic cellulitis (parametritis)
+signifies the inflammation of the connective tissue between the folds
+of the broad ligament (mesometrium). The general causes are septic
+changes following abortion, delivery at term (especially instrumental
+delivery), following operations on the uterus or salpingitis. The
+symptoms are chill followed by severe intrapelvic pain and tension,
+fever 100° to 102° F. There may be nausea and vomiting, diarrhoea,
+rectal tenseness and dysuria. If consequent on parturition the
+lochia cease or become offensive. On examination there is tenderness
+and swelling in one flank and the uterus becomes fixed and
+immovable in the exudate as if embedded in plaster of Paris. The
+illness may go to resolution if treated by rest, opium, hot stupes or
+icebags and glycerine tampons, or may go on to suppuration forming
+pelvic abscess, which signifies a collection of pus between the layers
+of the broad ligament. The pus in a pelvic abscess may point and
+escape through the walls of the vagina, rectum or bladder. It
+occasionally points in the groin. If the pus can be localized an
+incision should be made and the abscess drained. The tumours
+which arise in the broad ligament are haematocele, solid tumours (as
+myomata, lipomata and sarcomata), and echinnococcus colonies
+(hydatids).</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Albutt, Playfair and Eden, <i>System of Gynaecology</i>
+(1906); McNaughton Jones, <i>Manual of Diseases of Women</i>
+(1904); Bland-Sutton and Giles, <i>Diseases of Women</i> (1906); C.
+Lockyer, &ldquo;Lutein Cysts in association with Chorio-Epithelioma,&rdquo;
+<i>Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology</i> (January, 1905); W. Stewart
+McKay, <i>History of Ancient Gynaecology</i>; Hart and Barbour, <i>Diseases
+of Women</i>; Howard Kelly, <i>Operative Gynaecology</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. L. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GYÖNGYÖSI, ISTVÁN<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Stephen</span>] (1620-1704), Hungarian
+poet, was born of poor but noble parents in 1620. His abilities
+early attracted the notice of Count Ferencz Wesselényi, who in
+1640 appointed him to a post of confidence in Fülek castle. Here
+he remained till 1653, when he married and became an assessor
+of the judicial board. In 1681 he was elected as a representative
+of his county at the diet held at Soprony (Oedenburg). From
+1686 to 1693, and again from 1700 to his death in 1704, he was
+deputy lord-lieutenant of the county of Gömör. Of his literary
+works the most famous is the epic poem <i>Murányi Venus</i> (Caschau,
+1664), in honour of his benefactor&rsquo;s wife Maria Szécsi, the heroine
+of Murány. Among his later productions the best known are
+<i>Rózsa-Koszorú</i>, or Rose-Wreath (1690), <i>Kemény-János</i> (1693),
+<i>Cupidó</i> (1695), <i>Palinodia</i> (1695) and <i>Chariklia</i> (1700).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The earliest edition of his collected poetical works is by Dugonics
+(Pressburg and Pest, 1796); the best modern selection is that of
+Toldy, entitled <i>Gyöngyösi István válogatott poétai munkái</i> (Select
+poetical works of Stephen Gyöngyösi, 2 vols., 1864-1865).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GYÖR<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Raab</i>), a town of Hungary, capital of a county of
+the same name, 88 m. W. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900)
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page768" id="page768"></a>768</span>
+27,758. It is situated at the confluence of the Raab with the
+Danube, and is composed of the inner town and three suburbs.
+Györ is a well-built town, and is the seat of a Roman Catholic
+bishop. Amongst its principal buildings are the cathedral,
+dating from the 12th century, and rebuilt in 1639-1654; the
+bishop&rsquo;s palace; the town hall; the Roman Catholic seminary
+for priests and several churches. There are manufactures of
+cloth, machinery and tobacco, and an active trade in grain and
+horses. Twenty miles by rail W. S. W. of the town is situated
+Csorna, a village with a Premonstratensian abbey, whose archives
+contain numerous valuable historical documents.</p>
+
+<p>Györ is one of the oldest towns in Hungary and occupies the
+site of the Roman <i>Arabona</i>. It was already a place of some
+importance in the 10th century, and its bishopric was created
+in the 11th century. It was a strongly fortified town which
+resisted successfully the attacks of the Turks, into whose hands
+it fell by treachery in 1594, but they retained possession of it
+only for four years. Montecucculi made Györ a first-class
+fortress, and it remained so until 1783, when it was abandoned.
+At the beginning of the 19th century, the fortifications were
+re-erected, but were easily taken by the French in 1809, and
+were again stormed by the Austrians on the 28th of June 1849.</p>
+
+<p>About 11 m. S.E. of Györ on a spur of the Bakony Forest
+lies the famous Benedictine abbey of Pannonhalma (Ger. <i>St
+Martinsberg</i>; Lat. <i>Mons Sancti Martini</i>), one of the oldest and
+wealthiest abbeys of Hungary. It was founded by King St
+Stephen, and the original deed from 1001 is preserved in the
+archives of the abbey. The present building is a block of
+palaces, containing a beautiful church, some of its parts dating
+from the 12th century, and lies on a hill 1200 ft. high. The
+church has a tower 130 ft. high. In the convent there are a
+seminary for priests, a normal school, a gymnasium and a
+library of 120,000 vols. The chief abbot has the rank of a
+bishop, and is a member of the Upper House of the Hungarian
+parliament, while in spiritual matters he is subordinate immediately
+to the Roman curia.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GYP,<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> the pen name of <span class="sc">Sibylle Gabrielle Marie Antoinette
+Riqueti de Mirabeau</span>, Comtesse de Martel de Janville (1850-&emsp;&emsp;)
+French writer, who was born at the château of Koetsal in
+the Morbihan. Her father, who was the grandson of the vicomte
+de Mirabeau and great-nephew of the orator, served in the Papal
+Zouaves, and died during the campaign of 1860. Her mother,
+the comtesse de Mirabeau, in addition to some graver compositions,
+contributed to the <i>Figaro</i> and the <i>Vie parisienne</i>, under
+various pseudonyms, papers in the manner successfully developed
+by her daughter. Under the pseudonym of &ldquo;Gyp&rdquo; Madame
+de Martel, who was married in 1869, sent to the <i>Vie parisienne</i>,
+and later to the <i>Revue des deux mondes</i>, a large number of social
+sketches and dialogues, afterwards reprinted in volumes. Her
+later work includes stories of a more formal sort, essentially
+differing but little from the shorter studies. The following list
+includes some of the best known of Madame de Martel&rsquo;s publications,
+nearly seventy in number: <i>Petit Bob</i> (1882); <i>Autour du
+mariage</i> (1883); <i>Ce que femme veut</i> (1883); <i>Le Monde à
+côté</i> (1884), <i>Sans voiles</i> (1885); <i>Autour du divorce</i> (1886);
+<i>Dans le train</i> (1886); <i>Mademoiselle Loulou</i> (1888); <i>Bob au salon</i>
+(1888-1889); <i>L&rsquo;Education d&rsquo;un prince</i> (1890); <i>Passionette</i>
+(1891); <i>Ohé! la grande vie</i> (1891); <i>Une Élection à Tigre-sur-mer</i>
+(1890), an account of &ldquo;Gyp&rsquo;s&rdquo; experiences in support of a
+Boulangist candidate; <i>Mariage civil</i> (1892); <i>Ces bons docteurs</i>
+(1892); <i>Du haut en bas</i> (1893); <i>Mariage de chiffon</i> (1894);
+<i>Leurs âmes</i> (1895); <i>Le C&oelig;ur d&rsquo;Ariane</i> (1895); <i>Le Bonheur de
+Ginette</i> (1896); <i>Totote</i> (1897); <i>Lune de miel</i> (1898); <i>Israël</i>
+(1898); <i>L&rsquo;Entrevue</i> (1899); <i>Le Pays des champs</i> (1900); <i>Trop de
+chic</i> (1900); <i>Le Friquet</i> (1901); <i>La Fée</i> (1902); <i>Un Mariage chic</i>
+(1903); <i>Un Ménage dernier cri</i> (1903); <i>Maman</i> (1904); <i>Le
+C&oelig;ur de Pierrette</i> (1905). From the first &ldquo;Gyp,&rdquo; writing of a
+society to which she belonged, displayed all the qualities which
+have given her a distinct, if not pre-eminent, position among
+writers of her class. Those qualities included an intense faculty
+of observation, much skill in innuendo, a mordant wit combined
+with some breadth of humour, and a singular power of animating
+ordinary dialogues without destroying the appearance of reality.
+Her Parisian types of the spoiled child, of the precocious schoolgirl,
+of the young bride, and of various masculine figures in the
+gay world, have become almost classical, and may probably
+survive as faithful pictures of luxurious manners in the 19th
+century. Some later productions, inspired by a violent anti-Semitic
+and Nationalist bias, deserve little consideration. An
+earlier attempt to dramatize <i>Autour du mariage</i> was a failure,
+not owing to the audacities which it shares with most of its
+author&rsquo;s works, but from lack of cohesion and incident. More
+successful was <i>Mademoiselle Ève</i> (1895), but indeed &ldquo;Gyp&rsquo;s&rdquo;
+successes are all achieved without a trace of dramatic faculty.
+In 1901 Madame de Martel furnished a sensational incident in the
+Nationalist campaign during the municipal elections in Paris.
+She was said to have been the victim of a kidnapping outrage
+or piece of horseplay provoked by her political attitude, but
+though a most circumstantial account of the outrages committed
+on her and of her adventurous escape was published, the affair
+was never clearly explained or verified.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GYPSUM,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> a common mineral consisting of hydrous calcium
+sulphate, named from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="gypsos">&#947;&#973;&#968;&#959;&#962;</span>, a word used by Theophrastus
+to denote not only the raw mineral but also the product
+of its calcination, which was employed in ancient times, as
+it still is, as a plaster. When crystallized, gypsum is often called
+selenite, the <span class="grk" title="selênitês">&#963;&#949;&#955;&#951;&#957;&#943;&#964;&#951;&#962;</span> of Dioscorides, so named from <span class="grk" title="selênê">&#963;&#949;&#955;&#942;&#957;&#951;</span>,
+&ldquo;the moon,&rdquo; probably in allusion to the soft moon-like reflection
+of light from some of its faces, or, according to a legend, because
+it is found at night when the moon is on the increase. The
+granular, marble-like gypsum is termed alabaster (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:250px; height:230px" src="images/img768.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Gypsum crystallizes in the monoclinic system, the habit of the
+crystals being usually either prismatic or tabular; in the latter
+case the broad planes are parallel to the faces of the clinopinacoid.
+The crystals may become lenticular by curvature of certain
+faces. In the characteristic type represented in fig. 1, <i>f</i> represents
+the prism, <i>l</i> the hemi-pyramid and P the clinopinacoid.
+Twins are common, as in
+fig. 2, forming in some cases
+arrow-headed and swallow-tailed
+crystals. Cleavage is
+perfect parallel to the clinopinacoid,
+yielding thin plates,
+often diamond-shaped, with
+pearly lustre; these flakes
+are usually flexible, but may
+be brittle, as in the gypsum
+of Montmartre. Two other
+cleavages are recognized, but
+they are imperfect. Crystals
+of gypsum, when occurring
+in clay, may enclose much muddy matter; in other cases a
+large proportion of sand may be mechanically entangled in
+the crystals without serious disturbance of form; whilst
+certain crystals occasionally enclose cavities with liquid and
+an air-bubble. Gypsum not infrequently becomes fibrous.
+This variety occurs in veins, often running through gypseous
+marls, with the fibres disposed at right angles to the direction
+of the vein. Such gypsum when cut and polished has a pearly
+opalescence, or satiny sheen, whence it is called satin-spar (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Gypsum is so soft as to be scratched even by the finger-nail
+(H = 1.5 to 2). Its specific gravity is about 2.3. The mineral is
+slightly soluble in water, one part of gypsum being soluble,
+according to G. K. Cameron, in 372 parts of pure water at 26° C.
+Waters percolating through gypseous strata, like the Keuper
+marls, dissolve the calcium sulphate and thus become permanently
+hard or &ldquo;selenitic.&rdquo; Such water has special value for
+brewing pale ale, and the water used by the Burton breweries is
+of this character; hence the artificial dissolving of gypsum in
+water for brewing purposes is known as &ldquo;burtonization.&rdquo;
+Deposits of gypsum are formed in boilers using selenitic water.</p>
+
+<p>Pure gypsum is colourless or white, but it is often tinted,
+especially in the alabaster variety, grey, yellow or pink. Gypsum
+crystallizes with two molecules of water, equal to about 21% by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page769" id="page769"></a>769</span>
+weight, and consequently has the formula CaSO<span class="su">4</span>·2H<span class="su">2</span>O. By
+exposure to strong heat all the water may be expelled, and the
+substance then has the composition of anhydrite (<i>q.v.</i>). When
+the calcination, however, is conducted at such a temperature
+that only about 75% of the water is lost, it yields a white
+pulverulent substance, known as &ldquo;plaster of Paris,&rdquo; which may
+readily be caused to recombine with water, forming a hard
+cement. The gypsum quarries of Montmartre, in the north of
+Paris, were worked in Tertiary strata, rich in fossils. Gypsum is
+largely quarried in England for conversion into plaster of Paris,
+whence it is sometimes known as &ldquo;plaster stone,&rdquo; and since
+much is sent to the Staffordshire potteries for making moulds it
+is also termed &ldquo;potter&rsquo;s stone.&rdquo; The chief workings are in the
+Keuper marls near Newark in Nottinghamshire, Fauld in
+Staffordshire and Chellaston in Derbyshire. It is also worked in
+Permian beds in Cumberland and Westmorland, and in Purbeck
+strata near Battle in Sussex.</p>
+
+<p>Gypsum frequently occurs in association with rock-salt, having
+been deposited in shallow basins of salt water. Much of the
+calcium in sea-water exists as sulphate; and on evaporation of a
+drop of sea-water under the microscope this sulphate is deposited
+as acicular crystals of gypsum. In salt-lagoons the deposition
+of the gypsum is probably effected in most cases by means of
+micro-organisms. Waters containing sulphuretted hydrogen, on
+exposure to the air in the presence of limestone, may yield gypsum
+by the formation of sulphuric acid and its interaction with the
+calcium carbonate. In volcanic districts gypsum is produced by
+the action of sulphuric acid, resulting from the oxidation of
+sulphurous vapours, on lime-bearing minerals, like labradorite
+and augite, in the volcanic rocks: hence gypsum is common
+around solfataras. Again, by the oxidation of iron-pyrites
+and the action of the resulting sulphuric acid on limestone or
+on shells, gypsum may be formed; whence its origin in most
+clays. Gypsum is also formed in some cases by the hydration of
+anhydrite, the change being accompanied by an increase of
+volume to the extent of about 60%. Conversely gypsum may,
+under certain conditions, be dehydrated or reduced to anhydrite.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the largest known crystals of selenite have been found
+in southern Utah, where they occur in huge geodes, or crystal-lined
+cavities, in deposits from the old salt-lakes. Fine crystals,
+sometimes curiously bent, occur in the Permian rocks of Friedrichroda,
+near Gotha, where there is a grotto called the Marienglashöhle,
+close to Rheinhardsbrunn. Many of the best localities
+for selenite are in the New Red Sandstone formation (Trias and
+Permian), notably the salt-mines of Hall and Hallein, near
+Salzburg, and of Bex in Switzerland. Excellent crystals, usually
+of a brownish colour arranged in groups, are often found in the
+brine-chambers and the launders used in salt-works. Selenite
+also occurs in fine crystals in the sulphur-bearing marls of
+Girgenti and other Sicilian localities; whilst in Britain very bold
+crystals are yielded by the Kimeridge clay of Shotover Hill near
+Oxford. Twisted crystals and rosettes of gypsum found in the
+Mammoth Cave, Kentucky, have been called &ldquo;oulopholites&rdquo;
+(<span class="grk" title="oulos">&#959;&#8022;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>, &ldquo;woolly&rdquo;; <span class="grk" title="phôleos">&#966;&#969;&#955;&#949;&#972;&#962;</span>, &ldquo;cave&rdquo;).</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the use of gypsum in cement-making, the
+mineral finds application as an agricultural agent in dressing
+land, and it has also been used in the manufacture of porcelain
+and glass. Formerly it was employed, in the form of thin
+cleavage-plates, for glazing windows, and seems to have been,
+with mica, called <i>lapis specularis</i>. It is still known in Germany
+as <i>Marienglas</i> and <i>Fraueneis</i>. Delicate cleavage-plates of
+gypsum are used in microscopic petrography for the determination
+of certain optical constants in the rock-forming
+minerals.</p>
+<div class="author">(F. W. R.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GYROSCOPE AND GYROSTAT.<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> These are scientific models
+or instruments designed to illustrate experimentally the
+dynamics of a rotating body such as the spinning-top, hoop and
+bicycle, and also the precession of the equinox and the rotation of
+the earth.</p>
+
+<p>The gyroscope (Gr. <span class="grk" title="gyros">&#947;&#8166;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span>, ring, <span class="grk" title="skopein">&#963;&#954;&#959;&#960;&#949;&#8150;&#957;</span>, to see) may be distinguished
+from the gyrostat (<span class="grk" title="gyros">&#947;&#8166;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span>, and <span class="grk" title="statikos">&#963;&#964;&#945;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#972;&#962;</span>, stationary)
+as an instrument in which the rotating wheel or disk is mounted
+in gimbals so that the principal axis of rotation always passes
+through a fixed point (fig. 1). It can be made to imitate the
+motion of a spinning-top of which the point is placed in a smooth
+agate cup as in Maxwell&rsquo;s dynamical top (figs. 2, 3). (<i>Collected
+Works</i>, i. 248.) A bicycle wheel, with a prolongation of the
+axle placed in a cup, can also be made to serve (fig. 4).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:475px; height:393px" src="images/img769a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The gyrostat is an instrument designed by Lord Kelvin
+(<i>Natural Philosophy</i>, § 345) to illustrate the more complicated
+state of motion of a spinning body when free to wander
+about on a horizontal plane, like a top spun on the pavement, or
+a hoop or bicycle on the road. It consists essentially of a massive
+fly-wheel concealed in a metal casing, and its behaviour on a
+table, or with various modes of suspension or support, described
+in Thomson and Tait, <i>Natural Philosophy</i>, serves to illustrate
+the curious reversal of the ordinary laws of statical equilibrium
+due to the <i>gyrostatic domination</i> of the interior invisible fly-wheel,
+when rotated rapidly (fig. 5).</p>
+
+<p>The toy shown in figs. 6 and 7, which can be bought for a
+shilling, is acting as a gyroscope
+in fig. 6 and a gyrostat
+in fig. 7.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:188px; height:186px" src="images/img769b.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:272px; height:391px" src="images/img769c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The gyroscope, as represented
+in figs. 2 and 3 by Maxwell&rsquo;s
+dynamical top, is provided
+with screws by which
+the centre of gravity can be
+brought into coincidence with
+the point of support. It can
+then be used to illustrate Poinsot&rsquo;s theory of the motion of a
+body under no force, the gyroscope being made kinetically
+unsymmetrical by a setting of the screws. The discussion of
+this movement is required for Jacobi&rsquo;s theorems on the allied
+motion of a top and of a body under no force (Poinsot, <i>Théorie
+nouvelle de la rotation des corps</i>, Paris, 1857; Jacobi, <i>Werke</i>, ii.
+Note B, p. 476).</p>
+
+<p>To imitate the movement of the top the centre of gravity is
+displaced from the point of support so as to give a preponderance.
+When the motion takes place in the neighbourhood of the downward
+vertical, the bicycle wheel can be made to serve again
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page770" id="page770"></a>770</span>
+mounted as in fig. 8 by a stalk in the prolongation of the axle,
+suspended from a universal joint at O; it can then be spun by
+hand and projected in any manner.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td>
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:302px; height:367px" src="images/img770a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 5.</td></tr></table>
+</td>
+
+<td>
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:151px; height:143px" src="images/img770b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 6.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:121px; height:130px" src="images/img770c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 7.</td></tr></table>
+</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:357px; height:404px" src="images/img770d.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:199px; height:132px" src="images/img770e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 8.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 9.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The first practical application of the gyroscopic principle was
+invented and carried out (1744) by Serson, with a spinning top
+with a polished upper plane surface for giving an artificial
+horizon at sea, undisturbed by the motion of the ship, when the
+real horizon was obscured. The instrument has been perfected
+by Admiral Georges Ernest Fleuriais (fig. 9), and is interesting
+theoretically as
+showing the correction
+required
+practically for the
+rotation of the
+earth. Gilbert&rsquo;s
+barogyroscope is
+devised for the
+same purpose of
+showing the earth&rsquo;s
+rotation; a description
+of it, and
+of the latest form
+employed by Föppl,
+is given in the
+<i>Ency. d. math.
+Wiss.</i>, 1904, with
+bibliographical
+references in the
+article &ldquo;Mechanics
+of Physical Apparatus.&rdquo;
+The rotation
+of the fly-wheel is maintained here by an electric motor, as
+devised by G. M. Hopkins, and described in the <i>Scientific American</i>,
+1878. To demonstrate the rotation of the earth by the constancy
+in direction of the axis of a gyroscope is a suggestion that has often
+been made; by E. Sang in 1836, and
+others. The experiment was first
+carried out with success by Foucault in
+1851, by a simple pendulum swung in
+the dome of the Pantheon, Paris, and
+it has been repeated frequently
+(<i>Mémoires sur le pendule</i>, 1889).</p>
+
+<p>A gyroscopic fly-wheel will preserve
+its original direction in space
+only when left absolutely free in all directions, as required
+in the experiments above. If employed in steering, as of a
+torpedo, the gyroscope must act through the intermediary of a
+light relay; but if direct-acting, the reaction will cause precession
+of the axis, and the original direction is lost.</p>
+
+<p>The gyrostatic principle, in which one degree of freedom is
+suppressed in the axis, is useful for imparting steadiness and
+stability in a moving body; it is employed by Schlick to mitigate
+the rolling of a ship and to maintain the upright position of
+Brennan&rsquo;s monorail car.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, as an application of gyroscopic theory, a stretched
+chain of fly-wheels in rotation was employed by Kelvin as a
+mechanical model of the rotary polarization of light in an electromagnetic
+field; the apparatus may be constructed of bicycle
+wheels connected by short links, and suspended vertically.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Theory of the Symmetrical Top.</i></p>
+
+<p>1. The physical constants of a given symmetrical top, expressed
+in C.G.S. units, which are employed in the subsequent formulae,
+are denoted by M, h, C and A. M is the weight in grammes (g)
+as given by the number of gramme weights which equilibrate the
+top when weighed in a balance; h is the distance OG in centimetres
+(cm.) between G the centre of gravity and O the point of support,
+and Mh may be called the preponderance in g.-cm.; Mh and M
+can be measured by a spring balance holding up in a horizontal
+position the axis OC in fig. 8 suspended at O. Then gMh (dyne-cm.
+or ergs) is the moment of gravity about O when the axis OG is
+horizontal, gMh sin &theta; being the moment when the axis OG makes
+an angle &theta; with the vertical, and g = 981 (cm./s<span class="sp">2</span>) on the average;
+C is the moment of inertia of the top about OG, and A about any
+axis through O at right angles to OG, both measured in g-cm.<span class="sp">2</span>.</p>
+
+<p>To measure A experimentally, swing the top freely about O in
+small plane oscillation, and determine the length, l cm., of the
+equivalent simple pendulum; then</p>
+
+<p class="center">l = A/Mh, A = Mhl.</p>
+
+<div class="ref">(1)</div>
+
+<p>Next make the top, or this simple pendulum, perform small
+conical revolutions, nearly coincident with the downward vertical
+position of equilibrium, and measure n, the mean angular velocity
+of the conical pendulum in radians / second; and T its period in
+seconds; then</p>
+
+<p class="center">4&pi;<span class="sp">2</span>/T<span class="sp">2</span> = n<span class="sp">2</span> = g/l = gMh/A;</p>
+<div class="ref">(2)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">and f = n/2&pi; is the number of revolutions per second, called the
+<i>frequency</i>, T = 2&pi;/n is the period of a revolution, in seconds.</p>
+
+<p>2. In the popular explanation of the steady movement of the
+top at a constant inclination to the vertical, depending on the composition
+of angular velocity, such as given in Perry&rsquo;s
+<i>Spinning Tops</i>, or Worthington&rsquo;s <i>Dynamics of Rotation</i>,
+<span class="sidenote">Steady motion of the top.</span>
+it is asserted that the moment of gravity is always
+generating an angular velocity about an axis OB perpendicular
+to the vertical plane COC&prime; through the axis of the top
+OC&prime;; and this angular velocity, compounded with the resultant
+angular velocity about an axis OI, nearly coincident with OC&prime;,
+causes the axes OI and OC&prime; to keep taking up a new position by
+moving at right angles to the plane COC&prime;, at a constant precessional
+angular velocity, say &mu; rad./sec., round the vertical OC (fig. 4).</p>
+
+<p>If, however, the axis OC&prime; is prevented from taking up this precessional
+velocity, the top at once falls down; thence all the ingenious
+attempts&mdash;for instance, in the swinging cabin of the Bessemer
+ship&mdash;to utilise the gyroscope as a mechanical directive agency
+have always resulted in failure (<i>Engineer</i>, October 1874), unless
+restricted to actuate a light relay, which guides the mechanism, as
+in steering a torpedo.</p>
+
+<p>An experimental verification can be carried out with the gyroscope
+in fig. 1; so long as the vertical spindle is free to rotate in
+its socket, the rapidly rotating wheel will resist the impulse of
+tapping on the gimbal by moving to one side; but when the pinch
+screw prevents the rotation of the vertical spindle in the massive
+pedestal, this resistance to the tapping at once disappears, provided
+the friction of the table prevents the movement of the pedestal;
+and if the wheel has any preponderance, it falls down.</p>
+
+<p>Familiar instances of the same principles are observable in the
+movement of a hoop, or in the steering of a bicycle; it is essential
+that the handle of the bicycle should be free to rotate to secure
+the stability of the movement.</p>
+
+<p>The bicycle wheel, employed as a spinning top, in fig. 4, can also
+be held by the stalk, and will thus, when rotated rapidly, convey
+a distinct muscular impression of resistance to change of direction,
+if brandished.</p>
+
+<p>3. A demonstration, depending on the elementary principles of
+dynamics, of the exact conditions required for the
+<span class="sidenote">Elementary demonstration of the condition of steady motion.</span>
+axis OC&prime; of a spinning top to spin steadily at a constant
+inclination &theta; to the vertical OC, is given here before proceeding
+to the more complicated question of the general
+motion, when &theta;, the inclination of the axis, is varying
+by nutation.</p>
+
+<p>It is a fundamental principle in dynamics that if OH is
+a vector representing to scale the angular momentum of a system,
+and if Oh is the vector representing the axis of the impressed couple
+or torque, then OH will vary so that the velocity of H is represented
+to scale by the impressed couple Oh, and if the top is moving freely
+about O, Oh is at right angles to the vertical plane COC&prime;, and</p>
+
+<p class="center">Oh = gMh sin &theta;.</p>
+<div class="ref">(1)</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page771" id="page771"></a>771</span></p>
+
+<p>In the case of the steady motion of the top, the vector OH lies
+in the vertical plane COC&prime;, in OK suppose (fig. 4), and has a component
+OC = G about the vertical and a component OC&prime; = G&prime;, suppose,
+about the axis OC; and G&prime; = CR, if R denotes the angular
+velocity of the top with which it is spun about OC&prime;.</p>
+
+<p>If &mu; denotes the constant precessional angular velocity of the
+vertical plane COC&prime; the components of angular velocity and momentum
+about OA are &mu; sin &theta; and A&mu; sin &theta;, OA being perpendicular
+to OC&prime; in the plane COC&prime;; so that the vector OK has the components</p>
+
+<p class="center">OC&prime; = G&prime;, and C&prime;K = A&mu; sin &theta;,</p>
+<div class="ref">(2)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">and the horizontal component</p>
+
+ <p class="center">CK = OC&prime; sin &theta; &minus; C&prime;K cos &theta;<br />
+= G&prime; sin &theta; &minus; A&mu; sin &theta; cos &theta;.</p>
+<div class="ref">(3)</div>
+
+<p>The velocity of K being equal to the impressed couple Oh,</p>
+
+<p class="center">gMh sin &theta; = &mu;·CK = sin &theta; (G&prime;&mu; &minus; A&mu;<span class="sp">2</span> cos &theta;),</p>
+<div class="ref">(4)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">and dropping the factor sin &theta;,</p>
+
+<p class="center">A&mu;<span class="sp">2</span> cos &theta; &minus; G&prime;&mu; + gMh = 0, or A&mu;<span class="sp">2</span> cos &theta; &minus; CR&mu; + An<span class="sp">2</span> = 0,</p>
+<div class="ref">(5)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">the condition for steady motion.</p>
+
+<p>Solving this as a quadratic in &mu;, the roots &mu;<span class="su">1</span>, &mu;<span class="su">2</span> are given by</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">&mu;<span class="su">1</span>, &mu;<span class="su">2</span> =</td> <td>G&prime;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">sec &theta; <span class="f150">[</span>1 ± &radic; (1 &minus;</td> <td>4A<span class="sp">2</span>n<span class="sp">2</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">cos &theta;) <span class="f150">]</span>;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">2A</td> <td class="denom">G&prime;<span class="sp">2</span></td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(6)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">and the minimum value of G&prime; = CR for real values of &mu; is given by</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>G&prime;<span class="sp">2</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">= cos &theta;,</td> <td>CR</td>
+<td rowspan="2">2&radic;(cos &theta;);</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">4A<span class="sp">2</span>n<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="denom">An</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(7)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">for a smaller value of R the top cannot spin steadily at the inclination
+&theta; to the upward vertical.</p>
+
+<p>Interpreted geometrically in fig. 4</p>
+
+<p class="center">&mu; = gMh sin &theta;/CK = An<span class="sp">2</span>/KN, and &mu; = C&prime;K/A sin &theta; = KM/A,</p>
+<div class="ref">(8)</div>
+
+<p class="center">KM·KN = A<span class="sp">2</span> n<span class="sp">2</span>,</p>
+<div class="ref">(9)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">so that K lies on a hyperbola with OC, OC&prime; as asymptotes.</p>
+
+<p>4. Suppose the top or gyroscope, instead of moving freely about
+the point O, is held in a ring or frame which is compelled
+<span class="sidenote">Constrained motion of the gyroscope.</span>
+to rotate about the vertical axis OC with constant
+angular velocity &mu;; then if N denotes the couple
+of reaction of the frame keeping the top from falling,
+acting in the plane COC&rsquo;, equation (4) § 3 becomes modified
+into</p>
+
+<p class="center" style="clear: both;">gMh sin &theta; &minus; N = &mu;·CK = sin &theta; G&prime;&mu; &minus; A&mu;<span class="sp">2</span> cos &theta;,</p>
+<div class="ref">(1)</div>
+
+<p class="center">N = sin &theta; (A&mu;<span class="sp">2</span> cos &theta; &minus; G&prime;&mu; + gMh)<br />
+= A sin &theta; cos &theta; (&mu; &minus; &mu;<span class="su">1</span>) (&mu; &minus; &mu;<span class="su">2</span>);</p>
+<div class="ref">(2)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">and hence, as &mu; increases through &mu;<span class="su">2</span> and &mu;<span class="su">1</span>, the sign of N can be
+determined, positive or negative, according as the tendency of the
+axis is to fall or rise.</p>
+
+<p>When G&prime; = CR is large, &mu;<span class="su">2</span> is large, and</p>
+
+<p class="center">&mu;<span class="su">1</span> &asymp; gMh/G&prime; = An<span class="sp">2</span>/CR,</p>
+<div class="ref">(3)</div>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 260px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:209px; height:317px" src="images/img771.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">the same for all inclinations, and this is the precession observed in
+the spinning top and centrifugal machine of fig. 10 This is true
+accurately when the axis OC&prime; is
+horizontal, and then it agrees with
+the result of the popular explanation
+of § 2.</p>
+
+<p>If the axis of the top OC&prime; is pointing
+upward, the precession is in the
+same direction as the rotation, and
+an increase of &mu; from &mu;<span class="su">1</span> makes N
+negative, and the top rises; conversely
+a decrease of the procession &mu;
+causes the axis to fall (Perry, <i>Spinning
+Tops</i>, p. 48).</p>
+
+<p>If the axis points downward, as in
+the centrifugal machine with upper
+support, the precession is in the opposite
+direction to the rotation, and to
+make the axis approach the vertical
+position the precession must be reduced.</p>
+
+<p>This is effected automatically in the
+Weston centrifugal machine (fig. 10)
+used for the separation of water and
+<span class="sidenote">Centrifugal machine.</span>
+molasses, by the friction of the indiarubber cushions above the
+support; or else the spindle is produced downwards below the
+drum a short distance, and turns in a hole in a weight
+resting on the bottom of the case, which weight is dragged
+round until the spindle is upright; this second arrangement
+is more effective when a liquid is treated in the drum, and
+wave action is set up (<i>The Centrifugal Machine</i>, C. A. Matthey).</p>
+
+<p>Similar considerations apply to the stability of the whirling
+bowl in a cream-separating machine.</p>
+
+<p>We can write equation (1)</p>
+
+<p class="center">N = An<span class="sp">2</span> sin &theta; &minus; &mu;·CK = (A<span class="sp">2</span>n<span class="sp">2</span> &minus; KM·KN) sin &theta;/A,</p>
+<div class="ref">(4)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">so that N is negative or positive, and the axis tends to rise or fall
+according as K moves to the inside or outside of the hyperbola of free
+motion. Thus a tap on the axis tending to hurry the precession is
+equivalent to an impulse couple giving an increase to C&prime;K, and will
+make K move to the interior of the hyperbola and cause the axis to
+rise; the steering of a bicycle may be explained in this way; but K<span class="su">1</span>
+will move to the exterior of the hyperbola, and so the axis will fall
+in this second more violent motion.</p>
+
+<p>Friction on the point of the top may be supposed to act like a tap
+in the direction opposite to the precession; and so the axis of a top
+spun violently rises at first and up to the vertical position, but falls
+away again as the motion dies out. Friction considered as acting in
+retarding the rotation may be compared to an impulse couple tending
+to reduce OC&prime;, and so make K and K<span class="su">1</span> both move to the exterior of the
+hyperbola, and the axis falls in both cases. The axis may rise or fall
+according to the direction of the frictional couple, depending on the
+shape of the point; an analytical treatment of the varying motion is
+very intractable; a memoir by E. G. Gallop may be consulted in the
+<i>Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc.</i>, 1903.</p>
+
+<p>The earth behaves in precession like a large spinning top, of which
+the axis describes a circle round the pole of the ecliptic of mean
+angular radius &theta;, about 23½°, in a period of 26,000 years, so that
+R/&mu; = 26000 × 365; and the mean couple producing precession is</p>
+
+<p class="center">CR&mu; sin &theta; = CR<span class="sp">2</span> sin 23½° /26000 × 365,</p>
+<div class="ref">(5)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">one 12 millionth part of ½CR<span class="sp">2</span>, the rotation energy of the earth.</p>
+
+<p>5. If the preponderance is absent, by making the C·G coincide
+with O, and if A&mu; is insensible compared with G&prime;,</p>
+
+<p class="center">N = &minus;G&prime;&mu; sin &theta;,</p>
+<div class="ref">(1)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">the formula which suffices to explain most gyroscopic action.</p>
+
+<p>Thus a carriage running round a curve experiences, in consequence
+<span class="sidenote">Gyroscopic action of railway wheels.</span>
+of the rotation of the wheels, an increase of pressure Z on the outer
+track, and a diminution Z on the inner, giving a couple,
+if a is the gauge,</p>
+
+<p class="center" style="clear: both;">Za = G&prime;&mu;,</p>
+<div class="ref">(2)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">tending to help the centrifugal force to upset the train;
+and if c is the radius of the curve, b of the wheels, C their
+moment of inertia, and v the velocity of the train,</p>
+
+<p class="center">&mu; = v/c, G&prime; = Cv/b,</p>
+<div class="ref">(3)</div>
+
+<p class="center">Z = Cv<span class="sp">2</span>/abc (dynes),</p>
+<div class="ref">(4)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">so that Z is the fraction C/M<i>ab</i> of the centrifugal force Mv<span class="sp">2</span>/c, or the
+fraction C/Mh of its transference of weight, with h the height of the
+centre of gravity of the carriage above the road. A Brennan carriage
+on a monorail would lean over to the inside of the curve at an angle &alpha;,
+given by</p>
+
+<p class="center">tan &alpha; = G&prime;&mu;/gMh = G&prime;v/gMhc.</p>
+<div class="ref">(6)</div>
+
+<p>The gyroscopic action of a dynamo, turbine, and other rotating
+machinery on a steamer, paddle or screw, due to its rolling and pitching,
+can be evaluated in a similar elementary manner (Worthington,
+<i>Dynamics of Rotation</i>), and Schlick&rsquo;s gyroscopic apparatus is intended
+to mitigate the oscillation.</p>
+
+<p>6. If the axis OC in fig. 4 is inclined at an angle &alpha; to the vertical,
+the equation (2) § 4 becomes</p>
+
+<p class="center">N = sin &theta; (A&mu;<span class="sp">2</span> cos &theta; &minus; G&prime;&mu;) + gMh sin (&alpha; &minus; &theta;).</p>
+<div class="ref">(1)</div>
+
+<p>Suppose, for instance, that OC is parallel to the earth&rsquo;s axis,
+and that the frame is fixed in the meridian; then &alpha; is the co-latitude,
+and &mu; is the angular velocity of the earth, the square of which may
+be neglected; so that, putting N = 0, &alpha; &minus; &theta; = E,</p>
+
+<p class="center">gMh sin E &minus; G&prime;&mu; sin (&alpha; &minus; E) = 0,</p>
+<div class="ref">(2)</div>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">tan E =</td> <td>G&prime;&mu; sin &alpha;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&asymp;</td> <td>G&prime;&mu;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">sin &alpha;.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">gMh + G&prime;&mu; cos &alpha;</td> <td class="denom">gMh</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(3)</div>
+
+<p>This is the theory of Gilbert&rsquo;s barogyroscope, described in Appell&rsquo;s
+<i>Mécanique rationnelle</i>, ii. 387: it consists essentially of a rapidly
+<span class="sidenote">The barogyroscope.</span>
+rotated fly-wheel, mounted on knife-edges by an axis
+perpendicular to its axis of rotation and pointing east and
+west; spun with considerable angular momentum G&prime;,
+and provided with a slight preponderance Mh, it should tilt to an
+angle E with the vertical, and thus demonstrate experimentally the
+rotation of the earth.</p>
+
+<p>In Foucault&rsquo;s gyroscope (<i>Comptes rendus</i>, 1852; Perry, p. 105)
+<span class="sidenote">Foucault&rsquo;s gyroscope.</span>
+the preponderance is made zero, and the axis points to
+the pole, when free to move in the meridian.</p>
+
+<p>Generally, if constrained to move in any other plane,
+the axis seeks the position nearest to the polar axis, like a dipping
+needle with respect to the magnetic pole. (<i>A gyrostatic working
+model of the magnetic compass</i>, by Sir W. Thomson. British Association
+Report, Montreal, 1884. A. S. Chessin, St Louis Academy
+of Science, January 1902.)</p>
+
+<p>A spinning top with a polished upper plane surface will provide
+an artificial horizon at sea, when the real horizon is obscured.
+The first instrument of this kind was constructed by
+Serson, and is described in the <i>Gentleman&rsquo;s Magazine</i>,
+<span class="sidenote">Gyroscopic horizon.</span>
+vol. xxiv., 1754; also by Segner in his <i>Specimen theoriae
+turbinum</i> (Halae, 1755). The inventor was sent to sea by the Admiralty
+to test his instrument, but he was lost in the wreck of the
+&ldquo;Victory,&rdquo; 1744. A copy of the Serson top, from the royal collection,
+is now in the Museum of King&rsquo;s College, London. Troughton&rsquo;s
+Nautical Top (1819) is intended for the same purpose.</p>
+
+<p>The instrument is in favour with French navigators, perfected by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page772" id="page772"></a>772</span>
+Admiral Fleuriais (fig. 9); but it must be noticed that the horizon
+given by the top is inclined to the true horizon at the angle E given
+by equation (3) above; and if &mu;<span class="su">1</span> is the precessional angular velocity
+as given by (3) § 4, and T = 2&pi;/&mu;, its period in seconds,</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">tan E =</td> <td>&mu;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">cos lat =</td> <td>T cos lat</td>
+<td rowspan="2">, or E =</td> <td>T cos lat</td>
+<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">&mu;<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="denom">86400</td>
+<td class="denom">8&pi;</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(4)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">if E is expressed in minutes, taking &mu; = 2&pi;/86400; thus making
+the true latitude E nautical miles to the south of that given by
+the top (<i>Revue maritime</i>, 1890; <i>Comptes rendus</i>, 1896).</p>
+
+<p>This can be seen by elementary consideration of the theory above,
+for the velocity of the vector OC&prime; of the top due to the rotation of the
+earth is</p>
+
+<p class="center">&mu;·OC&prime; cos lat = gMh sin E = &mu;<span class="su">1</span>·OC&prime; sin E,</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">sin E =</td> <td>&mu;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">cos lat, E =</td> <td>T cos lat</td>
+<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">&mu;<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="denom">8&pi;</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(5)</div>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:252px; height:215px" src="images/img772.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">in which 8&pi; can be replaced by 25, in practice; so that the Fleuriais
+gyroscopic horizon is an illustration of the influence of the rotation of
+the earth and of the need for its
+allowance.</p>
+
+<p>7. In the ordinary treatment of
+the general theory of the gyroscope,
+the motion is
+referred to two sets of
+rectangular axes; the
+<span class="sidenote">Euler&rsquo;s coordinate angles.</span>
+one Ox, Oy, Oz fixed
+in space, with Oz vertically upward
+and the other OX, OY,
+OZ fixed in the rotating wheel
+with OZ in the axis of figure
+OC.</p>
+
+<p>The relative position of the two
+sets of axes is given by means of
+Euler&rsquo;s unsymmetrical angles &theta;,
+&phi;, &psi;, such that the successive turning of the axes Ox, Oy, Oz
+through the angles (i.) &psi; about Oz, (ii.) &theta; about OE, (iii.) &phi; about
+OZ, brings them into coincidence with OX, OY, OZ, as shown in
+fig. 11, representing the <i>concave</i> side of a spherical surface.</p>
+
+<p>The component angular velocities about OD, OE, OZ are</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="ov">&psi;</span> sin &theta;, <span class="ov">&theta;</span>, <span class="ov">&phi;</span> + <span class="ov">&psi;</span> cos &theta;;</p>
+<div class="ref">(1)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">so that, denoting the components about OX, OY, OZ by P, Q, R,</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">P =</td> <td class="tcr"><span class="ov">&theta;</span> cos &phi;</td> <td class="tcl">+ <span class="ov">&psi;</span> sin &theta; sin &phi;,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Q =</td> <td class="tcr">&minus;<span class="ov">&theta;</span> sin &phi;</td> <td class="tcl">+ <span class="ov">&psi;</span> sin &theta; cos &phi;,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">R =</td> <td class="tcr"><span class="ov">&phi;</span></td> <td class="tcl">+ <span class="ov">&psi;</span> cos &theta;.</td></tr>
+</table>
+<div class="ref">(2)</div>
+
+<p>Consider, for instance, the motion of a fly-wheel of preponderance
+Mh, and equatoreal moment of inertia A, of which the axis OC is
+held in a light ring ZCX at a constant angle &gamma; with OZ, while OZ is
+held by another ring zZ, which constrains it to move round the
+vertical Oz at a constant inclination &theta; with constant angular velocity
+&mu;, so that</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="ov">&theta;</span> = 0, <span class="ov">&psi;</span> = &mu;;</p>
+<div class="ref">(3)</div>
+
+<p class="center">P = &mu; sin &theta; sin &phi;, Q = &mu; sin &theta; cos &phi;, R = <span class="ov">&phi;</span> + &mu; cos &theta;.</p>
+<div class="ref">(4)</div>
+
+<p>With CXF a quadrant, the components of angular velocity and
+momentum about OF, OY, are</p>
+
+<p class="center">P cos &gamma; &minus; R sin &gamma;, Q, and A (P cos &gamma; &minus; R sin &gamma;), AQ,</p>
+<div class="ref">(5)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">so that, denoting the components of angular momentum of the
+fly-wheel about OC, OX, OY, OZ by K or G&prime;, h<span class="su">1</span>, h<span class="su">2</span>, h<span class="su">3</span>,</p>
+
+<p class="center">h<span class="su">1</span> =  A (P cos &gamma; &minus; R sin &gamma;) cos &gamma; + K sin &gamma;,</p>
+<div class="ref">(6)</div>
+
+<p class="center">h<span class="su">2</span> =  AQ,</p>
+<div class="ref">(7)</div>
+
+<p class="center">h<span class="su">3</span> = &minus;A (P cos &gamma; &minus; R sin &gamma;) sin &gamma; + K cos &gamma;;</p>
+<div class="ref">(8)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">and the dynamical equation</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>dh<span class="su">3</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">&minus; h<span class="su">1</span>Q + h<span class="su">2</span>P = N,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">dt</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(9)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">with K constant, and with preponderance downward</p>
+
+<p class="center">N = gMh cos zY sin &gamma; = gMh sin &gamma; sin &theta; cos &phi;,</p>
+<div class="ref">(10)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">reduces to</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">A</td> <td>d<span class="sp">2</span>&phi;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">sin &gamma; + A&mu;<span class="sp">2</span> sin &gamma; sin<span class="sp">2</span> &theta; sin &phi; cos &phi;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">dt<span class="sp">2</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="center">+ A&mu;<span class="sp">2</span> cos &gamma; sin &theta; cos &theta; cos &phi; &minus; (K&mu; + gMh) sin &theta; cos &phi; = 0.</p>
+<div class="ref">(11)</div>
+
+<p>The position of relative equilibrium is given by</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">cos &phi; = 0, and sin &phi; =</td> <td>K&mu; + gMh &minus; A&mu;<span class="sp">2</span> cos &gamma; cos &theta;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">A&mu;<span class="sp">2</span> sin &gamma; sin &theta;</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(12)</div>
+
+<p>For small values of &mu; the equation becomes</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">A</td> <td>d<span class="sp">2</span>&phi;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">sin &gamma; &minus; (K&mu; + gMh) sin &theta; cos &phi; = 0,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">dt<span class="sp">2</span></td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(13)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">so that &phi; = ½&pi; gives the position of stable equilibrium, and the period
+of a small oscillation is 2&pi; &radic;{A sin &gamma;/(K&mu; + gMh) sin &theta;}.</p>
+
+<p>In the general case, denoting the periods of vibration about
+&phi; = ½&pi;, &minus;½&pi;, and the sidelong position of equilibrium by 2&pi;/(n<span class="su">1</span>, n<span class="su">2</span>, or
+n<span class="su">3</span>), we shall find</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">n<span class="su">1</span><span class="sp">2</span> =</td> <td>sin &theta;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">{ gMh + K&mu; &minus; A&mu;<span class="sp">2</span> cos (&gamma; &minus; &theta;) },</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">A sin &gamma;</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(14)</div>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">n<span class="su">2</span><span class="sp">2</span> =</td> <td>sin &theta;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">{ &minus;gMh &minus; K&mu; + A&mu;<span class="sp">2</span> cos (&gamma; + &theta;) },</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">A sin &gamma;</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(15)</div>
+
+<p class="center">n<span class="su">3</span> = n<span class="su">1</span> n<span class="su">2</span>/&mu; sin &theta;.</p>
+<div class="ref">(16)</div>
+
+<p>The first integral of (11) gives</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">½A <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>d&phi;</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span></td> <td><span class="sp">2</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">sin &gamma; + ½A&mu;<span class="sp">2</span> sin &gamma; sin<span class="sp">2</span> &theta; sin<span class="sp">2</span> &phi;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">dt</td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="center">&minus; A&mu;<span class="sp">2</span> cos &gamma; sin &theta; cos &theta; sin &phi; + (K&mu; + gMh) sin &theta; sin &phi; &minus; H = 0,</p>
+<div class="ref">(17)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">and putting tan (¼&pi; + ½&phi;) = z, this reduces to</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>dz</td>
+<td rowspan="2">n &radic;Z</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">dt</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(18)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">where Z is a quadratic in z<span class="sp">2</span>, so that z is a Jacobian elliptic function
+of t, and we have</p>
+
+<p class="center">tan (¼&pi; + ½&phi;) = C (tn, dn, nc, or cn) nt,</p>
+<div class="ref">(19)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">according as the ring ZC performs complete revolutions, or oscillates
+about a sidelong position of equilibrium, or oscillates about the
+stable position of equilibrium &phi; = ±½&pi;.</p>
+
+<p>Suppose Oz is parallel to the earth&rsquo;s axis, and &mu; is the diurnal
+rotation, the square of which may be neglected, then if Gilbert&rsquo;s
+barogyroscope of § 6 has the knife-edges turned in azimuth to make
+an angle &beta; with E. and W., so that OZ lies in the horizon at an
+angle E·&beta;·N., we must put &gamma; = ½&pi;, cos &theta; = sin &alpha; sin &beta;; and putting
+&phi; = ½&pi; &minus; &delta; + E, where &delta; denotes the angle between Zz and the vertical
+plane Z&zeta; through the zenith &zeta;,</p>
+
+<p class="center">sin &theta; cos &delta; = cos &alpha;, sin &theta; sin &delta; = sin &alpha; cos &beta;;</p>
+<div class="ref">(20)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">so that equations (9) and (10) for relative equilibrium reduce to</p>
+
+<p class="center">gMh sin E = KQ = K&mu; sin &theta; cos &phi; = K&mu; sin &theta; sin (&delta; &minus; E),</p>
+<div class="ref">(21)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">and will change (3) § 6 into</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">tan E =</td> <td>K&mu; sin &alpha; cos &beta;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">gMh + K&mu; cos &alpha;</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(22)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">a multiplication of (3) § 6 by cos &beta; (Gilbert, <i>Comptes rendus</i>, 1882).</p>
+
+<p>Changing the sign of K or h and E and denoting the revolutions/second
+of the gyroscope wheel by F, then in the preceding
+notation, T denoting the period of vibration as a simple pendulum,</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">tan E =</td> <td>K&mu; sin &alpha; cos &beta;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>F sin &alpha; cos &beta;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">gMh &minus; K&mu; cos &alpha;</td> <td class="denom">86400 A/T<span class="sp">2</span>C &minus; F cos &alpha;</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(23)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">so that the gyroscope would reverse if it were possible to make
+F cos &alpha; &gt; 86400 A/T<span class="sp">2</span>C (Föppl, <i>Münch. Ber</i>, 1904).</p>
+
+<p>A gyroscopic pendulum is made by the addition to it of a fly-wheel,
+balanced and mounted, as in Gilbert&rsquo;s barogyroscope, in a
+ring movable about an axis fixed in the pendulum, in the vertical
+plane of motion.</p>
+
+<p>As the pendulum falls away to an angle &theta; with the upward vertical,
+and the axis of the fly-wheel makes an angle &phi; with the vertical plane
+of motion, the three components of angular momentum are</p>
+
+<p class="center">h<span class="su">1</span> = K cos &phi;, h<span class="su">2</span> = A<span class="ov">&theta;</span> + K sin &phi;, h<span class="su">3</span> = A<span class="ov">&phi;</span>,</p>
+<div class="ref">(24)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">where h<span class="su">3</span> is the component about the axis of the ring and K of the
+fly-wheel about its axis; and if L, M&prime;, N denote the components of
+the couple of reaction of the ring, L may be ignored, while N is zero,
+with P = 0, Q = <span class="ov">&theta;</span>, R = 0, so that</p>
+
+<p class="center">M&prime; = h<span class="su">2</span> = A<span class="ov bold">&theta;</span> + K<span class="ov">&phi;</span> cos &phi;,</p>
+<div class="ref">(25)</div>
+
+<p class="center">0 = h<span class="su">3</span> &minus; h<span class="su">1</span><span class="ov">&theta;</span> = A<span class="ov bold">&phi;</span> &minus; K<span class="ov">&theta;</span> cos &phi;.</p>
+<div class="ref">(26)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">For the motion of the pendulum, including the fly-wheel,</p>
+
+<p class="center">MK<span class="sp">2</span><span class="ov bold">&theta;</span> = gMH sin &theta; &minus; M&prime;
+                   = gMH sin &theta; &minus; A<span class="ov bold">&theta;</span> &minus; K<span class="ov">&phi;</span> cos &phi;.</p>
+<div class="ref">(27)</div>
+
+<p>If &theta; and &phi; remain small,</p>
+
+<p class="center">A<span class="ov bold">&phi;</span> = K<span class="ov">&theta;</span>, A<span class="ov">&phi;</span> = K(&theta; &minus; &alpha;),</p>
+<div class="ref">(28)</div>
+
+<p class="center">(MK<span class="sp">2</span> + A) <span class="ov bold">&theta;</span> + (K<span class="sp">2</span>/A) (&theta; &minus; &alpha;) &minus; gMH&theta; = 0;</p>
+<div class="ref">(29)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">so that the upright position will be stable if K<span class="sp">2</span> &gt; gMHA, or the
+rotation energy of the wheel greater than ½A/C times the energy
+acquired by the pendulum in falling between the vertical and
+horizontal position; and the vibration will synchronize with a simple
+pendulum of length</p>
+
+<p class="center">(MK<span class="sp">2</span> + A) / [(K<span class="sp">2</span>/gA) &minus; MH].</p>
+<div class="ref">(30)</div>
+
+<p>This gyroscopic pendulum may be supposed to represent a ship
+among waves, or a carriage on a monorail, and so affords an explanation
+of the gyroscopic action essential in the apparatus of Schlick
+and Brennan.</p>
+
+<p>8. Careful scrutiny shows that the steady motion of a
+top is not steady absolutely; it reveals a small nutation
+<span class="sidenote">General motion of the top.</span>
+superposed, so that a complete investigation requires
+a return to the equations of unsteady motion, and for the
+small oscillation to consider them in a penultimate form.</p>
+
+<p>In the general motion of the top the vector OH of resultant angular
+momentum is no longer compelled to lie in the vertical plane COC&prime;
+(fig. 4), but since the axis Oh of the gravity couple is always horizontal,
+H will describe a curve in a fixed horizontal plane through C.
+The vector OC&prime; of angular momentum about the axis will be constant
+in length, but vary in direction; and OK will be the component
+angular momentum in the vertical plane COC&prime;, if the planes through
+C and C&prime; perpendicular to the lines OC and OC&prime; intersect in the line
+KH; and if KH is the component angular momentum perpendicular
+to the plane COC&prime;, the resultant angular momentum OH has the
+three components OC&prime;, C&prime;K, KH, represented in Euler&rsquo;s angles by</p>
+
+<p class="center">KH = A d&theta;/dt, C&prime;K = A sin &theta;d &psi;/dt, OC&prime; = G&prime;.</p>
+<div class="ref">(1)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">Drawing KM vertical and KN parallel to OC&prime;, then</p>
+
+<p class="center">KM  = A d&psi;/dt, KN = CR &minus; A cos &theta; d&psi;/dt = (C &minus; A) R + A d&phi;/dt</p>
+<div class="ref">(2)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">so that in the spherical top, with C = A, KN = A d&phi;/dt.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page773" id="page773"></a>773</span></p>
+
+<p>The velocity of H is in the direction KH perpendicular to the plane
+COC&prime;, and equal to gMh sin &theta; or An<span class="sp">2</span> sin &theta;, so that if a point in the
+axis OC&prime; at a distance An<span class="sp">2</span> from O is projected on the horizontal plane
+through C in the point P on CK, the curve described by P, turned
+forwards through a right angle, will be the hodograph of H; this is
+expressed by</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">An<span class="sp">2</span> sin &theta; e<span class="sp">(&psi; + 1/2&pi;)i</span> = iAn<span class="sp">2</span> sin &theta; e<span class="sp">&psi;i</span> =</td> <td>d</td>
+<td rowspan="2">(&rho;e<span class="sp">&#8182;i</span>)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">dt</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(3)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">where &rho;e<span class="sp">&#8182;i</span> is the vector CH; and so the curve described by P and
+the motion of the axis of the top is derived from the curve described
+by H by a differentiation.</p>
+
+<p>Resolving the velocity of H in the direction CH,</p>
+
+<p class="center">d·CH/dt = An<span class="sp">2</span> sin &theta; sin KCH = An<span class="sp">2</span> sin &theta; KH/CH,</p>
+<div class="ref">(4)</div>
+
+<p class="center">d·½CH<span class="sp">2</span>/dt = A<span class="sp">2</span>n<span class="sp">2</span>sin &theta; d&theta;/dt.</p>
+<div class="ref">(5)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">and integrating</p>
+
+<p class="center">½CH<span class="sp">2</span> = A<span class="sp">2</span>n<span class="sp">2</span> (E &minus; cos &theta;),</p>
+<div class="ref">(6)</div>
+
+<p class="center">½OH<span class="sp">2</span> = A<span class="sp">2</span>n<span class="sp">2</span> (F &minus; cos &theta;),</p>
+<div class="ref">(7)</div>
+
+<p class="center">½C&prime;H<span class="sp">2</span> = A<span class="sp">2</span>n<span class="sp">2</span> (D &minus; cos &theta;),</p>
+<div class="ref">(8)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">where D, E, F are constants, connected by</p>
+
+<p class="center">F = E + G<span class="sp">2</span>/2A<span class="sp">2</span>n<span class="sp">2</span> = D + G&prime;<span class="sp">2</span>/2A<span class="sp">2</span>n<span class="sp">2</span>.</p>
+<div class="ref">(9)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">Then</p>
+
+<p class="center">KH<span class="sp">2</span> = OH<span class="sp">2</span> &minus; OK<span class="sp">2</span>,</p>
+<div class="ref">(10)</div>
+
+<p class="center">OK<span class="sp">2</span> sin<span class="sp">2</span> &theta; = CC&prime;<span class="sp">2</span> = G<span class="sp">2</span> &minus; 2GG&prime; cos &theta; + G&prime;<span class="sp">2</span>,</p>
+<div class="ref">(11)</div>
+
+<p class="center">A<span class="sp">2</span> sin<span class="sp">2</span> &theta; (d&theta;/dt)<span class="sp">2</span> = 2A<span class="sp">2</span>n<span class="sp">2</span> (F &minus; cos &theta;) sin<span class="sp">2</span> &theta; &minus; G<span class="sp">2</span> + 2GG&prime; cos &theta; &minus; G&prime;<span class="sp">2</span>;</p>
+<div class="ref">(12)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">and putting cos &theta; = z,</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>dz</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span> = 2n<span class="sp">2</span> (F &minus; z) (1 &minus; z<span class="sp">2</span>) &minus; (G<span class="sp">2</span> &minus; 2GG&prime;z + G&prime;<span class="sp">2</span>) /A<span class="sp">2</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">dt</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(13)</div>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>= 2n<span class="sp">2</span> (E &minus; z) (1 &minus; z<span class="sp">2</span>) &minus; (G&prime; &minus; Gz)<span class="sp">2</span> /A<span class="sp">2</span></p>
+
+<p>= 2n<span class="sp">2</span> (D &minus; z) (1 &minus; z<span class="sp">2</span>) &minus; (G &minus; G&prime;z)<span class="sp">2</span> /A<span class="sp">2</span></p>
+
+<p>= 2n<span class="sp">2</span> Z suppose.</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Denoting the roots of Z = 0 by z<span class="su">1</span>, z<span class="su">2</span>, z<span class="su">3</span>, we shall have them arranged
+in the order</p>
+
+<p class="center">z<span class="su">1</span> &gt; 1 &gt; z<span class="su">2</span> &gt; z &gt; z<span class="su">3</span> &gt; &minus;1.</p>
+<div class="ref">(14)</div>
+
+<p class="center">(dz/dt)<span class="sp">2</span> = 2n<span class="sp">2</span> (z<span class="su">1</span> &minus; z) (z<span class="su">2</span> &minus; z) (z &minus; z<span class="su">3</span>).</p>
+<div class="ref">(15)</div>
+
+<p class="center">nt = <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp1">z</span><span class="su1">z<span class="su">3</span></span> dz/ &radic;(2Z),</p>
+<div class="ref">(16)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">an elliptic integral of the first kind, which with</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">m = n <span class="f200">&radic;</span></td> <td>z<span class="su">1</span> &minus; z<span class="su">3</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">, &kappa;<span class="sp">2</span> =</td> <td>z<span class="su">2</span> &minus; z<span class="su">3</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">2</td> <td class="denom">z<span class="su">1</span> &minus; z<span class="su">2</span></td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(17)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">can be expressed, when normalized by the factor &radic;(z<span class="su">1</span> &minus; z<span class="su">3</span>)/2, by the
+inverse elliptic function in the form</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">mt = <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp1">z</span><span class="su1">z<span class="su">3</span></span></td> <td>&radic; (z<span class="su">1</span> &minus; z<span class="su">3</span>) dz</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">&radic; [4 (z<span class="su">1</span> &minus; z) (z<span class="su">2</span> &minus; z) (z &minus; z<span class="su">3</span>)]</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">= sn<span class="sp">&minus;1</span> <span class="f200">&radic;</span></td> <td>z &minus; z<span class="su">3</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">= cn<span class="sp">&minus;1</span> <span class="f200">&radic;</span></td> <td>z<span class="su">2</span> &minus; z</td>
+<td rowspan="2">= dn<span class="sp">&minus;1</span> <span class="f200">&radic;</span></td> <td>z<span class="su">1</span> &minus; z</td>
+<td rowspan="2">.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">z<span class="su">2</span> &minus; z<span class="su">3</span></td> <td class="denom">z<span class="su">2</span> &minus; z<span class="su">3</span></td>
+<td class="denom">z<span class="su">1</span> &minus; z<span class="su">3</span></td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(18)</div>
+
+<p class="center">z &minus; z<span class="su">3</span> = (z<span class="su">2</span> &minus; z<span class="su">3</span>) sn<span class="sp">2</span>mt, z<span class="su">2</span> &minus; z = (z<span class="su">2</span> &minus; z<span class="su">3</span>) cn<span class="sp">2</span>mt,
+z<span class="su">1</span> &minus; z = (z<span class="su">1</span> &minus; z<span class="su">3</span>) dn<span class="sp">2</span>mt.</p>
+<div class="ref">(19)</div>
+
+<p class="center">z = z<span class="su">2</span>sn<span class="sp">2</span>mt + z<span class="su">3</span>cn<span class="sp">2</span>mt.</p>
+<div class="ref">(20)</div>
+
+<p>Interpreted dynamically, the axis of the top keeps time with the
+beats of a simple pendulum of length</p>
+
+<p class="center">L = l/½ (z<span class="su">1</span> &minus; z<span class="su">3</span>),</p>
+<div class="ref">(21)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">suspended from a point at a height ½ (z<span class="su">1</span> + z<span class="su">3</span>)l above O, in such a
+manner that a point on the <span class="correction" title="amended from pedulum">pendulum</span> at a distance</p>
+
+<p class="center">½ (z<span class="su">1</span> &minus; z<span class="su">3</span>) l = l<span class="sp">2</span>/L</p>
+<div class="ref">(22)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">from the point of suspension moves so as to be always at the same
+level as the centre of oscillation of the top.</p>
+
+<p>The polar co-ordinates of H are denoted by &rho;, &#8182; in the horizontal
+plane through C; and, resolving the velocity of H perpendicular to
+CH,</p>
+
+<p class="center">&rho;d&#8182;/dt = An<span class="sp">2</span> sin &theta; cos KCH.</p>
+<div class="ref">(23)</div>
+
+<p class="center">&rho;<span class="sp">2</span>d&#8182;/dt = An<span class="sp">2</span> sin &theta;·CK
+= An<span class="sp">2</span> (G&prime; &minus; G cos &theta;)</p>
+<div class="ref">(24)</div>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">&#8182; = ½ <span class="f150">&int;</span></td> <td>G&prime; &minus; Gz</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td>dt</td>
+<td rowspan="2">= <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="su">z<span class="su">3</span></span></td> <td>(G&prime; &minus; Gz) / 2An</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td>dz</td>
+<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">E &minus; z</td> <td class="denom">A</td>
+<td class="denom">E &minus; z</td> <td class="denom">&radic; (2Z)</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(25)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">an elliptic integral, of the third kind, with pole at z = E; and then</p>
+
+<p class="center">&#8182; &minus; &psi; = KCH = tan<span class="sp">&minus;1</span> KH/CH</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">= tan<span class="sp">&minus;1</span></td> <td>A sin &theta; d&theta;/dt</td>
+<td rowspan="2">= tan<span class="sp">&minus;1</span></td> <td>&radic; (2Z)</td>
+<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">G&prime; &minus; G cos &theta;</td> <td class="denom">(G&prime; &minus; Gz) / An</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(26)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">which determines &psi;.</p>
+
+<p>Otherwise, from the geometry of fig. 4,</p>
+
+<p class="center">C&prime;K sin &theta; = OC &minus; OC&prime; cos &theta;,</p>
+<div class="ref">(27)</div>
+
+<p class="center">A sin<span class="sp">2</span> &theta; d&psi;/dt = G &minus; G&prime; cos &theta;,</p>
+<div class="ref">(28)</div>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">&psi; = <span class="f150">&int;</span></td> <td>G &minus; G&prime;z</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td>dt</td>
+<td rowspan="2">= ½ <span class="f150">&int;</span></td> <td>G &minus; G&prime;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td>dt</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ ½ <span class="f150">&int;</span></td> <td>G + G&prime;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td>dt</td>
+<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">1 &minus; z<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="denom">A</td>
+<td class="denom">1 &minus; z</td> <td class="denom">A</td>
+<td class="denom">1 + z</td> <td class="denom">A</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(29)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">the sum of two elliptic integrals of the third kind, with pole at z = ±1;
+and the relation in (25) (26) shows the addition of these two integrals
+into a single integral, with pole at z = E.</p>
+
+<p>The motion of a sphere, rolling and spinning in the interior of a
+spherical bowl, or on the top of a sphere, is found to be of the same
+character as the motion of the axis of a spinning top about a fixed
+point.</p>
+
+<p>The curve described by H can be identified as a Poinsot herpolhode,
+that is, the curve traced out by rolling a quadric surface with centre
+fixed at O on the horizontal plane through C; and Darboux has
+shown also that a deformable hyperboloid made of the generating
+lines, with O and H at opposite ends of a diameter and one generator
+fixed in OC, can be moved so as to describe the curve H; the tangent
+plane of the hyperboloid at H being normal to the curve of H; and
+then the other generator through O will coincide in the movement with
+OC&prime;, the axis of the top; thus the Poinsot herpolhode curve H is also
+the trace made by rolling a line of curvature on an ellipsoid confocal
+to the hyperboloid of one sheet, on the plane through C.</p>
+
+<p>Kirchhoff&rsquo;s <i>Kinetic Analogue</i> asserts also that the curve of H is
+the projection of a tortuous elastica, and that the spherical curve of
+C&prime; is a hodograph of the elastica described with constant velocity.</p>
+
+<p>Writing the equation of the focal ellipse of the Darboux hyperboloid
+through H, enlarged to double scale so that O is the centre,</p>
+
+<p class="center">x<span class="sp">2</span>/&alpha;<span class="sp">2</span> + y<span class="sp">2</span>/&beta;<span class="sp">2</span> + z<span class="sp">2</span>/O = 1,</p>
+<div class="ref">(30)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">with &alpha;<span class="sp">2</span> + &lambda;, &beta;<span class="sp">2</span> + &lambda;, &lambda; denoting the squares of the semiaxes of a confocal
+ellipsoid, and &lambda; changed into &mu; and &nu; for a confocal hyperboloid
+of one sheet and of two sheets.</p>
+
+<p class="center">&lambda; &gt; 0 &gt; &mu; &gt; &minus;&beta;<span class="sp">2</span> &gt; &nu; &gt; &minus;&alpha;<span class="sp">2</span>,</p>
+<div class="ref">(31)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">then in the deformation of the hyperboloid, &lambda; and &nu; remain constant
+at H; and utilizing the theorems of solid geometry on confocal
+quadrics, the magnitudes may be chosen so that</p>
+
+<p class="center">&alpha;<span class="sp">2</span> + &lambda; + &beta;<span class="sp">2</span> + &mu; + &nu; = OH<span class="sp">2</span> = ½k<span class="sp">2</span> (F &minus; z) = &rho;<span class="sp">2</span> + OC<span class="sp">2</span>.</p>
+<div class="ref">(32)</div>
+
+<p class="center">&alpha;<span class="sp">2</span> + &mu; = ½k<span class="sp">2</span> (z<span class="su">1</span> &minus; z) = &rho;<span class="sp">2</span> &minus; &rho;<span class="su">1</span><span class="sp">2</span>,</p>
+<div class="ref">(33)</div>
+
+<p class="center">&beta;<span class="sp">2</span> + &mu; = ½k<span class="sp">2</span> (z<span class="su">2</span> &minus; z) = &rho;<span class="sp">2</span> &minus; &rho;<span class="su">2</span><span class="sp">2</span>,</p>
+<div class="ref">(34)</div>
+
+<p class="center">&mu; = ½k<span class="sp">2</span> (z<span class="su">3</span> &minus; z) = &rho;<span class="sp">2</span> &minus; &rho;<span class="su">3</span><span class="sp">2</span>,</p>
+<div class="ref">(35)</div>
+
+<p class="center">&rho;<span class="su">1</span><span class="sp">2</span> &lt; 0 &lt; &rho;<span class="su">2</span><span class="sp">2</span> &lt; &rho;<span class="sp">2</span> &lt; &rho;<span class="su">3</span><span class="sp">2</span>,</p>
+<div class="ref">(36)</div>
+
+<p class="center">F = z<span class="su">1</span> + z<span class="su">2</span> + z<span class="su">3</span>,</p>
+<div class="ref">(37)</div>
+
+<p class="center">&lambda; &minus; 2&mu; + &nu; = k<span class="sp">2</span>z, &lambda; &minus; &nu; = k<span class="sp">2</span>,</p>
+<div class="ref">(38)</div>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>&lambda; &minus; &mu;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>1 + z</td>
+<td rowspan="2">,</td> <td>&mu; &minus; &nu;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>1 &minus; z</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">&lambda; &minus; &nu;</td> <td class="denom">2</td>
+<td class="denom">&lambda; &minus; &nu;</td> <td class="denom">2</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(39)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">with z = cos &theta;, &theta; denoting the angle between the generating lines
+through H; and with OC = &delta;, OC&prime; = &delta;&prime;, the length k has been chosen
+so that in the preceding equations</p>
+
+<p class="center">&delta;/k = G/2An, &delta;&prime;/k = G&prime;/2An;</p>
+<div class="ref">(40)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">and &delta;, &delta;&prime;, k may replace G, G&prime;, 2An; then</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>2Z</td>
+<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>1</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>d&theta;</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span></td> <td><span class="sp">2</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>4KH<span class="sp">2</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">1 &minus; z<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="denom">n<span class="sp">2</span></td>
+<td class="denom">dt</td> <td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="denom">k<span class="sp">2</span></td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(41)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">while from (33-39)</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>2Z</td>
+<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>4 (&alpha;<span class="sp">2</span> + &mu;) (&beta;<span class="sp">2</span> + &mu;) &mu;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">1 &minus; z<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="denom">k<span class="sp">2</span> (&mu; &minus; &lambda;) (&mu; &minus; &nu;)</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(42)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">which verifies that KH is the perpendicular from O on the tangent
+plane of the hyperboloid at H, and so proves Darboux&rsquo;s theorem.</p>
+
+<p>Planes through O perpendicular to the generating lines cut off a
+constant length HQ = &delta;, HQ&prime; = &delta;&prime;, so the line of curvature described
+by H in the deformation of the hyperboloid, the intersection of the
+fixed confocal ellipsoid &lambda; and hyperboloid of two sheets &nu;, rolls on a
+horizontal plane through C and at the same time on a plane through
+C&prime; perpendicular to OC&prime;.</p>
+
+<p>Produce the generating line HQ to meet the principal planes of the
+confocal system in V, T, P; these will also be fixed points on the
+generator; and putting</p>
+
+<p class="center">(HV, HT, HP,)/HQ = D/(A, B, C,),</p>
+<div class="ref">(43)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">then</p>
+
+<p class="center">Ax<span class="sp">2</span> + By<span class="sp">2</span> + Cz<span class="sp">2</span> = D&delta;<span class="sp">2</span></p>
+<div class="ref">(44)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">is a quadric surface with the squares of the semiaxes given by
+HV·HQ, HT·HQ, HP·HQ, and with HQ the normal line at H, and
+so touching the horizontal plane through C; and the direction
+cosines of the normal being</p>
+
+<p class="center">x/HV, y/HT, z/HP,</p>
+<div class="ref">(45)</div>
+
+<p class="center">A<span class="sp">2</span>x<span class="sp">2</span> + B<span class="sp">2</span>y<span class="sp">2</span> + C<span class="sp">2</span>z<span class="sp">2</span> = D<span class="sp">2</span>&delta;<span class="sp">2</span>,</p>
+<div class="ref">(46)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">the line of curvature, called the polhode curve by Poinsot, being the
+intersection of the quadric surface (44) with the ellipsoid (46).</p>
+
+<p>There is a second surface associated with (44), which rolls on the
+plane through C&prime;, corresponding to the other generating line HQ&prime;
+through H, so that the same line of curvature rolls on two planes at a
+constant distance from O, &delta; and &delta;&prime;; and the motion of the top is
+made up of the combination. This completes the statement of
+Jacobi&rsquo;s theorem (<i>Werke</i>, ii. 480) that the motion of a top can be
+resolved into two movements of a body under no force.</p>
+
+<p>Conversely, starting with Poinsot&rsquo;s polhode and herpolhode given
+in (44) (46), the normal plane is drawn at H, cutting the principal
+axes of the rolling quadric in X, Y, Z; and then</p>
+
+<p class="center">&alpha;<span class="sp">2</span> + &mu; = x·OX, &beta;<span class="sp">2</span> + &mu; = y·OY, &mu; = z·OZ,</p>
+<div class="ref">(47)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">this determines the deformable hyperboloid of which one generator
+through H is a normal to the plane through C; and the other
+generator is inclined at an angle &theta;, the inclination of the axis of the
+top, while the normal plane or the parallel plane through O revolves
+with angular velocity d&psi;/dt.</p>
+
+<p>The curvature is useful in drawing a curve of H; the diameter of
+curvature D is given by</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page774" id="page774"></a>774</span></p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">D =</td> <td>dp<span class="sp">2</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>½k<span class="sp">2</span> sin<span class="sp">3</span> &theta;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">,</td> <td>½D</td>
+<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>¼k<span class="sp">2</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">dp</td> <td class="denom">&delta; &minus; &delta;&prime;</td>
+<td class="denom">p</td> <td class="denom">KM·KN</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(48)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">The curvature is zero and H passes through a point of inflexion when
+C&prime; comes into the horizontal plane through C; &psi; will then be
+stationary and the curve described by C&prime; will be looped.</p>
+
+<p>In a state of steady motion, z oscillates between two limits z<span class="su">2</span> and z<span class="su">3</span>
+which are close together; so putting z<span class="su">2</span> = z<span class="su">3</span> the coefficient of z in Z is</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">2Z<span class="su">1</span>z<span class="su">3</span> + z<span class="sp">2</span><span class="su">3</span> = &minus;1 +</td> <td>GG&prime;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">= &minus;1 +</td> <td>(OM cos &theta; + ON) (OM + ON cos &theta;)</td>
+<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">A<span class="sp">2</span>n<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="denom">OM·ON</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(49)</div>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">2z<span class="su">1</span>z<span class="su">3</span> =</td> <td>OM<span class="sp">2</span> + ON<span class="sp">2</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">cos &theta;, z<span class="su">1</span> =</td> <td>OM<span class="sp">2</span> + ON<span class="sp">2</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">OM·ON</td> <td class="denom">2OM·ON</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(50)</div>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">2 (z<span class="su">1</span> &minus; z<span class="su">3</span>) =</td> <td>OM<span class="sp">2</span> &minus; 2OM·ON cos &theta; + ON<span class="sp">2</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>MN<span class="sp">2</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">OM·ON</td> <td class="denom">OM·ON</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(51)</div>
+
+<p>With z<span class="su">2</span> = z<span class="su">3</span>, &kappa; = 0, K = ½&pi;; and the number of beats per second of
+the axis is</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>m</td>
+<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>n</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f200">&radic;</span></td> <td>z<span class="su">1</span> &minus; z<span class="su">3</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>MN</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td>n</td>
+<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">&pi;</td> <td class="denom">&pi;</td>
+<td class="denom">2</td> <td class="denom">&radic; (OM·ON)</td>
+<td class="denom">2&pi;</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(52)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">beating time with a pendulum of length</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">L =</td> <td>l</td>
+<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>4OM·ON</td>
+<td rowspan="2">l.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">½ (z<span class="su">1</span> &minus; z<span class="su">3</span>)</td> <td class="denom">MN<span class="sp">2</span></td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(53)</div>
+
+<p>The wheel making R/2&pi; revolutions per second,</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>beats/second</td>
+<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>MN</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td>n</td>
+<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>C</td>
+<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>MN</td>
+<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">revolutions/second</td> <td class="denom">&radic; (OM·ON)</td>
+<td class="denom">R</td> <td class="denom">A</td>
+<td class="denom">OC&prime;</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(54)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">from (8) (9) § 3; and the apsidal angle is</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">&mu;</td> <td>½&pi;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>A&mu;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>n</td>
+<td rowspan="2">·½&pi; =</td> <td>ON</td>
+<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>2&radic; (OM·ON)</td>
+<td rowspan="2">·½&pi; =</td> <td>ON</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&pi;,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">m</td> <td class="denom">An</td>
+<td class="denom">m</td> <td class="denom">&radic; (OM·ON)</td>
+<td class="denom">MN</td> <td class="denom">MN</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(55)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">and the height of the equivalent conical pendulum &lambda; is given by</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>&lambda;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>g</td>
+<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>n<span class="sp">2</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>OM</td>
+<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>KC</td>
+<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>OL</td>
+<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">l</td> <td class="denom">l&mu;<span class="sp">2</span></td>
+<td class="denom">&mu;<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="denom">ON</td>
+<td class="denom">KC&prime;</td> <td class="denom">OC&prime;</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(56)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">if OR drawn at right angles to OK cuts KC&prime; in R, and RL is drawn
+horizontal to cut the vertical CO in L; thus if OC<span class="sp">2</span> represents l to
+scale, then OL will represent &lambda;.</p>
+
+<p>9. The gyroscope motion in fig. 4 comes to a stop when the rim of
+the wheel touches the ground; and to realize the motion when the
+axis is inclined at a greater angle with the upward vertical, the stalk
+is pivoted in fig. 8 in a lug screwed to the axle of a bicycle hub,
+fastened vertically in a bracket bolted to a beam. The wheel can
+now be spun by hand, and projected in any manner so as to produce
+a desired gyroscopic motion, undulating, looped, or with cusps if the
+stalk of the wheel is dropped from rest.</p>
+
+<p>As the principal part of the motion takes place now in the neighbourhood
+of the lowest position, it is convenient to measure the angle
+&theta; from the downward vertical, and to change the sign of z and G.</p>
+
+<p>Equation (18) § 8 must be changed to</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">mt = nt <span class="f200">&radic;</span></td> <td>z<span class="su">3</span> &minus; z<span class="su">1</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">= <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp1">z<span class="su">3</span></span><span class="su1">z</span></td> <td>&radic; (z<span class="su">3</span> &minus; z<span class="su">1</span>) dz</td>
+<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">2</td> <td class="denom">&radic; (4Z)</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(1)</div>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>Z = (z &minus; F) (1 &minus; z<span class="sp">2</span>) &minus; (G<span class="sp">2</span> &minus; 2GG&prime;z + G&prime;<span class="sp">2</span>) / 2A<span class="sp">2</span>n<span class="sp">2</span></p>
+<p class="i1">= (z &minus; D) (1 &minus; z<span class="sp">2</span>) &minus; (G &minus; G&prime;z)<span class="sp">2</span> / 2A<span class="sp">2</span>n<span class="sp">2</span></p>
+<p class="i1">= (z &minus; E) (1 &minus; z<span class="sp">2</span>) &minus; (G&prime; &minus; Gz)<span class="sp">2</span> / 2A<span class="sp">2</span>n<span class="sp">2</span></p>
+<p class="i1">= (z<span class="su">3</span> &minus; z) (z &minus; z<span class="su">2</span>) (z &minus; z<span class="su">1</span>),</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(2)</div>
+
+<p class="center">1 &gt; z<span class="su">3</span> &gt; z &gt; z<span class="su">2</span> &gt; &minus;1, D, E &gt; z<span class="su">1</span>,</p>
+<div class="ref">(3)</div>
+
+<p class="center">z<span class="su">1</span> + z<span class="su">2</span> + z<span class="su">3</span> = F = D &minus; G&prime;<span class="sp">2</span> / 2A<span class="sp">2</span>n<span class="sp">2</span> = E &minus; G<span class="sp">2</span> / 2A<span class="sp">2</span>n<span class="sp">2</span>,</p>
+<div class="ref">(4)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">and expressed by the inverse elliptic function</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">mt = sn<span class="sp">&minus;1</span> <span class="f200">&radic;</span></td> <td>z<span class="su">3</span> &minus; z</td>
+<td rowspan="2">= cn<span class="sp">&minus;1</span> <span class="f200">&radic;</span></td> <td>z &minus; z<span class="su">2</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">= dn<span class="sp">&minus;1</span> <span class="f200">&radic;</span></td> <td>z &minus; z<span class="su">1</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">z<span class="su">3</span> &minus; z<span class="su">2</span></td> <td class="denom">z<span class="su">3</span> &minus; z<span class="su">2</span></td>
+<td class="denom">z<span class="su">3</span> &minus; z<span class="su">1</span></td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(5)</div>
+
+<p class="center">z = z<span class="su">2</span>sn<span class="sp">2</span>mt + z<span class="su">3</span>cn<span class="sp">2</span>mt, &kappa;<span class="sp">2</span> = (z<span class="su">3</span> &minus; z<span class="su">2</span>) / (z<span class="su">3</span> &minus; z<span class="su">1</span>).</p>
+<div class="ref">(6)</div>
+
+<p>Equation (25) and (29) § 8 is changed to</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">&#8182; = ½ <span class="f150">&int;</span></td> <td>G&prime; &minus; Gz</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td>dt</td>
+<td rowspan="2">= ½ <span class="f150">&int;</span></td> <td>G&prime; &minus; GE</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td>dt</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&minus;</td> <td>Gt</td>
+<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">z &minus; E</td> <td class="denom">A</td>
+<td class="denom">z &minus; E</td> <td class="denom">A</td>
+<td class="denom">2A</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(7)</div>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">&psi; = <span class="f150">&int;</span></td> <td>G&prime;z &minus; G</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td>dt</td>
+<td rowspan="2">= ½ <span class="f150">&int;</span></td> <td>G&prime; + G</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td>dt</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&minus; ½ <span class="f150">&int;</span></td> <td>G&prime; &minus; G</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td>dt</td>
+<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">1 &minus; z<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="denom">A</td>
+<td class="denom">1 &minus; z</td> <td class="denom">A</td>
+<td class="denom">1 + z</td> <td class="denom">A</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(8)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">while &psi; and &#8182; change places in (26).</p>
+
+<p>The Jacobian elliptic parameter of the third elliptic integral in (7)
+can be given by &nu;, where</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">v = <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp1">z<span class="su">3</span></span><span class="su1">E</span></td> <td>&radic; (z<span class="su">3</span> &minus; z<span class="su">1</span>)</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dz = <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp1">z<span class="su">3</span></span><span class="su1">z<span class="su">2</span></span> +
+ <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp1">z<span class="su">2</span></span><span class="su1">E</span>
+ = K + (1 &minus; f) Ki&prime;,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">&radic; (4Z)</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(9)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">where f is a real fraction,</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">(1 &minus; f) K&prime; = <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp1">z<span class="su">2</span></span><span class="su1">E</span></td> <td>&radic; (z<span class="su">3</span> &minus; z<span class="su">1</span>)</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dz,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">&radic; (&minus;4Z)</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(10)</div>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">fK&prime; = <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp1">E</span><span class="su1">z<span class="su">1</span></span></td> <td>&radic; (z<span class="su">3</span> &minus; z<span class="su">1</span>)</td>
+<td rowspan="2">dz,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">&radic; (&minus;4Z)</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">= sn<span class="sp">&minus;1</span> <span class="f200">&radic;</span></td> <td>E &minus; z<span class="su">1</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">= cn<span class="sp">&minus;1</span> <span class="f200">&radic;</span></td> <td>z<span class="su">2</span> &minus; E</td>
+<td rowspan="2">= dn<span class="sp">&minus;1</span> <span class="f200">&radic;</span></td> <td>z<span class="su">3</span> &minus; E</td>
+<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">z<span class="su">2</span> &minus; z<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="denom">z<span class="su">2</span> &minus; z<span class="su">1</span></td>
+<td class="denom">z<span class="su">3</span> &minus; z<span class="su">1</span></td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(11)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">with respect to the comodulus &kappa;&prime;.</p>
+
+<p>Then, with z = E, and</p>
+
+<p class="center">2Z<span class="su">E</span> = &minus;{ (G&prime; &minus; GE) / An}<span class="sp">2</span>,</p>
+<div class="ref">(12)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">if II denotes the apsidal angle of &#8182;, and T the time of a single beat
+of the axle, up or down,</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">II +</td> <td>GT</td>
+<td rowspan="2">= <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp1">z3</span><span class="su1">z2</span></td> <td>&radic; (&minus;2Z<span class="su">E</span>)</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td>dz</td>
+<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">2A</td> <td class="denom">z &minus; E</td>
+<td class="denom">&radic; (2Z)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="center">= ½&pi;f + Kznf K&prime;,</p>
+<div class="ref">(13)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">in accordance with the theory of the complete elliptic integral of the
+third kind.</p>
+
+<p>Interpreted geometrically on the deformable <span class="correction" title="amended from hyperboloia">hyperboloid</span>, flattened
+in the plane of the focal ellipse, if OQ is the perpendicular from the
+centre on the tangent HP, AOQ = amfK&prime;, and the eccentric angle of
+P, measured from the minor axis, is am(1 &minus; f) K&prime;, the eccentricity of
+the focal ellipse being the comodulus &kappa;&prime;.</p>
+
+<p>A point L is taken in QP such that</p>
+
+<p class="center">QL/OA = znfK&prime;,</p>
+<div class="ref">(14)</div>
+
+<p class="center">QV, QT, QP = OA (zs, zc, zd) fK&prime;;</p>
+<div class="ref">(15)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">and with</p>
+
+<p class="center">mT = K, m/n = &radic; (z<span class="su">3</span> &minus; z<span class="su">1</span>) /2 = OA/k,</p>
+<div class="ref">(16)</div>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>GT</td>
+<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>G</td>
+<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>k</td>
+<td rowspan="2">K =</td> <td>QH</td>
+<td rowspan="2">K,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">2A</td> <td class="denom">2An</td>
+<td class="denom">OA</td> <td class="denom">OA</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(17)</div>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">II = ½&pi;f +</td> <td>QL + QH</td>
+<td rowspan="2">K = ½&pi;f +</td> <td>HL</td>
+<td rowspan="2">K.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">OA</td> <td class="denom">OA</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(18)</div>
+
+<p>By choosing for f a simple rational fraction, such as ½, <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span>, ¼, <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">5</span>,
+ ... an algebraical case of motion can be constructed (<i>Annals of
+Mathematics</i>, 1904).</p>
+
+<p>Thus with G&prime; &minus; GE = 0, we have E = z<span class="su">1</span> or z<span class="su">2</span>, never z<span class="su">3</span>; f = 0 or 1;
+and P is at A or B on the focal ellipse; and then</p>
+
+<p class="center">&#8182; = &minus;pt, p = G/2A,</p>
+<div class="ref">(19)</div>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">&psi; + pt = tan<span class="sp">&minus;1</span></td> <td>n&radic; (2Z)</td>
+<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">2p (z &minus; E)</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(20)</div>
+
+<p class="center">sin &theta; exp (&psi; + pt) i = i&radic; [(&minus;z<span class="su">2</span> &minus; z<span class="su">3</span>) (z &minus; z<span class="su">1</span>)] + &radic; [(z<span class="su">3</span> &minus; z) (z &minus; z<span class="su">2</span>)],</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">z<span class="su">1</span> =</td> <td>1 + z<span class="su">2</span> z<span class="su">3</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">, <span class="f200">&radic;</span></td> <td>&minus;z<span class="su">2</span> &minus; z<span class="su">3</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>G</td>
+<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>p</td>
+<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>G&prime;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">, or</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">z<span class="su">2</span> + z<span class="su">3</span></td> <td class="denom">2</td>
+<td class="denom">2An</td> <td class="denom">n</td>
+<td class="denom">2Anz<span class="su">1</span></td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(21)</div>
+
+<p class="center">sin &theta; exp (&psi; + pt)i = i&radic; [(&minus;z<span class="su">1</span> &minus; z<span class="su">3</span>) (z &minus; z<span class="su">2</span>)] + &radic; [(z<span class="su">3</span> &minus; z) (z &minus; z<span class="su">1</span>)],</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">z<span class="su">2</span> =</td> <td>1 + z<span class="su">1</span> z<span class="su">3</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">, <span class="f200">&radic;</span></td> <td>&minus;z<span class="su">1</span> &minus; z<span class="su">3</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>G</td>
+<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>p</td>
+<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>G&prime;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">z<span class="su">1</span> + z<span class="su">3</span></td> <td class="denom">2</td>
+<td class="denom">2An</td> <td class="denom">n</td>
+<td class="denom">2Anz<span class="su">1</span></td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(22)</div>
+
+<p>Thus z<span class="su">2</span> = 0 in (22) makes G&prime; = 0; so that if the stalk is held out
+horizontally and projected with angular velocity 2p about the vertical
+axis OC without giving any spin to the wheel, the resulting motion
+of the stalk is like that of a spherical pendulum, and given by</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">sin &theta; exp (&psi; + pt)i = i <span class="f200">&radic;</span> <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>2p<span class="sp">2</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">cos &theta; <span class="f150">)</span> + <span class="f200">&radic;</span> <span class="f150">(</span> sin<span class="sp">2</span> &theta; &minus; 2</td> <td>p<span class="sp">2</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">cos &theta; <span class="f150">)</span>,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">n<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="denom">n<span class="sp">2</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="center"> = i sin &alpha; &radic; (sec &alpha; cos &theta;) + &radic; [(sec &alpha; + cos &theta;) (cos &alpha; &minus; cos &theta;)],</p>
+<div class="ref">(23)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">if the axis falls in the lowest position to an angle &alpha; with the downward
+vertical.</p>
+
+<p>With z<span class="su">3</span> = 0 in (21) and z<span class="su">2</span> = &minus;cos &beta;, and changing to the upward
+vertical measurement, the motion is given by</p>
+
+<p class="center">sin &theta; e<span class="sp">&psi;i</span> = e<span class="sp">int</span> &radic; ½ cos &beta; [&radic; (1 &minus; cos &beta; cos &theta;) + i&radic; (cos &beta; cos &theta; &minus; cos<span class="sp">2</span> &theta;)],</p>
+<div class="ref">(24)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">and the axis rises from the horizontal position to a series of cusps;
+and the mean precessional motion is the same as in steady motion
+with the same rotation and the axis horizontal.</p>
+
+<p>The special case of f = ½ may be stated here; it is found that</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>p</td>
+<td rowspan="2">exp (&#8182; &minus; pt) i = <span class="f200">&radic;</span></td> <td>(1 + x) (&kappa; &minus; x)</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ i <span class="f200">&radic;</span></td> <td>(1 &minus; x) (&kappa; + x)</td>
+<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">a</td> <td class="denom">2</td>
+<td class="denom">2</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(25)</div>
+
+<p class="center">&rho;<span class="sp">2</span> = a<span class="sp">2</span> (&kappa; &minus; x<span class="sp">2</span>),</p>
+<div class="ref">(26)</div>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">½&lambda;<span class="sp">2</span> sin &theta; exp (&psi; &minus; pt) i = (L &minus; 1 + &kappa; &minus; x) <span class="f200">&radic;</span></td> <td>(1 &minus; x) (&kappa; + x</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">2</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">+ i (L &minus; 1 + &kappa; + x) <span class="f200">&radic;</span></td> <td>(1 + x) (&kappa; &minus; x)</td>
+<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">2</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(27)</div>
+
+<p class="center">L = ½ (1 &minus; &kappa;) + &lambda;p/n,</p>
+<div class="ref">(28)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">so that p = 0 and the motion is made algebraical by taking L = ½ (1 &minus; &kappa;).</p>
+
+<p>The stereoscopic diagram of fig. 12 drawn by T. I. Dewar shows
+these curves for &kappa; = <span class="spp">15</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">17</span>, <span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">5</span>, and <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> (cusps).</p>
+
+<p>10. So far the motion of the axis OC&rsquo; of the top has alone been
+considered; for the specification of any point of the body, Euler&rsquo;s
+third angle &phi; must be introduced, representing the angular displacement
+of the wheel with respect to the stalk. This is given by</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>d&phi;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ cos &theta;</td> <td>d&psi;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">= R,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">dt</td> <td class="denom">dt</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(1)</div>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>d(&phi; + &psi;)</td>
+<td rowspan="2">= <span class="f150">(</span> 1 &minus;</td> <td>C</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span> R +</td> <td>G&prime; + G</td>
+<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">dt</td> <td class="denom">A</td>
+<td class="denom">A (1 + cos &theta;)</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>d(&phi; &minus; &psi;)</td>
+<td rowspan="2">= <span class="f150">(</span> 1 &minus;</td> <td>C</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span> R +</td> <td>G&prime; &minus; G</td>
+<td rowspan="2">.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">dt</td> <td class="denom">A</td>
+<td class="denom">A (1 &minus; cos &theta;)</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(2)</div>
+
+<p>It will simplify the formulas by cancelling a secular term if we
+make C = A, and the top is then called a <i>spherical top</i>; OH becomes
+the axis of instantaneous angular velocity, as well as of resultant
+angular momentum.</p>
+
+<p>When this secular term is restored in the general case, the axis
+OI of angular velocity is obtained by producing Q&prime;H to I, making</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>HI</td>
+<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>A &minus; C</td>
+<td rowspan="2">,</td> <td>HI</td>
+<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>A &minus; C</td>
+<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">Q&prime;H</td> <td class="denom">C</td>
+<td class="denom">Q&prime;I</td> <td class="denom">A</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(3)</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page775" id="page775"></a>775</span></p>
+
+<p>and then the four vector components OC&prime;, C&prime;K, KH, HI give a resultant
+vector OI, representing the angular velocity &omega;, such that</p>
+
+<p class="center">OI/Q&prime;I = &omega;/R.</p>
+<div class="ref">(4)</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:456px; height:893px" src="images/img775.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The point I is then fixed on the generating line Q&prime;H of the deformable
+hyperboloid, and the other generator through I will cut
+the fixed generator OC of the opposite system in a fixed point O&prime;,
+such that IO&prime; is of constant length, and may be joined up by a link,
+which constrains I to move on a sphere.</p>
+
+<p>In the spherical top then,</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">½ (&phi; + &psi;)= <span class="f150">&int;</span></td> <td>G&prime; + G</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td>dt</td>
+<td rowspan="2">, &emsp; ½ (&phi; &minus; &psi;)= <span class="f150">&int;</span></td> <td>G&prime; &minus; G</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td>dt</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">1 + z</td> <td class="denom">2A</td>
+<td class="denom">1 &minus; z</td> <td class="denom">2A</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(5)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">depending on the two elliptic integrals of the third kind, with pole
+at z = ±1; and measuring &theta; from the downward vertical, their
+elliptic parameters are:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">v<span class="su">1</span> = <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp1">&infin;</span><span class="su1">1</span></td> <td>&radic; (z<span class="su">3</span> &minus; z<span class="su">1</span>) dz</td>
+<td rowspan="2">= f<span class="su">1</span>K&prime;i,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">&radic; (4Z)</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(6)</div>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">v<span class="su">2</span> = <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp1">&minus;1</span><span class="su1">&minus;&infin;</span></td> <td>&radic; (z<span class="su">3</span> &minus; z<span class="su">1</span>) dz</td>
+<td rowspan="2">K + (1 &minus; f<span class="su">2</span>) K&prime;i,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">&radic; (4Z)</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(7)</div>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">f<span class="su">1</span>K&prime; = <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp1">&infin;</span><span class="su1">1</span></td> <td>&radic; (z<span class="su">3</span> &minus; z<span class="su">1</span>) dz</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">&radic; ( &minus;4Z)</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">= sn<span class="sp">&minus;1</span> <span class="f200">&radic;</span></td> <td>z<span class="su">3</span> &minus; z<span class="su">1</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">= cn<span class="sp">&minus;1</span> <span class="f200">&radic;</span></td> <td>1 &minus; z<span class="su">3</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">= dn<span class="sp">&minus;1</span> <span class="f200">&radic;</span></td> <td>1 &minus; z<span class="su">2</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">1 &minus; z<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="denom">1 &minus; z<span class="su">1</span></td>
+<td class="denom">1 &minus; z<span class="su">1</span></td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(8)</div>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">(1 &minus; f<span class="su">2</span>) K&prime; = <span class="f150">&int;</span> <span class="sp1">&minus;1</span><span class="su1">z1</span></td> <td>&radic; (z<span class="su">3</span> &minus; z<span class="su">1</span>) dz</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">&radic; ( &minus;4Z)</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">= sn<span class="sp">&minus;1</span> <span class="f200">&radic;</span></td> <td>&minus;1 &minus; z<span class="su">1</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">= cn<span class="sp">&minus;1</span> <span class="f200">&radic;</span></td> <td>1 + z<span class="su">2</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">= dn<span class="sp">&minus;1</span> <span class="f200">&radic;</span></td> <td>1 + z<span class="su">3</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">z<span class="su">2</span> &minus; z<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="denom">z<span class="su">2</span> &minus; z<span class="su">1</span></td>
+<td class="denom">z<span class="su">3</span> &minus; z<span class="su">1</span></td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(9)</div>
+
+<p>Then if v&prime; = K + (1 &minus; f&prime;)K&prime;i is the parameter corresponding to
+z = D, we find</p>
+
+<p class="center">f = f<span class="su">2</span> &minus; f<span class="su">1</span>,  f&prime; = f<span class="su">2</span> + f<span class="su">1</span>,</p>
+<div class="ref">(10)</div>
+
+<p class="center">v = v<span class="su">1</span> + v<span class="su">2</span>,  v&prime; = v<span class="su">1</span> &minus; v<span class="su">2</span>.</p>
+<div class="ref">(11)</div>
+
+<p>The most symmetrical treatment of the motion of any point fixed
+in the top will be found in Klein and Sommerfeld, Theorie des
+Kreisels, to which the reader is referred for details; four new
+functions, &alpha;, &beta;, &gamma;, &delta;, are introduced, defined in terms of Euler&rsquo;s
+angles, &theta;, &psi;, &phi;, by</p>
+
+<p class="center">&alpha; = cos ½&theta; exp ½ (&phi; + &psi;) i,</p>
+<div class="ref">(12)</div>
+
+<p class="center">&beta; = i sin ½&theta; exp ½ (&minus;&phi; + &psi;) i,</p>
+<div class="ref">(13)</div>
+
+<p class="center">&gamma; = i sin ½&theta; exp ½ (&phi; &minus; &psi;) i,</p>
+<div class="ref">(14)</div>
+
+<p class="center">&delta; = cos ½&theta; exp ½ (&minus;&phi; &minus; &psi;) i.</p>
+<div class="ref">(15)</div>
+
+<p>Next Klein takes two functions or co-ordinates &lambda; and &Lambda;, defined by</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">&lambda; =</td> <td>x + yi</td>
+<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>r + z</td>
+<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">r &minus; z</td> <td class="denom">x &minus; yi</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(16)</div>
+
+<p>and &Lambda; the same function of X, Y, Z, so that &lambda;, &Lambda; play the part of
+stereographic representations of the same point (x, y, z) or (X, Y, Z)
+on a sphere of radius r, with respect to poles in which the sphere
+is intersected by Oz and OZ.</p>
+
+<p>These new functions are shown to be connected by the bilinear
+relation</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">&lambda; =</td> <td>&alpha;&Lambda; + &beta;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">, &emsp; &alpha;&delta; &minus; &beta;&gamma; = 1,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">&gamma;&Lambda; + &delta;</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(17)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">in accordance with the annexed scheme of transformation of
+co-ordinates&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc rb bb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&Xi;</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&Eta;</td> <td class="tcc bb">&Zeta;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc rb bb">&xi;</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&alpha;<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&beta;<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="tcc bb">2&alpha;&beta;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc rb bb">&eta;</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&gamma;<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&delta;<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="tcc bb">2&gamma;&delta;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc rb">&zeta;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&alpha;&gamma;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&beta;&delta;</td> <td class="tcc">&alpha;&delta; + &beta;&gamma;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">where</p>
+
+<p class="center">&xi; = x + yi, &emsp; &eta; = &minus;x + yi, &emsp; &zeta; = &minus;z,<br />
+     &Xi; = X + Yi, &emsp; &Eta; = &minus;X + Yi, &emsp; &Zeta; = &minus;Z;</p>
+<div class="ref">(18)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">and thus the motion in space of any point fixed in the body defined
+by &Lambda; is determined completely by means of &alpha;, &beta;, &gamma;, &delta;; and in the
+case of the symmetrical top these functions are elliptic transcendants,
+to which Klein has given the name of <i>multiplicative elliptic functions</i>;
+and</p>
+
+<p class="center">&alpha;&delta; = cos<span class="sp">2</span> ½&theta;, &emsp; &beta;&gamma; = &minus;sin<span class="sp">2</span> ½&theta;,<br />
+     &alpha;&delta; &minus; &beta;&gamma; = 1, &emsp; &alpha;&delta; + &beta;&gamma; = cos &theta;,<br />
+     &radic; ( &minus;4&alpha;&beta;&gamma;&delta;) = sin &theta;;</p>
+<div class="ref">(19)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">while, for the motion of a point on the axis, putting &Lambda; = 0, or &infin;,</p>
+
+<p class="center">&lambda; = &beta;/&delta; = i tan ½&theta;e<span class="sp">&psi;i</span>, or &lambda; = &alpha;/&gamma; = &minus;i cot ½&theta;e<span class="sp">&psi;i</span>,</p>
+<div class="ref">(20)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">and</p>
+
+<p class="center">&alpha;&beta; = ½i sin &theta;e<span class="sp">&psi;i</span>, &alpha;&gamma; = ½i sin &theta;e<span class="sp">&psi;i</span>,</p>
+<div class="ref">(21)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">giving orthogonal projections on the planes GKH, CHK; and</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">&alpha;</td> <td>d&beta;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&minus;</td> <td>d&alpha;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&beta; = n</td> <td>&rho;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">e<span class="sp">&#8182;i</span>,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">dt</td> <td class="denom">dt</td>
+<td class="denom">k</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(22)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">the vectorial equation in the plane GKH of the herpolhode of H
+for a spherical top.</p>
+
+<p>When f<span class="su">1</span> and f<span class="su">2</span> in (9) are rational fractions, these multiplicative
+elliptic functions can be replaced by algebraical functions, qualified
+by factors which are exponential functions of the time t; a series
+of quasi-algebraical cases of motion can thus be constructed, which
+become purely algebraical when the exponential factors are cancelled
+by a suitable arrangement of the constants.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, for example, with f = 0, f&prime; = 1, f<span class="su">1</span> = ½, f<span class="su">2</span> = ½, as in (24) § 9,
+where P and P&prime; are at A and B on the focal ellipse, we have for the
+spherical top</p>
+
+<p class="center">(1 + cos &theta;) exp (&phi; + &psi; &minus; qt) i<br />
+= &radic; (sec &beta; &minus; cos &theta;) &radic; (cos &beta; &minus; cos &theta;) + i (&radic; sec &beta; + &radic; cos &beta;) &radic; cos &theta;,</p>
+<div class="ref">(23)</div>
+
+<p class="center">(1 &minus; cos &theta;) exp (&phi; &minus; &psi; &minus; q&prime;t) i<br />
+= &radic; (sec &beta; &minus; cos &theta;) &radic; (cos &beta; &minus; cos &theta;) + i (&radic;sec &beta; &minus; &radic; cos &beta;) &radic; cos &theta;,</p>
+<div class="ref">(24)</div>
+
+<p class="center">q, q&prime; = n&radic; (2 sec &beta;) ± n&radic; (2 cos &beta;);</p>
+<div class="ref">(25)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">and thence &alpha;, &beta;, &gamma;, &delta; can be inferred.</p>
+
+<p>The physical constants of a given symmetrical top have been
+denoted in § 1 by M, h, A, C, and l, n, T; to specify a given state of
+general motion we have G, G&prime; or CR, D, E, or F, which may be
+called the dynamical constants; or &kappa;, v, w, v<span class="su">1</span>, v<span class="su">2</span>, or f, f&prime;, f<span class="su">1</span>, f<span class="su">2</span>, the
+analytical constants; or the geometrical constants, such as &alpha;, &beta;,
+&delta;, &delta;&prime;, k of a given articulated hyperboloid.</p>
+
+<p>There is thus a triply infinite series of a state of motion; the
+choice of a typical state can be made geometrically on the hyperboloid,
+flattened in the plane of the local ellipse, of which &kappa; is the
+ratio of the semiaxes &alpha; and &beta;, and am(1 &minus; f) K&prime; is the eccentric angle
+from the minor axis of the point of contact P of the generator HQ,
+so that two analytical constants are settled thereby; and the point
+H may be taken arbitrarily on the tangent line PQ, and HQ&prime; is then
+the other tangent of the focal ellipse; in which case &theta;<span class="su">3</span> and &theta;<span class="su">2</span> are
+the angles between the tangents HQ, HQ&prime;, and between the focal
+distances HS, HS&prime;, and k<span class="sp">2</span> will be HS·HS&prime;, while HQ, HQ&prime; are &delta;, &delta;&prime;.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page776" id="page776"></a>776</span>
+As H is moved along the tangent line HQ, a series of states of
+motion can be determined, and drawn with accuracy.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 420px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:369px; height:354px" src="images/img776.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>11. Equation (5) § 3 with slight modification will serve with the
+same notation for the steady rolling motion at a constant inclination
+&alpha; to the vertical of a body of revolution, such as a disk, hoop, wheel,
+cask, wine-glass, plate, dish, bowl, spinning top, gyrostat, or bicycle,
+on a horizontal plane, or a surface of revolution, as a coin in a
+conical lamp-shade.</p>
+
+<p>The point O is now the intersection of the axis GC&prime; with the
+vertical through the centre B of the horizontal circle described by
+the centre of gravity, and through the centre M of the horizontal
+circle described by P, the point of contact (fig. 13). Collected into
+a particle at G, the
+body swings round
+the vertical OB as
+a conical pendulum,
+of height AB
+or GL equal to
+g/&mu;<span class="sp">2</span> = &lambda;, and GA
+would be the direction
+of the
+thread, of tension
+gM(GA/GL) dynes.
+The reaction with
+the plane at P will
+be an equal parallel
+force; and its
+moment round G
+will provide the
+couple which
+causes the velocity
+of the vector of
+angular momentum
+appropriate
+to the steady
+motion; and this
+moment will be
+gM·Gm dyne-cm. or ergs, if the reaction at P cuts GB in m.</p>
+
+<p>Draw GR perpendicular to GK to meet the horizontal AL in R, and
+draw RQC&prime;K perpendicular to the axis Gz, and KC perpendicular
+to LG.</p>
+
+<p>The velocity of the vector GK of angular momentum is &mu; times
+the horizontal component, and</p>
+
+<p class="center">horizontal component /A&mu; sin &alpha; = KC/KC&prime;,</p>
+<div class="ref">(1)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">so that</p>
+
+<p class="center">gM·Gm = A&mu;<span class="sp">2</span> sin &alpha;(KC/KC&prime;),</p>
+<div class="ref">(2)</div>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>A</td>
+<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>KC&prime;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td>g</td>
+<td rowspan="2">Gm = GQ·Gm.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">KC</td>
+<td class="denom">&mu;<span class="sp">2</span> sin &alpha;</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(3)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">The instantaneous axis of rotation of the case of a gyrostat would be
+OP; drawing GI parallel to OP, and KK&prime; parallel to OG, making
+tan K&prime;GC&prime; = (A/C) tan IGC&rsquo;<span class="su">1</span>; then if GK represents the resultant
+angular momentum, K&prime;K will represent the part of it due to the
+rotation of the fly-wheel. Thus in the figure for the body rolling
+as a solid, with the fly-wheel clamped, the points m and Q move
+to the other side of G. The gyrostat may be supposed swung round
+the vertical at the end of a thread PA&prime; fastened at A&prime; where Pm
+produced cuts the vertical AB, and again at the point where it
+crosses the axis GO. The discussion of the small oscillation superposed
+on the state of steady motion requisite for stability is given
+in the next paragraph.</p>
+
+<p>12. In the theoretical discussion of the general motion
+<span class="sidenote">General motion of a gyrostat rolling on a plane.</span>
+of a gyrostat rolling on a horizontal plane the safe and
+shortest plan apparently is to write down the most general
+equations of motion, and afterwards to introduce any
+special condition.</p>
+
+<p>Drawing through G the centre of gravity any three
+rectangular axes Gx, Gy, Gz, the notation employed is</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">u, v, w,</td> <td class="tcl">the components of linear velocity of G;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">p, q, r,</td> <td class="tcl">the components of angular velocity about the axes;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">h<span class="su">1</span>, h<span class="su">2</span>, h<span class="su">3</span>,</td> <td class="tcl">the components of angular momentum;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&theta;<span class="su">1</span>, &theta;<span class="su">2</span>, &theta;<span class="su">3</span>,</td> <td class="tcl">the components of angular velocity of the coordinate axes;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">x, y, z,</td> <td class="tcl">the co-ordinates of the point of contact with the horizontal plane;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">X, Y, Z,</td> <td class="tcl">the components of the reaction of the plane;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&alpha;, &beta;, &gamma;,</td> <td class="tcl">the direction cosines of the downward vertical.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The geometrical equations, expressing that the point of contact is
+at rest on the plane, are</p>
+
+<p class="center">u &minus; ry + qz = 0,</p>
+<div class="ref">(1)</div>
+
+<p class="center">v &minus; pz + rx = 0,</p>
+<div class="ref">(2)</div>
+
+<p class="center">w &minus; qx + py = 0.</p>
+<div class="ref">(3)</div>
+
+<p>The dynamical equations are</p>
+
+<p class="center">du/dt &minus; &theta;<span class="su">3</span>v + &theta;<span class="su">2</span>w = g&alpha; + X/M,</p>
+<div class="ref">(4)</div>
+
+<p class="center">dv/dt &minus; &theta;<span class="su">1</span>w + &theta;<span class="su">2</span>u = g&beta; + Y/M,</p>
+<div class="ref">(5)</div>
+
+<p class="center">dw/dt &minus; &theta;<span class="su">2</span>u + &theta;<span class="su">1</span>v = g&gamma; + Z/M,</p>
+<div class="ref">(6)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">and</p>
+
+<p class="center">dh<span class="su">1</span>/dt &minus; &theta;<span class="su">3</span>h<span class="su">2</span> + &theta;<span class="su">2</span>h<span class="su">3</span> = yZ &minus; zY,</p>
+<div class="ref">(7)</div>
+
+<p class="center">dh<span class="su">2</span>/dt &minus; &theta;<span class="su">1</span>h<span class="su">3</span> + &theta;<span class="su">3</span>h<span class="su">1</span> = zX &minus; xZ,</p>
+<div class="ref">(8)</div>
+
+<p class="center">dh<span class="su">3</span>/dt &minus; &theta;<span class="su">2</span>h<span class="su">1</span> + &theta;<span class="su">1</span>h<span class="su">2</span> = xY &minus; yX.</p>
+<div class="ref">(9)</div>
+
+<p>In the special case of the gyrostat where the surface is of revolution
+round Gz, and the body is kinetically symmetrical about Gz,
+we take Gy horizontal and Gzx through the point of contact so that
+y = 0; and denoting the angle between Gz and the downward
+vertical by &theta; (fig. 13)</p>
+
+<p class="center">&alpha; = sin &theta;, &emsp; &beta; = 0, &emsp; &gamma; = cos &theta;.</p>
+<div class="ref">(10)</div>
+
+<p>The components of angular momentum are</p>
+
+<p class="center">h<span class="su">1</span> = Ap, &emsp; h<span class="su">2</span> = Aq, &emsp; h<span class="su">3</span> = Cr + K,</p>
+<div class="ref">(11)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">where A, C denote the moment of inertia about Gx, Gz, and K is
+the angular momentum of a fly-wheel fixed in the interior with its
+axis parallel to Gz; K is taken as constant during the motion.</p>
+
+<p>The axis Gz being fixed in the body,</p>
+
+<p class="center">&theta;<span class="su">1</span> = p, &emsp; &theta;<span class="su">2</span> = q = &minus;d&theta;/dt, &emsp; &theta;<span class="su">3</span> = p cot &theta;.</p>
+<div class="ref">(12)</div>
+
+<p>With y = 0, (1), (2), (3) reduce to</p>
+
+<p class="center">u = &minus;qz, &emsp; v = pz &minus; rx, &emsp; w = qx;</p>
+<div class="ref">(13)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">and, denoting the radius of curvature of the meridian curve of the
+rolling surface by &rho;,</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>dx</td>
+<td rowspan="2">= &rho; cos &theta;</td> <td>d&theta;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">= &minus;q &rho; cos &theta;,</td> <td>dz</td>
+<td rowspan="2">= &minus;&rho; sin &theta;</td> <td>d&theta;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">= q &rho; sin &theta;;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">dt</td> <td class="denom">dt</td>
+<td class="denom">dt</td> <td class="denom">dt</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(14)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">so that</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>du</td>
+<td rowspan="2">= &minus;</td> <td>dq</td>
+<td rowspan="2">z &minus; q<span class="sp">2</span>&rho; sin &theta;,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">dt</td> <td class="denom">dt</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(15)</div>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>dv</td>
+<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>dp</td>
+<td rowspan="2">z &minus;</td> <td>dr</td>
+<td rowspan="2">x + pq&rho; sin &theta; + qr&rho; sin &theta;,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">dt</td> <td class="denom">dt</td>
+<td class="denom">dt</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(16)</div>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>dw</td>
+<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>dq</td>
+<td rowspan="2">x &minus; q<span class="sp">2</span>&rho; cos &theta;.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">dt</td> <td class="denom">dt</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(17)</div>
+
+<p>The dynamical equations (4)...(9) can now be reduced to</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>X</td>
+<td rowspan="2">= &minus;</td> <td>dq</td>
+<td rowspan="2">z &minus; p<span class="sp">2</span>z cot&theta; + q<span class="sp">2</span> (x &minus; &rho; sin &theta;) + prx cot &theta; &minus; g sin &theta;,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">dt</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(18)</div>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>Y</td>
+<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>dp</td>
+<td rowspan="2">z &minus;</td> <td>dr</td>
+<td rowspan="2">x &minus; pq (x + z cot &theta; &minus; &rho; sin &theta;) + qrp cos &theta;,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">dt</td>
+<td class="denom">dt</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(19)</div>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>Z</td>
+<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>dq</td>
+<td rowspan="2">x + q<span class="sp">2</span> (z &minus; &rho; cos &theta;) + p<span class="sp">2</span>z &minus; prx &minus; g cos &theta;,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">dt</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(20)</div>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">&minus;zY = A</td> <td>dp</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&minus; Apq cot &theta; + qh<span class="su">3</span>,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">dt</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(21)</div>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">&minus;zX &minus; xZ = A</td> <td>dq</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ Ap<span class="sp">2</span> cot &theta; &minus; ph<span class="su">3</span>,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">dt</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">xY =</td> <td>dh<span class="su">3</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">= C</td> <td>dr</td>
+<td rowspan="2">= &minus;Cq</td> <td>d</td>
+<td rowspan="2">.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">dt</td> <td class="denom">dt</td>
+<td class="denom">d&theta;</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(23)</div>
+
+<p>Eliminating Y between (19) and (23),</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>C</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ x<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span></td> <td>dr</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&minus; xz</td> <td>dp</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ pqx (x + z cot &theta; &minus; &rho; sin &theta;) &minus; qrx&rho; cos &theta; = 0,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">dt</td>
+<td class="denom">dt</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(24)</div>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>C</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ x<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span></td> <td>dr</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&minus; xz</td> <td>dp</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&minus; px (x + z cot &theta; &minus; &rho; sin &theta;) + rx&rho; cos &theta; = 0.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">d&theta;</td>
+<td class="denom">d&theta;</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(A)</div>
+
+<p>Eliminating Y between (19) and (21)</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ z<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span></td> <td>dp</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&minus; xz</td> <td>dr</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&minus;</td> <td>A</td>
+<td rowspan="2">pq cot &theta; + q</td> <td>h<span class="su">3</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">dt</td>
+<td class="denom">dt</td> <td class="denom">M</td>
+<td class="denom">M</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="center">&minus; pqz (x + z cot &theta; &minus; &rho; sin &theta;) + qrz&rho; cos &theta; = 0,</p>
+<div class="ref">(25)</div>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">&minus;xz</td> <td>dr</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ z<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span></td> <td>dp</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>A</td>
+<td rowspan="2">p cot &theta; &minus;</td> <td>h<span class="su">3</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">d&theta;</td> <td class="denom">M</td>
+<td class="denom">d&theta;</td> <td class="denom">M</td>
+<td class="denom">M</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="center">+ pz (x + z cot &theta; &minus; &rho; sin &theta;) + rz&rho; cos &theta; = 0.</p>
+<div class="ref">(B)</div>
+
+<p>In the special case of a gyrostat rolling on the sharp edge of a
+circle passing through G, z = 0, &rho; = 0, (A) and (B) reduce to</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">p = <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>C</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ 1 <span class="f150">)</span></td> <td>dr</td>
+<td rowspan="2">= <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>1</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>1</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span></td> <td>dh<span class="su">3</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">Mx<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="denom">d&theta;</td>
+<td class="denom">Mx<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="denom">C</td>
+<td class="denom">d&theta;</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(26)</div>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>dp</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ p cot &theta; =</td> <td>h<span class="su">3</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">, &emsp;</td> <td>d·p sin &theta;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>h<span class="su">3</span> sin &theta;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">d&theta;</td> <td class="denom">A</td>
+<td class="denom">d&theta;</td> <td class="denom">A</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(27)</div>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>d<span class="sp">2</span>h<span class="su">3</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>dh<span class="su">3</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">cot &theta; =</td> <td>CMx<span class="sp">2</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">h<span class="su">3</span>,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">d&theta;<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="denom">d&theta;</td>
+<td class="denom">A (Mx<span class="sp">2</span> + C)</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(28)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">a differential equation of a hypergeometric series, of the form of
+Legendre&rsquo;s zonal harmonic of fractional order n, given by</p>
+
+<p class="center">n (n + 1) = CMx<span class="sp">2</span> / A (Mx<span class="sp">2</span> + C).</p>
+<div class="ref">(29)</div>
+
+<p>For a sharp point, x = 0, &rho; = 0, and the previous equations are
+obtained of a spinning top.</p>
+
+<p>The elimination of X and Z between (18) (20) (22), expressed
+symbolically as</p>
+
+<p class="center">(22) &minus; z(18) + x(20) = 0,</p>
+<div class="ref">(30)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">gives</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ x<span class="sp">2</span> + z<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span></td> <td>dq</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&minus; p</td> <td>h<span class="su">3</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ z<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span> p<span class="sp">2</span> cot &theta; + p<span class="sp">2</span>xz</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">dt</td>
+<td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">M</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="center">+ q<span class="sp">2</span>&rho; (x cos &theta; &minus; z sin &theta;) &minus; prx (x + z cot &theta;) &minus; g (x cos &theta; &minus; z sin &theta;) = 0,</p>
+<div class="ref">(C)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">and this combined with (A) and (B) will lead to an equation the
+integral of which is the equation of energy.</p>
+
+<p>13. The equations (A) (B) (C) are intractable in this general form;
+but the restricted case may be considered when the axis moves in
+steady motion at a constant inclination &alpha; to the vertical; and the
+stability is secured if a small nutation of the axis can be superposed.</p>
+
+<p>It is convenient to put p = &Omega; sin &theta;, so that &Omega; is the angular
+velocity of the plane Gzx about the vertical; (A) (B) (C) become</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page777" id="page777"></a>777</span></p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>C</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ x<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span></td> <td>dr</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&minus; xz sin &theta;</td> <td>d&Omega;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">d&theta;</td>
+<td class="denom">d&theta;</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="center">&minus; &Omega;x (x sin &theta; &minus; 2z cos &theta; &minus; &rho; sin<span class="sp">2</span> &theta;) + rx&rho; cos &theta; = 0,</p>
+<div class="ref">(A*)</div>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">&minus;xz</td> <td>dr</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ z<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span> sin &theta;</td> <td>d&Omega;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&minus;</td> <td>h<span class="su">3</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ 2&Omega; <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ z<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span> cos &theta;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">d&theta;</td> <td class="denom">M</td>
+<td class="denom">d&theta;</td> <td class="denom">M</td>
+<td class="denom">M</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="center">+ &Omega;z sin &theta; (x &minus; &rho; sin &theta;) &minus; rz&rho; cos &theta; = 0,</p>
+<div class="ref">(B*)</div>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ x<span class="sp">2</span> + z<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span></td> <td>dq</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ q<span class="sp">2</span>p (x cos &theta; &minus; z sin &theta;) &minus; &Omega;</td> <td>h<span class="su">3</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">sin &theta;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">dt</td>
+<td class="denom">M</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">+ &Omega;<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ z<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span> sin &theta; cos &theta; + &Omega;<span class="sp">2</span>xz sin<span class="sp">2</span> &theta;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">M</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="center">&minus; &Omega;rx (x sin &theta; + z cos &theta;) &minus; g (x cos &theta; &minus; z sin &theta;) = 0.</p>
+<div class="ref">(C*)</div>
+
+<p>The steady motion and nutation superposed may be expressed by</p>
+
+<p class="center">&theta; = &alpha; + L, sin &theta; = sin &alpha; + L cos &alpha;, cos &theta; = cos &alpha; &minus; L sin &alpha;,
+&Omega; = &mu; + N, r = R + Q,</p>
+<div class="ref">(1)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">where L, N, Q are small terms, involving a factor e<span class="sp">nti</span>, to express
+the periodic nature of the nutation; and then if a, c denote the
+mean value of x, z, at the point of contact</p>
+
+<p class="center">x = a + L&rho; cos &alpha;, z = c &minus; L&rho; sin &alpha;,</p>
+<div class="ref">(2)</div>
+
+<p class="center">x sin &theta; + z cos &theta; = a sin &alpha; + c cos &alpha; + L (a cos &alpha; &minus; c sin &alpha;),</p>
+<div class="ref">(3)</div>
+
+<p class="center">x cos &theta; &minus; z sin &theta; = a cos &alpha; &minus; c sin &alpha; &minus; L (a sin &alpha; + c cos &alpha; &minus; &rho;).</p>
+<div class="ref">(4)</div>
+
+<p>Substituting these values in (C*) with dq/dt = &minus;d<span class="sp">2</span>&theta;/dt<span class="sp">2</span> = n<span class="sp">2</span>L,
+and ignoring products of the small terms, such as L<span class="sp">2</span>, LN, ...</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ a<span class="sp">2</span> + c<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span> Ln<span class="sp">2</span> &minus; (&mu; + N) <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>CR + K</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>CQ</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span> (sin &alpha; + L cos &alpha;)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">M</td>
+<td class="denom">M</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>+ (&mu;<span class="sp">2</span> + 2&mu;N) (A/M + c<span class="sp">2</span> &minus; 2L&rho;c sin &alpha;) (sin &alpha; cos &alpha; + L cos &alpha;)</p>
+
+<p>+ (&mu;<span class="sp">2</span> + 2&mu;N) [ac &minus; L&rho; (a sin &alpha; &minus; c sin &alpha;)] (sin<span class="sp">2</span> &alpha; + L sin 2&alpha;)</p>
+
+<p>&minus; (&mu; + N) (R + Q) (a + L&rho;cos &alpha;) [a sin &alpha; + c cos &alpha; + L (a cos &alpha; &minus; c sin &alpha;)]</p>
+
+<p>&minus; g (a cos &alpha; &minus; c sin &alpha;) + gL (a sin &alpha; + c cos &alpha; &minus; &rho;) = 0,</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(C**)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">which is equivalent to</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">&minus;&mu;</td> <td>CR + K</td>
+<td rowspan="2">sin &alpha; + &mu;<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ c<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span> sin &alpha;cos &alpha;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">M</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="center">+ &mu;<span class="sp">2</span> ac sin<span class="sp">2</span> &alpha; &minus; &mu;Ra (a sin &alpha; + c cos &alpha;) &minus; g (a cos &alpha; &minus; c sin &alpha;) = 0,</p>
+<div class="ref">(5)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">the condition of steady motion; and</p>
+
+<p class="center">DL + EQ + FN = 0,</p>
+<div class="ref">(6)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">where</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">D = <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ a<span class="sp">2</span> + c<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span> n<span class="sp">2</span> &minus; &mu;</td> <td>CK + K</td>
+<td rowspan="2">cos &alpha; &minus; 2&mu;<span class="sp">2</span>&rho;c sin<span class="sp">2</span> &alpha; cos &alpha;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">M</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>+ &mu;<span class="sp">2</span> (A/M + c<span class="sp">2</span>) cos &alpha; &minus; &mu;<span class="sp">2</span>&rho; (a sin &alpha; &minus; c cos &alpha;) sin<span class="sp">2</span> &alpha;</p>
+
+<p>+ &mu;<span class="sp">2</span>ac sin 2&alpha; &minus; &mu;R&rho; cos &alpha; (a sin &alpha; + c cos &alpha;)</p>
+
+<p>&minus; &mu;Ra (a cos &alpha; &minus; c sin &alpha;) + g (a sin &alpha; + c cos &alpha; &minus; &rho;),</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(7)</div>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">E = &minus;&mu;</td> <td>C</td>
+<td rowspan="2">sin &alpha; &minus; &mu;a (a sin &alpha; + c cos &alpha;),</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">M</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(8)</div>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">F = &minus;</td> <td>CR + K</td>
+<td rowspan="2">sin &alpha; + 2&mu; <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ c<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span> sin &alpha; cos &alpha;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">M</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="center">+ 2&mu;ac sin<span class="sp">2</span> &alpha; &minus; Ra (a sin &alpha; + c cos &alpha;).</p>
+<div class="ref">(9)</div>
+
+<p>With the same approximation (A*) and (B*) are equivalent to</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>C</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ a<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span></td> <td>Q</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&minus; ac sin &alpha;</td> <td>N</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&minus; &mu;a (a sin &alpha; + 2c cos &alpha; &minus; &rho; sin<span class="sp">2</span> &alpha;)
+ + Ra&rho; cos &alpha; = 0,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">L</td>
+<td class="denom">L</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(A**)</div>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">&minus;ac</td> <td>Q</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ c<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span> sin &alpha;</td> <td>N</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&minus;</td> <td>CR + K</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ 2&mu; <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ c<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span> cos &alpha;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">L</td> <td class="denom">M</td>
+<td class="denom">L</td> <td class="denom">M</td>
+<td class="denom">M</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="center">+ &mu;c sin &alpha; (a &minus; &rho; sin &alpha;) &minus; Rc&rho; cos &alpha; = 0.</p>
+<div class="ref">(B**)</div>
+
+<p>The elimination of L, Q, N will lead to an equation for the determination
+of n<span class="sp">2</span>, and n<span class="sp">2</span> must be positive for the motion to be stable.</p>
+
+<p>If b is the radius of the horizontal circle described by G in steady
+motion round the centre B,</p>
+
+<p class="center">b = v/&mu; = (cP &minus; aR) / &mu; = c sin &alpha; &minus; aR / &mu;,</p>
+<div class="ref">(10)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">and drawing GL vertically upward of length &lambda; = g/&mu;<span class="sp">2</span>, the height of the
+equivalent conical pendulum, the steady motion condition may be
+written</p>
+
+<p class="center">(CR + K) &mu; sin &alpha; &minus; &mu;<span class="sp">2</span> sin &alpha; cos &alpha; = &minus;gM (a cos &alpha; &minus; c sin &alpha;)</p>
+
+<p class="center">+ M (&mu;<span class="sp">2</span>c sin &alpha; &minus; &mu;Ra) (a sin &alpha; + c cos &alpha;)</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>= gM [b&lambda;<span class="sp">&minus;1</span> (a sin &alpha; + c cos &alpha;) &minus; a cos &alpha; + c sin &alpha;]</p>
+
+<p>= gM·PT,</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(11)</div>
+
+<p>LG produced cuts the plane in T.</p>
+
+<p>Interpreted dynamically, the left-hand side of this equation
+represents the velocity of the vector of angular momentum about
+G, so that the right-hand side represents the moment of the applied
+force about G, in this case the reaction of the plane, which is parallel
+to GA, and equal to gM·GA/GL; and so the angle AGL must be
+less than the angle of friction, or slipping will take place.</p>
+
+<p>Spinning upright, with &alpha; = 0, a = 0, we find F = 0, Q = 0, and</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">&minus;</td> <td>CR + K</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ 2&mu; <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ c<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span> &minus; Rcp = 0,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">M</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(12)</div>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ c<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span> n<span class="sp">2</span> = &mu;</td> <td>CR + K</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&minus; &mu;<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ c<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span> + &mu;R&rho;c &minus; g (c &minus; &rho;),</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">M</td>
+<td class="denom">M</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(13)</div>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ c<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span></td> <td><span class="sp">2</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">n<span class="sp">2</span> = ¼ <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>CK + R</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ Rc&rho; <span class="f150">)</span></td> <td><span class="sp">2</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">&minus; g <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ c<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span> (c &minus; &rho;).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="denom">M</td> <td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="denom">M</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(14)</div>
+
+<p>Thus for a top spinning upright on a rounded point, with K = 0,
+the stability requires that</p>
+
+<p class="center">R &gt; 2k&prime;&radic; {g (c &minus; &rho;)} / (k<span class="sp">2</span> + c&rho;),</p>
+<div class="ref">(15)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">where k, k&prime; are the radii of gyration about the axis Gz, and a perpendicular
+axis at a distance c from G; this reduces to the preceding
+case of § 3 (7) when &rho; = 0.</p>
+
+<p>Generally, with &alpha; = 0, but a ± 0, the condition (A) and (B) becomes</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>C</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ a<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span></td> <td>Q</td>
+<td rowspan="2">= 2&mu;ac &minus; Ra&rho;,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">L</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">&minus;ac</td> <td>Q</td>
+<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>CR + K</td>
+<td rowspan="2"> + Rc&rho; &minus; 2&mu; <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ a<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span>,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">L</td> <td class="denom">M</td>
+<td class="denom">M</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(16)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">so that, eliminating Q/L,</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">2 <span class="f150">[(</span></td> <td>A</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ c<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)(</span></td> <td>C</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ a<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span> &minus; a<span class="sp">2</span>c<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">]</span> &mu; = <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>C</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ a<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)(</span></td> <td>CR + K</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span> +</td> <td>C</td>
+<td rowspan="2">Rc&rho;,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">M</td>
+<td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">M</td>
+<td class="denom">M</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(17)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">the condition when a coin or platter is rolling nearly flat on the table.</p>
+
+<p>Rolling along in a straight path, with &alpha; = ½&pi;, c = 0, &mu; = 0, E = 0;
+and</p>
+
+<p class="center">N/L = (CR + K)/A,</p>
+<div class="ref">(18)</div>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">D = <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ a<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span> n<span class="sp">2</span> + g (a &minus; &rho;),</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">M</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">F = &minus;</td> <td>CR + K</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&minus; Ra<span class="sp">2</span>,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">M</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(19)</div>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td style="vertical-align: bottom">N</td>
+<td rowspan="2">= &minus;</td> <td style="vertical-align: bottom">D</td>
+<td rowspan="2">=</td>
+
+<td><table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ a<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span> n<span class="sp">2</span> + g (a &minus; &rho;)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">M</td></tr></table></td>
+
+<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom" style="vertical-align: top">L</td> <td class="denom" style="vertical-align: top">F</td>
+
+<td class="denom"><table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>C</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ a<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span> R +</td> <td>K</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">M</td></tr></table></td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(20)</div>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>A</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ a<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span> n<span class="sp">2</span> =</td> <td>(CR + K)</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">[(</span></td> <td>C</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ a<span class="sp">2</span> <span class="f150">)</span> R +</td> <td>K</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">]</span> &minus; g (a &minus; &rho;).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">A</td>
+<td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">M</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(21)</div>
+
+<p>Thus with K = 0, and rolling with velocity V = Ra, stability
+requires</p>
+
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>V<span class="sp">2</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">&gt;</td> <td>a &minus; &rho;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&gt; ½</td> <td>A</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td>a &minus; &rho;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">2g</td>
+ <td class="denom">
+    2C/A (C/Ma<span class="sp">2</span> + 1)
+ </td>
+<td class="denom">C</td>
+  <td class="denom">
+    C/Ma<span class="sp">2</span>  + 1</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(22)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">or the body must have acquired velocity greater than attained by
+rolling down a plane through a vertical height ½ (a &minus; &rho;) A/C.</p>
+
+<p>On a sharp edge, with &rho; = 0, a thin uniform disk or a thin ring
+requires</p>
+
+<p class="center">V<span class="sp">2</span>/2g &gt; a/6 or a/8.</p>
+<div class="ref">(23)</div>
+
+<p>The gyrostat can hold itself upright on the plane without advance
+when R = 0, provided</p>
+
+<p class="center">K<span class="sp">2</span>/AM &minus; g (a &minus; &rho;) is positive.</p>
+<div class="ref">(24)</div>
+
+<p>For the stability of the monorail carriage of § 5 (6), ignoring the
+rotary inertia of the wheels by putting C = 0, and replacing K by G&prime;
+the theory above would require</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>G&prime;</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span> aV +</td> <td>G&prime;</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span> &gt; gh.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">A</td> <td class="denom">A</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>For further theory and experiments consult Routh, <i>Advanced
+Rigid Dynamics</i>, chap. v., and Thomson and Tait, <i>Natural Philosophy</i>,
+§ 345; also Bourlet, <i>Traité des bicycles</i> (analysed in Appell,
+<i>Mécanique rationnelle</i>, ii. 297, and Carvallo, <i>Journal de l&rsquo;école polytechnique</i>,
+1900); Whipple, <i>Quarterly Journal of Mathematics</i>, vol.
+xxx., for mathematical theories of the bicycle, and other bodies.</p>
+
+<p>14. Lord Kelvin has studied theoretically and experimentally
+the vibration of a chain of stretched gyrostats
+(<i>Proc. London Math. Soc.</i>, 1875; J. Perry, <i>Spinning Tops</i>,
+<span class="sidenote">Gyrostatic chain.</span>
+for a diagram). Suppose each gyrostat to be equivalent dynamically
+to a fly-wheel of axial length 2a, and that each connecting link is a
+light cord or steel wire of length 2l, stretched to a tension T.</p>
+
+<p>Denote by x, y the components of the slight displacement from the
+central straight line of the centre of a fly-wheel; and let p, q, 1 denote
+the direction cosines of the axis of a fly-wheel, and r, s, 1 the direction
+cosines of a link, distinguishing the different bodies by a suffix.</p>
+
+<p>Then with the previous notation and to the order of approximation
+required,</p>
+
+<p class="center">&theta;<span class="su">1</span> = &minus;dq/dt, &theta;<span class="su">2</span> = dp/dt,</p>
+<div class="ref">(1)</div>
+
+<p class="center">h<span class="su">1</span> = A&theta;<span class="su">1</span>, h<span class="su">2</span> = A&theta;<span class="su">2</span>, h<span class="su">3</span> = K,</p>
+<div class="ref">(2)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">to be employed in the dynamical equations</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>dh<span class="su">1</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">&minus; &theta;<span class="su">3</span>h<span class="su">2</span> + &theta;<span class="su">2</span>h<span class="su">3</span> = L, ...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">dt</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(3)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">in which &theta;<span class="su">3</span>h<span class="su">1</span> and &theta;<span class="su">3</span>h<span class="su">2</span> can be omitted.</p>
+
+<p>For the kth fly-wheel</p>
+
+<p class="center">&minus;A<span class="ov bold">q</span><span class="su">k</span> + K<span class="ov">p</span><span class="su">k</span> =  Ta (q<span class="su">k</span> &minus; s<span class="su">k</span>) + Ta (q<span class="su">k</span> &minus; s<span class="su">k+1</span>),</p>
+<div class="ref">(4)</div>
+
+<p class="center"> A<span class="ov bold">p</span><span class="su">k</span> + K<span class="ov">q</span><span class="su">k</span> = &minus;Ta (p<span class="su">k</span> &minus; r<span class="su">k</span>) &minus; Ta (p<span class="su">k</span> &minus; r<span class="su">k+1</span>);</p>
+<div class="ref">(5)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">and for the motion of translation</p>
+
+<p class="center">M<span class="ov bold">x</span><span class="su">k</span> = T (r<span class="su">k+1</span> &minus; r<span class="su">k</span>), M<span class="ov bold">y</span><span class="su">k</span> = T (s<span class="su">k+1</span> &minus; s<span class="su">k</span>);</p>
+<div class="ref">(6)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">while the geometrical relations are</p>
+
+<p class="center">x<span class="su">k+1</span> &minus; x<span class="su">k</span> = a (p<span class="su">k+1</span> + p<span class="su">k</span>) + 2lr<span class="su">k+1</span>,</p>
+<div class="ref">(7)</div>
+
+<p class="center">y<span class="su">k+1</span> &minus; y<span class="su">k</span> = a (q<span class="su">k+1</span> + q<span class="su">k</span>) + 2ls<span class="su">k+1</span>.</p>
+<div class="ref">(8)</div>
+
+<p>Putting</p>
+
+<p class="center">x + yi = w, p + qi = &omega;, r + si = &sigma;,</p>
+<div class="ref">(9)</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page778" id="page778"></a>778</span></p>
+
+<p class="noind">these three pairs of equations may be replaced by the three equations</p>
+
+<p class="center">A<span class="ov bold">&#8182;</span><span class="su">k</span> &minus; K<span class="ov">&#8182;</span><span class="su">k</span>i + 2Ta&#8182;<span class="su">k</span> &minus; Ta (&sigma;<span class="su">k+1</span> + &sigma;<span class="su">k</span>) = 0,</p>
+<div class="ref">(10)</div>
+
+<p class="center">M<span class="ov bold">&#8182;</span><span class="su">k</span> &minus; T (&sigma;<span class="su">k+1</span> &minus; &sigma;<span class="su">k</span>) = 0,</p>
+<div class="ref">(11)</div>
+
+<p class="center">&omega;<span class="su">k+1</span> &minus; &omega;<span class="su">k</span> &minus; a(&#8182;<span class="su">k+1</span> + &#8182;<span class="su">k</span> &minus; 2l&sigma;<span class="su">k+1</span>) = 0.</p>
+<div class="ref">(12)</div>
+
+<p>For a vibration of circular polarization assume a solution</p>
+
+<p class="center">&omega;<span class="su">k</span>, &#8182;<span class="su">k</span>, &sigma;<span class="su">k</span> = (L, P, Q) exp (nt + kc) i,</p>
+<div class="ref">(13)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">so that c/n is the time-lag between the vibration of one fly-wheel
+and the next; and the wave velocity is</p>
+
+<p class="center">U = 2 (a + l) n/c.</p>
+<div class="ref">(14)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">Then</p>
+
+<p class="center">P (&minus;An<span class="sp">2</span> + Kn + 2Ta) &minus; QTa (e<span class="sp">ci</span> + 1) = 0,</p>
+<div class="ref">(15)</div>
+
+<p class="center">&minus;LMn<span class="sp">2</span> &minus; QT (e<span class="sp">ci</span> &minus; 1) = 0,</p>
+<div class="ref">(16)</div>
+
+<p class="center">L (e<span class="sp">ci</span> &minus; 1) &minus; Pa (e<span class="sp">ci</span> + 1) &minus; 2Qle<span class="sp">ci</span> = 0,</p>
+<div class="ref">(17)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">leading, on elimination of L, P, Q, to</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">cos c =</td> <td>(2 Ta + Kn &minus; An<span class="sp">2</span>) (1 &minus; Mn<span class="sp">2</span>l/T) &minus; Mna<span class="sp">2</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">2Ta + Kn &minus; An<span class="sp">2</span> + Mna<span class="sp">2</span></td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(18)</div>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">2 sin<span class="sp">2</span> ½c =</td> <td>Mn<span class="sp">2</span> 2Ta (a + l) + KNl &minus; An<span class="sp">2</span>l</td>
+<td rowspan="2">.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">T 2Ta + Kn &minus; An<span class="sp">2</span> + Mn<span class="sp">2</span>a<span class="sp">2</span></td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(19)</div>
+
+<p>With K = 0, A = 0, this reduces to Lagrange&rsquo;s condition in the
+vibration of a string of beads.</p>
+
+<p>Putting</p>
+
+<p class="center">&rho; = M/2 (a + l), &emsp; the mass per unit length of the
+                        chain,</p>
+<div class="ref">(20)</div>
+
+<p class="center">&kappa; = K/2 (a + l), &emsp; the gyrostatic angular momentum
+                         per unit length,</p>
+<div class="ref">(21)</div>
+
+<p class="center">&alpha; = A/2 (a + l), &emsp; the transverse moment of inertia
+                         per unit length,</p>
+<div class="ref">(22)</div>
+
+<p class="center">1/2c = (a + l) n/U,</p>
+<div class="ref">(23)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">equation (19) can be written</p>
+
+<p class="center">{sin (a + l) n/U}<span class="sp">2</span></p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">= (a + l)<span class="sp">2</span>n<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td>&rho;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>Ta + &kappa;nl &minus; &alpha;n<span class="sp">2</span>l</td>
+<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">T</td> <td class="denom">Ta + &kappa;n (a + l) &minus; &alpha;n<span class="sp">2</span> (a + l) + &rho;n<span class="sp">2</span>a<span class="sp">2</span> (a + l)</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(24)</div>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">{</span></td> <td>(a + l) n</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">}</span></td> <td><span class="sp">2</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">sin (a + l) n/U</td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>T</td>
+<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>T + (&kappa;n &minus; &alpha;n<span class="sp">2</span>) (1 + l/a) + &rho;n<span class="sp">2</span>a (a + l)</td>
+<td rowspan="2">.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">&rho;</td> <td class="denom">T + (&kappa;n &minus; an<span class="sp">2</span>) l/a</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(25)</div>
+
+<p>In a continuous chain of such gyrostatic links, with a and l infinitesimal,</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">U<span class="sp">2</span> =</td> <td>T</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">{</span> 1 +</td> <td>&kappa;n &minus; &alpha;n<span class="sp">2</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">}</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">&rho;</td> <td class="denom">T + (&kappa;n &minus; &alpha;n<span class="sp">2</span> l/a)</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(26)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">for the vibration of helical nature like circular polarization.</p>
+
+<p>Changing the sign of n for circular polarization in the opposite
+direction</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">U&prime;<span class="sp">2</span> =</td> <td>T</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">{</span> 1 &minus;</td> <td>&kappa;n + &alpha;n<span class="sp">2</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">}</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">&rho;</td> <td class="denom">T &minus; (&kappa;n + &alpha;n<span class="sp">2</span> l/a)</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(27)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">In this way a mechanical model is obtained of the action of a magnetized
+medium on polarized light, &kappa; representing the equivalent of
+the magnetic field, while &alpha; may be ignored as insensible (J. Larmor,
+<i>Proc. Lond. Math. Soc.</i>, 1890; <i>Aether and Matter</i>, Appendix E).</p>
+
+<p>We notice that U<span class="sp">2</span> in (26) can be positive, and the gyrostatic
+chain stable, even when T is negative, and the chain is supporting
+a thrust, provided &kappa;n is large enough, and the thrust does not
+exceed</p>
+
+<p class="center">(&kappa;n &minus; an<span class="sp">2</span>) (1 + l/a);</p>
+<div class="ref">(28)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">while U&prime;<span class="sp">2</span> in (27) will not be positive and the straight chain will be
+unstable unless the tension exceeds</p>
+
+<p class="center">(&kappa;n + &alpha;n<span class="sp">2</span>) (1 + l/a).</p>
+<div class="ref">(29)</div>
+
+<p>15. <i>Gyrostat suspended by a Thread.</i>&mdash;In the discussion of the
+small vibration of a single gyrostat fly-wheel about the vertical
+position when suspended by a single thread of length 2l = b, the
+suffix k can be omitted in the preceding equations of § 14, and we
+can write</p>
+
+<p class="center">A<span class="ov bold">&#8182;</span> &minus; K<span class="ov">&#8182;</span>i + Ta&#8182; &minus; Ta&sigma; = 0,</p>
+<div class="ref">(1)</div>
+
+<p class="center">M<span class="ov bold">w</span> + T&sigma; = 0, with T = gM,</p>
+<div class="ref">(2)</div>
+
+<p class="center">w &minus; a&#8182; &minus; b&sigma; = 0.</p>
+<div class="ref">(3)</div>
+
+<p>Assuming a periodic solution of these equations</p>
+
+<p class="center">w, &#8182;, &sigma;, = (L, P, Q) exp nti,</p>
+<div class="ref">(4)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">and eliminating L, P, Q, we obtain</p>
+
+<p class="center">(&minus;An<span class="sp">2</span> + Kn + gMa) (g &minus; n<span class="sp">2</span>b) &minus; gMn<span class="sp">2</span>a<span class="sp">2</span> = 0,</p>
+<div class="ref">(5)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">and the frequency of a vibration in double beats per second is
+n/2&pi;, where n is a root of this quartic equation.</p>
+
+<p>For upright spinning on a smooth horizontal plane, take b = &infin; and
+change the sign of a, then</p>
+
+<p class="center">An<span class="sp">2</span> &minus; Kn + gMa = 0,</p>
+<div class="ref">(6)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">so that the stability requires</p>
+
+<p class="center">K<span class="sp">2</span> &gt; 4gAMa.</p>
+<div class="ref">(7)</div>
+
+<p>Here A denotes the moment of inertia about a diametral axis
+through the centre of gravity; when the point of the fly-wheel is
+held in a small smooth cup, b = 0, and the condition becomes</p>
+
+<p class="center">(A + Ma<span class="sp">2</span>) n<span class="sp">2</span> &minus; Kn + gMa = 0,</p>
+<div class="ref">(8)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">requiring for stability, as before in § 3,</p>
+
+<p class="center">K<span class="sp">2</span> &gt; 4g (A + M<span class="sp">2</span>) Ma.</p>
+<div class="ref">(9)</div>
+
+<p>For upright spinning inside a spherical surface of radius b, the
+sign of a must be changed to obtain the condition at the lowest
+point, as in the gyroscopic horizon of Fleuriais.</p>
+
+<p>For a gyrostat spinning upright on the summit of a sphere of
+radius b, the signs of a and b must be changed in (5), or else the
+sign of g, which amounts to the same thing.</p>
+
+<p>Denoting the components of horizontal displacement of the point
+of the fly-wheel by &xi;, &eta;, then</p>
+
+<p class="center">br = &xi;, bs = &eta;, b&sigma; = &xi; + &eta;i = &lambda; (suppose),</p>
+<div class="ref">(10)</div>
+
+<p class="center">&omega; = &alpha;&#8182; + &lambda;.</p>
+<div class="ref">(11)</div>
+
+<p>If the point is forced to take the motion (&xi;, &eta;, &zeta;) by components
+of force X, Y, Z, the equations of motion become</p>
+
+<p class="center">&minus;A<span class="ov bold">q</span> + K<span class="ov">p</span> = &emsp;&emsp; Ya  &minus; Zaq,</p>
+<div class="ref">(12)</div>
+
+<p class="center">  A<span class="ov bold">p</span> + K<span class="ov">q</span> = &emsp;&ensp; &minus;Xa + Zap,</p>
+<div class="ref">(13)</div>
+
+<p class="center"> M<span class="ov bold">&#8182;</span> = X + Yi, M (<span class="ov bold">&zeta;</span> &minus; g) = Z;</p>
+<div class="ref">(14)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">so that</p>
+
+<p class="center">A<span class="ov bold">&#8182;</span> &minus; K<span class="ov">&#8182;</span>i + gMa&#8182; + Ma<span class="ov bold">w</span> = Ma&#8182;<span class="ov bold">&zeta;</span>,</p>
+<div class="ref">(15)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">or</p>
+
+<p class="center">(A + Ma<span class="sp">2</span>)<span class="ov bold">&#8182;</span> &minus; K<span class="ov">&#8182;</span>i + gMa&#8182; + Ma&lambda; = Ma&#8182;<span class="ov">&zeta;</span>.</p>
+<div class="ref">(16)</div>
+
+<p>Thus if the point of the gyrostat is made to take the periodic
+motion given by &lambda; = R exp nti, &zeta; = 0, the forced vibration of the axis
+is given by &#8182; = P exp nti, where</p>
+
+<p class="center">P { &minus;(A + Ma<span class="sp">2</span>) n<span class="sp">2</span> + Kn + gMa} &minus; RMn<span class="sp">2</span>a = 0;</p>
+<div class="ref">(17)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">and so the effect may be investigated on the Fleuriais gyroscopic
+horizon of the motion of the ship.</p>
+
+<p>Suppose the motion &lambda; is due to the suspension of the gyrostat from
+a point on the axis of a second gyrostat suspended from a fixed point.</p>
+
+<p>Distinguishing the second gyrostat by a suffix, then &lambda; = b&#8182;<span class="su">1</span>, if b
+denotes the distance between the points of suspension of the two
+gyrostats; and the motion of the second gyrostat influenced by the
+reaction of the first, is given by</p>
+
+<p class="center">(A<span class="su">1</span> + M<span class="su">1</span>h<span class="su">1</span><span class="sp">2</span>)<span class="ov bold">&#8182;</span>1 &minus; K<span class="su">1</span><span class="ov">&#8182;</span><span class="su">1</span><span class="sp">i</span></p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>= &minus;g (M<span class="su">1</span>h<span class="su">1</span> + Mb) &#8182;<span class="su">1</span> &minus; b (X + Yi)</p>
+<p>= &minus;g (M<span class="su">1</span>h<span class="su">1</span> + Mb) &#8182;<span class="su">1</span> &minus; Mb(a<span class="ov bold">&#8182;</span> + <span class="ov bold">&lambda;</span>);</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(18)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">so that, in the small vibration,</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>R</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">{</span> &minus;(A<span class="su">1</span> + M<span class="su">1</span>h<span class="su">1</span><span class="sp">2</span>) n<span class="sp">2</span> + K<span class="su">1</span>n + g (M<span class="su">1</span>h<span class="su">1</span> + Mb) <span class="f150">}</span> = Mn<span class="sp">2</span>b (aP + R),</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">b</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(19)</div>
+
+<p class="center">R { &minus;(A<span class="su">1</span> + M<span class="su">1</span>h<span class="su">1</span><span class="sp">2</span> + Mb<span class="sp">2</span>) n<span class="sp">2</span> + K<span class="su">1</span>n + g (M<span class="su">1</span>h<span class="su">1</span> + Mb)} &minus; PMn<span class="sp">2</span>ab<span class="sp">2</span> = 0.</p>
+<div class="ref">(20)</div>
+
+<p>Eliminating the ratio of P to R, we obtain</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p class="i1">{ &minus;(A + Ma<span class="sp">2</span>) n<span class="sp">2</span> + Kn + gMa}</p>
+<p>× { &minus;(A<span class="su">1</span> + M<span class="su">1</span>h<span class="su">1</span><span class="sp">2</span> + Mb<span class="sp">2</span>) n<span class="sp">2</span> + K<span class="su">1</span>n + g (M<span class="su">1</span>h<span class="su">1</span> + Mb)} &minus; M<span class="sp">2</span>n<span class="sp">4</span>a<span class="sp">2</span>b<span class="sp">2</span> = 0,</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(21)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">a quartic for n, giving the frequency n/2&pi; of a fundamental vibration.</p>
+
+<p>Change the sign of g for the case of the gyrostats spinning upright,
+one on the top of the other, and so realize the gyrostat on the top of a
+gyrostat described by Maxwell.</p>
+
+<p>In the gyrostatic chain of § 14, the tension T may change to a
+limited pressure, and U<span class="sp">2</span> may still be positive, and the motion
+stable; and so a motion is realized of a number of spinning tops,
+superposed in a column.</p>
+
+<p>16. <i>The Flexure Joint.</i>&mdash;In Lord Kelvin&rsquo;s experiment the gyrostats
+are joined up by equal light rods and short lengths of elastic wire
+with rigid attachment to the rod and case of a gyrostat, so as to keep
+the system still, and free from entanglement and twisting due to
+pivot friction of the fly-wheels.</p>
+
+<p>When this gyrostatic chain is made to revolve with angular
+velocity n in relative equilibrium as a plane polygon passing through
+Oz the axis of rotation, each gyrostatic case moves as if its axis
+produced was attached to Oz by a flexure joint. The instantaneous
+axis of resultant angular velocity bisects the angle &pi; &minus; &theta;, if the axis
+of the case makes an angle &theta; with Oz, and, the components of
+angular velocity being n about Oz, and &minus;n about the axis, the resultant
+angular velocity is 2n cos½ (&pi; &minus; &theta;) =2n sin½&theta;; and the components
+of this angular velocity are</p>
+
+<p>(1) &minus;2n sin ½&theta; sin ½&theta; = &minus;n (1 &minus; cos &theta;), along the axis, and</p>
+
+<p>(2) &minus;2n sin ½&theta; cos ½&theta; = &minus;n sin &theta;, perpendicular to the axis of the
+case. The flexure joint behaves like a pair of equal bevel wheels
+engaging.</p>
+
+<p>The component angular momentum in the direction Ox is therefore</p>
+
+<p class="center"> L = &minus;An sin &theta; cos &theta; &minus; Cn (1 &minus; cos &theta;) sin &theta; + K sin &theta;,</p>
+<div class="ref">(3)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">and Ln is therefore the couple acting on the gyrostat.</p>
+
+<p>If &alpha; denotes the angle which a connecting link makes with Oz, and
+T denotes the constant component of the tension of a link parallel to
+Oz, the couple acting is</p>
+
+<p class="center">Ta cos &theta;<span class="su">k</span> (tan &alpha;<span class="su">k+1</span> + tan &alpha;<span class="su">k</span>) &minus; 2T&alpha; sin &theta;<span class="su">k</span>,</p>
+<div class="ref">(4)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">which is to be equated to Ln, so that</p>
+
+<p class="center"> &minus;An<span class="sp">2</span> sin &theta;<span class="su">k</span> cos &theta;<span class="su">k</span> &minus; Cn (1 &minus; cos &theta;<span class="su">k</span>) sin &theta;<span class="su">k</span> + Kn sin &theta;<span class="su">k</span><br />
+&minus;Ta cos &theta;<span class="su">k</span> (tan &alpha;<span class="su">k+1</span> + tan &alpha;<span class="su">k</span>) + 2T&alpha; sin &theta;<span class="su">k</span> = 0.</p>
+<div class="ref">(5)</div>
+
+<p>In addition</p>
+
+<p class="center">Mn<span class="sp">2</span>x<span class="su">k</span> + T (tan &alpha;<span class="su">k+1</span> &minus; tan &alpha;<span class="su">k</span>) = 0,</p>
+<div class="ref">(6)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">with the geometrical relation</p>
+
+<p class="center"> x<span class="su">k+1</span> &minus; x<span class="su">k</span> &minus; a (sin &theta;<span class="su">k+1</span> + sin &theta;<span class="su">k</span>) &minus; 2l sin &alpha;<span class="su">k+1</span> = 0.</p>
+<div class="ref">(7)</div>
+
+<p>When the polygon is nearly coincident with Oz, these equations
+can be replaced by</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page779" id="page779"></a>779</span></p>
+
+<p class="center">(&minus;An<span class="sp">2</span> + Kn + 2Ta) &theta;<span class="su">k</span> &minus; Ta (&alpha;<span class="su">k+1</span> + &alpha;<span class="su">k</span>) = 0,</p>
+<div class="ref">(8)</div>
+
+<p class="center">Mn<span class="sp">2</span>x<span class="su">k</span> + T (&alpha;<span class="su">k+1</span> &minus; &alpha;<span class="su">k</span>) = 0,</p>
+<div class="ref">(9)</div>
+
+<p class="center">x<span class="su">k+1</span> &minus; x<span class="su">k</span> &minus; a (&theta;<span class="su">k+1</span> + &theta;<span class="su">k</span>) &minus; 2la<span class="su">k</span> = 0,</p>
+<div class="ref">(10)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">and the rest of the solution proceeds as before in § 14, putting</p>
+
+<p class="center">x<span class="su">k</span>, &theta;<span class="su">k</span>, &alpha;<span class="su">k</span> = (L, P, Q) exp cki.</p>
+<div class="ref">(11)</div>
+
+<p>A half wave length of the curve of gyrostats is covered when
+ck = &pi;, so that &pi;/c is the number of gyrostats in a half wave, which is
+therefore of wave length 2&pi; (a + l)/c.</p>
+
+<p>A plane polarized wave is given when exp cki is replaced by
+exp (nt + ck) i, and a wave circularly polarized when w, &#8182;, &sigma; of § 14
+replace this x, &theta;, &alpha;.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gyroscopic Pendulum.</i>&mdash;The elastic flexure joint is useful for
+supporting a rod, carrying a fly-wheel, like a gyroscopic pendulum.</p>
+
+<p>Expressed by Euler&rsquo;s angles, &theta;, &phi;, &psi;, the kinetic energy is</p>
+
+<p class="center">T = ½A (<span class="ov">&theta;</span><span class="sp">2</span> + sin<span class="sp">2</span> &theta;<span class="ov">&psi;</span><span class="sp">2</span>) + ½C&prime; (1 &minus; cos &theta;)<span class="sp">2</span><span class="ov">&psi;</span><span class="sp">2</span> + ½C (<span class="ov">&phi;</span> + <span class="ov">&psi;</span> cos &theta;)<span class="sp">2</span>,</p>
+<div class="ref">(12)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">where A refers to rod and gyroscope about the transverse axis at the
+point of support, C&prime; refers to rod about its axis of length, and C refers
+to the revolving fly-wheel.</p>
+
+<p>The elimination of <span class="ov">&psi;</span> between the equation of conservation of
+angular momentum about the vertical, viz.</p>
+
+<p>(13) A sin<span class="sp">2</span> &theta;<span class="ov">&psi;</span> &minus; C&prime; (1 &minus; cos &theta;) cos &theta;<span class="ov">&psi;</span> + C(<span class="ov">&phi;</span> + <span class="ov">&psi;</span> cos &theta;) cos &theta; = G, a constant,
+and the equation of energy, viz.</p>
+
+<p>(14) T &minus; gMh cos &theta; = H, a constant, with &theta; measured from the
+downward vertical, and</p>
+
+<p>(15) <span class="ov">&phi;</span> + <span class="ov">&psi;</span> cos &theta; = R, a constant, will lead to an equation for
+d&theta;/dt, or dz/dt, in terms of cos &theta; or z, the integral of which is of hyperelliptic
+character, except when A = C&prime;.</p>
+
+<p>In the suspension of fig. 8, the motion given by <span class="ov">&phi;</span> is suppressed in
+the stalk, and for the fly-wheel <span class="ov">&phi;</span> gives the rubbing angular velocity
+of the wheel on the stalk; the equations are now</p>
+
+<p class="center">T = ½A (<span class="ov">&theta;</span><span class="sp">2</span> + sin<span class="sp">2</span> &theta;<span class="ov">&psi;</span><span class="sp">2</span>) + ½C&prime; cos<span class="sp">2</span> &theta;<span class="ov">&psi;</span><span class="sp">2</span> + ½CR<span class="sp">2</span> = H + gMh cos &theta;,</p>
+<div class="ref">(16)</div>
+
+<p class="center">A sin<span class="sp">2</span> &theta;<span class="ov">&psi;</span> + C&prime; cos<span class="sp">2</span> &theta;<span class="ov">&psi;</span> + CR cos &theta; = G,</p>
+<div class="ref">(17)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">and the motion is again of hyperelliptic character, except when
+A = C&prime;, or C&prime; = 0. To realize a motion given completely by the elliptic
+function, the suspension of the stalk must be made by a smooth ball
+and socket, or else a Hooke universal joint.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, there is the case of the general motion of a top with a
+spherical rounded point on a smooth plane, in which the centre of
+gravity may be supposed to rise and fall in a vertical line. Here</p>
+
+<p class="center">T = ½ (A + Mh<span class="sp">2</span> sin<span class="sp">2</span> &theta;) <span class="ov">&theta;</span><span class="sp">2</span> + ½A sin<span class="sp">2</span> &theta;<span class="ov">&psi;</span><span class="sp">2</span> + ½CR<span class="sp">2</span> = H &minus; gMh cos &theta;,</p>
+<div class="ref">(18)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">with &theta; measured from the upward vertical, and</p>
+
+<p class="center">A sin<span class="sp">2</span> &theta;<span class="ov">&psi;</span> + CR cos &theta; = G,</p>
+<div class="ref">(19)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">where A now refers to a transverse axis through the centre of gravity.
+The elimination of <span class="ov">&psi;</span> leads to an equation for z, = cos &theta;, of the form</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>dz</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span></td> <td><span class="sp">2</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">= 2</td> <td>g</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td>Z</td>
+<td rowspan="2">= 2</td> <td>g</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td>(z<span class="su">1</span> &minus; z) (z<span class="su">2</span> &minus; z) (z<span class="su">3</span> &minus; z)</td>
+<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">dt</td> <td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="denom">h</td> <td class="denom">1 &minus; z<span class="sp">2</span> + A/Mh<span class="sp">2</span></td>
+<td class="denom">h</td> <td class="denom">(z<span class="su">4</span> &minus; z) (z &minus; z<span class="su">5</span>)</td></tr></table>
+<div class="ref">(20)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">with the arrangement</p>
+
+<p class="center">z<span class="su">1</span>, z<span class="su">4</span> &gt; / &gt; z<span class="su">2</span> &gt; z &gt; z<span class="su">3</span> &gt; &minus; / &gt; z<span class="su">5</span>;</p>
+<div class="ref">(21)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">so that the motion is hyperelliptic.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;In addition to the references in the text the following
+will be found useful:&mdash;<i>Ast. Notices</i>, vol. i.; <i>Comptes rendus</i>,
+Sept. 1852; Paper by Professor Magnus translated in Taylor&rsquo;s
+<i>Foreign Scientific Memoirs</i>, n.s., pt. 3, p. 210; <i>Ast. Notices</i>, xiii.
+221-248; <i>Theory of Foucault&rsquo;s Gyroscope Experiments</i>, by the
+Rev. Baden Powell, F.R.S.; <i>Ast. Notices</i>, vol. xv.; articles by
+Major J. G. Barnard in <i>Silliman&rsquo;s Journal</i>, 2nd ser., vols. xxiv.
+and xxv.; E. Hunt on &ldquo;Rotatory Motion,&rdquo; <i>Proc. Phil. Soc. Glasgow</i>,
+vol. iv.; J. Clerk Maxwell, &ldquo;On a Dynamical Top,&rdquo; <i>Trans. R.S.E.</i>
+vol. xxi.; <i>Phil. Mag.</i> 4th ser. vols. 7, 13, 14; <i>Proc. Royal Irish
+Academy</i>, vol. viii.; Sir William Thomson on &ldquo;Gyrostat,&rdquo; <i>Nature</i>,
+xv. 297; G. T. Walker, &ldquo;The Motion of a Celt,&rdquo; <i>Quar. Jour.
+Math.</i>, 1896; G. T. Walker, <i>Math. Ency.</i> iv. 1, xi. 1; Gallop, <i>Proc.
+Camb. Phil. Soc.</i> xii. 82, pt. 2, 1903, &ldquo;Rise of a Top&rdquo;; Price&rsquo;s
+<i>Infinitesimal Calculus</i>, vol. iv.; Worms, <i>The Earth and its Mechanism</i>;
+Routh, <i>Rigid Dynamics</i>; A. G. Webster, <i>Dynamics</i> (1904); H.
+Crabtree, <i>Spinning Tops and Gyroscopic Motion</i> (1909). For a complete
+list of the mathematical works on the subject of the Gyroscope
+and Gyrostat from the outset, Professor Cayley&rsquo;s Report to the
+British Association (1862) on the <i>Progress of Dynamics</i> should be consulted.
+Modern authors will be found cited in Klein and Sommerfeld,
+<i>Theorie des Kreisels</i> (1897), and in the <i>Encyclopädie der mathematischen
+Wissenschaften</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GYTHIUM,<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> the harbour and arsenal of Sparta, from which it
+was some 30 m. distant. The town lay at the N.W. extremity of
+the Laconian Gulf, in a small but fertile plain at the mouth of the
+Gythius. Its reputed founders were Heracles and Apollo, who
+frequently appear on its coins: the former of these names may
+point to the influence of Phoenician traders, who, we know,
+visited the Laconian shores at a very early period. In classical
+times it was a community of <i>perioeci</i>, politically dependent on
+Sparta, though doubtless with a municipal life of its own. In
+455 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, during the first Peloponnesian War, it was burned
+by the Athenian admiral Tolmides. In 370 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Epaminondas
+besieged it unsuccessfully for three days. Its fortifications were
+strengthened by the tyrant Nabis, but in 195 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> it was invested
+and taken by Titus and Lucius Quintius Flamininus, and,
+though recovered by Nabis two or three years later, was recaptured
+immediately after his murder (192 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) by Philopoemen
+and Aulus Atilius and remained in the Achaean League until its
+dissolution in 146 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Subsequently it formed the most important
+of the Eleutherolaconian towns, a group of twenty-four,
+later eighteen, communities leagued together to maintain their
+autonomy against Sparta and declared free by Augustus. The
+highest officer of the confederacy was the general (<span class="grk" title="stratêgos">&#963;&#964;&#961;&#945;&#964;&#951;&#947;&#972;&#962;</span>),
+who was assisted by a treasurer (<span class="grk" title="tamias">&#964;&#945;&#956;&#943;&#945;&#962;</span>), while the chief
+magistrates of the several communities bore the title of ephors
+(<span class="grk" title="ephoroi">&#7956;&#966;&#959;&#961;&#959;&#953;</span>).</p>
+
+<p>Pausanias (iii. 21 f.) has left us a description of the town as it
+existed in the reign of Marcus Aurelius, the agora, the Acropolis,
+the island of Cranae (Marathonisi) where Paris celebrated his
+nuptials with Helen, the Migonium or precinct of Aphrodite
+Migonitis (occupied by the modern town of Marathonisi or
+Gythium), and the hill Larysium (Koumaro) rising above it.
+The numerous remains extant, of which the theatre and the
+buildings partially submerged by the sea are the most noteworthy,
+all belong to the Roman period.</p>
+
+<p>The modern town is a busy and flourishing port with a good
+harbour protected by Cranae, now connected by a mole with the
+mainland: it is the capital of the prefecture (<span class="grk" title="nomos">&#957;&#959;&#956;&#972;&#962;</span>) of <span class="grk" title="Lakônikê">&#923;&#945;&#954;&#969;&#957;&#953;&#954;&#942;</span>
+with a population in 1907 of 61,522.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See G. Weber, <i>De Gytheo et Lacedaemoniorum rebus navalibus</i>
+(Heidelberg, 1833); W. M. Leake, <i>Travels in the Morea</i>, i. 244 foll.;
+E. Curtius, <i>Peloponnesos</i>, ii. 267 foll. Inscriptions: Le Bas-Foucart,
+<i>Voyage archéologique</i>, ii. Nos. 238-248 f.; Collitz-Bechtel, <i>Sammlung
+d. griech. Dialekt-Inschriften</i>, iii. Nos. 4562-4573; <i>British School
+Annual</i>, x. 179 foll. Excavations: <span class="grk" title="A. Skias, Praktika tês Arch.
+Hetaireias">&#7944;. &#931;&#954;&#953;&#8118;&#962;, &#928;&#961;&#945;&#954;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#8048; &#964;&#8134;&#962; &#7944;&#961;&#967;. &#7961;&#964;&#945;&#953;&#961;&#949;&#943;&#945;&#962;</span>, 1891, 69 foll.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(M. N. T.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GYULA-FEHÉRVÁR<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Karlsburg</i>), a town of Hungary, in
+Transylvania, in the county of Alsó-Feliér, 73 m. S. of Kolozsvár
+by rail. Pop. (1900) 11,507. It is situated on the right bank of
+the Maros, on the outskirts of the Transylvanian Erzgebirge or
+Ore Mountains, and consists of the upper town, or citadel, and
+the lower town. Gyula-Fehérvár is the seat of a Roman Catholic
+bishop, and has a fine Roman Catholic cathedral, built in the
+11th century in Romanesque style, and rebuilt in 1443 by
+John Hunyady in Gothic style. It contains among other tombs
+that of John Hunyady. Near the cathedral is the episcopal
+palace, and in the same part of the town is the Batthyaneum,
+founded by Bishop Count Batthyány in 1794. It contains a
+valuable library with many incunabula and old manuscripts,
+amongst which is one of the <i>Nibelungenlied</i>, an astronomical
+observatory, a collection of antiquities, and a mineral collection.
+Gyula-Fehérvár carries on an active trade in cereals, wine and
+cattle.</p>
+
+<p>Gyula-Fehérvár occupies the site of the Roman colony <i>Apulum</i>.
+Many Roman relics found here, and in the vicinity, are preserved
+in the museum of the town. The bishopric was founded in the
+11th century by King Ladislaus I. (1078-1095). In the 16th
+century, when Transylvania separated from Hungary, the town
+became the residence of the Transylvanian princes. From this
+period dates the castle, and also the buildings of the university,
+founded by Gabriel Bethlen, and now used as barracks. After
+the reversion of Transylvania in 1713 to the Habsburg monarchy
+the actual strong fortress was built in 1716-1735 by the emperor
+Charles VI., whence the German name of the town.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page780" id="page780"></a>780</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold f200">H<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> The eighth symbol in the Phoenician alphabet, as in its
+descendants, has altered less in the course of ages than
+most alphabetic symbols. From the beginning of
+Phoenician records it has consisted of two uprights
+connected by transverse bars, at first either two or three in
+number. The uprights are rarely perpendicular and the cross
+bars are not so precisely arranged as they are in early Greek and
+Latin inscriptions. In these the symbol takes the form of two
+rectangles <img style="width:18px; height:18px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img780a.jpg" alt="" /> out of which the ordinary <img style="width:17px; height:18px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img780b.jpg" alt="" /> develops by the
+omission of the cross bars at top and bottom. It is very exceptional
+for this letter to have more than three cross bars, though
+as many as five are occasionally found in N.W. Greece. Within
+the same inscription the appearance of the letter often varies
+considerably as regards the space between and the length of
+the uprights. When only one bar is found it regularly crosses
+the uprights about the middle. In a few cases the rectangle
+is closed at top and bottom but has no middle cross bar <img style="width:15px; height:18px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img780c.jpg" alt="" />.
+The Phoenician name for the letter was Heth (H&#275;t). According
+to Semitic scholars it had two values, (1) a glottal spirant, a very
+strong <i>h</i>, (2) an unvoiced velar spirant like the German <i>ch</i> in <i>ach</i>.
+The Greeks borrowed it with the value of the ordinary aspirate
+and with the name <span class="grk" title="êta">&#7975;&#964;&#945;</span>. Very early in their history, however,
+most of the Greeks of Asia Minor lost the aspirate altogether,
+and having then no further use for the symbol with this value
+they adopted it to represent the long <i>e</i>-sound, which was not
+originally distinguished by a different symbol from the short
+sound (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks"><img style="width:16px; height:18px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img780d.jpg" alt="" /></a></span>). With this value its name has always been <span class="grk" title="êta">&#7975;&#964;&#945;</span>
+in Greek. The alphabet of the Asiatic Greeks was gradually
+adopted elsewhere. In official documents at Athens H represented
+the rough breathing or aspirate &lsquo; till 403 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; henceforth
+it was used for &eta;. The Western Greeks, however, from whom the
+Romans obtained their alphabet, retained their aspirate longer
+than those of Asia Minor, and hence the symbol came to the
+Romans with the value not of a long vowel but of the aspirate,
+which it still preserves. The Greek aspirate was itself the first
+or left-hand half of this letter <img style="width:16px; height:18px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img780e.jpg" alt="" />, while the smooth breathing &rsquo;
+was the right-hand portion <img style="width:13px; height:18px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img780f.jpg" alt="" />. At Tarentum <img style="width:16px; height:18px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img780e.jpg" alt="" /> is found for
+<img style="width:17px; height:18px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img780b.jpg" alt="" /> in inscriptions. The Roman aspirate was, however, a very
+slight sound which in some words where it was etymologically
+correct disappeared at an early date. Thus the cognate words
+of kindred languages show that the Lat. <i>anser</i> &ldquo;goose&rdquo; ought
+to begin with <i>h</i>, but nowhere is it so found. In none of the
+Romance languages is there any trace of initial or medial <i>h</i>,
+which shows that vulgar Latin had ceased to have the aspirate
+by 240 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The Roman grammarians were guided to its
+presence by the Sabine forms where <i>f</i> occurred; as the Sabines
+said <i>fasena</i> (sand), it was recognised that the Roman form ought
+to be <i>harena</i>, and so for <i>haedus</i> (goat), <i>hordeum</i> (barley), &amp;c.
+Between vowels <i>h</i> was lost very early, for <i>ne-hemo</i> (no man) is
+throughout the literature <i>n&#275;mo</i>, <i>bi-himus</i> (two winters old)
+<i>b&#299;mus</i>. In the Ciceronian age greater attention was paid to
+reproducing the Greek aspirates in borrowed words, and this
+led to absurd mistakes in Latin words, mistakes which were
+satirized by Catullus in his epigram (84) upon Arrius, who said
+<i>chommoda</i> for <i>commoda</i> and <i>hinsidias</i> for <i>insidias</i>. In Umbrian
+<i>h</i> was often lost, and also used without etymological value to
+mark length, as in <i>comohota</i> (= Lat. <i>commota</i>), a practice to
+which there are some doubtful parallels in Latin.</p>
+
+<p>In English the history of <i>h</i> is very similar to that in Latin.
+While the parts above the glottis are in position to produce a
+vowel, an aspirate is produced without vibration of the vocal
+chords, sometimes, like the pronunciation of Arrius, with considerable
+effort as a reaction against the tendency to &ldquo;drop the
+h&rsquo;s.&rdquo; Though <i>h</i> survives in Scotland, Ireland and America as
+well as in the speech of cultivated persons, the sound in most of
+the vulgar dialects is entirely lost. Where it is not ordinarily
+lost, it disappears in unaccented syllables, as &ldquo;<i>Give it &rsquo;im</i>&rdquo; and
+the like. Where it is lost, conscious attempts to restore it on
+the part of uneducated speakers lead to absurd misplacements
+of <i>h</i> and to its restoration in Romance words when it never was
+pronounced, as <i>humble</i> (now recognized as standard English),
+<i>humour</i> and even <i>honour</i>.</p>
+<div class="author">(P. Gi.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAAG, CARL<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> (1820-&emsp;&emsp;), a naturalized British painter,
+court painter to the duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, was born
+in Bavaria, and was trained in the academies at Nuremburg
+and Munich. He practised first as an illustrator and as a painter,
+in oil, of portraits and architectural subjects; but after he
+settled in England, in 1847, he devoted himself to water colours,
+and was elected associate of the Royal Society of Painters in
+Water Colours in 1850 and member in 1853. He travelled
+much, especially in the East, and made a considerable reputation
+by his firmly drawn and carefully elaborated paintings of
+Eastern subjects. Towards the end of his professional career
+Carl Haag quitted England and returned to Germany.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>A History of the &ldquo;Old Water-Colour&rdquo; Society, now the Royal
+Society of Painters in Water Colours</i>, by John Lewis Roget (2 vols.,
+London, 1891).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAAKON<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (Old Norse <i>Hákon</i>), the name of several kings of
+Norway, of whom the most important are the following:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Haakon I.</span>, surnamed &ldquo;the Good&rdquo; (d. 961), was the youngest
+son of Harald Haarfager. He was fostered by King Aethelstan
+of England, who brought him up in the Christian religion, and on
+the news of his father&rsquo;s death in 933 provided him with ships and
+men for an expedition against his half-brother Erik, who had
+been proclaimed king. On his arrival in Norway Haakon gained
+the support of the landowners by promising to give up the rights
+of taxation claimed by his father over inherited real property.
+Erik fled, and was killed a few years later in England. His sons
+allied themselves with the Danes, but were invariably defeated
+by Haakon, who was successful in everything he undertook
+except in his attempt to introduce Christianity, which aroused
+an opposition he did not feel strong enough to face. He was
+killed at the battle of Fitje in 961, after a final victory over
+Erik&rsquo;s sons. So entirely did even his immediate circle ignore his
+religion that a court skald composed a poem on his death representing
+his welcome by the heathen gods into Valhalla.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Haakon IV.</span>, surnamed &ldquo;the Old&rdquo; (1204-1263), was declared
+to be the son of Haakon III., who died shortly before the former&rsquo;s
+birth in 1204. A year later the child was placed under the
+protection of King Inge, after whose death in 1217 he was chosen
+king; though until 1223 the church refused to recognize him,
+on the ground of illegitimacy, and the Pope&rsquo;s dispensation for
+his coronation was not gained until much later. In the earlier
+part of his reign much of the royal power was in the hands of
+Earl Skule, who intrigued against the king until 1239, when he
+proceeded to open hostility and was put to death. From this
+time onward Haakon&rsquo;s reign was marked by more peace and
+prosperity than Norway had known for many years, until in
+1263 a dispute with the Scottish king concerning the Hebrides,
+a Norwegian possession, induced Haakon to undertake an
+expedition to the west of Scotland. A division of his army
+seems to have repulsed a large Scottish force at Largs (though
+the later Scottish accounts claim this battle as a victory), and,
+having won back the Norwegian possessions in Scotland, Haakon
+was wintering in the Orkneys, when he was taken ill and died
+on the 15th of December 1263. A great part of his fleet had been
+scattered and destroyed by storms. The most important event
+in his reign was the voluntary submission of the Icelandic
+commonwealth. Worn out by internal strife fostered by
+Haakon&rsquo;s emissaries, the Icelandic chiefs acknowledged the
+Norwegian king as overlord in 1262. Their example was followed
+by the colony of Greenland.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Haakon VII.</span> (1872-&emsp;&emsp;), the second son of Frederick VIII.,
+king of Denmark, was born on the 3rd of August 1872, and was
+usually known as Prince Charles of Denmark. When in 1905
+Norway decided to separate herself from Sweden the Norwegians
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page781" id="page781"></a>781</span>
+offered their crown to Charles, who accepted it and took the name
+of Haakon VII., being crowned at Trondhjem in June 1906.
+The king married Maud, youngest daughter of Edward VII.,
+king of Great Britain, their son, Prince Olav, being born in 1903.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAARLEM,<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> a town of Holland in the province of North
+Holland, on the Spaarne, having a junction station 11 m. by
+rail W. of Amsterdam. It is connected by electric and steam
+tramways with Zandvoort, Leiden, Amsterdam and Alkmaar.
+Pop. (1900) 65,189. Haarlem is the seat of the governor of the
+province of North Holland, and of a Roman Catholic and a
+Jansenist bishopric. In appearance it is a typical Dutch town,
+with numerous narrow canals and quaintly gabled houses. Of
+the ancient city gates the Spaarnewouder or Amsterdam gate
+alone remains. Gardens and promenades have taken the place
+of the old ramparts, and on the south the city is bounded by the
+Frederiks and the Flora parks, between which runs the fine
+avenue called the Dreef, leading to the Haarlemmer Hout or
+wood. In the Frederiks Park is a pump-room supplied with
+a powerful chalybeate water from a spring, the Wilhelminabron,
+in the Haarlemmer Polder not far distant, and in connexion
+with this there is an orthopaedic institution adjoining. In the
+great market place in the centre of the city are gathered together
+the larger number of the most interesting buildings, including
+the quaint old Fleshers&rsquo; Hall, built by Lieven de Key in 1603,
+and now containing the archives; the town hall; the old
+Stadsdoelen, where the burgesses met in arms; the Groote Kerk,
+or Great Church; and the statue erected in 1856 to Laurenz
+Janszoon Koster, the printer. The Great Church, dedicated to
+St Bavo, with a lofty tower (255 ft.), is one of the most famous
+in Holland, and dates from the end of the 15th and the beginning
+of the 16th centuries. Its great length (460 ft.) and the height
+and steepness of its vaulted cedar-wood roof (1538) are very
+impressive. The choir-stalls and screen (1510) are finely carved,
+and of further interest are the ancient pulpit sounding-board
+(1432), some old stained glass, and the small models of ships,
+copies dating from 1638 of yet earlier models originally presented
+by the Dutch-Swedish Trading Company. The church organ
+was long considered the largest and finest in existence. It was
+constructed by Christian Müller in 1738, and has 4 keyboards,
+64 registers and 5000 pipes, the largest of which is 15 in. in
+diameter and 32 ft. long. Among the monuments in the church
+are those of the poet Willem Bilderdyk (d. 1831) and the engineer
+Frederik Willem Conrad (d. 1808), who designed the sea-sluices
+at Katwyk. In the belfry are the <i>damiaatjes</i>, small bells presented
+to the town, according to tradition, by William I., count
+of Holland (d. 1222), the crusader. The town hall was originally
+a palace of the counts of Holland, begun in the 12th century,
+and some old 13th-century beams still remain; but the building
+was remodelled in the beginning of the 17th century. It contains
+a collection of antiquities (including some beautiful goblets)
+and a picture gallery which, though small, is celebrated for its
+fine collection of paintings by Frans Hals. The town library
+contains several <i>incunabula</i> and an interesting collection of early
+Dutch literature. At the head of the scientific institutions of
+Haarlem may be placed the Dutch Society of Sciences (<i>Hollandsche
+Maatschappij van Wetenschappen</i>), founded in 1752,
+which possesses valuable collections in botany, natural history
+and geology. Teyler&rsquo;s Stichting (<i>i.e.</i> foundation), enlarged in
+modern times, was instituted by the will of Pieter Teyler van
+der Hulst (d. 1778), a wealthy merchant, for the study of theology,
+natural science and art, and has lecture-theatres, a large library,
+and a museum containing a physical and a geological cabinet, as
+well as a collection of paintings, including many modern pictures,
+and a valuable collection of drawings and engravings by old
+masters. The Dutch Society for the Promotion of Industry
+(<i>Nederlaandsche Maatschappij ter Bevordering van Nijverheid</i>),
+founded in 1777, has its seat in the Pavilion Welgelegen, a villa
+on the south side of the Frederiks Park, built by the Amsterdam
+banker John Hope in 1778, and afterwards acquired by Louis
+Bonaparte, king of Holland. The colonial museum and the
+museum of industrial art were established in this villa by the
+society in 1871 and 1877 respectively. Besides these there
+are a museum of ecclesiastical antiquities, chiefly relating to
+the bishopric of Haarlem; the old weigh-house (1598) and the
+orphanage for girls (1608), originally an almshouse for old men,
+both built by the architect Lieven de Key of Ghent.</p>
+
+<p>The staple industries of Haarlem have been greatly modified
+in the course of time. Cloth weaving and brewing, which once
+flourished exceedingly, declined in the beginning of the 16th
+century. A century later, silk, lace and damask weaving were
+introduced by French refugees, and became very important
+industries. But about the close of the 18th century this remarkable
+prosperity had also come to an end, and it was not till after
+the Belgian revolution of 1830-1831 that Haarlem began to
+develop the manufactures in which it is now chiefly engaged.
+Cotton manufacture, dyeing, printing, bleaching, brewing,
+type-founding, and the manufacture of tram and railway carriages
+are among the more important of its industries. One of the
+printing establishments has the reputation of being the oldest
+in the Netherlands, and publishes the oldest Dutch paper, <i>De
+Opragte Haarlemmer Courant</i>. Market-gardening, especially
+horticulture, is extensively practised in the vicinity, so that
+Haarlem is the seat of a large trade in Dutch bulbs, especially
+hyacinths, tulips, fritillaries, spiraeas and japonicas.</p>
+
+<p>Haarlem, which was a prosperous place in the middle of the
+12th century, received its first town charter from William II.,
+count of Holland and king of the Romans, in 1245. It played
+a considerable part in the wars of Holland with the Frisians.
+In 1492 it was captured by the insurgent peasants of North
+Holland, was re-taken by the duke of Saxony, the imperial
+stadholder, and deprived of its privileges. In 1572 Haarlem
+joined the revolt of the Netherlands against Spain, but on the
+13th of July 1573, after a seven months&rsquo; siege, was forced to
+surrender to Alva&rsquo;s son Frederick, who exacted terrible vengeance.
+In 1577 it was again captured by William of Orange and permanently
+incorporated in the United Netherlands.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Karl Hegel, <i>Städte und Gilden</i> (Leipzig, 1891); Allan, <i>Geschiedenis
+en beschrijving van Haarlem</i> (Haarlem, 1871-1888).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAARLEM LAKE<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (Dutch <i>Harlemmer Meer</i>), a commune of
+the province of North Holland, constituted by the law of the
+16th of July 1855. It has an area of about 46,000 acres, and
+its population increased from 7237 in 1860 to 16,621 in 1900.
+As its name indicates, the commune was formerly a lake, which
+is said to have been a relic of a northern arm of the Rhine which
+passed through the district in the time of the Romans. In 1531
+the Haarlemmer Meer had an area of 6430 acres, and in its
+vicinity were three smaller sheets of water&mdash;the Leidsche Meer
+or Leiden Lake, the Spiering Meer, and the Oude Meer or Old
+Lake, with a united area of about 7600 acres. The four lakes
+were formed into one by successive inundations, whole villages
+disappearing in the process, and by 1647 the new Haarlem Lake
+had an area of about 37,000 acres, which a century later had
+increased to over 42,000 acres. As early as 1643 Jan Adriaanszoon
+Leeghwater proposed to endike and drain the lake; and
+similar schemes, among which those of Nikolaas Samuel Cruquius
+in 1742 and of Baron van Lijnden van Hemmen in 1820 are
+worthy of special mention, were brought forward from time to
+time. But it was not till a furious hurricane in November 1836
+drove the waters as far as the gates of Amsterdam, and another
+on Christmas Day sent them in the opposite direction to submerge
+the streets of Leiden, that the mind of the nation was
+seriously turned to the matter. In August 1837 the king appointed
+a royal commission of inquiry; the scheme proposed
+by the commission received the sanction of the Second Chamber
+in March 1839, and in the following May the work was begun.
+A canal was first dug round the lake for the reception of the water
+and the accommodation of the great traffic which had previously
+been carried on. This canal was 38 m. in length, 123-146 ft.
+wide, and 8 ft. deep, and the earth which was taken out of it
+was used to build a dike from 30 to 54 yds. broad containing
+the lake. The area enclosed by the canal was rather more than
+70 sq. m., and the average depth of the lake 13 ft. 1½ in., and as
+the water had no natural outfall it was calculated that probably
+1000 million tons would have to be raised by mechanical means.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page782" id="page782"></a>782</span>
+This amount was 200 million tons in excess of that actually
+discharged. Pumping by steam-engines began in 1848, and the
+lake was dry by the 1st of July 1852. At the first sale of the
+highest lands along the banks on the 16th of August 1853, about
+£28 per acre was paid; but the average price afterwards was
+less. The whole area of 42,096 acres recovered from the waters
+brought in 9,400,000 florins, or about £780,000, exactly covering
+the cost of the enterprise; so that the actual cost to the nation
+was only the amount of the interest on the capital, or about
+£368,000. The soil is of various kinds, loam, clay, sand and
+peat; most of it is sufficiently fertile, though in the lower
+portions there are barren patches where the scanty vegetation
+is covered with an ochreous deposit. Mineral springs occur
+containing a very high percentage (3.245 grams per litre) of
+common salt; and in 1893 a company was formed for working
+them. Corn, seeds, cattle, butter and cheese are the principal
+produce. The roads which traverse the commune are bordered
+by pleasant-looking farm-houses built after the various styles
+of Holland, Friesland or Brabant. Hoofddorp, Venneperdorp
+or Nieuw Vennep, Abbenes and the vicinities of the pumping-stations
+are the spots where the population has clustered most
+thickly. The first church was built in 1855; in 1877 there were
+seven. In 1854 the city of Leiden laid claim to the possession of
+the new territory, but the courts decided in favour of the nation.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAASE, FRIEDRICH<a name="ar25a" id="ar25a"></a></span> (1827-&emsp;&emsp;), German actor, was born on
+the 1st of November 1827, in Berlin, the son of a valet to King
+Frederick William IV., who became his godfather. He was
+educated for the stage under Ludwig Tieck and made his first
+appearance in 1846 in Weimar, afterwards acting at Prague
+(1849-1851) and Karlsruhe (1852-1855). From 1860 to 1866
+he played in St Petersburg, then was manager of the court
+theatre in Coburg, and in 1869 (and again in 1882-1883) visited
+the United States. He was manager of the Stadt Theater in
+Leipzig from 1870 to 1876, when he removed to Berlin, where he
+devoted his energies to the foundation and management of the
+Deutsches Theater. He finally retired from the stage in 1898.
+Haase&rsquo;s aristocratic appearance and elegant manner fitted him
+specially to play high comedy parts. His chief rôles were those
+of Rocheferrier in the <i>Partie Piquet</i>; Richelieu; Savigny in
+<i>Der feiner Diplomat</i>, and der Fürst in <i>Der geheime Agent</i>. He
+is the author of <i>Ungeschminkte Briefe and Was ich erlebte 1846-1898</i>
+(Berlin, 1898).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Simon, <i>Friedrich Haase</i> (Berlin, 1898).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAASE, FRIEDRICH GOTTLOB<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (1808-1867), German
+classical scholar, was born at Magdeburg on the 4th of January
+1808. Having studied at Halle, Greifswald and Berlin, he
+obtained in 1834 an appointment at Schulpforta, from which
+he was suspended and sentenced to six years&rsquo; imprisonment for
+identifying himself with the <i>Burschenschaften</i> (students&rsquo; associations).
+Having been released after serving one year of his
+sentence, he visited Paris, and on his return in 1840 he was
+appointed professor at Breslau, where he remained till his
+death on the 16th of August 1867. He was undoubtedly
+one of the most successful teachers of his day in Germany, and
+exercised great influence upon all his pupils.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>He edited several classic authors: Xenophon (<span class="grk" title="Lakedaimoniôn
+politeia">&#923;&#945;&#954;&#949;&#948;&#945;&#953;&#956;&#959;&#957;&#943;&#969;&#957; &#960;&#959;&#955;&#953;&#964;&#949;&#943;&#945;</span>, 1833); Thucydides (1840); Velleius Paterculus (1858);
+Seneca the philosopher (2nd ed., 1872, not yet superseded); and
+Tacitus (1855), the introduction to which is a masterpiece of Latinity.
+His <i>Vorlesungen über lateinische Sprachwissenschaft</i> was published
+after his death by F. A. Eckstein and H. Peter (1874-1880). See
+C Bursian, <i>Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in Deutschland</i> (1883);
+G. Fickert, <i>Friderici Haasii memoria</i> (1868), with a list of works;
+T. Oelsner in <i>Rübezahl</i> (<i>Schlesische Provinzialblätter</i>), vii. Heft 3
+(Breslau, 1868).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAAST, SIR JOHANN FRANZ JULIUS VON<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (1824-1887),
+German and British geologist, was born at Bonn on the 1st of
+May 1824. He received his early education partly in that town
+and partly in Cologne, and then entered the university at Bonn,
+where he made a special study of geology and mineralogy. In
+1858 he started for New Zealand to report on the suitability
+of the colony for German emigrants. He then became acquainted
+with Dr von Hochstetter, and rendered assistance to him in the
+preliminary geological survey which von Hochstetter had undertaken.
+Afterwards Dr Haast accepted offers from the governments
+of Nelson and Canterbury to investigate the geology of
+those districts, and the results of his detailed labours greatly
+enriched our knowledge with regard to the rocky structure,
+the glacial phenomena and the economic products. He discovered
+gold and coal in Nelson, and he carried on important
+researches with reference to the occurrence of <i>Dinornis</i> and other
+extinct wingless birds (Moas). His <i>Geology of the Provinces of
+Canterbury and Westland, N.Z.</i>, was published in 1879. He
+was the founder of the Canterbury museum at Christchurch,
+of which he became director, and which he endeavoured to
+render the finest collection in the southern hemisphere. He
+was surveyor-general of Canterbury from 1861 to 1871, and
+professor of geology at Canterbury College. He was elected
+F.R.S. in 1867; and he was knighted for his services at the
+time of the colonial exhibition in London in 1887. He died at
+Wellington, N.Z., on the 15th of August 1887.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HABABS<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Az-Hibbehs</span>), a nomadic pastoral people of Hamitic
+stock, living in the coast region north-west of Massawa. Physically
+they are Beja, by language and traditions Abyssinians.
+They were Christians until the 19th century, but are now
+Mahommedans. Their sole wealth consists in cattle.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HABAKKUK,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> the name borne by the eighth book of the Old
+Testament &ldquo;Minor Prophets.&rdquo; It occurs twice in the book
+itself (i. 1, iii. 1) in titles, but nowhere else in the Old Testament.
+The meaning of the name is uncertain. If Hebrew, it might be
+derived from the root <span title="habak">&#1495;&#1489;&#1511;</span> (to embrace) as an intensive term
+of affection. It has also been connected more plausibly with
+an Assyrian plant name, <i>&#7723;amba&#7729;&#363;&#7729;u</i> (Delitzsch, <i>Assyrisches
+Handwörterbuch</i>, p. 281). The Septuagint has <span class="grk" title="Ambakoum">&#7944;&#956;&#946;&#945;&#954;&#959;&#973;&#956;</span>. Of
+the person designated, no more is known than may be inferred
+from the writing which bears his name. Various legends are
+connected with him, of which the best known is given in the
+Apocryphal story of &ldquo;Bel and the Dragon&rdquo; (v. 33-39); but
+none of these has any historic value.<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The book itself falls into three obvious parts, viz. (1) a dialogue
+between the prophet and God (i. 2-ii. 4); (2) a series of five
+woes pronounced on wickedness (ii. 5-ii. 20); (3) a poem
+describing the triumphant manifestation of God (iii.). There is
+considerable difficulty in regard to the interpretation of (1), on
+which that of (2) will turn; while (3) forms an independent
+section, to be considered separately.</p>
+
+<p>In the dialogue, the prophet cries to God against continued
+violence and injustice, though it is not clear whether this is done
+<i>within</i> or <i>to</i> Israel (i. 2-4). The divine answer declares that God
+raises up the Chaldaeans, whose formidable resources are invincible
+(i. 5-11). The prophet thereupon calls God&rsquo;s attention to the
+tyranny which He apparently allows to triumph, and declares
+his purpose to wait till an answer is given to his complaint
+(i. 12-ii. 2). God answers by demanding patience, and by
+declaring that the righteous shall live by his faithfulness (ii. 3-4).</p>
+
+<p>The interpretation of this dialogue which first suggests itself
+is that the prophet is referring to wickedness <i>within</i> the nation,
+which is to be punished by the Chaldaeans as a divine instrument;
+in the process, the tyranny of the instrument itself calls for
+punishment, which the prophet is bidden to await in patient
+fidelity. On this view of the dialogue, the subsequent woes will
+be pronounced against the Chaldaeans, and the date assigned to
+the prophecy will be about 600 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, <i>i.e.</i> soon after the battle of
+Carchemish (605 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), when the Chaldaean victory over Egypt
+inaugurated a period of Chaldaean supremacy which lasted till
+the Chaldaeans themselves were overthrown by Cyrus in 538 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+Grave objections, however, confront this interpretation, as is
+admitted even by such recent defenders of it as Davidson and
+Driver. Is it likely that a prophet would begin a complaint
+against Chaldaean tyranny (admittedly central in the prophecy)
+by complaining of that wickedness of his fellow-countrymen which
+seems partly to justify it? Are not the terms of reference in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page783" id="page783"></a>783</span>
+i. 2 f. and 1. 12 f. too similar for the supposition that two
+distinct, even contradictory, complaints are being made (cf.
+&ldquo;wicked&rdquo; and &ldquo;righteous&rdquo; in i. 4 and i. 13, interchanged
+in regard to Israel, on above theory)? And if i. 5-11 is a genuine
+<i>prophecy</i> of the raising up of the Chaldaeans, whence comes that
+long experience of their rule required to explain the <i>detailed</i>
+denunciation of their tyranny? To meet the last objection,
+Davidson supposes i. 5-11 to be really a reference to the past,
+prophetic in form only, and brings down the whole section to a
+later period of Chaldaean rule, &ldquo;hardly, one would think, before
+the deportation of the people under Jehoiachin in 597&rdquo; (p. 49).
+Driver prefers to bisect the dialogue by supposing i. 2-11 to
+be written at an earlier period than i. 12 f. (p. 57). The other
+objections, however, remain, and have provoked a variety of
+theories from Old Testament scholars, of which three call for
+special notice. (1) The first of these, represented by Giesebrecht,<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a>
+Nowack and Wellhausen, refers i. 2-4 to Chaldaean oppression of
+Israel, the same subject being continued in i. 12 f. Obviously,
+the reference to the Chaldaeans as a divine instrument could not
+then stand in its present place, and it is accordingly regarded as
+a misplaced earlier prophecy. This is the minimum of critical
+procedure required to do justice to the facts. (2) Budde, followed
+by Cornill, also regards i. 2-4 as referring to the oppression of
+Israel by a foreign tyrant, whom, however, he holds to be Assyria.
+He also removes i. 5-11 from its present place, but makes it
+part of the divine answer, following ii. 4. On this view, the
+Chaldaeans are the divine instrument for punishing the tyranny
+of the Assyrians, to whom the following woes will therefore refer.
+The date would fall between Josiah&rsquo;s reformation (621) and his
+death (609). This is a plausible and even attractive theory;
+its weakness seems to lie in the absence of any positive evidence
+in the prophecy itself, as is illustrated by the fact that even
+G. A. Smith, who follows it, suggests &ldquo;Egypt from 608-605&rdquo;
+as an alternative to Assyria (p. 124). (3) Marti (1904) abandons
+the attempt to explain the prophecy as a unity, and analyses
+it into three elements, viz. (<i>a</i>) The original prophecy by
+Habakkuk, consisting of i. 5-10, 14 f., belonging to the year 605,
+and representing the emergent power of the Chaldaeans as a
+divine scourge of the faithless people; (<i>b</i>) Woes against the
+Chaldaeans, presupposing not only tyrannous rule over many
+peoples, but the beginning of their decline and fall, and therefore
+of date about 540 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (ii. 5-19); (<i>c</i>) A psalm of post-exilic origin,
+whose fragments, i. 2-4, 12 a, 13, ii. 1-4, have been incorporated
+into the present text from the margins on which they were
+written, its subject being the suffering of the righteous. Each
+of these three theories<a name="fa3a" id="fa3a" href="#ft3a"><span class="sp">3</span></a> encounters difficulties of detail; none
+can be said to have secured a dominant position. The great
+variety of views amongst competent critics is significant of the
+difficulty of the problem, which can hardly be regarded as yet
+solved; this divergence of opinion perhaps points to the impossibility
+of maintaining the unity of chs. i. and ii., and throws
+the balance of probability towards some such analysis as that
+of Marti, which is therefore accepted in the present article.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to the poem which forms the third and closing
+chapter of the present book of Habakkuk, there is much more
+general agreement. Its most striking characteristic lies in
+the superscription (&ldquo;A prayer of Habakkuk the prophet, set
+to Shigionoth&rdquo;), the subscription (&ldquo;For the chief musician, on
+my stringed instruments&rdquo;), and the insertion of the musical
+term &ldquo;Selah&rdquo; in three places (v. 3, 9, 13). These liturgical
+notes make extremely probable the supposition that the poem
+has been taken from some collection like that of our present
+book of Psalms, probably on the ground of the authorship
+asserted by the superscription there attached to it. It cannot,
+however, be said that the poem itself supports this assertion,
+which carries no more intrinsic weight than the Davidic titles
+of the Psalms. The poem begins with a prayer that God will
+renew the historic manifestation of the exodus, which inaugurated
+the national history and faith; a thunderstorm moving up from
+the south is then described, in which God is revealed (3-7);
+it is asked whether this manifestation, whose course is further
+described, is against nature only (8-11); the answer is given that
+it is for the salvation of Israel against its wicked foes (12-15);
+the poet describes the effect in terror upon himself (16) and
+declares his confidence in God, even in utter agricultural adversity
+(17-19). As Wellhausen says (p. 171): &ldquo;The poet appears to
+believe that in the very act of describing enthusiastically the
+ancient deed of deliverance, he brings home to us the new; we
+are left sometimes in doubt whether he speaks of the past to
+suggest the new by analogy, or whether he is concerned directly
+with the future, and simply paints it with the colours of the past.&rdquo;
+In any case, there is nothing in this fine poem to connect it with
+the conception of the Chaldaeans as a divine instrument. It is the
+nation that speaks through the poet (cf. v. 14), but at what
+period of its post-exilic history we have no means of inferring.</p>
+
+<p>Our estimate of the theological teaching of this book will
+naturally be influenced by the particular critical theory which
+is adopted. The reduction of the book to four originally independent
+sections requires that the point of each be stated
+separately. When this is done, it will, however, be found that
+there is a broad unity of subject, and of natural development
+in its treatment, such as to some extent justifies the instinct or
+the judgment of those who were instrumental in effecting the
+combination of the separate parts. (1) The poem (iii.), though
+possibly latest in date,<a name="fa4a" id="fa4a" href="#ft4a"><span class="sp">4</span></a> claims first consideration, because it
+avowedly moves in the circle of primitive ideas, and supplicates
+a divine intervention, a direct and immediate manifestation
+of the transcendent God. He is conceived as controlling or
+overcoming the forces of nature; and though an earlier
+mythology has supplied some of the ideas, yet, as with the
+opening chapters of Genesis, they are transfigured by the moral
+purpose which animates them, the purpose to subdue all things
+that could frustrate the destiny of God&rsquo;s anointed (v. 13). The
+closing verses strike that deep note of absolute dependence on
+God, which is the glory of the religion of the Old Testament
+and its chief contribution to the spirit of the Gospels. (2) The
+prophecy of the Chaldaeans as the instruments of the divine
+purpose involves a different, yet related, conception of the divine
+providence. The philosophy of history, by which Hebrew
+prophets could read a deep moral significance into national
+disaster and turn the flank of resistless attack, became one of
+the most important elements in the nation&rsquo;s faith. If the world-powers
+were hard as flint in their dealings with Israel, the people
+of God were steeled to such moral endurance that each clash of
+their successive onsets kindled some new flame of devotion.
+Through the Chaldaeans God worked a work which required
+centuries of life and literature to disclose its fulness (i. 5). (3)
+When we turn from this view of the Chaldaeans to the denunciation
+of their tyranny in &ldquo;taunt songs&rdquo; (ii. 5-20), we have simply
+a practical application of the doctrine of divine government.
+God being what He is, at once moral and all-powerful, the
+immoral life is doomed to overthrow, whether the immorality
+consist in grasping rapacity, proud self-aggrandizement, cruel
+exaction, exulting triumph or senseless idolatry. (4) Yet,
+because the doom so often tarries, there arises the problem of
+the suffering of the innocent and the upright. How can God
+look down with tolerance that seems favour on so much that
+conflicts with His declared will and character? This is the great
+problem of Israel, finding its supreme expression for all time in
+the book of Job (<i>q.v.</i>). In that book the solution of the problem
+of innocent suffering lies hidden from the sufferer, even to the
+end, for he is not admitted with the reader to the secret of the
+prologue; it is the practical solution of faithfulness resting on
+faith which is offered to us. So here, with the principle of ii. 4,
+&ldquo;the righteous shall live by his faithfulness.&rdquo; The different
+application of these words in the New Testament to &ldquo;faith&rdquo;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page784" id="page784"></a>784</span>
+is well known (Rom. i. 17; Gal. iii. 11; Heb. x. 38) though the
+difference is apt to be exaggerated by those who forget how much
+of the element of <span title="emuna">&#1488;&#1502;&#1493;&#1504;&#1492;</span>: lies in Paul&rsquo;s conception of <span class="grk" title="pistis">&#960;&#943;&#963;&#964;&#953;&#962;</span>.
+In G. A. Smith&rsquo;s words, &ldquo;as Paul&rsquo;s adaptation, &lsquo;the just shall
+live by faith,&rsquo; has become the motto of evangelical Christianity,
+so we may say that Habakkuk&rsquo;s original of it has been the motto
+and the fame of Judaism: &lsquo;the righteous shall live by his
+faithfulness.&rsquo;&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The Hebrew text of this impressive and varied book is unfortunately
+corrupt in many places; even so cautious a critic as Driver
+accepts or favourably notices eighteen textual emendations in the
+three chapters, and suspects the text in at least seven other cases.
+For the interpretation of the book in detail, the English reader will
+find Driver&rsquo;s commentary (1906) the most useful.</p>
+
+<p>References to earlier literature will be found in the following noteworthy
+studies of recent date: Davidson, &ldquo;Nahum, Habakkuk
+and Zephaniah,&rdquo; in <i>Cambridge Bible</i> (1896); Nowack, <i>Die kleinen
+Propheten</i> (Hdkr.) (1897); Wellhausen, <i>Die kleinen Propheten</i><span class="sp">3</span>
+(1898); G. A. Smith, &ldquo;The Book of the Twelve Prophets,&rdquo; in
+<i>The Expositor&rsquo;s Bible</i>, vol. ii. (1898); Driver, article &ldquo;Habakkuk&rdquo;
+in Hastings&rsquo; <i>Dictionary of the Bible</i>, vol. ii. pp. 269-272 (1900);
+Budde, article &ldquo;Habakkuk&rdquo; in <i>Ency. Biblica</i>, vol. ii., c. 1921-1928
+(1901); Stevenson, &ldquo;The Interpretation of Habakkuk,&rdquo; in <i>The
+Expositor</i> (1902), pp. 388-401; Peake, <i>The Problem of Suffering in
+the Old Testament</i> (1904), pp. 4-11 and app. A, &ldquo;Recent Criticism of
+Habakkuk&rdquo;; Marti, <i>Dodekapropheton</i> (K. H. C.) (1904); Driver,
+&ldquo;Minor Prophets,&rdquo; vol. ii., in <i>Century Bible</i> (1906); Duhm, <i>Das
+Buch Habakkuk</i> (Text, Übersetzung und Efklärung), 1906 (regards
+the book as a unity belonging to the time of Alexander the Great).
+Max L. Margolis discusses the anonymous Greek version of Habakkuk
+iii. in a volume of <i>Old Test. and Semitic Studies: in Memory of
+William Rainey Harper</i> (Chicago, 1908).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. W. R.*)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> These legends are collected in Hastings, D. B. vol. ii. p. 272.
+He is the watchman of Is. xxi. 6 (cf. Hab. ii. 1); the son of the
+Shunammite (2 Kings iv. 16); and is miraculously lifted by his hair
+to carry his own dinner to Daniel in the lions&rsquo; den (<i>supra</i>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Followed by Peake in <i>The Problem of Suffering</i>, pp. 4 f., 151 f.,
+to whose appendix (A) reference may be made for further details
+of recent criticism.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> For the less probable theories of Rothstein, Lauterburg, Happel
+and Peiser (amongst others), cf. Marti&rsquo;s <i>Commentary</i>, pp. 328 f. and
+332. Stevenson (<i>The Expositor</i>, 1902) states clearly the difficulties
+for those who regard ch. i. as a unity. He sees two independent
+sections, 2-4 + 12-13, and 5-11 + 14-17.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4a" id="ft4a" href="#fa4a"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Earlier, however, than Ps. lxxvii. 17-20, which is drawn from it.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HABDALA<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (lit. &ldquo;separation&rdquo;), a Hebrew term chiefly
+appropriated to ceremonies at the conclusion of Sabbath and
+festivals, marking the separation between times sacred and
+secular. On the Saturday night the ceremony consists of three
+items: (<i>a</i>) benediction over a cup of wine (common to many
+other Jewish functions); (<i>b</i>) benediction over a lighted taper,
+of which possibly the origin is utilitarian, as no light might be
+kindled on the Sabbath day, but the rite may be symbolical;
+and (<i>c</i>) benediction over a box of sweet-smelling spices. The
+origin of the latter has been traced to the bowl of burning spice
+which in Talmudic times was introduced after each meal. But
+here too symbolic ideas must be taken into account. Both the
+light and the spices would readily fit into the conception of the
+Sabbath &ldquo;Over-soul&rdquo; of the mystics.</p>
+<div class="author">(I. A.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HABEAS CORPUS,<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> in English law, a writ issued out of the
+High Court of Justice commanding the person to whom it is
+directed to bring the body of a person in his custody before that
+or some other court for a specified purpose.</p>
+
+<p>There are various forms of the writ, of which the most famous
+is that known as <i>habeas corpus ad subjiciendum</i>, the well-established
+remedy for violation of personal liberty. From the earliest
+records of the English law no free man could be detained in
+custody except on a criminal charge or conviction or for a civil
+debt. That right is expressed in the Great Charter in the
+words: &ldquo;<i>Nullus liber homo capiatur vel imprisonetur aut
+dissaisietur aut utlagetur, aut exuletur aut aliquo modo destruatur
+nec super eum ibimus nec super eum mittemus, nisi per legale
+judicium parium suorum, vel per legem terrae.</i>&rdquo;<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The writ is a
+remedial mandatory writ of right existing by the common law,
+<i>i.e.</i> it is one of the extraordinary remedies&mdash;such as <i>mandamus</i>,
+<i>certiorari</i> and prohibitions, which the superior courts may grant.
+While &ldquo;of right,&rdquo; it is not &ldquo;of course,&rdquo; and is granted only on
+application to the High Court or a judge thereof, supported by a
+sworn statement of facts setting up at least a probable case of
+illegal confinement. It is addressed to the person in whose
+custody another is detained, and commands him to bring his
+prisoner before the court immediately after the receipt of
+the writ, together with the day and cause of his being taken and
+detained, to undergo and receive (<i>ad subjiciendum et recipiendum</i>)
+whatsoever the court awarding the writ &ldquo;may consider of
+concerning him in that behalf.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It is often stated that the writ is founded on the article of
+the Great Charter already quoted; but there are extant instances
+of the issue of writs of <i>habeas corpus</i> before the charter. Other
+writs having somewhat similar effect were in use at an early
+date, <i>e.g.</i> the writ <i>de odio et atiâ</i>, used as early as the 12th century
+to prevent imprisonment on vexatious appeals of felony, and the
+writ of mainprise (<i>de manucaptione</i>), long obsolete if not abolished
+in England but which it was attempted to use in India so late
+as 1870. In the ease of imprisonment on accusation of crime the
+writ issued from the court of king&rsquo;s bench (or from the chancery),
+and on its return the court judged of the legality of the imprisonment,
+and discharged the prisoner or admitted him to bail or
+remanded him to his former custody according to the result of
+the examination.</p>
+
+<p>By the time of Charles I. the writ was fully established as the
+appropriate process for checking illegal imprisonment by inferior
+courts or by public officials. But it acquired its full and present
+constitutional importance by legislation.</p>
+
+<p>In Darnel&rsquo;s case (1627) the judges held that the command
+of the king was a sufficient answer to a writ of <i>habeas corpus</i>.
+The House of Commons thereupon passed resolutions to the
+contrary, and after a conference with the House of Lords the
+measure known as the Petition of Right was passed (1627, 3 Car. I.
+c. i.) which, inter alia, recited (s. 5) that, contrary to the Great
+Charter and the good laws and statutes of the realm, divers of
+the king&rsquo;s subjects had of late been imprisoned without any
+cause shown, and when they were brought up on <i>habeas corpus ad
+subjiciendum</i>, and no cause was shown other than the special
+command of the king signified by the privy council, were nevertheless
+remanded to prison, and enacted &ldquo;that no freeman in
+any such manner as is before mentioned be imprisoned or
+detained.&rdquo; The Petition of Right was disregarded in Selden&rsquo;s
+case (1629), when it was successfully returned to a <i>habeas corpus</i>
+that Selden and others were committed by the king&rsquo;s special
+command &ldquo;for notable contempts against the king and his
+government and for stirring up sedition against him.&rdquo;<a name="fa2b" id="fa2b" href="#ft2b"><span class="sp">2</span></a> This
+led to legislation in 1640 by which, after abolishing the Star
+Chamber, the right to a <i>habeas corpus</i> was given to test the
+legality of commitments by command or warrant of the king or
+the privy council.<a name="fa3b" id="fa3b" href="#ft3b"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The reign of Charles II. was marked by further progress
+towards securing the freedom of the subject from wrongful
+imprisonment. Lord Clarendon was impeached, <i>inter alia</i>,
+for causing many persons to be imprisoned against law and to
+be conveyed in custody to places outside England. In 1668
+a writ of <i>habeas corpus</i> was issued to test the legality of an
+imprisonment in Jersey. Though the authority of the courts
+had been strengthened by the Petition of Right and the act of
+1640, it was still rendered insufficient by reason of the insecurity
+of judicial tenure, the fact that only the chancellor (a political
+as well as a legal officer) and the court of king&rsquo;s bench had
+undoubted right to issue the writ, and the inability or hesitation
+of the competent judges to issue the writ except during the legal
+term, which did not cover more than half the year. A series of
+bills was passed through the Commons between 1668 and 1675,
+only to be rejected by the other House. In Jenkes&rsquo;s case (1676)
+Lord Chancellor Nottingham refused to issue the writ in vacation
+in a case in which a man had been committed by the king in
+council for a speech at Guildhall, and could get neither bail nor
+trial. In 1679, but rather in consequence of Lord Clarendon&rsquo;s
+arbitrary proceedings<a name="fa4b" id="fa4b" href="#ft4b"><span class="sp">4</span></a> than of Jenkes&rsquo;s case, a fresh bill was
+introduced which passed both Houses (it is said the upper House
+by the counting of one stout peer as ten) and became the famous
+Habeas Corpus Act of 1679 (31 Car. II. c. 2). The passing of
+the act was largely due to the experience and energy of Lord
+Shaftesbury, after whom it was for some time called. The act,
+while a most important landmark in the constitutional history
+of England, in no sense creates any right to personal freedom,
+but is essentially a procedure act for improving the legal mechanism
+by means of which that acknowledged right may be enforced.<a name="fa5b" id="fa5b" href="#ft5b"><span class="sp">5</span></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page785" id="page785"></a>785</span>
+It declares no principles and defines no rights, but is for practical
+purposes worth a hundred articles guaranteeing constitutional
+liberty.<a name="fa6b" id="fa6b" href="#ft6b"><span class="sp">6</span></a></p>
+
+<p>In the manner characteristic of English legislation the act
+is limited to the particular grievances immediately in view and
+is limited to imprisonment for criminal or supposed criminal
+matters, leaving untouched imprisonment on civil process or by
+private persons. It recites that great delays have been used by
+sheriffs and gaolers in making returns of writs of <i>habeas corpus</i>
+directed to them; and for the prevention thereof, and the more
+speedy relief of all persons imprisoned for criminal or supposed
+criminal matters, it enacts in substance as follows: (1) When a
+writ of <i>habeas corpus</i> is directed to a sheriff or other person in
+charge of a prisoner, he must within 3, 10 or 20 days, according
+to the distance of the place of commitment, bring the body of his
+prisoner to the court, with the true cause of his detainer or
+imprisonment&mdash;unless the commitment was for treason or felony
+plainly expressed in the warrant of commitment. (2) If any
+person be committed for any crime&mdash;unless for treason or felony
+plainly expressed in the warrant&mdash;it shall be lawful for such
+person or persons (other than persons convicted or in execution
+by legal process) <i>in time of vacation</i>, to appeal to the lord chancellor
+as a judge, who shall issue a <i>habeas corpus</i> returnable
+immediately, and on the return thereof shall discharge the
+prisoner on giving security for his appearance before the proper
+court&mdash;unless the party so committed is detained upon a legal
+process or under a justice&rsquo;s warrant for a non-bailable offence.
+Persons neglecting for two terms to pray for a <i>habeas corpus</i>
+shall have none in vacation. (3) Persons set at large on <i>habeas
+corpus</i> shall not be recommitted for the same offence unless by
+the legal order and process of the court having cognizance of
+the case. (4) A person committed to prison for treason or felony
+shall, if he requires it, in the first week of the next term or the
+first day of the next session of oyer and terminer, be indicted
+in that term or session or else admitted to bail, unless it appears
+on affidavit that the witnesses for the crown are not ready;
+and if he is not indicted and tried in the second term or session
+after commitment, or if after trial he is acquitted, he shall be
+discharged from imprisonment. (5) No inhabitant of England
+(except persons contracting, or, after conviction for felony,
+electing to be transported) shall be sent prisoner to Scotland,
+Ireland, Jersey, &amp;c., or any place beyond the seas. Stringent
+penalties are provided for offences against the act. A judge
+delaying <i>habeas corpus</i> forfeits £500 to the party aggrieved.
+Illegal imprisonment beyond seas renders the offender liable in
+an action by the injured party to treble costs and damages to
+the extent of not less than £500, besides subjecting him to the
+penalties of <i>praemunire</i> and to other disabilities. &ldquo;The great
+rank of those who were likely to offend against this part of the
+statute was,&rdquo; says Hallam, &ldquo;the cause of this unusual severity.&rdquo;
+Indeed as early as 1591 the judges had complained of the
+difficulty of enforcing the writ in the case of imprisonment at
+the instance of magnates of the realm. The effect of the act
+was to impose upon the judges under severe sanction the duty
+of protecting personal liberty in the case of criminal charges
+and of securing speedy trial upon such charges when legally
+framed; and the improvement of their tenure of office at the
+revolution, coupled with the veto put by the Bill of Rights on
+excessive bail, gave the judicature the independence and authority
+necessary to enable them to keep the executive within the law
+and to restrain administrative development of the scope or
+penalties of the criminal law; and this power of the judiciary to
+control the executive, coupled with the limitations on the right
+to set up &ldquo;act of state&rdquo; as an excuse for infringing individual
+liberty is the special characteristic of English constitutional
+law.</p>
+
+<p>It is to be observed that neither at common law nor under the
+act of 1679 was the writ the appropriate remedy in the case of a
+person convicted either on indictment or summarily. It properly
+applied to persons detained before or without trial or sentence;
+and for convicted persons the proper remedy was by writs of
+error or <i>certiorari</i> to which a writ of <i>habeas corpus</i> might be used
+as ancillary.</p>
+
+<p>As regards persons imprisoned for debt or on civil process the
+writ was available at common law to test the legality of the
+detention: but the practice in these cases is unaffected by the
+act of 1679, and is of no present interest, since imprisonment
+on civil process is almost abolished. As regards persons in
+private custody, <i>e.g.</i> persons not <i>sui juris</i> detained by those not
+entitled to their guardianship or lunatics, or persons kidnapped,
+<i>habeas corpus ad subjiciendum</i> seems not to have been the
+ordinary common law remedy. The appropriate writ for such
+cases was that known as <i>de homine replegiando</i>. The use of this
+writ in most if not all criminal cases was forbidden in 1553; but
+it was used in the 17th century in a case of kidnapping (Designy&rsquo;s
+case, 1682), and against Lord Grey for abducting his wife&rsquo;s
+sister (1682), and in the earl of Banbury&rsquo;s case to recover his
+wife (1704). The latest recorded instance of its use is Trebilcock&rsquo;s
+case (1736), in which a ward sought to free himself from the
+custody of his guardian.</p>
+
+<p>Since that date the <i>habeas corpus ad subjiciendum</i> has been used
+in cases of illegal detention in private custody. In 1758 questions
+arose as to its application to persons in naval or military custody,
+including pressed men, which led to the introduction of a bill
+in parliament and to the consultation by the House of Lords of
+the judges (see Wilmot&rsquo;s <i>Opinions</i>, p. 77). In the same year the
+writ was used to release the wife of Earl Ferrers from his custody
+and maltreatment, and was unsuccessfully applied for by John
+Wilkes to get back his wife, who was separated from him by
+mutual agreement. But perhaps the most interesting instances
+of that period are the case of the negro Somerset (1771), who was
+released from a claim to hold him as a slave in England: and
+that of the Hottentot Venus (1810), where an alien woman on
+exhibition in England was brought before the court by Zachary
+Macaulay in order to ascertain whether she was detained against
+her will.</p>
+
+<p>The experience of the 18th century disclosed defects in the
+procedure for obtaining liberty in cases not covered by the act
+of 1679. But it was not till 1816 that further legislation was
+passed for more effectually securing the liberty of the subject.
+The act of 1816 (56 Geo. III. c. 100), does not touch cases covered
+by the act of 1679. It enacts (1) that a writ of <i>habeas corpus</i>
+shall be issued in vacation time in favour of a person restrained
+of his liberty otherwise than for some criminal or supposed
+criminal matter (except persons imprisoned for debt or by civil
+process); (2) that though the return to the writ be good and
+sufficient in law, the judge shall examine into the truth of the
+facts set forth in such return, and if they appear doubtful the
+prisoner shall be bailed; (3) that the writ shall run to any port,
+harbour, road, creek or bay on the coast of England, although
+not within the body of any county. The last clause was intended
+to meet doubts on the applicability of <i>habeas corpus</i> in cases of
+illegal detention on board ship, which had been raised owing to
+a case of detention on a foreign ship in an English port.</p>
+
+<p>It will appear from the foregoing statement that the issue
+and enforcement of the writ rests on the common law as
+strengthened by the acts of 1627, 1640, 1679 and 1816, and subject
+also to the regulations as to procedure contained in the <i>Crown
+Office Rules</i>, 1906. The effect of the statutes is to keep the courts
+always open for the issue of the writ. It is available to put an
+end to all forms of illegal detention in public or private custody.
+In the case of the Canadian prisoners (1839) it was used to obtain
+the release of persons sentenced in Canada for participating in
+the rebellion of 1837, who were being conveyed throughout
+England in custody on their way to imprisonment in another
+part of the empire, and it is matter of frequent experience for
+the courts to review the legality of commitments under the
+Extradition Acts and the Fugitive Offenders Act 1881, of fugitives
+from the justice of a foreign state or parts of the king&rsquo;s dominions
+outside the British Islands.</p>
+
+<p>In times of public danger it has occasionally been thought
+necessary to &ldquo;suspend&rdquo; the Habeas Corpus Act 1679 by special
+and temporary legislation. This was done in 1794 (by an act
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page786" id="page786"></a>786</span>
+annually renewed until 1801) and again in 1817, as to persons
+arrested and detained by his majesty for conspiring against his
+person and government. The same course was adopted in
+Ireland in 1866 during a Fenian rising. It has been the practice
+to make such acts annual and to follow their expiration by an
+act of indemnity. In cases where martial law exists the use of the
+writ is <i>ex hypothesi</i> suspended during conditions amounting to a
+state of war within the realm or the British possession affected
+(<i>e.g.</i> the Cape Colony and Natal during the South African War),
+and it would seem that the acts of courts martial during the
+period are not the subject of review by the ordinary courts.
+The so-called &ldquo;suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act&rdquo; bears a
+certain similarity to what is called in Europe &ldquo;suspending the
+constitutional guarantees&rdquo; or &ldquo;proclaiming a state of siege,&rdquo;
+but &ldquo;is not in reality more than suspension of one particular
+remedy for the protection of personal freedom.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>There are various other forms of the writ according to the purpose
+for which it is granted. Thus <i>habeas corpus ad respondendum</i> is used
+to bring up a prisoner confined by the process of an inferior court
+in order to charge him in another proceeding (civil or criminal) in
+the superior court or some other court. As regards civil proceedings,
+this form of the writ is now rarely used, owing to the abolition of
+arrest on mesne process and the restriction of imprisonment for debt,
+or in execution of a civil judgment. The right to issue the writ
+depends on the common law, supplemented by an act of 1802. It
+is occasionally used for the purpose of bringing a person in custody
+for debt or on a criminal charge before a criminal court to be charged
+in respect of a criminal proceeding: but the same result may be
+obtained by means of an order of a secretary of state, made under
+s. 11 of the Prison Act 1898, or by the written order of a court of
+criminal jurisdiction before which he is required to take his trial on
+indictment (Criminal Law Amendment Act 30 &amp; 31 Vict. c. 35, s.
+10.)</p>
+
+<p>Other forms are <i>ad satisfaciendum</i>; <i>ad faciendum et recipiendum</i>,
+to remove into a superior court proceedings under which the defendant
+is in custody: <i>ad testificandum</i>, where a prisoner is required as a
+witness, issued under an act of 1804 (s. 11), which is in practice
+replaced by orders under s. 11 of the Prison Act 1898 (<i>supra</i>) or the
+order of a judge under s. 9 of the Criminal Procedure Act 1853:
+and <i>ad deliberandum et recipias</i>, to authorize the transfer from one
+custody to another for purposes of trial, which is in practice superseded
+by the provisions of the Prison Acts 1865, 1871 and 1898,
+and the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1867 (<i>supra</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The above forms are now of little or no importance; but the
+procedure for obtaining them and the forms of writ are included in
+the <i>Crown Office Rules</i> 1906.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ireland.</i>&mdash;The common law of Ireland as to the writs of <i>habeas
+corpus</i> is the same as that in England. The writ has in past times
+been issued from the English court of king&rsquo;s bench into Ireland;
+but does not now so issue. The acts of 1803 and 1816 already
+mentioned apply to Ireland. The Petition of Right is not in terms
+applicable to Ireland. The Habeas Corpus Act 1679 does not apply
+to Ireland; but its equivalent is supplied by an act of 1781-1782
+of the Irish parliament (21 &amp; 22 Geo. III. c. 11). Sec. 16 contains a
+provision empowering the chief governor and privy council of Ireland
+by a proclamation under the great seal of Ireland to suspend the act
+during such time only as there shall be an actual invasion or rebellion
+in Ireland; and it is enacted that during the currency of the proclamation
+no judge or justices shall bail or try any person charged
+with being concerned in the rebellion or invasion without an order
+from the lord lieutenant or lord deputy and senior of the privy
+council. In Ireland by an act of 1881 the Irish executive was given
+an absolute power of arbitrary and preventive arrest on suspicion of
+treason or of an act tending to interfere with the maintenance of
+law and order: but the warrant of arrest was made conclusive.
+This act continued by annual renewals until 1906, when it expired.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scotland.</i>&mdash;The writ of <i>habeas corpus</i> is unknown to Scots law, nor
+will it issue from English courts into Scotland. Under a Scots act
+of 1701 (c. 6) provision is made for preventing wrongous imprisonment
+and against undue delay in trials. It was applied to treason
+felony in 1848. The right to speedy trial is now regulated by s. 43
+of the Criminal Procedure Scotland Act 1887. These enactments
+are as to Scotland equivalent to the English Act of 1679. Under the
+Court of Exchequer Scotland Act 1856 (19 &amp; 20 V. c. 56) provision
+is made for bringing before the court of session persons and proceedings
+before inferior courts and public officers&mdash;which is analogous
+to the powers to issue <i>habeas corpus</i> in such cases out of the English
+court of exchequer (now the revenue side of the king&rsquo;s bench
+division).</p>
+
+<p><i>British Possessions.</i>&mdash;The act of 1679 expressly applies to Wales,
+Berwick-on-Tweed, Jersey and Guernsey, and the act of 1816 also
+extends to the Isle of Man. The court of king&rsquo;s bench has also issued
+the writ to the king&rsquo;s foreign dominions beyond seas, <i>e.g.</i> to St
+Helena, and so late as 1861 to Canada (Anderson&rsquo;s case 1861, 30
+L.J.Q.B. 129). In consequence of the last decision it was provided
+by the Habeas Corpus Act 1862 that no writ of <i>habeas corpus</i> should
+issue out of England by authority of any court or judge &ldquo;into any
+colony or foreign dominion of the crown where the crown has a lawfully
+established court of justice having authority to grant or issue
+the writ and to ensure its due execution in the &lsquo;colony&rsquo; or dominion&rdquo;
+(25 &amp; 26 V. c. 20). The expression &ldquo;foreign dominion&rdquo;
+is meant to apply to places outside the British Islands, and does not
+include the Isle of Man or the Channel Islands (see <i>re Brown</i> [1864],
+33 L.J.Q.B. 193).</p>
+
+<p>In Australasia and Canada and in most if not all the British
+possessions whose law is based on the common law, the power to
+issue and enforce the writ is possessed and is freely exercised by
+colonial courts, under the charters or statutes creating and regulating
+the courts. The writ is freely resorted to in Canada, and in 1905,
+1906, two appeals came to the privy council from the dominion, one
+with reference to an extradition case, the other with respect to the
+right to expel aliens.</p>
+
+<p>Under the Roman-Dutch law as applied in British Guiana the
+writ was unknown and no similar process existed (2nd report of
+West Indian law commissioners). But by the Supreme Court
+Ordinance of 1893 that court possesses (<i>inter alia</i>) all the authorities,
+powers and functions belonging to or incident to a superior court of
+record in England, which appears to include the power to issue the
+writ of <i>habeas corpus</i>. Under the Roman-Dutch law as applied to
+South Africa free persons appear to have a right to release under a
+writ <i>de libero homine exhibendo</i>, which closely resembles the writ of
+<i>habeas corpus</i>, and the procedure described as &ldquo;manifestation&rdquo;
+used in the kingdom of Aragon (Hallam, <i>Middle Ages</i>, vol. ii., c. iv.).
+The writ of <i>habeas corpus</i> has not been formally adopted or the
+Habeas Corpus Acts formally extended to South Africa; but in the
+Cape Colony, under the charter of justice and colonial legislation,
+the supreme court on petition grants a remedy equivalent to that
+obtained in England by writ of <i>habeas corpus</i>; and the remedy is
+sometimes so described (<i>Koke</i> v. <i>Balie</i>, 1879, 9 Buchanan, 45, 64,
+arising out of a rising in Griqualand). During and after the South
+African War of 1899-1902 many attempts were made by this procedure
+to challenge or review the sentences of courts martial; see
+<i>re Fourie</i> (1900). 18 <i>Cape Rep.</i> 8.</p>
+
+<p>The laws of Ceylon being derived from the Roman-Dutch law, the
+writ of <i>habeas corpus</i> is not indigenous: but, under s. 49 of the
+Supreme Court Ordinance 1889, the court or a judge has power to
+grant and issue &ldquo;mandates in the nature of writs of <i>habeas corpus</i>.&rdquo;
+The chartered high courts in India have power to issue and enforce
+the writ of <i>habeas corpus</i>. The earliest record of its use was in 1775,
+when it was directed to Warren Hastings. It has been used to test
+the question whether Roman Catholic religious orders could enter
+India, and in 1870 an attempt was made thereby to challenge the
+validity of a warrant in the nature of a <i>lettre de cachet</i> issued by the
+viceroy (Ind. L. Rep. 6 Bengal, 392, 456, 498), and it has also been
+applied to settle controversies between Hindus and missionaries as
+to the custody of a young convert (<i>R.</i> v. <i>Vaughan</i>, 1870, 5 Bengal,
+418), and between a Mahommedan husband and his mother-in-law
+as to the custody of a girl-wife (<i>Khatija Bibi</i>, 1870, 5 Bengal, 557).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>United States.</i>&mdash;Before the Declaration of Independence some
+of the North American colonies had adopted the act of 1679;
+and the federal and the other state legislatures of the United
+States have founded their procedure on that act. The common
+law as to the writ of <i>habeas corpus</i> has been inherited from
+England, and has been generally made to apply to commitments
+and detentions of all kinds. Difficult questions, unknown to
+English law, have arisen from the peculiar features of the
+American state-system. Thus the constitution provides that
+&ldquo;the privilege of the writ of <i>habeas corpus</i> shall not be suspended
+unless when, in cases of rebellion or invasion, the public safety
+may require it&rdquo;; and it has been the subject of much dispute
+whether the power of suspension under this provision is vested
+in the president or the congress. The weight of opinion seems
+to lean to the latter alternative. Again, conflicts have arisen
+between the courts of individual states and the courts of the
+union. It seems that a state court has no right to issue a <i>habeas
+corpus</i> for the discharge of a person held under the authority
+of the federal government. On the other hand, the courts of the
+union issue the writ only in those cases in which the power is
+expressly conferred on them by the constitution.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Paterson, <i>Liberty of the Subject</i> (1877); Short
+and Mellor, <i>Crown Practice</i> (1890); American: Church on <i>Habeas
+Corpus</i> (2nd ed. 1893).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. F. C.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See Hallam, <i>Const. Hist.</i> vol. i., c. vii. (12th ed.) p. 384.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2b" id="ft2b" href="#fa2b"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Hallam, <i>Const. Hist.</i> vol. ii., c. viii. (12th ed.) p. 2.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3b" id="ft3b" href="#fa3b"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> c. ix. (12th ed.) p. 98.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4b" id="ft4b" href="#fa4b"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> vol. iii., c. xiii. (12th ed.) p. 12.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5b" id="ft5b" href="#fa5b"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Dicey, <i>Law of the Constitution</i> (6th ed.), p. 217.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6b" id="ft6b" href="#fa6b"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Dicey, Law of the Constitution (6th ed.), p. 195.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HABERDASHER,<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> a name for a tradesman who sells by retail
+small articles used in the making or wearing of dress, such as
+sewing cottons or silks, tapes, buttons, pins and needles and the
+like. The sale of such articles is not generally carried on alone,
+and a &ldquo;haberdashery counter&rdquo; usually forms a department of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page787" id="page787"></a>787</span>
+drapers&rsquo; shops. The word, found in Chaucer, and even earlier
+(1311), is of obscure origin; the suggestion that it is connected
+with an Icelandic <i>haprtask</i>, &ldquo;haversack,&rdquo; is, according to the
+<i>New English Dictionary</i>, impossible. <i>Haperlas</i> occurs in an early
+Anglo-French customs list, which includes articles such as were
+sold by haberdashers, but this word may itself have been a
+misspelling of &ldquo;haberdash.&rdquo; The obscurity of origin has left
+room for many conjectures such as that of Minsheu that &ldquo;haberdasher&rdquo;
+was perhaps merely a corruption of the German <i>Habt
+ihr das?</i> &ldquo;Have you that?&rdquo; or <i>Habe das, Herr</i>, &ldquo;Have that, sir,&rdquo;
+used descriptively for a general dealer in miscellaneous wares.
+The Haberdashers&rsquo; Company is one of the greater Livery
+Companies of the City of London. Originally a branch of the
+mercers, the fraternity took over the selling of &ldquo;small wares,&rdquo;
+which included not only articles similar to those sold as &ldquo;haberdashery&rdquo;
+now, but such things as gloves, daggers, glass, pens,
+lanterns, mousetraps and the like. They were thus on this side
+connected with the Milliners. On the other hand there was
+early a fusion with the old gild of the &ldquo;Hurers,&rdquo; or cap makers,
+and the hatters, and by the reign of Henry VII. the amalgamation
+was complete. There were long recognized two branches of
+the haberdashers, the haberdashers of &ldquo;small wares,&rdquo; and the
+haberdashers of hats (see further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Livery Companies</a></span>). The
+haberdashers are named, side by side with the <i>capellarii</i>, in
+the White Book (<i>Liber Albus</i>) of the city of London (see <i>Munimenta
+Gildhallae Londiniensis</i>, ed. H. T. Riley, Rolls Series,
+12, 1859-1862), and a haberdasher forms one of the company of
+pilgrims in the <i>Canterbury Tales</i> (Prologue, 361).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HABINGTON, WILLIAM<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (1605-1654), English poet, was born
+at Hendlip Hall, Worcestershire, on the 4th of November 1605.
+He belonged to a well-known Catholic family. His father,
+Thomas Habington (1560-1647), an antiquary and historical
+scholar, had been implicated in the plots on behalf of Mary
+queen of Scots; his uncle, Edward Habington, was hanged in
+1586 on the charge of conspiring against Elizabeth in connexion
+with Anthony Babington; while to his mother, Mary Habington,
+was attributed the revelation of the Gunpowder Plot. The poet
+was sent to the college at St Omer, but, pressure being brought
+to bear on him to induce him to become a Jesuit, he removed to
+Paris. He married about 1632 Lucy, second daughter of Sir
+William Herbert, first Baron Powys. This lady he had addressed
+in the volume of lyrical poems arranged in two parts and entitled
+<i>Castara</i>, published anonymously in 1634. In 1635 appeared a
+second edition enlarged by three prose characters, fourteen new
+lyrics and eight touching elegies on his friend and kinsman,
+George Talbot. The third edition (1640) contains a third part
+consisting of a prose character of &ldquo;A Holy Man&rdquo; and twenty-two
+devotional poems. Habington&rsquo;s lyrics are full of the far-fetched
+&ldquo;conceits&rdquo; which were fashionable at court, but his
+verse is quite free from the prevailing looseness of morals.
+Indeed his reiterated praises of Castara&rsquo;s virtue grow wearisome.
+He is at his best in his reflective poems on the uncertainty of
+human life and kindred topics. He also wrote a <i>Historie of
+Edward the Fourth</i> (1640), based on notes provided by his father;
+a tragi-comedy, <i>The Queene of Arragon</i> (1640), published without
+his consent by his kinsman, the earl of Pembroke, and revived
+at the Restoration; and six essays on events in modern history,
+<i>Observations upon History</i> (1641). Anthony à Wood insinuated
+that during the Commonwealth the poet &ldquo;did run with the times,
+and was not unknown to Oliver the usurper.&rdquo; He died on the
+30th of November 1654.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The works of Habington have not been collected. <i>The Queene of
+Arragon</i> was reprinted in Dodsley&rsquo;s &ldquo;Old Plays,&rdquo; vol. ix. (1825); <i>Castara</i>
+was edited by Charles Elton (1812), and by E. Arber with a compact
+and comprehensive introduction (1870) for his &ldquo;English Reprints.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HABIT<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> (through the French from Lat. <i>habitus</i>, from <i>habere</i>,
+to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition;
+in many of the English senses the French use <i>habitude</i>, not <i>habit</i>),
+condition of body or mind, especially one that has become
+permanent or settled by custom or persistent repetition, hence
+custom, usage. In botany and zoology the term is used both
+in the above sense of instinctive action of animals and tendencies
+of plants, and also of the manner of growth or external appearance
+of a plant or animal. From the use of the word for external
+appearances comes its use for fashion in dress, and hence as a
+term for a lady&rsquo;s riding dress and for the particular form of
+garment adopted by the members of a religious order, like
+&ldquo;cowl&rdquo; applied as the mark of a monk or nun.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HABITAT<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> (a French word derived from <i>habiter</i>, Lat. <i>habitare</i>,
+to dwell), in botany and zoology, the term for the locality in
+which a particular species of plants or animals thrives.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HABSBURG,<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Hapsburg</span>, the name of the famous family
+from which have sprung the dukes and archdukes of Austria
+from 1282, kings of Hungary and Bohemia from 1526, and
+emperors of Austria from 1804. They were also Roman emperors
+and German kings from 1438 to 1806, and kings of Spain from
+1516 to 1700, while the minor dignities held by them at different
+times are too numerous to mention.</p>
+
+<p>The name Habsburg, a variant of an older form, Habichtsburg
+(hawk&rsquo;s castle), was taken from the castle of Habsburg, which
+was situated on the river Aar not far from its junction with the
+Rhine. The castle was built about 1020 by Werner, bishop of
+Strassburg, and his brother, Radbot, the founder of the abbey
+of Muri. These men were grandsons of a certain Guntram, who,
+according to some authorities, is identical with a Count Guntram
+who flourished during the reign of the emperor Otto the Great,
+and whose ancestry can be traced back to the time of the Merovingian
+kings. This conjecture, however, is extremely problematical.
+Among Radbot&rsquo;s sons was one Werner, and Werner
+and his son Otto were called counts of Habsburg, Otto being
+probably made landgrave of upper Alsace late in the 11th or
+early in the 12th century. At all events Otto&rsquo;s son Werner
+(d. 1167), and the latter&rsquo;s son Albert (d. 1199), held this dignity,
+and both landgraves increased the area of the Habsburg lands.
+Albert became count of Zürich and protector of the monastery
+of Säckingen, and obtained lands in the cantons of Unterwalden
+and Lucerne; his son Rudolph, having assisted Frederick of
+Hohenstaufen, afterwards the emperor Frederick II., against
+the emperor Otto IV., received the county of Aargau. Both
+counts largely increased their possessions in the districts now
+known as Switzerland and Alsace, and Rudolph held an influential
+place among the Swabian nobility. After his death in 1232 his
+two sons, Albert and Rudolph, divided his lands and founded
+the lines of Habsburg-Habsburg and Habsburg-Laufenburg.
+Rudolph&rsquo;s descendants, counts of Habsburg-Laufenburg, were
+soon divided into two branches, one of which became extinct
+in 1408 and the other seven years later. Before this date,
+however, Laufenburg and some other districts had been sold to
+the senior branch of the family, who thus managed to retain
+the greater part of the Habsburg lands.</p>
+
+<p>Rudolph&rsquo;s brother Albert (d. 1239), landgrave of Alsace,
+married Hedwig of Kyburg (d. 1260), and from this union there
+was born in 1218 Rudolph, the founder of the greatness of the
+house of Habsburg, and the first of the family to ascend the
+German throne. Through his mother he inherited a large part
+of the lands of the extinct family of Zähringen; he added in
+other ways to his possessions, and was chosen German king in
+September 1273. Acting vigorously in his new office, he defeated
+and killed his most formidable adversary, Ottakar II., king of
+Bohemia, in 1278, and in December 1282 he invested his sons,
+Albert and Rudolph, with the duchies of Austria and Styria,
+which with other lands had been taken from Ottakar. This
+was an event of supreme moment in the history of the Habsburgs,
+and was the first and most important stage in the process of
+transferring the centre of their authority from western to eastern
+Europe, from the Rhine to the Danube. On Rudolph&rsquo;s death
+in July 1291 the German crown passed for a time away from the
+Habsburgs, but in July 1298 it was secured by his son, Albert,
+whose reign, however, was short and uneventful. But before
+1308, the year of Albert&rsquo;s death, the long and troubled connexion
+of the Habsburgs with Bohemia had already begun. In 1306
+Wenceslas III., the last Bohemian king of the P&#345;myslide
+dynasty, was murdered. Seizing the opportunity and declaring
+that the vacant kingdom was an imperial fief, King Albert
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page788" id="page788"></a>788</span>
+bestowed it upon his eldest son, Rudolph, and married this prince
+to Elizabeth, widow of Wenceslas II. and stepmother of
+Wenceslas III. But Rudolph died in 1307, and his father&rsquo;s attempt
+to keep the country in his own hands was ended by his murder
+in 1308.</p>
+
+<p>Albert&rsquo;s successor as German king was Henry of Luxemburg
+(the emperor Henry VII.), and this election may be said to
+initiate the long rivalry between the houses of Habsburg and
+Luxemburg. But the immediate enemy of the Habsburgs
+was not a Luxemburg but a Wittelsbach. Without making any
+definite partition, Albert&rsquo;s five remaining sons spent their time
+in governing their lands until 1314, when one of them, Frederick
+called the Fair, forsook this comparatively uneventful occupation
+and was chosen by a minority of the electors German king in
+succession to Henry VII. At the same time the Wittelsbach
+duke of Bavaria, Louis, known to history as the emperor Louis
+the Bavarian, was also chosen. War was inevitable, and the
+battle of Mühldorf, fought in September 1322, sealed the fate
+of Frederick. Louis was victorious: his rival went into an
+honourable captivity, and the rising Habsburg sun underwent a
+temporary eclipse.</p>
+
+<p>For more than a century after Frederick&rsquo;s death in 1330 the
+Habsburgs were exiles from the German throne. But they were
+not inactive. In 1335 his two surviving brothers, Albert and
+Otto, inherited Carinthia and part of Carniola by right of their
+mother, Elizabeth; in 1363 Albert&rsquo;s son Rudolph received
+Tirol; and during the same century part of Istria, Trieste and
+other districts were acquired. All King Albert&rsquo;s six sons had
+died without leaving male issue save Otto, whose family became
+extinct in 1344, and Albert, the ancestor of all the later Habsburgs.
+Of Albert&rsquo;s four sons two also left no male heirs, but
+the remaining two, Albert III. and Leopold III., were responsible
+for a division of the family which is of some importance. By
+virtue of a partition made upon their brother Rudolph&rsquo;s death
+in 1365 Albert and his descendants ruled over Austria, while
+Leopold and his sons took Styria, Carinthia and Tirol, Alsace
+remaining undivided as heretofore.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the middle of the 15th century the German throne
+had been occupied for nearly a hundred years by members of
+the Luxemburg family. The reigning emperor Sigismund, who
+was also king of Hungary and Bohemia, was without sons, and
+his daughter Elizabeth was the wife of Albert of Habsburg, the
+grandson and heir of Duke Albert III., who had died in 1395.
+Sigismund died in December 1437, leaving his two kingdoms to
+his son-in-law, who was crowned king of Hungary in January
+1438 and king of Bohemia in the following June. Albert was
+also chosen and crowned German king in succession to Sigismund,
+thus beginning the long and uninterrupted connexion of his
+family with the imperial throne, a connexion which lasted until
+the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806. He did not,
+however, enjoy his new dignities for long, as he died in October
+1439 while engaged in a struggle with the Turks. Albert left
+no sons, but soon after his death one was born to him, called
+Ladislaus, who became duke of Austria and king of Hungary and
+Bohemia. Under the guardianship of his kinsman, the emperor
+Frederick III., the young prince&rsquo;s reign was a troubled one, and
+when he died unmarried in 1457 his branch of the family became
+extinct, and Hungary and Bohemia passed away from the
+Habsburgs, who managed, however, to retain Austria.</p>
+
+<p>Leopold III., duke of Carinthia and Styria, who was killed
+in 1386 at the battle of Sempach, had four sons, of whom two
+only, Frederick and Ernest, left male issue. Frederick and
+his only son, Sigismund, confined their attention mainly to Tirol
+and Alsace, leaving the larger destinies of the family in the hands
+of Ernest of Carinthia and Styria (d. 1424) and his sons, Frederick
+and Albert and after the death of King Ladislaus in 1457 these
+two princes and their cousin Sigismund were the only representatives
+of the Habsburgs. In February 1440 Frederick of
+Styria was chosen German king in succession to his kinsman
+Albert. He was a weak and incompetent ruler, but a stronger
+and abler man might have shrunk from the task of administering
+his heterogeneous and unruly realm. Although very important
+in the history of the house of Habsburg, Frederick&rsquo;s long reign
+was a period of misfortune, and the motto which he assumed,
+A.E.I.O.U. (<i>Austriae est imperare orbi universo</i>), seemed at the
+time a particularly foolish boast. He acted as guardian both
+to Ladislaus of Hungary, Bohemia and Austria, and to Sigismund
+of Tirol, and in all these countries his difficulties were increased
+by the hostility of his brother Albert. Having disgusted the
+Tirolese he gave up the guardianship of their prince in 1446,
+while in Hungary and Bohemia he did absolutely nothing to
+establish the authority of his ward; in 1452 the Austrians
+besieged him in Vienna Neustadt and compelled him to surrender
+the person of Ladislaus, thus ending even his nominal authority.
+When the young king died in 1457 the Habsburgs lost Hungary
+and Bohemia, but they retained Austria, which, after some
+disputing, Frederick and Albert divided between themselves,
+the former taking lower and the latter upper Austria. This
+arrangement was of short duration. In 1461 Albert made war
+upon his brother and forced him to resign lower Austria, which,
+however, he recovered after Albert&rsquo;s death in December 1463.
+Still more unfortunate was the German king in Switzerland. For
+many years the Swiss had chafed under the rule of the Habsburgs;
+during the reign of Rudolph I. they had shown signs of
+resentment as the kingly power increased; and the struggle which
+had been carried on for nearly two centuries had been almost
+uniformly in their favour. It was marked by the victory of
+Morgarten over Duke Leopold I. in 1315, and by that of Sempach
+over Leopold III. in 1386, by the conquest of Aargau at the
+instigation of the emperor Sigismund early in the 15th century,
+and by the final struggle for freedom against Frederick III. and
+Sigismund of Tirol. Taking advantage of some dissensions
+among the Swiss, the king saw an opportunity to recover his
+lost lands, and in 1443 war broke out. But his allies, the men
+of Zürich, were defeated, and when in August 1444 some French
+mercenaries, who had advanced to his aid, suffered the same
+fate at St Jakob, he was compelled to give up the struggle. A
+few years later Sigismund became involved in a war with the
+same formidable foemen; he too was worsted, and the &ldquo;Perpetual
+Peace&rdquo; of 1474 ended the rule of the Habsburgs in
+Switzerland. This humiliation was the second great step in
+the process of removing the Habsburgs from western to eastern
+Europe. In 1453, just after his coronation as emperor at Rome,
+Frederick legalized the use of the title archduke, which had been
+claimed spasmodically by the Habsburgs since 1361. This title
+is now peculiar to the house of Habsburg.</p>
+
+<p>The reverses suffered by the Habsburgs during the reign of
+Frederick III. were many and serious, but an improvement
+was at hand. The emperor died in August 1493, and was followed
+on the imperial throne by his son Maximilian I., perhaps the
+most versatile and interesting member of the family. Before
+his father&rsquo;s death Maximilian had been chosen German king,
+or king of the Romans, and had begun to repair the fortunes of
+his house. He had married Mary, daughter and heiress of
+Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy; he had driven the Hungarians
+from Vienna and the Austrian archduchies, which
+Frederick had, perforce, allowed them to occupy; and he had
+received Tirol on the abdication of Sigismund in 1490. True
+it is that upon Mary&rsquo;s death in 1482 part of her inheritance, the
+rich and prosperous Netherlands, held that her husband&rsquo;s
+authority was at an end, while another part, the two Burgundies
+and Artois, had been seized by the king of France; nevertheless,
+after a protracted struggle the German king secured almost the
+whole of Charles the Bold&rsquo;s lands for his son, the archduke
+Philip, the duchy of Burgundy alone remaining in the power of
+France after the conclusion of the peace of Senlis in 1493.
+Maximilian completed his work by adding a piece of Bavaria,
+Görz and then Gradiska to the Habsburg lands.</p>
+
+<p>After Sigismund&rsquo;s death in 1496 Maximilian and Philip were
+the only living male members of the family. Philip married
+Joanna, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, and died
+in 1506 leaving two sons, Charles and Ferdinand. Charles
+succeeded his father in the Netherlands; he followed one grandfather,
+Ferdinand, as king of Spain in 1516, and when the other,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page789" id="page789"></a>789</span>
+Maximilian, died in 1519 he became the emperor Charles V.,
+and succeeded to all the hereditary lands of the Habsburgs.
+But provision had to be made for Ferdinand, and in 1521 this
+prince was given the Austrian archduchies, Austria, Styria,
+Carinthia and Carniola; in the same year he married Anne,
+daughter of Wladislaus, king of Hungary and Bohemia, and
+when his childless brother-in-law, King Louis, was killed at the
+battle of Mohacs in August 1526 he claimed the two kingdoms,
+both by right of his wife and by treaty. After a little trouble
+Bohemia passed under his rule, but Hungary was more recalcitrant.
+A long war took place between Ferdinand and John
+Zapolya, who was also crowned king of Hungary, but in 1538 a
+treaty was made and the country was divided, the Habsburg
+prince receiving the western and smaller portion. However, he
+was soon confronted with a more formidable foe, and he spent
+a large part of his subsequent life in defending his lands from the
+attacks of the Turks.</p>
+
+<p>The Habsburgs had now reached the summit of their power.
+The prestige which belonged to Charles as head of the Holy
+Roman Empire was backed by the wealth and commerce of the
+Netherlands and of Spain, and by the riches of the Spanish
+colonies in America. In Italy he ruled over Sardinia, Naples
+and Sicily, which had passed to him with Spain, and the duchy
+of Milan, which he had annexed in 1535; to the Netherlands
+he had added Friesland, the bishopric of Utrecht, Gröningen
+and Gelderland, and he still possessed Franche-Comté and the
+fragments of the Habsburg lands in Alsace and the neighbourhood.
+Add to this Ferdinand&rsquo;s inheritance, the Austrian archduchies
+and Tirol, Bohemia with her dependent provinces, and
+a strip of Hungary, and the two brothers had under their sway
+a part of Europe the extent of which was great, but the wealth
+and importance of which were immeasurably greater. Able
+to scorn the rivalry of the other princely houses of Germany, the
+Habsburgs saw in the kings of the house of Valois the only
+foemen worthy of their regard.</p>
+
+<p>When Charles V. abdicated he was succeeded as emperor, not
+by his son Philip, but by his brother Ferdinand. Philip became
+king of Spain, ruling also the Netherlands, Franche-Comté,
+Naples, Sicily, Milan and Sardinia, and the family was definitely
+divided into the Spanish and Austrian branches. For Spain and
+the Spanish Habsburgs the 17th century was a period of loss and
+decay, the seeds of which were sown during the reign of Philip II.
+The northern provinces of the Netherlands were lost practically
+in 1609 and definitely by the treaty of Westphalia in 1648;
+Roussillon and Artois were annexed to France by the treaty of
+the Pyrenees in 1659, while Franche-Comté and a number of
+towns in the Spanish Netherlands suffered a similar fate by
+the treaty of Nijmwegen in 1678. Finally Charles II., the last
+Habsburg king of Spain, died childless in November 1700, and
+his lands were the prize of the War of the Spanish Succession.
+The Austrian Habsburgs fought long and valiantly for the
+kingdom of their kinsman, but Louis XIV. was too strong for
+them, and by the peace of Rastatt Spain passed from the
+Habsburgs to the Bourbons. However, the Austrian branch of
+the family received in 1714 the Italian possessions of Charles II.,
+except Sicily, which was given to the duke of Savoy, and also
+the southern Netherlands, which are thus often referred to as
+the Austrian Netherlands; and retained the duchy of Mantua,
+which it had seized in 1708.</p>
+
+<p>Ferdinand I., the founder of the line of the Austrian Habsburgs,
+arranged a division of his lands among his three sons before
+his death in 1564. The eldest, Maximilian II., received Austria,
+Bohemia and Hungary, and succeeded his father as emperor;
+he married Maria, a daughter of Charles V., and though
+he had a large family his male line became extinct in 1619.
+The younger sons were Ferdinand, ruler of Tirol, and Charles,
+archduke of Styria. The emperor Maximilian II. left five sons,
+two of whom, Rudolph and Matthias, succeeded in turn to the
+imperial throne, but, as all the brothers were without male
+issue, the family was early in the 17th century threatened with
+a serious crisis. Rudolph died in 1612, the reigning emperor
+Matthias was old and ill, and the question of the succession to
+the Empire, to the kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia, and to
+the hereditary lands of the Habsburgs became acute. Turning
+to the collateral branches of the family, the sons of the archduke
+Ferdinand were debarred from the succession owing to their
+father&rsquo;s morganatic marriage with Philippine Welser, and the
+only hope of the house was in the sons of Charles of Styria.
+To prevent the Habsburg monarchy from falling to pieces the
+emperor&rsquo;s two surviving brothers renounced their rights, and
+it was decided that Ferdinand, a son of Charles of Styria, should
+succeed his cousin Matthias. The difficulties which impeded
+the completion of this scheme were gradually overcome, and
+the result was that when Matthias died in 1619 the whole of
+the lands of the Austrian Habsburgs was united under the rule
+of the emperor Ferdinand II. Tirol, indeed, a few years later
+was separated from the rest of the monarchy and given to the
+emperor&rsquo;s brother, the archduke Leopold, but this separation
+was ended when Leopold&rsquo;s son died in 1665.</p>
+
+<p>The arbitrary measures which followed Ferdinand&rsquo;s acquisition
+of the Bohemian crown contributed to the outbreak of the
+Thirty Years&rsquo; War, but in a short time the Bohemians were
+subdued, and in 1627, following a precedent set in 1547, the
+emperor declared the throne hereditary in the house of Habsburg.
+The treaty of Westphalia which ended this war took comparatively
+little from the Habsburgs, though they ceded Alsace to
+France; but the Empire was greatly weakened, and its ruler was
+more than ever compelled to make his hereditary lands in the
+east of Europe the base of his authority, finding that he derived
+more strength from his position as archduke of Austria than
+from that of emperor. Ferdinand III. succeeded his father
+Ferdinand II., and during the long reign of the former&rsquo;s son,
+Leopold I., the Austrian, like the Spanish, Habsburgs were on
+the defensive against the aggressive policy of Louis XIV., and
+in addition they had to withstand the assaults of the Turks.
+In two ways they sought to strengthen their position. The
+unity of the Austrian lands was strictly maintained, and several
+marriages kept up a close and friendly connexion with Spain.
+A series of victories over the sultan during the later part of the
+17th century rolled back the tide of the Turkish advance, and
+the peace of Karlowitz made in 1699 gave nearly the whole of
+Hungary to the Habsburgs. Against France Austria was less successful,
+and a number of humiliations culminated in 1714 in the
+failure to secure Spain, to which reference has already been made.</p>
+
+<p>The hostility of Austria and France, or rather of Habsburg
+and Bourbon, outlived the War of the Spanish Succession. In
+1717 Spain conquered Sardinia, which was soon exchanged by
+Austria for Sicily; other struggles and other groupings of the
+European powers followed, and in 1735, by the treaty of Vienna,
+Austria gave up Naples and Sicily and received the duchies of
+Parma and Piacenza. These surrenders were doubtless inevitable,
+but they shook the position of the house of Habsburg in
+Italy. However, a domestic crisis was approaching which threw
+Italian affairs into the shade. Charles VI., who had succeeded
+his brother, Joseph I., as emperor in 1711, was without sons, and
+his prime object in life was to secure the succession of his elder
+daughter, Maria Theresa, to the whole of his lands and dignities.
+But in 1713, four years before the birth of Maria Theresa, he had
+first issued the famous <i>Pragmatic Sanction</i>, which declared that
+the Habsburg monarchy was indivisible and that in default of
+male heirs a female could succeed to it. Then after the death of
+his only son and the birth of Maria Theresa the emperor bent
+all his energies to securing the acceptance of the Pragmatic
+Sanction. Promulgated anew in 1724, it was formally accepted
+by the estates of the different Habsburg lands; in 1731 it was
+guaranteed by the imperial diet. By subordinating every other
+interest to this, Charles at length procured the assent of the
+various powers of Europe to the proposed arrangement; he
+married the young princess to Francis Stephen, duke of Lorraine,
+afterwards grand-duke of Tuscany, and when he died on the
+20th of October 1740 he appeared to have realized his great
+ambition. With the emperor&rsquo;s death the house of Habsburg,
+strictly speaking, became extinct, its place being taken by the
+house of Habsburg-Lorraine, which sprang from the union of
+Maria Theresa and Francis Stephen; and it is interesting to note
+that the present Habsburgs are only descended in the female
+line from Rudolph I. and Maximilian I.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page790" id="page790"></a>790</span></p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center">GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE HOUSE OF HABSBURG-LORRAINE.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:930px; height:633px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img790.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page791" id="page791"></a>791</span></p>
+
+<p class="pt2">Immediately after the death of Charles the Pragmatic Sanction
+was forgotten. A crowd of claimants called for various parts of
+the Habsburg lands; Frederick the Great, talking less but acting
+more, invaded and conquered Silesia, and it seemed likely that
+the dissolution of the Habsburg monarchy would at no long
+interval follow the extinction of the Habsburg race. A Wittelsbach
+prince, Charles Albert, elector of Bavaria, the emperor
+Charles VII., and not Francis Stephen, was chosen emperor in
+January 1742, and by the treaty of Breslau, made later in the
+same year, nearly all Silesia was formally surrendered to Prussia.
+But the worst was now over, and when in 1748 the peace of
+Aix-la-Chapelle, which practically confirmed the treaty of
+Breslau, had cleared away the dust of war, Maria Theresa and
+her consort were found to occupy a strong position in Europe.
+In the first place, in September 1745, Francis had been chosen
+emperor; then the imperial pair ruled Hungary and Bohemia,
+although the latter kingdom was shorn of Silesia; in spite of
+French conquests the Austrian Netherlands remained in their
+hands; and in Italy Francis had added Tuscany to his wife&rsquo;s
+heritage, although Parma and Piacenza had been surrendered
+to Spain and part of Milan to the king of Sardinia. The diplomatic
+<i>volte-face</i> and the futile attempts of Maria Theresa to
+recover Silesia which followed this treaty belong to the general
+history of Europe.</p>
+
+<p>The emperor Francis I. died in 1765 and was succeeded by his
+son Joseph II., an ambitious and able prince, whose aim was
+to restore the Habsburgs and the Empire to their former great
+positions in Europe, and whose pride did not prevent him from
+learning from Frederick the Great, the despoiler of his house.
+His projects, however, including one of uniting Bavaria with
+Austria, which was especially cherished, failed completely, and
+when he died in February 1790 he left his lands in a state of
+turbulence which reflected the general condition of Europe.
+The Netherlands had risen against the Austrians, and in January
+1790 had declared themselves independent; Hungary, angered
+by Joseph&rsquo;s despotic measures, was in revolt, and the other parts
+of the monarchy were hardly more contented. But the 18th
+century saw a few successes for the Habsburgs. In 1718 a successful
+war with Turkey was ended by the peace of Passarowitz,
+which advanced the Austrian boundary very considerably to the
+east, and although by the treaty of Belgrade, signed twenty-one
+years later, a large part of this territory was surrendered, yet a
+residuum, the banate of Temesvar, was permanently incorporated
+with Hungary. The struggle over the succession to
+Bavaria, which was concluded in 1779 by the treaty of Teschen,
+was responsible for adding Innviertel, or the quarter of the
+Inn, to Austria; the first partition of Poland brought eastern
+Galicia and Lodomeria, and in 1777 the sultan ceded Bukovina.
+Joseph II. was followed by his brother, Leopold II., who restored
+the Austrian authority in the Netherlands, and the latter by his
+son Francis II., who resigned the crown of the Holy Roman
+Empire in August 1806, having two years before taken the title
+of emperor of Austria as Francis I.</p>
+
+<p>Before the abdication of the emperor Francis in 1806 Austria
+had met and suffered from the fury of revolutionary France,
+but the cessions of territory made by her at the treaties of
+Campo Formio (1797), of Lunéville (1801) and of Pressburg
+(1805) were of no enduring importance. This, however, cannot
+be said for the treaties of Paris and of Vienna, which in 1814
+and 1815 arranged the map of Europe upon the conclusion of
+the Napoleonic wars. These were highly favourable to the
+Habsburgs. In eastern and central Europe Austria regained
+her former position, the lands ceded to Bavaria and also eastern
+Galicia, which had been in the hands of Russia since 1809, being
+restored; she gave up the Austrian Netherlands, soon to be
+known as Belgium, to the new kingdom of the Netherlands,
+and acquiesced in the arrangement which had taken from her
+the Breisgau and the remnant of the Habsburg lands upon the
+Rhine. In return for these losses Austria became the dominant
+power In Italy. A mass of northern Italy, including her former
+possessions in Milan and the neighbourhood, and also the lands
+recently forming the republic of Venice, was made into the
+kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia, and this owned the emperor of
+Austria as king. Across the Adriatic Dalmatia was added to
+the Habsburg monarchy, the population of which, it has been
+estimated, was increased at this time by over four millions.</p>
+
+<p>The illiberal and oppressive character of the Austrian rule
+in Italy made it very unpopular; it was hardly less so in Hungary
+and Bohemia, and the advent of the year 1848 found the subject
+kingdoms eager to throw off the Habsburg yoke. The whole
+monarchy was quickly in a state of revolution, in the midst of
+which the emperor Ferdinand, who had succeeded his father
+Francis in 1835, abdicated, and his place was taken by his
+young nephew Francis Joseph. The position of the Habsburg
+monarchy now seemed desperate. But it was strong in its
+immemorial tradition, which was enough to make the efforts of
+the Frankfort parliament to establish German unity under
+Prussian hegemony abortive; it was strong also in the general
+loyalty to the throne of the imperial army; and its counsels were
+directed by statesmen who knew well how to exploit in the
+interests of the central power the national rivalries within the
+monarchy. With the crushing of the Hungarian revolt by the
+emperor Nicholas I. of Russia in 1849 the monarchy was freed
+from the most formidable of its internal troubles; in 1850 the
+convention of Olmütz restored its influence in Germany.</p>
+
+<p>Though the <i>status quo</i> was thus outwardly re-established, the
+revolutions of 1848 had really unchained forces which made its
+maintenance impossible. In Germany Prussia was steadily preparing
+for the inevitable struggle with Austria for the mastery;
+in France Napoleon III. was preparing to pose as the champion
+of the oppressed nationalities which had once more settled down
+sullenly under the Habsburg yoke. The alliance of the French
+emperor and the king of Sardinia, and the Italian war of 1859
+ended in the loss of Lombardy to the Habsburgs. Seven years
+later the crushing defeat of Königgrätz not only ended their long
+rule in Italy, based on the tradition of the medieval empire, by
+leading to the cession of Venetia to the new Italian kingdom,
+but led to their final exclusion from the German confederation,
+soon to become, under the headship of Prussia, the German
+empire.</p>
+
+<p>By the loss of the predominance in Germany conceded to it
+by the treaties of Vienna, and by the shifting of its &ldquo;centre
+of gravity&rdquo; eastward, the Habsburg monarchy, however,
+perhaps gained more than it lost. One necessary result, indeed,
+was the composition (<i>Ausgleich</i>) with Hungary in 1867, by which
+the latter became an independent state (Francis Joseph being
+crowned king at Pest in June 1867) bound to the rest of the
+monarchy only by the machinery necessary for the carrying out
+of a common policy in matters of common interest. This at
+least restored the loyalty of the Hungarians to the Habsburg
+dynasty; it is too soon yet to say that it secured permanently
+the essential unity of the Habsburg monarchy. By the system
+of the Dual Monarchy the rest of the Austrian emperor&rsquo;s
+dominions (Cis-Leithan) were consolidated under a single central
+government, the history of which has been mainly that of the
+rival races within the empire struggling for political predominance.
+Since the development of the constitution has been
+consistently in a democratic direction and the Slavs are in a
+great majority, the tendency has been for the German element&mdash;strong
+in its social status and tradition of predominance&mdash;to
+be swamped by what it regards as an inferior race; and a considerable
+number of Austrian &ldquo;Germans&rdquo; have learned to look
+not to their Habsburg rulers, but to the power of the German
+empire for political salvation. The tendency eastwards of the
+monarchy was increased when in 1878 the congress of Berlin
+placed Bosnia and Herzegovina under Austrian rule. Old
+ambitions were now revived at the expense of the Ottoman
+empire, the goal of which was the port of Salonica; and not the
+least menacing aspect of the question of the near East has been
+that the rivalry of Italy and the Habsburg monarchy has been
+transferred to the Balkan peninsula. Yet, in spite of internal
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page792" id="page792"></a>792</span>
+dissensions arising out of questions fundamentally insoluble, and
+in spite of the constant threat of external complications that may
+lead to war, the Habsburg monarchy as the result of the changes
+in the 19th and 20th centuries is seemingly stronger than ever.
+The shadow of universal claims to empire and sonorous but
+empty titles have vanished, but so have the manifold rivalries
+and entanglements which accompanied the Habsburg rule in
+Italy and the Netherlands and Habsburg preponderance in
+Germany. The monarchy is stronger because its sphere is more
+defined; because as preserving the <i>pax Romana</i> among the
+jostling races of eastern Europe, it is more than ever recognized
+as an essential element in the maintenance of European peace,
+and is recognized as necessary and beneficial even by the
+ambitious and restless nationalities that chafe under its rule.</p>
+
+<p>A few words must be said about the cadet branches of the
+Habsburg family. When, in 1765, Francis I. died and Joseph II.
+became emperor, the grand-duchy of Tuscany passed by special
+arrangement not to Joseph, but to his younger brother Leopold.
+Then in 1791, after Leopold had succeeded Joseph as emperor,
+he handed over the grand-duchy to his second son, Ferdinand
+(1769-1824). In 1801 this prince was deposed by Napoleon and
+Tuscany was seized by France. Restored to the Habsburgs in
+the person of Ferdinand in 1814, it remained under his rule, and
+then under that of his son Leopold (1797-1870), until the rising
+of 1859, when the Austrians were driven out and the grand-duchy
+was added to the kingdom of Sardinia. A similar fate attended
+the duchy of Modena, which had passed to the Habsburgs
+through the marriage of its heiress Mary Beatrice of Este (d. 1829)
+with the archduke Ferdinand (1754-1806), brother of the
+emperor Leopold II. From 1814 to 1846 this duchy was governed
+by Ferdinand&rsquo;s son, Duke Francis IV., and from 1846 to 1859
+by his grandson, Francis V. This family became extinct on the
+death of Francis V. in 1875.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to his successor Francis II., and to Ferdinand,
+grand-duke of Tuscany, the emperor Leopold II. had eight sons,
+five of whom, including the archduke John (1782-1859), who
+saw a good deal of service during the Napoleonic Wars and was
+chosen regent (<i>Reichsverweser</i>) of Germany in 1848, have now
+no living male descendants. Thus the existing branches of the
+family are descended from Leopold&rsquo;s five other sons. The
+descendants of Leopold, the dispossessed grand-duke of Tuscany,
+were in 1909 represented by his son, Ferdinand (b. 1835), who
+still claimed the title of grand-duke of Tuscany, and his son and
+grandsons; by the numerous descendants of the archduke
+Charles Salvator (1830-1892); and by the archduke Louis
+Salvator (b. 1847), a great traveller and a voluminous writer.
+The grand-duke&rsquo;s fourth son was the archduke John Nepomuck
+Salvator, who, after serving in the Austrian army, resigned all
+his rights and titles and under the name of Johann Orth took
+command of a sailing vessel. He is supposed to have been
+drowned off the coast of South America in 1891, but reports of
+his continued existence were circulated from time to time after
+that date. Of the emperor Leopold&rsquo;s other sons the archduke
+Charles, perhaps the most distinguished soldier of the family,
+left four sons, including Albert, duke of Teschen (1817-1895),
+who inherited some of his father&rsquo;s military ability. Charles&rsquo;s
+family was in 1909 represented by his grandsons, the sons of the
+archduke Charles Ferdinand (1818-1874). The archduke Joseph
+(1776-1847), palatine of Hungary, was represented by a grandson,
+Joseph Augustus (b. 1872), and the archduke Rainer (1783-1853),
+viceroy of Lombardy-Venetia, by a son Rainer (b. 1827),
+and by several grandsons.</p>
+
+<p>The eldest and reigning branch of the family was in 1909
+represented by the emperor Francis Joseph, whose father was
+the archduke Francis Charles (1802-1878), and whose grandfather
+was the emperor Francis II. Francis Joseph&rsquo;s only son Rudolph
+died in 1889; consequently the heir to the Habsburg monarchy
+was the emperor&rsquo;s nephew Francis Ferdinand (b. 1863), the
+eldest of the three sons of his brother Charles Louis (1833-1896).
+In 1875 Francis Ferdinand inherited the wealth of the Este
+family and took the title of archduke of Austria-Este; in 1900
+he contracted a morganatic marriage with Sophia, countess of
+Chotek, renouncing for his sons the succession to the monarchy.
+Thus after Francis Ferdinand this would pass to the sons of his
+brother, the archduke Otto (1865-1906). One of the emperor&rsquo;s
+three brothers was Maximilian, emperor of Mexico from 1863
+to 1867.</p>
+
+<p>With the exception of Charles V. the Habsburgs have produced
+no statesmen of great ability, while several members of the
+family have displayed marked traces of insanity. Nevertheless
+they secured, and for over 350 years they kept, the first place
+among the potentates of Europe; a dignity in origin and theory
+elective becoming in practice hereditary in their house. This
+position they owe to some extent to the tenacity with which
+they have clung to the various lands and dignities which have
+passed into their possession, but they owe it much more to a
+series of fortunate marriages and opportune deaths. The union
+of Maximilian and Mary of Burgundy, of Philip the Handsome
+and Joanna of Spain, of Ferdinand and Anna of Hungary and
+Bohemia; the death of Ottakar of Bohemia, of John, the only
+son of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, of Louis of Hungary and
+Bohemia&mdash;these are the corner-stones upon which the Habsburg
+monarchy has been built.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For the origin and early history of the Habsburgs see G. de Roo,
+<i>Annales rerum ab Austriacis Habsburgicae gentis principibus a
+Rudolpho I. usque ad Carolum V. gestarum</i> (Innsbruck, 1592, fol.);
+M. Herrgott, <i>Genealogia diplomatica augustae gentis Habsburgicae</i>
+(Vienna, 1737-1738); E. M. Fürst von Lichnowsky, <i>Geschichte des
+Hauses Habsburg</i> (Vienna, 1836-1844); A. Schulte, <i>Geschichte der
+Habsburger in den ersten drei Jahrhunderten</i> (Innsbruck, 1887);
+T. von Liebenau, <i>Die Anfänge des Hauses Habsburg</i> (Vienna, 1883);
+W. Merz, <i>Die Habsburg</i> (Aarau, 1896); W. Gisi, <i>Der Ursprung der
+Häuser Zähringen und Habsburg</i> (1888); and F. Weihrich, <i>Stammtafel
+zur Geschichte des Hauses Habsburg</i> (Vienna, 1893). For the history
+of the Habsburg monarchy see Langl, <i>Die Habsburg und die denkwürdigen
+Stätten ihrer Umgebung</i> (Vienna, 1895); and E. A. Freeman,
+<i>Historical Geography of Europe</i> (1881). Two English books on the
+subject are J. Gilbart-Smith, <i>The Cradle of the Hapsburgs</i> (1907);
+and A. R. and E. Colquhoun, <i>The Whirlpool of Europe, Austria-Hungary
+and the Hapsburgs</i> (1906).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. W. H.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HACHETTE, JEAN NICOLAS PIERRE<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (1769-1834), French
+mathematician, was born at Mézières, where his father was a
+bookseller, on the 6th of May 1769. For his early education
+he proceeded first to the college of Charleville, and afterwards
+to that of Reims. In 1788 he returned to Mézières, where he
+was attached to the school of engineering as draughtsman to
+the professors of physics and chemistry. In 1793 he became
+professor of hydrography at Collioure and Port-Vendre. While
+there he sent several papers, in which some questions of navigation
+were treated geometrically, to Gaspard Monge, at that time
+minister of marine, through whose influence he obtained an
+appointment in Paris. Towards the close of 1794, when the
+École Polytechnique was established, he was appointed along
+with Monge over the department of descriptive geometry.
+There he instructed some of the ablest Frenchmen of the day,
+among them S. D. Poisson, F. Arago and A. Fresnel. Accompanying
+Guyton de Morveau in his expedition, earlier in the
+year, he was present at the battle of Fleurus, and entered
+Brussels with the French army. In 1816, on the accession of
+Louis XVIII., he was expelled from his chair by government.
+He retained, however, till his death the office of professor in the
+faculty of sciences in the École Normale, to which he had been
+appointed in 1810. The necessary royal assent was in 1823
+refused to the election of Hachette to the Académie des Sciences,
+and it was not till 1831, after the Revolution, that he obtained
+that honour. He died at Paris on the 16th of January 1834.
+Hachette was held in high esteem for his private worth, as well
+as for his scientific attainments and great public services. His
+labours were chiefly in the field of descriptive geometry, with its
+application to the arts and mechanical engineering. It was left
+to him to develop the geometry of Monge, and to him also is due
+in great measure the rapid advancement which France made soon
+after the establishment of the École Polytechnique in the
+construction of machinery.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Hachette&rsquo;s principal works are his <i>Deux Supplements à la Géométrie
+descriptive de Monge</i> (1811 and 1818); <i>Éléments de géométrie à
+trois dimensions</i> (1817); <i>Collection des épures de géométrie</i>, &amp;c.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page793" id="page793"></a>793</span>
+(1795 and 1817); <i>Applications de géométrie descriptive</i> (1817);
+<i>Traité de géométrie descriptive</i>, &amp;c. (1822); <i>Traité élémentaire des
+machines</i> (1811); <i>Correspondance sur l&rsquo;École Polytechnique</i> (1804-1815).
+He also contributed many valuable papers to the leading
+scientific journals of his time.</p>
+
+<p>For a list of Hachette&rsquo;s writings see the <i>Catalogue of Scientific
+Papers of the Royal Society of London</i>; also F. Arago, <i>&OElig;uvres</i> (1855);
+and Silvestre, <i>Notice sur J. N. P. Hachette</i> (Bruxelles, 1836).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HACHETTE, JEANNE<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span>, French heroine. Jeanne Lainé, or
+Fourquet, called Jeanne Hachette, was born about 1454. We
+have no precise information about her family or origin. She is
+known solely for her act of heroism which on the 27th of June
+1472 saved Beauvais when it was on the point of being taken
+by the troops of Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy. The town
+was defended by only 300 men-at-arms, commanded by Louis de
+Balagny. The Burgundians were making an assault, and one of
+their number had actually planted a flag upon the battlements,
+when Jeanne, axe in hand, flung herself upon him, hurled him
+into the moat, tore down the flag, and revived the drooping
+courage of the garrison. In gratitude for this heroic deed,
+Louis XI. instituted a procession in Beauvais called the Procession
+of the Assault, and married Jeanne to her chosen lover
+Colin Pilon, loading them with favours.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Georges Vallat, <i>Jeanne Hachette</i> (Abbeville, 1898).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HACHETTE, LOUIS CHRISTOPHE FRANÇOIS<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (1800-1864),
+French publisher, was born at Rethel in the Ardennes on the
+5th of May 1800. After studying three years at a normal school
+with the view of becoming a teacher, he was in 1822 on political
+grounds expelled from the seminary. He then studied law, but
+in 1826 he established in Paris a publishing business for the issue
+of works adapted to improve the system of school instruction,
+or to promote the general culture of the community. He
+published manuals in various departments of knowledge, dictionaries
+of modern and ancient languages, educational journals,
+and French, Latin and Greek classics annotated with great
+care by the most eminent authorities. Subsequently to 1850 he,
+in conjunction with other partners, published a cheap railway
+library, scientific and miscellaneous libraries, an illustrated
+library for the young, libraries of ancient literature, of modern
+foreign literature, and of modern foreign romance, a series of
+guide-books and a series of dictionaries of universal reference.
+In 1855 he also founded <i>Le Journal pour tous</i>, a publication with
+a circulation of 150,000 weekly. Hachette also manifested great
+interest in the formation of mutual friendly societies among the
+working classes, in the establishment of benevolent institutions,
+and in other questions relating to the amelioration of the poor,
+on which subjects he wrote various pamphlets; and he lent the
+weight of his influence towards a just settlement of the question
+of international literary copyright. He died on the 31st of
+July 1864.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HACHURE<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (French for &ldquo;hatching&rdquo;), the term for the conventional
+lines used in hill or mountain shading upon a map
+(<i>q.v.</i>) to indicate the slope of the surface, the depth of shading
+being greatest where the slope is steepest. The method is less
+accurate than that of contour lines, but gives an indication of
+the trend and extent of a range or mountain system, especially
+upon small-scale maps.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HACIENDA<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (O. Span, <i>facienda</i>, from the Latin, meaning
+&ldquo;things to be done&rdquo;), a Spanish term for a landed estate.
+It is commonly applied in Spanish America to a country estate,
+on which stock-raising, manufacturing or mining may be carried
+on, usually with a dwelling-house for the owner&rsquo;s residence upon
+it. It is thus used loosely for a country house.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HACKBERRY<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span>, a name given to the fruit of <i>Celtis occidentalis</i>,
+belonging to the natural botanical order <i>Ulmaceae</i>, to which
+also belongs the elm (<i>Ulmus</i>). It is also known under the name
+of &ldquo;sugar-berry,&rdquo; &ldquo;beaver-wood&rdquo; and &ldquo;nettle-tree.&rdquo; The
+hackberry tree is of middle size, attaining from 60 to 80 ft. in
+height (though sometimes reaching 130 ft.), and with the aspect
+of an elm. The leaves are ovate in shape, with a very long taper
+point, rounded and usually very oblique at the base, usually
+glabrous above and soft-pubescent beneath. The soft filmy
+flowers appear early in the spring before the expansion of the
+leaves. The fruit is oblong, about half to three-quarters of an
+inch long, of a reddish or yellowish colour when young, turning
+to a dark purple in autumn. This tree is distributed through
+the deep shady forests bordering river banks from Canada
+(where it is very rare) to the southern states. The fruit has a
+sweetish and slightly astringent taste, and is largely eaten in the
+United States. The seeds contain an oil like that of almonds.
+The bark is tough and fibrous like hemp, and the wood is heavy,
+soft, fragile and coarse-grained, and is used for making fences
+and furniture. The root has been used as a dye for linens.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HACKENSACK,<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> a town and the county-seat of Bergen county,
+New Jersey, U.S.A., on the Hackensack river, 13 m. N. of Jersey
+City. Pop. (1890), 6004; (1900), 9443, of whom 2009 were foreign-born
+and 515 were negroes; (1905) 11,098; (1910) 14,050. It is
+served by the New York, Susquehanna &amp; Western, and the New
+Jersey &amp; New York railways, both being controlled by the Erie
+Company; and indirectly by the West Shore (at Bogota, ½ m.
+S.E.). Electric lines connect Hackensack with Newark, Passaic
+and Paterson, and with New York ferries. The town extends
+from the low bank of the river W. to the top of a ridge, about
+40 ft. higher up, from which there are good views to the S. and
+E. Hackensack is principally a residential town, though there
+are a number of manufacturing establishments in and near it.
+Silk and silk goods and wall-paper are the principal manufactures.
+In 1905 the value of the town&rsquo;s factory product was
+$1,488,358, an increase of 90.3% since 1900. There are an
+historic mansion-house and an interesting old Dutch church,
+both erected during the 18th century; and a monument marks
+the grave of General Enoch Poor (1736-1780), an officer in the
+War of Independence, who was born at Andover, Mass., entered
+the Continental Army from New Hampshire, and took part in
+the campaign against Burgoyne, in the battle of Monmouth
+and in General Sullivan&rsquo;s expedition against the Iroquois.
+Hackensack was settled by the Dutch about 1640, and was named
+after the Hackensack Indians, a division of the Unami Delawares,
+who lived in the valleys of the Hackensack and Passaic
+rivers, and whose best-known chief was Oritany, a friend of the
+whites. Hackensack is coextensive with the township of New
+Barbadoes, first incorporated with considerably larger territory
+in 1693.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HACKET, JOHN<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> (1592-1670), bishop of Lichfield and Coventry,
+was born in London and educated at Westminster and Trinity
+College, Cambridge. On taking his degree he was elected a
+fellow of his college, and soon afterwards wrote the comedy of
+<i>Loiola</i> (London, 1648), which was twice performed before James
+I. He was ordained in 1618, and through the influence of John
+Williams (1582-1650) became rector in 1621 of Stoke Hammond,
+Bucks, and Kirkby Underwood, Lincolnshire. In 1623 he was
+chaplain to James, and in 1624 Williams presented him to the
+livings of St Andrew&rsquo;s, Holborn, and Cheam, Surrey. When the
+so-called &ldquo;root-and-branch bill&rdquo; was before parliament in
+1641, Hacket was selected to plead in the House of Commons
+for the continuance of cathedral establishments. In 1645 his
+living of St Andrew&rsquo;s was sequestered, but he was allowed to
+retain the rectory of Cheam. On the accession of Charles II. his
+fortunes improved; he frequently preached before the king,
+and in 1661 was consecrated bishop of Lichfield and Coventry.
+His best-known book is the excellent biography of his patron,
+Archbishop Williams, entitled <i>Scrinia reserata: a Memorial
+offered to the great Deservings of John Williams, D.D.</i> (London,
+1693).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HACKETT, HORATIO BALCH<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (1808-1875), American biblical
+scholar, was born in Salisbury, Massachusetts, on the 27th of
+December 1808. He was educated at Phillips-Andover Academy,
+at Amherst College, where he graduated as valedictorian in 1830,
+and at Andover Theological Seminary, where he graduated in
+1834. He was adjunct professor of Latin and Greek Languages
+and Literature at Brown University in 1835-1838 and professor
+of Hebrew Literature there in 1838-1839, was ordained to the
+Baptist ministry in 1839&mdash;he had become a Baptist at Andover
+as the result of preparing a paper on baptism in the New Testament
+and the Fathers&mdash;and in 1839-1868 he was professor of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page794" id="page794"></a>794</span>
+Biblical literature and interpretation in Newton Theological
+Institution where his most important work was the introduction
+of the modern German methods of Biblical criticism, which he had
+learned from Moses Stuart at Andover and with which he made
+himself more familiar in Germany (especially under Tholuck at
+Halle) in 1841. He travelled in Egypt and Palestine in 1852,
+and in 1858-1859 in Greece, becoming proficient in modern
+Greek. From 1870 until his death in Rochester, New York,
+on the 2nd of November 1875, he was professor of Biblical
+literature and New Testament exegesis in the Rochester Theological
+Seminary. He was a great teacher but a greater critical
+and exegetical scholar.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>He wrote <i>Christian Memorials of the War</i> (1864); an English
+version of Winer&rsquo;s <i>Grammar of the Chaldee Language</i> (1844); <i>Exercises
+in Hebrew Grammar</i> (1847); and various articles on the Semitic
+language and literature in periodicals; but his best-known work was
+in general commentary on the Bible and translation, and in the special
+text study of the New Testament. Under these two headings fall:
+<i>Illustrations of Scripture; suggested by a Tour through the Holy Land</i>
+(1855); the American revision, with Ezra Abbot, of Smith&rsquo;s <i>Dictionary
+of the Bible</i>, to the British edition of which he had contributed
+about thirty articles; <i>Commentary on the Original Text of the Acts
+of the Apostles</i> (1852; 2nd edition, 1858), for many years the best
+English commentary; <i>Notes on the Greek Text of the Epistle of Paul
+to Philemon</i>, and a <i>Revised Version</i> of Philemon, both published in
+1860; the English versions, in Schaff&rsquo;s edition of Lange&rsquo;s <i>Commentaries</i>,
+of Van Oosterzee&rsquo;s <i>Philemon</i> and Braune&rsquo;s <i>Philippians</i>;
+and for the American Bible Union Version of the Bible he translated
+the books of Ruth and Judges, and aided T. J. Conant in editorial
+revision; and he was one of the American translators for the English
+Bible revision.</p>
+
+<p>See <i>Memorials of Horatio Batch Hackett</i> (Rochester, N.Y., 1876),
+edited by G. H. Whittemore.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HACKETT, JAMES HENRY<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> (1800-1871), American actor,
+was born in New York. After an unsuccessful entry into business,
+in 1826 he went on the stage, where he soon established
+a reputation as a player of eccentric character parts. As Falstaff
+he was no less successful in England than in America. At various
+times he went into management, and he was the author of <i>Notes
+and Comments on Shakespeare</i> (1863).</p>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">James Keteltas Hackett</span> (1869-&emsp;&emsp;), born at
+Wolfe Island, Ontario, and educated at the College of the City
+of New York, also became an actor. He came into prominence
+at the Lyceum in Daniel Frohman&rsquo;s company, and afterwards
+had considerable success in romantic parts. As a manager he
+stood outside the American syndicate of theatres, and organized
+several companies to play throughout the United States. In
+1897 he married Mary Mannering, the Anglo-American actress.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HACKLÄNDER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM VON<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (1816-1877),
+German novelist and dramatist, was born at Burtscheid near
+Aix-la-Chapelle on the 1st of November 1816. Having served
+an apprenticeship in a commercial house, he entered the Prussian
+artillery, but, disappointed at not finding advancement, returned
+to business. A soldier&rsquo;s life had a fascination for him, and he
+made his début as an author with <i>Bilder aus dem Soldatenleben
+im Frieden</i> (1841). After a journey to the east, he was appointed
+secretary to the crown prince of Württemberg, whom he accompanied
+on his travels. <i>Wachtstubenabenteuer</i>, a continuation of
+his first work, appeared in 1845, and it was followed by <i>Bilder
+aus dem Soldatenleben im Kriege</i> (1849-1850). As a result of a
+tour in Spain in 1854, appeared <i>Ein Winter in Spanien</i> (1855).
+In 1857 he founded, in conjunction with Edmund von Zoller, the
+illustrated weekly, <i>Über Land und Meer</i>. In 1859 Hackländer
+was appointed director of royal parks and public gardens at
+Stuttgart, and in this post did much towards the embellishment
+of the city. In 1859 he was attached to the headquarters staff
+of the Austrian army during the Italian war; in 1861 he was
+raised to an hereditary knighthood in Austria; in 1864 he retired
+into private life, and died on the 6th of July 1877. Hackländer&rsquo;s
+literary talent is confined within narrow limits. There is much
+in his works of lively, adventurous and even romantic description,
+but the character-drawing is feeble and superficial.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Hackländer was a voluminous writer; the most complete edition
+of his works is the third, published at Stuttgart in 1876, in 60 volumes.
+There is also a good selection in 20 volumes (1881). Among his novels,
+<i>Namenlose Geschichten</i> (1851); <i>Eugen Stillfried</i> (1852); <i>Krieg und
+Frieden</i> (1859), and the comedies <i>Der geheime Agent</i> (1850) and
+<i>Magnetische Kuren</i> (1851) may be specially mentioned. His autobiography
+appeared in 1878 under the title, <i>Der Roman meines Lebens</i>
+(2 vols.). See H. Morning, <i>Erinnerungen an F. W. Hackländer</i>
+(1878).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HACKNEY,<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> a north-eastern metropolitan borough of London,
+England, bounded W. by Stoke Newington and Islington, and
+S. by Shoreditch, Bethnal Green and Poplar, and extending N.
+and E. to the boundary of the county of London. Pop. (1901),
+219,272. It is a poor and populous district, in which the main
+thoroughfares are Kingsland Road, continued N. as Stoke
+Newington Road and Stamford Hill; Mare Street, continued
+N.W. as Clapton Road to join Stamford Hill; and Lea Bridge
+Road running N.E. towards Walthamstow and Low Leyton.
+The borough includes the districts of Clapton in the north,
+Homerton in the east, and Dalston and part of Kingsland in
+the west. On the east lies the open flat valley of the Lea, which
+flows in several branches, and is bordered, immediately outside
+the confines of the borough, by the extensive reservoirs of the
+East London water-works. In these low lands lie the Hackney
+Marshes (338 acres; among several so-called marshes in the Lea
+valley), and the borough also contains part of Victoria Park
+and a number of open spaces collectively called the Hackney
+Commons, including Mill Fields, Hackney Downs, London Fields,
+&amp;c. The total area of open spaces exceeds 500 acres. The
+tower of the ancient parish church of St Augustine, with the
+chapel of the Rowe family, still stands, and is the only historic
+building of importance. Among institutions are the German
+hospital, Dalston, Metropolitan hospital, Kingsland Road, and
+Eastern Fever hospital, Homerton; and the Hackney polytechnic
+institute, with which is incorporated the Sir John Cass institute.
+Cass (1666-1718), a merchant of the city of London, also a
+member of parliament and sheriff, bequeathed £1000 for the
+foundation of a free school; in 1732 the bequest was increased
+in accordance with an unfinished codicil to his will; and the
+income provided from it is now about £6000, some 250 boys and
+girls being educated. The parliamentary borough of Hackney
+comprises north, central and south divisions, each returning one
+member; and the northern division includes the metropolitan
+borough of Stoke Newington. The metropolitan borough of
+Hackney includes part of the Hornsey parliamentary division of
+Middlesex. The borough council consists of a mayor, 10 aldermen
+and 60 councillors. Area, 3288.9 acres.</p>
+
+<p>In the 13th century the name appears as <i>Hackenaye</i> or
+<i>Hacquenye</i>, but no certain derivation is advanced. Roman
+and other remains have been found in Hackney Marshes. In
+1290 the bishop of London was lord of the manor, which was
+so held until 1550, when it was granted to Thomas, Lord
+Wentworth. In 1697 it came into the hands of the Tyssen family.
+Extensive property in the parish also belonged to the priory
+of the Knights Hospitallers of St John of Jerusalem at Clerkenwell.
+From the 16th to the early 19th century there were many
+fine residences in Hackney. The neighbourhood of Hackney
+had at one time an evil reputation as the haunt of highwaymen.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HACKNEY<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (from Fr. <i>haquenée</i>, Lat. <i>equus</i>, an ambling horse
+or mare, especially for ladies to ride; the English &ldquo;hack&rdquo; is
+simply an abbreviation), originally a riding-horse. At the
+present day, however, the hackney (as opposed to a thoroughbred)
+is bred for driving as well as riding (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Horse</a></span>: <i>Breeds</i>).
+From the hiring-out of hackneys, the word came to be associated
+with employment for hire (so &ldquo;a hack,&rdquo; as a general term for
+&ldquo;drudge&rdquo;), especially in combination, <i>e.g.</i> hackney-chair,
+hackney-coach, hackney-boat. The hackney-coach, a coach
+with four wheels and two horses, was a form of hired public
+conveyance (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Carriage</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HADAD,<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> the name of a Syrian deity, is met with in the Old
+Testament as the name of several human persons; it also occurs
+in compound forms like Benhadad and Hadadezer. The divinity
+primarily denoted by it is the storm-god who was known also
+as Ramman, Bir and Dadda. The Syrian kings of Damascus
+seem to have habitually assumed the title of Benhadad, or son
+of Hadad (three of this name are mentioned in Scripture), just
+as a series of Egyptian monarchs are known to have been
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page795" id="page795"></a>795</span>
+accustomed to call themselves sons of Amon-Ra. The word
+Hadadrimmon, for which the inferior reading Hadarrimmon is
+found in some MSS. in the phrase &ldquo;the mourning of (or at)
+Hadadrimmon&rdquo; (Zech. xii. 11), has been a subject of much
+discussion. According to Jerome and all the older Christian
+interpreters, the mourning for something that occurred at a
+place called Hadadrimmon (Maximianopolis) in the valley of
+Megiddo is meant, the event alluded to being generally held to
+be the death of Josiah (or, as in the Targum, the death of Ahab
+at the hands of Hadadrimmon); but more recently the opinion
+has been gaining ground that Hadadrimmon is merely another
+name for Adonis (<i>q.v.</i>) or Tammuz, the allusion being to the
+mournings by which the Adonis festivals were usually accompanied
+(Hitzig on Zech. xii. 11, Isa. xvii. 8; Movers, <i>Phönizier</i>, i.
+196). T. K. Cheyne (<i>Encycl. Bibl.</i> s.v.) points out that the
+Septuagint reads simply Rimmon, and argues that this may be
+a corruption of Migdon (Megiddo), in itself a corruption of
+Tammuz-Adon. He would render the verse, &ldquo;In that day
+there shall be a great mourning in Jerusalem, as the mourning
+of the women who weep for Tammuz-Adon&rdquo; (<i>Adon</i> means lord).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HADDINGTON, EARL OF,<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> a Scottish title bestowed in 1627
+upon Thomas Hamilton, earl of Melrose (1563-1637). Thomas,
+who was a member of the great family of Hamilton, being a son
+of Thomas Hamilton of Priestfield, was a lawyer who became a
+lord of session as Lord Drumcairn in 1592. He was on very
+friendly terms with James VI., his legal talents being useful to
+the king, and he was one of the eight men who, called the Octavians,
+were appointed to manage the finances of Scotland in
+1596. Having also become king&rsquo;s advocate in 1596, Hamilton
+was entrusted with a large share in the government of his country
+when James went to London in 1603; in 1612 he was appointed
+secretary of state for Scotland, and in 1613 he was created Lord
+Binning and Byres. In 1616 he became lord president of the
+court of session, and three years later was created earl of Melrose,
+a title which he exchanged in 1627 for that of earl of Haddington.
+After the death of James I. the earl resigned his offices of president
+of the court of session and secretary of state, but he served
+Charles I. as lord privy seal. He died on the 29th of May 1637.
+Haddington, who was both scholarly and wealthy, left a large
+and valuable collection of papers, which is now in the Advocates&rsquo;
+library at Edinburgh. James referred familiarly to his friend
+as <i>Tam o&rsquo; the Cowgate</i>, his Edinburgh residence being in this
+street.</p>
+
+<p>The earl&rsquo;s eldest son <span class="sc">Thomas</span>, the 2nd earl (1600-1640), was
+a covenanter and a soldier, being killed by an explosion at Dunglass
+castle on the 30th of August 1640. His sons, <span class="sc">Thomas</span> (d.
+1645) and <span class="sc">John</span> (d. 1669), became respectively the 3rd and
+4th earls of Haddington, and John&rsquo;s grandson <span class="sc">Thomas</span> (1679-1735)
+succeeded his father <span class="sc">Charles</span> (<i>c.</i> 1650-1685), as 6th earl
+in 1685, although he was not the eldest but the second son.
+This curious circumstance arose from the fact that when Charles
+married Margaret (d. 1700), the heiress of the earldom of Rothes,
+it was agreed that the two earldoms should be left separate;
+thus the eldest son John became earl of Rothes while Thomas
+became earl of Haddington. Thomas was a supporter of George
+I. during the rising of 1715, and was a representative peer for
+Scotland from 1716 to 1734. He died on the 28th of November
+1735.</p>
+
+<p>The 6th earl was a writer, but in this direction his elder son,
+<span class="sc">Charles</span>, Lord Binning (1697-1732), is perhaps more celebrated.
+After fighting by his father&rsquo;s side at Sheriffmuir in 1715 and
+serving as member of parliament for St Germans, Binning died
+at Naples on the 27th of December 1732. His eldest son, <span class="sc">Thomas</span>
+(<i>c.</i> 1720-1794), became the 7th earl in 1735, and the latter&rsquo;s
+grandson <span class="sc">Thomas</span> (1780-1858) became the 9th earl in 1828.
+The 9th earl had been a member of parliament from 1802 to
+1827, when he was made a peer of the United Kingdom as Baron
+Melros of Tyninghame, a title which became extinct upon his
+death. In 1834 he became lord-lieutenant of Ireland under
+Sir Robert Peel, leaving office in the following year, and in Peel&rsquo;s
+second administration (1841-1846) he served as first lord of the
+admiralty and then as lord privy seal. When he died without
+sons on the 1st of December 1858 the earldom passed to his
+kinsman, <span class="sc">George Baillie</span> (1802-1870), a descendant of the
+6th earl. This nobleman took the name of Baillie-Hamilton,
+and his son <span class="sc">George</span> (b. 1827) became 11th earl of Haddington
+in 1870.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>State Papers of Thomas, Earl of Melrose</i>, published by the
+Abbotsford Club in 1837, and Sir W. Fraser, <i>Memorials of the Earls
+of Haddington</i> (1889).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HADDINGTON,<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> a royal, municipal and police burgh, and
+county town of Haddingtonshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901), 3993.
+It is situated on the Tyne, 18 m. E. of Edinburgh by the North
+British railway, being the terminus of a branch line from Longniddry
+Junction. Five bridges cross the river, on the right bank
+of which lies the old and somewhat decayed suburb of Nungate,
+interesting as having contained the Giffordgate, where John
+Knox was born, and where also are the ruins of the pre-Reformation
+chapel of St Martin. The principal building in the town is
+St Mary&rsquo;s church, a cruciform Decorated edifice in red sandstone,
+probably dating from the 13th century. It is 210 ft. long,
+and is surmounted by a square tower 90 ft. high. The nave,
+restored in 1892, is used as the parish church, but the choir and
+transepts are roofless, though otherwise kept in repair. In a
+vault is a fine monument in alabaster, consisting of the recumbent
+figures of John, Lord Maitland of Thirlestane (1545-1595),
+chancellor of Scotland, and his wife. The laudatory
+sonnet composed by James VI. is inscribed on the tomb. In the
+same vault John, duke of Lauderdale (1616-1682), is buried.
+In the choir is the tombstone which Carlyle erected over the grave
+of his wife, Jane Baillie Welsh (1801-1866), a native of the town.
+Other public edifices include the county buildings in the Tudor
+style, in front of which stands the monument to George, 8th
+marquess of Tweeddale (1787-1876), who was such an expert
+and enthusiastic coachman that he once drove the mail from
+London to Haddington without taking rest; the corn exchange,
+next to that of Edinburgh the largest in Scotland; the town
+house, with a spire 150 ft. high, in front of which is a monument
+to John Home, the author of <i>Douglas</i>; the district asylum to
+the north of the burgh; the western district hospital; the
+Tenterfield home for children; the free library and the Knox
+Memorial Institute. This last-named building was erected in
+1879 to replace the old and famous grammar school, where John
+Knox, William Dunbar, John Major and possibly George
+Buchanan and Sir David Lindsay were educated. John Brown
+(1722-1787), a once celebrated dissenting divine, author of the
+<i>Self-Interpreting Bible</i>, ministered in the burgh for 36 years
+and is buried there; his son John the theologian (1754-1832),
+and his grandson Samuel (1817-1856), the chemist, noted
+for his inquiries into the atomic theory, were natives. Samuel
+Smiles (1812-1904), author of <i>Character, Self-Help</i> and other
+works, was also born there, and Edward Irving was for years
+mathematical master in the grammar school. In Hardgate
+Street is &ldquo;Bothwell Castle,&rdquo; the town house of the earl of Bothwell,
+where Mary Queen of Scots rested on her way to Dunbar.
+The ancient market cross has been restored. The leading
+industries are the making of agricultural implements, manufactures
+of woollens and sacking, brewing, tanning and coach-building,
+besides corn mills and engineering works.</p>
+
+<p>The burgh is the retail centre for a large district, and its grain
+markets, once the largest in Scotland, are still of considerable
+importance. Haddington was created a royal burgh by David I.
+It also received charters from Robert Bruce, Robert II. and
+James VI. In 1139 it was given as a dowry to Ada, daughter
+of William de Warenne, earl of Surrey, on her marriage to Prince
+Henry, the only son of David I. It was occasionally the residence
+of royalty, and Alexander II. was born there in 1198. Lying in
+the direct road of the English invaders, the town was often
+ravaged. It was burned by King John in 1216 and by Henry
+III. in 1244. Fortified in 1548 by Lord Grey of Wilton, the
+English commander, it was besieged next year by the Scots and
+French, who forced the garrison to withdraw. So much slaughter
+had gone on during that period of storm and stress that it was
+long impossible to excavate in any direction without coming
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page796" id="page796"></a>796</span>
+on human remains. The town has suffered much periodically
+from floods. One of the most memorable of these occurred on
+the 4th of October 1775, when the Tyne rose 8 ft. 9 in. above its
+bed and inundated a great part of the burgh. An inscription in
+the centre of the town records the event and marks the point to
+which the water rose.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>There are many interesting places within a few miles of Haddington.
+Five miles E. is Whittingehame House, and 5 m. N.E. is the thriving
+village of East Linton (pop. 919). About 2½ m. N. lies Athelstaneford
+(locally, Elshinford), so named from the victory of Hungus, king of
+the Picts, in the 8th century over the Northumbrian Athelstane.
+On a hill near Drem, 3½ m. N. by W., are traces of a Romano-British
+settlement, and the remains of the priest&rsquo;s house of the Knights
+Templars, to whom the barony once belonged. On the coast is the
+pretty village of Aberlady on a fine bay, and in the neighbourhood
+are some of the finest golf links in Scotland, such as Luffness, Gullane,
+Archerfield and Muirfield. On Gosford Bay is Gosford House, an
+18th-century mansion, the seat of the earl of Wemyss. At Gladsmuir,
+3½ m. W. of Haddington, alleged by some to have been the birthplace
+of George Heriot. Principal Robertson was minister and wrote most
+of his <i>History of Scotland</i>. Of the old seat of the Douglases at
+Longniddry few traces remain, and in the chapel, now in ruins, at
+the eastern end of the village, John Knox is said to have preached occasionally.
+At Gifford, 4 m. to the S., John Witherspoon (1722-1794),
+president of the College of New Jersey (Princeton), and Charles Nisbet
+(1736-1804), president of Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pennsylvania,
+were born. A little to the south of Gifford are Yester House, a seat
+of the marquess of Tweeddale, finely situated in a park of old trees,
+and the ruins of Yester Castle. The cavern locally known as Hobgoblin
+Hall is described in <i>Marmion</i>, and is associated with all
+kinds of manifestations of the black art. Lennoxlove, 1½ m. to the
+S., a seat of Lord Blantyre, was originally called Lethington, and
+for a few centuries was associated with the Maitlands. Amisfield,
+adjoining Haddington on the N.E., is another seat of the earl of
+Wemyss.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HADDINGTONSHIRE,<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> or <i>East Lothian</i>, a south-eastern
+county of Scotland, bounded N. by the Firth of Forth, N.E. by
+the North Sea, E., S.E. and S. by Berwickshire, and S.W. and
+W. by Edinburghshire. It covers an area of 171,011 acres, or
+267 sq. m. Its sea-coast measures 41 m. The Bass Rock and
+Fidra Isle belong to the shire, and there are numerous rocks and
+reefs off the shore, especially between Dunbar and Gullane Bay.
+Broadly speaking, the northern half of the shire slopes gently
+to the coast, and the southern half is hilly. Several of the peaks
+of the Lammermuirs exceed 1500 ft., and the more level tract
+is broken by Traprain Law (724) in the parish of Prestonkirk,
+North Berwick Law (612), and Garleton Hill (590) to the north
+of the county town. The only important river is the Tyne, which
+rises to the south-east of Borthwick in Mid-Lothian, and, taking
+a generally north-easterly direction, reaches the sea just beyond
+the park of Tynninghame House, after a course of 28 m., for the
+first 7 m. of which it belongs to its parent shire. It is noted for
+a very fine variety of trout, and salmon are sometimes taken
+below the linn at East Linton. The Whiteadder rises in the
+parish of Whittingehame, but, flowing towards the south-east,
+leaves the shire and at last joins the Tweed near Berwick. There
+are no natural lakes, but in the parish of Stenton is found
+Pressmennan Loch, an artificial sheet of water of somewhat
+serpentine shape, about 2 m. in length, with a width of some
+400 yds., which was constructed in 1819 by damming up the
+ravine in which it lies. The banks are wooded and picturesque,
+and the water abounds with trout.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Geology.</i>&mdash;The higher ground in the south, including the Lammermuir
+Hills, is formed by shales, greywackes and grits of Ordovician
+and Silurian age; a narrow belt of the former lying on the north-western
+side of the latter, the strike being S.W. to N.E. The granitic
+mass of Priestlaw and other felsitic rocks have been intruded into
+these strata. The lower Old Red Sandstone has not been observed
+in this county, but the younger sandstones and conglomerates fill
+up ancient depressions in the Silurian and Ordovician, such as that
+running northward from Oldhamstocks towards Dunbar and the
+valley of Lauderdale. A faulted-in tract of the same formation,
+about 1 m. in breadth, runs westward from Dunbar to near Gifford.
+Carboniferous rocks form the remainder of the county. The Calciferous
+Sandstone series, shales, thin limestones and sandstones, is
+exposed on the south-eastern coast; but between Gifford and North
+Berwick and from Aberlady to Dunbar it is represented by a great
+thickness of volcanic rocks consisting of tuffs and coarse breccias
+in the lower beds, and of porphyritic and andesitic lavas above.
+These rocks are well exposed on the coast, in the Garleton Hills
+and Traprain Law; the latter and North Berwick Law are volcanic
+necks or vents. The Carboniferous Limestone series which succeeds
+the Calciferous Sandstone consists of a middle group of sandstones,
+shales, coals and ironstones, with a limestone group above and
+below. The coal-field is synclinal in structure, Port Seton being
+about the centre; it contains ten seams of coal, and the area covered
+by it is some 30 sq. m. Glacial boulder clay lies over much of the
+lower ground, and ridges of gravel and sand flank the hills and form
+extensive sheets. Traces of old raised sea-beaches are found at
+several points along the coast. At North Berwick, Tynninghame and
+elsewhere there are stretches of blown sand. Limestone is worked
+at many places, and hematite was formerly obtained from the
+Garleton Hills.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Climate and Agriculture.</i>&mdash;Though the county is exposed to
+the full sweep of the east wind during March, April and May,
+the climate is on the whole mild and equable. The rainfall is
+far below the average of Great Britain, the mean for the year
+being 25 in., highest in midsummer and lowest in spring. The
+average temperature for the year is 47°.5 F., for January 38°
+and for July 59°. Throughout nearly the whole of the 19th
+century East Lothian agriculture was held to be the best in
+Scotland, not so much in consequence of the natural fertility
+of the soil as because of the enterprise of the cultivators, several
+of whom, like George Hope of Fenton Barns (1811-1876),
+brought scientific farming almost to perfection. Mechanical
+appliances were adopted with exceptional alacrity, and indeed
+some that afterwards came into general use were first employed
+in Haddington. Drill sowing of turnips dates from 1734. The
+threshing machine was introduced by Andrew Meikle (1719-1811)
+in 1787, the steam plough in 1862, and the reaping machine
+soon after its invention, while tile draining was first extensively
+used in the county. East Lothian is famous for the richness of
+its grain and green crops, the size of its holdings (average 200
+acres) and the good housing of its labourers. The soils vary.
+Much of the Lammermuirs is necessarily unproductive, though
+the lower slopes are cultivated, a considerable tract of the land
+being very good. In the centre of the shire occurs a belt of
+tenacious yellow clay on a tilly subsoil which is not adapted for
+agriculture. Along the coast the soil is sandy, but farther inland
+it is composed of rich loam and is very fertile. The land about
+Dunbar is the most productive, yielding a potato&mdash;the &ldquo;Dunbar
+red&rdquo;&mdash;which is highly esteemed in the markets. Of the grain
+crops oats and barley are the principal, and their acreage is
+almost a constant, but wheat, after a prolonged decline, has
+experienced a revival. Turnips and potatoes are cultivated
+extensively, and with marked success, and constitute nearly
+all the green crops raised. Although pasture-land is below the
+average, live-stock are reared profitably. About one-sixteenth
+of the total area is under wood.</p>
+
+<p><i>Other Industries.</i>&mdash;Fisheries are conducted from Dunbar,
+North Berwick, Port Seton and Prestonpans, the catch consisting
+chiefly of cod, haddock, whiting and shellfish. Fireclay as well
+as limestone is worked, and there are some stone quarries, but
+the manufactures are mainly agricultural implements, pottery,
+woollens, artificial manures, feeding-stuffs and salt, besides
+brewing. Coal of a very fair quality is extensively worked at
+Tranent, Ormiston, Macmerry and near Prestonpans, the coal-field
+having an area of about 30 sq. m. Limestone is found
+throughout the greater part of the shire. A vein of hematite
+of a peculiarly fine character was discovered in 1866 at Garleton
+Hill, and wrought for some years. Ironstone has been mined
+at Macmerry.</p>
+
+<p>The North British Company possess the sole running powers
+in the county, through which is laid their main line to Berwick
+and the south. Branches are sent off at Drem to North Berwick,
+at Longniddry to Haddington and also to Gullane, at Smeaton
+(in Mid-Lothian) to Macmerry, and at Ormiston to Gifford.</p>
+
+<p><i>Population and Government.</i>&mdash;The population was 37,377
+in 1891, and 38,665 in 1901, when 459 persons spoke Gaelic and
+English, and 7 spoke Gaelic only. The chief towns are Dunbar
+(pop. in 1901, 3581), Haddington (3993), North Berwick (2899),
+Prestonpans (2614) and Tranent (2584). The county, which
+returns one member to Parliament, forms part of the sheriffdom
+of the Lothians and Peebles, and there is a resident sheriff-substitute
+at Haddington, who sits also at Dunbar, Tranent
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page797" id="page797"></a>797</span>
+and North Berwick. The shire is under school-board jurisdiction,
+and besides high schools at Haddington and North Berwick,
+some of the elementary schools earn grants for higher education.
+The county council spends a proportion of the &ldquo;residue&rdquo;
+grant in supporting short courses of instruction in technical
+subjects (chiefly agriculture), in experiments in the feeding of
+cattle and the growing of crops, and in defraying the travelling
+expenses of technical students.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;Of the Celts, who were probably the earliest inhabitants,
+traces are found in a few place names and circular
+camps (in the parishes of Garvald and Whittinghame) and hill
+forts (in the parish of Bolton). After the Roman occupation,
+of which few traces remain, the district formed part of the Saxon
+kingdom of Northumbria until 1018, when it was joined to
+Scotland by Malcolm II. It was comparatively prosperous till
+the wars of Bruce and Baliol, but from that period down to the
+union of the kingdoms it suffered from its nearness to the Border
+and from civil strife. The last battles fought in the county
+were those of Dunbar (1650) and Prestonpans (1745).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. Miller, <i>History of Haddington</i> (1844); D. Croal, <i>Sketches of
+East Lothian</i> (Haddington, 1873); John Martine, <i>Reminiscences of
+the County of Haddington</i> (Haddington, 1890, 1894); Dr Wallace
+James, <i>Writs and Charters of Haddington</i> (Haddington, 1898).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HADDOCK<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (<i>Gadus aeglefinus</i>), a fish which differs from the
+cod in having the mental barbel very short, the first anal fin
+with 22 to 25 rays, instead of 17 to 20, and the lateral line dark
+instead of whitish; it has a large blackish spot above each
+pectoral fin&mdash;associated in legend with the marks of St Peter&rsquo;s
+finger and thumb, the haddock being supposed to be the fish
+from whose mouth he took the tribute-money. It attains to a
+weight of 15 &#8468; and is one of the most valuable food fishes of
+Europe, both fresh and smoked, the &ldquo;finnan haddie&rdquo; of Scotland
+being famous. It is common round the British and Irish coasts,
+and generally distributed along the shores of the North Sea,
+extending across the Atlantic to the coast of North America.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HADDON HALL,<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> one of the most famous ancient mansions in
+England. It lies on the left bank of the river Wye, 2 m. S.E. of
+Bakewell in Derbyshire. It is not now used as a residence, but
+the fabric is maintained in order. The building is of stone and
+oblong in form, and encloses two quadrangles separated by the
+great banqueting-hall and adjoining chambers. The greater part
+is of two storeys, and surmounted by battlements. To the south
+and south-east lie terraced gardens, and the south front of the
+eastern quadrangle is occupied by the splendid ball-room or
+long gallery. At the south-west corner of the mansion is the
+chapel; at the north-east the Peveril tower. The periods of
+building represented are as follows. Norman work appears in
+the chapel (which also served as a church for the neighbouring
+villagers), also in certain fundamental parts of the fabric, notably
+the Peveril tower. There are Early English and later additions
+to the chapel; the banqueting-hall, with the great kitchen
+adjacent to it, and part of the Peveril tower are of the 14th
+century. The eastern range of rooms, including the state-room,
+are of the 15th century; the western and north-western parts
+were built shortly after 1500. The ball-room is of early 17th-century
+construction, and the terraces and gardens were laid
+out at this time. A large number of interesting contemporary
+fittings are preserved, especially in the banqueting-hall and
+kitchen; and many of the rooms are adorned with tapestries
+of the 16th and 17th centuries, some of which came from the
+famous works at Mortlake in Surrey.</p>
+
+<p>A Roman altar was found and is preserved here, but no trace
+of Roman inhabitants has been discovered. Haddon was a
+manor which before the Conquest and at the time of the Domesday
+Survey belonged to the king, but was granted by William
+the Conqueror to William Peverel, whose son, another William
+Peverel, forfeited it for treason on the accession of Henry II.
+Before that time, however, the manor of Haddon had been
+granted to the family of Avenell, who continued to hold it
+until one William Avenell died without male issue and his
+property was divided between his two daughters and heirs, one
+of whom married Richard Vernon, whose successors acquired
+the other half of the manor in the reign of Edward III. Sir
+George Vernon, who died in 1561, was known as the &ldquo;King of
+the Peak&rdquo; on account of his hospitality. His daughter Dorothy
+married John Manners, second son of the earl of Rutland, who
+is said to have lived for some time in the woods round Haddon
+Hall, disguised as a gamekeeper, until he persuaded Dorothy
+to elope with him. On Sir George&rsquo;s death without male issue
+Haddon passed to John Manners and Dorothy, who lived in the
+Hall. Their grandson John Manners succeeded to the title of
+earl of Rutland in 1641, and the duke of Rutland is still lord of
+the manor.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Victoria County History, Derbyshire</i>; S. Rayner, <i>History and
+Antiquities of Haddon Hall</i> (1836-1837); Haddon Hall, <i>History and
+Antiquities of Haddon Hall</i> (1867); G. le Blanc Smith, <i>Haddon, the
+Manor, the Hall, its Lords and Traditions</i> (London, 1906).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HADEN, SIR FRANCIS SEYMOUR<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (1818-1910), English
+surgeon and etcher, was born in London on the 16th of September
+1818, his father, Charles Thomas Haden, being a well-known
+doctor and amateur of music. He was educated at University
+College school and University College, London, and also studied
+at the Sorbonne, Paris, where he took his degree in 1840. He was
+admitted as a member of the College of Surgeons in London in
+1842. Besides his many-sided activities in the scientific world,
+during a busy and distinguished career as a surgeon, he followed
+the art of original etching with such vigour that he became not
+only the foremost British exponent of that art but was the
+principal cause of its revival in England. By his strenuous
+efforts and perseverance, aided by the secretarial ability of Sir
+W. R. Drake, he founded the Royal Society of Painter-Etchers
+and Engravers. As president he ruled the destinies of that
+society with a strong hand from its first beginnings in 1880. In
+1843-1844, with his friends Duval, Le Cannes and Col. Guibout,
+he had travelled in Italy and made his first sketches from nature.
+Haden attended no art school and had no art teachers, but in
+1845, 1846, 1847 and 1848 he studied portfolios of prints belonging
+to an old second-hand dealer named Love, who had a shop in
+Bunhill Row, the old Quaker quarter of London. These portfolios
+he would carry home, and arranging the prints in chronological
+order, he studied the works of the great original engravers,
+Dürer, Lucas van Leyden and Rembrandt. These studies,
+besides influencing his original work, led to his important monograph
+on the etched work of Rembrandt. By lecture and book,
+and with the aid of the memorable exhibition at the Burlington
+Fine Arts Club in 1877, he endeavoured to give a just idea of
+Rembrandt&rsquo;s work, separating the true from the false, and giving
+altogether a nobler idea of the master&rsquo;s mind by taking away from
+the list of his works many dull and unseemly plates that had long
+been included in the lists. His reasons are founded upon the
+results of a study of the master&rsquo;s works in chronological order,
+and are clearly expressed in his monograph, <i>The Etched Work of
+Rembrandt critically reconsidered</i>, privately printed in 1877,
+and in <i>The Etched Work of Rembrandt True and False</i> (1895).
+Notwithstanding all this study of the old masters of his art,
+Haden&rsquo;s own plates are perhaps more individual than any artist&rsquo;s,
+and are particularly noticeable for a fine original treatment of
+landscape subjects, free and open in line, clear and well divided
+in mass, and full of a noble and dignified style of his own. Even
+when working from a picture his personality dominates the plate,
+as for example in the large plate he etched after J. M. W. Turner&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;Calais Pier,&rdquo; which is a classical example of what interpretative
+work can do in black and white. Of his original plates, more
+than 250 in number, one of the most notable was the large
+&ldquo;Breaking up of the Agamemnon.&rdquo; An early plate, rare and
+most beautiful, is &ldquo;Thames Fisherman.&rdquo; &ldquo;Mytton Hall&rdquo; is
+broad in treatment, and a fine rendering of a shady avenue of
+yew trees leading to an old manor-house in sunlight. &ldquo;Sub
+Tegmine&rdquo; was etched in Greenwich Park in 1859; and &ldquo;Early
+Morning&mdash;Richmond,&rdquo; full of the poetry and freshness of the
+hour, was done, the artist has said, actually at sunrise. One of
+the rarest and most beautiful of his plates is &ldquo;A By-Road in
+Tipperary&rdquo;; &ldquo;Combe Bottom&rdquo; is another; and &ldquo;Shere Mill
+Pond&rdquo; (both the small study and the larger plate), &ldquo;Sunset in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page798" id="page798"></a>798</span>
+Ireland,&rdquo; &ldquo;Penton Hook,&rdquo; &ldquo;Grim Spain&rdquo; and &ldquo;Evening
+Fishing, Longparish,&rdquo; are also notable examples of his genius.
+A catalogue of his works was begun by Sir William Drake and
+completed by Mr N. Harrington (1880). During later years
+Haden began to practise the sister art of mezzotint engraving,
+with a measure of the same success that he had already achieved
+in pure etching and in dry-point. Some of his mezzotints are:
+&ldquo;An Early Riser,&rdquo; a stag seen through the morning mists,
+&ldquo;Grayling Fishing&rdquo; and &ldquo;A Salmon Pool on the Spey.&rdquo; He
+also produced some remarkable drawings of trees and park-like
+country in charcoal.</p>
+
+<p>Other books by Haden not already mentioned are&mdash;<i>Études à
+l&rsquo;eau forte</i> (Paris, 1865); <i>About Etching</i> (London, 1878-1879);
+<i>The Art of the Painter-Etcher</i> (London, 1890); <i>The Relative
+Claims of Etching and Engraving to rank as Fine Arts and to
+be represented in the Royal Academy</i> (London, 1883); <i>Address
+to Students of Winchester School of Art</i> (Winchester, 1888);
+<i>Cremation: a Pamphlet</i> (London, 1875); and <i>The Disposal of
+the Dead, a Plea for Legislation</i> (London, 1888). As the last
+two indicate, he was an ardent champion of a system of &ldquo;earth
+to earth&rdquo; burial.</p>
+
+<p>Among numerous distinctions he received the Grand Prix,
+Paris, in 1889 and 1900, and was made a member of the Institut
+de France, Académie des Beaux-Arts and Société des Artistes
+Français. He was knighted in 1894, and died on the 1st of
+June 1910. He married in 1847 a sister of the artist J. A. M.
+Whistler; and his elder son, Francis Seymour Haden (b. 1850),
+had a distinguished career as a member of the government in Natal
+from 1881 to 1893, being made a C.M.G. in 1890.</p>
+<div class="author">(C. H.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HADENDOA<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (from Beja <i>Hada</i>, chief, and <i>endowa</i>, people), a
+nomad tribe of Africans of &ldquo;Hamitic&rdquo; origin. They inhabit
+that part of the eastern Sudan extending from the Abyssinian
+frontier northward nearly to Suakin. They belong to the Beja
+people, of which, with the Bisharin and the Ababda, they are
+the modern representatives. They are a pastoral people, ruled
+by a hereditary chief who is directly responsible to the (Anglo-Egyptian)
+Sudan government. Although the official capital of
+the Hadendoa country is Miktinab, the town of Fillik on an
+affluent of the Atbara is really their headquarters. A third of
+the total population is settled in the Suakin country. Osman
+Digna, one of the best-known chiefs during the Madhia, was a
+Hadendoa, and the tribe contributed some of the fiercest of the
+dervish warriors in the wars of 1883-98. So determined were
+they in their opposition to the Anglo-Egyptian forces that the
+name Hadendoa grew to be nearly synonymous with &ldquo;rebel.&rdquo;
+But this was the result of Egyptian misgovernment rather than
+religious enthusiasm; for the Hadendoa are true Beja, and
+Mahommedans only in name. Their elaborate hairdressing
+gained them the name of &ldquo;Fuzzy-wuzzies&rdquo; among the British
+troops. They earned an unenviable reputation during the wars
+by their hideous mutilations of the dead on the battlefields.
+After the reconquest of the Egyptian Sudan (1896-98) the
+Hadendoa accepted the new order without demur.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Anglo-Egyptian Sudan</i>, edited by Count Gleichen (London,
+1905); Sir F. R. Wingate, <i>Mahdism and the Egyptian Sudan</i> (London,
+1891); G. Sergi, <i>Africa: Anthropology of the Hamitic Race</i> (1897);
+A. H. Keane, <i>Ethnology of the Egyptian Sudan</i> (1884).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HADERSLEBEN<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (Dan. <i>Haderslev</i>), a town of Germany, in
+the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein, 31 m. N. from
+Flensburg. Pop. (1905) 9289. It lies in a pleasant valley on the
+Hadersleben fjord, which is about 9 m. in length, and communicates
+with the Little Belt, and at the junction of the
+main line of railway from Woyens with three vicinal lines. The
+principal buildings are the beautiful church of St Mary, dating
+from the 13th century, the theological seminary established in
+1870, the gymnasium and the hospital. The industries include
+iron-founding, tanning, and the manufacture of machines,
+tobacco and gloves. The harbour is only accessible to small
+vessels.</p>
+
+<p>Hadersleben is first mentioned in 1228, and received municipal
+rights from Duke Waldemar II. in 1292. It suffered considerably
+during the wars between Schleswig and Holstein in the 15th
+century. In November 1864 it passed with Schleswig to Prussia.
+Two Danish kings, Frederick II. and Frederick III., were born
+at Hadersleben.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. Sach, <i>Der Ursprung der Stadt Hadersleben</i> (Hadersleben,
+1892).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HADING, JANE<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (1859-&emsp;&emsp;), French actress, whose real name
+was Jeanne Alfrédine Tréfouret, was born on the 25th of
+November 1859 at Marseilles, where her father was an actor at
+the Gymnase. She was trained at the local Conservatoire and
+was engaged in 1873 for the theatre at Algiers, and afterwards
+for the Khedivial theatre at Cairo, where she played, in turn,
+coquette, soubrette and <i>ingénue</i> parts. Expectations had been
+raised by her voice, and when she returned to Marseilles she sang
+in operetta, besides acting in <i>Ruy Blas</i>. Her Paris début was
+in <i>La Chaste Suzanne</i> at the Palais Royal, and she was again
+heard in operetta at the Renaissance. In 1883 she had a great
+success at the Gymnase in <i>Le Maître de forges</i>. In 1884 she
+married Victor Koning (1842-1894), the manager of that theatre,
+but divorced him in 1887. In 1888 she toured America with
+Coquelin, and on her return helped to give success to Lavedan&rsquo;s
+<i>Prince d&rsquo;Aurec</i>, at the Vaudeville. Her reputation as one of the
+leading actresses of the day was now established not only in
+France but in America and England. Her later répertoire
+included <i>Le Demi-monde</i>, Capus&rsquo;s <i>La Châtelaine</i>, Maurice
+Donnay&rsquo;s <i>Retour de Jérusalem</i>, <i>La Princesse Georges</i> by Dumas
+fils, and Émile Bergerat&rsquo;s <i>Plus que reine</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HADLEIGH,<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> a market town in the Sudbury parliamentary
+division of Suffolk, England; 70 m. N.E. from London, the
+terminus of a branch of the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of
+Urban district (1901), 3245. It lies pleasantly in a well-wooded
+country on the small river Brett, a tributary of the Stour. The
+church of St Mary is of good Perpendicular work, with Early
+English tower and Decorated spire. The Rectory Tower, a
+turreted gate-house of brick, dates from c. 1495. The gild-hall
+is a Tudor building, and there are other examples of this period.
+There are a town-hall and corn exchange, and an industry in the
+manufacture of matting and in malting. Hadleigh was one of
+the towns in which the woollen industry was started by Flemings,
+and survived until the 18th century. Among the rectors of
+Hadleigh several notable names appear, such as Rowland Taylor,
+the martyr, who was burned at the stake outside the town in
+1555, and Hugh James Rose, during whose tenancy of the rectory
+an initiatory meeting of the leaders of the Oxford Movement
+took place here in 1833.</p>
+
+<p>Hadleigh, called by the Saxons Heapde-leag, appears in
+Domesday Book as Hetlega. About 885 Æthelflæd, lady of the
+Mercians, with the consent of Æthelred her husband, gave
+Hadleigh to Christ Church, Canterbury. The dean and chapter
+of Canterbury have held possession of it ever since the Dissolution.
+In the 17th century Hadleigh was famous for the manufacture
+of cloth, and in 1618 was sufficiently important to receive
+incorporation. It was constituted a free borough under the title
+of the mayor, aldermen and burgesses of Hadleigh. In 1635, in
+a list of the corporate towns of Suffolk to be assessed for ship
+money, Hadleigh is named as third in importance. In 1636,
+owing to a serious visitation of the plague, 200 families were
+thrown out of work, and in 1687 so much had its importance
+declined that it was deprived of its charter. An unsuccessful
+attempt to recover it was made in 1701. There is evidence of
+the existence of a market here as early as the 13th century.
+James I., in his charter of incorporation, granted fairs on Monday
+and Tuesday in Whitsun week, and confirmed an ancient fair
+at Michaelmas and a market on Monday.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HADLEY, ARTHUR TWINING<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (1856-&emsp;&emsp;), American political
+economist and educationist, president of Yale University,
+was born in New Haven, Connecticut, on the 23rd of April
+1856. He was the son of James Hadley, the philologist, from
+whom, as from his mother&mdash;whose brother, Alexander Catlin
+Twining (1801-1884), was an astronomer and authority on constitutional
+law&mdash;he inherited unusual mathematical ability.
+He graduated at Yale in 1876 as valedictorian, having taken
+prizes in English, classics and astronomy; studied political
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page799" id="page799"></a>799</span>
+science at Yale (1876-1877) and at Berlin (1878-1879); was
+a tutor at Yale in 1879-1883, instructor in political science in
+1883-1886, professor of political science in 1886-1891, professor
+of political economy in 1891-1899, and dean of the Graduate
+School in 1892-1895; and in 1899 became president of Yale
+University&mdash;the first layman to hold that office. He was
+commissioner of the Connecticut bureau of labour statistics
+in 1885-1887. As an economist he first became widely known
+through his investigation of the railway question and his study
+of railway rates, which antedated the popular excitement as to
+rebates. His <i>Railroad Transportation, its History and Laws</i>
+(1885) became a standard work, and appeared in Russian (1886)
+and French (1887); he testified as an expert on transportation
+before the Senate committee which drew up the Interstate
+Commerce Law; and wrote on railways and transportation for
+the Ninth and Tenth Editions (of which he was one of the
+editors) of the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>, for Lalor&rsquo;s <i>Cyclopaedia
+of Political Science, Political Economy, and Political History of
+the United Stales</i> (3 vols., 1881-1884), for <i>The American Railway</i>
+(1888), and for <i>The Railroad Gazette</i> in 1884-1891, and for other
+periodicals. His idea of the broad scope of economic science,
+especially of the place of ethics in relation to political economy
+and business, is expressed in his writings and public addresses.
+In 1907-1908 he was Theodore Roosevelt professor of American
+History and Institutions in the university of Berlin.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Among his other publications are: <i>Economics: an Account of the
+Relations between Private Property and Public Welfare</i> (1896); <i>The
+Education of the American Citizen</i> (1901); <i>The Relations between
+Freedom and Responsibility in the Evolution of Democratic Government</i>
+(1903, in Yale Lectures on the Responsibilities of Citizenship);
+<i>Baccalaureate Addresses</i> (1907); and <i>Standards of Public Morality</i>
+(1907), being the Kennedy Lectures for 1906.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HADLEY, JAMES<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (1821-1872), American scholar, was born
+on the 30th of March 1821 in Fairfield, Herkimer county, New
+York, where his father was professor of chemistry in Fairfield
+Medical College. At the age of nine an accident lamed him for
+life. He graduated from Yale in 1842, having entered the
+Junior class in 1840; studied in the Theological Department of
+Yale, and in 1844-1845 was a tutor in Middlebury College.
+He was tutor at Yale in 1845-1848, assistant professor of Greek
+in 1848-1851, and professor of Greek, succeeding President
+Woolsey, from 1851 until his death in Hew Haven on the 14th
+of November 1872. As an undergraduate he showed himself an
+able mathematician, but the influence of Edward Elbridge
+Salisbury, under whom Hadley and W. D. Whitney studied
+Sanskrit together, turned his attention toward the study of
+language. He knew Greek, Latin, Sanskrit, Hebrew, Arabic,
+Armenian, several Celtic languages and the languages of modern
+Europe; but he published little, and his scholarship found scant
+outlet in the college class-room. His most original written work
+was an essay on Greek accent, published in a German version
+in Curtius&rsquo;s <i>Studien zur griechischen und lateinischen Grammatik</i>.
+Hadley&rsquo;s <i>Greek Grammar</i> (1860; revised by Frederic de Forest
+Allen, 1884) was based on Curtius&rsquo;s <i>Schulgrammatik</i> (1852, 1855,
+1857, 1859), and long held its place in American schools. Hadley
+was a member of the American Committee for the revision of the
+New Testament, was president of the American Oriental Society
+(1871-1872), and contributed to Webster&rsquo;s dictionary an essay
+on the <i>History of the English Language</i>. In 1873 were published
+his <i>Introduction to Roman Law</i> (edited by T. D. Woolsey) and
+his <i>Essays, Philological and Critical</i> (edited by W. D. Whitney).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the memorial by Noah Porter in <i>The New Englander</i>, vol.
+xxxii. (Jan. 1873), pp. 35-55; and the sketch by his son, A. T.
+Hadley, in <i>Biographical Memoirs</i> of the National Academy of Sciences,
+vol. v. (1905), pp. 247-254.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HADLEY,<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> a township of Hampshire county, Massachusetts,
+U.S.A., on the Connecticut river, about 20 m. N. of Springfield,
+served by the Boston &amp; Maine railway. Pop. (1900), 1789;
+(1905, state census), 1895; (1910) 1999. Area, about 20 sq. m.
+The principal villages are Hadley (or Hadley Center) and North
+Hadley. The level country along the river is well adapted to
+tobacco culture, and the villages are engaged in the manufacture
+of tobacco and brooms. Hadley was settled in 1659 by members
+of the churches in Hartford and Wethersfield, Connecticut, who
+were styled &ldquo;Strict Congregationalists&rdquo; and withdrew from these
+Connecticut congregations because of ecclesiastical and doctrinal
+laxity there. At first the town was called Norwottuck, but within
+a year or two it was named after Hadleigh in England, and was
+incorporated under this name in 1661. Hopkins Academy (1815)
+developed from Hopkins school, founded here in 1664. The
+English regicides Edward Whalley and his son-in-law William
+Goffe found a refuge at Hadley from 1664 apparently until
+their deaths, and there is a tradition that Goffe or Whalley in
+1675 led the people in repelling an Indian attack. From 1675
+to 1713 Hadley, being in almost constant danger of attack from
+the Indians, was protected by a palisade enclosure and by
+stockades around the meeting-house. From Hadley, Hatfield
+was set apart in 1670, South Hadley in 1753, and Amherst in
+1759.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Alice M. Walker, <i>Historic Hadley</i> (New York, 1906); and
+Sylvester Judd, <i>History of Hadley</i> (Northampton, 1863; new ed.,
+1905).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HADRAMUT,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> a district on the south coast of Arabia, bounded
+W. by Yemen, E. by Oman and N. by the Dahna desert. The
+modern Arabs restrict the name to the coast between Balh&#257;f
+and Sihut, and the valley of the Wadi Hadramut in the interior;
+in its wider and commonly accepted signification it includes also
+the Mahra and G&#257;ra coasts extending eastwards to Mirbat;
+thus defined, its limits are between 14° and 18° N. and 47° 30&prime;
+to 55° E., with a total length of 550 m. and a breadth of 150 m.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The coastal plain is narrow, rarely exceeding 10 m. in width,
+and in places the hills extend to the seashore. The principal ports
+are Mukalla and Shihr, both considerable towns, and Kusair and
+Raida, small fishing villages; inland there are a few villages near
+the foot of the hills, with a limited area of cultivation irrigated by
+springs or wells in the hill torrent beds. Behind the littoral plain a
+range of mountains, or rather a high plateau, falling steeply to the
+south and more gently to the north, extends continuously from the
+Yemen highlands on the west to the mouth of the Hadramut valley,
+from which a similar range extends with hardly a break to the border
+of Oman. Its crest-line is generally some 30 m. from the coast, and
+its average height between 4000 and 5000 ft. A number of wadis or
+ravines cutting deeply into the plateau run northward to the main
+Wadi Hadramut, a broad valley lying nearly east and west, with a
+total length from its extreme western heads on the Yemen highlands
+to its mouth near Sihut of over 500 m. Beyond the valley and
+steadily encroaching on it lies the great desert extending for 300 m.
+to the borders of Nejd. The most westerly village in the main valley
+is Shabwa, in ancient days the capital, but now almost buried by
+the advancing desert. Lower down the first large villages are Hen&#257;n
+and Ajlania, near which the wadis &rsquo;Amd, Duw&#257;n and el &rsquo;Ain unite,
+forming the W. Kasr. In the W. Duw&#257;n and its branches are the
+villages of Haura, el Hajr&#275;n, Kaidun and al Khur&#275;ba. Below Haura
+for some 60 m. there is a succession of villages with fields, gardens
+and date groves; several tributaries join on either side, among which
+the W. bin Ali and W. Adim from the south contain numerous
+villages. The principal towns are Shib&#257;m, al Ghurfa, Saiyun,
+Tariba, el Ghuraf, Tarim, formerly the chief place, &rsquo;Ainat and el
+Kasm. Below the last-named place there is little cultivation Or
+settled population. The shrines of Kabr S&#257;lih and Kabr Hud are
+looked on as specially sacred, and are visited by numbers of pilgrims.
+The former, which is in the Wadi Ser about 20 m. N.W. of Shib&#257;m,
+was explored by Theodore Bent in 1894; the tomb itself is of no
+interest, but in the neighbourhood there are extensive ruins with
+Himyaritic inscriptions on the stones. Kabr Hud is in the main
+valley some distance east of Kasm; not far from it is Bir Borhut,
+a natural grotto, where fumes of burning sulphur issue from a number
+of volcanic vents; al-Masudi mentions it in the 10th century as an
+active volcano. Except after heavy rain, there is no running water
+in the Hadramut valley, the cultivation therefore depends on
+artificial irrigation from wells. The principal crops are wheat,
+millet, indigo, dates and tobacco; this latter, known as Hamumi
+tobacco, is of excellent quality.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Hadramut has preserved its name from the earliest times;
+it occurs in Genesis as Hazarmaveth and Hadoram, sons of
+Joktan; and the old Greek geographers mention Adramytta and
+Chadramotites in their accounts of the frankincense country.
+The numerous ruins discovered in the W. Duw&#257;n and Adim, as
+well as in the main valley, are evidences of its former prosperity
+and civilization.</p>
+
+<p>The people, known as Hadrami (plural &#7714;ad&#257;rim), belong
+generally to the south Arabian stock, claiming descent from
+Ya&lsquo;rab bin Kaht&#257;n. There is, however, a large number of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page800" id="page800"></a>800</span>
+Seyyids or descendants of the Prophet, and of townsmen of
+northern origin, besides a considerable class of African or mixed
+descent. Van den Berg estimates the total population of
+Hadramut (excluding the Mahra and G&#257;ra) at 150,000, of which
+he locates 50,000 in the valley between Shib&#257;m and Tarim,
+25,000 in the W. Duw&#257;n and its tributaries, and 25,000 in
+Mukalla, Shihr and the coast villages, leaving 50,000 for the non-agricultural
+population scattered over the rest of the country,
+probably an excessive estimate.</p>
+
+<p>The Seyyids, descendants of &#7716;osain, grandson of Mahomet,
+form a numerous and highly respected aristocracy. They are
+divided into families, the chiefs of which are known as Munsibs,
+who are looked on as the religious leaders of the people, and
+are even in some cases venerated as saints. Among the leading
+families are the Sheikh Abu Bakr of Ain&#257;t, the el-Aidrus of Shihr
+and the Sakk&#257;f of Saiyun. They do not bear arms, nor occupy
+themselves in trade or manual labour or even agriculture;
+though owning a large proportion of the land, they employ
+slaves or hired labourers to cultivate it. As compared with the
+other classes, they are well educated, and are strict in their
+observance of religious duties, and owing to the respect due to
+their descent, they exercise a strong influence both in temporal
+and spiritual affairs.</p>
+
+<p>The tribesmen, as in Arabia generally, are the predominant
+class in the population; all the adults carry arms; some of the
+tribes have settled towns and villages, others lead a nomadic life,
+keeping, however, within the territory which is recognized as
+belonging to the tribe. They are divided into sections or families,
+each headed by a chief or abu (lit. father), while the head of the
+tribe is called the mukaddam or sultan; the authority of the
+chief depends largely on his personality: he is the leader in
+peace and in war, but the tribesmen are not his subjects; he
+can only rule with their support. The most powerful tribe at
+present in Hadramut is the Kaiti, a branch of the Y&#257;fa tribe
+whose settlements lie farther west. Originally invited by the
+Seyyids to protect the settled districts from the attacks of
+marauding tribes, they have established themselves as practically
+the rulers of the country, and now possess the coast district with
+the towns of Shihr and Mukalla, as well as Haura, Hajr&#275;n and
+Shib&#257;m in the interior. The head of the family has accumulated
+great wealth, and risen to the highest position in the service of
+the nizam of Hyderabad in India, as Jamadar, or commander
+of an Arab levy composed of his tribesmen, numbers of whom go
+abroad to seek their fortune. The Kathiri tribe was formerly
+the most powerful; they occupy the towns of Saiyun, Tarim
+and el-Ghuraf in the richest part of the main Hadramut valley.
+The chiefs of both the Kaiti and Kathiri are in political relations
+with the British government, through the resident at Aden (<i>q.v.</i>).
+The &rsquo;Amudi in the W. Duw&#257;n, and the Nahdi, Aw&#257;mir and
+Tamimi in the main valley, are the principal tribes possessing
+permanent villages; the Saib&#257;n, Hamumi and Man&#257;hil occupy
+the mountains between the main valley and coast.</p>
+
+<p>The townsmen are the free inhabitants of the towns and
+villages as distinguished from the Seyyids and the tribesmen:
+they do not carry arms, but are the working members of the
+community, merchants, artificers, cultivators and servants,
+and are entirely dependent on the tribes and chiefs under whose
+protection they live. The servile class contains a large African
+element, brought over formerly when the slave trade flourished
+on this coast; as in all Mahommedan countries they are well
+treated, and often rise to positions of trust.</p>
+
+<p>As already mentioned, a large number of Arabs from Hadramut
+go abroad; the Kaiti tribesmen take service in India in the
+irregular troops of Hyderabad; emigration on a large scale has
+also gone on, to the Dutch colonies in Java and Sumatra, since
+the beginning of the 19th century. According to the census of
+1885, quoted by Van den Berg in his <i>Report</i> published by the
+government of the Dutch East Indies in 1886, the number of
+Arabs in those colonies actually born in Arabia was 2500, while
+those born in the colonies exceeded 20,000; nearly all of the
+former are from the towns in the Hadramut valley between
+Shib&#257;m and Tarim. Mukalla and Shihr have a considerable
+trade with the Red Sea and Persian Gulf ports, as well as with
+the ports of Aden, Dhafar and Muscat; a large share of this is
+in the hands of Parsee and other British Indian traders who
+have established themselves in the Hadramut ports. The
+principal imports are wheat, rice, sugar, piece goods and hardware.
+The exports are small; the chief items are honey, tobacco
+and sharks&rsquo; fins. In the towns in the interior the principal
+industries are weaving and dyeing.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The Mahra country adjoins the Hadramut proper, and extends
+along the coast from Sihut eastwards to the east of Kamar Bay,
+where the G&#257;ra coast begins and stretches to Mirbat. The sultan of
+the Mahra, to whom Sokotra also belongs, lives at Kishin, a poor
+village consisting of a few scattered houses about 30 m. west of R&#257;s
+Fartak. Sihut is a similar village 20 m. farther west. The mountains
+rise to a height of 4000 ft. within a short distance of the coast,
+covered in places with trees, among which are the myrrh- and
+frankincense-bearing shrubs. These gums, for which the coast was
+celebrated in ancient days, are still produced; the best quality is
+obtained in the G&#257;ra country, on the northern slope of the mountains.
+Dhafar and the mountains behind it were visited and surveyed by
+Mr Bent&rsquo;s party in 1894. There are several thriving villages on the
+coast, of which el-Hafa is the principal port of export for frankincense;
+9000 cwt. is exported annually to Bombay.</p>
+
+<p>Ruins of Sabaean buildings were found by J. T. Bent in the neighbourhood
+of Dhafar, and a remarkable cove or small harbour was
+discovered at Khor Rori, which he identified with the ancient port
+of Moscha.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;L. Van den Berg, <i>Le Hadramut et les colonies
+arabes</i> (Batavia, 1885); L. Hirsch, <i>Reise in Südarabien</i> (Leiden,
+1897); J. T. Bent, <i>Southern Arabia</i> (London, 1895); A. von Wrede,
+<i>Reise in Hadhramut</i> (Brunswick, 1870); H. J. Carter, <i>Trans. Bombay
+As. Soc.</i> (1845), 47-51; <i>Journal R.G.S.</i> (1837).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. A. W.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HADRIA<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> [mod. <i>Atri</i> (<i>q.v.</i>)], perhaps the original terminal
+point of the Via Caecilia, Italy. It belonged to the Praetutii.
+It became a colony of Rome in 290 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and remained faithful
+to Rome. The coins which it issued (probably during the Punic
+Wars), are remarkable. The crypt of the cathedral of the
+modern town was originally a large Roman cistern; another
+forms the foundation of the ducal palace; and in the eastern
+portion of the town there is a complicated system of underground
+passages for collecting and storing water.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Notizie degli scavi</i> (1902), 3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HADRIAN<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Publius Aelius Hadrianus</span>), Roman emperor
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 117-138, was born on the 24th of January <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 76, at
+Italica in Hispania Baetica (according to others, at Rome),
+where his ancestors, originally from Hadria in Picenum, had
+been settled since the time of the Scipios. On his father&rsquo;s death
+in 85 or 86 he was placed under the guardianship of two fellow-countrymen,
+his kinsman Ulpius Trajanus (afterwards the
+emperor Trajan), and Caelius Attianus (afterwards prefect of
+the praetorian guard). He spent the next five years at Rome,
+but at the age of fifteen he returned to his native place and
+entered upon a military career. He was soon, however, recalled
+to Rome by Trajan, and appointed to the offices of <i>decemvir
+stlitibus judicandis</i>, <i>praefectus feriarum Latinarum</i>, and <i>sevir
+turmae equitum Romanorum</i>. About 95 he was military tribune
+in lower Moesia. In 97 he was sent to upper Germany to convey
+the congratulations of the army to Trajan on his adoption by
+Nerva; and, in January of the following year, he hastened to
+announce the death of Nerva to Trajan at Cologne. Trajan,
+who had been set against Hadrian by reports of his extravagance,
+soon took him into favour again, chiefly owing to the goodwill
+of the empress Plotina, who brought about the marriage of
+Hadrian with (Vibia) Sabina, Trajan&rsquo;s great-niece. In 101
+Hadrian was quaestor, in 105 tribune of the people, in 106
+praetor. He served with distinction in both Dacian campaigns:
+in the second Trajan presented him with a valuable ring which
+he himself had received from Nerva, a token of regard which
+seemed to designate Hadrian as his successor. In 107 Hadrian
+was <i>legatus praetorius</i> of lower Pannonia, in 108 <i>consul suffectus</i>,
+in 112 <i>archon</i> at Athens, <i>legatus</i> in the Parthian campaign (113-117),
+in 117 <i>consul designatus</i> for the following year, in 119 consul
+for the third and last time only for four months. When Trajan,
+owing to a severe illness, decided to return home from the East,
+he left Hadrian in command of the army and governor of Syria.
+On the 9th of August 117, Hadrian, at Antioch, was informed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page801" id="page801"></a>801</span>
+of his adoption by Trajan, and, on the 11th, of the death of the
+latter at Selinus in Cilicia. According to Dio Cassius (lxix. 1)
+the adoption was entirely fictitious, the work of Plotina and
+Attianus, by whom Trajan&rsquo;s death was concealed for a few days
+in order to facilitate the elevation of Hadrian. Whichever may
+have been the truth, his succession was confirmed by the army
+and the senate. He hastened to propitiate the former by a
+donative of twice the usual amount, and excused his hasty
+acceptance of the throne to the senate by alleging the impatient
+zeal of the soldiers and the necessity of an imperator for the
+welfare of the state.</p>
+
+<p>Hadrian&rsquo;s first important act was to abandon as untenable
+the conquests of Trajan beyond the Euphrates (Assyria, Mesopotamia
+and Armenia), a recurrence to the traditional policy
+of Augustus. The provinces were unsettled, the barbarians
+on the borders restless and menacing, and Hadrian wisely judged
+that the old limits of Augustus afforded the most defensible
+frontier. Mesopotamia and Assyria were given back to the
+Parthians, and the Armenians were allowed a king of their own.
+From Antioch Hadrian set out for Dacia to punish the Roxolani,
+who, incensed by a reduction of the tribute hitherto paid them,
+had invaded the Danubian provinces. An arrangement was
+patched up, and while Hadrian was still in Dacia he received
+news of a conspiracy against his life. Four citizens of consular
+rank were accused of being concerned in it, and were put to death
+by order of the senate before he could interfere. Hurrying back
+to Rome, Hadrian endeavoured to remove the unfavourable
+impression produced by the whole affair and to gain the goodwill
+of senate and people. He threw the responsibility for the
+executions upon the prefect of the praetorian guard, and swore
+that he would never punish a senator without the assent of the
+entire body, to which he expressed the utmost deference and
+consideration. Large sums of money and games and shows
+were provided for the people, and, in addition, all the arrears
+of taxation for the last fifteen years (about £10,000,000) were
+cancelled and the bonds burnt in the Forum of Trajan. Trajan&rsquo;s
+scheme for the &ldquo;alimentation&rdquo; of poor children was carried out
+upon a larger scale under the superintendence of a special official
+called <i>praefectus alimentorum</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The record of Hadrian&rsquo;s journeys<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> through all parts of the
+empire forms the chief authority for the events of his life down
+to his final settlement in the capital during his last years. They
+can only be briefly touched upon here. His first great journey
+probably lasted from 121 to 126. After traversing Gaul he visited
+the Germanic provinces on the Rhine, and crossed over to
+Britain (spring, 122), where he built the great rampart from
+the Tyne to the Solway, which bears his name (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Britain</a></span>:
+<i>Roman</i>). He returned through Gaul into Spain, and then
+proceeded to Mauretania, where he suppressed an insurrection.
+A war with the Parthians was averted by a personal interview
+with their king (123). From the Parthian frontier he travelled
+through Asia Minor and the islands of the Aegean to Athens
+(autumn, 125), where he introduced various political and commercial
+changes, was initiated at the Eleusinia, and presided
+at the celebration of the greater Dionysia. After visiting Central
+Greece and Peloponnesus, he returned by way of Sicily to Rome
+(end of 126). The next year was spent at Rome, and, after a
+visit to Africa, he set out on his second great journey (September
+128). He travelled by way of Athens, where he completed and
+dedicated the buildings (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Athens</a></span>) begun during his first
+visit, chief of which was the Olympieum or temple of Olympian
+Zeus, on which occasion Hadrian himself assumed the name of
+Olympius. In the spring of 129 he visited Asia Minor and Syria,
+where he invited the kings and princes of the East to a meeting
+(probably at Samosata). Having passed the winter at Antioch,
+he set out for the south (spring, 130). He ordered Jerusalem
+to be rebuilt (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jerusalem</a></span>) under the name of Aelia Capitolina,
+and made his way through Arabia to Egypt, where he restored
+the tomb of Pompey at Pelusium with great magnificence.
+After a short stay at Alexandria he took an excursion up the
+Nile, during which he lost his favourite Antinous. On the 21st
+of November 130, Hadrian (or at any rate his wife Sabina)
+heard the music which issued at sunrise from the statue of
+Memnon at Thebes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Memnon</a></span>). From Egypt Hadrian
+returned through Syria to Europe (his movements are obscure),
+but was obliged to hurry back to Palestine (spring, 133) to give
+his personal attention (this is denied by some historians) to the
+revolt of the Jews, which had broken out (autumn, 131, or
+spring, 132) after he had left Syria. The founding of a Roman
+colony on the site of Jerusalem (Dio Cass. lxix. 12) and the
+prohibition of circumcision (Spartianus, <i>Hadrianus</i>, 14) are said
+to have been the causes of the war, but authorities differ considerably
+as to this and as to the measures which followed the
+revolt (see art. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>; also E. Schürer, <i>Hist. of the Jewish People</i>,
+Eng. tr., div. 1, vol. ii. p. 288; and S. Krauss in <i>Jewish Encyc.
+s.v.</i> &ldquo;Hadrian&rdquo;), which lasted till 135. Leaving the conduct
+of affairs in the hands of his most capable general, Julius Severus,
+in the spring of 134 Hadrian returned to Rome. The remaining
+years of his life were spent partly in the capital, partly in his
+villa at Tibur. His health now began to fail, and it became
+necessary for him to choose a successor, as he had no
+children of his own. Against the advice of his relatives and
+friends he adopted L. Ceionius Commodus under the name of
+L. Aelius Caesar, who was in a feeble state of health and
+died on the 1st of January 138, before he had an opportunity
+of proving his capabilities. Hadrian then adopted Arrius
+Antoninus (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Antoninus Pius</a></span>) on condition that he should
+adopt M. Annius Verus (afterwards the emperor Marcus Aurelius)
+and the son of L. Aelius Caesar, L. Ceionius Commodus (afterwards
+the emperor Commodus). Hadrian died at Baiae on the
+10th of July 138.</p>
+
+<p>He was without doubt one of the most capable emperors
+who ever occupied the throne, and devoted his great and varied
+talents to the interests of the state. One of his chief objects was
+the abolition of distinctions between the provinces and the
+mother country, finally carried out by Caracalla, while at the
+same time he did not neglect reforms that were urgently called
+for in Italy. Provincial governors were kept under strict supervision;
+extortion was practically unheard of; the <i>jus Latii</i> was
+bestowed upon several communities; special officials were
+instituted for the control of the finances; and the emperor&rsquo;s
+interest in provincial affairs was shown by bis personal assumption
+of various municipal offices. New towns were founded and old
+ones restored; new streets were laid out, and aqueducts, temples
+and magnificent buildings constructed. In Italy itself the administration
+of justice and the finances required special attention.
+Four <i>legati juridici</i> (or simply <i>juridici</i>) of consular rank were
+appointed for Italy, who took over certain important judicial
+functions formerly exercised by local magistrates (cases of
+<i>fideicommissa</i>, the nomination of guardians). The judicial
+council (<i>consiliarii Augusti</i>, later called <i>consistorium</i>), composed
+of persons of the highest rank (especially jurists), became a
+permanent body of advisers, although merely consultative.
+Roman law owes much to Hadrian, who instructed Salvius
+Julianus to draw up an <i>edictum perpetuum</i>, to a great extent the
+basis of Justinian&rsquo;s <i>Corpus juris</i> (see M. Schanz, <i>Geschichte der
+römischen Literatur</i>, iii. p. 167). In the administration of
+finance, in addition to the remission of arrears already mentioned,
+a revision of claims was ordered to be made every fifteen years,
+thereby anticipating the &ldquo;indictions&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Calendar</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chronology</a></span>).
+Direct collection of taxes by imperial procurators was
+substituted for the system of farming, and a special official
+(<i>advocatus fisci</i>) was instituted to look after the interests of the
+imperial treasury. The gift of &ldquo;coronary gold&rdquo; (<i>aurum coronarium</i>),
+presented to the emperor on certain occasions, was
+entirely remitted in the case of Italy, and partly in the case of the
+provinces. The administration of the postal service throughout
+the empire was taken over by the state, and municipal officials
+were relieved from the burden of maintaining the imperial posts.
+Humane regulations as to the treatment of slaves were strictly
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page802" id="page802"></a>802</span>
+enforced; the master was forbidden to put his slave to death,
+but was obliged to bring him before a court of justice; if he
+ill-treated him it was a penal offence. The sale of slaves (male
+and female) for immoral and gladiatorial purposes was forbidden;
+the custom of putting all the household to death when their
+master was murdered was modified. The public baths were kept
+under strict supervision; the toga was ordered to be worn in
+public by senators and equites on solemn occasions; extravagant
+banquets were prohibited; rules were made to prevent the
+congestion of traffic in the streets. In military matters Hadrian
+was a strict disciplinarian, but his generosity and readiness to
+share their hardships endeared him to the soldiers. He effected
+a material and moral improvement in the conditions of service
+and mode of life, but in other respects he does not appear to
+have introduced any important military reforms. During his
+reign an advance was made in the direction of creating an organized
+body of servants at the disposal of the emperor by the
+appointment of equites to important administrative posts,
+without their having performed the <i>militiae equestres</i> (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Equites</a></span>). Among these posts were various procuratorships
+(chief of which was that of the imperial fisc), and the offices <i>ab
+epistulis</i>, <i>a rationibus</i> and <i>a libellis</i> (secretary, accountant,
+receiver of petitions). The prefect of the praetorian guard was
+now the most important person in the state next to the emperor,
+and subsequently became a supreme judge of appeal. Among the
+magnificent buildings erected by Hadrian mention may be made
+of the following: In the capital, the temple of Venus and Roma;
+his splendid mausoleum, which formed the groundwork of the
+castle of St Angelo; the pantheon of Agrippa; the Basilica
+Neptuni; at Tibur the great villa 8 m. in extent, a kind of epitome
+of the world, with miniatures of the most celebrated places
+in the provinces. Athens, however, was the favourite site of
+his architectural labours; here he built the temple of Olympian
+Zeus, the Panhellenion, the Pantheon, the library, a gymnasium
+and a temple of Hera.</p>
+
+<p>Hadrian was fond of the society of learned men&mdash;poets,
+scholars, rhetoricians and philosophers&mdash;whom he alternately
+humoured and ridiculed. In painting, sculpture and music he
+considered himself the equal of specialists. The architect
+Apollodorus of Damascus owed his banishment and death to his
+outspoken criticism of the emperor&rsquo;s plans. The sophist
+Favorinus was more politic; when reproached for yielding too
+readily to the emperor in some grammatical discussion, he replied
+that it was unwise to contradict the master of thirty legions.
+The Athenaeum (<i>q.v.</i>) owed its foundation to Hadrian. He was
+a man of considerable intellectual attainments, of prodigious
+memory, master of both Latin and Greek, and wrote prose and
+verse with equal facility. His taste, however, was curious; he
+preferred Cato the elder, Ennius and Caelius Antipater to Cicero,
+Virgil and Sallust, the obscure poet Antimachus to Homer and
+Plato. As a writer he displayed great versatility. He composed
+an autobiography, published under the name of his freedman
+Phlegon; wrote speeches, fragments of two of which are preserved
+in inscriptions (a panegyric on his mother-in-law Matidia, and
+an address to the soldiers at Lambaesis in Africa). In imitation
+of Antimachus he wrote a work called <i>Catachannae</i>, probably a
+kind of miscellanea. The Latin and Greek anthologies contain
+about a dozen epigrams under his name. The letter of Hadrian
+to the consul Servianus (in Vopiscus, <i>Vita Saturnini</i>, 8) is no
+longer considered genuine. Hadrian&rsquo;s celebrated dying address
+to his soul may here be quoted:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Animula vagula, blandula,</p>
+<p class="i05">Hospes comesque corporis,</p>
+<p class="i05">Quae nunc abibis in loca</p>
+<p class="i05">Pallidula, rigida, nudula;</p>
+<p class="i05">Nec, ut soles, dabis iocos?&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The character of Hadrian exhibits a mass of contradictions,
+well summed up by Spartianus (14, 11). He was grave and gay,
+affable and dignified, cruel and gentle, mean and generous, eager
+for fame yet not vain, impulsive and cautious, secretive and open.
+He hated eminent qualities in others, but gathered round him the
+most distinguished men of the state; at one time affectionate
+towards his friends, at another he mistrusted and put them to
+death. In fact, he was only consistent in his inconsistency
+(<i>semper in omnibus varius</i>). Although he endeavoured to win
+the popular favour, he was more feared than loved. A man of
+unnatural passions and grossly superstitious, he was an ardent
+lover of nature. But, with all his faults, he devoted himself so
+indefatigably to the service of the state, that the period of his
+reign could be characterized as a &ldquo;golden age.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The chief ancient authorities for the reign of Hadrian are: the
+life by Aelius Spartianus in the <i>Scriptores historiae Augustae</i> (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Augustan History</a></span> and bibliography); the epitome of Dio Cassius
+(lxix.) by Xiphilinus; Aurelius Victor, Epit. 14, probably based on
+Marius Maximus; Eutropius viii. 6; Zonaras xi. 23; Suidas, <i>s.v.</i>
+<span class="grk" title="Adrianos">&#7944;&#948;&#961;&#953;&#945;&#957;&#972;&#962;</span>: and numerous inscriptions and coins. The autobiography
+was used by both Dio Cassius and Marius Maximus. Modern
+authorities: C. Merivale, <i>Hist. of the Romans under the Empire</i>, ch.
+lxvi.; H. Schiller, <i>Geschichte der römischen Kaiserzeit</i>, i. 2, p. 602
+(1883); J. B. Bury, <i>The Student&rsquo;s Roman Empire</i> (1893), where a
+concise table of the journeys is given; P. von Rohden, <i>s.v.</i> &ldquo;Aelius&rdquo;
+(No. 64) in Pauly-Wissowa&rsquo;s <i>Realencyclopädie</i>, i. 1 (1894); J. Dürr,
+<i>Die Reisen des Kaisers Hadrian</i> (1881); F. Gregorovius, <i>The Emperor
+Hadrian</i> (Eng. tr. by Mary E. Robinson, 1898); A. Hausrath,
+<i>Neutestamentliche Zeitgeschichte</i>, iii. (1874); W. Schurz, <i>De mutationibus
+in imperio ordinando ab imp. Hadr. factis</i>, i. (Bonn, 1883);
+J. Plew, <i>Quellenuntersuchungen zur Geschichte des Kaisers Hadrian</i>
+(Strassburg, 1890); O. T. Schulz, &ldquo;Leben des Kaisers Hadrian,&rdquo;
+<i>Quellenanalysen</i> [of Spartianus&rsquo; <i>Vita</i>] (1904); E. Kornemann,
+<i>Kaiser Hadrian und der letzte grosse Historiker von Rom</i> (1905);
+W. Weber, <i>Untersuchungen zur Geschichte des Kaisers Hadrianus</i>
+(1908); H. F. Hitzig, <i>Die Stellung Kaiser Hadrians in der römischen
+Rechtsgeschichte</i> (1892); C. Schultess, <i>Bauten des Kaisers Hadrian</i>
+(1898); G. Doublet, <i>Notes sur les &oelig;uvres littéraires de l&rsquo;empéreur
+Hadrien</i> (Toulouse, 1893); J. B. Lightfoot, <i>Apostolic Fathers</i>, ii. 1,
+476 seq.; Sir W. M. Ramsay, <i>Church in the Roman Empire</i>, pp. 320
+seq.; V. Schultze, in Herzog-Hauck&rsquo;s <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, vii. 315;
+histories of Roman literature by Teuffel-Schwabe and Schanz. On
+Aelius Caesar, see <i>Class. Quart.</i>, 1908, i.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. K.; J. H. F.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The chronology of Hadrian&rsquo;s journeys&mdash;indeed, of the whole
+reign&mdash;is confused and obscure. In the above the article by von
+Rohden in Pauly-Wissowa&rsquo;s <i>Realencyclopädie</i> has been followed.
+Weber&rsquo;s (see Bibliog.) is the most important discussion.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HADRIAN&rsquo;S WALL,<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> the name usually given to the remains of
+the Roman fortifications which defended the northern frontier of
+the Roman province of Britain, between the Tyne and the Solway.
+The works consisted of (1) a continuous defensive rampart with a
+ditch in front and a road behind; (2) various forts, blockhouses
+and towers along the rampart; and (3) an earthwork to the south
+of it, generally called the Vallum, of uncertain use. The defensive
+wall was probably first erected by Hadrian about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 122 as a
+turf wall, and rebuilt in stone by Septimius Severus about <span class="scs">A.D.</span>
+208. See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Britain</a></span>: <i>Roman</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HADRUMETUM,<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> a town of ancient Africa on the southern
+extremity of the <i>sinus Neapolitanus</i> (mod. Gulf of Hammamet)
+on the east coast of Tunisia. The site is partly occupied by the
+modern town of Susa (<i>q.v.</i>). The form of the name Hadrumetum
+varied much in antiquity; the Greeks called it <span class="grk" title="Adrymês,
+Adrymêtos, Adramytês, Adramêtos">&#7944;&#948;&#961;&#973;&#956;&#951;&#962;, &#7944;&#948;&#961;&#973;&#956;&#951;&#964;&#959;&#962;, &#7944;&#948;&#961;&#945;&#956;&#973;&#964;&#951;&#962;, &#7944;&#948;&#961;&#940;&#956;&#951;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span>: the Romans <i>Adrumetum</i>,
+<i>Adrimetum</i>, <i>Hadrumetum</i>, <i>Hadrymetum</i>, &amp;c.; inscriptions and
+coins gave <i>Hadrumetum</i>. The town was originally a Phoenician
+colony founded by Tyrians long before Carthage (Sallust,
+<i>Jug.</i> 19). It became subject to Carthage, but lost none of its
+prosperity. Often mentioned during the Punic Wars, it was
+captured by Agathocles in 310, and was the refuge of Hannibal
+and the remnants of his army after the battle of Zama in 202.
+During the last Punic War it gave assistance to the Romans;
+after the fall of Carthage in 146 it received an accession of
+territory and the title of <i>civitas libera</i> (Appian, <i>Punica</i>, xciv.;
+<i>C.I.L.</i> i. p. 84). Caesar landed there in 46 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> on his way to
+the victory of Thapsus (<i>De bello Afric.</i> iii.; Suetonius, <i>Div.
+Jul.</i> lix.).</p>
+
+<p>In the organization of the African provinces Hadrumetum
+became a capital of the province of Byzacena. Its harbour was
+extremely busy and the surrounding country unusually fertile.
+Trajan made it a Latin colony under the title of <i>Colonia
+Concordia Ulpia Trajana Augusta Frugifera Hadrumetina</i>; a
+dedication to the emperor Gordian the Good, found by M.
+Cagnat at Susa in 1883 gives these titles to the town, and at
+the same time identifies it with Susa. Quarrels arose between
+Hadrumetum and its neighbour Thysdrus in connexion with
+the temple of Minerva situated on the borders of their respective
+territories (Frontinus, <i>Gromatici</i>, ed. Lachmannus, p. 57); Vespasian
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page803" id="page803"></a>803</span>
+when pro-consul of Africa had to repress a sedition among its
+inhabitants (Suetonius, <i>Vesp.</i> iv.; Tissot, <i>Fastes de la prov.
+d&rsquo;Afrique</i>, p. 66); it was the birthplace of the emperor Albinus.
+At this period the metropolis of Byzacena was after Carthage
+the most important town in Roman Africa. It was the seat of a
+bishopric, and its bishops are mentioned at the councils of 258,
+348, 393 and even later. Destroyed by the Vandals in 434 it was
+rebuilt by Justinian and renamed Justinianopolis (Procop. <i>De
+aedif.</i> vi. 6). The Arabic invasion at the end of the 7th century
+destroyed the Byzantine towns, and the place became the haunt
+of pirates, protected by the Kasbah (citadel); it was built on
+the substructions of the Punic, Roman and Byzantine acropolis,
+and is used by the French for military purposes. The Arabic
+geographer Bakri gave a description of the chief Roman
+buildings which were standing in his time (Bakri, <i>Descr. de
+l&rsquo;Afrique</i>, tr. by de Slane, p. 83 et seq.). The modern town of
+Susa, despite its commercial prosperity, occupies only a third of
+the old site.</p>
+
+<p>In 1863 the French engineer, A. Daux, discovered the jetties
+and the moles of the commercial harbour, and the line of the
+military harbour (Cothon); both harbours, which were mainly
+artificial, are entirely silted up. There remains a fragment of
+the fortifications of the Punic town, which had a total length
+of 6410 metres, and remains of the substructions of the Byzantine
+acropolis, of the circus, the theatre, the water cisterns, and of
+other buildings, notably the interesting Byzantine basilica
+which is now used as an Arab café (Kahwat-el-Kubba). In the
+ruins there have been found numerous columns of Punic inscriptions,
+Roman inscriptions and mosaic, among which is one
+representing Virgil seated, holding the <i>Aeneid</i> in his hand;
+another represents the Cretan labyrinth with Theseus and the
+Minotaur (Héron de Villefosse, <i>Revue de l&rsquo;Afrique française</i>,
+v., December 1887, pp. 384 and 394; <i>Comptes rendus de l&rsquo;Acad.
+des Inscr. et Belles-Lettres</i>, 1892, p. 318; other mosaics, <i>ibid.</i>,
+1896, p. 578; <i>Revue archéol.</i>, 1897). In 1904 Dr Carton and the
+abbé Leynaud discovered huge Christian catacombs with several
+miles of subterranean galleries to which access is obtained by a
+small vaulted chamber. In these catacombs we find numerous
+sarcophagi and inscriptions painted or engraved of the Roman
+and Byzantine periods (<i>Comptes rendus de l&rsquo;Acad. des Inscr. et
+Belles-Lettres</i>, 1904-1907; Carton and Leynaud, <i>Les Catacombes
+d&rsquo;Hadrumète</i>, Susa, 1905). We can recognize also the Punic and
+Pagan-Roman cemeteries (<i>C. R. de l&rsquo;Acad. des Inscr. et Belles-Lettres</i>,
+1887; <i>Bull. archéol. du Comité</i>, 1885, p. 149; 1903,
+p. 157). The town had no Punic coins, but under the Roman
+domination there were coins from the time of the Republic.
+These are of bronze and bear the name of the city in abbreviations,
+<span class="sc">Hadr</span> or <span class="sc">Hadrvm</span> accompanying the head of Neptune
+or the Sun. We find also the names of local duumvirs. Under
+Augustus the coins have on the obverse the imperial effigy, and
+on the reverse the names and often the effigies of the pro-consuls
+who governed the province, P. Quintilius Varus, L. Volusius
+Saturninus and Q. Fabius Maximus Africanus. After Augustus
+the mint was finally closed.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;A. Daux, <i>Recherches sur l&rsquo;origine et l&rsquo;emplacement
+des emporia phéniciens dans le Zeugis et le Byzacium</i> (Paris, 1869);
+Ch. Tissot, <i>Géographie comparée de la province romaine d&rsquo;Afrique</i>, ii.
+p. 149; Cagnat, <i>Explorations archéol. en Tunisie</i> (2nd and 3rd fasc.,
+1885); Lud. Müller, <i>Numismatique de l&rsquo;Afrique ancienne</i>, ii p. 51;
+M. Palat, in the <i>Bulletin arch. du Comité des travaux historiques</i>
+(1885), pp. 121 and 150; <i>Revue archéologique</i> (1884 and 1897); <i>Bulletin
+des antiquités africaines</i> (1884 and 1885); <i>Bulletin de la Société
+archéologique de Sousse</i> (first published in 1903); <i>Atlas archéol. de
+Tunisie</i> (4th fascicule, with the plan of Hadrumetum).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. B.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAECKEL, ERNST HEINRICH<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> (1834-&emsp;&emsp;), German biologist,
+was born at Potsdam on the 16th of February 1834. He studied
+medicine and science at Würzburg, Berlin and Vienna, having
+for his masters such men as Johannes Müller, R. Virchow and
+R. A. Kölliker, and in 1857 graduated at Berlin as M.D. and
+M.Ch. At the wish of his father he began to practise as a doctor
+in that city, but his patients were few in number, one reason
+being that he did not wish them to be many, and after a short
+time he turned to more congenial pursuits. In 1861, at the
+instance of Carl Gegenbaur, he became <i>Privatdozent</i> at Jena;
+in the succeeding year he was chosen extraordinary professor
+of comparative anatomy and director of the Zoological Institute
+in the same university; in 1865 he was appointed to a chair
+of zoology which was specially established for his benefit. This
+last position he retained for 43 years, in spite of repeated invitations
+to migrate to more important centres, such as Strassburg
+or Vienna, and at Jena he spent his life, with the exception of
+the time he devoted to travelling in various parts of the world,
+whence in every case he brought back a rich zoological harvest.</p>
+
+<p>As a field naturalist Haeckel displayed extraordinary power
+and industry. Among his monographs may be mentioned those
+on <i>Radiolaria</i> (1862), <i>Siphonophora</i> (1869), <i>Monera</i> (1870) and
+<i>Calcareous Sponges</i> (1872), as well as several <i>Challenger</i> reports,
+viz. <i>Deep-Sea Medusae</i> (1881), <i>Siphonophora</i> (1888), <i>Deep-Sea
+Keratosa</i> (1889) and <i>Radiolaria</i> (1887), the last being accompanied
+by 140 plates and enumerating over four thousand new species.
+This output of systematic and descriptive work would alone have
+constituted a good life&rsquo;s work, but Haeckel in addition wrote
+copiously on biological theory. It happened that just when he
+was beginning his scientific career Darwin&rsquo;s <i>Origin of Species</i>
+was published (1859), and such was the influence it exercised
+over him that he became the apostle of Darwinism in Germany.
+He was, indeed, the first German biologist to give a whole-hearted
+adherence to the doctrine of organic evolution and to
+treat it as the cardinal conception of modern biology. It was he
+who first brought it prominently before the notice of German men
+of science in his first memoir on the <i>Radiolaria</i>, which was completely
+pervaded with its spirit, and later at the congress of
+naturalists at Stettin in 1863. Darwin himself has placed on
+record the conviction that Haeckel&rsquo;s enthusiastic propagandism
+of the doctrine was the chief factor of its success in Germany.
+His book on <i>General Morphology</i> (1866), published when he was
+only thirty-two years old, was called by Huxley a suggestive
+attempt to work out the practical application of evolution to
+its final results; and if it does not take rank as a classic, it will
+at least stand out as a landmark in the history of biological
+doctrine in the 19th century. Although it contains a statement
+of most of the views with which Haeckel&rsquo;s name is associated,
+it did not attract much attention on its first appearance, and
+accordingly its author rewrote much of its substance in a more
+popular style and published it a year or two later as the <i>Natural
+History of Creation</i> (<i>Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte</i>), which was
+far more successful. In it he divided morphology into two
+sections&mdash;tectology, the science of organic individuality; and
+promorphology, which aims at establishing a crystallography of
+organic forms. Among other matters, he laid particular stress
+on the &ldquo;fundamental biogenetic law&rdquo; that ontogeny recapitulates
+phylogeny, that the individual organism in its
+development is to a great extent an epitome of the form-modifications
+undergone by the successive ancestors of the species in the
+course of their historic evolution. His well-known &ldquo;gastraea&rdquo;
+theory is an outcome of this generalization. He divided the
+whole animal creation into two categories&mdash;the Protozoa or
+unicellular animals, and the Metazoa or multicellular animals,
+and he pointed out that while the former remain single-celled
+throughout their existence, the latter are only so at the beginning,
+and are subsequently built up of innumerable cells, the single
+primitive egg-cell (<i>ovum</i>) being transformed by cleavage into a
+globular mass of cells (<i>morula</i>), which first becomes a hollow
+vesicle and then changes into the <i>gastrula</i>. The simplest multicellular
+animal he conceived to resemble this gastrula with its
+two primary layers, ectoderm and endoderm, and the earliest
+hypothetical form of this kind, from which the higher animals
+might be supposed to be actually descended, he called the
+&ldquo;gastraea.&rdquo; This theory was first put forward in the memoir
+on the calcareous sponges, which in its sub-title was described as
+an attempt at an analytical solution of the problem of the origin
+of species, and was subsequently elaborated in various <i>Studies
+on the Gastraea Theory</i> (1873-1884). Haeckel, again, was the
+first to attempt to draw up a genealogical tree (<i>Stammbaum</i>)
+exhibiting the relationship between the various orders of animals
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page804" id="page804"></a>804</span>
+with regard both to one another and their common origin. His
+earliest attempt in the <i>General Morphology</i> was succeeded by
+many others, and his efforts in this direction may perhaps be
+held to culminate in the paper he read before the fourth International
+Zoological Congress, held at Cambridge in 1898, when
+he traced the descent of the human race in twenty-six stages
+from organisms like the still-existing <i>Monera</i>, simple structureless
+masses of protoplasm, and the unicellular <i>Protista</i>, through the
+chimpanzees and the <i>Pithecanthropus erectus</i>, of which a few fossil
+bones were discovered in Java in 1894, and which he held to be
+undoubtedly an intermediate form connecting primitive man
+with the anthropoid apes.</p>
+
+<p>Not content with the study of the doctrine of evolution in its
+zoological aspects, Haeckel also applied it to some of the oldest
+problems of philosophy and religion. What he termed the integration
+of his views on these subjects he published under the
+title of <i>Die Welträtsel</i> (1899), which in 1901 appeared in English
+as <i>The Riddle of the Universe</i>. In this book, adopting an uncompromising
+monistic attitude, he asserted the essential unity
+of organic and inorganic nature. According to his &ldquo;carbon-theory,&rdquo;
+which has been far from achieving general acceptance,
+the chemico-physical properties of carbon in its complex albuminoid
+compounds are the sole and the mechanical cause of the
+specific phenomena of movement which distinguish organic from
+inorganic substances, and the first development of living protoplasm,
+as seen in the <i>Monera</i>, arises from such nitrogenous
+carbon-compounds by a process of spontaneous generation.
+Psychology he regarded as merely a branch of physiology, and
+psychical activity as a group of vital phenomena which depend
+solely on physiological actions and material changes taking place
+in the protoplasm of the organism in which it is manifested.
+Every living cell has psychic properties, and the psychic life
+of multicellular organisms is the sum-total of the psychic
+functions of the cells of which they are composed. Moreover,
+just as the highest animals have been evolved from the simplest
+forms of life, so the highest faculties of the human mind have been
+evolved from the soul of the brute-beasts, and more remotely
+from the simple cell-soul of the unicellular Protozoa. As a
+consequence of these views Haeckel was led to deny the immortality
+of the soul, the freedom of the will, and the existence
+of a personal God.</p>
+
+<p>Haeckel&rsquo;s literary output was enormous, and at the time of the
+celebration of his sixtieth birthday at Jena in 1894 he had
+produced 42 works with 13,000 pages, besides numerous scientific
+memoirs. In addition to the works already mentioned, he
+wrote <i>Freie Wissenschaft und freie Lehre</i> (1877) in reply to a
+speech in which Virchow objected to the teaching of the doctrine
+of evolution in schools, on the ground that it was an unproved
+hypothesis; <i>Die systematische Phylogenie</i> (1894), which has been
+pronounced his best book; <i>Anthropogenie</i> (1874, 5th and enlarged
+edition 1903), dealing with the evolution of man; <i>Über unsere
+gegenwärtige Kenntnis vom Ursprung des Menschen</i> (1898,
+translated into English as <i>The Last Link</i>, 1898); <i>Der Kampf
+um den Entwickelungsgedanken</i> (1905, English version, <i>Last
+Words on Evolution</i>, 1906); <i>Die Lebenswunder</i> (1904), a supplement
+to the <i>Riddle of the Universe</i>; books of travel, such as
+<i>Indische Reisebriefe</i> (1882) and <i>Aus Insulinde</i> (1901), the fruits
+of journeys to Ceylon and to Java; <i>Kunstformen der Natur</i>
+(1904), with plates representing beautiful marine animal forms;
+and <i>Wanderbilder</i> (1905), reproductions of his oil-paintings and
+water-colour landscapes.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>There are biographies by W. Bölsche (Dresden, 1900, translated
+into English by Joseph McCabe, with additions, London, 1906) and
+by Breitenbach (Odenkirchen, 1904). See also Walther May, <i>Ernst
+Haeckel</i>; <i>Versuch einer Chronik seines Lebens und Werkens</i> (Leipzig,
+1909).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:199px; height:151px" src="images/img804a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:190px; height:54px" src="images/img804b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="bold">HAEMATITE,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Hematite</span>, a mineral consisting of ferric
+oxide (Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>), named from the Greek word <span class="grk" title="haima">&#945;&#7991;&#956;&#945;</span> &ldquo;blood,&rdquo; in
+allusion to its typical colour, whence it is called also red iron ore.
+When crystallized, however, haematite often presents a dark
+colour, even iron-black; but on scratching the surface, the
+powder of the streak shows the colour of dried blood. Haematite
+crystallizes in the rhombohedral system, and is isomorphous
+with corundum (Al<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>). The habit of the crystals may be
+rhombohedral, pyramidal or tabular, rarely prismatic. In fig. 1
+the crystal, from Elba, shows a combination of the fundamental
+rhombohedron (R), an obtuse rhombohedron
+(<i>s</i>), and the hexagonal bi-pyramid
+(<i>n</i>). Fig. 2 is a tabular
+crystal in which the basal pinacoid
+(<i>o</i>) predominates. Haematite has no
+distinct cleavage, but may show, in
+consequence of a lamellar structure,
+a tendency to parting along certain
+planes.</p>
+
+<p>Crystallized haematite, such as
+that from the iron-mines of Elba, presents a steel-grey or iron-black
+colour, with a brilliant metallic lustre, sometimes beautifully
+iridescent. The splendent surface has suggested for this
+mineral such names as specular iron ore, looking-glass ore, and
+iron glance (<i>fer oligiste</i> of French writers). The hardness of the
+crystallized haematite is about 6, and the specific gravity 5.2.
+The so-called &ldquo;iron roses&rdquo; (<i>Eisenrosen</i>) of Switzerland are
+rosette-like aggregates of hexagonal
+tabular crystals, from fissures in the
+gneissose rocks of the Alps. Specular
+iron ore occurs in the form of brilliant
+metallic scales on many lavas, as at
+Vesuvius and Etna, in the Auvergne and the Eifel, and notably
+in the Island of Ascension, where the mineral forms beautiful
+tabular crystals. It seems to be a sublimation-product formed
+in volcanoes by the interaction of the vapour of ferric chloride
+and steam.</p>
+
+<p>Specular haematite forms a constituent of certain schistose
+rocks, such as the Brazilian itabirite. In the Marquette district
+of Michigan (Lake Superior) schistose specular ore occurs in
+important deposits, associated with a jasper rock, in which the
+ore alternates with bands of red quartzite. Micaceous iron ore
+consists of delicate steel-grey scales of specular haematite,
+unctuous to the touch, used as a lubricant and also as a pigment.
+It is worked in Devonshire under the name of shining ore. Very
+thin laminae of haematite, blood-red by transmitted light,
+occur as microscopic enclosures in certain minerals, such as
+carnallite and sun-stone, to which they impart colour and lustre.</p>
+
+<p>Much haematite occurs in a compact or massive form, often
+mammillary, and presenting on fracture a fibrous structure.
+The reniform masses are known as kidney ore. Such red ore is
+generally neither so dense nor so hard as the crystals. It often
+passes into an earthy form, termed soft red ore, and when mixed
+with more or less clay constitutes red ochre, ruddle or reddle
+(Ger. <i>Rötel</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The hard haematite is occasionally cut and polished as an
+ornamental stone, and certain kinds have been made into beads
+simulating black pearls. It was worked by the Assyrians for
+their engraved cylinder-seals, and was used by the gnostics for
+amulets. Some of the native tribes in the Congo basin employ
+it as a material for axes. The hard fibrous ore of Cumberland
+is known as pencil ore, and is employed for the burnishers used
+by bookbinders and others. Santiago de Compostela in Spain
+furnishes a considerable supply of haematite burnishers.</p>
+
+<p>Haematite is an important ore of iron (<i>q.v.</i>), and is extensively
+worked in Elba, Spain (Bilbao), Scandinavia, the Lake Superior
+region and elsewhere. In England valuable deposits occur in
+the Carboniferous Limestone of west Cumberland (Whitehaven
+district) and north Lancashire (Ulverston district). The hard
+ore is siliceous, and fine crystallized specimens occur in association
+with smoky quartz. The ore is remarkably free from
+phosphorus, and is consequently valued for the production of pig-iron
+to be converted into Bessemer steel.</p>
+<div class="author">(F. W. R.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAEMATOCELE<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="haima">&#945;&#7991;&#956;&#945;</span>, blood, and <span class="grk" title="kêlê">&#954;&#942;&#955;&#951;</span>, tumour), the
+medical term for a localized collection of blood in the tunica
+vaginalis or cord. It is usually the result of a sudden blow or
+severe strain, but may arise from disease. At first it forms a
+smooth, fluctuating, opaque swelling, but later becomes hard
+and firm. In chronic cases the walls of the tunica vaginalis
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page805" id="page805"></a>805</span>
+undergo changes. The treatment of a case seen soon after the
+injury is directed towards keeping the patient at rest, elevating
+the parts, and applying an evaporating lotion or ice-bag. In
+chronic cases it may be necessary to lay open the cavity and
+remove the coagulum.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAEMOPHILIA,<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> the medical term for a condition of the
+vascular system, often running in families, the members of which
+are known as &ldquo;bleeders,&rdquo; characterized by a disposition towards
+bleeding, whether with or without the provocation of an injury
+to the tissue. When this bleeding is spontaneous it comes from
+the mucous membranes, especially from the nose, but also from
+the mouth, bowel and bronchial tubes. Slight bruises are apt
+to be followed by extravasations of blood into the tissues; the
+swollen joints (knee especially) of a bleeder are probably due,
+in the first instance, to the escape of blood into the joint cavity
+or synovial membrane. It is always from the smallest vessels
+that the blood escapes, and may do so in such quantities as to
+cause death in a few hours.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAEMORRHAGE<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="haima">&#945;&#7991;&#956;&#945;</span>, blood, and <span class="grk" title="rhêgnynai">&#8165;&#951;&#947;&#957;&#973;&#957;&#945;&#953;</span>, to burst),
+a general term for any escape of blood from a blood-vessel (see
+Blood). It commonly results from injury, as the tearing or
+cutting of a blood-vessel, but certain forms result from disease,
+as in scurvy and purpura. The chief varieties of haemorrhage
+are <i>arterial</i>, <i>venous</i> and <i>capillary</i>. Bleeding from an artery is
+of a bright red colour, and escapes from the end of the vessel
+nearest the heart in jets synchronous with the heart&rsquo;s beat.
+Bleeding from a vein is of a darker colour; the flow is steady,
+and the bleeding is from the distal end of the vessel. Capillary
+bleeding is a general oozing from a raw surface. By <i>extravasation
+of blood</i> is meant the pouring out of blood into the areolar tissues,
+which become boggy. This is termed a <i>bruise</i> or <i>ecchymosis</i>.
+<i>Epistaxis</i> is a term given to bleeding from the nose. <i>Haematemesis</i>
+is vomiting of blood, the colour of which may be altered
+by digestion, as is also the case in <i>melaena</i>, or passage of blood
+with the faeces, in which the blood becomes dark and tarry-looking
+from the action of the intestinal fluids. <i>Haemoptysis</i>
+denotes an escape of blood from the air-passages, which is usually
+bright red and frothy from admixture with air. <i>Haematuria</i>
+means passage of blood with the urine.</p>
+
+<p>Cessation of bleeding may take place from natural or from
+artificial means. Natural arrest of haemorrhage arises from
+(1) the coagulation of the blood itself, (2) the diminution of the
+heart&rsquo;s action as in fainting, (3) changes taking place in the cut
+vessel causing its retraction and contraction. In the surgical
+treatment of haemorrhage minor means of arresting bleeding
+are: cold, which is most valuable in general oozing and local
+extravasations; very hot water, 130° to 160° F., a powerful
+haemostatic; position, such as elevation of the limb, valuable
+in bleeding from the extremities; styptics or astringents,
+applied locally, as perchloride of iron, tannic acid and others,
+the most valuable being suprarenal extract. In arresting
+haemorrhage temporarily the chief thing is to press directly
+on the bleeding part. The pressure to be effectual need not be
+severe, but must be accurately applied. If the bleeding point
+cannot be reached, the pressure should be applied to the main
+artery between the bleeding point and the heart. In small
+blood-vessels pressure will be sufficient to arrest haemorrhage
+permanently. In large vessels it is usual to pass a ligature round
+the vessel and tie it with a reef-knot. Apply the ligature, if
+possible, at the bleeding point, tying both ends of the cut vessel.
+If this cannot be done, the main artery of the limb must be
+exposed by dissection at the most accessible point between the
+wound and the heart, and there ligatured.</p>
+
+<p>Haemorrhage has been classified as&mdash;(1) primary, occurring
+at the time of the injury; (2) reactionary, or within twenty-four
+hours of the accident, during the stage of reaction; (3) secondary,
+occurring at a later period and caused by faulty application of a
+ligature or septic condition of the wound. In severe haemorrhage,
+as from the division of a large artery, the patient may
+collapse and death ensue from syncope. In this case stimulants
+and strychnine may be given, but they should be avoided until
+it is certain the bleeding has been properly controlled, as they
+tend to increase it. Transfusion of blood directly from the vein
+of a healthy person to the blood-vessels of the patient, and
+infusion of saline solution into a vein, may be practised (see
+Shock). In a congenital condition known as <i>haemophylia</i> (<i>q.v.</i>)
+it is difficult to stop the flow of blood.</p>
+
+<p>The surgical procedure for the treatment of an open wound
+is&mdash;(1) arrest of haemorrhage; (2) cleansing of the wound and
+removal of any foreign bodies; (3) careful apposition of its
+edges and surfaces&mdash;the edges being best brought in contact
+by sutures of aseptic silk or catgut, the surfaces by carefully
+applied pressure; (4) free drainage, if necessary, to prevent
+accumulation either of blood or serous effusion; (5) avoidance
+of sepsis; (6) perfect rest of the part. These methods of treatment
+require to be modified for wounds in special situations and
+for those in which there is much contusion and laceration. When
+a special poison has entered the wound at the time of its infliction
+or at some subsequent date, it is necessary to provide against
+septic conditions of the wound itself and blood-poisoning of the
+general circulation.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAEMORRHOIDS,<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> or Hemorrhoids (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="haima">&#945;&#7991;&#956;&#945;</span>, blood,
+and <span class="grk" title="rhein">&#8165;&#949;&#8150;&#957;</span>, to flow), commonly called <i>piles</i>, swellings formed by the
+dilatation of veins of the lowest part of the bowel, or of those
+just outside the margin of its aperture. The former, <i>internal
+piles</i>, are covered by mucous membrane; the latter, <i>external piles</i>,
+are just beneath the skin. As the veins of the lining of the bowel
+become dilated they form definite bulgings within the bowel,
+and, at last increasing in size, escape through the anus when a
+motion is being passed. Growing still larger, they may come
+down spontaneously when the individual is standing or walking,
+and they are apt to be a grave source of pain or annoyance.
+Eventually they may remain constantly protruded&mdash;nevertheless,
+they are still <i>internal</i> piles because they arise from the interior
+of the bowel. Though a pile is sometimes solitary, there are
+usually several of them. They are apt to become inflamed, and
+the inflammation is associated with heat, pain, discharge and
+general uneasiness; ulceration and bleeding are also common
+symptoms, hence the term &ldquo;bleeding piles.&rdquo; The <i>external pile</i>
+is covered by the thin dark-coloured skin of the anal margin.
+Severe pressure upon the large abdominal veins may retard the
+upward flow of blood to the heart and so give rise to piles;
+this is apt to happen in the case of disease of the liver, malignant
+and other tumours, and pregnancy. General weakness of the
+constitution or of the blood-vessels and habitual constipation
+may be predisposing causes of piles. The exciting cause may be
+vigorous straining at stool or exposure to damp, as from sitting
+on the wet ground. Piles are often only a symptom, and in their
+treatment this fact should be kept in view; if the cause is
+removed the piles may disappear. But in some cases it may
+be impossible to remove the cause, as when a widely-spreading
+cancerous growth of the rectum, or of the interior of the pelvis
+or abdomen, is blocking the upward flow of blood in the veins.
+Sometimes when a pile has been protruded, as during defaecation,
+it is tightly grasped by spasmodic contraction of the circular
+muscular fibres which guard the outlet of the bowel, and it then
+becomes swollen, engorged and extremely painful; the strangulation
+may be so severe that the blood in the vessels coagulates
+and the pile mortifies. This, indeed, is nature&rsquo;s attempt at
+curing a pile, but it is distressing, and, as a rule, it is not entirely
+successful.</p>
+
+<p>The palliative treatment of piles consists in obtaining a daily
+and easy action of the bowels, in rest, cold bathing, astringent
+injections, lotions and ointments. The radical treatment consists
+in their removal by operation, but this should not be contemplated
+until palliative treatment has failed. The operation consists in
+drawing the pile well down, and strangling the vessels entering
+and leaving its base, either by a strong ligature tightly applied,
+by crushing, or by cautery. Before dealing with the pile the anus
+is vigorously dilated in order that the pile may be dealt with with
+greater precision, and also that the temporary paralysis of the
+sphincter muscle, which follows the stretching, may prevent the
+occurrence of painful and spasmodic contractions subsequently.
+The ligatures by which the base of the piles are strangulated
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page806" id="page806"></a>806</span>
+slough off with the pile in about ten days, and in about ten days
+more the individual is, as a rule, well enough to return to his
+work. If, for one reason or another, no operation is to be undertaken,
+and the piles are troublesome, relief may be afforded by
+warm sponging and by sitz-baths, the pile being gently dried
+afterwards by a piece of soft linen, smeared with vaseline,
+and carefully returned into the bowel. Under surgical advice,
+cocaine or morphia may be brought in contact with the tender
+parts, either in the form of lotion, suppository or ointment.
+In operating upon internal piles it is undesirable to remove all the
+external piles around the anus, lest the contraction of the
+circumferential scar should cause permanent narrowing of the
+orifice. If, as often happens, blood clots in the vein of an external
+pile, the small, hard, tender swelling may be treated with anodyne
+fomentations, or it may be rendered insensitive by the ether
+spray and opened by a small incision, the clot being turned
+out.</p>
+<div class="author">(E. O.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAEMOSPORIDIA,<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> in zoology, an order of Ectospora, which
+although comparatively few in number and very inconspicuous
+in size and appearance, have of late years probably attracted
+greater attention and been more generally studied than any
+other Sporozoa; the reason being that they include the organisms
+well known as malarial parasites. In spite, however, of
+much and careful recent research&mdash;to a certain extent, rather,
+as a result of it&mdash;it remains the case that the Haemosporidia are,
+in some respects, the group of the Ectospora about which our
+knowledge is, for the time being, in the most unsatisfactory
+condition. Such important questions, indeed, as the scope and
+boundaries of the group, its exact origin and affinities, the rank
+and interclassification of the forms admittedly included in it,
+are answered quite differently by different workers. For example,
+one well-known Sporozoan authority (M. Lühe) has recently
+united the two groups, Haemosporidia and Haemoflagellates,
+bodily into one, while others (<i>e.g.</i> Novy and McNeal) deny
+that there is any connexion whatever between &ldquo;Cytozoa&rdquo; and
+Trypanosomes. Again, the inclusion or exclusion of forms like
+<i>Piroplasma</i> and <i>Halteridium</i> is also the subject of much discussion.
+The present writer accepts here the view that the Haemosporidia
+are derived from Haemoflagellates which have developed
+a gregariniform (Sporozoan) phase at the expense, largely or
+entirely, of the flagelliform one. The not inconsiderable differences
+met with among different types are capable of explanation
+on the ground that certain forms have advanced farther than
+others along this particular line of evolution. In other words,
+it is most probable that the Haemosporidia are to be regarded
+as comprising various parasites which represent different stages
+intermediate between, on the one side, a Flagellate, and on the
+other, a typical chlamydospore-forming Ectosporan parasite.
+While, however, it is easy enough sharply to separate off all
+Haemosporidia from other Ectospora, it is a very difficult matter
+to define their limits on the former side. Two principal criteria
+which a doubtful haemal parasite might very well be required
+to satisfy in order to be considered as a Haemosporidian rather
+than a Haemoflagellate are (<i>a</i>) the occurrence of schizogony
+during the &ldquo;corpuscular&rdquo; phase in the Vertebrate host, and (<i>b</i>)
+the formation of many germs (&ldquo;sporozoites&rdquo;) from the zygote;
+so long as these conditions were complied with, the present
+writer, at all events, would not feel he was countenancing any
+protozoological heresy in allowing for the possibility of a Flagellate
+(perhaps trypaniform) phase or features being present at
+some period or other in the life-cycle.<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> To render this article
+complete, however, one or two well-known parasites, hitherto
+referred to this order, must also be mentioned, which, judged
+by the above (arbitrary) standard, are, it may be, on the Haemoflagellate
+side of the dividing line (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Halteridium</i>, according to
+Schaudinn).</p>
+
+<p>The chief characters which distinguish the Haemosporidia
+from other Ectospora are the following. They are invariably
+blood parasites, and for part or all of the trophic period come into
+intimate relation with the cellular elements in the blood. There
+is always an alternation of hosts and of generations, an Invertebrate
+being the definitive host, in which sexual conjugation
+is undergone and which is to be regarded as the primary one,
+a Vertebrate being the intermediate or secondary one. The
+zygote or sporont is at first capable of movement and known as
+an ookinete. No resistant spores (chlamydospores) are formed,
+the ultimate germs or sporozoites always being free in the oocyst
+and not enclosed by sporocysts.</p>
+
+<p>To Sir E. Ray Lankester is due the honour of discovering
+the first Haemosporidian, a discovery which did not take place
+until after most of the other kinds of Sporozoa were known.
+In 1871 this author described the parasite of the frog, which he
+later termed <i>Drepanidium ranarum</i>. The next discovery was
+the great and far-reaching one of Laveran, who in 1883 described
+all the characteristic phases of the malarial parasite which are
+met with in human blood. While regarding the organism as the
+cause of the disease, Laveran did not at once recognize its animal
+and Sporozoan nature, but considered it rather as a vegetable,
+and termed it <i>Oscillaria malariae</i>. As in the case of the Trypanosomes,
+we owe to Danilewsky (1885-1889) the first serious
+attempts to study the comparative anatomy and life-history of
+these parasites, from a zoological point of view. Danilewsky
+first named them Haemosporidia, and distinguished between
+<i>Haemocytozoa</i> and <i>Leucocytozoa</i>. To the brilliant researches of
+R. Ross and Grassi in the closing years of the 19th century is
+due the realization of the essential part played by the gnat or
+mosquito in the life-cycle and transmission of the parasites;
+and to MacCallum belongs the credit of first observing the true
+sexual conjugation, in the case of a <i>Halteridium</i>. Since then,
+thanks to the labours of Argutinsky and Schaudinn, our knowledge
+of the malarial parasites has steadily increased. Until
+quite recently, however, very little was known about the Haemosporidia
+of cold-blooded Vertebrates; but in 1903 Siegel and
+Schaudinn demonstrated that the same rôle is performed in
+their case by a leech or a tick, and since then many new forms
+have been described.</p>
+
+<p>The Haemosporidia are widely distributed and of very general
+occurrence among the chief classes of Vertebrates. Among Invertebrates
+they are apparently limited to bloodsucking
+insects, ticks and leeches.<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a> As already stated,
+<span class="sidenote">Occurrence: habitat; effects on host.</span>
+the universal habitat of the parasites in the Vertebrate
+is the blood; as a result, of course, they are to be met
+with in the capillaries of practically all the important
+organs of the body; and it is to be noted that while certain
+phases (<i>e.g.</i> growing trophozoites, mature gametocytes) are found
+in the peripheral circulation, others (<i>e.g.</i> schizogonous &ldquo;rosettes,&rdquo;
+young gametocytes) occur in the internal organs, liver, kidneys,
+&amp;c., where the circulation is sluggish. The relation of the parasites
+to the blood-cells varies greatly. Most attack, probably
+exclusively, the red blood corpuscles (haematids); a few, however,
+select the leucocytes, and are therefore known as Leucocytozoa.
+In the case of Mammalian and Avian forms (malarial
+parasites) Schaudinn and Argutinsky have shown that the
+trophic and schizogonic phases are not really endoglobular but
+closely attached to the corpuscle, hollowing out a depression
+or space into which they nestle; the gametocytes, on the
+other hand, are actually intercellular. Forms parasitic in cold-blooded
+Vertebrates, on the contrary, are always, so far as is
+known, endoglobular when in relation with the corpuscles; and
+the same is apparently the case with the Mammalian parasite,
+<i>Piroplasma</i>. Although in no instance so far described is the
+parasite actually intranuclear (as certain Coccidia are), in one or
+two cases (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Karyolysus</i> of lizards and certain species of
+<i>Haemogregarina</i>) it reacts markedly upon the nucleus and soon
+causes its disintegration. While many Haemosporidia (<i>e.g.</i>
+malarial parasites, with the exception of <i>Halteridium</i>) remain in
+connexion with the same corpuscle throughout the whole period
+of growth and schizogony, the new generation of merozoites
+first being set free from the broken-down cell, others (the Haemogregarines,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page807" id="page807"></a>807</span>
+broadly speaking, and also <i>Halteridium</i>) leave
+one corpuscle after a short time, wander about free in the
+plasma, and then seek out another; and this may be repeated
+until the parasite is ready for schizogony, which generally occurs
+in the corpuscle.</p>
+
+<p>As in the case of Trypanosomes (<i>q.v.</i>), normally&mdash;that is to say,
+when in an accustomed, tolerant host, and under natural conditions&mdash;Haemosporidia
+are non-pathogenic and do not give
+rise to any ill-effects in the animals harbouring them. When,
+however, the parasites gain an entry into the blood of man or
+other unadapted animals,<a name="fa3d" id="fa3d" href="#ft3d"><span class="sp">3</span></a> they produce, as is well known,
+harmful and often very serious effects. There are three recognized
+types of malarial fever, each caused by a distinct form and
+characterized by the mode of manifestation. Two, the so-called
+benign fevers, are intermittent; namely, tertian and quartan
+fever, in which the fever recurs every second and third day
+respectively. This is due to the fact that schizogony takes
+different lengths of time in the two cases, 48 hours in the one,
+72 in the other; the height of the fever-period coincides with the
+break-down of the corpuscle at the completion of the process, and
+the liberation of great numbers of merozoites in the blood.
+The third type is the dangerous aestivo-autumnal or pernicious
+malaria, in which the fever is irregular or continuous during long
+periods.</p>
+
+<p>A very general symptom is anaemia, which is sometimes
+present to a marked extent, when it may lead to a fatal termination.
+This is the result of the very considerable destruction of
+the blood-corpuscles which takes place, the haemoglobin of which
+is absorbed by the parasites as nutriment. A universal feature
+connected with this mode of nutrition is the production, in the
+cytoplasm of the parasite, of a brown pigment, termed melanin;
+this does not represent reserve material, but is an excreted <span class="correction" title="bye">by</span>-product
+derived from the haemoglobin. These pigment-grains
+are at length liberated into the blood-stream and become deposited
+in the various organs, spleen, liver, kidneys, brain,
+causing pronounced pigmentation.</p>
+
+<p>Another type of fever, more acute and more generally fatal, is
+that produced by forms belonging to the genus <i>Piroplasma</i>, in
+cattle, dogs, horses and other domestic animals in different
+regions of the globe; and recently Wilson and Chowning have
+stated that the &ldquo;spotted fever of the Rockies&rdquo; is a human
+piroplasmosis caused by <i>P. hominis</i>. The disease of cattle is
+known variously as Texas-fever, Tristeza, Red-water, Southern
+cattle-fever, &amp;c. In this type of illness the endogenous multiplication
+of the parasites is very great and rapid, and brings about
+an enormous diminution in the number of healthy red blood
+corpuscles. Their sudden destruction results in the liberation of
+large quantities of haemoglobin in the plasma, which turns
+deep-red in colour; and hence haemoglobinuria, which occurs
+only rarely in malaria, is a constant symptom in piroplasmosis.</p>
+
+<p>The parasite of pernicious malaria, here termed <i>Laverania
+malariae</i>, will serve very well as a type of the general life-cycle
+(fig. 1). Slight differences shown by the other malarial parasites
+(<i>Plasmodium</i>) will be mentioned in passing, but the
+<span class="sidenote">Example of the life-history.</span>
+main divergences which other Haemosporidian types
+exhibit are best considered separately. With the bite
+of an infected mosquito, the minute sickle-like sporozoites
+are injected into the blood. They rapidly penetrate into
+the blood corpuscles, in which they appear as small irregular,
+more or less amoeboid trophozoites. A vacuole next arises in
+the cytoplasm, which increases greatly in size, and gives rise to
+the well-known, much discussed ring-form of the parasite, in
+which it resembles a signet-ring, the nucleus forming a little
+thickening to one side. Some authorities (<i>e.g.</i> Argutinsky) have
+regarded this structure as being really a greatly distended
+vesicular nucleus, and, to a large extent, indeed, an artifact,
+resulting from imperfect fixation; but Schaudinn considers it is
+a true vacuole, and explains it on the ground of the rapid nutrition
+and growth. Later on this vacuole disappears, and the grains
+of pigment make their appearance. The trophozoite is now
+large and full-grown, and has become rounded and ready for
+schizogony. The nucleus of the schizont divides several times
+(more or less directly, by simple or multiple fission) to form a
+number of daughter-nuclei, which take up a regular position
+near the periphery. Around these the cytoplasm becomes segmented,
+giving rise to the well-known <i>corps en rosace</i>. Eventually
+the merozoites, in the form of little round uninuclear bodies,
+are liberated from the now broken-down corpuscle, leaving behind
+a certain amount of residual cytoplasm containing the pigment
+grains. Besides the difference in the time taken by the complete
+process of schizogony in the various species (see above), there are
+distinctions in the composition of the rosettes. Thus, in <i>Laverania</i>,
+the number of merozoites formed is very variable; in
+<i>Plasmodium vivax</i> (the tertian parasite) there are only few (9 to 12)
+merozoites, but in <i>P. malariae</i> (the quartan form) they are more
+numerous, from 12 to 24. The liberated merozoites proceed to
+infect fresh blood corpuscles and a new endogenous cycle is
+started.</p>
+
+<p>After asexual multiplication has gone on for some time, sexual
+forms become developed. According to Schaudinn, the stimulus
+which determines the production of gametocytes instead of
+schizonts is the reaction of the host (at the height of a
+fever period) upon the parasites. A young trophozoite which
+is becoming a gametocyte is distinguished from one which
+gives rise to a schizont by its much slower rate of growth,
+and the absence of any vacuoles in its cytoplasm. The
+gametocytes themselves are characterized by their peculiar
+shape, like that of a sausage, whence they are very generally
+known as &ldquo;crescents.&rdquo; Male and female gametocytes are
+distinguished (roughly) by the arrangement of the pigment-grains;
+in the former, they are fairly evenly scattered throughout
+the cytoplasm, but in the megagametocytes the pigment tends
+to be aggregated centrally, around the nucleus. As they become
+full-grown and mature, however, the gametocytes lose their
+crescentic form and assume that of an oval, and finally of a
+sphere. At the same time, they are set free from the remains
+of the blood corpuscle. The spherical stage is practically the
+limit of development in the Vertebrate host, although, sometimes,
+the nucleus of the microgametocyte may proceed to division.
+The &ldquo;crescents&rdquo; of the pernicious parasite afford a very
+important diagnostic difference from the gametocytes of both
+species of <i>Plasmodium</i>, which have the ordinary, rounded shape
+of the schizonts. In the case of the latter, points such as their
+slower growth, their less amoeboid character, and their size
+furnish the means of distinction.</p>
+
+<p>When a gnat or mosquito sucks blood, all phases of the parasite
+in the peripheral circulation at that point may succeed in passing
+into the insect. If this occurs all trophic and schizogonic
+phases are forthwith digested, and the survival of the sexual
+phases depends entirely upon whether the insect is a gnat or
+mosquito. Only in the latter case can further development of
+the gametocytes go on; in other words, only the genus <i>Anopheles</i>,
+and not the genus <i>Culex</i>, furnishes specific hosts for the malarial
+parasites. This is a biological fact of considerable importance
+in connexion with the prophylactic measures against malaria.
+In the stomach of an <i>Anopheles</i>, the gametocytes quickly
+proceed to gamete-formation. The nucleus of the microgametocyte
+divides up, and the daughter-nuclei pass to the periphery.
+The surface of the body grows out into long, whip-like processes,
+of which there are usually 6 to 8 (probably the typical number
+is 8); each is very motile, in this respect strongly resembling
+a flagellum. This phase may also develop in drawn blood,
+which has, of course, become suddenly cooled by the exposure;
+and it seems evident that it is the change in temperature, from
+the warm to the cold-blooded host, which brings about the
+development of the actual sexual elements. Earlier observers
+regarded the phase just described as representing another
+parasite altogether, of a Flagellate nature&mdash;whence the well-known
+term, <i>Polymitus</i>-form; and even more recent workers,
+such as Labbé who connected it with the malarial parasite,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page808" id="page808"></a>808</span>
+failed to appreciate its true significance, and considered
+it rather as a degeneration-appearance.
+The micro-gametes soon liberate themselves from
+the residual cytoplasm of the parent and swim
+away in search of a megagamete; each is a very
+slender, wavy filament, composed largely of chromatic
+substance. The finer details of structure of
+the microgamete of a malarial parasite cannot be
+said, however, to be thoroughly known, and it is
+by no means impossible that its structure is really
+trypaniform, as, according to Schaudinn&rsquo;s great
+work, is the case with the merozoites and
+sporozoites.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:642px; height:971px" src="images/img808a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f80 tcl" colspan="2">From Lankester&rsquo;s <i>Treatise on Zoology</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90 tcl" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Diagram of the complete life-cycle of the parasite of pernicious malaria,
+<i>Laverania malariae</i>, Gr. et Fel. The stages on the upper side of the dotted line are
+those found in human blood; below the dotted line are seen the phases through which
+the parasite passes in the intermediate host, the mosquito. Plan and arrangement
+chiefly after Neveu-Lemaire; details of the figures founded on those of Grassi,
+Schaudinn (Leuckart&rsquo;s <i>Zoologische Wandtafeln</i>), Ross and others.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>I.-V. and 6-10 show the schizogony.</p>
+
+<p>VI.-XII., The sexual generation.</p>
+
+<p>XIII., The motile zygote.</p>
+
+<p>XIV.-XIX., Sporogony.</p>
+
+<p>I.-III., Young amoebulae in blood-corpuscles.</p>
+
+<p>IV., Older, actively amoeboid trophozoite.</p>
+
+<p>V., Still older, less amoeboid trophozoite.</p>
+
+<p>6, Mature schizont.</p>
+
+<p>7, Schizont, with nucleus dividing up.</p>
+
+<p>8, Young rosette stage.</p>
+
+<p>9, Fully formed rosette stage.</p>
+
+<p>10, Merozoites free in the blood by breaking down of the corpuscle.</p>
+
+<p>VI., Young indifferent gametocyte.</p>
+
+<p>VII., <i>a</i>, Male crescent.</p>
+
+<p>VII., <i>b</i>, Female crescent.</p>
+
+<p>VIII., <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>, The gametocytes becoming oval.</p>
+
+<p>IX., <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>, Spherical gametocytes;
+in the male (IX. <i>a</i>) the nucleus has divided up.</p>
+
+<p>X., <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>, Formation of gametes;
+in the male (X. <i>a</i>) the so-called
+flagella or male gametes (<i>fl</i>) are
+thrown out, one of them is seen
+detached; in the female (X. <i>b</i>) a
+portion of the nucleus has been expelled.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>XI., A male gamete penetrating a
+female gamete at a cone of reception
+formed near the nucleus.</p>
+
+<p>XII., Zygote with two pronuclei in proximity.</p>
+
+<p>XIII., Zygote in the motile stage (vermicule or oökinete).</p>
+
+<p>XIV., Encysted zygote (oöcyst).</p>
+
+<p>XV., Commencing multiplication of the nuclei in the oöcyst.</p>
+
+<p>XVI., Oöcyst with numerous sporoblasts.</p>
+
+<p>XVII., Commencing formation of sporozoites.</p>
+
+<p>XVIII., Full-grown oocyst crammed with ripe
+sporozoites; on one side the cyst has burst
+and the sporozoites are escaping.</p>
+
+<p>XIX., Free sporozoites, showing their changes of form.</p>
+
+<p><i>n</i>, Nucleus of the parasite.</p>
+<p><i>p</i>, Melanin pigment.</p>
+<p><i>fl</i>, &ldquo;Flagella.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><i>sp. bl.</i>, Sporoblasts.</p>
+<p><i>r. n.</i>, Residual nuclei.</p>
+<p><i>r. p.</i>, Residual protoplasm.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:280px; height:186px" src="images/img808b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f80 tcl" colspan="2">From Lankester&rsquo;s <i>Treatise on Zoology</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90 tcl" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Stomach of a mosquito,
+with cysts of Haemosporidia. (After
+Ross.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>oes</i>, Oesophagus.</p>
+<p><i>st</i>,  Stomach.</p>
+<p><i>cy</i>,  Cysts.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>Mt</i>,  Malpighian tubules.</p>
+<p><i>int</i>, Intestine.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The megagametocyte becomes a megagamete
+directly after a process of maturation, which
+consists in the expulsion of a certain amount of
+nuclear substance. The actual conjugation is quite
+similar to the process in Coccidia, and the resulting
+zygote perfectly homologous. In the present case,
+however, the zygote does not at once secrete an
+oöcyst, with a thick resistant wall; on the contrary,
+it changes its shape, and becomes markedly gregariniform
+and active, and is known for this
+reason as an ookinete. The ookinete passes through
+the epithelial layer of the stomach, the thinner and
+more pointed end leading the way, and comes to
+rest in the connective tissue forming the outer layer
+of the stomach-wall (fig. 2). Here it becomes
+rounded and cyst-like, and grows considerably;
+for only a thin, delicate cyst-membrane is secreted,
+which does not impede the absorption of nutriment.
+Meanwhile, the nucleus has divided into several,
+around each of which the cytoplasm becomes segmented.
+Each of these segments (&ldquo;blastophores,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;zoidophores&rdquo;) is entirely comparable to a sporoblast
+in the Coccidian oocyst, the chief difference
+being that it never forms a spore; moreover the
+segments or sporoblasts in the oocyst of a malarial
+parasite are irregular in shape and do not become
+completely separated from one another, but
+remain connected by thin cytoplasmic strands.
+Repeated multiplication of the sporoblast-nuclei
+next takes place, with the result that a great
+number of little nuclei are found all round the
+periphery. A corresponding number of fine cytoplasmic
+processes grow out from the surface, each
+carrying a nucleus with it, and in this manner a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page809" id="page809"></a>809</span>
+huge number of slender, slightly sickle-shaped germs or sporozoites
+(&ldquo;blasts,&rdquo; &ldquo;zoids,&rdquo; &amp;c.) are formed. Each oocyst may
+contain from hundreds to thousands of sporozoites.</p>
+
+<p>When the sporogony (which lasts about 10 days) is completed,
+the oocyst ruptures and the sporozoites are set free into the
+body-cavity, leaving behind a large quantity of residual cytoplasm,
+including pigment grains, &amp;c. The sporozoites are
+carried about by the blood-stream; ultimately, however,
+apparently by virtue of some chemotactic attraction, they
+practically all collect in the salivary glands, filling the secretory
+cells and also invading the ducts. When the mosquito next
+bites a man, numbers of them are injected, together with the
+minute drop of saliva, into his blood, where they begin a fresh
+endogenous cycle.</p>
+
+<p>There is only one other point with regard to the life-history
+that need be mentioned. With the lapse of time all trophic and
+schizogonic (asexual) phases of the parasite in the blood die off.
+But it has long been known that malarial patients, apparently
+quite cured, may suddenly exhibit all the symptoms again,
+without having incurred a fresh infection. Schaudinn has
+investigated the cause of this recurrence, and finds that it is
+due to the power of the megagametocytes, which are very
+resistant and long-lived, to undergo a kind of parthenogenesis
+under favourable conditions and give rise to the ordinary asexual
+schizonts, which in turn can repopulate the host with all the other
+phases. Microgametocytes, on the other hand, die off in time
+if they cannot pass into a mosquito.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:556px; height:156px" src="images/img809a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f80 tcl" colspan="2">From Lankester&rsquo;s <i>Treatise on Zoology</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;<i>Haemogregarina bigemina</i>, Laveran, from the blood of blennies.
+(After Laveran, magnified about 1800 diameters.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>a</i>, The form of the parasite
+found free in the blood-plasma.</p>
+
+<p><i>b</i>, Parasite within a blood-corpuscle,
+preparing for division;
+the nucleus has already
+divided.</p>
+
+<p><i>c</i>, The parasite has divided into
+two rounded corpuscles,
+which assume the form of
+the free parasite, as seen in
+<i>d</i>, <i>e</i> and <i>f</i>.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>N, Nucleus of the blood-corpuscle.</p>
+
+<p><i>n</i>, Nucleus of the parasite.
+The outline of the blood-corpuscle
+is indicated by a thick black line.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p class="pt2">Various types of form are to be met with among the Haemosporidia.
+In one, characteristic of most (though not of absolutely
+all) parasites of warm-blooded Vertebrates, the trophozoites
+are of irregular amoeboid shape; hence this section
+<span class="sidenote">Comparative Morphology; variations in the life-cycle where known.</span>
+is generally known as the <i>Haemamoebidae</i>. In another
+type, characteristic of the parasites of cold-blooded
+Vertebrates, the body possesses a definite, vermiform, <i>i.e.</i>
+gregariniform shape, which is retained during the intracorpuscular
+as well as during the free condition; this
+section comprises the <i>Haemogregarinidae</i>. Allied to this
+latter type of form are the trophozoites of <i>Piroplasma</i>, which are
+normally pear-shaped; they differ, however, in being very minute,
+and, moreover, exhibit considerable polymorphism, rod-like (so-called
+bacillary) and ring-forms being of common occurrence. It is
+important to note that in a certain species of <i>Haemogregarina</i> (fig. 3)
+the young trophozoites markedly resemble <i>Piroplasma</i> in their
+pyriform appearance; and a further point of agreement between the
+two forms is mentioned below. Lastly there is the Avian genus
+<i>Halteridium</i>, the trophozoites of which are characteristically bean-shaped
+or reniform. True Haemogregarines also differ in other slight
+points from &ldquo;Haemamoebae.&rdquo; Thus the young endoglobular trophozoite
+does not exhibit a ring (vacuolar) phase; and the cytoplasm
+never contains, at any period, the characteristic melanin pigment
+above noted. In some species of <i>Haemogregarina</i> the parasite, while
+intracorpuscular, becomes surrounded by a delicate membrane,
+the cytocyst; on entering upon an active, &ldquo;free&rdquo; period, the
+cytocyst is ruptured and left behind with the remains of the corpuscle.
+A very interesting cytological feature is the occurrence, in one or
+two Haemosporidia, of nuclear dimorphism, <i>i.e.</i> of a larger and
+smaller chromatic body, probably comparable to the trophic and
+kinetic nuclei of a Trypanosome, or of the &ldquo;Leishman-Donovan&rdquo;
+bodies. Schaudinn was the first to notice this character, in <i>Piroplasma
+canis</i>, and his observation has since been confirmed by Lühe.<a name="fa4d" id="fa4d" href="#ft4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a>
+Moreover, Brumpt has also noticed nuclear dimorphism in the
+ookinete of a species of <i>Haemogregarina</i> in a leech (as the Invertebrate
+host)&mdash;a highly important observation.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the life-history, the endogenous (schizogonous) cycle
+is known in many cases. Sometimes schizogony takes the primitive
+form of simple binary (probably) longitudinal fission; this is the
+case in <i>Piroplasma</i> (fig. 4) and also in <i>Haemogregarina bigemina</i> just
+referred to. From this result the pairs of individuals (&ldquo;twins&rdquo;)
+so often found in the corpuscles. In addition, however, at any rate
+in <i>Piroplasma</i>, it is probable that multiple division (more allied to
+ordinary schizogony) also takes place; such is the case, according
+to Laveran, in <i>P. equi</i>, and the occurrence at times of four parasites
+in a corpuscle, arranged in a cruciform manner, is most likely to be
+thus explained. Labbé has described schizogony in <i>Halteridium
+danilewskyi</i> as taking place in a rather peculiar manner; the parasite
+becomes much drawn-out and halter-like, and the actual division is
+restricted to its two ends, two clumps of merozoites being formed,
+at first connected by a narrow strand of unused cytoplasm, which
+subsequently disappears. Some doubt, however, attaches to this
+account, as no one else appears to have seen the process. For the
+rest, schizogony takes place more or less in the customary way,
+allowing for variations in the mode of arrangement of the merozoites.
+It remains to be noted that in <i>Karyolysus lacertarum</i>, according to
+Labbé, two kinds of schizont are developed, which give rise, respectively,
+to micromerozoites and megamerozoites, in either case
+enclosed in a delicate cytocyst. This probably corresponds to
+an early sexual differentiation (such as is found among certain
+Coccidia (<i>q.v.</i>), the micromerozoites producing eventually micro-gametocytes,
+the others megagametocytes.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:482px; height:205px" src="images/img809b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f80 tcl" colspan="2">From Lankester&rsquo;s <i>Treatise on Zoology</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;Development and schizogony of <i>Piroplasma bigeminum</i>
+in the blood-corpuscles of the ox. (After Laveran and Nicolle.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>a</i>, Youngest form.</p>
+
+<p><i>b</i>, Slightly older.</p>
+
+<p><i>c</i> and <i>d</i>. Division of the nucleus.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>e</i> and <i>f</i>, Division of the body of
+the parasite.</p>
+
+<p><i>g</i>, <i>h</i>, <i>i</i>, <i>j</i>, Various forms of the
+twin parasite.</p>
+
+<p><i>k</i> and <i>l</i>, Doubly infected corpuscles.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">It has now been recognized for some time that the sexual
+(exogenous) part of the life-cycle of all the <i>Haemamoebidae</i> takes
+place in an Invertebrate (Insectan) host, and is fundamentally
+similar to that above described in those cases where it has
+been followed. In contradistinction to the malarial parasites,
+this host, in the Avian forms (<i>Haemoproteus</i> and <i>Halteridium</i>)<a name="fa5d" id="fa5d" href="#ft5d"><span class="sp">5</span></a>
+is a species of <i>Culex</i> and not of <i>Anopheles</i>; in other words,
+gamete-formation, conjugation and subsequent sporozoite-formation
+in these cases will only go on in the former. On
+the other hand, in the case of the Haemogregarines, it was
+thought until quite lately that the entire life-history, including
+conjugation and sporogony, went on in the Vertebrate host;
+and only in 1902 Hintze described what purported to be the
+complete life-history of <i>Lankesterella</i> (<i>Drepanidium</i>) <i>ranarum</i>
+undergone in the frog. This view was rendered obsolete by
+the work of Siegel and Schaudinn, who demonstrated the
+occurrence of an alternation of hosts and of generations
+in the case of <i>Haemogregarina stepanovi</i>, parasitic in a
+tortoise, and in <i>Karyolysus lacertarum</i>; the Invertebrate
+hosts, in which, in both cases, the sexual process is undergone,
+being respectively a leech (<i>Placobdella</i>) and a tick (<i>Ixodes</i>). With
+this discovery the main distinction (as supposed) between the
+Haemosporidia of warm and of cold-blooded Vertebrates vanished.
+It was further acknowledged by Schaudinn (under whom Hintze
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page810" id="page810"></a>810</span>
+had worked) that the latter had been misled by Coccidian cysts and
+spores, which he took for those of <i>Lankesterella</i>. The gametogony
+and sporogony of <i>Haemogregarina stepanovi</i> in the leech agree in
+essential particulars with the process above described. The microgametes
+are extremely minute, and the sporozoites, which are
+developed in the salivary glands, where the motile ookinetes finally
+come to rest, are extremely &ldquo;spirochaetiform&rdquo;&mdash;the full
+significance of this latter fact being, perhaps, not
+appreciated.</p>
+
+<p>Christophers recently described some remarkable
+phases which he regarded as belonging to the cycle of
+<i>Haemogregarina gerbilli</i> (one of the few Mammalian
+Haemogregarines known) in a louse (<i>Haematopinus</i>).
+In a private communication, however, the author
+states that he has probably mistaken phases in the
+development of an ordinary gregarine parasite in
+the louse for part of the life-cycle of this Haemogregarine.</p>
+
+<p>The Mammalian parasite <i>Piroplasma</i> is the one about
+whose life-history our knowledge is most vague.
+Besides the typical and generally occurring forms,
+others have also been observed in the blood, but it
+is doubtful how far these are to be looked upon as
+normal; for instance, Bowhill and Le Doux have
+described, in various species, a phase in which a long,
+slender pseudopodial-like outgrowth is present, with a
+swelling at the distal end. It is, moreover, quite
+uncertain which are the sexual forms, comparable to
+gametocytes. Doflein regards large pear-shaped forms as such
+(megagametocytes?), which become spherical when maturing;
+and Nocard and Motas have figured amoeboid, irregular forms,
+with the nucleus fragmented and possessing flagella-like processes
+(possibly microgametes?). The Invertebrate host is well known to
+be, in the case of all species, a tick; thus bovine piroplasmosis
+(<i>P. bigeminum</i>) in America is conveyed by <i>Rhipicephalus annulatus</i>
+(<i>Boophilus bovis</i>), canine piroplasmosis (<i>P. canis</i>) in South Africa
+by <i>Haemaphysalis leachi</i> (and perhaps <i>Dermacentor reticulatus</i>),
+and so on. The manner in which the infection is transmitted by
+the tick varies greatly. In some cases (<i>e.g.</i> <i>P. bigeminum</i> and <i>P.
+canis</i>) only the generation subsequent to that which receives the
+infection (by feeding on an infected ox) can transmit it back again
+to another ox; in other words, true hereditary infection of the ova
+in the mother-tick is found to occur. The actual period in the life of
+the daughter-tick at which it can convey the infection apparently
+varies. On the other hand, in the case of East African coast-fever,
+Theiler found that hereditary infection does not occur, the same
+generation transmitting the parasite (<i>P. parvum</i>) at different periods
+of life. Little is certainly known regarding the phases of the parasite
+which are passed through in the tick. Lignières has observed a kind
+of multiple fission in the stomach, several very minute bodies,
+consisting mostly of chromatin, being formed, which may serve for
+endogenous reproduction. Koch has published an account of certain
+curious forms of <i>P. bigeminum</i>, in which the body is produced into
+many stiff, ray-like processes, giving the appearance of a star;
+according to him fusion of such forms takes place, and the resulting
+zygote becomes rounded, perhaps transitional to the pear-shaped
+forms.</p>
+
+<p>The classification and nomenclature of the Haemosporidia are
+in a very unsettled condition. For an account of the various systems
+and modifications hitherto adopted, the article of Minchin
+(see under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sporozoa</a></span>: <i>Bibliography</i>) should be consulted.
+<span class="sidenote">Classification.</span>
+With the realization that the life-history in the case of the
+&ldquo;Haemamoebae&rdquo; and the Haemogregarines is fundamentally
+similar in type, the chief reason for grouping them as distinct suborders
+has disappeared. It is most convenient to regard them as
+separate, but closely allied families, the <i>Plasmodidae</i> (&ldquo;<i>Haemamoebidae</i>&rdquo;)
+and the <i>Haemogregarinidae</i>. The <i>Piroplasmata</i>, on the
+other hand, constitute another family, which is better placed in a
+distinct section or sub-order. In addition there are, as already
+noted, two or three genera whose systematic position must be considered
+as quite uncertain. One is the well-known <i>Halteridium</i> of
+Labbé, parasitic in various birds; the type-species is <i>H. danilewskyi</i>
+(Gt. and Fel.). Another is the much-debated parasite of white
+blood-corpuscles (leucocytes), originally described in birds by
+Danilewsky under the name of <i>Leucocytozoon</i>, a form of which has
+been recently observed in Mammals.</p>
+
+<p>In conclusion, the chief members of the above-mentioned families
+may be enumerated.</p>
+
+<p>Fam. <i>Plasmodidae</i> (&ldquo;<i>Haemamoebidae</i>&rdquo;).</p>
+
+<p>Genus <i>Laverania</i>, Gr. and Fel. (syn. <i>Haemamoenas</i>, Ross), for L.
+<i>malariae</i>, Gr. and Fel. (synn. L. s. <i>Plasmodium</i>, s. &ldquo;<i>Haemamoeba</i>,&rdquo;
+&amp;c., <i>praecox</i> s. <i>immaculatum</i>, &amp;c.), the parasite of pernicious malaria.
+Genus <i>Plasmodium</i>, March. and Celli (syn. &ldquo;<i>Haemamoeba</i>&rdquo;) for
+<i>P. vivax</i> and <i>P. malariae</i>, the tertian and quartan parasite, respectively.
+There is also a form known in apes, <i>P. kochi</i>. Genus <i>Haemoproteus</i>,
+Kruse (syn. <i>Proteosoma</i>), for <i>H. danilewskyi</i> (syn. <i>Proteosoma
+grassi</i>, <i>Plasmodium praecox</i>, &amp;c.), parasitic in numerous birds.
+Recently, another form has been described, from reptiles, which
+Castellani and Willey have termed <i>Haemocystidium simondi</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Remarks</i>.&mdash;The distinguishing characters of the malarial parasites
+have been mentioned above. Some authorities would include
+<i>Laverania</i> in the genus <i>Plasmodium</i>, as differing only specifically
+from the other two forms. It has, moreover, been suggested by
+Sergent that all three are merely different phases of the same parasite,
+predominating at different seasons; this idea cannot be regarded,
+however, as in any way proved so far. From what is known of the
+morphology and mode of manifestation of these forms, the differences
+between <i>Laverania</i> and the two species of <i>Plasmodium</i> are considerably
+more pronounced than those between <i>P. vivax</i> and <i>P. malariae</i>;
+if the latter are to be considered as distinct species, the first-named
+is probably generically distinct. Lühe, it may be noted, in his recent
+comprehensive account of the Haematozoa, also takes this view.
+Lastly, whatever be the correct solution of the above problem,
+there is certainly not sufficient justification for including the Avian
+genus <i>Haemoproteus</i>, as also only a species of <i>Plasmodium</i>, which is
+done by some. Its different Vertebrate habitat, and also the fact
+that its Insectan definitive host is Culex and not <i>Anopheles</i>, differentiate
+it sharply from <i>Laverania</i> and <i>Plasmodium</i>.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:612px; height:143px" src="images/img810a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f80 tcl" colspan="2">From Lankester&rsquo;s <i>Treatise on Zoology</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;<i>Haemoproteus danilewskyi</i>, Kruse (parasite of various birds). × about
+1200. <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i> and <i>d</i> from the chaffinch; <i>d</i> and <i>e</i> from the lark. (After Labbé.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>a</i>, Young trophozoite in a blood-corpuscle,</p>
+<p><i>b</i> and <i>c</i>, Older trophozoite.</p>
+<p><i>d</i> and <i>e</i>, Sporulation.</p>
+<p><i>d</i>, Precocious sporulation with few merozoites.</p>
+<p><i>e</i>, Sporulation of a full-grown
+  schizont, with numerous merozoites.</p>
+<p><i>f</i>, Gametocyte.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>N, Nucleus of blood-corpuscle.</p>
+<p><i>n</i>, Nucleus of parasite.</p>
+<p><i>p</i>, Pigment.</p>
+<p><i>mz</i>, Merozoites.</p>
+<p><i>r.p</i>, Residual protoplasm.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:536px; height:354px" src="images/img810b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f80 tcl" colspan="2">From Lankester&rsquo;s <i>Treatise on Zoology</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;<i>Haemogregarina stepanovi</i>, Danilewsky (par. <i>Emys</i> and
+<i>Cistudo</i>), phases of the schizogony. (<i>a-e</i> and <i>j</i> after Laveran; <i>f-i</i>
+after Börner.) × 1000 to 1200 diameters.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>a</i>, Blood-corpuscle with young
+trophozoite.</p>
+
+<p><i>b</i>, Older trophozoite.</p>
+
+<p><i>c</i>, Full-grown trophozoite, ready
+to leave the corpuscle.</p>
+
+<p><i>d</i> and <i>e</i>, Trophozoites free in the
+blood-plasma, showing
+changes of form.</p>
+
+<p><i>f-i</i>, Trophozoites, still within the
+blood-corpuscle (not drawn),
+showing the structure of the
+nucleus, the coarse chromatoid
+granules in the protoplasm
+and the manner in
+which the parasite grows
+into the <b>U</b>-shaped Haemogregarine
+without increase of
+body-mass.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>j</i>, Commencement of sporulation;
+the nucleus has divided
+into eight nuclei, and the
+body of the parasite is
+beginning to divide up into
+as many merozoites within a
+blood-corpuscle.</p>
+
+<p>N, Nucleus of the blood-corpuscle.</p>
+
+<p><i>n</i>, Nucleus of the parasite.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">Fam. <i>Haemogregarinidae</i>.&mdash;The different genera are characterized
+chiefly by their size relative to the blood-corpuscles, and their disposition
+in the latter. Here, again, it has been suggested to unite
+the various types all in one genus, <i>Haemogregarina</i>, but this seems at
+least premature when it is remembered how little is known in most
+cases of the life-cycle, which may prove to exhibit important
+divergences.</p>
+
+<p>Genus <i>Haemogregarina</i>, Danilewsky (syn. <i>Danilewskya</i>, Labbé).
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page811" id="page811"></a>811</span>
+The body of the parasite exceeds the blood-corpuscle in length,
+when adult, and is bent upon itself, like a <b>U</b>. A very great number
+of species are known, mostly from reptiles and fishes; among them
+may be mentioned <i>H. stepanovi</i> (fig. 6), from <i>Emys</i> and <i>Cistudo</i>,
+whose sexual-cycle in a leech has been worked out by Siegel (see
+above), <i>H. delagei</i>, from <i>Raja</i>, <i>H. bigemina</i>, from blennies, and <i>H.
+simondi</i>, from soles. Recently one or two Mammalian forms have
+been observed, <i>H. gerbilli</i>, from an Indian rat (<i>Gerbillus</i>), and <i>H.
+jaculi</i>, from the jerboa.</p>
+
+<p>Genus <i>Lankesterella</i>, Labbé (syn. <i>Drepanidium</i>, Lankester). The
+parasite is not more than three-quarters the length of the corpuscle.
+<i>L. ranarum</i> from <i>Rana</i> is the type-species; another, recently described
+by Fantham, is <i>L. tritonis</i>, from the newt.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:388px; height:139px" src="images/img811.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f80 tcl">From Lankester&rsquo;s <i>Treatise on Zoology</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90 tcl"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>&mdash;<i>Karyolysus lacertarum</i> (Danil.), in the blood-corpuscles of
+Lacerta muralis, showing the effects of the parasite upon the nucleus
+of the corpuscle. In <i>c</i> and <i>d</i> the nucleus is broken up. N, Nucleus
+of the corpuscle; <i>n</i>, nucleus of the parasite, seen as a number of
+masses of chromatin, not enclosed by a distinct membrane. (After
+Marceau.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">Genus <i>Karyolysus</i>, Labbé. The parasite does not exceed the corpuscle
+in length; the forms included in this genus, moreover,
+although not actually intranuclear, have a marked karyolytic and
+disintegrating action upon the nucleus of the corpuscle. The type-species
+is the well-known <i>K. lacertarum</i>, of lizards; another is <i>K.
+(Haemogregarina) viperini</i>, from <i>Tropidonotus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In the section of the <i>Piroplasmata</i> there is only the genus <i>Piroplasma</i>,
+Patton (synn. <i>Babesia</i>, Starcovici, <i>Pyrosoma</i>, Smith and
+Kilborne), the principal species of which are as follows: <i>P. bigeminum</i>,
+the cause of Texas cattle-fever, tick-fever (Rinder-malaria)
+of South Africa, and <i>P. bovis</i>, causing haemoglobinuria of cattle in
+Southern Europe; there is some uncertainty as to whether these two
+are really distinct; <i>P. canis</i>, <i>P. ovis</i> and <i>P. equi</i> associated, respectively,
+with those animals. Lately, a very small form, <i>P. parvum</i>,
+has been described by Theiler in Rhodesia, which causes East-African
+coast-fever; and another, <i>P. muris</i>, has been observed in
+white rats by Fantham.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;(The older literature is enumerated in most
+treatises on Sporozoa&mdash;see bibliography under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sporozoa</a></span>). P.
+Argutinsky, &ldquo;Malariastudien,&rdquo; <i>Arch. mikr. Anat.</i> 59, p. 315, pls.
+18-21 (1901), and <i>op. cit.</i> 61, p. 331, pl. 18 (1902); A. Balfour,
+&ldquo;Haemogregarine of Mammals,&rdquo; <i>J. Trop. Med.</i> 8, p. 241, 8 figs.
+(1905); C. A. Bentley, &ldquo;Leucocytozoan of the Dog,&rdquo; <i>B.M.J.</i>
+(1905), 1, pp. 988 and 1078; N. Berestneff, &ldquo;Über einen neuen
+Blutparasiten der indischen Frösche,&rdquo; <i>Arch. Protistenk.</i> 2, p. 343,
+pl. 8 (1903); &ldquo;Über das <i>&rsquo;Leucocytozoan&rsquo; danilewskyi</i>,&rdquo; <i>op. cit.</i> 3,
+p. 376, pl. 15 (1904); A. Billet, &ldquo;Contribution à l&rsquo;étude du paludisme
+et de son hématozoaire en Algérie,&rdquo; <i>Ann. Inst. Pasteur</i>, 16,
+p. 186 (1902); (Notes on various Haemogregarines). <i>C. R. Soc. Biol.</i>
+56, pp. 482, 484, 607 and 741 (1904); C. Börner, &ldquo;Untersuchungen
+über Hämosporidien,&rdquo; <i>Zeitschr. wiss. Zool.</i> 69, p. 398, 1 pl. (1901);
+T. Bowhill, &ldquo;Equine piroplasmosis,&rdquo; &amp;c., <i>J. Hyg.</i> 5, p. 7, pls. 1-3
+(1905); Bowhill and C. le Doux, &ldquo;Contribution to the Study of
+&rsquo;<i>Piroplasmosis canis</i>,&rsquo;&rdquo; <i>op. cit.</i> 4, p. 217, pl. 11 (1904); E. Brumpt
+and C. Lebailly, &ldquo;Description de quelques nouvelles espèces de
+trypanosomes et d&rsquo;hémogrégarines,&rdquo; &amp;c., C. R. Ac. Sci. 139, p. 613
+(1904); A. Castellani and A. Willey, &ldquo;Observations on the Haematozoa
+of Vertebrates in Ceylon,&rdquo; <i>Spolia Zeylan</i>. 2, p. 78, 1 pl. (1904),
+and <i>Q. J. Micr. Sci.</i> 49, p. 383, pl. 24 (1905); S. R. Christophers,
+&ldquo;<i>Haemogregarina gerbilli</i>,&rdquo; <i>Sci. Mem. India</i>, 18, 15 pp., 1 pl. (1905);
+H. B. Fantham, &ldquo;<i>Lankesterella tritonis</i>, n. sp.,&rdquo; &amp;c., <i>Zool. Anz.</i>
+29, p. 257, 17 figs. (1905); &ldquo;<i>Piroplasma muris</i>,&rdquo; &amp;c., <i>Q. J. Micr.
+Sci.</i> 50, p. 493, pl. 28 (1906); C. Graham-Smith, &ldquo;A new Form of
+Parasite found in the Red Blood-Corpuscles of Moles,&rdquo; <i>J. Hyg.</i> 5,
+p. 453, pls. 13 and 14 (1905); R. Hintze, &ldquo;Lebensweise und Entwickelung
+von <i>Lankesterella minima</i>,&rdquo; <i>Zool. Jahrb. Anat.</i> 15, p. 693,
+pl. 36 (1902); S. James, &ldquo;On a Parasite found in the White Blood-Corpuscles
+of Dogs,&rdquo; <i>Sci. Mem. India</i>, 14, 12 pp. 1 pl. (1905);
+R. Koch, &ldquo;Vorläufige Mitteilungen über die Ergebnisse einer
+Forschungsreise nach Ostafrika,&rdquo; <i>Deutsch. med. Wochenschr.</i>, 1905,
+p. 1865, 24 figs.; A. Labbé, &ldquo;Recherches sur les parasites endoglobulaires
+du sang des vertébrés,&rdquo; <i>Arch. zool. exp.</i> (3) ii. p. 55,
+10 pls. (1894); A. Laveran, &ldquo;Sur quelques hémogrégarines des
+ophidiens,&rdquo; <i>C. R. Ac. Sci.</i> 135, p. 1036, 13 figs. (1902); &ldquo;Sur une
+<i>Haemamoeba</i> d&rsquo;une mésange (<i>Parus major</i>),&rdquo; <i>C. R. Soc. Biol.</i> 54,
+p. 1121, 10 figs. (1902); &ldquo;Sur la piroplasmose bovine bacilliforme,&rdquo;
+<i>C. R. Ac. Sci.</i> 138, p. 648, 18 figs. (1903); &ldquo;Contribution à l&rsquo;étude
+de <i>Haemamoeba ziemanni</i>,&rdquo; <i>C. R. Soc. Biol.</i> 55, p. 620, 7 figs. (1903);
+&ldquo;Sur une hémogrégarine des gerboises,&rdquo; <i>C. R. Ac. Sci.</i> 141, p. 295,
+9 figs. (1905); (On different Haemogregarines) <i>C. R. Soc. Biol.</i> 59,
+pp. 175, 176, with figs. (1905); &ldquo;Haemocytozoa. Essai de classification,&rdquo;
+<i>Bull. Inst. Pasteur</i>, 3, p. 809 (1905); Laveran and F. Mesnil,
+&ldquo;Sur les hématozoaires des poissons marins,&rdquo; <i>C. R. Ac. Sci.</i> 135,
+p. 567 (1902); &ldquo;Sur quelques protozoaires parasites d&rsquo;une tortue
+d&rsquo;Asie,&rdquo; <i>t.c.</i> p. 609, 14 figs. (1902); Laveran and Nègre, &ldquo;Sur un
+protozoaire parasite de <i>Hyalomma aegyptium</i>,&rdquo; <i>C. R. Soc. Biol.</i> 58,
+p. 964, 6 figs. (1905); (for various earlier papers by these authors,
+reference should be made to the C. R. Ac. Sci. and C R. Soc. Biol.
+for previous years); C. Lebailly (On Piscine Haemogregarines)
+<i>C. R. Ac. Sci.</i> 139, p. 576 (1904), and <i>C. R. Soc. Biol.</i> 59, p. 304
+(1905); J. Lignières, &ldquo;Sur la &lsquo;Tristeza,&rsquo;&rdquo; <i>Ann. Inst. Pasteur</i>, 15,
+p. 121, pl. 6 (1901); &ldquo;La Piroplasmose bovine; nouvelles recherches,&rdquo;
+&amp;c., <i>Arch. parasit.</i> 7, p. 398, pl. 4 (1903); M. Lühe, &ldquo;Die
+im Blute schmarotzenden Protozoen,&rdquo; in Mense&rsquo;s <i>Handbuch der
+Tropenkrankheiten</i> (Leipzig, 1906), 3, 1; F. Marceau, &ldquo;Note sur le
+<i>Karyolysus lacertarum</i>,&rdquo; <i>Arch. parasitol.</i> 4, p. 135, 46 figs. (1901);
+W. MacCallum, &ldquo;On the Haematozoan Infection of Birds,&rdquo; <i>J. Exp.
+Med.</i> 3, p. 117, pl. 12 (1898); G. Mauser, &ldquo;Die Malaria perniciosa,&rdquo;
+<i>Centrbl. Bakter.</i> (1) 32, Orig. p. 695, 3 pls. (1902); C. Nicolle (On
+various Reptilian Haemogregarines), <i>C. R. Soc. Biol.</i> 56, pp. 330,
+608 and 912, with figs. (1904); Nicolle and C. Comte, &ldquo;Sur le rôle
+... de <i>Hyalomma</i> ... dans l&rsquo;infection hémogrégarinienne,&rdquo; <i>op.
+cit.</i> 58, p. 1045 (1905); Norcard and Motas, &ldquo;Contribution à l&rsquo;étude
+de la piroplasmose canine,&rdquo; <i>Ann. Inst. Pasteur</i>, 16, p. 256, pls. 5
+and 6 (1902); G. Nuttall and G. Graham-Smith, &ldquo;Canine piroplasmosis,&rdquo;
+<i>J. Hygiene</i>, p. 237, pl. 9 (1905); F. Schaudinn, &ldquo;Der
+Generationswechsel der Coccidien und Hämosporidien,&rdquo; <i>Zool.
+Centrbl.</i> 6, p. 675 (1899); &ldquo;Studien über krankheitserregende
+Protozoen&mdash;II. <i>Plasmodium vivax</i>,&rdquo; <i>Arb. Kais. Gesundheitsamte</i>, 19,
+p. 169, pls. 4-6 (1902); E. and E. Sergent (On different Haemogregarines),
+<i>C. R. Soc. Biol.</i> 56, pp. 130, 132 (1904), <i>op. cit.</i> 58, pp.
+56, 57, 670 (1905); J. Siegel, &ldquo;Die geschlechtliche Entwickelung
+von <i>Haemogregarina</i>,&rdquo; &amp;c., <i>Arch. Protistenk.</i> 2, p. 339, 7 figs. (1903);
+P. L. Simond, &ldquo;Contribution à l&rsquo;étude des hématozoaires endoglobulaires
+des reptiles,&rdquo; <i>Ann. Inst. Pasteur</i>, 15, p. 319, 1 pl. (1901);
+T. Smith and F. Kilborne, &ldquo;Investigations into the Nature, Causation
+and Prevention of Texas Cattle Fever,&rdquo; <i>Rep. Bureau Animal Industry</i>,
+U.S.A., 9 and 10, p. 177, pls. (1893); A. Theiler, &ldquo;The
+<i>Piroplasma bigeminum</i> of the Immune Ox,&rdquo; <i>J. Army Med. Corps</i>, 3,
+pp. 469, 599, 1 pl. (1904); J. Vassal, &ldquo;Sur une hématozoaire
+endoglobulaire nouveau d&rsquo;un mammifère,&rdquo; <i>Ann. Inst. Pasteur</i>, 19,
+p. 224, pl. 10 (1905); L. B. Wilson and W. Chowning, &ldquo;Studies in
+<i>Piroplasmosis hominis</i>,&rdquo; <i>J. Infect. Diseases</i>, 1, p. 31, 2 pls. (1904).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. M. Wo.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a>  Compare, for example, the flagellated granules of certain
+Coccidia, which point unmistakably to a Flagellate ancestry.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> A possible exception is a doubtful species of <i>Haemogregarina</i>,
+which has been described from the walls of the blood-vessels of an
+Annelid.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3d" id="ft3d" href="#fa3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> For an interesting account of the biological relations between
+parasites and their hosts, and the penalty Man pays for his roving
+propensities, the reader should see Lankester&rsquo;s article in the <i>Quarterly
+Review</i>, July 1904.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4d" id="ft4d" href="#fa4d"><span class="fn">4</span></a> This does away with one of the principal reasons on account of
+which some authorities consider <i>Piroplasma</i> (<i>Leishmania</i>) <i>donovani</i>
+as quite distinct from other <i>Piroplasmata</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Trypanosomes</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5d" id="ft5d" href="#fa5d"><span class="fn">5</span></a> It must not be forgotten that one species of <i>Halteridium</i> (<i>H.</i>
+[<i>Trypanomorpha</i>] <i>noctuae</i>) is said to have well-marked trypaniform
+phases in its life-cycle; these are preferably considered under
+<i>Trypanosomes</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), and therefore, to avoid repetition, are only
+thus alluded to here. Whether <i>H. danilewskyi</i> also becomes trypaniform
+in certain phases, and how far it really agrees with the criteria
+of a Haemosporidian above postulated, are matters which are not
+yet definitely known.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAETZER,<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Hetzer</span>, <b>LUDWIG</b> (d. 1529), Swiss divine,
+was born in Switzerland, at Bischofszell, in Thurgau. He
+studied at Freiburg-im-Breisgau, and began his career in a
+chaplaincy at Wadenswil, on the Lake of Zürich. At this time
+his attachment to the old faith was tempered by a mystical turn,
+and by a devotion to the prophetical writings of the Old Testament,
+which he studied in the original. By 1523 we find him
+in Zürich, where he published, at first anonymously and in
+Latin (<i>Judicium Dei</i>), later with his name and in German
+(Sept. 24, 1523), a small tract against the religious use of images,
+and bearing the motto attached to all his subsequent works,
+&ldquo;O Got erlösz die (or dein) Gefangnen&rdquo; (&ldquo;O God, set the
+prisoners free&rdquo;). An attempt to give effect to the teaching of
+this (frequently reprinted) tract was followed by a public religious
+disputation, of which Haetzer drew up the official account.
+In 1524 he brought out a tract on the conversion of the Jews,
+and published a German version of Johann Bugenhagen&rsquo;s
+brief exposition of the epistles of St Paul (Ephesians to Hebrews);
+in the dedication (dated Zürich, June 29, 1524) he undertakes
+to translate Bugenhagen&rsquo;s comment on the Psalter. He then
+went to Augsburg, bearing Zwingli&rsquo;s introduction to Johann
+Frosch. Here he came for a time under the influence of Urbanus
+Regius, and was for a short time the guest of Georg Regel.
+Returning to Zürich, he was in intercourse with leading Anabaptists
+(though his own position was simply the disuse of infant
+baptism) till their expulsion in January 1525. Again resorting
+to Augsburg, and resuming work as corrector of the press for
+his printer Silvan Ottmar, he pushed his views to the extreme
+of rejecting all sacraments, reaching something like the mystical
+standpoint of the early Quakers. He was expelled from Augsburg
+in the autumn of 1525, and made his way through Constance
+to Basel, where Oecolampadius received him kindly. He translated
+into German the first treatise of Oecolampadius on the
+Lord&rsquo;s Supper (in which the words of institution are taken
+figuratively), and proceeding to Zürich in November, published
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page812" id="page812"></a>812</span>
+his version there in February 1526, with a preface disclaiming
+connexion with the Anabaptists. His relations with Zwingli
+were difficult; returning to Basel he published (July 18, 1526)
+his translation of Malachi, with Oecolampadius&rsquo;s exposition,
+and with a preface reflecting on Zwingli. This he followed by
+a version of Isaiah xxxvi.-xxxvii. He next went to Strassburg,
+and was received by Wolfgang Capito. At Strassburg in the
+late autumn of 1526 he fell in with Hans Dengk or Denck, who
+collaborated with him in the production of his <i>opus magnum</i>,
+the translation of the Hebrew Prophets, <i>Alle Propheten nach
+hebraischer Sprach vertuetscht</i>. The preface is dated Worms,
+3 April 1527; and there are editions, Worms, 13 April 1527,
+folio; Augsburg, 22 June 1527, folio; Worms, 7 Sept. 1527,
+16º; and Augsburg, 1528, folio. It was the first Protestant
+version of the prophets in German, preceding Luther&rsquo;s by five
+years, and highly spoken of by him. Haetzer and Denck now
+entered on a propagandist mission from place to place, with
+some success, but of short duration. Denck died at Basel in
+November 1527. Haetzer was arrested at Constance in the
+summer of 1528. After long imprisonment and many examinations
+he was condemned on the 3rd of February 1529 to die by
+the sword, and the sentence was executed on the following day.
+His demeanour on the scaffold impressed impartial witnesses,
+Hans Zwick and Thomas Blaurer, who speak warmly of his
+fervour and courage. The Dutch Baptist Martyrology describes
+him as &ldquo;a servant of Jesus Christ.&rdquo; The Moravian Chronicle
+says &ldquo;he was condemned for the sake of divine truth.&rdquo; His
+papers included an unpublished treatise against the essential
+deity of Christ, which was suppressed by Zwingli; the only
+extant evidence of his anti-trinitarian views being contained
+in eight quaint lines of German verse preserved in Sebastian
+Frank&rsquo;s <i>Chronica</i>. The discovery of his heterodox Christology
+(which has led modern Unitarians to regard him as their proto-martyr)
+was followed by charges of loose living, never heard of
+in his lifetime, and destitute of evidence or probability.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Breitinger, &ldquo;Anecdota quaedam de L. H.&rdquo; in <i>Museum Helveticum</i>
+(1746), parts 21 and 23; Wallace, <i>Antitrinitarian Biography</i>
+(1850); <i>Dutch Martyrology</i> (Hanserd Knollys Society) (1856); Th.
+Keim, in Hauck&rsquo;s <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (1899).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. Go.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">H&#256;FIZ.<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> Shams-ud-din Mahommed, better known by his
+<i>takhallus</i> or <i>nom de plume</i> of H&#257;fiz, was one of the most
+celebrated writers of Persian lyrical poetry. He was born at
+Shiraz, the capital of Fars, in the early part of the 8th century
+of the Mahommedan era, that is to say, in the 14th of our own.
+The exact date of his birth is uncertain, but he attained a ripe
+old age and died in 791 <span class="scs">A.H.</span> (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1388). This is the date
+given in the chronogram which is engraved on his tomb, although
+several Persian biographers give a different year. Very little
+is actually known about his life, which appears to have been
+passed in retirement in Shiraz, of which he always speaks in
+terms of affectionate admiration. He was a subject of the
+Muzaffar princes, who ruled in Shiraz, Yazd, Kirman and Ispahan,
+until the dynasty was overthrown by Timur (Tamerlane). Of
+these princes his especial patrons were Shah Shuj&#257;&rsquo; and Shah
+Mans&#363;r. He early devoted himself to the study of poetry and
+theology, and also became learned in mystic philosophy, which
+he studied under Shaik Mahm&#363;d &lsquo;A&#7789;&#7789;&#257;r, chief of an order of
+dervishes. H&#257;fiz afterwards enrolled himself in the same order
+and became a professor of Koranic exegesis in a college which
+his friend and patron Haji Kiwam-ud-din, the vizier, specially
+founded for him. This was probably the reason of his adopting
+the sobriquet of H&#257;fiz (&ldquo;one who remembers&rdquo;), which is technically
+applied to any person who has learned the Koran by heart.
+The restraints of an ascetic life seem to have been very little to
+H&#257;fiz&rsquo;s taste, and his loose conduct and wine-bibbing propensities
+drew upon him the severe censure of his monastic colleagues.
+In revenge he satirizes them unmercifully in his verses, and seldom
+loses an opportunity of alluding to their hypocrisy. H&#257;fiz&rsquo;s
+fame as a poet was soon rapidly spread throughout the Mahommedan
+world, and several powerful monarchs sent him presents
+and pressing invitations to visit them. Amongst others he was
+invited by Mahm&#363;d Shah Bahmani, who reigned in the south
+of India. After crossing the Indus and passing through Lahore
+he reached Hurmuz, and embarked on board a vessel sent for
+him by the Indian prince. He seems, however, to have been a
+bad sailor, and, having invented an excuse for being put ashore,
+made the best of his way back to Shiraz. Some biographies
+narrate a story of an interview between H&#257;fiz and the invader
+Timur. The latter sent for him and asked angrily, &ldquo;Art thou
+he who was so bold as to offer my two great cities Samarkand
+and Bokhara for the black mole on thy mistress&rsquo;s cheek?&rdquo;
+alluding to a well-known verse in one of his odes. &ldquo;Yes, sire,&rdquo;
+replied H&#257;fiz, &ldquo;and it is by such acts of generosity that I have
+brought myself to such a state of destitution that I have
+now to solicit your bounty.&rdquo; Timur was so pleased at his ready
+wit that he dismissed the poet with a handsome present. Unfortunately
+for the truth of this story Timur did not capture
+Shiraz till <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1393, while the latest date that can be assigned
+to H&#257;fiz&rsquo;s death is 1391. Of his private life little or nothing is
+known. One of his poems is said to record the death of his wife,
+another that of a favourite unmarried son, and several others
+speak of his love for a girl called <i>Sh&#257;kh i Nabat</i>, &ldquo;Sugar-cane
+branch,&rdquo; and this is almost all of his personal history that can
+be gathered from his writings. He was, like most Persians,
+a Shi&lsquo;ite by religion, believing in the transmission of the office
+of Im&#257;m (head of the Moslem Church) in the family of Ali,
+cousin of the prophet, and rejecting the <i>Hadith</i> (traditional sayings)
+of Mahomet, which form the Sunna or supplementary code
+of Mahommedan ceremonial law. One of his odes which contains
+a verse in praise of Ali is engraved on the poet&rsquo;s tomb, but is
+omitted by Sudi, the Turkish editor and commentator, who
+was himself a rigid Sunnite. H&#257;fiz&rsquo;s heretical opinions and
+dissipated life caused difficulties to be raised by the ecclesiastical
+authorities on his death as to his interment in consecrated
+ground. The question was at length settled by H&#257;fiz&rsquo;s own
+works, which had then already begun to be used, as they are now
+throughout the East, for the purposes of divination, in the same
+manner as Virgil was employed in the middle ages for the divination
+called <i>Sortes Virgilianae</i>. Opening the book at random
+after pronouncing the customary formula asking for inspiration,
+the objectors hit upon the following verse&mdash;&ldquo;Turn not away
+thy foot from the bier of H&#257;fiz, for though immersed in sin, he
+will be admitted into Paradise.&rdquo; He was accordingly buried
+in the centre of a small cemetery at Shiraz, now included in an
+enclosure called the H&#257;fiziyeh.</p>
+
+<p>His principal work is the <i>D&#299;w&#257;n</i>, that is, a collection of short
+odes or sonnets called <i>ghazals</i>, and consisting of from five to
+sixteen <i>baits</i> or couplets each, all the couplets in each ode having
+the same rhyme in the last hemistich, and the last couplet always
+introducing the poet&rsquo;s own <i>nom de plume</i>. The whole of these
+are arranged in alphabetical order, an arrangement which
+certainly facilitates reference but makes it absolutely impossible
+to ascertain their chronological order, and therefore detracts
+from their value as a means of throwing light upon the growth
+and development of his genius or the incidents of his career.
+They are often held together by a very slender thread of continuous
+thought, and few editions agree exactly in the order of
+the couplets. Still, a careful study of them, especially from the
+point of view indicated by the Sufiistic system of philosophy,
+will always show that a single idea does run throughout the
+whole. The nature of these poems has been the subject of much
+discussion in the West, some scholars seeing in their anacreontic
+utterances nothing but sensuality and materialism, while others,
+following the Oriental school, maintain that they are wholly
+and entirely mystic and philosophic. Something between the two
+would probably be nearer the truth. It must be remembered
+that H&#257;fiz was a professed dervish and S&#363;fi, and that his <i>ghazals</i>
+were in all probability published from a <i>takia</i>, and arranged
+with at least a view to Sufiistic interpretation. At the same
+time it is ridiculous to suppose that the glowing imagery, the
+gorgeous and often tender descriptions of natural beauties, the
+fervent love passages, and the roystering drinking songs were
+composed in cool blood or with deliberate ascetic purpose. The
+beauty of H&#257;fiz&rsquo;s poetry is that it is natural. It is the outcome
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page813" id="page813"></a>813</span>
+of a fervent soul and a lofty genius delighting in nature and
+enjoying life; and it is the poet&rsquo;s misfortune that he lived in an
+age and amongst a people where rigid conventionality demanded
+that his free and spontaneous thoughts should be recast in an
+artificial mould.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Besides the <i>D&#299;w&#257;n</i>, H&#257;fiz wrote a number of other poems; the
+Leipzig edition of his works contains 573 <i>ghazals</i> (forming the <i>D&#299;w&#257;n</i>),
+42 <i>kit&lsquo;as</i> or fragments, 69 <i>ruba&lsquo;iy&#257;t</i> or tetrastics, 6 <i>masnaviy&#257;t</i> or
+poems in rhyming couplets, 2 <i>kas&#257;ïd</i>, idylls or panegyrics, and 1
+<i>mukhammes</i> or poem in five-line strophes. Other editions contain
+several <i>tarji&lsquo;-band</i> or poems with a refrain. The whole <i>D&#299;w&#257;n</i> was
+translated into English prose by H. Wilberforce Clarke in 1891,
+with introduction and exhaustive commentary and bibliography;
+a few rhyming versions of single poems by Sir William Jones, J.
+Nott, J. Hindley, Falconer, &amp;c., are to be found scattered through
+the pages of the <i>Oriental Miscellany</i> and other periodicals, and a fine
+edition containing a verse rendering of the principal poems by H.
+Bicknell appeared in 1875. Other selections by S. Robinson (1875),
+A. Rogers (1889), J. H. M&lsquo;Carthy (1893), and Gertrude L. Bell (1897).
+The principal German versions are by von Hammer Purgstall (1812),
+which gave the first impulse to Goethe&rsquo;s <i>Westöstlicher Diwan</i>; a
+rhyming and rhythmical translation of a large portion of H&#257;fiz&rsquo;s
+works by Vincenz von Rosenzweig of Vienna (Vienna, 1858), which
+contains also the Persian text and notes; <i>Der Diwan des Schemsedd&#299;n
+Muhammed H&#257;fis</i>, by G. H. F. Nesselmann (Berlin, 1865), in
+which the rhyming system of the original is imitated. Besides these,
+the reader may consult d&rsquo;Herbelot, <i>Bibliothèque orientale</i>, article
+&ldquo;Hafiz&rdquo;; Sir William Ouseley&rsquo;s <i>Oriental Collections</i> (1797-1798);
+<i>A Specimen of Persian Poetry, or Odes of Hafiz</i>, by John Richardson
+(London, 1802); <i>Biographical Notices of Persian Poets</i>, by Sir Gore
+Ouseley (Oriental Translation Fund, 1846); and an excellent article
+by Professor E. B. Cowell in <i>Macmillan&rsquo;s Magazine</i> (No. 177, July
+1874); J. A. Vullers, <i>Vitae poëtarum Persicorum</i> (1839, translated
+from Daulatshah); S. Robinson, <i>Persian Poetry for English Readers</i>
+(1883). The best edition of the text is perhaps that edited by Hermann
+Brockhaus of Leipzig (1854-1856). which is based on the recension
+of the Turkish editor Sudi, and contains his commentary
+in Turkish on the first eighty <i>ghazals</i>. See also H. Ethé in <i>Grundriss
+der iranischen Philologie</i>, ii. (Strassburg, 1896); P. Horn, <i>Geschichte
+der persischen Literatur</i> (Leipzig, 1901).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. H. P.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAG.<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (1) (Probably a shortened form of the O. Eng. <i>hægtesse</i>,
+<i>hegtes</i>, cognate with Ger. <i>Hexe</i>, witch, Dutch <i>hecse</i>), a word
+common during the 16th and 17th centuries for a female demon
+or evil spirit, and so particularly applied to such supernatural
+beings as the harpies and fairies of classical mythology, and also
+to witches. In modern usage the word is generally used of a
+hideous old woman whose repulsive exterior is accompanied by
+malice or wickedness. The name is also used of an eel-like
+parasitic fish, <i>Myxine glutinosa</i>, allied to the lamprey.</p>
+
+<p>(2) A word common in Scottish and northern English dialects
+for an enclosed piece of wood, a copse. This is the same word
+as &ldquo;hedge&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hedges</a></span>) and &ldquo;haw.&rdquo; &ldquo;Hag&rdquo; also means &ldquo;to
+cut,&rdquo; and is used in Scotland of an extent of woodland marked
+out for felling, and of a quantity of felled wood. This word
+is also used of a cutting in the peat of a &ldquo;moss&rdquo; or &ldquo;bog,&rdquo;
+and hence applied to the small plots of firm ground or heather
+in a bog; it is common in the form &ldquo;moss-hags.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAGEDORN, FRIEDRICH VON<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> (1708-1754), German poet,
+was born on the 23rd of April 1708 at Hamburg, where his father,
+a man of scientific and literary taste, was Danish minister.
+He was educated at the gymnasium of Hamburg, and later
+(1726) became a student of law at Jena. Returning to Hamburg
+in 1729, he obtained the appointment of unpaid private secretary
+to the Danish ambassador in London, where he lived till 1731.
+Hagedorn&rsquo;s return to Hamburg was followed by a period of great
+poverty and hardship, but in 1733 he was appointed secretary
+to the so-called &ldquo;English Court&rdquo; (<i>Englischer Hof</i>) in Hamburg,
+a trading company founded in the 13th century. He shortly
+afterwards married, and from this time had sufficient leisure
+to pursue his literary occupations till his death on the 28th of
+October 1754. Hagedorn is the first German poet who bears
+unmistakable testimony to the nation&rsquo;s recovery from the
+devastation wrought by the Thirty Years&rsquo; War. He is eminently
+a social poet. His light and graceful love-songs and anacreontics,
+with their undisguised <i>joie de vivre</i>, introduced a new note into
+the German lyric; his fables and tales in verse are hardly inferior
+in form and in delicate persiflage to those of his master La
+Fontaine, and his moralizing poetry re-echoes the philosophy
+of Horace. He exerted a dominant influence on the German
+lyric until late in the 18th century.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The first collection of Hagedorn&rsquo;s poems was published at Hamburg
+shortly after his return from Jena in 1729, under the title
+<i>Versuch einiger Gedichte</i> (reprinted by A. Sauer, Heilbronn, 1883).
+In 1738 appeared <i>Versuch in poetischen Fabeln und Erzählungen</i>;
+in 1742 a collection of his lyric poems, under the title <i>Sammlung
+neuer Oden und Lieder</i>; and his <i>Moralische Gedichte</i> in 1750. A
+collection of his entire works was published at Hamburg after his
+death in 1757. The best is J. J. Eschenburg&rsquo;s edition (5 vols.,
+Hamburg, 1800). Selections of his poetry with an excellent introduction
+in F. Muncker&rsquo;s <i>Anakreontiker und preussisch-patriotische
+Lyriker</i> (Stuttgart, 1894). See also H. Schuster, <i>F. von Hagedorn
+und seine Bedeutung für die deutsche Literatur</i> (Leipzig, 1882); W.
+Eigenbrodt, <i>Hagedorn und die Erzählung in Reimversen</i> (Berlin,
+1884).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAGEN, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH VON DER<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> (1780-1856),
+German philologist, chiefly distinguished for his researches in
+Old German literature, was born at Schmiedeberg In Brandenburg
+on the 19th of February 1780. After studying law at
+the university of Halle, he obtained a legal appointment in the
+state service at Berlin, but in 1806 resigned this office in order
+to devote himself exclusively to letters. In 1810 he was appointed
+<i>professor extraordinarius</i> of German literature in the university
+of Berlin; in the following year he was transferred in a similar
+capacity to Breslau, and in 1821 returned to Berlin as <i>professor
+ordinarius</i>. He died at Berlin on the 11th of June 1856.
+Although von der Hagen&rsquo;s critical work is now entirely out of
+date, the chief merit of awakening an interest in old German
+poetry belongs to him.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His principal publications are the <i>Nibelungenlied</i>, of which he
+issued four editions, the first in 1810 and the last in 1842; the
+<i>Minnesinger</i> (Leipzig, 1838-1856, 4 vols, in 5 parts); <i>Lieder der
+ältern Edda</i> (Berlin, 1812); <i>Gottfried von Strassburg</i> (Berlin, 1823);
+a collection of Old German tales under the title <i>Gesamtabenteuer</i>
+(Stuttgart, 1850, 3 vols.) and <i>Das Heldenbuch</i> (Leipzig, 1855). He
+also published <i>Über die ältesten Darstellungen der Faustsage</i> (Berlin,
+1844); and from 1835 he edited <i>Das neue Jahrbuch der Berlinischen
+Gesellschaft für deutsche Sprache und Altertumskunde</i>. His correspondence
+with C. G. Heyne and G. F. Benecke was published by
+K. Dziatzko (Leipzig, 1893).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAGEN,<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> a town of Germany, In the Prussian province of
+Westphalia. Pop. (1905), 77,498. It lies amid well-wooded hills
+at the confluence of the Ennepe with the Volme, 15 m. N.E.
+of Elberfeld, on the main line to Brunswick and Berlin, and at
+the junction of important lines of railway, connecting it with the
+principal towns of the Westphalian iron district. It has five
+Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic church, an Old Catholic
+church, a synagogue, a gymnasium, realgyrnnasium, and a
+technical school with special classes for machine-building. There
+are also a museum, a theatre, and a prettily arranged municipal
+park. Hagen is one of the most flourishing commercial towns
+in Westphalia, and possesses extensive iron and steel works,
+large cotton print works, woollen and cotton factories, manufactures
+of leather, paper, tobacco, and iron and steel wares,
+breweries and distilleries. There are large limestone quarries
+in the vicinity and also an alabaster quarry.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAGENAU,<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the imperial province of
+Alsace-Lorraine, situated in the middle of the Hagenau Forest,
+on the Moder, and on the railway from Strassburg to Weissenburg,
+10 m. N.N.E. of the former city. Pop. (1905), 18,500. It
+has two Evangelical and two ancient Catholic churches (one
+dating from the 12th, the other from the 13th century), a
+gymnasium, a public library, a hospital, and a theatre. The
+principal industries are wool and cotton spinning, and the
+manufacture of porcelain, earthenware, boots, soap, oil, sparkling
+wines and beer. There is also considerable trade in hops and
+vegetables. Hagenau is an important military centre and has
+a large garrison, including three artillery battalions.</p>
+
+<p>Hagenau dates from the beginning of the 12th century, and
+owes its origin to the erection of a hunting lodge by the dukes
+of Swabia. The emperor Frederick I. surrounded it with walls
+and gave it town rights in 1154. On the site of the hunting lodge
+he founded an imperial palace, in which were preserved the
+jewelled imperial crown, sceptre, imperial globe, and sword of
+Charlemagne. Subsequently it became the seat of the <i>Landvogt</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page814" id="page814"></a>814</span>
+of Hagenau, the imperial <i>advocatus</i> in Lower Alsace. Richard
+of Cornwall, king of the Romans, made it an imperial city in
+1257. In 1648 it came into the possession of France, and in
+1673 Louis XIV. caused the fortifications to be razed. In 1675
+it was captured by imperial troops, but in 1677 it was retaken
+by the French and nearly all destroyed by fire. In 1871 it fell,
+with the rest of Alsace-Lorraine, into the possession of Germany.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAGENBACH, KARL RUDOLF<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (1801-1874). German church
+historian, was born on the 4th of March 1801 at Basel, where his
+father was a practising physician. His preliminary education was
+received at a Pestalozzian school, and afterwards at the gymnasium,
+whence in due course he passed to the newly reorganized
+local university. He early devoted himself to theological studies
+and the service of the church, while at the same time cherishing
+and developing broad &ldquo;humanistic&rdquo; tendencies which found
+expression in many ways and especially in an enthusiastic
+admiration for the writings of Herder. The years 1820-1823
+were spent first at Bonn, where G. C. F. Lücke (1791-1855)
+exerted a powerful influence on his thought, and afterwards at
+Berlin, where Schleiermacher and Neander became his masters.
+Returning in 1823 to Basel, where W. M. L. de Wette had recently
+been appointed to a theological chair, he distinguished
+himself greatly by his trial-dissertation, <i>Observationes historico-hermeneuticae
+circa Origenis methodum interpretendae sacrae
+Scripturae</i>; in 1824 he became professor extraordinarius, and
+in 1829 professor ordinarius of theology. Apart from his
+academic labours in connexion with the history of dogma and
+of the church, he lived a life of great and varied usefulness as a
+theologian, a preacher and a citizen; and at his &ldquo;jubilee&rdquo;
+in 1873, not only the university and town of Basel but also the
+various churches of Switzerland united to do him honour. He
+died at Basel on the 7th of June 1874.</p>
+
+<p>Hagenbach was a voluminous author in many departments,
+but he is specially distinguished as a writer on church history.
+Though neither so learned and condensed as the contributions
+of Gieseler, nor so original and profound as those of Neander,
+his lectures are clear, attractive and free from narrow sectarian
+prejudice. In dogmatics, while avowedly a champion of the
+&ldquo;mediation theology&rdquo; (<i>Vermittelungstheologie</i>), based upon the
+fundamental conceptions of Herder and Schleiermacher, he was
+much less revolutionary than were many others of his school.
+He sought to maintain the old confessional documents, and to
+make the objective prevail over the purely subjective manner
+of viewing theological questions. But he himself was aware
+that in the endeavour to do so he was not always successful,
+and that his delineations of Christian dogma often betrayed a
+vacillating and uncertain hand.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His works include <i>Tabellarische Übersicht der Dogmengeschichte</i>
+(1828); <i>Encyclopädie u. Methodologie der theol. Wissenschaften</i> (1833);
+<i>Vorlesungen über Wesen u. Geschichte der Reformation u. des Protestantismus</i>
+(1834-1843); <i>Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte</i> (1840-1841, 5th
+ed., 1867; English transl., 1850); <i>Vorlesungen über die Geschichte
+der alien Kirche</i> (1853-1855); <i>Vorlesungen über die Kirchengeschichte
+des Mittelalters</i> (1860-1861); <i>Grundlinien der Homiletik u. Liturgik</i>
+(1863); biographies of Johannes Oecolampadius (1482-1564) and
+Oswald Myconius (1488-1552) and a <i>Geschichte der theol. Schule
+Basels</i> (1860); his <i>Predigten</i> (1858-1875), two volumes of poems
+entitled <i>Luther u. seine Zeit</i> (1838), and <i>Gedichte</i> (1846). The
+lectures on church history under the general title <i>Vorlesungen über
+die Kirchengeschichte von der ältesten Zeit bis zum 19ten Jahrhundert</i>
+were reissued in seven volumes (1868-1872).</p>
+
+<p>See especially the article in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAGENBECK, CARL<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (1844-&emsp;&emsp;), wild-animal collector and
+dealer, was born at Hamburg in 1844. In 1848 his father
+purchased some seals and a Polar bear brought to Hamburg
+by a whaler, and subsequently acquired many other wild animals.
+At the age of twenty-one Carl Hagenbeck was given the whole
+collection, and before long had greatly extended the business,
+so that in 1873 he had to erect large buildings in Hamburg to
+house his animals. In 1875 he began to exhibit a collection of
+the representative animals of many countries, accompanied by
+troupes of the natives of the respective countries, throughout
+all the large cities of Europe. The educational value of these
+exhibitions was officially recognized by the French government,
+which in 1891 awarded Hagenbeck the diploma of the Academy.
+Most of the wild animals exhibited in music-halls and other
+popular places of entertainment throughout the world have
+come from Hagenbeck&rsquo;s collection at Stellingen, near Hamburg.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAGERSTOWN,<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Washington
+county, Maryland, U.S.A., near Antietam Creek, about 86 m.
+by rail W.N.W. from Baltimore. Pop. (1890), 10,118; (1900),
+13,591, of whom 1277 were negroes; (1910, census), 16,507.
+Hagerstown is served by the Baltimore &amp; Ohio, the Western
+Maryland, the Norfolk &amp; Western, and the Cumberland Valley
+railways, and by an interurban electric line. It lies in a fertile
+valley overlooked by South Mountain to the E. and North
+Mountain, more distant, to the W. The city is the seat of Kee
+Mar College (1852; non-sectarian) for women. Hagerstown
+is a business centre for the surrounding agricultural district,
+has good water power, and as a manufacturing centre ranked
+third in the state in 1905, its factory products being valued in
+that year at $3,026,901, an increase of 66.3% over their value
+in 1900. Among the manufactures are flour, shirts, hosiery,
+gloves, bicycles, automobiles, agricultural implements, print
+paper, fertilizers, sash, doors and blinds, furniture, carriages,
+spokes and wheels. The municipality owns and operates its
+electric lighting plant. Hagerstown was laid out as a town in
+1762 by Captain Jonathan Hager (who had received a patent
+to 200 acres here from Lord Baltimore in 1739), and was incorporated
+in 1791. It was an important station on the old National
+(or Cumberland) Road. General R. E. Lee concentrated his
+forces at Hagerstown before the battle of Gettysburg.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAG-FISH,<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> <span class="sc">Glutinous Hag</span>, Or <span class="sc">Borer</span> (<i>Myxine</i>), a marine
+fish which forms with the lampreys one of the lowest orders of
+vertebrates (<i>Cyclostomata</i>). Similar in form to a lamprey, it is
+usually found within the body of dead cod or haddock, on the
+flesh of which it feeds after having buried itself in the abdomen.
+When caught, it secretes a thick glutinous slime in such quantity
+that it is commonly believed to have the power of converting
+water into glue. It is found in the North Atlantic and other
+temperate seas of the globe, being taken in some localities in
+large numbers, <i>e.g.</i> off the east coast of Scotland and the west
+coast of California (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cyclostomata</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAGGADA,<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> or &rsquo;<span class="sc">Agada</span> (literally &ldquo;narrative&rdquo;), includes the
+more homiletic elements of rabbinic teaching. It is not logically
+distinguishable from the halakha (<i>q.v.</i>), for the latter or forensic
+element makes up with the haggada the Midrash (<i>q.v.</i>), but,
+being more popular than the halakha, is often itself styled the
+Midrash. It may be described as the poetical and ethical element
+as contrasted with the legal element in the Talmud (<i>q.v.</i>), but
+the two elements are always closely connected. From one point
+of view the haggada, amplifying and developing the contents
+of Hebrew scripture in response to a popular religious need, may
+be termed a rabbinical commentary on the Old Testament,
+containing traditional stories and legends, sometimes amusing,
+sometimes trivial, and often beautiful. The haggada abounds
+in parables. The haggadic passages of the Talmud were collected
+in the <i>Eye of Jacob</i>, a very popular compilation completed by
+Jakob ibn Habib in the 16th century.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAGGAI,<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> in the Bible, the tenth in order of the &ldquo;minor
+prophets,&rdquo; whose writings are preserved in the Old Testament.
+The name Haggai (<span title="Haggai">&#1495;&#1490;&#1497;</span>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="'Aggaios">&#7944;&#947;&#947;&#945;&#8150;&#959;&#962;</span>, whence Aggeus in the English
+version of the Apocrypha) perhaps means &ldquo;born on the
+feast day,&rdquo; &ldquo;festive.&rdquo; But Wellhausen<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> is probably right in
+taking the word as a contraction for Hagariah (&ldquo;Yahweh hath
+girded&rdquo;), just as Zaccai (Zacchaeus) is known to be a contraction
+of Zechariah.</p>
+
+<p>The book of Haggai contains four short prophecies delivered
+between the first day of the sixth month and the twenty-fourth
+day of the ninth month&mdash;that is, between September and
+December&mdash;of the second year of Darius the king. The king in
+question must be Darius Hystaspis (521-485 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). The language
+of the prophet in ii. 3 suggests the probability that he was himself
+one of those whose memories reached across the seventy years
+of the captivity, and that his prophetic work began in extreme
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page815" id="page815"></a>815</span>
+old age. This supposition agrees well with the shortness of the
+period covered by his book, and with the fact that Zechariah,
+who began to prophesy in the same autumn and was associated
+with Haggai&rsquo;s labours (Ezra v. 1), afterwards appears as the
+leading prophet in Jerusalem (Zech. vii. 1-4). We know nothing
+further of the personal history of Haggai from the Bible. Later
+traditions may be read in Carpzov&rsquo;s <i>Introductio</i>, pars 3, cap. xvi.
+Epiphanius (<i>Vitae prophetarum</i>) says that he came up from
+Babylon while still young, prophesied the return, witnessed the
+building of the temple and received an honoured burial near
+the priests. Haggai&rsquo;s name is mentioned in the titles of several
+psalms in the Septuagint (Psalms cxxxvii., cxlv.-cxlviii.) and
+other versions, but these titles are without value, and moreover
+vary in MSS. Eusebius did not find them in the Hexaplar
+Septuagint.<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p>
+
+<p>In his first prophecy (i. 1-11) Haggai addresses Zerubbabel
+and Joshua, rebuking the people for leaving the temple unbuilt
+while they are busy in providing panelled houses for themselves.
+The prevalent famine and distress are due to Yahweh&rsquo;s indignation
+at such remissness. Let them build the house, and Yahweh
+will take pleasure in it and acknowledge the honour paid to Him.
+The rebuke took effect, and the people began to work at the
+temple, strengthened by the prophet&rsquo;s assurance that the Lord
+was with them (i. 12-15). In a second prophecy (ii. 1-9) delivered
+in the following month, Haggai forbids the people to be disheartened
+by the apparent meanness of the new temple. The
+silver and gold are the Lord&rsquo;s. He will soon shake all nations
+and their choicest gifts will be brought to adorn His house.
+Its glory shall be greater than that of the former temple, and in
+this place He will give peace. A third prophecy (ii. 10-19)
+contains a promise, enforced by a figure drawn from the priestly
+ritual, that God will remove famine and bless the land from the
+day of the foundation of the temple onwards. Finally, in ii.
+20-23, Zerubbabel is assured of God&rsquo;s special love and protection
+in the impending catastrophe of kingdoms and nations to which
+the prophet had formerly pointed as preceding the glorification
+of God&rsquo;s house on Zion. In thus looking forward to a shaking
+of all nations Haggai agrees with earlier prophecies, especially
+Isa. xxiv.-xxvii., while his picture of the glory and peace of the
+new Zion and its temple is drawn from the great anonymous
+prophet who penned Isa. lx and lxvi. The characteristic
+features of the book are the importance assigned to the personality
+of Zerubbabel, who, though a living contemporary, is
+marked out as the Messiah; and the almost sacramental
+significance attached to the temple. The hopes fixed on Zerubbabel,
+the chosen of the Lord, dear to Him as His signet ring
+(cf. Jer. xxii. 24), are a last echo in Old Testament prophecy
+of the theocratic importance of the house of David. In the book
+of Zechariah Zerubbabel has already fallen into the background
+and the high priest is the leading figure of the Judean community.<a name="fa3e" id="fa3e" href="#ft3e"><span class="sp">3</span></a>
+The stem of David is superseded by the house of
+Zadok, the kingship has yielded to the priesthood, and the
+extinction of national hopes gives new importance to that strict
+organization of the hierarchy for which Ezekiel had prepared
+the way by his sentence of disfranchisement against the non-Zadokite
+priests.</p>
+
+<p>The indifference of the Jews to the desolate conditions of their
+sanctuary opens up a problem of some difficulty. It is strange
+that neither Haggai nor his contemporary Zechariah mentions
+or implies any return of exiles from Babylon, and the suggestion
+has accordingly been made that the return under Cyrus described
+in Ezra i.-iv. is unhistorical, and that the community addressed
+by Haggai consisted of the remnant that had been left in
+Jerusalem and its neighbourhood after the majority had gone
+into exile or fled to Egypt (Jer. xliii.). Such a remnant, amongst
+whom might be members of the priestly and royal families,
+would gather strength and boldness as the troubles of Babylon
+increased and her vigilance was relaxed, and might receive from
+Babylon and other lands both refugees and some account at
+least of the writings of Ezekiel and the Second Isaiah. Stimulated
+by such causes and obtaining formal permission from the Persian
+government, they would arise as a new Israel and enter on a
+new phase of national life and divine revelation.</p>
+
+<p>In spite, however, of the plausibility of this theory, it seems
+preferable to adhere to the story of Ezra i.-iv. Apart from the
+weighty objections that the Edomites would have frustrated such
+a recrudescence of the remnant Jews as has been described, it
+must be remembered that the main stream of Jewish life and
+thought had been diverted to Babylon. Thence, when the
+opportunity came under Cyrus, some 50,000 Jews, the spiritual
+heirs of the best elements of the old Israel, returned to found the
+new community. With them were all the resources, and the
+only people they found at Jerusalem were hostile gentiles and
+Samaritans. Full of enthusiasm, they set about rebuilding
+the temple and realizing the glowing promises about the
+prosperity and dominance of Zion that had fallen from the lips
+of the Second Isaiah (xlix. 14-26, xlv. 14). Bitter disappointment,
+however, soon overcame them, the Samaritans were
+strong enough to thwart and hinder their temple-building, and
+it seemed as though the divine favour was withdrawn. Apathy
+took the place of enthusiasm, and sordid worries succeeded to
+high hopes. &ldquo;The like collapse has often been experienced in
+history when bands of religious men, going forth, as they thought,
+to freedom and the immediate erection of a holy commonwealth,
+have found their unity wrecked and their enthusiasm dissipated
+by a few inclement seasons on a barren and hostile shore.&rdquo;<a name="fa4e" id="fa4e" href="#ft4e"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p>
+
+<p>From this torpor they were roused by tidings which might well
+be interpreted as the restoration of divine favour. Away in the
+East Cyrus had been succeeded in 529 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by Cambyses, who had
+annexed Egypt and on whose death in 522 a Magian impostor,
+Gaumata, had seized the throne. The fraud was short-lived,
+and Darius I. became king and the founder of a new dynasty.
+These events shook the whole Persian empire; Babylon and
+other subject states rose in revolt, and to the Jews it seemed that
+Persia was tottering and that the Messianic era was nigh. It
+was therefore natural that Haggai and Zechariah should urge
+the speedy building of the temple, in order that the great king
+might be fittingly received.</p>
+
+<p>It is sometimes levied as a reproach against Haggai that he
+makes no direct reference to moral duties. But it is hardly fair
+to contrast his practical counsel with the more ethical and
+spiritual teaching of the earlier Hebrew prophets. One thing
+was needful&mdash;the temple. &ldquo;Without a sanctuary Yahweh would
+have seemed a foreigner to Israel. The Jews would have thought
+that He had returned to Sinai, the holy mountain; and that they
+were deprived of the temporal blessings which were the gifts of a
+God who literally dwelt in the midst of his people.&rdquo; Haggai
+argued that material prosperity was conditioned by zeal in
+worship; the prevailing distress was an indication of divine anger
+due to the people&rsquo;s religious apathy. Haggai&rsquo;s reproofs touched
+the conscience of the Jews, and the book of Zechariah enables
+us in some measure to follow the course of a religious revival
+which, starting with the restoration of the temple, did not confine
+itself to matters of ceremony and ritual worship. On the other
+hand, Haggai&rsquo;s treatment of his theme, practical and effective
+as it was for the purpose in hand, moves on a far lower level than
+the aspirations of the prophet who wrote the closing chapters
+of Isaiah. To the latter the material temple is no more than a
+detail in the picture of a work of restoration eminently ideal
+and spiritual, and he expressly warns his hearers against attaching
+intrinsic importance to it (Isa. lxvi. 1). To Haggai the temple
+appears so essential that he teaches that while it lay waste, the
+people and all their works and offerings were unclean (Hag. ii. 14).
+In this he betrays his affinity with Ezekiel, who taught that it
+is by the possession of the sanctuary that Israel is sanctified
+(Ezek. xxxvii. 28). In truth the new movement of religious
+thought and feeling which started from the fall of the Hebrew
+state took two distinct lines, of which Ezekiel and the anonymous
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page816" id="page816"></a>816</span>
+authors of Isa. xl.-lxvi. are the respective representatives.
+While the latter developed their great picture of Israel the
+mediatorial nation, the systematic and priestly mind of Ezekiel
+had shaped a more material conception of the religious vocation
+of Israel in that picture of the new theocracy where the temple
+and its ritual occupy the largest place, with a sanctity which is
+set in express contrast to the older conception of the holiness of
+the city of Jerusalem (cf. Ezek. xliii. 7 seq. with Jer. xxxi. 40,
+Isa. iv. 5), and with a supreme significance for the religious life of
+the people which is expressed in the figure of the living waters
+issuing from under the threshold of the house (Ezek. xlvii.). It was
+the conception of Ezekiel which permanently influenced the citizens
+of the new Jerusalem, and took final shape in the institutions of
+Ezra. To this consummation, with its necessary accompaniment
+in the extinction of prophecy, the book of Haggai already points.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;The elaborate and valuable German commentary
+of A. Köhler (Erlangen, 1860) forms the first part of his work on
+the <i>Nachexilische Propheten</i>. Reinke&rsquo;s <i>Commentary</i> (Münster, 1868)
+is the work of a scholarly Roman Catholic. Haggai has generally
+been treated in works on all the prophets, as by Ewald (2nd ed.,
+1868; Eng. trans., vol. iii., 1878); or along with the other minor
+prophets, as by Hitzig (3rd ed., by H. Steiner, Leipzig, 1881), Keil
+(1866, 3rd ed., 1888, Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1868), and Pusey
+(1875), S. R. Driver (1906), W. Nowack (2nd ed., 1905), K. Marti
+(1904), J. Wellhausen (3rd ed., 1898); or with the other post-exile
+prophets, as by Köhler, Pressel (Gotha, 1870), Dods (1879) and others.
+The older literature will be found in books of introduction or in
+Rosenmüller&rsquo;s <i>Scholia</i>. The learned commentary of Marckius may
+be specially mentioned. On the place of Haggai in the history of
+Old Testament prophecy, see Duhm, <i>Theologie der Propheten</i> (Bonn,
+1875); A. B. Davidson, <i>The Theology of the Old Testament</i> (1904);
+A. F. Kirkpatrick, <i>The Doctrine of the Prophets</i>; G. A. Smith, <i>The
+Book of the Twelve Prophets</i>, vol. 2 (1903); Tony Andrée, <i>Le Prophète
+Aggée</i>; Ed. Meyer, <i>Entstehung des Judentums</i> (1896).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. R. S.; A. J. G.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In Bleek&rsquo;s <i>Einleitung</i>, 4th ed., p. 434.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See the note on Ps. cxlv. 1 in Field&rsquo;s <i>Hexapla</i>; Köhler, <i>Weissagungen
+Haggai&rsquo;s</i>, 32; Wright, <i>Zechariah and his Prophecies</i>, xix.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3e" id="ft3e" href="#fa3e"><span class="fn">3</span></a> After the foundation of the temple Zerubbabel disappears from
+history and lives only in legend, which continued to busy itself with
+his story, as we see from the apocryphal book of Esdras (cf. Derenbourg,
+<i>Hist. de la Palestine</i>, chap. i).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4e" id="ft4e" href="#fa4e"><span class="fn">4</span></a> G. A. Smith, <i>Minor Prophets</i>, ii. 235.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAGGARD, HENRY RIDER<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (1856-&emsp;&emsp;), English novelist,
+was born at Bradenham Hall, Norfolk, on the 22nd of June 1856.
+When he was nineteen he went to South Africa as secretary to
+Sir Henry Bulwer, governor of Natal. At the time of the first
+annexation of the Transvaal (1877), he was on the staff of the
+special commissioner, Sir Theophilus Shepstone; and he subsequently
+became a master of the high court of the Transvaal.
+He married in 1879 a Norfolk heiress, Miss Margitson, but
+returned to the Transvaal in time to witness its surrender to the
+Boers and the overthrow of the policy of his former chief.
+He returned to England and read for the bar, but soon took to
+literary work; he published <i>Cetywayo and his White Neighbours</i>
+(1882), written in defence of Sir T. Shepstone&rsquo;s policy. This was
+followed by the novels <i>Dawn</i> (1884), <i>The Witch&rsquo;s Head</i> (1885),
+which contains an account of the British defeat at Isandhlwana;
+and in 1886 <i>King Solomon&rsquo;s Mines</i>, suggested by the Zimbabwe
+ruins, which first made him popular. <i>She</i> (1887), another
+fantastic African story, was also very successful, a sequel, <i>Ayesha,
+or the Return of She</i>, being published in 1905. The scene of <i>Jess</i>
+(1887) and of <i>Allan Quatermain</i> (1888) was also laid in Africa.
+In 1895 he unsuccessfully contested the East Norfolk parliamentary
+division in the Unionist interest; he showed great
+interest in rural and agricultural questions, being a practical
+gardener and farmer on his estate in Norfolk. In his <i>Rural
+England</i> (2 vols., 1902) he exposed the evils of depopulation in
+country districts. In 1905 he was commissioned by the colonial
+office to inquire into the Salvation Army settlements at Fort
+Romie, S. California, and Fort Amity, Colorado, with a view to
+the establishment of similar colonies in South Africa. His
+report on the subject was first published as a blue book, and
+afterwards, in an enlarged form, as <i>The Poor and the Land</i> (1905),
+with suggestions for a scheme of national land settlement in
+Great Britain itself.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His other books include <i>Maiwa&rsquo;s Revenge</i> (1888), <i>Mr Meeson&rsquo;s Will</i>
+(1888), <i>Colonel Quaritch</i>, V.C. (1888), <i>Cleopatra</i> (1889), <i>Eric Brighteyes</i>
+(1891), <i>The World&rsquo;s Desire</i> (1890), a romance of Helen of Troy,
+written with Mr Andrew Lang; <i>Nada the Lily</i> (1892), <i>Montezuma&rsquo;s
+Daughter</i> (1894), <i>The People of the Mist</i> (1894), <i>Joan Haste</i> (1895),
+<i>Heart of the World</i> (1896), <i>Dr Therne</i> (1898), <i>A Farmer&rsquo;s Year</i> (1899),
+<i>The New South Africa</i> (1900), <i>Lysbeth, A Tale of the Dutch</i> (1901).
+<i>Stella Fregelius</i> (1903), <i>A Gardener&rsquo;s Year</i> (1905), <i>A Farmer&rsquo;s Year</i>
+(1899, revised ed., 1906), <i>The Way of the Spirit</i> (1906).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAGGIS,<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> a dish consisting of a calf&rsquo;s, sheep&rsquo;s or other animal&rsquo;s
+heart, liver and lungs, and also sometimes of the smaller
+intestines, boiled in the stomach of the animal with seasoning
+of pepper, salt, onions, &amp;c., chopped fine with suet and oatmeal.
+It is considered peculiarly a Scottish dish, but was common in
+England till the 18th century. The derivation of the word is
+obscure. The Fr. <i>hachis</i>, English &ldquo;hash,&rdquo; is of later appearance
+than &ldquo;haggis.&rdquo; It may be connected with a verb &ldquo;to hag,&rdquo;
+meaning to cut in small pieces, and would then be cognate
+ultimately with &ldquo;hash.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAGIOLOGY<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="hagios">&#7941;&#947;&#953;&#959;&#962;</span>, saint, <span class="grk" title="logos">&#955;&#972;&#947;&#959;&#962;</span>, discourse), that
+branch of the historical sciences which is concerned with the
+lives of the saints. If hagiology be considered merely in the
+sense in which the term has come to be understood in the later
+stages of its development, <i>i.e.</i> the critical study of hagiographic
+remains, there would be no such science before the 17th century.
+But the bases of hagiology may fairly be said to have been laid
+at the time when hagiographic documents, hitherto dispersed,
+were first brought together into collections. The oldest collection
+of this kind, the <span class="grk" title="sunagôgê tôn archaiôn marturiôn">&#963;&#965;&#957;&#945;&#947;&#969;&#947;&#8052; &#964;&#8182;&#957; &#7936;&#961;&#967;&#945;&#943;&#969;&#957; &#956;&#945;&#961;&#964;&#965;&#961;&#943;&#969;&#957;</span> of Eusebius,
+to which the author refers in several passages in his writings
+(<i>Hist. Eccl.</i>, v. proem 2; v. 20, 5), and which has left more than
+one trace in Christian literature, is unfortunately lost in its
+entirety. The <i>Martyrs of Palestine</i>, as also the writings of
+Theodoret, Palladius and others, on the origins of the monastic
+life, and, similarly, the <i>Dialogues</i> of St Gregory (Pope Gregory I.),
+belong to the category of sources rather than to that of hagiologic
+collections. The <i>In gloria martyrum</i> and <i>In gloria confessorum</i>
+of Gregory of Tours are valuable for the sources used in their
+compilation. The most important collections are those which
+comprise the Acts of the Martyrs and the lives of saints, arranged
+in the order of the calendar. In the Greek Church these are
+called menologies (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="mên">&#956;&#942;&#957;</span>, month, <span class="grk" title="logos">&#955;&#972;&#947;&#959;&#962;</span>, discourse), and
+their existence can be traced back with certainty to the 9th
+century (Theodore of Studium, <i>Epist.</i> i. 2). One of them, the
+menology of Metaphrastes, compiled in the second half of the
+10th century, enjoyed a universal vogue (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Symeon Metaphrastes</a></span>).
+The corresponding works in the Western Church are
+the <i>passionaries</i> or <i>legendaries</i>, varieties of which are dispersed
+in libraries and have not been studied collectively. They
+generally draw from a common source, the Roman legendary,
+and the lives of the local saints, <i>i.e.</i> those specially honoured in
+a church, a province or a country. One of the best known is
+the Austrian legendary (<i>De magno legendario Austriaco</i> in the
+<i>Analecta Bollandiana</i>, xvii. 24-264). From the menologies
+and legendaries various compilations were made: in the Greek
+Church, the Synaxaria (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Synaxarium</a></span>); in the Western
+Church, abridgments and extracts such as the <i>Speculum hisloriale</i>
+of Vincent de Beauvais; the <i>Legenda aurea</i> of Jacobus de
+Voragine; the <i>Sanctorale</i> of Bernard Guy [d. 1331] (see L.
+Delisle, <i>Notice sur les manuscrits de Bernard Guy</i>, Paris, 1879);
+the <i>Sanctilogium</i> of John of Tynemouth (<i>c.</i> 1366), utilized by
+John Capgrave, and published in 1516 under the name of <i>Nova
+legenda Angliae</i> (new edition by C. Horstman, Oxford, 1901);
+and the <i>Catalogus sanctorum</i> of Petrus de Natalibus (<i>c.</i> 1375),
+published at Vicenza in 1493, and many times reprinted. The
+<i>Sanctuarium</i> of B. Mombritius, published at Milan about 1480,
+is particularly valuable because it gives a faithful reproduction
+of the ancient texts according to the manuscripts. One of the
+most zealous collectors of lives of saints was John Gielemans of
+Brabant (d. 1487), whose work is of great value (Bollandists,
+<i>De codicibus hagiographicis Iohannis Gielemans</i>, Brussels, 1895),
+and with him must be associated Anton Geens, or Gentius, of
+Groenendael, who died in 1543 (<i>Analecta Bollandiana</i>, vi. 31-34).</p>
+
+<p>Hagiology entered on a new development with the publication
+of the <i>Sanctorum priscorum patrum vitae</i> (Venice and Rome,
+1551-1560) of Aloysius Lipomanus (Lippomano), bishop of
+Verona. As a result of the co-operation of humanist scholars
+a great number of Greek hagiographic texts became for the first
+time accessible to the West in a Latin translation. The
+Carthusian, Laurentius Surius, carried on the work of Lippomano,
+completed it, and arranged the materials strictly in the order
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page817" id="page817"></a>817</span>
+of the calendar (<i>De probatis sanctorum historiis</i>, Cologne, 1570-1575).
+What prevents the work of Surius from being regarded
+as an improvement upon Lippomano&rsquo;s is that Surius thought
+it necessary to retouch the style of those documents which
+appeared to him badly written, without troubling himself about
+the consequent loss of their documentary value.</p>
+
+<p>The actual founder of hagiologic criticism was the Flemish
+Jesuit, Heribert Rosweyde (d. 1629), who, besides his important
+works on the martyrologies (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Martyrology</a></span>), published the
+celebrated collection of the <i>Vitae patrum</i> (Antwerp, 1615), a
+veritable masterpiece for the time at which it appeared. It was
+he, too, who conceived the plan of a great collection of lives of
+saints, compiled from the manuscripts and augmented with
+notes, from which resulted the collection of the <i>Acta sanctorum</i>
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bollandists</a></span>). This last enterprise gave rise to others of
+a similar character but less extensive in scope.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Dom T. Ruinart collected the best <i>Acta</i> of the martyrs in his
+<i>Acta martyrum sincera</i> (Paris, 1689). The various religious orders
+collected the Acta of their saints, often increasing the lists beyond
+measure. The best publication of this kind, the <i>Acta sanctorum
+ordinis S. Benedicti</i> (Paris, 1668-1701) of d&rsquo;Achery and Mabillon,
+does not entirely escape this reproach. Countries, provinces and
+dioceses also had their special hagiographic collections, conceived
+according to various plans and executed with more or less historical
+sense. Of these, the most important collections are those of O.
+Caietanus, <i>Vitae sanctorum Siculorum</i> (Palermo, 1657); G. A.
+Lobineau, <i>Vie des saints de Bretagne</i> (Rennes, 1725); and J. H.
+Ghesquière, <i>Acta sanctorum Belgii</i> (Brussels and Tongerloo, 1783-1794).
+The principal lives of the German saints are published in the
+<i>Monumenta Germaniae</i>, and a special section of the <i>Scriptores rerum
+Merovingicarum</i> is devoted to the lives of the saints. For Scotland
+and Ireland mention must be made of T. Messingham&rsquo;s <i>Florilegium
+insulae sanctorum</i> (Paris, 1624); I. Colgan&rsquo;s <i>Acta sanctorum veteris
+et maioris Scotiae seu Hiberniae</i> (Louvain, 1645-1647); John
+Pinkerton&rsquo;s <i>Vitae antiquae sanctorum ...</i> (London, 1789, of which
+a revised and enlarged edition was published by W. M. Metcalfe at
+Paisley in 1889, under the title of <i>Lives of the Scottish Saints</i>); W. J.
+Rees&rsquo;s <i>Lives of the Cambro-British Saints</i> (Llandovery, 1853); <i>Acta
+sanctorum Hiberniae</i> (Edinburgh, 1888); Whitley Stokes&rsquo;s <i>Lives
+of Saints from the Book of Lismore</i> (Oxford, 1890); and J. O&rsquo;Hanlon&rsquo;s
+<i>Lives of the Irish Saints</i> (Dublin, 1875-1904). Towards the 13th
+century vernacular collections of lives of saints began to increase.
+This literature is more interesting from the linguistic than from
+the hagiologic point of view, and comes rather within the domain
+of the philologist.</p>
+
+<p>The hagiography of the Eastern and the Greek church also has
+been the subject of important publications. The Greek texts are
+very much scattered. Of them, however, may be mentioned J. B.
+Malou&rsquo;s &ldquo;Symeonis Metaphrastae opera omnia&rdquo; (<i>Patrologia Graeca</i>,
+114, 115, 116) and Theophilos Ioannu, <span class="grk" title="Mnêmeia agiologika">&#924;&#957;&#951;&#956;&#949;&#8150;&#945; &#7937;&#947;&#953;&#959;&#955;&#959;&#947;&#953;&#954;&#940;</span> (Venice,
+1884). For Syriac, there are S. E. Assemani&rsquo;s <i>Acta sanctorum
+martyrum orientalium</i> (Rome, 1748) and P. Bedjan&rsquo;s <i>Acta martyrum
+et sanctorum</i> (Paris, 1890-1897); for Armenian, the acts of
+martyrs and lives of saints, published in two volumes by the
+Mechitharist community of Venice in 1874; for Coptic, Hyvernat&rsquo;s
+<i>Les Actes des martyrs de l&rsquo;Égypte</i> (Paris, 1886); for Ethiopian, K.
+Conti Rossini&rsquo;s <i>Scriptores Aethiopici, vitae sanctorum</i> (Paris, 1904
+seq.); and for Georgian, Sabinin&rsquo;s <i>Paradise of the Georgian Church</i>
+(St Petersburg, 1882).</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the principal collections must be mentioned the
+innumerable works in which the hagiographic texts have been subjected
+to detailed critical study.</p>
+
+<p>To realize the present state of hagiology, the <i>Bibliotheca hagiographica</i>,
+both Latin and Greek, published by the Bollandists, and
+the <i>Bulletin hagiographique</i>, which appears in each number of the
+<i>Analecta Bollandiana</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bollandists</a></span>), must be consulted. Thanks
+to the combined efforts of a great number of scholars, the classification
+of the hagiographic texts has in recent years made notable
+progress. The criticism of the sources, the study of literary styles,
+and the knowledge of local history now render it easier to discriminate
+in this literature between what is really historical and what is
+merely the invention of the genius of the people or of the imagination
+of pious writers (see H. Delehaye, <i>Les Légendes hagiographiques</i>,
+2nd ed., pp. 121-141, Brussels, 1906). &ldquo;Though the lives of saints,&rdquo;
+says a recent historian, &ldquo;are filled with miracles and incredible
+stories, they form a rich mine of information concerning the life and
+customs of the people. Some of them are &lsquo;memorials of the best
+men of the time written by the best scholars of the time,&rsquo;&rdquo; (C. Gross,
+<i>The Sources and Literature of English History</i>, p. 34, London, 1900).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. De.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAGIOSCOPE<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="hagios">&#7941;&#947;&#953;&#959;&#962;</span>, holy, and <span class="grk" title="skopein">&#963;&#954;&#959;&#960;&#949;&#8150;&#957;</span>, to see),
+in architecture, an opening through the wall of a church in an
+oblique direction, to enable the worshippers in the transepts or
+other parts of the church, from which the altar was not visible,
+to see the elevation of the Host. As a rule these hagioscopes,
+or &ldquo;squints&rdquo; as they are sometimes called, are found on one or
+both sides of the chancel arch. In some cases a series of openings
+has been cut in the walls in an oblique line to enable a person
+standing in the porch (as in Bridgewater church, Somerset) to
+see the altar; in this case and in other instances such openings
+were sometimes provided for an attendant, who had to ring the
+Sanctus bell when the Host was elevated. Though rarely met
+with on the continent of Europe, there are occasions where they
+are found, so as to enable a monk in one of the vestries to follow
+the service and communicate with the bell-ringers.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAGONOY,<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> a town of the province of Bulacan, Luzon,
+Philippine Islands, on Manila Bay and on the W. branch and the
+delta of the Pampanga Grande river, about 25 m. N.W. of Manila.
+Pop. (1903), 21,304. Hagonoy is situated in a rich agricultural
+region, producing rice, Indian corn, sugar and a little coffee.
+Alcohol is made in considerable quantities from the fermented
+juice of the nipa palm, which grows in the neighbouring swamps,
+and from the leaves of which the nipa thatch is manufactured.
+There is good fishing. The women of the town are very skilful in
+weaving the native fabrics. The language is Tagalog. Hagonoy
+was founded in 1581.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAGUE, THE<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (in Dutch, <i>&rsquo;s Gravenhage</i>, or, abbreviated, <i>den
+Haag</i>; in Fr. <i>La Haye</i>; and in Late Lat. <i>Haga Comitis</i>),
+the chief town of the province of South Holland, about 2½ m.
+from the sea, with a junction station 9½ m. by rail S.W. by S.
+of Leiden. Steam tramways connect it with the seaside villages
+of Scheveningen, Kykduin and &rsquo;s Gravenzande, as well as with
+Delft, Wassenaar and Leiden, and it is situated on a branch of
+the main canal from Rotterdam to Amsterdam. Pop. (1900),
+212,211. The Hague is the chief town of the province, the usual
+residence of the court and diplomatic bodies, and the seat of
+the government, the states-general, the high council of the
+Netherlands, the council of state, the chamber of accounts and
+various other administrative bodies. The characteristics of the
+town are quite in keeping with its political position; it is as
+handsome as it is fashionable, and was rightly described by de
+Amicis in his <i>Olanda</i> as half Dutch, half French. The Hague has
+grown very largely in modern times, especially on its western
+side, which is situated on the higher and more sandy soil, the
+south-eastern half of the town comprising the poorer and the
+business quarters. The main features in a plan of the town are
+its fine streets and houses and extensive avenues and well-planted
+squares; while, as a city, the neighbourhood of an
+attractive seaside resort, combined with the advantages and
+importance of a large town, and the possession of beautiful and
+wooded surroundings, give it a distinction all its own.</p>
+
+<p>The medieval-looking group of government buildings situated
+in the Binnenhof (or &ldquo;inner court&rdquo;), their backs reflected in the
+pretty sheet of water called the Vyver, represent both historically
+and topographically the centre of the Hague. On the opposite
+side of the Vyver lies the parallelogram formed by the fine
+houses and magnificent avenue of trees of the Lange Voorhout,
+the Kneuterdyk and the Vyverburg, representing the fashionable
+kernel of the city. Close by lies the entrance to the Haagsche
+Bosch, or the wood, on one side of which is situated the deer-park,
+and a little beyond on the other the zoological gardens
+(1862). Away from the Lange Voorhout the fine Park Straat
+stretches to the &ldquo;1813 Plein&rdquo; or square, in the centre of which
+rises the large monument (1869) by Jaquet commemorating the
+jubilee of the restoration of Dutch independence in 1813. Beyond
+this is the Alexander Veld, used as a military drill ground, and
+close by is the entrance to the beautiful road called the Scheveningensche
+Weg, which leads through the &ldquo;little woods&rdquo; to
+Scheveningen. Parallel to the Park Straat is the busy Noordeinde,
+in which is situated the royal palace. The palace was
+purchased by the States in 1595, rebuilt by the stadtholder
+William III., and extended by King William I. in the beginning
+of the 19th century. In front of the building is an equestrian
+statue of William I. of Orange by Count Nieuerkerke (1845),
+and behind are the gardens and extensive stables. The Binnenhof,
+which has been already mentioned, was once surrounded by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page818" id="page818"></a>818</span>
+a moat, and is still entered through ancient gateways. The
+oldest portion was founded in 1249 by William II., count of
+Holland, whose son, Florens V., enlarged it and made it his
+residence. Several centuries later the stadtholders also lived
+here. The fine old hall of the knights, built by Florens, and now
+containing the archives of the home office, is the historic chamber
+in which the states of the Netherlands abjured their allegiance to
+Philip II. of Spain, and in front of which the grey-headed statesman
+Johan van Oldenbarneveldt was executed in 1619. Close
+by on the one side are the courts of justice, and on the other
+the first and second chambers of the states-general, containing
+some richly painted ceilings and the portraits of various stadtholders.
+Government offices occupy the remainder of the buildings,
+and in the middle of the court is a fountain surmounted by
+a statuette of William II., count of Holland (1227-1256). In the
+adjoining Buitenhof, or &ldquo;outer court,&rdquo; is a statue of King
+William II. (d. 1849), and the old Gevangen Poort, or prison gate
+(restored 1875), consisting of a tower and gateway. It was
+here that the brothers Cornelis and Jan de Witt were killed by
+the mob in 1672. On the opposite side of the Binnenhof is the
+busy square called the Plein, where all the tram-lines meet.
+Round about it are the buildings of the ministry of justice and
+other government buildings, including one to contain the state
+archives, the large club-house of the Witte Societeit, and the
+Mauritshuis. The Mauritshuis was built in 1633-1644 by Count
+John Maurice of Nassau, governor of Brazil, and contains the
+famous picture gallery of the Hague. The nucleus of this collection
+was formed by the princes of Orange, notably by the
+stadtholder William V. (1748-1806). King William I. did much
+to restore the losses caused by the removal of many of the
+pictures during the French occupation. Other artistic collections
+in the Hague are the municipal museum (<i>Gernsente</i> Museum), containing
+paintings by both ancient and modern Dutch artists, and
+some antiquities; the fine collection of pictures in the Steengracht
+gallery, belonging to Jonkheer Steengracht; the museum
+Meermanno-Westreenianum, named after Count Meermann and
+Baron Westreenen (d. 1850), containing some interesting MSS.
+and specimens of early typography and other curiosities; and
+the Mesdag Museum, containing the collection of the painter
+H. W. Mesdag (b. 1831) presented by him to the state. The
+royal library (1798) contains upwards of 500,000 volumes,
+including some early illuminated MSS., a valuable collection of
+coins and medals and some fine antique gems. In addition
+to the royal palace already mentioned, there are the palaces of
+the queen-dowager, of the prince of Orange (founded about 1720
+by Count Unico of Wassenaar Twiekels) and of the prince von
+Wied, dating from 1825, and containing some good early Dutch
+and Flemish masters. There are numerous churches of various
+denominations in the Hague as well as an English church, a
+Russian chapel and two synagogues, one of which is Portuguese.
+The Groote Kerk of St James (15th and 16th centuries) has a fine
+vaulted interior, and contains some old stained glass, a carved
+wooden pulpit (1550), a large organ and interesting sepulchral
+monuments, and some escutcheons of the knights of the Golden
+Fleece, placed here after the chapter of 1456. The Nieuwe Kerk,
+or new church (first half 17th century), contains the tombs of
+the brothers De Witt and of the philosopher Spinoza. Spinoza
+is further commemorated by a monument in front of the house
+in which he died in 1677. The picturesque town hall (built in
+1565 and restored and enlarged in 1882) contains a historical
+picture gallery. The principal other buildings are the provincial
+government offices, the royal school of music, the college of art,
+the large building (1874) of the society for arts and sciences, the
+ethnographical institute of the Netherlands Indies with fine
+library, the theatres, civil and military hospitals, orphanage,
+lunatic asylum and other charitable institutions; the fine
+modern railway station (1892), the cavalry and artillery and
+the infantry barracks, and the cannon foundry. The chief
+industries of the town are iron casting, copper and lead smelting,
+cannon founding, the manufacture of furniture and carriages,
+liqueur distilling, lithographing and printing.</p>
+
+<p>The Hague wood has been described as the city&rsquo;s finest
+ornament. It is composed chiefly of oaks and alders and magnificent
+avenues of gigantic beech-trees. Together with the Haarlem
+wood it is thought to be a remnant of the immense forest which
+once extended along the coast. At the end of one of the avenues
+which penetrates into it from the town is the large summer club-house
+of the Witte Societeit, under whose auspices concerts are
+given here in summer. Farther into the wood are some pretty
+little lakes, and the famous royal villa called the Huis ten Bosch,
+or &ldquo;house in the wood.&rdquo; This villa was built by Pieter Post for
+the Princess Amelia of Solms, in memory of her husband the
+stadtholder, Frederick Henry of Orange (d. 1647), and wings
+were added to it by Prince William IV. in 1748. The chief room
+is the Orange Saloon, an octagonal hall 50 ft. high, covered with
+paintings by Dutch and Flemish artists, chiefly of incidents in
+the life of Prince Frederick. In this room the International
+Peace Conference had its sittings in the summer of 1899. The
+collections in the Chinese and Japanese rooms, and the grisailles
+in the dining-room painted by Jacobus de Wit (1695-1754),
+are also noteworthy.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the Hague is in some respects singular. In
+the 13th century it was no more than a hunting-lodge of the counts
+of Holland, and though Count Floris V. (b. 1254-1296) made it
+his residence and it thus became the seat of the supreme court of
+justice of Holland and the centre of the administration, and
+from the time of William of Orange onward the meeting-place of
+the states-general, it only received the status of a town, from
+King Louis Bonaparte, early in the 19th century.</p>
+
+<p>In the latter part of the 17th and the first half of the 18th
+century the Hague was the centre of European diplomacy.
+Among the many treaties and conventions signed here may be
+mentioned the treaty of the Triple Alliance (January 23, 1688)
+between England, Sweden and the Netherlands; the concert of
+the Hague (March 31, 1710) between the Emperor, England and
+Holland, for the maintenance of the neutrality of the Swedish
+provinces in Germany during the war of the northern powers
+against Sweden; the Triple Alliance (January 4, 1717) between
+France, England and Holland for the guarantee of the treaty of
+Utrecht; the treaty of peace (Feb. 17, 1717) between Spain, Savoy
+and Austria, by which the first-named acceded to the principles
+of the Triple Alliance; the treaty of peace between Holland and
+France (May 16, 1795); the first &ldquo;Hague Convention,&rdquo; the outcome
+of the &ldquo;peace conference&rdquo; assembled on the initiative of the
+emperor Nicholas II. of Russia (July 27, 1899), and the series of
+conventions, the results of the second peace conference (June 15-October
+18, 1907). The International court of arbitration or
+Hague Tribunal was established in 1899 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Europe</a></span>: <i>History</i>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arbitration, International</a></span>). The Palace of Peace designed
+to be completed in 1913 as the seat of the tribunal, on the Scheveningen
+avenue, is by a French architect, L. M. Cordonnier, and
+A. Carnegie contributed £300,000 towards its cost.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAHN, AUGUST<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (1792-1863), German Protestant theologian,
+was born on the 27th of March 1792 at Grossosterhausen near
+Eisleben, and studied theology at the university of Leipzig.
+In 1819 he was nominated <i>professor extraordinarius</i> of theology
+and pastor of Altstadt in Königsberg, and in 1820 received a
+superintendency in that city. In 1822 he became <i>professor
+ordinarius</i>. In 1826 he removed as professor of theology to
+Leipzig, where, hitherto distinguished only as editor of Bardesanes,
+Marcion (<i>Marcion&rsquo;s Evangelium in seiner ursprünglichen
+Gestalt</i>, 1823), and Ephraem Syrus, and the joint editor of a
+<i>Syrische Chrestomathie</i> (1824), he came into great prominence as
+the author of a treatise, <i>De rationalismi qui dicitur vera indole et
+qua cum naturalismo contineatur ratione</i> (1827), and also of an
+<i>Offene Erklärung an die Evangelische Kirche zunächst in Sachsen
+u. Preussen</i> (1827), in which, as a member of the school of E. W.
+Hengstenberg, he endeavoured to convince the rationalists
+that it was their duty voluntarily and at once to withdraw from
+the national church. In 1833 Hahn&rsquo;s pamphlet against K. G.
+Bretschneider (<i>Über die Lage des Christenthums in unserer Zeit</i>,
+1832) having attracted the notice of Friedrich Wilhelm III., he
+was called to Breslau as theological professor and consistorial
+councillor, and in 1843 became &ldquo;general superintendent&rdquo; of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page819" id="page819"></a>819</span>
+the province of Silesia. He died at Breslau on the 13th of May
+1863. Though uncompromising in his &ldquo;supra-naturalism,&rdquo; he
+did not altogether satisfy the men of his own school by his own
+doctrinal system. The first edition of his <i>Lehrbuch des christlichen
+Glaubens</i> (1828) was freely characterized as lacking in
+consistency and as detracting from the strength of the old
+positions in many important points. Many of these defects,
+however, he is considered to have remedied in his second edition
+(1857). Among his other works are his edition of the Hebrew
+Bible (1833), his <i>Bibliothek der Symbole und Glaubensregeln
+der apostolisch-katholischen Kirche</i> (1842; 2nd ed. 1877) and
+<i>Predigten</i> (1852).</p>
+
+<p>His eldest son, <span class="sc">Heinrich August Hahn</span> (1821-1861), after
+studying theology at Breslau and Berlin, became successively
+<i>Privatdozent</i> at Breslau (1845), professor <i>ad interim</i> (1846) at
+Königsberg on the death of Heinrich Hävernick, professor
+extraordinarius (1851) and professor ordinarius (1860) at Greifswald.
+Amongst his published works were a commentary on
+the Book of Job (1850), a translation of the Song of Songs (1852),
+an exposition of Isaiah xl.-lxvi. (1857) and a commentary on the
+Book of Ecclesiastes (1860).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the articles in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, and the
+<i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAHNEMANN, SAMUEL CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> (1755-1843),
+German physician and founder of &ldquo;homoeopathy,&rdquo; was
+born at Meissen in Saxony on the 10th of April 1755. He was
+educated at the &ldquo;elector&rsquo;s school&rdquo; of Meissen, and studied
+medicine at Leipzig and Vienna, taking the degree of M.D. at
+Erlangen in 1779. After practising in various places, he settled
+in Dresden in 1784, and thence removed to Leipzig in 1789. In
+the following year, while translating W. Cullen&rsquo;s <i>Materia medica</i>
+into German, he was struck by the fact that the symptoms produced
+by quinine on the healthy body were similar to those of
+the disordered states it was used to cure. He had previously felt
+dissatisfied with the state of the science of medicine, and this
+observation led him to assert the truth of the &ldquo;law of similars,&rdquo;
+<i>similia similibus curantur</i> or <i>curentur</i>&mdash;<i>i.e.</i> diseases are cured
+(or should be treated) by those drugs which produce symptoms
+similar to them in the healthy. He promulgated his new
+principle in a paper published in 1796 in C. W. Hufeland&rsquo;s
+<i>Journal</i>, and four years later, convinced that drugs in much
+smaller doses than were generally employed effectually exerted
+their curative powers, he advanced his doctrine of their potentization
+or dynamization. In 1810 he published his chief work,
+<i>Organon der rationellen Heilkunde</i>, containing an exposition of his
+system, which he called homoeopathy (<i>q.v.</i>), and in the following
+years appeared the six volumes of his <i>Reine Arzneimittellehre</i>,
+which detailed the symptoms produced by &ldquo;proving&rdquo; a large
+number of drugs, <i>i.e.</i> by systematically administering them to
+healthy subjects. In 1821 the hostility of established interests,
+and especially of the apothecaries, whose services were not
+required under his system, forced him to leave Leipzig, and at
+the invitation of the grand-duke of Anhalt-Cöthen he went
+to live at Cöthen. Fourteen years later he removed to Paris,
+where he practised with great success until his death on the
+2nd of July 1843. Statues were erected to his memory at
+Leipzig in 1851 and at Cöthen in 1855. He also wrote, in
+addition to the works already mentioned, <i>Fragmenta de viribus
+medicamentorum positivis</i> (1805) and <i>Die chronischen Krankheiten</i>
+(1828-1830).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Homoeopathy</a></span>; also Albrecht, <i>Hahnemann&rsquo;s Leben
+und Werken</i> (Leipzig, 1875); Bradford, <i>Hahnemann&rsquo;s Life and
+Letters</i> (Philadelphia, 1895).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAHN-HAHN, IDA,<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> <span class="sc">Countess Von</span> (1805-1880), German
+author, was born at Tressow, in Mecklenburg-Schwerin, on
+the 22nd of June 1805, daughter of Graf (Count) Karl Friedrich
+von Hahn (1782-1857), well known for his enthusiasm for the
+stage, upon which he squandered a large portion of his fortune.
+She married in 1826 her wealthy cousin Count Adolf von Hahn-Hahn.
+With him she had an extremely unhappy life, and in
+1829 her husband&rsquo;s irregularities led to a divorce. The countess
+travelled, produced some volumes of poetry indicating true
+lyrical feeling, and in 1838 appeared as a novelist with <i>Aus der
+Gesellschaft</i>, a title which, proving equally applicable to her
+subsequent novels, was retained as that of a series, the book
+originally so entitled being renamed <i>Ida Schönholm</i>. For
+several years the countess continued to produce novels bearing a
+certain subjective resemblance to those of George Sand, but less
+hostile to social institutions, and dealing almost exclusively
+with aristocratic society. The author&rsquo;s patrician affectations
+at length drew upon her the merciless ridicule of Fanny Lewald
+in a parody of her style entitled <i>Diogena</i> (1847), and this and the
+revolution of 1848 together seem to have co-operated in inducing
+her to embrace the Roman Catholic religion in 1850. She
+justified her step in a polemical work entitled <i>Von Babylon nach
+Jerusalem</i> (1851), which elicited a vigorous reply from H. Abeken.
+In 1852 she retired into a convent at Angers, which she, however,
+soon left, taking up her residence at Mainz where she founded a
+nunnery, in which she lived without joining the order, and
+continued her literary labours. For many years her novels were
+the most popular works of fiction in aristocratic circles; many
+of her later publications, however, passed unnoticed as mere
+party manifestoes. Her earlier works do not deserve the neglect
+into which they have fallen. If their sentimentalism is sometimes
+wearisome, it is grounded on genuine feeling and expressed
+with passionate eloquence. <i>Ulrich</i> and <i>Gräfin Faustine</i>, both
+published in 1841, mark the culmination of her power; but
+<i>Sigismund Forster</i> (1843), <i>Cecil</i> (1844), <i>Sibylle</i> (1846) and <i>Maria
+Regina</i> (1860) also obtained considerable popularity. She died
+at Mainz on the 12th of January 1880.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Her collected works, <i>Gesammelte Werke</i>, with an introduction by
+O. von Schaching, were published in two series, 45 volumes in all
+(Regensburg, 1903-1904). See H. Keiter, <i>Gräfin Hahn-Hahn</i>
+(Würzburg, undated); P. Haffner, <i>Gräfin Ida Hahn-Hahn</i>, <i>eine
+psychologische Studie</i> (Frankfort, 1880); A. Jacoby, <i>Ida Gräfin
+Hahn-Hahn</i> (Mainz, 1894).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAI<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (939-1038), Jewish Talmudical scholar, was born in 939.
+He was educated by his father Sherira, gaon of Pombeditha
+(Pumbedita), whom he afterwards assisted in his work. They
+were cast into prison for a short time by the caliph Qadir, and
+subsequently on Sherira&rsquo;s death Hai was appointed gaon in
+his place (998). This office he held till his death on the 28th of
+March 1038. He is famous chiefly for his answers to problems
+of ritual and civil law. He composed important treatises on
+Talmudic law and the <i>Mishnah</i>; many poems are also attributed
+to him on doubtful authority. In his <i>responsa</i> he laid stress on
+custom and tradition provided no infringement of the law
+were involved, and was essentially conservative in theology.
+He had considerable knowledge not only of religious movements
+within the Jewish body, but also of Mahommedan theology and
+controversial method, and frequently consulted theologians of
+other beliefs.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Steinschneider, <i>Hebr. Übersetz</i>. p. 910, and article in <i>Jewish
+Encyclopedia</i>, vi. 153.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAIBAK,<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> a town and khanate of Afghan Turkestan. The
+valley of Haibak, which is 3100 ft. above sea level, is fertile and
+richly cultivated. The town, which is famed in Persian legend,
+consists now of only a couple of streets, containing many Hindu
+shops and a small garrison. The inhabitants call themselves
+Jagatais, a Turki race, though now generally mixed with Tajiks
+and speaking Persian. In the neighbourhood of Haibak are
+some very typical Buddhist ruins. Haibak derives its importance
+from its position on the main line of communication between
+Kabul and Afghan Turkestan.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAIDA,<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> a tribe of North American Indians of Skittagetan
+stock. They still occupy their original home, the Queen Charlotte
+islands, British Columbia. They are skilful seamen,
+making long fishing expeditions in cedarwood canoes. They
+are noted for their carving and basket-work. They formerly
+made raids on the coast tribes. Slavery was hereditary, the
+slaves being prisoners of war. The population, some 7000 in
+the middle of the 19th century, is now reduced to a few hundreds.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Handbook of American Indians</i> (Washington, 1907). For
+&ldquo;Haida Texts and Myths,&rdquo; see <i>Bull. 29 Smithsonian Institution Bureau
+Amer. Ethnol.</i> (1905).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page820" id="page820"></a>820</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAIDINGER, WILHELM KARL,<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> <span class="sc">Ritter von</span> (1795-1871),
+Austrian mineralogist, geologist and physicist, was born at Vienna
+on the 5th of February 1795. His father, Karl Haidinger,
+contributed largely to the development of mineralogical science
+in the latter half of the 18th century. Having studied at the
+normal school of St Anne, and attended classes at the university,
+Wilhelm, at the age of seventeen, joined Professor F. Mohs at
+Gratz, and five years later accompanied the professor to Freiberg
+on the transfer of his labours to the mining academy of that
+town.</p>
+
+<p>In 1822 Haidinger visited France and England with Count
+Breunner, and, journeying northward, took up his abode in
+Edinburgh. He translated into English, with additions of his
+own, Mohs&rsquo;s <i>Grundriss der Mineralogie</i>, published at Edinburgh
+in three volumes under the title <i>Treatise on Mineralogy</i> (1825).
+After a tour in northern Europe, including the Scandinavian
+mining districts, he undertook the scientific direction of the
+porcelain works at Elbogen, belonging to his brothers. In 1840
+he was appointed counsellor of mines (Bergrat) at Vienna in the
+place of Professor Mohs, a post which included the charge of the
+imperial cabinet of minerals. He devoted himself to the rearrangement
+and enrichment of the collections, and the museum
+became the first in Europe. Shortly after (1843) Haidinger
+commenced a series of lectures on mineralogy, which was given
+to the world under the title <i>Handbuch der bestimmenden Mineralogie</i>
+(Vienna, 1845; tables, 1846). On the establishment of the
+imperial geological institute, he was chosen director (1849);
+and this important position he occupied for seventeen years.
+He was elected a member of the imperial board of agriculture and
+mines, and a member of the imperial academy of sciences of
+Vienna. He organized the society of the Freunde der Naturwissenschaften.
+As a physicist Haidinger ranked high, and he
+was one of the most active promoters of scientific progress in
+Austria. He was the discoverer of the interesting optical
+appearances which have been called after him &ldquo;Haidinger&rsquo;s
+brushes.&rdquo; Knighted in 1865, the following year he retired to his
+estate at Dornbach near Vienna, where he died on the 19th of
+March 1871.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In addition to the works already named, Haidinger published
+<i>Anfangsgründe der Mineralogie</i> (Leipzig, 1829); <i>Geognostische Übersichtskarte
+der österreich. Monarchie</i> (Vienna, 1847); <i>Bemerkungen
+über die Anordnung der kleinsten Theilchen in Christallen</i> (Vienna,
+1853); <i>Interferenzlinien am Glimmer</i> (Vienna, 1855); <i>Vergleichungen
+von Augit und Amphibol</i> (Vienna, 1855). He also edited the
+<i>Naturwissenschaftliche Abhandlungen</i> (Vienna, 1847); the <i>Berichte
+über die Mittheilungen von Freunden der Naturwissenschaften
+in Wien</i> (Vienna, 1847-1851); and the <i>Jahrbuch</i> of the Vienna K.
+K. Geologische Reichsanstalt (1850), &amp;c. Some of his papers will
+be found in the <i>Transactions</i> of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
+(vol. x.) and of the Wernerian Society (1822-1823), <i>Edinburgh
+Phil. Journal, Brewster&rsquo;s Journal of Science</i>, and <i>Poggendorff&rsquo;s
+Annalen</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. B. Wo.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAIDUK<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (also written <i>Hayduk, Heiduc, Heyduke</i> and <i>Heyduque</i>),
+a term which appears originally to have meant &ldquo;robber&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;brigand,&rdquo; a sense it retains in Servia and some other parts
+of the Balkan Peninsula. It is probably derived from the
+Turkish <i>haid&#363;d</i>, &ldquo;marauder,&rdquo; but its origin is not absolutely
+certain. Most of the European races with which the Turks came
+into close contact during the 15th and 16th centuries seem to have
+adopted it as a loan-word, and it appears in Magyar as <i>hajdú</i>
+(plural <i>hajduk</i>), in Serbo-Croatian, Rumanian, Polish and &#268;ech
+as <i>hajduk</i>, in Bulgarian as <i>hajdutin</i> and in Greek as <span class="grk" title="chaintoutês">&#967;&#945;&#953;&#957;&#964;&#959;&#973;&#964;&#951;&#962;</span>.
+By the beginning of the 17th century its use had spread north
+and west as far as Sweden and Great Britain. In Hungary it
+was applied to a class of mercenary foot-soldiers of Magyar stock.
+In 1605 these haiduks were rewarded for their fidelity to the
+Protestant party (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hungary</a></span>: <i>History</i>) with titles of nobility
+and territorial rights over a district situated on the left bank
+of the river Theiss, known thenceforward as the Haiduk region.
+This was enlarged in 1876 and converted into the county of
+Hajdú (Ger. <i>Hajduken</i>). <i>Hajdú</i> is also a common prefix in
+Hungarian place-names, <i>e.g.</i> Hajdú-Szoboszló, Hajdú-Námás.
+In Austria-Hungary, Germany, Poland, Sweden and some other
+countries, <i>haiduk</i> came to mean an attendant in a court of law,
+or a male servant, dressed in Hungarian semi-military costume.
+It is also occasionally used as a synonym for &ldquo;footman&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;lackey.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAIFA,<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> a town of Palestine at the foot of Mt. Carmel, on the
+south of the Bay of Acre. It represents the classical Sycaminum,
+but the present town is entirely modern. It has developed since
+about 1890 into an important port, and is connected by railway
+with Damascus. The population is estimated at 12,000 (Moslems
+6000, Christians 4000, Jews 1500, Germans 500; the last
+belong for the greater part to the Unitarian sect of the
+&ldquo;Templars,&rdquo; who have colonies also at Jaffa and Jerusalem).
+The exports (grain and oil) were valued at £178,738 in 1900.
+Much of the trade that formerly went to Acre has been attracted
+to Haifa. This port is the best natural harbour on the Palestine
+coast.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAIK<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (an Arabic word, from <i>hak</i>, to weave), a piece of cloth,
+usually of coarse hand-woven wool, worn by Arabs, Moors and
+other Mahommedan peoples. It is generally 6 to 6½ yds. long,
+and about 2 broad. It is either striped or plain, and is
+worn equally by both sexes, usually as an outer covering; but
+it is often the only garment of the poorer classes. By women the
+&ldquo;haik&rdquo; is arranged to cover the head and, in the presence of
+men, is held so as to conceal the face. A thin &ldquo;haik&rdquo; of silk,
+like a veil, is used by brides at their marriage.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAIL<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> (O. Eng. <i>hægl</i> and <i>hagol</i>,<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> cf. the cognate Teutonic <i>hagel</i>,
+as in German, Dutch, Swedish, &amp;c.; the Gr. <span class="grk" title="kachlêx">&#954;&#940;&#967;&#955;&#951;&#958;</span>, pebble, is
+probably allied), the name for rounded masses or single pellets
+of ice falling from the clouds in a shower. True hail has a concentric
+structure caused by the frozen particles of moisture first
+descending into a warm cloud, whence they are carried upwards
+on an ascending current of heated air into a cold stratum where
+the fresh coating of water vapour deposited in the cloud is frozen.
+The hailstone descends again, receives a fresh coating, is carried
+up once more, refrozen, and again descends. Thus the hailstone
+grows until the current is no longer strong enough to support it
+when it falls to the ground. At times masses of hail are frozen
+together, and a very sudden cooling will sometimes result in the
+formation of ragged masses of ice that fall with disastrous
+results. Hail must be distinguished from the frozen snow,
+&ldquo;soft-hail&rdquo; or &ldquo;graupel,&rdquo; that often falls at the rear of a spring
+cyclone, since true hail is almost entirely a summer phenomenon,
+and falls most frequently in thunderstorms which are produced
+under the conditions that are favourable to the formation of
+hail, <i>i.e.</i> great heat, a still atmosphere, the production of strong
+local convection currents in consequence, and the passage of
+a cold upper drift.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> &ldquo;Hail,&rdquo; a call of greeting or salutation, a shout to attract
+attention, must, of course, be distinguished. This word represents
+the Old Norwegian <i>heill</i>, prosperity, cognate with O. Eng. <i>h&#257;l</i>,
+whence &ldquo;hale,&rdquo; &ldquo;whole,&rdquo; and <i>hæl</i>, whence &ldquo;health,&rdquo; &ldquo;heal.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAILES, DAVID DALRYMPLE,<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> <span class="sc">Lord</span> (1726-1792), Scottish
+lawyer and historian, was born at Edinburgh on the 28th of
+October 1726. His father, Sir James Dalrymple, Bart., of
+Hailes, in the county of Haddington, auditor-general of the
+exchequer of Scotland, was a grandson of James, first Viscount
+Stair; and his mother, Lady Christian Hamilton, was a daughter
+of Thomas, 6th earl of Haddington. David was the eldest of
+sixteen children. He was educated at Eton, and studied law at
+Utrecht, being intended for the Scottish bar, to which he was
+admitted shortly after his return to Scotland in 1748. As a
+pleader he attained neither high distinction nor very extensive
+practice, but he rapidly established a well-deserved reputation
+for sound knowledge, unwearied application and strict probity;
+and in 1766 he was elevated to the bench, when he assumed the
+title of Lord Hailes. Ten years later he was appointed a lord of
+justiciary. He died on the 29th of November 1792. He was
+twice married, and had a daughter by each wife. The baronetcy
+to which he had succeeded passed to the son of his brother John,
+provost of Edinburgh. Another brother was Alexander
+Dalrymple (1737-1808), the first admiralty hydrographer, who
+distinguished himself in the East India Company&rsquo;s service and
+as a geographer. Lord Hailes&rsquo;s younger daughter married Sir
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page821" id="page821"></a>821</span>
+James Fergusson; and their grandson, Sir Charles Dalrymple,
+1st Bart. (cr. 1887), M.P. for Bute from 1868 to 1885, afterwards
+came into Lord Hailes&rsquo;s estate and took his family name.</p>
+
+<p>Lord Hailes&rsquo;s most important contribution to literature was
+the <i>Annals of Scotland</i>, of which the first volume, &ldquo;From the
+accession of Malcolm III., surnamed Canmore, to the accession of
+Robert I.,&rdquo; appeared in 1776, and the second, &ldquo;From the accession
+of Robert I., surnamed Bruce, to the accession of the house
+of Stewart,&rdquo; in 1779. It is, as Dr Johnson justly described this
+work at the time of its appearance, a &ldquo;Dictionary&rdquo; of carefully
+sifted facts, which tells all that is wanted and all that is known,
+but without any laboured splendour of language or affected
+subtlety of conjecture. The other works of Lord Hailes include
+<i>Historical Memoirs concerning the Provincial Councils of the
+Scottish Clergy</i> (1769); <i>An Examination of some of the Arguments
+for the High Antiquity of Regiam Majestatem</i> (1769); three
+volumes entitled <i>Remains of Christian Antiquity</i> (&ldquo;Account of
+the Martyrs of Smyrna and Lyons in the Second Century,&rdquo;
+1776; &ldquo;The Trials of Justin Martyr, Cyprian, &amp;c.,&rdquo; 1778;
+&ldquo;The History of the Martyrs of Palestine, translated from
+Eusebius,&rdquo; 1780); <i>Disquisitions concerning the Antiquities of the
+Christian Church</i> (1783); and editions or translations of portions
+of Lactantius, Tertullian and Minucius Felix. In 1786 he published
+<i>An Inquiry into the Secondary Causes which Mr Gibbon
+has assigned for the Rapid Growth of Christianity</i> (Dutch translation,
+Utrecht, 1793), one of the most respectable of the very
+many replies which were made to the famous 15th and 16th
+chapters of the <i>Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i>.</p>
+
+<p>A &ldquo;Memoir&rdquo; of Lord Hailes is prefixed to the 1808 reprint of his
+<i>Inquiry into the Secondary Causes</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAILSHAM,<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> a market-town in the Eastbourne parliamentary
+division of Sussex, England, 54 m. S.S.E. from London by the
+London, Brighton &amp; South Coast railway. Pop. (1901), 4197.
+The church of St Mary is Perpendicular. The picturesque
+Augustinian priory of Michelham lies 2 m. W. by the Cuckmere
+river; it is altered into a dwelling house, but retains a gate-house,
+crypt and other portions of Early English date. There
+was also a Premonstratensian house at Otham, 3 m. S., but the
+remains are scanty. Hailsham has a considerable agricultural
+trade, and manufactures of rope and matting are carried on.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAINAN,<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> or, as it is usually called in Chinese, <i>K&rsquo;iung-chow-fu</i>,
+a large island belonging to the Chinese province of Kwang-tung,
+and situated between the Chinese Sea and the Gulf of Tong-king
+from 20° 8&prime; to 17° 52&prime; N., and from 108° 32&prime; to 111° 15&prime; E. It
+measures 160 m. from N.E. to S.W., and the average breadth
+is about 90 m. The area is estimated at from 1200 to 1400 sq.
+m., or two-thirds the size of Sicily. From the peninsula of Lei-chow
+on the north it is separated by the straits of Hainan,
+which have a breadth of 15 or 20 m.</p>
+
+<p>With the exception of a considerable area in the north, and
+broad tracts on the north-east and north-west sides, the whole
+island is occupied by jungle-covered mountains, with rich valleys
+between. The central range bears the name of Li-mou shan or
+Wu-tchi shan (the Five-Finger Mountain), and attains a height
+of 6000 or 7000 ft. Its praises are celebrated in a glowing ode
+by Ch&lsquo;iu, a native poet. The island appears to be well watered,
+and some of its rivers are not without importance as possible
+highways of commerce; but the details of its hydrography are
+very partially ascertained. A navigable channel extends in an
+irregular curve from the bay of Hoi-how (Hai-K&lsquo;ow) in the north
+to Tan-chow on the west coast. Being exposed to the winter
+monsoon, the northern parts of the island enjoy much the same
+sort of temperate climate as the neighbouring provinces of the
+mainland, but in the southern parts, protected from the monsoon
+by the mountain ranges, the climate is almost or entirely tropical.
+Snow falls so rarely that its appearance in 1684 is reported in
+the native chronicles as a remarkable event. Earthquakes are a
+much more familiar phenomenon, having occurred, according to
+the same authority, in 1523, 1526, 1605, 1652, 1677, 1681, 1684,
+1702, 1704, 1725, 1742, 1816, 1817 and 1822. Excellent timber
+of various kinds&mdash;eagle-wood, rose-wood, liquidambar, &amp;c.&mdash;is
+one of the principal products of the island, and has even
+been specially transported to Peking for imperial purposes. The
+coco palm flourishes freely even in the north, and is to be found
+growing in clumps with the <i>Pinus sinensis</i>. Rice, cotton, sugar,
+indigo, cinnamon, betel-nuts, sweet potatoes, ground-nuts and
+tobacco are all cultivated in varying quantities. The aboriginal
+inhabitants collect a kind of tea called t&rsquo;ien ch&rsquo;a, or celestial tea,
+which looks like the leaves of a wild camellia, and has an earthy
+taste when infused. Lead, silver, copper and iron occur in the
+Shi-lu shan or &ldquo;stone-green-hill&rdquo;; the silver at least was worked
+till 1850. Gold and lapis lazuli are found in other parts of the
+island.</p>
+
+<p>The ordinary cattle of Hainan are apparently a cross between
+the little yellow cow of south China and the zebu of India.
+Buffaloes are common, and in the neighbourhood of Nanlu at
+least they are frequently albinos. Horses are numerous but small.
+Hogs and deer are both common wild animals, and of the latter
+there are three species, <i>Cervus Eldi, Cervus hippelaphus</i> and
+<i>Cervus vaginalis</i>. Among the birds, of which 172 species are
+described by Mr Swinhoe in his paper in <i>The Ibis</i> (1870), there are
+eagles, notably a new species <i>Spilornis Rutherfordi</i>, buzzards,
+harriers, kites, owls, goatsuckers and woodpeckers. The <i>Upupa
+ceylonensis</i> is familiar to the natives as the &ldquo;bird of the Li
+matrons,&rdquo; and the <i>Palaeornis javanica</i> as the &ldquo;sugar-cane bird.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Hainan forms a fu or department of the province of Kwang-tung,
+though strictly it is only a portion of the island that is
+under Chinese administration, the remainder being still occupied
+by unsubjugated aborigines. The department contains three
+<i>chow</i> and ten <i>hien</i> districts. K&lsquo;iung-chow-hien, in which the
+capital is situated; Ting-an-hien, the only inland district;
+Wen-ch&lsquo;ang-hien, in the north-east of the island; Hui-t&lsquo;ung-hien,
+Lo-hui-hien, Ling-shu-hien, Wan-chow, Yai-chow (the
+southmost of all), Kan-&#275;n-hien, Ch&rsquo;ang-hwa-hien, Tan-chow,
+Lin-kao-hien and Ch&lsquo;&#275;ng-mai-hien. The capital K&rsquo;iung-chow-fu
+is situated in the north about 10 li (or 3 m.) from the coast on
+the river. It is a well-built compact city, and its temples and
+examination halls are in good preservation. Carved articles in
+coco-nuts and scented woods are its principal industrial product.
+In 1630 it was made the seat of a Roman Catholic mission by
+Benoit de Mathos, a Portuguese Jesuit, and the old cemetery
+still contains about 113 Christian graves. The port of K&lsquo;iung-chow-fu
+at the mouth of the river, which is nearly dry at low
+water, is called simply Hoi-how, or in the court dialect Hai-K&lsquo;ow,
+<i>i.e.</i> seaport. The two towns are united by a good road, along
+which a large traffic is maintained partly by coolie porters but
+more frequently by means of wheel-barrows, which serve the
+purpose of cabs and carts. The value of the trade of the port
+has risen from £670,600 in 1899 to £719,333 in 1904. In the same
+year 424 vessels, representing a tonnage of 312,554, visited the
+port. This trade is almost entirely with the British colony of
+Hong-Kong, with which the port is connected by small coasting
+steamers, but since 1893 it has had regular steamboat communication
+with Haiphong in Tongking. The population of
+K&lsquo;iung-chow, including its shipping port of Hoi-how, is estimated
+at 52,000. The number of foreign residents in 1900 was about
+30, most of them officials or missionaries.</p>
+
+<p>The inhabitants of Hainan may be divided into three classes,
+the Chinese immigrants, the civilized aborigines or Shu-li and
+the wild aborigines or Sheng-li. The Chinese were for the most
+part originally from Kwang-si and the neighbouring provinces,
+and they speak a peculiar dialect, of which a detailed account by
+Mr Swinhoe was given in <i>The Phoenix, a Monthly Magazine for
+China, &amp;c.</i> (1870). The Shu-li as described by Mr Taintor are
+almost of the same stature as the Chinese, but have a more
+decided copper colour, higher cheek-bones and more angular
+features, while their eyes are not oblique. Their hair is long,
+straight and black, and their beards, if they have any, are very
+scanty. They till the soil and bring rice, fuel, timber, grass-cloth,
+&amp;c., to the Chinese markets. The Sheng-li or Li proper, called
+also La, Le or Lauy, are probably connected with the Laos of
+Siam and the Lolos of China. Though not gratuitously aggressive,
+they are highly intractable, and have given great trouble
+to the Chinese authorities. Among themselves they carry on
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page822" id="page822"></a>822</span>
+deadly feuds, and revenge is a duty and an inheritance. Though
+they are mainly dependent on the chase for food, their weapons
+are still the spear and the bow, the latter being made of wood and
+strung with bamboo. In marriage no avoidance of similarity
+of name is required. The bride&rsquo;s face is tattooed according to a
+pattern furnished by the bridegroom. Their funeral mourning
+consists of abstaining from drink and eating raw beef, and they
+use a wooden log for a coffin. When sick they sacrifice oxen.
+In the spring-time there is a festival in which the men and
+women from neighbouring settlements move about in gay
+clothing hand in hand and singing songs. The whole population
+of the island is estimated at about 2½ millions. At its first
+conquest 23,000 families were introduced from the mainland.
+In 1300 the Chinese authorities assign 166,257 inhabitants; in
+1370, 291,000; in 1617, 250,524; and in 1835, 1,350,000.</p>
+
+<p>It was in 111 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> that Lu-Po-Teh, general of the emperor Wu-ti,
+first made the island of Hainan subject to the Chinese, who
+divided it into the two prefectures, Tan-urh or Drooping Ear
+in the south, so-called from the long ears of the native &ldquo;king,&rdquo;
+and Chu-yai or Pearl Shore in the north. During the decadence
+of the elder branch of the Han dynasty the Chinese supremacy
+was weakened, but in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 43 the natives were led by the success
+of Ma-yuan in Tong-king to make a new tender of their allegiance.
+About this time the whole island took the name of Chu-yai. In
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 627 the name of K&lsquo;iung-chow came into use. On its conquest
+by the generals of Kublai Khan in 1278 the island was
+incorporated with the western part of the province of Kwang-tung
+in a new satrapy, Hai-peh Hai-nan Tao, <i>i.e.</i> the circuit north
+of the sea and south of the sea. It was thus that Hai-nan-Tao,
+or district south of the sea or strait, came into use as the name of
+the island, which, however, has borne the official title of K&lsquo;iung-chow-fu,
+probably derived from the Kiung shan or Jade Mountains,
+ever since 1370, the date of its erection into a department
+of Kwang-tung. For a long time Hainan was the refuge of the
+turbulent classes of China and the place of deportation for
+delinquent officials. It was there, for example, that Su-She or
+Su-Tung-po was banished in 1097. From the 15th to the 19th
+century pirates made the intercourse with the mainland dangerous,
+and in the 17th they were considered so formidable that
+merchants were allowed to convey their goods only across the
+narrow Hainan Strait. Since 1863 the presence of English men-of-war
+has put an end to this evil. According to the treaty of
+Tientsin, the capital K&rsquo;iung-chow and the harbour Hoi-how
+(Hai-Kow) were opened to European commerce; but it was not
+till 1876 that advantage was taken of the permission.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAINAU<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> (officially <span class="sc">Haynau</span>), a town of Germany, in the
+Prussian province of Silesia, on the Schnelle Deichsa and the
+railway from Breslau to Dresden, 12 m. N.W. of Liegnitz. Pop.
+10,500. It has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church,
+manufactories of gloves, patent leather, paper, metal ware
+and artificial manures, and a considerable trade in cereals. Near
+Hainau the Prussian cavalry under Blücher inflicted a defeat on
+the French rearguard on the 26th of May 1813.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAINAUT<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> (Flem. <i>Henegouwen</i>, Ger. <i>Hennegau</i>), a province
+of Belgium formed out of the ancient county of Hainaut. Modern
+Hainaut is famous as containing the chief coal and iron mines
+of Belgium. There are about 150,000 men and women employed
+in the mines, and about as many more in the iron and steel works
+of the province. About 1880 these numbers were not more than
+half their present totals. The principal towns of Hainaut are
+Mons, the capital, Charleroi, Tournai, Jumet and La Louvière.
+The province is watered by both the Scheldt and the Sambre,
+and is connected with Flanders by the Charleroi-Ghent canal.
+The area of the province is computed at 930,405 acres or
+1453 sq. m. In 1904 the population was 1,192,967, showing an
+average of 821 per square mile.</p>
+
+<p>Under the successors of Clovis Hainaut formed part, first
+of the kingdom of Metz, and then of that of Lotharingia. It
+afterwards became part of the duchy of Lorraine. The first to
+bear the title of count of Hainaut was Reginar &ldquo;Long-Neck&rdquo;
+(<i>c.</i> 875), who, later on, made himself master of the duchy of
+Lorraine and died in 916. His eldest son inherited Lower
+Lorraine, the younger, Reginar II., the countship of Hainaut,
+which remained in the male line of his descendants, all named
+Reginar, until the death of Reginar V. in 1036. His heiress,
+Richildis, married <i>en secondes noces</i> Baldwin VI. of Flanders,
+and, by him, became the ancestress of the Baldwin (VI. of
+Hainaut) who in 1204 was raised by the Crusaders to the empire
+of Constantinople. The emperor Baldwin&rsquo;s elder daughter
+Jeanne brought the countship of Hainaut to her husbands
+Ferdinand of Portugal (d. 1233) and Thomas of Savoy (d. 1259).
+On her death in 1244, however, it passed to her sister Margaret,
+on whose death in 1279 it was inherited by her grandson,
+John of Avesnes, count of Holland (d. 1304). The countship of
+Hainaut remained united with that of Holland during the 14th
+and 15th centuries. It was under the counts William I. &ldquo;the
+Good&rdquo; (1304-1337), whose daughter Philippa married Edward
+III. of England, and William II. (1337-1345) that the communes
+of Hainaut attained great political importance. Margaret, who
+succeeded her brother William II. in 1345, by her marriage
+with the emperor Louis IV. brought Hainaut with the rest of
+her dominions to the house of Wittelsbach. Finally, early in
+the 15th century, the countess Jacqueline was dispossessed by
+Philip the Good of Burgundy, and Hainaut henceforward shared
+the fate of the rest of the Netherlands.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;The <i>Chronicon Hanoniense</i> or <i>Chronica Honnoniae</i>
+of Giselbert of Mons (d. 1223-1225), chancellor of Count Baldwin V.,
+covering the period between 1040 and 1195, is published in Pertz,
+<i>Monum. Germ.</i> (Hanover, 1840, &amp;c.). The <i>Chronicon Hanoniense</i>,
+ascribed to Baldwin, count of Avesnes (d. 1289), and written between
+1278 and 1281, was published under the title <i>Hist. genealogica
+comitum Hannoniae</i>, &amp;c., at Antwerp (1691 and 1693) and Brussels
+(1722). The Annals of Jacques de Guise (b. 1334; d. 1399) were
+published by de Fortia d&rsquo;Urban under the title, <i>Histoire de Hainault
+par Jacques de Guyse</i>, in 19 vols. (Paris, 1826-1838); C.
+Delacourt, &ldquo;Bibliographie de l&rsquo;hist. du Hainaut,&rdquo; in the <i>Annales
+du cercle archéologique de Mons</i>, vol. v. (Mons, 1864); T. Bernier,
+<i>Dict. géograph. historique, &amp;c., de Hainault</i> (Mons, 1891). See also
+Ulysse Chevalier, <i>Répertoire des sources</i> s.v.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAINBURG,<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Haimburg</span>, a town of Austria, in Lower
+Austria, 38 m. E.S.E of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900), 5134.
+It is situated on the Danube, only 2½ m. from the Hungarian
+frontier, and since the fire of 1827 Hainburg has been much
+improved, being now a handsomely built town. It has one of
+the largest tobacco manufactories in Austria, employing about
+2000 hands, and a large needle factory. It occupies part of the
+site of the old Celtic town Carnuntum (<i>q.v.</i>). It is still surrounded
+by ancient walls, and has a gate guarded by two old towers.
+There are numerous Roman remains, among which may be
+mentioned the altar and tower at the town-house, on the latter
+of which is a statue, said to be of Attila. A Roman aqueduct
+is still used to bring water to the town. On the neighbouring
+Hainberg is an old castle, built of Roman remains, which appears
+in German tradition under the name of Heimburc; it was wrested
+from the Hungarians in 1042 by the emperor Henry III. At the
+foot of the same hill is a castle of the 12th century, where Ottakar
+of Bohemia was married to Margaret of Austria in 1252; earlier
+it was the residence of the dukes of Babenberg. Outside the
+town, on an island in the Danube, is the ruined castle of Röthelstein
+or Rothenstein, held by the Knights Templars. Hainburg
+was besieged by the Hungarians in 1477, was captured by
+Matthias Corvinus in 1482, and was sacked and its inhabitants
+massacred by the Turks in 1683.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAINICHEN,<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony,
+on the Kleine Striegis, 15 m. N.E. of Chemnitz, on the railway
+to Rosswein. Pop. (1905), 7752. It has two Evangelical
+churches, a park, and commercial and technical schools.
+Hainichen is a place of considerable industry. Its chief manufacture
+is that of flannels, baize, and similar fabrics; indeed
+it may be called the centre of this industry in Germany. The
+special whiteness and excellence of the flannel made in Hainichen
+are due to the peculiar nature of the water used in the manufacture.
+There are also large dye-works and bleaching establishments.
+Hainichen is the birthplace of Gellert, to whose
+memory a bronze statue was erected in the market-place in 1865.
+The Gellert institution for the poor was erected in 1815.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page823" id="page823"></a>823</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAI-PHONG,<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> a seaport of Tongking, French Indo-China, on
+the Cua-Cam, a branch of the Song-koi (Red river) delta. The
+population numbers between 21,000 and 22,000, of whom 12,500
+are Annamese, 7500 Chinese (attracted by the rice trade of the
+port) and 1200 Europeans. It is situated about 20 m. from the
+Gulf of Tongking and 58 m. E. by S. of Hanoi, with which it
+communicates by river and canal and by railway. It is the
+second commercial port of French Indo-China, is a naval station,
+and has government and private ship-building yards. The
+harbour is accessible at all times to vessels drawing 19 to 20 ft.,
+but is obstructed by a bar. Hai-phong is the seat of a resident
+who performs the functions of mayor, and the residency is the
+chief building of the town. A civil tribunal, a tribunal of commerce
+and a branch of the Bank of Indo-China are also among
+its institutions. It is the headquarters of the river steamboat
+service (<i>Messageries fluviales</i>) of Tongking, which plies as far
+as Lao-kay on the Song-koi, to the other chief towns of Tongking
+and northern Annam, and also to Hong-kong. Cotton-spinning
+and the manufacture of cement are carried on.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAIR<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (a word common to Teutonic languages), the general
+term for the characteristic outgrowth of the epidermis forming
+the coat of mammals. The word is also applied by analogy to
+the filamentous outgrowths from the body of insects, &amp;c., plants,
+and metaphorically to anything of like appearance.</p>
+
+<p>For anatomy, &amp;c. of animal hair see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Skin and Exoskeleton</a></span>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fibres</a></span> and allied articles; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fur</a></span>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Leather</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Anthropology.</i>&mdash;The human hair has an important place
+among the physical criteria of race. While its general structure
+and quantity vary comparatively little, its length in individuals
+and relatively in the two sexes, its form, its colour, its general
+consistency and the appearance under the microscope of its
+transverse section show persistent differences in the various races.
+It is the persistence of these differences and specially in regard
+to its colour and texture, which has given to hair its ethnological
+importance. So obvious a racial differentiation had naturally
+long ago attracted the attention of anthropologists. But it was
+not until the 19th century that microscopic examination showed
+the profound difference in structure between the hair characteristic
+of the great divisions of mankind. It was in 1863 that Dr
+Pruner-Bey read a paper before the Paris Anthropological
+Society entitled &ldquo;On the Human Hair as a Race Character,
+examined by aid of the Microscope.&rdquo; This address established
+the importance of hair as a racial criterion. He demonstrated
+that the structure of the hair is threefold:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(1) Short and crisp, generally termed &ldquo;woolly,&rdquo; elliptical or
+kidney-shaped in section, with no distinguishable medulla or
+pith. Its colour is almost always jet black, and it is characteristic
+of all the black races except the Australians and aborigines
+of India. This type of hair has two varieties. When the hairs
+are relatively long and the spiral of the curls large, the head has
+the appearance of being completely covered, as with some of
+the Melanesian races and most of the negroes. Haeckel has
+called this &ldquo;<i>eriocomous</i>&rdquo; or &ldquo;woolly&rdquo; proper. In some negroid
+peoples, however, such as the Hottentots and Bushmen, the hair
+grows in very short curls with narrow spirals and forms little
+tufts separated by spaces which appear bare. The head looks as
+if it were dotted over with pepper-seed, and thus this hair has
+gained the name of &ldquo;peppercorn-growth.&rdquo; Haeckel has called it
+&ldquo;<i>lophocomous</i>&rdquo; or &ldquo;crested.&rdquo; Most negroes have this type of
+hair in childhood and, even when fully grown, signs of it around
+the temples. The space between each tuft is not bald, as was at
+one time generally assumed. The hair grows uniformly over
+the head, as in all races.</p>
+
+<p>2. Straight, lank, long and coarse, round or nearly so in section,
+with the medulla or pith easily distinguishable, and almost
+without exception black. This is the hair of the yellow races,
+the Chinese, Mongols and Indians of the Americas.</p>
+
+<p>3. Wavy and curly, or smooth and silky, oval in section, with
+medullary tube but no pith. This is the hair of Europeans,
+and is mainly fair, though black, brown, red or towy varieties
+are found.</p>
+
+<p>There is a fourth type of hair describable as &ldquo;frizzy.&rdquo; It is
+easily distinguishable from the Asiatic and European types, but
+not from the negroid wool. It is always thick and black, and
+is characteristic of the Australians, Nubians, and certain of the
+Mulattos. Generally hair curls in proportion to its flatness.
+The rounder it is the stiffer and lanker. These extremes are
+respectively represented by the Papuans and the Japanese.
+Of all hair the woolly type is found to be the most persistent, as
+in the case of the Brazilian Cafusos, negro and native hybrids.
+Quatrefages quotes the case of a triple hybrid, &ldquo;half negro,
+quarter Cherokee, quarter English,&rdquo; who had short crisp furry-looking
+hair.</p>
+
+<p>Wavy types of hair vary most in colour: almost the deepest
+hue of black being found side by side with the most flaxen and
+towy. Colour varies less in the lank type, and scarcely at all
+in the woolly. The only important exception to the uniform
+blackness of the negroid wool is to be found among the Wochuas,
+a tribe of African pigmies whose hair is described by Wilhelm
+Junker (<i>Travels in Africa</i>, iii. p. 82) as &ldquo;of a dark, rusty brown
+hue.&rdquo; Fair hair in all its shades is frequent among the populations
+of northern Europe, but much rarer in the south. According
+to Dr John Beddoe there are sixteen blonds out of every hundred
+Scotch, thirteen out of every hundred English, and two only out
+of a hundred Italians. The percentage of brown hair is 75%
+among Spaniards, 39 among French and 16 only in Scandinavia.
+Among the straight-haired races fair hair is far rarer; it is,
+however, found among the western Finns. Among those races
+with frizzy hair, red is almost as common as among those with
+wavy hair. Red hair, however, is an individual anomaly associated
+ordinarily with freckles. There are no red-haired races.</p>
+
+<p>A certain correlation appears to exist between the nature of
+hair and its absolute or relative length in the two sexes. Thus
+straight hair is the longest (Chinese, Red Indians), while woolly
+is shortest. Wavy hair holds an intermediate position. In the
+two extremes the difference of length in man and woman is
+scarcely noticeable. In some lank-haired races, men&rsquo;s tresses
+are as long as women&rsquo;s, <i>e.g.</i> the Chinese pigtail, and the hair of
+Redskins which grows to the length sometimes of upwards of
+9 ft. In the frizzy-haired peoples, men and women have equally
+short growths. Bushwomen, the female Hottentot and negresses
+have hair no longer than men&rsquo;s. It is only in the wavy, and now
+and again in the frizzy types, that the difference in the sexes is
+marked. Among European men the length rarely exceeds 12 to
+16 in., while with women the mean length is between 25 and
+30 in. and in some cases has been known to reach 6 ft. or more.</p>
+
+<p>The growth of hair on the body corresponds in general with
+that on the head. The hairiest races are the Australians and
+Tasmanians, whose heads are veritable mops in the thickness
+and unkempt luxuriance of the locks. Next to them are the
+Todas, and other hill-tribesmen of India, and the Hairy Ainu
+of Japan. Traces, too, of the markedly hairy race, now extinct,
+supposed to be the ancestor of Toda and Ainu alike, are to be
+found here and there in Europe, especially among the Russian
+peasantry. The least hairy peoples are the yellow races, the
+men often scarcely having rudimentary beards, <i>e.g.</i> Indians of
+America and the Mongols. Negroid peoples may be said to be
+intermediate, but usually incline to hairlessness. The wavy-haired
+populations hold also an intermediate position, but
+somewhat incline to hairiness. Among negroes especially no
+rule can be formulated. Bare types such as the Bushmen and
+western negroes are found contiguous to hairy types such as the
+inhabitants of Ashantee. Neither is there any rule as to baldness.
+From statistics taken in America it would seem that it is ten times
+less frequent among negroes than among whites between the ages
+of thirty-three and forty-five years, and thirty times less between
+twenty-one and thirty-two years. Among Mulattos it is more
+frequent than among negroes but less than among whites. It
+is rarer among Redskins than among negroes. The <i>lanugo</i> or
+downy hairs, with which the human foetus is covered for some
+time before birth and which is mostly shed in the womb, and the
+minute hairs which cover nearly every part of the adult human
+body, may be regarded as rudimentary remains of a complete
+hairy covering in the ancestors of mankind. The Pliocene, or
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page824" id="page824"></a>824</span>
+at all events Miocene precursor of man, was a furred creature.
+The discovery of Egyptian mummies six thousand years old or
+more has proved that this physical criterion remains unchanged,
+and that it is to-day what it was so many scores of centuries
+back. Perhaps, then, the primary divisions of mankind were
+distinguished by hair the same in texture and colour as that which
+characterizes to-day the great ethnical groups. The wavy type
+bridges the gulf between the lank and woolly types, all in turn
+derived from a common hair-covered being. In this connexion
+it is worth mention, as pointed out by P. Topinard, that though
+the regions occupied by the negroid races are the habitat of the
+anthropoid apes, the hair of the latter is real hair, not wool.
+Further in the eastern section of the dark domain, while the
+Papuan is still black and dolichocephalic, his presumed progenitor,
+the orang-utan, is brachycephalic with decidedly red
+hair. Thus the white races are seen to come nearest the higher
+apes in this respect, yellow next, and black farthest removed.</p>
+
+<p>No test has proved, on repeated examination, to be a safer
+one of racial purity than the quality of hair, and Pruner-Bey goes
+so far as to suggest that &ldquo;a single hair presenting the average
+form characteristic of the race might serve to define it.&rdquo; At any
+rate a hair of an individual bears the stamp of his origin.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Dr Pruner-Bey in <i>Mémoires de la société d&rsquo;anthropologie</i>, ii.
+P. A. Brown, <i>Classification of Mankind by the Hair</i>; P. Topinard,
+<i>L&rsquo;Homme dans la nature</i> (1891), chap. vi.</p>
+
+<p><i>Commerce.</i>&mdash;Hair enters into a considerable variety of manufactures.
+Bristles are the stout elastic hairs obtained from the backs
+of certain breeds of pigs. The finest qualities, and the greatest
+quantities as well, are obtained from Russia, where a variety of pig
+is reared principally on account of its bristles. The best and most
+costly bristles are used by shoemakers, secondary qualities being
+employed for toilet and clothes-brushes, while inferior qualities are
+worked up into the commoner kinds of brushes used by painters and
+for many mechanical purposes. For artists&rsquo; use and for decorative
+painting, brushes or pencils of hair from the sable, camel, badger,
+polecat, &amp;c., are prepared. The hair of various animals which is
+too short for spinning into yarn is utilized for the manufacture of
+felt. For this use the hair of rabbits, hares, beavers and of several
+other rodents is largely employed, especially in France, in making
+the finer qualities of felt hats. Cow hair, obtained from tanneries,
+is used in the preparation of roofing felts, and felt for covering
+boilers or steam-pipes, and for other similar purposes. It is also
+largely used by plasterers for binding the mortar of the walls and
+roofs of houses; and it is to some extent being woven up into coarse
+friezes, horse-cloths, railway rugs and inferior blankets. The tail
+hair of oxen is also of value for stuffing cushions and other upholstery
+work, for which purpose, as well as for making the official
+wigs of law officers, barristers, &amp;c., the tail and body hair of the yak
+or Tibet ox is also sometimes imported into Europe. The tail and
+mane hair of horses is in great demand for various purposes. The
+long tail hair is especially valuable for weaving into hair-cloth, mane
+hair and the short tail hair being, on the other hand, principally
+prepared and curled for stuffing the chairs, sofas and couches which
+are covered with the cloth manufactured from the long hair. The
+horse hair used in Great Britain is principally obtained from South
+America, Germany and Russia, and its sorting, cleaning and working
+up into the various manufactures dependent on the material
+are industries of some importance. In addition to the purposes
+already alluded to, horse hair is woven into crinoline for ladies&rsquo;
+bonnets, plaited into fishing lines, woven into bags for oil and cider
+pressers, and into straining cloths for brewers, &amp;c., and for numerous
+other minor uses. The manufactures which arise in connexion with
+human hair are more peculiar than important, although occasionally
+fashions arise which cause a large demand for human hair. The
+fluctuations of such fashions determine the value of hair; but at all
+times long tresses are of considerable value. Grey, light, pale and
+auburn hair are distinguished as extra colours, and command much
+higher prices than the common shades. The light-coloured hair is
+chiefly obtained in Germany and Austria, and the south of France
+is the principal source of the darker shades. In the south of France
+the cultivation and sale of heads of hair by peasant girls is a common
+practice; and hawkers attend fairs for the special purpose of engaging
+in this traffic. Hair 5 and even 6 ft. long is sometimes obtained.
+Scarcely any of the &ldquo;raw material&rdquo; is obtained in the United Kingdom
+except in the form of ladies&rsquo; &ldquo;combings.&rdquo; Bleaching of hair
+by means of peroxide of hydrogen is extensively practised, with the
+view of obtaining a supply of golden locks, or of preparing white
+hair for mixing to match grey shades; but in neither case is the
+result very successful. Human hair is worked up into a great
+variety of wigs, scalps, artificial fronts, frizzets and curls, all for
+supplementing the scanty or failing resources of nature. The plaiting
+of human hair into articles of jewellery, watch-guards, &amp;c., forms
+a distinct branch of trade.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAIR-TAIL<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> (<i>Trichiurus</i>), a marine fish belonging to the
+<i>Acanthopterygii scombriformes</i>, with a long band-like body
+terminating in a thread-like tail, and with strong prominent
+teeth in both jaws. Several species are known, of which one,
+common in the tropical Atlantic, not rarely reaches the British
+Islands.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAITI<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Haïti</span>, <span class="sc">Hayti</span>, <span class="sc">San Domingo</span>, or <i>Hispaniola</i>], an
+island in the West Indies. It lies almost in the centre of the
+chain and, with the exception of Cuba, is the largest of the group.
+Its greatest length between Cape Engano on the east and Cape
+des Irois on the west is 407 m., and its greatest breadth between
+Cape Beata on the south and Cape Isabella on the north 160 m.
+The area is 28,000 sq. m., being rather less than that of Ireland.
+From Cuba, 70 m. W.N.W., and from Jamaica, 130 m. W.S.W.,
+it is separated by the Windward Passage; and from Porto Rico,
+60 m. E., by the Mona Passage. It lies between 17° 37&prime; and
+20° 0&prime; N. and 68° 20&prime; and 74° 28&prime; W. From the west coast
+project two peninsulas. The south-western, of which Cape
+Tiburon forms the extremity, is the larger. It is 150 m. long
+and its width varies from 20 to 40 m. Columbus landed at Mole
+St Nicholas at the point of the north-western peninsula, which
+is 50 m. long, with an average breadth of 40 m. Between these
+lies the Gulf of Gonaïve, a triangular bay, at the apex of which
+stands the city of Port-au-Prince. The island of Gonaïve,
+opposite the city at a distance of 27 m., divides the entrance to
+Port-au-Prince into two fine channels, and forms an excellent
+harbour, 200 sq. m. In extent, the coral reefs along the coast
+being its only defect. On the north-east coast is the magnificent
+Bay of Samana, formed by the peninsula of that name, a
+mountain range projecting into the sea; its mouth is protected
+by a coral reef stretching 8½m. from the south coast. There is
+however, a good passage for ships, and within lies a safe and
+beautiful expanse of water 300 sq. m. in extent. Beyond Samana,
+with the exception of the poor harbour of Santo Domingo, there
+are no inlets on the east and south coasts until the Bays of Ocoa
+and Neyba are reached. The south coast of the Tiburon peninsula
+has good harbours at Jacmel, Bainet, Aquin and Les Cayes or
+Aux Cayes. The only inlets of any importance between Aux
+Cayes and Port-au-Prince are Jeremie and the Bay of Baraderes.
+The coast line is estimated at 1250 m.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:515px; height:312px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img824.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p class="pt2">Haiti is essentially a mountainous island. Steep escarpments,
+leading to the rugged uplands of the interior, reach almost everywhere
+down to the shores, leaving only here and there a few strips
+of beach. There are three fairly distinct mountain ranges, the
+northern, central and southern, with parallel axes from E. to W.;
+while extensive and fertile plains lie between them. The northern
+range usually called the Sierra de Monti Cristi, extends from Cape
+Samana on the east to Cape Fragata on the west. It has a mean
+elevation of 3000 ft., culminating in the Loma Diego Campo (3855
+ft.), near the centre of the range. The central range runs from
+Cape Engano to Cape St Nicholas, some 400 m. in an oblique direction
+from E. to W. Towards the centre of the island it broadens and
+forms two distinct chains; the northern, the Sierra del Cibao, constituting
+the backbone of Haiti; the southern curving first S.W.,
+then N.W., and reaching the sea near St Marc. In addition to these
+there are a number of secondary crests, difficult to trace to the backbone
+of the system, since the loftiest peaks are usually on some
+lateral ridge. Such for instance is Loma Tina (10,300 ft.) the highest
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page825" id="page825"></a>825</span>
+elevation on the island, which rises as a spur N.W. of the city of
+Santo Domingo. In the Sierra del Cibao, the highest summit is the
+Pico del Yaqui (9700 ft.). The southern range runs from the Bay of
+Neyba due W. to Cape Tiburon. Its highest points are La Selle
+(8900 ft.) and La Hotte (7400 ft.). The plain of Seybo or Los Llanos
+is the largest of the Haitian plains. It stretches eastwards from
+the river Ozama for 95 m. and has an average width of 16 m. It is
+perfectly level, abundantly watered, and admirably adapted for the
+rearing of cattle. But perhaps the grandest is the Vega Real, or
+Royal Plain, as it was called by Columbus, which lies between the
+Cibao and Monti Cristi ranges. It stretches from Samana Bay to
+Manzanillo Bay, a distance of 140 m., but is interrupted in the centre
+by a range of hills in which rise the rivers which drain it. The
+northern part of this plain, however, is usually known as the Valley
+of Santiago. Most of the large valleys are in a state of nature, in
+part savanna, in part wooded, and all very fertile.</p>
+
+<p>There are four large rivers. The Yaqui, rising in the Pico del Yaqui,
+falls, after a tortuous north-westerly course through the valley of
+Santiago, into Manzanillo Bay; its mouth is obstructed by shallows,
+and it is navigable only for canoes. The Neyba, or South Yaqui,
+also rises in the Pico del Yaqui and flows S. into the Bay of Neyba.
+In the mountains within a few miles from the sources of these rivers,
+rise the Yuna and the Artibonite. The Yuna drains the Vega Real,
+flows into Samana Bay, and is navigable by light-draught vessels
+for some distance from its mouth. The Artibonite flows through
+the valley of its name into the Gulf of Gonaïve. Of the smaller
+rivers the Ozama, on which the city of Santo Domingo stands, is the
+most important. The greatest lake is that of Enriquillo or Xaragua,
+at a height of 300 ft. above sea-level. It is 27 m. long by 8 m.
+broad and very deep. Though 25 m. from the sea its waters are salt,
+and the Haitian negroes call it Etang Salé. After heavy rains it
+occasionally forms a continuous sheet of water with another lake
+called Azuey, or Etang Saumatre, which is 16 m. long by 4 m.
+broad; on these occasions the united lake has a total length of 60 m.
+and is larger than the Lake of Geneva. Farther S. is the Icoten
+de Limon, 5 m. long by 2 m. broad, a fresh-water lake with no visible
+outlet. Smaller lakes are Rincon and Miragoane. There are no
+active volcanoes, but earthquakes are not infrequent.</p>
+
+<p><i>Geology.</i>&mdash;The geology of Haiti is still very imperfectly known,
+and large tracts of the island have never been examined by a geologist.
+It is possible that the schists that have been observed in some
+parts of the island may be of Pre-cretaceous age, but the oldest
+rocks in which fossils have yet been found belong to the Cretaceous
+System, and the geological sequence is very similar to that of
+Jamaica. Excluding the schists of doubtful age, the series begins
+with sandstones and conglomerates, containing pebbles of syenite,
+granite, diorite, &amp;c.; and these are overlaid by marls, clays and
+limestones containing <i>Hippurites</i>. Then follows a series of sandstones,
+clays and limestones with occasional seams of lignite,
+evidently of shallow-water origin. These are referred by R. T. Hill to
+the Eocene, and they are succeeded by chalky beds which were laid
+down in a deeper sea and which probably correspond with the Montpelier
+beds of Jamaica (Oligocene). Finally, there are limestones and
+marls composed largely of corals and molluscs, which are probably
+of very late Tertiary or Post-tertiary age. Until, however, the
+island has been more thoroughly examined, the correlation of the
+various Tertiary and Post-tertiary deposits must remain doubtful.
+Some of the beds which Hill has placed in the Eocene have been
+referred by earlier writers to the Miocene. Tippenhauer describes
+extensive eruptions of basalt of Post-pliocene age.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fauna and Flora.</i>&mdash;The fauna is not extensive. The agouti is the
+largest wild mammal. Birds are few, excepting water-fowl and
+pigeons. Snakes abound, though few are venomous. Lizards are
+numerous, and insects swarm in the low parts, with tarantulas,
+scorpions and centipedes. Caymans are found in the lakes and
+rivers, and the waters teem with fish and other sea food. Wild cattle,
+hogs and dogs, descendants of those brought from Europe, roam at
+large on the plains and in the forests. The wild hogs furnish much
+sport to the natives, who hunt them with dogs trained for the
+purpose.</p>
+
+<p>In richness and variety of vegetable products Haiti is not excelled
+by any other country in the world. All tropical plants and trees
+grow in perfection, and nearly all the vegetables and fruits of temperate
+climates may be successfully cultivated in the highlands.
+Among indigenous products are cotton, rice, maize, tobacco, cocoa,
+ginger, native indigo (<i>indigo marron</i> or <i>sauvage</i>), arrowroot, manioc
+or cassava, pimento, banana, plantain, pine-apple, artichoke, yam
+and sweet potato. Among the important plants and fruits are sugarcane,
+coffee, indigo (called <i>indigo franc</i>, to distinguish it from the
+native), melons, cabbage, lucerne, guinea grass and the bread-fruit,
+mango, caimite, orange, almond, apple, grape, mulberry and fig.
+Most of the imported fruits have degenerated from want of care,
+but the mango, now spread over nearly the whole island, has become
+almost a necessary article of food; the bread-fruit has likewise
+become common, but is not so much esteemed. Haiti is also rich
+in woods, especially in cabinet and dye woods; among the former are
+mahogany, manchineel, satinwood, rosewood, cinnamon wood
+(<i>Canella alba</i>), yellow acoma (<i>Sideroxylon mastichodendron</i>) and
+gri-gri; and among the latter are Brazil wood, logwood, fustic and
+sassafras. On the mountains are extensive forests of pine and a
+species of oak; and in various parts occur the locust, ironwood,
+cypress or Bermuda cedar, palmetto and many kinds of palms.</p>
+
+<p><i>Climate.</i>&mdash;Owing to the great diversity of its relief Haiti presents
+a wider range of climate than any other part of the Antilles. The
+yearly rainfall is abundant, averaging about 120 in., but the wet
+and dry seasons are clearly divided. At Port-au-Prince the rainy
+season lasts from April to October, but varies in other parts of the
+island, so that there is never a season when rain is general. The
+mountain districts are constantly bathed in dense mists and heavy
+dews, while other districts are almost rainless. Owing to its sheltered
+position the heat at Port-au-Prince is greater than elsewhere. In
+summer the temperature there ranges between 80° and 95° F. and
+in winter between 70° and 80° F. Even in the highlands the mercury
+never falls below 45° F. Hurricanes are not so frequent as in the
+Windward Isles, but violent gales often occur. The prevailing winds
+are from the east.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Republic of Haiti.</i>&mdash;Haiti is divided into two parts, the
+negro republic of Haiti owning the western third of the island,
+while the remainder belongs to Santo Domingo (<i>q.v.</i>) or the
+Dominican Republic. Between these two governments there
+exists the strongest political antipathy.</p>
+
+<p>Although but a small state, with an area of only 10,204 sq. m.,
+the republic of Haiti is, in many respects, one of the most
+interesting communities in the world, as it is the earliest and
+most successful example of a state peopled, and governed on a
+constitutional model, by negroes. At its head is a president
+assisted by two chambers, the members of which are elected
+and hold office under a constitution of 1889. This constitution,
+thoroughly republican in form, is French in origin, as are also
+the laws, language, traditions and customs of Haiti. In practice,
+however, the government resolves itself into a military despotism,
+the power being concentrated in the hands of the president.
+The Haitians seem to possess everything that a progressive
+and civilized nation can desire, but corruption is spread through
+every portion and branch of the government. Justice is venal,
+and the police are brutal and inefficient. Since 1869 the Roman
+Catholic has been the state religion, but all classes of society
+seem to be permeated with a thinly disguised adherence to the
+horrid rites of Voodoo (<i>q.v.</i>), although this has been strenuously
+denied. The country is divided into 5 <i>départements</i>, 23 <i>arrondissements</i>
+and 67 <i>communes</i>. Each <i>département</i> and <i>arrondissement</i>
+is governed by a general in the army. The army numbers
+about 7000 men, and the navy consists of a few small vessels.
+Elementary education is free, and there are some 400 primary
+schools; secondary education is mainly in the hands of the
+church. The Sisters of Charity and the Christian Brothers have
+schools at Port-au-Prince, where there is also a lyceum, a medical
+and a law school. The children of the wealthier classes are
+usually sent to France for their education. The unit of money
+is the <i>gourde</i>, the nominal value of which is the same as the
+American dollar, but it is subject to great fluctuations. The
+revenue is almost entirely derived from customs, paid both on
+imports and exports. There being a lack of capital and enterprise,
+the excessive customs dues produce a very depressed condition
+of trade. Imports are consequently confined to bare
+necessaries, the cheapest sorts of dry and fancy goods, matches,
+flour, salt beef and pork, codfish, lard, butter and similar provisions.
+The exports are coffee, cocoa, logwood, cotton, gum,
+honey, tobacco and sugar. The island is one of the most fertile
+in the world, and if it had an enlightened and stable government,
+an energetic people, and a little capital, its agricultural possibilities
+would seem to be endless. Communications are bad;
+the roads constructed during the French occupation have
+degenerated into mere bridle tracks. There is a coast service
+of steamers, maintained since 1863, and 26 ports are regularly
+visited every ten days. Foreign communication is excellent,
+more foreign steamships visiting this island than any other in
+the West Indies. A railway from Port-au-Prince runs through
+the Plain of Cul de Sac for 28 m. to Manneville on the Etang
+Saumatre, another runs from Cap Haitien to La Grande Rivière,
+15 m. distant.</p>
+
+<p>The people are almost entirely pure-blooded negroes, the
+mulattoes, who form about 10% of the population, being a
+rapidly diminishing and much-hated class. The negroes are a
+kindly, hospitable people, but ignorant and lazy. They have
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page826" id="page826"></a>826</span>
+a passion for dancing weird African dances to the accompaniment
+of the tom-tom. Marriage is neither frequent nor legally
+prescribed, since children of looser unions are regarded by the
+state as legitimate. In the interior polygamy is frequent. The
+people generally speak a curious but not unattractive <i>patois</i>
+of French origin, known as Creole. French is the official
+language, and by a few of the educated natives it is written and
+spoken in its purity. On the whole it must be owned that, after
+a century of independence and self-government, the Haitian
+people have made no progress, if they have not actually shown
+signs of retrogression. The chief towns ate Port-au-Prince
+(pop. 75,000), Cap Haitien (29,000), Les Cayes (25,000), Gonaïve
+(18,000), and Port de Paix (10,000). Jeremie was the birthplace
+of the elder Dumas. The ruins of the wonderful palace of Sans-Souci
+and of the fortress of La Ferrière, built by King Henri
+Christophe (1807-1825), can be seen near Millot, a town 9 m.
+inland from Cap Haitien. Plaisance (25,000), Gros Morne
+(22,000) and La Croix des Bouquets (20,000) are the largest
+towns in the interior. The entire population of the republic
+is about 1,500,000.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The history of Haiti begins with its discovery by
+Columbus, who landed from Cuba at Mole St Nicholas on the
+6th of December 1492. The natives called the country Haiti
+(mountainous country), and Quisquica (vast country). Columbus
+named it Espagnola (Little Spain), which was latinized into
+Hispaniola. At the time of its discovery, the island was inhabited
+by about 2,000,000 Indians, who are described by the Spaniards
+as feeble in intellect and physically defective. They were,
+however, soon exterminated, and their place was supplied (as
+early as 1512) by slaves imported from Africa, the descendants
+of whom now possess the land. Six years after its discovery
+Columbus had explored the interior of the island, founded the
+present capital, and had established flourishing settlements
+at Isabella, Santiago, La Vega, Porto Plata and Bonao. Mines
+had been opened up, and advances made in agriculture. Sugar
+was introduced in 1506, and in a few years became the staple
+product. About 1630, a mixed company of French and English,
+driven by the Spaniards from St Kitts, settled on the island of
+Tortuga, where they became formidable under the name of
+Buccaneers. They soon obtained a footing on the mainland of
+Haiti, and by the treaty of Ryswick, 1697, the part they occupied
+was ceded to France. This new colony, named Saint Dominique,
+subsequently attained a high degree of prosperity, and was in a
+flourishing state when the French Revolution broke out in 1789.
+The population was then composed of whites, free coloured
+people (mostly mulattoes) and negro slaves. The mulattoes
+demanded civil rights, up to that time enjoyed only by the
+whites; and in 1791 the National Convention conferred on them
+all the privileges of French citizens. The whites at once adopted
+the most violent measures, and petitioned the home government
+to reverse the decree, which was accordingly revoked. In
+August 1791, the plantation slaves broke out into insurrection,
+and the mulattoes threw in their lot with them. A period of
+turmoil followed, lasting for several years, during which both
+parties were responsible for acts of the most revolting cruelty.
+Commissioners were sent out from France with full powers to
+settle the dispute, but although in 1793 they proclaimed the
+abolition of slavery, they could effect nothing. To add further
+to the troubles of the colony, it was invaded by a British force,
+which, in spite of the climate and the opposition of the colonists,
+succeeded in maintaining itself until driven out in 1798 by
+Toussaint l&rsquo;Ouverture. By treaty with Spain, in 1795, France
+had acquired the title to the entire island.</p>
+
+<p>By 1801, Toussaint l&rsquo;Ouverture, an accomplished negro of
+remarkable military genius, had succeeded in restoring order.
+He then published, subject to the approval of France, a form of
+constitutional government, under which he was to be governor
+for life. This step, however, roused the suspicions of Bonaparte,
+then first consul, who determined to reduce the colony and restore
+slavery. He sent out his brother-in-law, General Leclerc, with
+25,000 troops; but the colonists offered a determined, and often
+ferocious, resistance. At length, wearied of the struggle, Leclerc
+proposed terms, and Toussaint, induced by the most solemn
+guarantees on the part of the French, laid down his arms. He
+was seized and sent to France, where he died in prison in 1803.
+The blacks, infuriated by this act of treachery, renewed the
+struggle, under Jean Jacques Dessalines (1758-1806), with a
+barbarity unequalled in previous contests. The French, further
+embarrassed by the appearance of a British fleet, were only too
+glad to evacuate the island in November 1803.</p>
+
+<p>The opening of the following year saw the declaration of
+independence, and the restoration of the aboriginal name of
+Haiti. Dessalines, made governor for life, inaugurated his rule
+with a bloodthirsty massacre of all the whites. In October
+1804, he proclaimed himself emperor and was crowned with
+great pomp; but in 1806 his subjects, growing tired of his
+tyranny, assassinated him. His position was now contended for
+by several chiefs, one of whom, Henri Christophe (1767-1820),
+established himself in the north, while Alexandre Sabes Pétion
+(1770-1818) took possession of the southern part. The Spaniards
+re-established themselves in the eastern part of the island,
+retaining the French name, modified to Santo Domingo. Civil
+war now raged between the adherents of Christophe and Pétion,
+but in 1810 hostilities were suspended. Christophe declared
+himself king of Haiti under the title of Henry I.; but his cruelty
+caused an insurrection, and in 1820 he committed suicide. Pétion
+was succeeded in 1818 by General Jean Pierre Boyer (1776-1850),
+who, after Christophe&rsquo;s death, made himself master of all the
+French part of the island. In 1821 the eastern end of the island
+proclaimed its independence of Spain, and Boyer, taking advantage
+of dissensions there, invaded it, and in 1822 the dominion
+of the whole island fell into his hands. Boyer held the presidency
+of the new government, which was called the republic of Haiti,
+until 1843, when he was driven from the island by a revolution.
+In 1844 the people at the eastern end of the island again asserted
+their independence. The republic of Santo Domingo was
+established, and from that time the two political divisions have
+been maintained. Meanwhile in Haiti revolution followed revolution,
+and president succeeded president, in rapid succession.
+Order, however, was established in 1849, when Soulouque, who
+had previously obtained the presidency, proclaimed himself
+emperor, under the title of Faustin I. After a reign of nine
+years he was deposed and exiled, the republic being restored
+under the mulatto president Fabre Geffrard. His firm and
+enlightened rule rendered him so unpopular that in 1867 he was
+forced to flee to Jamaica. He was succeeded by Sylvestre
+Salnave, who, after a presidency of two years, was shot. Nissage-Saget
+(1870), Dominique (1874), and Boisrond-Canal (1876)
+followed, each to be driven into exile by revolution. The next
+president, Salomon, maintained himself in office for ten years,
+but he too was driven from the country and died in exile. Civil
+war raged in 1888-1889 between Generals Légitime and Hippolyte,
+and the latter succeeded in obtaining the vacant presidency.
+He ruled with the most absolute authority till his
+death in 1896. General Tiresias Simon Sam followed and ruled
+till his flight to Paris in 1902. The usual civil war ensued, and
+after nine months of turmoil, order was restored by the election
+of Nord Alexis in December 1902.</p>
+
+<p>Alexis&rsquo; administration was unsuccessful, and was marked by
+many disturbances, culminating in his expulsion. In 1904 there
+was an attack by native soldiery on the French and German
+representatives, and punishment was exacted by these powers.
+In December 1904 ex-president Sam, his wife and members of
+his ministry were sentenced to long terms of imprisonment for
+fraudulently issuing bonds. In December 1907 a conspiracy
+against the government was reported and the ringleaders were
+sentenced to death. But in January 1908 the revolution spread,
+and Gonaïve and St Marc and other places were reported to be
+in the hands of the insurgents. Prompt measures were taken,
+the rising was checked, and Alexis announced the pardon of
+the revolutionaries. In March, however, this pacific policy was
+reversed by a new ministry; some suspects were summarily
+executed, and the attitude of the government was only modified
+when the powers sent war-ships to Port-au-Prince. In September
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page827" id="page827"></a>827</span>
+the criminal court at the capital sentenced to death, by default,
+a large number of persons implicated in the risings earlier in the
+year, and in November revolution broke out again. General
+Antoine Simon raised his standard at Aux Cayes. Disaffection
+was rife among the government troops, who deserted to him in
+great numbers. On the 2nd of December Port-au-Prince was
+occupied without bloodshed by the revolutionaries, and Alexis
+took to flight, escaping violence with some difficulty, and finding
+refuge on a French ship. General Simon then assumed the
+presidency. At the end of April 1910 Alexis died in Jamaica,
+in circumstances of some obscurity; it had just been discovered
+that a plot was on foot to depose Simon, and further trouble was
+threatened.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;B. Edwards, <i>Hist. Survey of the Island of S.
+Domingo</i> (London, 1801); Jordan, <i>Geschichte der Insel Haiti</i> (Leipzig,
+1846); Linstant Pradin, <i>Recueil général des lois et actes du gouvernement
+d&rsquo;Haiti</i> (Paris, 1851-1865); Monte y Tejada, Historia de
+Santo Domingo (Havana, 1853); Saint Amand, <i>Hist. des révolutions
+d&rsquo;Haiti</i> (Paris, 1859); Sam. Hazard, <i>Santo Domingo, Past and
+Present</i> (London, 1873), with bibliography; Sir Spencer St John,
+<i>Haiti, or the Black Republic</i> (London, 1889); L. Gentil Tippenhauer,
+<i>Die Insel Haiti</i> (Leipzig, 1893); Marcelin, <i>Haiti, études économiques,
+sociales, et politiques</i>; and <i>Haiti, ses guerres civiles, leurs causes</i>
+(Paris, 1893); Hesketh Pritchard, <i>Where Black Rules White</i>
+(London, 1900). For geology, see W. M. Gabb, &ldquo;On the Topography
+and Geology of Santo Domingo,&rdquo; <i>Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc.</i>,
+Philadelphia, new series, vol. xv. (1881). pp. 49-259, with map;
+L. G. Tippenhauer, <i>Die Insel Haiti</i> (Leipzig, 1893); see also several
+articles by L. G. Tippenhauer in <i>Peterm. Mitt.</i> 1899 and 1901. A
+comparison with the Jamaican succession will be found in R. T.
+Hill, &ldquo;The Geology and Physical Geography of Jamaica,&rdquo; <i>Bull.
+Mus. Comp. Zool.</i>, Harvard, vol. xxxiv. (1899).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAJIPUR,<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> a town of British India, in the Muzaffarpur district
+of Bengal, on the Gandak, just above its confluence with the
+Ganges opposite Patna. Pop. (1901), 21,398. Hajipur figures
+conspicuously in the history of the struggles between Akbar
+and his rebellious Afghan governors of Bengal, being twice
+besieged and captured by the imperial troops, in 1572 and 1574.
+Within the limits of the old fort is a small stone mosque, very
+plain, but of peculiar architecture, and attributed to H&#257;j&#299; Ily&#257;s,
+its traditional founder (<i>c.</i> 1350). Its command of water traffic
+in three directions makes the town a place of considerable
+commercial importance. Hajipur has a station on the main
+line of the Bengal and North-western railway.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAJJ<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Hadj</span>, the Arabic word, meaning literally a &ldquo;setting
+out,&rdquo; for the greater pilgrimage of Mahommedans to Mecca,
+which takes place from the 8th to the 10th of the twelfth month
+of the Mahommedan year; the lesser pilgrimage, called <i>umrah</i>
+or <i>omra</i>, may be made to the mosque at Mecca at any time other
+than that of the hajj proper, and is also a meritorious act. The
+term <i>hajji</i> or <i>hadji</i> is given to those who have performed the
+greater pilgrimage. The word <i>hajj</i> is sometimes loosely used of any
+Mahommedan pilgrimage to a sacred place or shrine, and is also
+applied to the pilgrimages of Christians of the East to the Holy
+Sepulchre at Jerusalem (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mecca</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mahommedan Religion</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">H&#256;JJ&#298; KHAL&#298;FA<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> [in full Mu&#7779;&#7789;af&#257; ibn &lsquo;Abdall&#257;h K&#257;tib
+Cheleb&#299; H&#257;jj&#299; Khal&#299;fa] (<i>ca.</i> 1599-1658), Arabic and Turkish
+author, was born at Constantinople. He became secretary to
+the commissariat department of the Turkish army in Anatolia,
+was with the army in Bagdad in 1625, was present at the siege
+of Erzerum, and returned to Constantinople in 1628. In the
+following year he was again in Bagdad and Hamad&#257;n, and in
+1633 at Aleppo, whence he made the pilgrimage to Mecca (hence
+his title H&#257;jj&#299;). The following year he was in Eriv&#257;n and then
+returned to Constantinople. Here he obtained a post in the
+head office of the commissariat department, which afforded
+him time for study. He seems to have attended the lectures of
+great teachers up to the time of his death, and made a practice
+of visiting bookshops and noting the titles and contents of all
+books he found there. His largest work is the <i>Bibliographical
+Encyclopaedia</i> written in Arabic. In this work, after five chapters
+dealing with the sciences generally, the titles of Arabian, Persian
+and Turkish books written up to his own time are arranged in
+alphabetical order. With the titles are given, where possible,
+short notes on the author, his date, and sometimes the introductory
+words of his work. It was edited by G. Flügel with
+Latin translation and a useful appendix (7 vols. Leipzig, 1835-1858).
+The text alone of this edition has been reproduced at
+Constantinople (1893).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>H&#257;jj&#299; Khal&#299;fa also wrote in Turkish: a chronological conspectus
+of general history (translated into Italian by G. R. Carli, Venice,
+1697); a history of the Turkish empire from 1594 to 1655 (Constantinople,
+1870); a history of the naval wars of the Turks
+(Constantinople, 1729; chapters 1-4 translated by J. Mitchell,
+London, 1831); a general geography published at Constantinople,
+1732 (Latin trans. by M. Norberg, London and Gotha, 1818; German
+trans. of part by J. von Hammer, Vienna, 1812; French trans. of
+part by V. de St Martin in his <i>Geography of Asia Minor</i>, vol. I).</p>
+
+<p>For his life see the preface to Flügel&rsquo;s edition; list of his works
+in C. Brockelmann&rsquo;s <i>Gesch. d. arabischen Literatur</i> (Berlin, 1902),
+vol. ii., pp. 428-429.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. W. T.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAKE, EDWARD<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (fl. 1579), English satirist, was educated
+under John Hopkins, the part-author of the metrical version of
+the Psalms. He resided in Gray&rsquo;s Inn and Barnard&rsquo;s Inn,
+London. In the address &ldquo;To the Gentle Reader&rdquo; prefixed to
+his <i>Newes out of Powles Churchyard ... Otherwise entitled
+Syr Nummus</i> (2nd ed., 1579) he mentions the &ldquo;first three yeeres
+which I spent in the Innes of Channcery, being now about a
+dosen of yeeres passed.&rdquo; In 1585 and 1586 he was mayor of
+New Windsor, and in 1588 he represented the borough in parliament.
+His last work was published in 1604. He was protected
+by the earl of Leicester, whose policy it was to support the Puritan
+party, and who no doubt found a valuable ally in so vigorous
+a satirist of error in clerical places as was Hake. <i>Newes out of
+Paules Churchyarde, A Trappe for Syr Monye</i>, first appeared
+in 1567, but no copy of this impression is known, and it was
+re-issued in 1579 with the title quoted above. The book takes
+the form of a dialogue between Bertulph and Paul, who meet in
+the aisles of the cathedral, and is divided into eight &ldquo;satyrs,&rdquo;
+dealing with the corruption of the higher clergy and of judges,
+the greed of attorneys, the tricks of physicians and apothecaries,
+the sumptuary laws, extravagant living, Sunday sports, the
+abuse of St Paul&rsquo;s cathedral as a meeting-place for business and
+conversation, usury, &amp;c. It is written in rhymed fourteen-syllable
+metre, which is often more comic than the author intended. It
+contains, amid much prefatory matter, a note to the &ldquo;carping
+and scornefull Sicophant,&rdquo; in which he attacks his enemies with
+small courtesy and much alliteration. One is described as a
+&ldquo;carping careless cankerd churle.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>He also wrote a translation from Thomas à Kempis, <i>The Imitation,
+or Following of Christ</i> (1567, 1568); <i>A Touchstone for this Time
+Present</i> (1574), a scurrilous attack on the Roman Catholic Church,
+followed by a treatise on education; <i>A Commemoration of the ...
+Raigne of ... Elizabeth</i> (1575), enlarged in 1578 to <i>A Joyfull Continuance
+of the Commemoration, &amp;c.</i>; and of <i>Gold&rsquo;s Kingdom, and this
+Unhelping Age</i> (1604), a collection of pieces in prose and verse, in
+which the author inveighs against the power of gold. A bibliography
+of these and of Hake&rsquo;s other works was compiled by Mr Charles
+Edmonds for his edition in 1872 of the <i>Newes</i> (Isham Reprints,
+No. 2, 1872).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAKE, THOMAS GORDON<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> (1800-1895), English poet, was
+born at Leeds, of an old Devonshire family, on the 10th of March
+1809. His mother was a Gordon of the Huntly branch. He
+studied medicine at St George&rsquo;s hospital and at Edinburgh and
+Glasgow, but had given up practice for many years before his
+death, and had devoted himself to a literary life. In 1839 he
+published a prose epic <i>Vates</i>, republished in Ainsworth&rsquo;s magazine
+as <i>Valdarno</i>, which attracted the attention of D. G. Rossetti.
+In after years he became an intimate member of the circle of
+friends and followers gathered round Rossetti, who so far
+departed from his usual custom as to review Hake&rsquo;s poems in
+the <i>Academy</i> and in the <i>Fortnightly Review</i>. In 1871 he published
+<i>Madeline</i>; 1872, <i>Parables and Tales</i>; 1883, <i>The Serpent Play</i>;
+1890, <i>New Day Sonnets</i>; and in 1892 his <i>Memoirs of Eighty
+Years</i>. Dr Hake&rsquo;s works had much subtlety and felicity of
+expression, and were warmly appreciated in a somewhat restricted
+literary circle. In his last published verse, the sonnets, he shows
+an advance in facility on the occasional harshness of his earlier
+work. He was given a Civil List literary pension in 1893, and
+died on the 11th of January 1895.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page828" id="page828"></a>828</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAKE<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (<i>Merluccius vulgaris</i>), a fish which differs from the cod
+in having only two dorsal fins, and one anal. It is very common
+on the coasts of Europe and eastern North America, but its flesh
+is much less esteemed than that of the true <i>Gadi</i>. Specimens
+4 ft. in length are not scarce. There are local variations in the
+use of &ldquo;hake&rdquo; as a name; in America the &ldquo;silver hake&rdquo;
+(<i>Merluccius bilinearis</i>), sometimes called &ldquo;whiting,&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;Pacific hake&rdquo; (<i>Merluccius productus</i>) are also food-fishes of
+inferior quality.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAKKAS<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (&ldquo;Guests,&rdquo; or &ldquo;Strangers&rdquo;), a people of S.W.
+China, chiefly found in Kwang-Tung, Fu-Kien and Formosa.
+Their origin is doubtful, but there is some ground for believing
+that they may be a cross between the aboriginal Mongolic
+element of northern China and the Chinese proper. According
+to their tradition, they were in Shantung and northern China
+as early as the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> In disposition, appearance
+and customs they differ from the true Chinese. They speak
+a distinct dialect. Their women, who are prettier than the pure
+Chinese, do not compress their feet, and move freely about in
+public. The Hakkas are a most industrious people and furnish
+at Canton nearly all the coolie labour employed by Europeans.
+Their intelligence is great, and many noted scholars have been
+of Hakka birth. Hung Sin-tsuan, the leader in the Taiping
+rebellion, was a Hakka. In Formosa they serve as intermediaries
+between the Chinese and European traders and the natives.
+From time immemorial they seem to have been persecuted by
+the Chinese, whom they regard as &ldquo;foreigners,&rdquo; and with whom
+their means of communication is usually &ldquo;pidgin English.&rdquo;
+The earliest persecution occurred under the &ldquo;first universal
+emperor&rdquo; of China, Shi-Hwang-ti (246-210 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). From this
+time the Hakkas appear to have become wanderers. Sometimes
+for generations they were permitted to live unmolested, as under
+the Han dynasty, when some of them held high official posts.
+During the Tang dynasty (7th, 8th, and 9th centuries) they
+settled in the mountains of Fu-kien and on the frontiers of
+Kwang-Tung. On the invasion of Kublai Khan, the Hakkas
+distinguished themselves by their bravery on the Chinese side.
+In the 14th century further persecutions drove them into
+Kwang-Tung.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See &ldquo;An Outline History of the Hakkas,&rdquo; <i>China Review</i> (London,
+1873-1874), vol. ii.; Pitou, &ldquo;On the Origin and History of the
+Hakkas,&rdquo; ib.; Dyer Ball, <i>Easy Lessons in the Hakka Dialect</i> (1884),
+<i>Things Chinese</i> (London, 1893); Schaub, &ldquo;Proverbs in Daily Use
+among the Hakkas,&rdquo; in <i>China Review</i> (London, 1894-1895), vol. xxi.;
+Rev. J. Edkins, <i>China&rsquo;s Place in Philology</i>; Girard de Rialle, <i>Rev.
+d. anthrop.</i> (Jan. and April, 1885); G. Taylor, &ldquo;The Aborigines of
+Formosa,&rdquo; <i>China Review</i>, xiv. p. 198 seq., also xvi. No. 3, &ldquo;A Ramble
+through Southern Formosa.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAKLUYT, RICHARD<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1553-1616), British geographer,
+was born of good family in or near London about 1553. The
+Hakluyts were of Welsh extraction, not Dutch as has been
+supposed. They appear to have settled in Herefordshire as
+early as the 13th century. The family seat was Eaton, 2 m.
+S.E. of Leominster. Hugo Hakelute was returned M.P. for
+that borough in 1304/5. Richard went to school at Westminster,
+where he was a queen&rsquo;s scholar; while there his future
+bent was determined by a visit to his cousin and namesake,
+Richard Hakluyt of the Middle Temple. His cousin &rsquo;s discourse,
+illustrated by &ldquo;certain bookes of cosmographie, an universall
+mappe, and the Bible,&rdquo; made young Hakluyt resolve to &ldquo;prosecute
+that knowledge and kind of literature.&rdquo; Entering Christ
+Church, Oxford, in 1570, &ldquo;his exercises of duty first performed,&rdquo;
+he fell to his intended course of reading, and by degrees perused
+all the printed or written voyages and discoveries that he could
+find. He took his B.A. In 1573/4. It is probable that,
+shortly after taking his M.A. (1577), he began at Oxford the first
+public lectures in geography that &ldquo;shewed both the old imperfectly
+composed and the new lately reformed mappes, globes,
+spheares, and other instruments of this art.&rdquo; That this was not
+in London is certain, as we know that the first lecture of the
+kind was delivered in the metropolis on the 4th of November
+1588 by Thomas Hood.</p>
+
+<p>Hakluyt&rsquo;s first published work was his <i>Divers Voyages touching
+the Discoverie of America</i> (London, 1582, 4to.). This brought
+him to the notice of Lord Howard of Effingham, and so to that
+of Sir Edward Stafford, Lord Howard&rsquo;s brother-in-law; accordingly
+at the age of thirty, being acquainted with &ldquo;the chiefest
+captaines at sea, the greatest merchants, and the best mariners
+of our nation,&rdquo; he was selected as chaplain to accompany
+Stafford, now English ambassador at the French court, to
+Paris (1583). In accordance with the instructions of Secretary
+Walsingham, he occupied himself chiefly in collecting information
+of the Spanish and French movements, and &ldquo;making diligent
+inquirie of such things as might yield any light unto our westerne
+discoverie in America.&rdquo; The first fruits of Hakluyt&rsquo;s labours
+in Paris are embodied in his important work entitled <i>A particuler
+discourse concerning Westerne discoveries written in the yere 1584,
+by Richarde Hackluyt of Oxforde, at the requeste and direction of
+the righte worshipfull Mr Walter Raghly before the comynge home
+of his twoo barkes</i>. This long-lost MS. was at last printed in 1877.
+Its object was to recommend the enterprise of planting the
+English race in the unsettled parts of North America. Hakluyt&rsquo;s
+other works consist mainly of translations and compilations,
+relieved by his dedications and prefaces, which last, with a few
+letters, are the only material we possess out of which a biography
+of him can be framed. Hakluyt revisited England in 1584,
+laid before Queen Elizabeth a copy of the <i>Discourse</i> &ldquo;along with
+one in Latin upon Aristotle&rsquo;s <i>Politicks</i>,&rdquo; and obtained, two days
+before his return to Paris, the grant of the next vacant prebend
+at Bristol, to which he was admitted in 1586 and held with his
+other preferments till his death.</p>
+
+<p>While in Paris Hakluyt interested himself in the publication
+of the MS. journal of Laudonnière, the <i>Histoire notable de la
+Florida</i>, edited by Bassanier (Paris, 1586, 8vo.). This was
+translated by Hakluyt and published in London under the title
+of <i>A notable historie containing foure voyages made by certayne
+French captaynes into Florida</i> (London, 1587, 4to.). The same
+year <i>De orbe novo Petri Martyris Anglerii decades octo illustratae
+labore et industria Richardi Hackluyti</i> saw the light at Paris.
+This work contains the exceedingly rare copperplate map dedicated
+to Hakluyt and signed F. G. (supposed to be Francis
+Gualle); it is the first on which the name of &ldquo;Virginia&rdquo; appears.</p>
+
+<p>In 1588 Hakluyt finally returned to England with Lady
+Stafford, after a residence in France of nearly five years. In 1589
+he published the first edition of his chief work, <i>The Principall
+Navigations, Voiages and Discoveries of the English Nation</i>
+(fol., London, 1 vol.). In the preface to this we have the
+announcement of the intended publication of the first terrestrial
+globe made in England by Molyneux. In 1598-1600 appeared
+the final, reconstructed and greatly enlarged edition of <i>The
+Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques and Discoveries of
+the English Nation</i> (fol., 3 vols.). Some few copies contain an
+exceedingly rare map, the first on the Mercator projection made
+in England according to the true principles laid down by Edward
+Wright. Hakluyt&rsquo;s great collection, though but little read, has
+been truly called the &ldquo;prose epic of the modern English nation.&rdquo;
+It is an invaluable treasure of material for the history of
+geographical discovery and colonization, which has secured for its
+editor a lasting reputation. In 1601 Hakluyt edited a translation
+from the Portuguese of Antonio Galvano, <i>The Discoveries of
+the World</i> (4to., London). In the same year his name occurs as
+an adviser to the East India Company, supplying them with
+maps, and informing them as to markets. Meantime in 1590
+(April 20th) he had been instituted to the rectory of Withering-sett-cum-Brockford,
+Suffolk. In 1602, on the 4th of May, he
+was installed prebendary of Westminster, and in the following
+year he was elected archdeacon of Westminster. In the licence
+of his second marriage (30th of March 1604) he is also described
+as one of the chaplains of the Savoy, and his will contains a
+reference to chambers occupied by him there up to the time of
+his death; in another official document he is styled D.D. In
+1605 he secured the prospective living of James Town, the
+intended capital of the intended colony of Virginia. This
+benefice he supplied, when the colony was at last established in
+1607, by a curate, one Robert Hunt. In 1606 he appears as one
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page829" id="page829"></a>829</span>
+of the chief promoters of the petition to the king for patents
+to colonize Virginia. He was also a leading adventurer in the
+London or South Virginia Company. His last publication was
+a translation of Fernando de Soto&rsquo;s discoveries in Florida,
+entitled <i>Virginia richly valued by the description of Florida her
+next neighbour</i> (London, 1609, 4to). This work was intended
+to encourage the young colony of Virginia; to Hakluyt, it has
+been said, &ldquo;England is more indebted for its American possession
+than to any man of that age.&rdquo; We may notice that it was at
+Hakluyt&rsquo;s suggestion that Robert Parke translated Mendoza&rsquo;s
+<i>History of China</i> (London, 1588-1589) and John Pory made his
+version of <i>Leo Africanus</i> (<i>A Geographical History of Africa</i>,
+London, 1600). Hakluyt died in 1616 (November 23rd) and
+was buried in Westminster Abbey (November 26th); by an error
+in the abbey register his burial is recorded under the year 1626.
+Out of his various emoluments and preferments (of which the
+last was Gedney rectory, Lincolnshire, in 1612) he amassed a
+small fortune, which was squandered by a son. A number of
+his MSS., sufficient to form a fourth volume of his collections
+of 1598-1600, fell into the hands of Samuel Purchas, who inserted
+them in an abridged form in his <i>Pilgrimes</i> (1625-1626, fol.).
+Others are preserved at Oxford (Bib. Bod. MS. Seld. B. 8). which
+consist chiefly of notes gathered from contemporary authors.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Besides the MSS. or editions noticed in the text (<i>Divers Voyages</i>
+(1582); <i>Particuler Discourse</i> (1584); Laudonnière&rsquo;s <i>Florida</i> (1587);
+Peter Martyr, <i>Decades</i> (1587); <i>Principal Navigations</i> (1589 and 1598-1600);
+Galvano&rsquo;s <i>Discoveries</i> (1601); De Soto&rsquo;s Florida record, the
+<i>Virginia richly valued</i> (1609, &amp;c.), we may notice the Hakluyt
+Society&rsquo;s London edition of the <i>Divers Voyages</i> in 1850, the edition
+of the <i>Particuler Discourse</i>, by Charles Deane in the <i>Collections of
+the Maine Historical Society</i> (Cambridge, Mass., 1870, with an introduction
+by Leonard Woods); also, among modern issues of the
+<i>Principal Navigations</i>, those of 1809 (5 vols., with much additional
+matter), and of 1903-1905 (Glasgow, 12 vols.). The new title-page
+issued for the first volume of the final edition of the <i>Principal
+Navigations</i>, in 1599, merely cancelled the former 1598 title with its
+reference to the Cadiz expedition of 1596; but from this has arisen
+the mistaken supposition that a new <i>edition</i> was then (1599) published.
+Hakluyt&rsquo;s Galvano was edited for the Hakluyt Society by Admiral
+C. R. D. Bethune in 1862. This Society, which was founded
+in 1846 for printing rare and unpublished voyages and travels,
+includes the Glasgow edition of the <i>Principal Navigations</i> in its
+<i>extra series</i>, as well as C. R. Beazley&rsquo;s edition of <i>Carpini</i>, <i>Rubruquis</i>,
+and other medieval texts from Hakluyt (Cambridge, 1903, 1 vol.).
+Reckoning in these and an issue of Purchas&rsquo;s <i>Pilgrimes</i> by the Glasgow
+publisher of the Hakluyt of 1903-1905, the society has now published
+or &ldquo;fathered&rdquo; 150 vols. See also <i>Voyages of the Elizabethan Seamen
+to America, being Select Narratives from the Principal Navigations</i>, by
+E. J. Payne (Oxford, 1880; 1893; new edition by C. R. Beazley, 1907).</p>
+
+<p>For Hakluyt&rsquo;s life the dedications of the 1589 and 1598 editions
+of the <i>Principal Navigations</i> should be especially consulted; also
+Winter Jones&rsquo;s introduction to the Kakluyt Society edition of the
+<i>Divers Voyages</i>; Fuller&rsquo;s <i>Worthies of England</i>, &ldquo;Herefordshire&rdquo;;
+<i>Oxford Univ. Reg.</i> (Oxford Hist. Soc), ii., iii. 39; <i>Historical MSS.
+Commission, 4th report, appendix</i>, p. 614, the last giving us the
+Towneley MSS. referring to payments (prizes?) awarded to Hakluyt
+when at Oxford, May 12th and June 4th, 1575.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. H. C; C. R. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAKODATE,<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> a town on the south of the island of Yezo,
+Japan, for many years regarded as the capital of the island
+until Sapporo was officially raised to that rank. Pop. (1903)
+84,746. Its position, as has been frequently remarked, is not
+unlike that of Gibraltar, as the town is built along the north-western
+base of a rocky promontory (1157 ft. in height) which
+forms the eastern boundary of a spacious bay, and is united to
+the mainland by a narrow sandy isthmus. The summit of the
+rock, called the Peak, is crowned by a fort. Hakodate is one of
+the ports originally opened to foreign trade. The Bay of Hakodate,
+an inlet of Tsugaru Strait, is completely land-locked, easy
+of access and spacious, with deep water almost up to the shore,
+and good holding-ground. The Russians formerly used Hakodate
+as a winter port. The staple exports are beans, pulse and peas,
+marine products, sulphur, furs and timber; the staple imports,
+comestibles (especially salted fish), kerosene and oil-cake. The
+town is not situated so as to profit largely by the development of
+the resources of Yezo, and as a port of foreign trade its outlook
+is indifferent. Frequent steamers connect Hakodate and
+Yokohama and other ports, and there is daily communication
+with Aomori, 56 m. distant, whence there is rail-connexion with
+Tokyo. Hakodate was opened to American commerce in 1854.
+In the civil war of 1868 the town was taken by the rebel fleet,
+but it was recovered by the mikado in 1869.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HAL,<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> a town of Brabant, Belgium, about 9 m. S.W. of Brussels,
+situated on the river Senne and the Charleroi canal. Pop. (1904)
+13,541. The place is interesting chiefly on account of its fine
+church of Notre Dame, formerly dedicated to St Martin. This
+church, a good example of pure Gothic, was begun in 1341 and
+finished in 1409. Its principal ornament is the alabaster altar,
+by J. Mone, completed in 1533. The bronze font dates from
+1446. Among the monuments is one in black marble to the
+dauphin Joachim, son of Louis XI., who died in 1460. In the
+treasury of the church are many costly objects presented by
+illustrious personages, among others by the emperor Charles V.,
+King Henry VIII. of England, Charles the Bold of Burgundy,
+and several popes. The church is chiefly celebrated, however,
+for its miraculous image of the Virgin. Legend says that during
+a siege the bullets fired into the town were caught by her in the
+folds of her dress. Some of these are still shown in a chest that
+stands in a side chapel. In consequence of this belief a great
+pilgrimage, attended by many thousands from all parts of
+Belgium, is paid annually to this church. The hôtel de ville
+dates from 1616 and has been restored with more than ordinary
+good taste.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALA,<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Halla</span> (formerly known as Murtazabad), a town of
+British India in Hyderabad district, Sind. Pop. (1901) 4985.
+It has long been famous for its glazed pottery and tiles, made
+from a fine clay obtained from the Indus, mixed with powdered
+flints. The town has also a manufacture of susis or striped
+trouser-cloths.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALAESA,<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> an ancient town on the north coast of Sicily,
+about 14 m. E. of Cephaloedium [Cefalu], to the east of the
+modern Castel di Tusa, founded in 403 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by Archonides,
+tyrant of Herbita, whose name it sometimes bore: we find, <i>e.g.</i>
+<i>Halaisa Archonida</i> on a coin of the time of Augustus (<i>Corp.
+inscrip. Lat.</i> x., Berlin, 1883, p. 768). It was the first town to
+surrender to the Romans in the First Punic War, and was granted
+freedom and immunity from tithe. It became a place of some
+importance in Roman days, especially as a port, and entirely
+outstripped its mother city. Halaesa is the only place in Sicily
+where an inscription dedicated to a Roman governor of the
+republican period (perhaps in 93 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) has come to light.</p>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALAKHA,<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Halacha</span> (literally &ldquo;rule of conduct&rdquo;), the
+rabbinical development of the Mosaic law; with the haggada
+it makes up the Talmud and Midrash (<i>q.v.</i>). As the haggada
+is the poetic, so the halakha is the legal element of the Talmud
+(<i>q.v.</i>), and arose out of the faction between the Sadducees, who
+disputed the traditions, and the Pharisees, who strove to prove
+their derivation from scripture. Among the chief attempts to
+codify the halakha were the <i>Great Rules</i> (<i>Halakhoth Gedoloth</i>)
+of Simon Kayyara (9th century), based on the letters written by
+the Gaonim, the heads of the Babylonian schools, to Jewish
+inquirers in many lands, the work of Jacob Alfassi (1013-1103),
+the <i>Strong Hand of</i> Maimonides (1180), and the <i>Table Prepared</i>
+(<i>Shul&#7717;an Aruch</i>) of Joseph Qaro (1565), which from its practical
+scope and its clarity as a work of general reference became the
+universal handbook of Jewish life in many of its phases.</p>
+<div class="author">(I. A.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALBERSTADT,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
+of Saxony, 56 m. by rail N.W. of Halle, and 29 S.W. of Magdeburg.
+It lies in a fertile country to the north of the Harz
+Mountains, on the Holzemme, at the junction of railways to
+Halle, Goslar and Thale. Pop. (1905) 45,534. The town has
+a medieval appearance, many old houses decorated with beautiful
+wood-carving still surviving. The Gothic cathedral (now Protestant),
+dating from the 13th and 14th centuries, is remarkable
+for the majestic impression made by the great height of the
+interior, with its slender columns and lofty, narrow aisles. The
+treasure, preserved in the former chapter-house, is rich in
+reliquaries, vestments and other objects of medieval church
+art. The beautiful spires, which had become unsafe, were
+rebuilt in 1890-1895. Among the other churches the only one
+of special interest is the Liebfrauenkirche (Church of Our Lady),
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page830" id="page830"></a>830</span>
+a basilica, with four towers, in the later Romanesque style,
+dating from the 12th and 13th centuries and restored in 1848,
+containing old mural frescoes and carved figures. Remarkable
+among the other old buildings are the town-hall, of the 14th
+century and restored in the 17th century, with a crypt, and the
+Petershof, formerly the episcopal palace, but now utilized as
+law courts and a prison. The principal educational establishment
+is the gymnasium, with a library of 40,000 volumes. Close
+to the cathedral lies the house of the poet Gleim (<i>q.v.</i>), since 1899
+the property of the municipality and converted into a museum.
+It contains a collection of the portraits of the friends of the
+poet-scholar and some valuable manuscripts. The principal
+manufactures of the town are sugar, cigars, paper, gloves,
+chemical products, beer and machinery. About a mile and a half
+distant are the Spiegelsberge, from which a fine view of the
+surrounding country is obtained, and the Klusberge, with prehistoric
+cave-dwellings cut out in the sandstone rocks.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The history of Halberstadt begins with the transfer to it, by
+Bishop Hildegrim I., in 820 of the see founded by Charlemagne at
+Seligenstadt. At the end of the 10th century the bishops were
+granted by the emperors the right to exercise temporal jurisdiction
+over their see, which became one of the most considerable of the
+ecclesiastical principalities of the Empire. As such it survived the
+introduction of the Reformation in 1542; but in 1566, on the death
+of Sigismund of Brandenburg (also archbishop of Madgeburg from
+1552 to 1566), the last Catholic bishop, the chapter from motives
+of economy elected the infant Henry Julius of Brunswick-Lüneburg.
+In 1589 he became duke of Brunswick, and two years later he
+abolished the Catholic rites in Halberstadt. The see was governed
+by lay bishops until 1648, when it was formally converted by the
+treaty of Westphalia into a secular principality for the elector of
+Brandenburg. By the treaty of Tilsit in 1807 it was annexed to
+the kingdom of Westphalia, but came again to Prussia on the
+downfall of Napoleon.</p>
+
+<p>The town received a charter from Bishop Arnulf in 998. In
+1113 it was burnt by the emperor Henry V., and in 1179 by Henry
+the Lion. During the Thirty Years&rsquo; War it was occupied alternately
+by the Imperialists and the Swedes, the latter of whom handed it
+over to Brandenburg.</p>
+
+<p>See Lucanus, <i>Der Dom zu Halberstadt</i> (1837), <i>Wegweiser durch
+Halberstadt</i> (2nd ed., 1866) and <i>Die Liebfrauenkirche zu Halberstadt</i>
+(1872); Scheffer, <i>Inschriften und Legenden halberstädtischer Bauten</i>
+(1864); Schmidt, <i>Urkundenbuch der Stadt Halberstadt</i> (Halle, 1878);
+and Zschiesche, <i>Halberstadt, sonst und jetzi</i> (1882).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALBERT,<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> <span class="sc">Halberd</span> or <span class="sc">Halbard</span>, a weapon consisting of an
+axe-blade balanced by a pick and having an elongated pike-head
+at the end of the staff, which was usually about 5 or 6 ft. in
+length. The utility of such a weapon in the wars of the later
+middle ages lay in this, that it gave the foot soldier the means
+of dealing with an armoured man on horseback. The pike could
+do no more than keep the horseman at a distance. This ensured
+security for the foot soldier but did not enable him to strike a
+mortal blow, for which firstly a long-handled and secondly a
+powerful weapon, capable of striking a heavy cleaving blow,
+was required. Several different forms of weapon responding
+to these requirements are described and illustrated below; it
+will be noticed that the thrusting pike is almost always combined
+with the cutting-bill hook or axe-head, so that the individual
+billman or halberdier should not be at a disadvantage if caught
+alone by a mounted opponent, or if his first descending blow
+missed its object. It will be noticed further that, concurrently
+with the disuse of complete armour and the development of
+firearms, the pike or thrusting element gradually displaces the
+axe or cleaving element in these weapons, till at last we arrive
+at the court halberts and partizans of the late 16th and early
+17th centuries and the so-called &ldquo;halbert&rdquo; of the infantry
+officer and sergeant in the 18th, which can scarcely be classed
+even as partizans.</p>
+
+<p>Figs. 1-6 represent types of these long cutting, cut and thrust
+weapons of the middle ages, details being omitted for the sake of
+clearness. The most primitive is the <i>voulge</i> (fig. 1), which is
+simply a heavy cleaver on a pole, with a point added. The next
+form, the <i>gisarme</i> or <i>guisarme</i> (fig. 2), appears in infinite variety
+but is always distinguished from voulges, &amp;c. by the hook,
+which was used to pull down mounted men, and generally
+resembles the agricultural bill-hook of to-day. The <i>glaive</i>
+(fig. 3 is late German) is a broad, heavy, slightly curved sword-blade
+on a stave; it is often combined with the hooked gisarme
+as a <i>glaive-gisarme</i> (fig. 4, Burgundian, about 1480). A <i>gisarme-voulge</i>
+is shown in fig. 5 (Swiss, 14th century).</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 420px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:286px; height:177px" src="images/img830a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Figs. 1-6.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:373px; height:184px" src="images/img830b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Figs. 7-12.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The weapon best known to Englishmen is the <i>bill</i>, which was
+originally a sort of scythe-blade, sharp on the concave side
+(whereas the glaive has
+the cutting edge on the
+convex side), but in its
+best-known form it should
+be called a bill-gisarme
+(fig. 6). The <i>partizans</i>, <i>ranseurs</i>
+and <i>halberts</i> proper
+developed naturally from
+the earlier types. The
+feature common to all,
+as has been said, is the
+combination of spear and axe. In the halberts the axe
+predominates, as the examples (fig. 10, Swiss, early 15th
+century; fig. 11, Swiss, middle 16th century; and fig. 12, German
+court halbert of the same period as fig. 11) show. In the
+<i>partizan</i> the pike is the more important, the axe-heads being
+reduced to little more than an ornamental feature. A south
+German specimen (fig. 9, 1615) shows how this was compensated
+by the broadening of the spear-head, the edges of which in such
+weapons were sharpened. Fig. 8, a service weapon of simple
+form, merely has projections on either side, and from this
+developed the <i>ranseur</i> (fig. 7), a partizan with a very long and
+narrow point, like the blade of a rapier, and with fork-like projections
+intended to act as &ldquo;sword-breakers,&rdquo; instead of the
+atrophied axe-heads of the partizan proper.</p>
+
+<p>The halbert played almost as conspicuous a part in the military
+history of Middle Europe during the 15th and early 16th centuries
+as the pike. But,
+even in a form
+distinguishable
+from the voulge
+and the glaive, it
+dates from the
+early part of the
+13th century, and
+for many generations
+thereafter it
+was the special
+weapon of the
+Swiss. Fauchet, in his <i>Origines des dignitez</i>, printed in 1600,
+states that Louis XI. of France ordered certain new weapons
+of war called <i>hallebardes</i> to be made at Angers and other places in
+1475. The Swiss had a mixed armament of pikes and halberts
+at the battle of Morat in 1476. In the 15th and 16th centuries
+the halberts became larger, and the blades were formed
+in many varieties of shape, often engraved, inlaid, or pierced
+in open work, and exquisitely finished as works of art. This
+weapon was in use in England from the reign of Henry VII.
+to the reign of George III., when it was still carried (though in
+shape it had certainly lost its original characteristics, and had
+become half partizan and half pike) by sergeants in the guards
+and other infantry regiments. It is still retained as the symbol
+of authority borne before the magistrates on public occasions
+in some of the burghs of Scotland. The Lochaber axe may be
+called a species of halbert furnished with a hook on the end of
+the staff at the back of the blade. The godendag (Fr. <i>godendart</i>)
+is the Flemish name of the halbert in its original form.</p>
+
+<p>The derivation of the word is as follows. The O. Fr. <i>hallebarde</i>,
+of which the English &ldquo;halberd,&rdquo; &ldquo;halbert,&rdquo; is an adaptation,
+was itself adapted from the M.H.G. <i>helmbarde</i>, mod. <i>Hellebarde</i>;
+the second part is the O.H.G. <i>barta</i> or <i>parta</i>, broad-axe, probably
+the same word as <i>Bart</i>, beard, and so called from its shape;
+the first part is either <i>helm</i>, handle, cf. &ldquo;helm,&rdquo; tiller of a ship,
+the word meaning &ldquo;hafted axe,&rdquo; or else <i>helm</i>, helmet, an axe
+for smiting the helmet. A common derivation was to take the
+word as representing a Ger. <i>halb-barde</i>, half-axe; the early
+German form shows this to be an erroneous guess.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page831" id="page831"></a>831</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALDANE, JAMES ALEXANDER<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> (1768-1851), Scottish
+divine, the younger son of Captain James Haldane of Airthrey
+House, Stirlingshire, was born at Dundee on the 14th of July
+1768. Educated first at Dundee and afterwards at the high
+school and university of Edinburgh, at the age of seventeen he
+joined the &ldquo;Duke of Montrose&rdquo; East Indiaman as a midshipman.
+After four voyages to India he was nominated to the
+command of the &ldquo;Melville Castle&rdquo; in the summer of 1793;
+but having during a long and unexpected detention of his ship
+begun a careful study of the Bible, and also come under the
+evangelical influence of David Bogue of Gosport, one of the
+founders of the London Missionary Society, he abruptly resolved
+to quit the naval profession for a religious life, and returned to
+Scotland before his ship had sailed. About the year 1796 he
+became acquainted with the celebrated evangelical divine,
+Charles Simeon of Cambridge, in whose society he made several
+tours through Scotland, endeavouring by tract-distribution
+and other means to awaken others to some of that interest in
+religious subjects which he himself so strongly felt. In May
+1797 he preached his first sermon, at Gilmerton near Edinburgh,
+with encouraging success. In the same year he established a
+non-sectarian organization for tract distribution and lay preaching
+called the &ldquo;Society for the Propagation of the Gospel at
+Home.&rdquo; During the next few years he made repeated missionary
+journeys, preaching wherever he could obtain hearers, and
+generally in the open air. Not originally disloyal to the Church
+of Scotland, he was gradually driven by the hostility of the
+Assembly and the exigencies of his position into separation.
+In 1799 he was ordained as pastor of a large Independent congregation
+in Edinburgh. This was the first congregational church
+known by that name in Scotland. In 1801 a permanent building
+replaced the circus in which the congregation had at first met.
+To this church he continued to minister gratuitously for more
+than fifty years. In 1808 he made public avowal of his conversion
+to Baptist views. As advancing years compelled him to withdraw
+from the more exhausting labours of itineracy and open-air
+preaching, he sought more and more to influence the discussion
+of current religious and theological questions by means of the
+press. He died on the 8th of February 1851.</p>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">Daniel Rutherford Haldane</span> (1824-1887), by his
+second wife, a daughter of Professor Daniel Rutherford, was a
+prominent Scottish physician, who became president of the
+Edinburgh College of Physicians.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Among J. A. Haldane&rsquo;s numerous contributions to current theological
+discussions were: <i>The Duty of Christian Forbearance in
+Regard to Points of Church Order</i> (1811); <i>Strictures on a Publication
+upon Primitive Christianity by Mr John Walker</i> (1819); <i>Refutation
+of Edward Irving&rsquo;s Heretical Doctrines respecting the Person and
+Atonement of Jesus Christ</i>. His <i>Observations on Universal Pardon</i>,
+&amp;c., was a contribution to the controversy regarding the views of
+Thomas Erskine of Linlathen and Campbell of Row; <i>Man&rsquo;s Responsibility</i>
+(1842) is a reply to Howard Hinton on the nature and
+extent of the Atonement. He also published: <i>Journal of a Tour
+in the North</i>; <i>Early Instruction Commended</i> (1801); <i>Views of the
+Social Worship of the First Churches</i> (1805); <i>The Doctrine and Duty
+of Self-Examination</i> (1806); <i>The Doctrine of the Atonement</i> (1845);
+<i>Exposition of the Epistle to the Galatians</i> (1848).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALDANE, RICHARD BURDON<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (1856-&emsp;&emsp;), British statesman
+and philosopher, was the third son of Robert Haldane of
+Cloanden, Perthshire, a writer to the signet, and nephew of
+J. S. Burdon-Sanderson. He was a grand-nephew of the Scottish
+divines J. A. and Robert Haldane. He was educated at Edinburgh
+Academy and the universities of Edinburgh and Göttingen,
+where he studied philosophy under Lotze. He took first-class
+honours in philosophy at Edinburgh, and was Gray scholar and
+Ferguson scholar in philosophy of the four Scottish Universities
+(1876). He was called to the bar in 1879, and so early as 1890
+became a queen&rsquo;s counsel. In 1885 he entered parliament as
+liberal member for Haddingtonshire, for which he was re-elected
+continuously up to and including 1910. He was included in
+1905 in Sir H. Campbell-Bannerman&rsquo;s cabinet as secretary for
+war, and was the author of the important scheme for the reorganization
+of the British army, by which the militia and the
+volunteer forces were replaced by a single territorial force.
+Though always known as one of the ablest men of the Liberal
+party and conspicuous during the Boer War of 1899-1902 as
+a Liberal Imperialist, the choice of Mr Haldane for the task of
+thinking out a new army organization on business lines had
+struck many people as curious. Besides being a chancery
+lawyer, he was more particularly a philosopher, conspicuous for
+his knowledge of Hegelian metaphysics. But with German philosophy
+he had also the German sense of thoroughness and system,
+and his scheme, while it was much criticized, was recognized
+as the best that could be done with a voluntary army. Mr
+Haldane&rsquo;s chief literary publications were: <i>Life of Adam Smith</i>
+(1887); <i>Education and Empire</i> (1902); <i>The Pathway to Reality</i>
+(1903). He also translated, jointly with J. Kemp, Schopenhauer&rsquo;s
+<i>Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung</i> (<i>The World as Will and
+Idea</i>, 3 vols., 1883-1886).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALDANE, ROBERT<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> (1764-1842), Scottish divine, elder
+brother of J. A. Haldane (<i>q.v.</i>), was born in London on the
+28th of February 1764. After attending classes in the Dundee
+grammar school and in the high school and university of Edinburgh
+in 1780, he joined H.M.S. &ldquo;Monarch,&rdquo; of which his uncle
+Lord Duncan was at that time in command, and in the following
+year was transferred to the &ldquo;Foudroyant,&rdquo; on board of which,
+during the night engagement with the &ldquo;Pegase,&rdquo; he greatly
+distinguished himself. Haldane was afterwards present at the
+relief of Gibraltar, but at the peace of 1783 he finally left the
+navy, and soon afterwards settled on his estate of Airthrey, near
+Stirling. He put himself under the tuition of David Bogue of
+Gosport and carried away deep impressions from his academy.
+The earlier phases of the French Revolution excited his deepest
+sympathy, a sympathy which induced him to avow his strong
+disapproval of the war with France. As his over-sanguine visions
+of a new order of things to be ushered in by political change
+disappeared, he began to direct his thoughts to religious subjects.
+Resolving to devote himself and his means wholly to the advancement
+of Christianity, his first proposal for that end, made in
+1796, was to organize a vast mission to Bengal, of which he was
+to provide the entire expense; with this view the greater part
+of his estate was sold, but the East India Company refused to
+sanction the scheme, which therefore had to be abandoned.
+In December 1797 he joined his brother and some others in the
+formation of the &ldquo;Society for the Propagation of the Gospel at
+Home,&rdquo; in building chapels or &ldquo;tabernacles&rdquo; for congregations,
+in supporting missionaries, and in maintaining institutions for
+the education of young men to carry on the work of evangelization.
+He is said to have spent more than £70,000 in the course of
+the following twelve years (1798-1810). He also initiated a
+plan for evangelizing Africa by bringing over native children
+to be trained as Christian teachers to their own countrymen.
+In 1816 he visited the continent, and first at Geneva and afterwards
+in Montauban (1817) he lectured and interviewed large
+numbers of theological students with remarkable effect; among
+them were Malan, Monod and Merle d&rsquo;Aubigné. Returning to
+Scotland in 1819, he lived partly on his estate of Auchengray
+and partly in Edinburgh, and like his brother took an active part,
+chiefly through the press, in many of the religious controversies
+of the time. He died on the 12th of December 1842.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In 1816 he published a work on the <i>Evidences and Authority of
+Divine Revelation</i>, and in 1819 the substance of his theological
+prelections in a <i>Commentaire sur l&rsquo;Épître aux Romains</i>. Among
+his later writings, besides numerous pamphlets on what was known
+as &ldquo;the Apocrypha controversy,&rdquo; are a treatise <i>On the Inspiration
+of Scripture</i> (1828), which has passed through many editions, and
+a later <i>Exposition of the Epistle to the Romans</i> (1835), which has been
+frequently reprinted, and has been translated into French and
+German.</p>
+
+<p>See <i>Memoirs of R. and J. A. Haldane</i>, by Alexander Haldane
+(1852).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALDEMAN, SAMUEL STEHMAN<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> (1812-1880), American
+naturalist and philologist, was born on the 12th of August 1812
+at Locust Grove, Pa. He was educated at Dickinson College,
+and in 1851 was appointed professor of the natural sciences in
+the university of Pennsylvania. In 1855 he went to Delaware
+College, where he filled the same position, but in 1869 he
+returned to the university of Pennsylvania as professor of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page832" id="page832"></a>832</span>
+comparative philology and remained there till his death, which
+occurred at Chickies, Pa., on the 10th of September 1880. His
+writings include <i>Freshwater Univalve Mollusca of the United
+States</i> (1840); <i>Zoological Contributions</i> (1842-1843); <i>Analytic
+Orthography</i> (1860); <i>Tours of a Chess Knight</i> (1864); <i>Pennsylvania
+Dutch, a Dialect of South German with an Infusion of
+English</i> (1872); <i>Outlines of Etymology</i> (1877); and <i>Word-Building</i>
+(1881).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALDIMAND, SIR FREDERICK<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> (1718-1791), British general
+and administrator, was born at Yverdun, Neuchâtel, Switzerland,
+on the 11th of August 1718, of Huguenot descent. After serving
+in the armies of Sardinia, Russia and Holland, he entered
+British service in 1754, and subsequently naturalized as an
+English citizen. During the Seven Years&rsquo; War he served in
+America, was wounded at Ticonderoga (1758) and was present at
+the taking of Montreal (1760). After filling with credit several
+administrative positions in Canada, Florida and New York,
+in 1778 he succeeded Sir Guy Carleton (afterwards Lord Dorchester)
+as governor-general of Canada. His measures against
+French sympathizers with the Americans have incurred
+extravagant strictures from French-Canadian historians, but he
+really showed moderation as well as energy. In 1785 he returned
+to London. He died at his birthplace on the 5th of
+June 1791.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His life has been well written by Jean McIlwraith in the &ldquo;Makers
+of Canada&rdquo; series (Toronto, 1904). His Correspondence and Diary
+fill 262 volumes in the Canadian Archives, and are catalogued in
+the Annual Reports (1884-1889).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALE, EDWARD EVERETT<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> (1822-1909), American author,
+was born in Boston on the 3rd of April 1822, son of Nathan Hale
+(1784-1863), proprietor and editor of the Boston <i>Daily Advertiser</i>,
+nephew of Edward Everett, the orator and statesman, and grand-nephew
+of Nathan Hale, the martyr spy. He graduated from
+Harvard in 1839; was pastor of the church of the Unity,
+Worcester, Massachusetts, in 1846-1856, and of the South
+Congregational (Unitarian) church, Boston, in 1856-1899; and
+in 1903 became chaplain of the United States Senate. He died
+at Roxbury (Boston), Massachusetts, on the 10th of June 1909.
+His forceful personality, organizing genius, and liberal practical
+theology, together with his deep interest in the anti-slavery
+movement (especially in Kansas), popular education (especially
+Chautauqua work), and the working-man&rsquo;s home, were active
+in raising the tone of American life for half a century. He was
+a constant and voluminous contributor to the newspapers and
+magazines. He was an assistant editor of the Boston <i>Daily
+Advertiser</i>, and edited the <i>Christian Examiner, Old and New</i>
+(which he assisted in founding in 1869; in 1875 it was merged in
+<i>Scribner&rsquo;s Magazine</i>), <i>Lend a Hand</i> (founded by him in 1886 and
+merged in the <i>Charities Review</i> in 1897), and the <i>Lend a Hand
+Record</i>; and he was the author or editor of more than sixty
+books&mdash;fiction, travel, sermons, biography and history.</p>
+
+<p>He first came into notice as a writer in 1859, when he contributed
+the short story &ldquo;My Double and How He Undid Me&rdquo;
+to the <i>Atlantic Monthly</i>. He soon published in the same
+periodical other stories, the best known of which was &ldquo;The
+Man Without a Country&rdquo; (1863), which did much to strengthen
+the Union cause in the North, and in which, as in some of his
+other non-romantic tales, he employed a minute realism which
+has led his readers to suppose the narrative a record of fact.
+The two stories mentioned, and such others as &ldquo;The Rag-Man
+and the Rag-Woman&rdquo; and &ldquo;The Skeleton in the Closet,&rdquo; gave
+him a prominent position among the short-story writers of
+America. The story <i>Ten Times One is Ten</i> (1870), with its hero
+Harry Wadsworth, and its motto, first enunciated in 1869 in his
+Lowell Institute lectures, &ldquo;Look up and not down, look forward
+and not back, look out and not in, and lend a hand,&rdquo; led to the
+formation among young people of &ldquo;Lend-a-Hand Clubs,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Look-up Legions&rdquo; and &ldquo;Harry Wadsworth Clubs.&rdquo; Out of
+the romantic Waldensian story <i>In His Name</i> (1873) there
+similarly grew several other organizations for religious work,
+such as &ldquo;King&rsquo;s Daughters,&rdquo; and &ldquo;King&rsquo;s Sons.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Among his other books are <i>Kansas and Nebraska</i> (1854); <i>The
+Ingham Papers</i> (1869); <i>His Level Best, and Other Stories</i> (1870);
+<i>Sybaris and Other Homes</i> (1871); <i>Philip Nolan&rsquo;s Friends</i> (1876), his
+best-known novel, and a sequel to <i>The Man Without a Country; The
+Kingdom of God</i> (1880); <i>Christmas at Narragansett</i> (1885); <i>East
+and West</i>, a novel (1892); <i>For Fifty Years</i> (poems, 1893); <i>Ralph
+Waldo Emerson</i> (1899); <i>We, the People</i> (1903); <i>Prayers Offered in
+the Senate of the United States</i> (1904), and <i>Tarry-at-Home Travels</i>
+(1906). He edited Lingard&rsquo;s <i>History of England</i> (1853), and contributed
+to Winsor&rsquo;s <i>Memorial History of Boston</i> (1880-1881), and
+to his <i>Narrative and Critical History of America</i> (1886-1889). With
+his son, Edward Everett Hale, Jr., he published <i>Franklin in France</i>
+(2 vols., 1887-1888), based largely on original research. The most
+charming books of his later years were <i>A New England Boyhood</i>
+(1893), <i>James Russell Lowell and His Friends</i> (1899), and <i>Memories
+of a Hundred Years</i> (1902).</p>
+
+<p>A uniform and revised edition of his principal writings, in ten
+volumes, appeared in 1899-1901.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALE, HORATIO<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> (1817-1896), American ethnologist, was
+born in Newport, New Hampshire, on the 3rd of May 1817. He
+was the son of David Hale, a lawyer, and of Sarah Josepha Hale
+(1790-1879), a popular poet, who, besides editing <i>Godey&rsquo;s Lady&rsquo;s
+Magazine</i> for many years and publishing some ephemeral books,
+is supposed to have written the verses &ldquo;Mary had a little lamb,&rdquo;
+and to have been the first to suggest the national observance of
+Thanksgiving Day. The son graduated in 1837 at Harvard,
+and during 1838-1842 was philologist to the United States
+Exploring Expedition, which under Captain Charles Wilkes sailed
+around the world. Of the reports of that expedition Hale
+prepared the sixth volume, <i>Ethnography and Philology</i> (1846),
+which is said to have &ldquo;laid the foundations of the ethnography
+of Polynesia.&rdquo; He was admitted to the Chicago bar in 1855,
+and in the following year removed to Clinton, Ontario, Canada,
+where he practised his profession, and where on the 28th of
+December 1896 he died. He made many valuable contributions
+to the science of ethnology, attracting attention particularly by
+his theory of the origin of the diversities of human languages
+and dialects&mdash;a theory suggested by his study of &ldquo;child-languages,&rdquo;
+or the languages invented by little children. He
+also emphasized the importance of languages as tests of mental
+capacity and as &ldquo;criteria for the classification of human groups.&rdquo;
+He was, moreover, the first to discover that the Tutelos of Virginia
+belonged to the Siouan family, and to identify the Cherokee
+as a member of the Iroquoian family of speech. Besides writing
+numerous magazine articles, he read a number of valuable papers
+before learned societies. These include: <i>Indian Migrations as
+Evidenced by Language</i> (1882); <i>The Origin of Languages and the
+Antiquity of Speaking Man</i> (1886); <i>The Development of Language</i>
+(1888); and <i>Language as a Test of Mental Capacity: Being an
+Attempt to Demonstrate the True Basis of Anthropology</i> (1891).
+He also edited for Brinton&rsquo;s &ldquo;Library of Aboriginal Literature,&rdquo;
+the <i>Iroquois Book of Rites</i> (1883).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALE, JOHN PARKER<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> (1806-1873), American statesman, was
+born at Rochester, New Hampshire, on the 31st of March 1806.
+He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1827, was admitted to the
+New Hampshire bar in 1830, was a member of the state House of
+Representatives in 1832, and from 1834 to 1841 was United
+States district attorney for New Hampshire. In 1843-1845 he
+was a Democratic member of the national House of Representatives,
+and, though his earnest co-operation with John
+Quincy Adams in securing the repeal of the &ldquo;gag rule&rdquo; directed
+against the presentation to Congress of anti-slavery petitions
+estranged him from the leaders of his party, he was renominated
+without opposition. In January 1845, however, he refused in
+a public statement to obey a resolution (28th of December 1844)
+of the state legislature directing him and his New Hampshire
+associates in Congress to support the cause of the annexation
+of Texas, a Democratic measure which Hale regarded as being
+distinctively in the interest of slavery. The Democratic State
+convention was at once reassembled, Hale was denounced, and
+his nomination withdrawn. In the election which followed Hale
+ran independently, and, although the Democratic candidates
+were elected in the other three congressional districts of the
+state, his vote was large enough to prevent any choice (for which
+a majority was necessary) in his own. Hale then set out in the
+face of apparently hopeless odds to win over his state to the anti-slavery
+cause. The remarkable canvass which he conducted
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page833" id="page833"></a>833</span>
+is known in the history of New Hampshire as the &ldquo;Hale Storm
+of 1845.&rdquo; The election resulted in the choice of a legislature
+controlled by the Whigs and the independent Democrats, he
+himself being chosen as a member of the state House of Representatives,
+of which in 1846 he was speaker. He is remembered,
+however, chiefly for his long service in the United States Senate,
+of which he was a member from 1847 to 1853 and again from
+1855 to 1865. At first he was the only out-and-out anti-slavery
+senator,&mdash;he alone prevented the vote of thanks to General Taylor
+and General Scott for their Mexican war victories from being made
+unanimous in the Senate (February 1848)&mdash;but in 1849 Salmon
+P. Chase and William H. Seward, and in 1851 Charles Sumner
+joined him, and the anti-slavery cause became for the first time
+a force to be reckoned with in that body. In October 1847 he had
+been nominated for president by the Liberty party, but he
+withdrew in favour of Martin Van Buren, the Free Soil candidate,
+in 1848. In 1851 he was senior counsel for the rescuers of the
+slave Shadrach in Boston. In 1852 he was the Free Soil candidate
+for the presidency, but received only 156,149 votes. In
+1850 he secured the abolition of flogging in the U.S. navy,
+and through his efforts in 1862 the spirit ration in the navy was
+abolished. He was one of the organizers of the Republican
+party, and during the Civil War was an eloquent supporter of
+the Union and chairman of the Senate naval committee. From
+1865 to 1869 he was United States minister to Spain. He died at
+Dover, New Hampshire, on the 19th of December 1873. A
+statue of Hale, presented by his son-in-law William Eaton
+Chandler (b. 1835), U.S. senator from New Hampshire in
+1887-1901, was erected in front of the Capitol in Concord, New
+Hampshire, in 1892.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALE, SIR MATTHEW<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> (1609-1676), lord chief justice of
+England, was born on the 1st of November 1609 at Alderley
+in Gloucestershire, where his father, a retired barrister, had a
+small estate. His paternal grandfather was a rich clothier of
+Wotton-under-Edge; on his mother&rsquo;s side he was connected
+with the noble family of the Poyntzes of Acton. Left an orphan
+when five years old, he was placed by his guardian under the
+care of the Puritan vicar of Wotton-under-Edge, with whom he
+remained till he attained his sixteenth year, when he entered
+Magdalen Hall, Oxford. At Oxford, Hale studied for several
+terms with a view to holy orders, but suddenly there came a
+change. The diligent student, at first attracted by a company
+of strolling players, threw aside his studies, and plunged carelessly
+into gay society. He soon decided to change his profession;
+and resolved to trail a pike as a soldier under the prince of
+Orange in the Low Countries. Before going abroad, however,
+Hale found himself obliged to proceed to London in order to give
+instructions for his defence in a legal action which threatened
+to deprive him of his patrimony. His leading counsel was the
+celebrated Serjeant Glanville (1586-1661), who, perceiving in the
+acuteness and sagacity of his youthful client a peculiar fitness
+for the legal profession, succeeded, with much difficulty, in
+inducing him to renounce his military for a legal career, and on
+the 8th of November 1629 Hale became a member of the honourable
+society of Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn.</p>
+
+<p>He immediately resumed his habits of intense application.
+The rules which he laid down for himself, and which are still
+extant in his handwriting, prescribe sixteen hours a day of close
+application, and prove, not only the great mental power, but
+also the extraordinary physical strength he must have possessed,
+and for which indeed, during his residence at the university,
+he had been remarkable. During the period allotted to his
+preliminary studies, he read over and over again all the yearbooks,
+reports, and law treatises in print, and at the Tower of
+London and other antiquarian repositories examined and carefully
+studied the records from the foundation of the English
+monarchy down to his own time. But Hale did not confine
+himself to law. He dedicated no small portion of his time to
+the study of pure mathematics, to investigations in physics and
+chemistry, and even to anatomy and architecture; and there
+can be no doubt that this varied learning enhanced considerably
+the value of many of his judicial decisions.</p>
+
+<p>Hale was called to the bar in 1637, and almost at once found
+himself in full practice. Though neither a fluent speaker nor
+bold pleader, in a very few years he was at the head of his
+profession. He entered public life at perhaps the most critical
+period of English history. Two parties were contending in
+the state, and their obstinacy could not fail to produce a most
+direful collision. But amidst the confusion Hale steered a middle
+course, rising in reputation, and an object of solicitation from
+both parties. Taking Pomponius Atticus as his political model,
+he was persuaded that a man, a lawyer and a judge could best
+serve his country and benefit his countrymen by holding aloof
+from partisanship and its violent prejudices, which are so apt
+to distort and confuse the judgment. But he is best vindicated
+from the charges of selfishness and cowardice by the thoughts
+and meditations contained in his private diaries and papers,
+where the purity and honour of his motives are clearly seen. It
+has been said, but without certainty, that Hale was engaged as
+counsel for the earl of Strafford; he certainly acted for Archbishop
+Laud, Lord Maguire, Christopher Love, the duke of
+Hamilton and others. It is also said that he was ready to plead
+on the side of Charles I. had that monarch submitted to the
+court. The parliament having gained the ascendancy, Hale
+signed the Solemn League and Covenant, and was a member
+of the famous assembly of divines at Westminster in 1644; but
+although he would undoubtedly have preferred a Presbyterian
+form of church government, he had no serious objection to the
+system of modified Episcopacy, proposed by Usher. Consistently
+with his desire to remain neutral, Hale took the engagement to
+the Commonwealth as he had done to the king, and in 1653,
+already serjeant, he became a judge in the court of common pleas.
+Two years afterwards he sat in Cromwell&rsquo;s parliament as one of
+the members for Gloucestershire. After the death of the protector,
+however, he declined to act as a judge under Richard
+Cromwell, although he represented Oxford in Richard&rsquo;s parliament.
+At the Restoration in 1660 Hale was very graciously
+received by Charles II., and in the same year was appointed
+chief baron of the exchequer, and accepted, with extreme
+reluctance, the honour of knighthood. After holding the office
+of chief baron for eleven years he was raised to the higher dignity
+of lord chief justice, which he held till February 1676, when his
+failing health compelled him to resign. He retired to his native
+Alderley, where he died on the 25th of December of the same
+year. He was twice married and survived all his ten children
+save two.</p>
+
+<p>As a judge Sir Matthew Hale discharged his duties with
+resolute independence and careful diligence. His sincere piety
+made him the intimate friend of Isaac Barrow, Archbishop
+Tillotson, Bishop Wilkins and Bishop Stillingfleet, as well
+as of the Nonconformist leader, Richard Baxter. He is chargeable,
+however, with the condemnation and execution of two poor
+women tried before him for witchcraft in 1664, a kind of judicial
+murder then falling under disuse. He is also reproached with
+having hastened the execution of a soldier for whom he had
+reason to believe a pardon was preparing.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Of Hale&rsquo;s legal works the only two of importance are his <i>Historia
+placitorum coronae, or History of the Pleas of the Crown</i> (1736);
+and the <i>History of the Common Law of England, with an Analysis
+of the Law</i>, &amp;c. (1713). Among his numerous religious writings the
+<i>Contemplations, Moral and Divine</i>, occupy the first place. Others are
+<i>The Primitive Origination of Man</i> (1677); <i>Of the Nature of True
+Religion</i>, &amp;c. (1684); <i>A Brief Abstract of the Christian Religion</i> (1688).
+One of his most popular works is the collection of <i>Letters of Advice
+to his Children and Grandchildren</i>. He also wrote an <i>Essay touching
+the Gravitation or Nongravitation of Fluid Bodies</i> (1673); <i>Difficiles
+Nugae, or Observations touching the Torricellian Experiment</i>, &amp;c.
+(1675); and a translation of the <i>Life of Pomponius Atticus</i>, by
+Cornelius Nepos (1677). His efforts in poetry were inauspicious.
+He left his valuable collection of MSS. and records to the library of
+Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn. His life has been written by G. Burnet (1682); by
+J. B. Williams (1835); by H. Roscoe, in his <i>Lives of Eminent
+Lawyers</i>, in 1838; by Lord Campbell, in his <i>Lives of the Chief
+Justices</i>, in 1849; and by E. Foss in his <i>Lives of the Judges</i>
+(1848-1870).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALE, NATHAN<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> (1756-1776). American hero of the War of
+Independence, was born at Coventry, Conn., and educated
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page834" id="page834"></a>834</span>
+at Yale, then becoming a school teacher. He joined a Connecticut
+regiment after the breaking out of the war, and served
+in the siege of Boston, being commissioned a captain at the
+opening of 1776. When Heath&rsquo;s brigade departed for New York
+he went with them, and the tradition is that he was one of
+a small and daring band who captured an English provision
+sloop from under the very guns of a man-of-war. But on the
+21st of September, having volunteered to enter the British lines to
+obtain information concerning the enemy, he was captured in his
+disguise of a Dutch school-teacher and on the 22nd was hanged.
+The penalty was in accordance with military law, but young
+Hale&rsquo;s act was a brave one, and he has always been glorified
+as a martyr. Tradition attributes to him the saying that he
+only regretted that he had but one life to lose for his country;
+and it is said that his request for a Bible and the services of a
+minister was refused by his captors. There is a fine statue of
+Hale by Macmonnies in New York.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See H. P. Johnston, <i>Nathan Hale</i> (1901).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALE, WILLIAM GARDNER<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> (1849-&emsp;&emsp;), American classical
+scholar, was born on the 9th of February 1849 in Savannah,
+Georgia. He graduated at Harvard University in 1870, and
+took a post-graduate course in philosophy there in 1874-1876;
+studied classical philology at Leipzig and Göttingen in 1876-1877;
+was tutor in Latin at Harvard from 1877 to 1880, and
+professor of Latin in Cornell University from 1880 to 1892,
+when he became professor of Latin and head of the Latin department
+of the University of Chicago. From 1894 to 1899 he was
+chairman and in 1895-1896 first director of the American School
+of Classical Studies at Rome. He is best known as an original
+teacher on questions of syntax. In The <i>Cum-Constructions:
+Their History and Functions</i>, which appeared in <i>Cornell University
+Studies in Classical Philology</i> (1888-1889; and in
+German version by Neizert in 1891), he attacked Hoffmann&rsquo;s
+distinction between absolute and relative temporal clauses as
+published in <i>Lateinische Zeitpartikeln</i> (1874); Hoffmann replied
+in 1891, and the best summary of the controversy is in Wetzel&rsquo;s
+<i>Der Streit zwischen Hoffmann und Hale</i> (1892). Hale wrote also
+<i>The Sequence of Tenses in Latin</i> (1887-1888), <i>The Anticipatory
+Subjunctive in Greek and Latin</i> (1894), and a <i>Latin Grammar</i>
+(1903), to which the parts on sounds, inflection and word-formation
+were contributed by Carl Darling Buck.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALEBID,<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> a village in Mysore state, southern India; pop.
+(1901), 1524. The name means &ldquo;old capital,&rdquo; being the site of
+Dorasamudra, the capital of the Hoysala dynasty founded early
+in the 11th century. In 1310 and again in 1326 it was taken
+and plundered by the first Mahommedan invader of southern
+India. Two temples, still standing, though never completed
+and greatly ruined, are regarded as the finest examples of the
+elaborately carved Chalukyan style of architecture.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALES,<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Hayles</span>, <b>JOHN</b> (d. 1571), English writer and
+politician, was a son of Thomas Hales of Hales Place, Halden,
+Kent. He wrote his <i>Highway to Nobility</i> about 1543, and was
+the founder of a free school at Coventry for which he wrote
+<i>Introductiones ad grammaticam</i>. In political life Hales, who was
+member of parliament for Preston, was specially concerned with
+opposing the enclosure of land, being the most active of the
+commissioners appointed in 1548 to redress this evil; but he
+failed to carry several remedial measures through parliament.
+When the protector, the duke of Somerset, was deprived of his
+authority in 1550, Hales left England and lived for some time
+at Strassburg and Frankfort, returning to his own country on
+the accession of Elizabeth. However he soon lost the royal
+favour by writing a pamphlet, <i>A Declaration of the Succession of
+the Crowne Imperiall of Inglande</i>, which declared that the recent
+marriage between Lady Catherine Grey and Edward Seymour,
+earl of Hertford, was legitimate, and asserted that, failing direct
+heirs to Elizabeth, the English crown should come to Lady
+Catherine as the descendant of Mary, daughter of Henry VII.
+The author was imprisoned, but was quickly released, and died
+on the 28th of December 1571. The <i>Discourse of the Common
+Weal</i>, described as &ldquo;one of the most informing documents
+of the age,&rdquo; and written about 1549, has been attributed
+to Hales. This has been edited by E. Lamond (Cambridge,
+1893).</p>
+
+<p>Hales is often confused with another John Hales, who was
+clerk of the hanaper under Henry VIII. and his three immediate
+successors.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALES, JOHN<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> (1584-1656), English scholar, frequently
+referred to as &ldquo;the ever memorable,&rdquo; was born at Bath on the
+19th of April 1584, and was educated at Corpus Christi College,
+Oxford. He was elected a fellow of Merton in 1605, and in 1612
+he was appointed public lecturer on Greek. In 1613 he was
+made a fellow of Eton. Five years later he went to Holland, as
+chaplain to the English ambassador, Sir Dudley Carleton, who
+despatched him to Dort to report upon the proceedings of the
+synod then sitting. In 1619 he returned to Eton and spent his
+time among his books and in the company of literary men,
+among whom he was highly reputed for his common sense, his
+erudition and his genial charity. Andrew Marvell called him
+&ldquo;one of the clearest heads and best-prepared breasts in Christendom.&rdquo;
+His eirenical tract entitled <i>Schism and Schismaticks</i>
+(1636) fell into the hands of Archbishop Laud, and Hales,
+hearing that he had disapproved of it, is said to have written to
+the prelate a vindication of his position. This led to a meeting,
+and in 1639 Hales was made one of Laud&rsquo;s chaplains and also a
+canon of Windsor. In 1642 he was deprived of his canonry by
+the parliamentary committee, and two years later was obliged
+to hide in Eton with the college documents and keys. In 1649
+he refused to take the &ldquo;Engagement&rdquo; and was ejected from his
+fellowship. He then retired to Buckinghamshire, where he found
+a home with Mrs Salter, the sister of the bishop of Salisbury
+(Brian Duppa), and acted as tutor to her son. The issue of the
+order against harbouring malignants led him to return to Eton.
+Here, having sold his valuable library at great sacrifice, he lived
+in poverty until his death on the 19th of May 1656.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His collected works (3 vols.) were edited by Lord Hailes, and
+published in 1765.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALES, STEPHEN<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (1677-1761), English physiologist, chemist
+and inventor, was born at Bekesbourne in Kent on the 7th or
+17th of September 1677, the fifth (or sixth) son of Thomas Hales,
+whose father, Sir Robert Hales, was created a baronet by
+Charles II. in 1670. In June 1696 he was entered as a pensioner
+of Benet (now Corpus Christi) College, Cambridge, with the view
+of taking holy orders, and in February 1703 was admitted to a
+fellowship. He received the degree of master of arts in 1703
+and of bachelor of divinity in 1711. One of his most intimate
+friends was William Stukeley (1687-1765) with whom he studied
+anatomy, chemistry, &amp;c. In 1708-1709 Hales was presented
+to the perpetual curacy of Teddington in Middlesex, where he
+remained all his life, notwithstanding that he was subsequently
+appointed rector of Porlock in Somerset, and later of Faringdon
+in Hampshire. In 1717 he was elected fellow of the Royal
+Society, which awarded him the Copley medal in 1739. In 1732
+he was named one of a committee for establishing a colony in
+Georgia, and the next year he received the degree of doctor of
+divinity from Oxford. He was appointed almoner to the princess-dowager
+of Wales in 1750. On the death of Sir Hans Sloane in
+1753, Hales was chosen foreign associate of the French Academy
+of Sciences. He died at Teddington on the 4th of January 1761.</p>
+
+<p>Hales is best known for his <i>Statical Essays</i>. The first volume,
+<i>Vegetable Staticks</i> (1727), contains an account of numerous
+experiments in plant-physiology&mdash;the loss of water in plants by
+evaporation, the rate of growth of shoots and leaves, variations
+in root-force at different times of the day, &amp;c. Considering it
+very probable that plants draw &ldquo;through their leaves some
+part of their nourishment from the air,&rdquo; he undertook experiments
+to show in &ldquo;how great a proportion air is wrought into
+the composition of animal, vegetable and mineral substances&rdquo;;
+though this &ldquo;analysis of the air&rdquo; did not lead him to any
+very clear ideas about the composition of the atmosphere, in the
+course of his inquiries he collected gases over water in vessels
+separate from those in which they were generated, and thus used
+what was to all intents and purposes a &ldquo;pneumatic trough.&rdquo; The
+second volume (1733) on <i>Haemostaticks</i>, containing experiments
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page835" id="page835"></a>835</span>
+on the &ldquo;force of the blood&rdquo; in various animals, its rate of
+flow, the capacity of the different vessels, &amp;c., entitles him to be
+regarded as one of the originators of experimental physiology.
+But he did not confine his attention to abstract inquiries. The
+quest of a solvent for calculus in the bladder and kidneys was
+pursued by him as by others at the period, and he devised a form
+of forceps which, on the testimony of John Ranby (1703-1773),
+sergeant-surgeon to George II., extracted stones with &ldquo;great
+ease and readiness.&rdquo; His observations of the evil effect of vitiated
+air caused him to devise a &ldquo;ventilator&rdquo; (a modified organ-bellows)
+by which fresh air could be conveyed into gaols,
+hospitals, ships&rsquo;-holds, &amp;c.; this apparatus was successful in
+reducing the mortality in the Savoy prison, and it was introduced
+into France by the aid of H. L. Duhamel du Monceau. Among
+other things Hales invented a &ldquo;sea-gauge&rdquo; for sounding, and
+processes for distilling fresh from sea water, for preserving corn
+from weevils by fumigation with brimstone, and for salting
+animals whole by passing brine into their arteries. His <i>Admonition
+to the Drinkers of Gin, Brandy, &amp;c.</i>, published anonymously
+in 1734, has been several times reprinted.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALESOWEN,<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> a market town in the Oldbury parliamentary
+division of Worcestershire, England, on a branch line of the
+Great Western and Midland railways, 6½ m. W.S.W. of Birmingham.
+Pop. (1901), 4057. It lies in a pleasant country among
+the eastern foothills of the Lickey Hills. There are extensive
+iron and steel manufactures. The church of SS Mary and John
+the Baptist has rude Norman portions; and the poet William
+Shenstone, buried in 1763 in the churchyard, has a memorial
+in the church. His delight in landscape gardening is exemplified
+in the neighbouring estate of the Leasowes, which was his
+property. There is a grammar school founded in 1652, and in
+the neighbourhood is the Methodist foundation of Bourne
+College (1883). Close to the town, on the river Stour, which
+rises in the vicinity, are slight ruins of a Premonstratensian abbey
+of Early English date. Within the parish and 2 m. N.W. of
+Halesowen is Cradley, with iron and steel works, fire-clay works
+and a large nail and chain industry.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALEVI, JUDAH BEN SAMUEL<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1085-<i>c.</i> 1140), the greatest
+Hebrew poet of the middle ages, was born in Toledo c. 1085,
+and died in Palestine after 1140. In his youth he wrote Hebrew
+love poems of exquisite fancy, and several of his Wedding Odes
+are included in the liturgy of the Synagogue. The mystical
+connexion between marital affection and the love of God had,
+in the view of older exegesis, already expressed itself in the
+scriptural <i>Song of Songs</i> and Judah Halevi used this book as his
+model. In this aspect of his work he found inspiration also in
+Arabic predecessors. The second period of his literary career
+was devoted to more serious pursuits. He wrote a philosophical
+dialogue in five books, called the <i>Cuzari</i>, which has been translated
+into English by Hirschfeld. This book bases itself on the
+historical fact that the Crimean Kingdom of the Khazars adopted
+Judaism, and the Hebrew poet-philosopher describes what he
+conceives to be the steps by which the Khazar king satisfied
+himself as to the claims of Judaism. Like many other medieval
+Jewish authors, Judah Halevi was a physician. His real fame
+depends on his liturgical hymns, which are the finest written in
+Hebrew since the Psalter, and are extensively used in the
+Septardic rite. A striking feature of his thought was his devotion
+to Jerusalem. To the love of the Holy City he devoted his
+noblest genius, and he wrote some memorable Odes to Zion, which
+have been commemorated by Heine, and doubly appreciated
+recently under the impulse of Zionism (<i>q.v.</i>). He started for
+Jerusalem, was in Damascus in 1140, and soon afterwards died.
+Legend has it that he was slain by an Arab horseman just as he
+arrived within sight of what Heine called his &ldquo;Woebegone poor
+darling, Desolation&rsquo;s very image,&mdash;Jerusalem.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Excellent English renderings of some of Judah Halevi&rsquo;s poems
+may be read in Mrs H. Lucas&rsquo;s <i>The Jewish Year</i>, and Mrs R. N.
+Solomon&rsquo;s <i>Songs of Exile</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(I. A.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALÉVY, JACQUES FRANÇOIS FROMENTAL ÉLIE<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> (1799-1862),
+French composer, was born on the 27th of May 1799, at
+Paris, of a Jewish family. He studied at the Paris Conservatoire
+under Berton and Cherubini, and in 1819 gained the grand prix
+de Rome with his cantata <i>Herminie</i>. In accordance with the
+conditions of his scholarship he started for Rome, where he
+devoted himself to the study of Italian music, and wrote an
+opera and various minor works. In 1827 his opera <i>L&rsquo;Artisan</i> was
+performed at the Théâtre Feydeau in Paris, apparently without
+much success. Other works of minor importance, and now
+forgotten, followed, amongst which <i>Manon Lescaut</i>, a ballet,
+produced in 1830, deserves mention. In 1834 the Opéra-Comique
+produced <i>Ludovic</i>, the score of which had been begun by Hérold
+and had been completed by Halévy. In 1835 Halévy composed
+the tragic opera <i>La Juive</i> and the comic opera <i>L&rsquo;Éclair</i>, and on
+these works his fame is mainly founded. The famous air of
+Eléazar and the anathema of the cardinal in <i>La Juive</i> soon became
+popular all over France. <i>L&rsquo;Éclair</i> is a curiosity of musical
+literature. It is written for two tenors and two soprani, without
+a chorus, and displays the composer&rsquo;s mastery over the most
+refined effects of instrumentation and vocalization in a favourable
+light. After these two works he wrote numerous operas of
+various genres, amongst which only <i>La Reine de Chypre</i>, a
+spectacular piece analyzed by Wagner in one of his Paris letters
+(1841), and <i>La Tempesta</i>, in three acts, written for Her Majesty&rsquo;s
+theatre, London (1850), need be mentioned. In addition to his
+productive work Halévy also rendered valuable services as a
+teacher. He was professor at the Conservatoire from 1827 till
+his death&mdash;some of the most successful amongst the younger
+composers in France, such as Gounod, Victor Massé and Georges
+Bizet, the author of <i>Carmen</i>, being amongst his pupils. He was
+<i>maestro al cembalo</i> at the Théâtre Italien from 1827 to 1829;
+then director of singing at the Opera House in Paris until 1845,
+and in 1836 he succeeded Reicha at the Institut de France.
+Halévy also tried his hand at literature. In 1857 he became
+permanent secretary to the Académie des Beaux Arts, and there
+exists an agreeable volume of <i>Souvenirs et portraits</i> from his pen.
+He died at Nice, on the 17th of March 1862.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALÉVY, LUDOVIC<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> (1834-1908), French author, was born
+in Paris on the 1st of January 1834. His father, Léon Halévy
+(1802-1883), was a clever and versatile writer, who tried almost
+every branch of literature&mdash;prose and verse, vaudeville, drama,
+history&mdash;without, however, achieving decisive success in any.
+His uncle, J. F. Fromental E. Halévy (<i>q.v.</i>), was for many years
+associated with the opéra; hence the double and early connexion
+of Ludovic Halévy with the Parisian stage. At the age of six
+he might have been seen playing in that <i>Foyer de la danse</i> with
+which he was to make his readers so familiar, and, when a boy
+of twelve, he would often, of a Sunday night, on his way back
+to the College Louis le Grand, look in at the Odéon, where he
+had free admittance, and see the first act of the new play. At
+eighteen he joined the ranks of the French administration and
+occupied various posts, the last being that of secrétaire-rédacteur
+to the Corps Législatif. In that capacity he enjoyed the special
+favour and friendship of the famous duke of Morny, then president
+of that assembly. In 1865 Ludovic Halévy&rsquo;s increasing
+popularity as an author enabled him to retire from the public
+service. Ten years earlier he had become acquainted with the
+musician Offenbach, who was about to start a small theatre of
+his own in the Champs Élysées, and he wrote a sort of prologue,
+<i>Entrez, messieurs, mesdames</i>, for the opening night. Other little
+productions followed, <i>Ba-ta-clan</i> being the most noticeable
+among them. They were produced under the pseudonym of
+Jules Servières. The name of Ludovic Halévy appeared for the
+first time on the bills on the 1st of January 1856. Soon afterwards
+the unprecedented run of <i>Orphée aux enfers</i>, a musical
+parody, written in collaboration with Hector Crémieux, made
+his name famous. In the spring of 1860 he was commissioned
+to write a play for the manager of the Variétés in conjunction
+with another vaudevillist, Lambert Thiboust. The latter having
+abruptly retired from the collaboration, Halévy was at a loss
+how to carry out the contract, when on the steps of the theatre
+he met Henri Meilhac (1831-1897), then comparatively a stranger
+to him. He proposed to Meilhac the task rejected by Lambert
+Thiboust, and the proposal was immediately accepted. Thus
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page836" id="page836"></a>836</span>
+began a connexion which was to last over twenty years, and
+which proved most fruitful both for the reputation of the two
+authors and the prosperity of the minor Paris theatres. Their
+joint works may be divided into three classes: the <i>opérettes</i>,
+the farces, the comedies. The <i>opérettes</i> afforded excellent
+opportunities to a gifted musician for the display of his peculiar
+humour. They were broad and lively libels against the society
+of the time, but savoured strongly of the vices and follies they
+were supposed to satirize. Amongst the most celebrated works
+of the joint authors were <i>La Belle Hélène</i> (1864), <i>Barbe Bleue</i>
+(1866), <i>La Grande Duchesse de Gerolstein</i> (1867), and <i>La Périchole</i>
+(1868). After 1870 the vogue of Parody rapidly declined. The
+decadence became still more apparent when Offenbach was no
+longer at hand to assist the two authors with his quaint musical
+irony, and when they had to deal with interpreters almost
+destitute of singing powers. They wrote farces of the old type,
+consisting of complicated intrigues, with which they cleverly
+interwove the representation of contemporary whims and social
+oddities. They generally failed when they attempted comedies
+of a more serious character and tried to introduce a higher sort
+of emotion. A solitary exception must be made in the case of
+<i>Frou-frou</i> (1869), which, owing perhaps to the admirable talent
+of Aimée Desclée, remains their unique <i>succès de larmes</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Meilhac and Halévy will be found at their best in light sketches
+of Parisian life, <i>Les Sonnettes</i>, <i>Le Roi Candaule</i>, <i>Madame attend
+Monsieur</i>, <i>Toto chez Tata</i>. In that intimate association between
+the two men who had met so opportunely on the <i>perron des
+variétés</i>, it was often asked who was the leading partner. The
+question was not answered until the connexion was finally severed
+and they stood before the public, each to answer for his own
+work. It was then apparent that they had many gifts in common.
+Both had wit, humour, observation of character. Meilhac had
+a ready imagination, a rich and whimsical fancy; Halévy had
+taste, refinement and pathos of a certain kind. Not less clever
+than his brilliant comrade, he was more human. Of this he gave
+evidence in two delightful books, <i>Monsieur et Madame Cardinal</i>
+(1873) and <i>Les Petites Cardinal</i>, in which the lowest orders of
+the Parisian middle class are faithfully described. The pompous,
+pedantic, venomous Monsieur Cardinal will long survive as the
+true image of sententious and self-glorifying immorality. M.
+Halévy&rsquo;s peculiar qualities are even more visible in the simple
+and striking scenes of the <i>Invasion</i>, published soon after the
+conclusion of the Franco-German War, in <i>Criquette</i> (1883) and
+<i>L&rsquo;Abbé Constantin</i> (1882), two novels, the latter of which went
+through innumerable editions. Zola had presented to the public
+an almost exclusive combination of bad men and women; in
+<i>L&rsquo;Abbé Constantin</i> all are kind and good, and the change was
+eagerly welcomed by the public. Some enthusiasts still maintain
+that the <i>Abbé</i> will rank permanently in literature by the side
+of the equally chimerical <i>Vicar of Wakefield</i>. At any rate, it
+opened for M. Ludovic Halévy the doors of the French Academy,
+to which he was elected in 1884.</p>
+
+<p>Halévy remained an assiduous frequenter of the Academy,
+the Conservatoire, the Comédie Française, and the Society of
+Dramatic Authors, but, when he died in Paris on the 8th of May
+1908, he had produced practically nothing new for many years.
+His last romance, <i>Kari Kari</i>, appeared in 1892.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The <i>Théâtre</i> of MM. Meilhac and Halévy was published in 8 vols.
+(1900-1902).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALFPENNY, WILLIAM,<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> English 18th-century architectural
+designer&mdash;he described himself as &ldquo;architect and carpenter.&rdquo;
+He was also known as Michael Hoare; but whether his real name
+was William Halfpenny or Michael Hoare is uncertain. His books,
+of which he published a score, deal almost entirely with domestic
+architecture, and especially with country houses in those Gothic
+and Chinese fashions which were so greatly in vogue in the middle
+of the 18th century. His most important publications, from the
+point of view of their effect upon taste, were <i>New Designs for
+Chinese Temples</i>, in four parts (1750-1752); <i>Rural Architecture
+in the Gothic Taste</i> (1752); <i>Chinese and Gothic Architecture
+Properly Ornamented</i> (1752); and <i>Rural Architecture in the
+Chinese Taste</i> (1750-1752). These four books were produced in
+collaboration with John Halfpenny, who is said to have been his
+son. <i>New Designs for Chinese Temples</i> is a volume of some
+significance in the history of furniture, since, having been published
+some years before the books of Thomas Chippendale and
+Sir Thomas Chambers, it disproves the statement so often made
+that those designers introduced the Chinese taste into this
+country. Halfpenny states distinctly that &ldquo;the Chinese manner&rdquo;
+had been &ldquo;already introduced here with success.&rdquo; The work
+of the Halfpennys was by no means all contemptible. It is
+sometimes distinctly graceful, but is marked by little originality.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALF-TIMBER WORK,<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> an architectural term given to those
+buildings in which the framework is of timber with vertical studs
+and cross pieces filled in between with brickwork, rubble masonry
+or plaster work on oak laths; in the first two, brick nogging or
+nogging are the terms occasionally employed (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Carpentry</a></span>).
+Sometimes the timber structure is raised on a stone or brick
+foundation, as at Ledbury town hall in Herefordshire, where the
+lower storey is open on all sides; but more often it is raised on
+a ground storey, either in brick or stone, and in order to give
+additional size to the upper rooms projects forward, being carried
+on the floor joists. Sometimes the masonry or brickwork rises
+through two or three storeys and the half-brick work is confined
+to the gables. There seems to be some difference of opinion as
+to whether the term applies to the mixture of solid walling with
+the timber structure or to the alternation of wood posts and the
+filling in, but the latter definition is that which is generally
+understood. The half-timber throughout England is of the most
+picturesque description, and the earliest examples date from
+towards the close of the 15th century. In the earliest example,
+Newgate House, York (<i>c.</i> 1450), the timber framing is raised
+over the ground floor. The finest specimen is perhaps that of
+Moreton Old Hall, Cheshire (1570), where there is only a stone
+foundation about 12 in. high, and the same applies to Bramall
+Hall, near Manchester, portions of which are very early. Among
+other examples are Speke Hall, Lancashire; Park Hall, Shropshire
+(1553-1558); Hall i&rsquo; th&rsquo; Wood, Lancashire (1591); St
+Peter&rsquo;s Hospital, Bristol (1607); the Ludlow Feather&rsquo;s Inn
+(1610); many of the streets at Chester and Shrewsbury; the
+Sparrowe&rsquo;s Home, Ipswich; and Staple Inn, Holborn, from
+which in recent years the plaster coat which was put on many
+years ago has been removed, displaying the ancient woodwork.
+A similar fate has overtaken a very large number of half-timber
+buildings to keep out the driving winds; thus in Lewes nearly
+all the half-timbered houses have had slates hung on the timbers,
+others tiles, the greater number having been covered with plaster
+or stucco. Although there are probably many more half-timber
+houses in England than on the continent of Europe, in the north
+of France and in Germany are examples in many of the principal
+towns, and in some cases in better preservation than in England.
+They are also enriched with carving of a purer and better type,
+especially in France; thus at Chartres, Angers, Rouen, Caen,
+Lisieux, Bayeux, St Lô and Beauvais, are many extremely fine
+examples of late Flamboyant and early Transitional examples.
+Again on the borders of the Rhine in all the small towns most of
+the houses are in half-timber work, the best examples being at
+Bacharach, Rhense and Boppart. Far more elaborate examples,
+however, are found in the vicinity of the Harz Mountains;
+the supply of timber from the forests there being very abundant;
+thus at Goslar, Wernigerode and Quedlingburg there is an
+endless variety, as also farther on at Gelnhausen and Hameln,
+the finest series of all being at Hildesheim. In Bavaria at
+Nuremberg, Rothenburg and Dinkelsbühl, half-timber houses
+dating from the 16th century are still well preserved; and
+throughout Switzerland the houses constructed in timber and
+plaster are the most characteristic features of the country.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALFWAY COVENANT,<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> an expedient adopted in the Congregational
+churches of New England between 1657 and 1662.
+Under its terms baptized persons of moral life and orthodox
+belief might receive the privilege of baptism for their children and
+other church benefits, without the full enrolment in membership
+which admitted them to the communion of the Lord&rsquo;s Supper.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Congregationalism</a></span>: <i>American</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page837" id="page837"></a>837</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALHED, NATHANIEL BRASSEY<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> (1751-1830), English
+Orientalist and philologist, was born at Westminster on the 25th
+of May 1751. He was educated at Harrow, where he began his
+intimacy with Richard Brinsley Sheridan (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sheridan
+Family</a></span>) continued after he entered Christ Church, Oxford,
+where, also, he made the acquaintance of Sir William Jones,
+the famous Orientalist, who induced him to study Arabic.
+Accepting a writership in the service of the East India Company,
+Halhed went out to India, and here, at the suggestion of Warren
+Hastings, by whose orders it had been compiled, translated the
+Gentoo code from a Persian version of the original Sanskrit.
+This translation was published in 1776 under the title <i>A Code
+of Gentoo Laws</i>. In 1778 he published a Bengali grammar, to
+print which he set up, at Hugli, the first press in India. It is
+claimed for him that he was the first writer to call attention to
+the philological connexion of Sanskrit with Persian, Arabic,
+Greek and Latin. In 1785 he returned to England, and from
+1790-1795 was M.P. for Lymington, Hants. For some time he
+was a disciple of Richard Brothers (<i>q.v.</i>), and his unwise speech
+in parliament in defence of Brothers made it impossible for him
+to remain in the House, from which he resigned in 1795. He
+subsequently obtained a home appointment under the East
+India Company. He died in London on the 18th of February
+1830.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His collection of Oriental manuscripts was purchased by the
+British Museum, and there is an unfinished translation by him of the
+<i>Mah&#257;bh&#257;rata</i> in the library of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALIBURTON, THOMAS CHANDLER<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> (1796-1865), British
+writer, long a judge of Nova Scotia, was born at Windsor, Nova
+Scotia, in 1796, and received his education there, at King&rsquo;s
+College. He was called to the bar in 1820, and became a member
+of the House of Assembly. He distinguished himself as a barrister,
+and in 1828 was promoted to the bench as a chief-justice of
+the common pleas. In 1829 he published <i>An Historical and
+Statistical Account of Nova Scotia</i>. But it is as a brilliant
+humourist and satirist that he is remembered, in connexion
+with his fictitious character &ldquo;Sam Slick.&rdquo; In 1835 he contributed
+anonymously to a local paper a series of letters
+professedly depicting the peculiarities of the genuine Yankee.
+These sketches, which abounded in clever picturings of national
+and individual character, drawn with great satirical humour,
+were collected in 1837, and published under the title of <i>The
+Clockmaker, or Sayings and Doings of Samuel Slick of Slickville</i>.
+A second series followed in 1838, and a third in 1840. <i>The
+Attaché, or Sam Slick in England</i> (1843-1844), was the result
+of a visit there in 1841. His other works include: <i>The Old
+Judge, or Life in a Colony</i> (1843); <i>The Letter Bag of the
+Great Western</i> (1839); <i>Rule and Misrule of the English in America</i>
+(1851); <i>Traits of American Humour</i> (1852); and <i>Nature and
+Human Nature</i> (1855).</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile he continued to secure popular esteem in his
+judicial capacity. In 1840 he was promoted to be a judge of the
+supreme court; but within two years he resigned his seat on
+the bench, removed to England, and in 1859 entered parliament
+as the representative of Launceston, in the Conservative interest.
+But the tenure of his seat for Launceston was brought to an end
+by the dissolution of the parliament in 1865, and he did not again
+offer himself to the constituency. He died on the 27th of August
+of the same year, at Gordon House, Isleworth, Middlesex.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A memoir of Haliburton, by F. Blake Crofton, appeared in 1889.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALIBUT,<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Holibut</span> (<i>Hippoglossus vulgaris</i>), the largest
+of all flat-fishes, growing to a length of 10 ft. or more, specimens
+of 5 ft. in length and of 100 &#8468; in weight being frequently exposed
+for sale in the markets. Indeed, specimens under 2 ft. in length
+are very rarely caught, and singularly enough, no instance is
+known of a very young specimen having been obtained. Small
+ones are commonly called &ldquo;chicken halibut.&rdquo; The halibut is
+much more frequent in the higher latitudes of the temperate
+zone than in its southern portion; it is a circumpolar species,
+being found on the northern coasts of America, Europe and
+Asia, extending in the Pacific southwards to California. On the
+British coasts it keeps at some distance from the shore, and is
+generally caught in from 50 to 150 fathoms. Its flesh is generally
+considered coarse, but it is white and firm, and when properly
+served is excellent for the table. The name is derived from
+&ldquo;holy&rdquo; (M.E. <i>haly</i>), and recalls its use for food on holy
+days.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALICARNASSUS<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> (mod. <i>Budrum</i>), an ancient Greek city on
+the S.W. coast of Caria, Asia Minor, on a picturesque and
+advantageous site on the Ceramic Gulf or Gulf of Cos. It
+originally occupied only the small island of Zephyria close to the
+shore, now occupied by the great castle of St Peter, built by the
+Knights of Rhodes in 1404; but in course of time this island
+was united to the mainland and the city extended so as to
+incorporate Salmacis, an older town of the Leleges and Carians.</p>
+
+<p>About the foundation of Halicarnassus various traditions were
+current; but they agree in the main point as to its being a
+Dorian colony, and the figures on its coins, such as the head of
+Medusa, Athena and Poseidon, or the trident, support the
+statement that the mother cities were Troezen and Argos. The
+inhabitants appear to have accepted as their legendary founder
+Anthes, mentioned by Strabo, and were proud of the title of
+Antheadae. At an early period Halicarnassus was a member
+of the Doric Hexapolis, which included Cos, Cnidus, Lindus,
+Camirus and Ialysus; but one of the citizens, Agasicles, having
+taken home the prize tripod which he had won in the Triopian
+games instead of dedicating it according to custom to the
+Triopian Apollo, the city was cut off from the league. In the
+early 5th century Halicarnassus was under the sway of Artemisia,
+who made herself famous at the battle of Salamis. Of Pisindalis,
+her son and successor, little is known; but Lygdamis, who next
+attained to power, is notorious for having put to death the poet
+Panyasis and caused Herodotus, the greatest of Halicarnassians,
+to leave his native city (<i>c.</i> 457 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). In the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+Halicarnassus and other Dorian cities of Asia were to some
+extent absorbed by the Delian League, but the peace of Antalcidas
+in 387 made them subservient to Persia; and it was under
+Mausolus, a Persian satrap who assumed independent authority,
+that Halicarnassus attained its highest prosperity. Struck by
+the natural strength and beauty of its position, Mausolus removed
+to Halicarnassus from Mylasa, increasing the population of
+the city by the inhabitants of six towns of the Leleges. He was
+succeeded by Artemisia, whose military ability was shown in
+the stratagem by which she captured the Rhodian vessels
+attacking her city, and whose magnificence and taste have been
+perpetuated by the &ldquo;Mausoleum,&rdquo; the monument she erected
+to her husband&rsquo;s memory (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mausolus</a></span>). One of her successors,
+Pixodarus, tried to ally himself with the rising power of Macedon,
+and is said to have gained the momentary consent of the young
+Alexander to wed his daughter. The marriage, however, was
+forbidden by Philip. Alexander, as soon as he had reduced Ionia,
+summoned Halicarnassus, where Memnon, the paramount satrap
+of Asia Minor, had taken refuge with the Persian fleet, to surrender;
+and on its refusal took the city after hard fighting and
+devastated it, but not being able to reduce the citadel, was
+forced to leave it blockaded. He handed the government of
+the city back to the family of Mausolus, as represented by Ada,
+sister of the latter. Not long afterwards we find the citizens
+receiving the present of a gymnasium from Ptolemy, and building
+in his honour a stoa or portico; but the city never recovered
+altogether from the disasters of the siege, and Cicero describes
+it as almost deserted. The site is now occupied in part by the
+town of Budrum; but the ancient walls can still be traced round
+nearly all their circuit, and the position of several of the temples,
+the theatre, and other public buildings can be fixed with
+certainty.</p>
+
+<p>From the ruins of the Mausoleum sufficient has been recovered
+by the excavations carried out in 1857 by C. T. Newton to
+enable a fairly complete restoration of its design to be made.
+The building consisted of five parts&mdash;a basement or podium,
+a pteron or enclosure of columns, a pyramid, a pedestal and a
+chariot group. The basement, covering an area of 114 ft. by 92,
+was built of blocks of greenstone and cased with marble. Round
+the base of it were probably disposed groups of statuary. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page838" id="page838"></a>838</span>
+pteron consisted (according to Pliny) of thirty-six columns of
+the Ionic order, enclosing a square <i>cella</i>. Between the columns
+probably stood single statues. From the portions that have
+been recovered, it appears that the principal frieze of the pteron
+represented combats of Greeks and Amazons. In addition to
+these, there are also many life-size fragments of animals, horsemen,
+&amp;c., belonging probably to pedimental sculptures, but
+formerly supposed to be parts of minor friezes. Above the
+pteron rose the pyramid, mounting by 24 steps to an apex or
+pedestal. On this apex stood the chariot with the figure of
+Mausolus himself and an attendant. The height of the statue
+of Mausolus in the British Museum is 9 ft. 9½ in. without the
+plinth. The hair rising from the forehead falls in thick waves
+on each side of the face and descends nearly to the shoulder;
+the beard is short and close, the face square and massive, the
+eyes deep set under overhanging brows, the mouth well formed
+with settled calm about the lips. The drapery is grandly composed.
+All sorts of restorations of this famous monument have
+been proposed. The original one, made by Newton and Pullan,
+is obviously in error in many respects; and that of Oldfield,
+though to be preferred for its lightness (the Mausoleum was said
+anciently to be &ldquo;suspended in mid-air&rdquo;), does not satisfy the
+conditions postulated by the remains. The best on the whole is
+that of the veteran German architect, F. Adler, published in
+1900; but fresh studies have since been made (see below).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See C T. Newton and R. P. Pullan, <i>History of Discoveries at
+Halicarnassus</i> (1862-1863); J. Fergusson, <i>The Mausoleum at
+Halicarnassus</i> restored (1862); E. Oldfield, &ldquo;The Mausoleum,&rdquo; in
+<i>Archaeologia</i> (1895); F. Adler, <i>Mausoleum zu Halikarnass</i> (1900);
+J. P. Six in <i>Journ. Hell. Studies</i> (1905); W. B. Dinsmoor, in <i>Amer.
+Journ. of Arch.</i> (1908); J. J. Stevenson, <i>A Restoration of the Mausoleum
+of Halicarnassus</i> (1909); J. B. K. Preedy, &ldquo;The Chariot
+Group of the Mausoleum,&rdquo; in <i>Journ. Hell. Stud.</i>, 1910.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(D. G. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALICZ,<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> a town of Austria, in Galicia, 70 m. by rail S.S.E.
+of Lemberg. Pop. (1900), 4809. It is situated at the confluence
+of the Luckow with the Dniester and its principal resources are
+the recovery of salt from the neighbouring brine wells, soap-making
+and the trade in timber. In the neighbourhood are the
+ruins of the old castle, the seat of the ruler of the former kingdom
+from which Galicia derived its Polish name. Halicz, which is
+mentioned in annals as early as 1113, was from 1141 to 1255 the
+residence of the princes of that name, one of the principalities
+into which western Russia was then divided. The town was
+then much larger, as is shown by excavations in the neighbourhood
+made during the 19th century, and probably met its
+doom during the Mongol invasion of 1240. In 1349 it was
+incorporated in the kingdom of Poland.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALIFAX, CHARLES MONTAGUE,<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> <span class="sc">Earl of</span> (1661-1715),
+English statesman and poet, fourth son of the Hon. George
+Montague, fifth son of the first earl of Manchester, was born at
+Horton, Northamptonshire, on the 16th of April 1661. In his
+fourteenth year he was sent to Westminster school, where he
+was chosen king&rsquo;s scholar in 1677, and distinguished himself
+in the composition of extempore epigrams made according to
+custom upon theses appointed for king&rsquo;s scholars at the time of
+election. In 1679 he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, where
+he acquired a solid knowledge of the classics and surpassed all
+his contemporaries at the university in logic and ethics. Latterly,
+however, he preferred to the abstractions of Descartes the
+practical philosophy of Sir Isaac Newton; and he was one of
+the small band of students who assisted Newton in forming the
+Philosophical Society of Cambridge. But it was his facility in
+verse-writing, and neither his scholarship nor his practical
+ability, that first opened up to him the way to fortune. His
+clever but absurdly panegyrical poem on the death of Charles II.
+secured for him the notice of the earl of Dorset, who invited him
+to town and introduced him to the principal wits of the time;
+and in 1687 his joint authorship with Prior of the <i>Hind and
+Panther transversed to the Story of the Country Mouse and the
+City Mouse</i>, a parody of Dryden&rsquo;s political poem, not only
+increased his literary reputation but directly helped him to
+political influence.</p>
+
+<p>In 1689, through the patronage of the earl of Dorset, he entered
+parliament as member for Maldon, and sat in the convention
+which resolved that William and Mary should be declared king
+and queen of England. About this time he married the countess-dowager
+of Manchester, and it would appear, according to
+Johnson, that it was still his intention to take orders; but after
+the coronation he purchased a clerkship to the council. On
+being introduced by Earl Dorset to King William, after the
+publication of his poetical <i>Epistle occasioned by his Majesty&rsquo;s
+Victory in Ireland</i>, he was ordered to receive an immediate
+pension of £500 per annum, until an opportunity should present
+itself of &ldquo;making a man of him.&rdquo; In 1691 he was chosen
+chairman of the committee of the House of Commons appointed
+to confer with a committee of the Lords in regard to the bill for
+regulating trials in cases of high treason; and he displayed in
+these conferences such tact and debating power that he was
+made one of the commissioners of the treasury and called to the
+privy council. But his success as a politician was less due to
+his oratorical gifts than to his skill in finance, and in this respect
+he soon began to manifest such brilliant talents as completely
+eclipsed the painstaking abilities of Godolphin. Indeed it may
+be affirmed that no other statesman has initiated schemes which
+have left a more permanent mark on the financial history of
+England. Although perhaps it was inevitable that England
+should sooner or later adopt the continental custom of lightening
+the annual taxation in times of war by contracting a national
+debt, the actual introduction of the expedient was due to
+Montague, who on the 15th of December 1692 proposed to raise
+a million of money by way of loan. Previous to this the Scotsman
+William Paterson (<i>q.v.</i>) had submitted to the government his
+plan of a national bank, and when in the spring of 1694 the
+prolonged contest with France had rendered another large
+loan absolutely necessary, Montague introduced a bill for the
+incorporation of the Bank of England. The bill after some
+opposition passed the House of Lords in May, and immediately
+after the prorogation of parliament Montague was rewarded by
+the chancellorship of the exchequer. In 1695 he was triumphantly
+returned for the borough of Westminster to the new
+parliament, and succeeded in passing his celebrated measure
+to remedy the depreciation which had taken place in the currency
+on account of dishonest manipulations. To provide for the
+expense of recoinage, Montague, instead of reviving the old tax
+of hearth money, introduced the window tax, and the difficulties
+caused by the temporary absence of a metallic currency were
+avoided by the issue for the first time of exchequer bills. His
+other expedients for meeting the emergencies of the financial
+crisis were equally successful, and the rapid restoration of public
+credit secured him a commanding influence both in the House
+of Commons and at the board of the treasury; but although
+Godolphin resigned office in October 1696, the king hesitated
+for some time between Montague and Sir Stephen Fox as his
+successor, and it was not till 1697 that the former was appointed
+first lord. In 1697 he was accused by Charles Duncombe, and
+in 1698 by a Col. Granville, of fraud, but both charges broke
+down, and Duncombe was shown to have been guilty of extreme
+dishonesty himself. In 1698 and 1699 he acted as one of the
+council of regency during the king&rsquo;s absence from England.
+With the accumulation of his political successes his vanity and
+arrogance became, however, so offensive that latterly they
+utterly lost him the influence he had acquired by his administrative
+ability and his masterly eloquence; and when his power
+began to be on the wane he set the seal to his political overthrow
+by conferring the lucrative sinecure office of auditor of the
+exchequer on his brother in trust for himself should he be
+compelled to retire from power. This action earned him the
+offensive nickname of &ldquo;Filcher,&rdquo; and for some time afterwards,
+in attempting to lead the House of Commons, he had to submit
+to constant mortifications, often verging on personal insults.
+After the return of the king in 1699 he resigned his offices in the
+government and succeeded his brother in the auditorship.</p>
+
+<p>On the accession of the Tories to power he was removed in
+1701 to the House of Lords by the title of Lord Halifax. In the
+same year he was impeached for malpractices along with Lord
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page839" id="page839"></a>839</span>
+Somers and the earls of Portland and Oxford, but all the charges
+were dismissed by the Lords; and in 1703 a second attempt
+to impeach him was still more unsuccessful. He continued out of
+office during the reign of Queen Anne, but in 1706 he was named
+one of the commissioners to negotiate the union with Scotland;
+and after the passing of the Act of Settlement in favour of the
+house of Hanover, he was appointed ambassador to the elector&rsquo;s
+court to convey the insignia of order of the garter to George I.
+On the death of Anne (1714) he was appointed one of the council
+of regency until the arrival of the king from Hanover; and after
+the coronation he received the office of first lord of the treasury
+in the new ministry, being at the same time created earl of
+Halifax and Viscount Sunbury. He died on the 19th of May 1715
+and left no issue. He was buried in the vault of the Albemarle
+family in Westminster Abbey. His nephew George (d. 1739)
+succeeded to the barony, and was created Viscount Sunbury
+and earl of Halifax in 1715.</p>
+
+<p>Montague&rsquo;s association with Prior in the travesty of Dryden&rsquo;s
+<i>Hind and Panther</i> has no doubt largely aided in preserving his
+literary reputation; but he is perhaps indebted for it chiefly
+to his subsequent influential position and to the fulsome flattery
+of the men of letters who enjoyed his friendship, and who, in
+return for his liberal donations and the splendid banqueting
+which they occasionally enjoyed at his villa on the Thames,
+&ldquo;fed him,&rdquo; as Pope says, &ldquo;all day long with dedications.&rdquo;
+Swift says he gave them nothing but &ldquo;good words, and good
+dinners.&rdquo; That, however, his beneficence to needy talent, if
+sometimes attributable to an itching ear for adulation, was at
+others prompted by a sincere appreciation of intellectual merit,
+is sufficiently attested by the manner in which he procured from
+Godolphin a commissionership for Addison, and also by his
+life-long intimacy with Newton, for whom he obtained the
+mastership of the mint. The small fragments of poetry which
+he left behind him, and which were almost solely the composition
+of his early years, display a certain facility and vigour of diction,
+but their thought and fancy are never more than commonplace,
+and not unfrequently in striving to be eloquent and impressive
+he is only grotesquely and extravagantly absurd. In administrative
+talent he was the superior of all his contemporaries,
+and his only rival in parliamentary eloquence was Somers;
+but the skill with which he managed measures was superior
+to his tact in dealing with men, and the effect of his brilliant
+financial successes on his reputation was gradually almost
+nullified by the affected arrogance of his manner and by the
+eccentricities of his sensitive vanity. So eager latterly was his
+thirst for fame and power that perhaps Marlborough did not
+exaggerate when he said that &ldquo;he had no other principle but
+his ambition, so that he would put all in distraction rather than
+not gain his point.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Among the numerous notices of Halifax by contemporaries may
+be mentioned the eulogistic reference which concludes Addison&rsquo;s
+account of the &ldquo;greatest of English poets&rdquo;; the dedications by
+Steel to the second volume of the <i>Spectator</i> and to the fourth of the
+<i>Tatler</i>; Pope&rsquo;s laudatory mention of him in the epilogue to his
+<i>Satires</i> and in the preface to the <i>Iliad</i>, and his portrait of him as
+&ldquo;Full-blown Bufo&rdquo; in the <i>Epistle to Arbuthnot</i>. Various allusions
+to him are to be found in Swift&rsquo;s works and in Marlborough&rsquo;s <i>Letters</i>.
+See also Burnet&rsquo;s <i>History of his Own Times; The Parliamentary
+History</i>; Howell&rsquo;s <i>State Trials</i>; Johnson&rsquo;s <i>Lives of the Poets</i>; and
+Macaulay&rsquo;s <i>History of England</i>. His <i>Miscellaneous Works</i> were
+published at London in 1704; his <i>Life and Miscellaneous Works</i> in
+1715; and his <i>Poetical Works</i>, to which also his &ldquo;Life&rdquo; is attached,
+in 1716. His poems were reprinted in the 9th volume of Johnson&rsquo;s
+<i>English Poets</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALIFAX, GEORGE MONTAGU DUNK,<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> <span class="sc">2nd Earl of</span> (1716-1771),
+son of George Montagu, 1st earl of Halifax (of the second
+creation), was born on the 5th or 6th of October 1716, becoming
+earl of Halifax on his father&rsquo;s death in 1739. Educated at Eton
+and at Trinity College, Cambridge, he was married in 1741 to
+Anne Richards (d. 1753), a lady who had inherited a great
+fortune from Sir Thomas Dunk, whose name was taken by
+Halifax. After having been an official in the household of
+Frederick, prince of Wales, the earl was made master of the buckhounds,
+and in 1748 he became president of the Board of Trade.
+While filling this position he helped to found Halifax, the capital
+of Nova Scotia, which was named after him, and in several
+ways he rendered good service to trade, especially with North
+America. About this time he sought to <span class="correction" title="amended from became">become</span> a secretary of
+state, but in vain, although he was allowed to enter the cabinet
+in 1757. In March 1761 Halifax was appointed lord-lieutenant
+of Ireland, and during part of the time which he held this office
+he was also first lord of the admiralty. He became secretary
+of state for the northern department under the earl of Bute in
+October 1762, retaining this post under George Grenville and
+being one of the three ministers to whom George III. entrusted
+the direction of affairs. He signed the general warrant under
+which Wilkes was arrested in 1763, for which action he was
+mulcted in damages by the courts of law in 1769, and he was
+mainly responsible for the exclusion of the name of the king&rsquo;s
+mother, Augusta, princess of Wales, from the Regency Bill of
+1765. With his colleagues the earl left office in July 1765,
+returning to the cabinet as lord privy seal under his nephew,
+Lord North, in January 1770. He had just been transferred to
+his former position of secretary of state when he died on the 8th
+of June 1771. Halifax, who was lord-lieutenant of Northamptonshire
+and a lieutenant-general in the army, showed some
+disinterestedness in money matters, but was very extravagant.
+He left no children, and his titles became extinct on his death.
+Horace Walpole speaks slightingly of the earl, and says he and
+his mistress, Mary Anne Faulkner, &ldquo;had sold every employment
+in his gift.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the <i>Memoirs</i> of his secretary, Richard Cumberland (1807).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALIFAX, GEORGE SAVILE,<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Marquess of</span> (1633-1695),
+English statesman and writer, great-grandson of Sir George
+Savile of Lupset and Thornhill in Yorkshire (created baronet
+in 1611), was the eldest son of Sir William Savile, 3rd baronet,
+who distinguished himself in the civil war in the royalist cause
+and who died in 1644, and of Anne, eldest daughter of Lord
+Keeper Coventry. He was thus nephew of Sir William Coventry,
+who is said to have influenced his political opinions, and of
+Lord Shaftesbury, afterwards his most bitter opponent, and
+great-nephew of the earl of Strafford; by his marriage with
+the Lady Dorothy Spencer, he was brother-in-law to Lord
+Sunderland. He entered public life with all the advantages of
+lineage, political connexions, great wealth and estates, and
+uncommon abilities. He was elected member of the Convention
+parliament for Pontefract in 1660, and this was his only appearance
+in the Lower House. A peerage was sought for him by the
+duke of York in 1665, but was successfully opposed by Clarendon,
+on the ground of his &ldquo;ill-reputation amongst men of piety and
+religion,&rdquo; the real motives of the chancellor&rsquo;s hostile attitude
+being probably Savile&rsquo;s connexion with Buckingham and
+Coventry. The honours were, however, only deferred for a short
+time and were obtained after the fall of Clarendon on the 31st
+of December 1667,<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> when Savile was created Baron Savile of
+Eland and Viscount Halifax.</p>
+
+<p>He supported zealously the anti-French policy formulated in
+the Triple Alliance of January 1668. He was at this time in
+favour at court, was created a privy councillor in 1672, and,
+while ignorant of the disgraceful secret clauses in the treaty of
+Dover, was chosen envoy to negotiate terms of peace with Louis
+XIV. and the Dutch at Utrecht. His mission was still further
+deprived of importance by Arlington and Buckingham, who
+were in the king&rsquo;s counsels, and who anticipated his arrival and
+took the negotiations out of his hands; and though he signed
+the compact, he had no share in the harsh terms imposed upon
+the Dutch, and henceforth became a bitter opponent of the
+policy of subservience to French interests and of the Roman
+Catholic claims.</p>
+
+<p>He took an active part in passing through parliament the
+great Test Act of 1673<a name="fa2g" id="fa2g" href="#ft2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and forfeited in consequence his friendship
+with James. In 1674 he brought forward a motion for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page840" id="page840"></a>840</span>
+disarming &ldquo;popish recusants,&rdquo; and supported one by Lord
+Carlisle for restricting the marriages in the royal family to
+Protestants; but he opposed the bill introduced by Lord Danby
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Leeds, 1st Duke of</a></span>) in 1675, which imposed a test oath
+on officials and members of parliament, speaking &ldquo;with that
+quickness, learning and elegance that are inseparable from all
+his discourses,&rdquo; and ridiculing the multiplication of oaths, since
+&ldquo;no man would ever sleep with open doors ... should all
+the town be sworn not to rob.&rdquo; He was now on bad terms with
+Danby, and a witty sally at that minister&rsquo;s expense caused his
+dismissal from the council in January 1676. In 1678 he took
+an active part in the investigation of the &ldquo;Popish Plot,&rdquo; to
+which he appears to have given excessive credence, but opposed
+the bill which was passed on the 30th of October 1678, to exclude
+Roman Catholics from the House of Lords.</p>
+
+<p>In 1679, as a consequence of the fall of Danby, he became a
+member of the newly constituted privy council. With Charles,
+who had at first &ldquo;kicked at his appointment,&rdquo; he quickly became
+a favourite, his lively and &ldquo;libertine&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> free or sceptical)
+conversation being named by Bishop Burnet as his chief attraction
+for the king. His dislike of the duke of York and of the
+Romanist tendencies of the court did not induce him to support
+the rash attempt of Lord Shaftesbury to substitute the illegitimate
+duke of Monmouth for James in the succession. He feared
+Shaftesbury&rsquo;s ascendancy in the national councils and foresaw
+nothing but civil war and confusion as a result of his scheme.
+He declared against the exclusion of James, was made an earl
+in 1679, and was one of the &ldquo;Triumvirate&rdquo; which now directed
+public affairs. He assisted in passing into law the Habeas
+Corpus Bill. According to Sir W. Temple he showed great
+severity in putting into force the laws against the Roman
+Catholics, but this statement is considered a misrepresentation.<a name="fa3g" id="fa3g" href="#ft3g"><span class="sp">3</span></a>
+In 1680 he voted against the execution of Lord Stafford.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile (1679) his whole policy had been successfully
+directed towards uniting all parties with the object of frustrating
+Shaftesbury&rsquo;s plans. Communications were opened with the
+prince of Orange, and the illness of the king was made the
+occasion for summoning James from Brussels. Monmouth was
+compelled to retire to Holland, and Shaftesbury was dismissed.
+On the other hand, while Halifax was so far successful, James
+was given an opportunity of establishing a new influence at the
+court. It was with great difficulty that his retirement to Scotland
+was at last effected; the ministers lost the confidence and
+support of the &ldquo;country party,&rdquo; and Halifax, fatigued and ill,
+at the close of this year, retired to Rufford Abbey, the country
+home of the Saviles since the destruction of Thornhill Hall in
+1648, and for some time took little part in affairs. He returned in
+September 1680 on the occasion of the introduction of the
+Exclusion Bill in the Lords. The debate which followed, one
+of the most famous in the whole annals of parliament, became a
+duel of oratory between Halifax and his uncle Shaftesbury, the
+finest two speakers of the day, watched by the Lords, the
+Commons at the bar, and the king, who was present. It lasted
+seven hours. Halifax spoke sixteen times, and at last, regardless
+of the menaces of the more violent supporters of the bill, who
+closed round him, vanquished his opponent. The rejection of
+the bill by a majority of 33 was attributed by all parties entirely
+to the eloquence of Halifax. His conduct transformed the
+allegiance to him of the Whigs into bitter hostility, the Commons
+immediately petitioning the king to remove him from his councils
+for ever, while any favour which he might have regained with
+James was forfeited by his subsequent approval of the regency
+scheme.</p>
+
+<p>He retired to Rufford again in January 1681, but was present
+at the Oxford parliament, and in May returned suddenly to
+public life and held for a year the chief control of affairs. The
+arrest of Shaftesbury on the 2nd of July was attributed to his
+influence, but in general, during the period of Tory reaction,
+he seems to have urged a policy of conciliation and moderation
+upon the king. He opposed James&rsquo;s return from Scotland and,
+about this time (Sept.), made a characteristic but futile attempt
+to persuade the duke to attend the services of the Church of
+England and thus to end all difficulties. He renewed relations
+with the prince of Orange, who in July paid a visit to England
+to seek support against the French designs upon Luxemburg.
+The influence of Halifax procured for the Dutch a formal
+assurance from Charles of his support; but the king informed
+the French ambassador that he had no intention of fulfilling
+his engagements, and made another secret treaty with Louis.
+Halifax opposed in 1682 James&rsquo;s vindictive prosecution of the
+earl of Argyll, arousing further hostility in the duke, while the
+same year he was challenged to a duel by Monmouth, who
+attributed to him his disgrace.</p>
+
+<p>His short tenure of power ended with the return of James in
+May. Outwardly he still retained the king&rsquo;s favour and was
+advanced to a marquisate (Aug. 17) and to the office of
+lord privy seal (Oct. 25). Being still a member of the
+administration he must share responsibility for the attack now
+made upon the municipal franchises, a violation of the whole
+system of representative government, especially as the new
+charters passed his office. In January 1684 he was one of the
+commissioners &ldquo;who supervise all things concerning the city
+and have turned out those persons who are whiggishly inclined&rdquo;
+(N. Luttrell&rsquo;s <i>Diary</i>, i. 295). He made honourable but vain
+endeavours to save Algernon Sidney and Lord Russell. &ldquo;My
+Lord Halifax,&rdquo; declared Tillotson in his evidence before the
+later inquiry, &ldquo;showed a very compassionate concern for my
+Lord Russell and all the readiness to serve them that could be
+wished.&rdquo;<a name="fa4g" id="fa4g" href="#ft4g"><span class="sp">4</span></a> The Rye-House Plot, in which it was sought to
+implicate them, was a disastrous blow to his policy, and in
+order to counteract its consequences he entered into somewhat
+perilous negotiations with Monmouth, and endeavoured to
+effect his reconciliation with the king. On the 12th of February
+1684, he procured the release of his old antagonist, Lord Danby.
+Shortly afterwards his influence at the court revived. Charles
+was no longer in receipt of his French pension and was beginning
+to tire of James and Rochester. The latter, instead of becoming
+lord treasurer, was, according to the epigram of Halifax which
+has become proverbial, &ldquo;kicked upstairs,&rdquo; to the office of lord
+president of the council. Halifax now worked to establish
+intimate relations between Charles and the prince of Orange and
+opposed the abrogation of the recusancy laws. In a debate in
+the cabinet of November 1684, on the question of the grant of
+a fresh constitution to the New England colonies, he urged with
+great warmth &ldquo;that there could be no doubt whatever but that
+the same laws which are in force in England should also be
+established in a country inhabited by Englishmen and that an
+absolute government is neither so happy nor so safe as that
+which is tempered by laws and which sets bounds to the authority
+of the prince,&rdquo; and declared that he could not &ldquo;live under a king
+who should have it in his power to take, whenever he thought
+proper, the money he has in his pocket.&rdquo; The opinions thus
+expressed were opposed by all the other ministers and highly
+censured by Louis XIV., James and Judge Jeffreys.</p>
+
+<p>At the accession of James he was immediately deprived of all
+power and relegated to the presidency of the council. He showed
+no compliance, like other Lords, with James&rsquo;s Roman Catholic
+preferences. He was opposed to the parliamentary grant to the
+king of a revenue for life; he promoted the treaty of alliance
+with the Dutch in August 1685; he expostulated with the king
+on the subject of the illegal commissions in the army given to
+Roman Catholics; and finally, on his firm refusal to support the
+repeal of the Test and Habeas Corpus Acts, he was dismissed,
+and his name was struck out of the list of the privy council
+(Oct. 1685). He corresponded with the prince of Orange,
+conferred with Dykveldt, the latter&rsquo;s envoy, but held aloof
+from plans which aimed at the prince&rsquo;s personal interference in
+English affairs. In 1687 he published the famous <i>Letter to a
+Dissenter</i>, in which he warns the Nonconformists against being
+beguiled by the &ldquo;Indulgence&rdquo; into joining the court party,
+sets in a clear light the fatal results of such a step, and reminds
+them that under their next sovereign their grievances would in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page841" id="page841"></a>841</span>
+all probability be satisfied by the law. The tract, which has
+received general and unqualified admiration, must be classed
+amongst the few known writings which have actually and
+immediately altered the course of history. Copies to the number
+of 20,000 were circulated through the kingdom, and a great party
+was convinced of the wisdom of remaining faithful to the national
+traditions and liberties. He took the popular side on the occasion
+of the trial of the bishops in June 1688, visited them in the
+Tower, and led the cheers with which the verdict of &ldquo;not guilty&rdquo;
+was received in court; but the same month he refrained from
+signing the invitation to William, and publicly repudiated any
+share in the prince&rsquo;s plans. On the contrary he attended the
+court and refused any credence to the report that the prince born
+to James was supposititious. After the landing of William he
+was present at the council called by James on the 27th of
+November. He urged the king to grant large concessions, but
+his speech, in contrast to the harsh and overbearing attitude
+of the Hydes, was &ldquo;the most tender and obliging ... that
+ever was heard.&rdquo; He accepted the mission with Nottingham
+and Godolphin to treat with William at Hungerford, and
+succeeded in obtaining moderate terms from the prince. The
+negotiations, however, were abortive, for James had from the
+first resolved on flight. In the crisis which ensued, when the
+country was left without a government, Halifax took the lead.
+He presided over the council of Lords which assembled and took
+immediate measures to maintain public order. On the return
+of James to London on the 16th of November, after his capture
+at Faversham, Halifax repaired to William&rsquo;s camp and henceforth
+attached himself unremittingly to his cause. On the
+17th he carried with Lords Delamere and Shrewsbury a message
+from William to the king advising his departure from London,
+and, after the king&rsquo;s second flight, directed the proceedings of
+the executive. On the meeting of the convention on the 22nd
+of January 1689, he was formally elected speaker of the House
+of Lords. He voted against the motion for a regency (Jan.
+20), which was only defeated by two votes. The moderate
+and comprehensive character of the settlement at the revolution
+plainly shows his guiding hand, and it was finally through his
+persuasion that the Lords yielded to the Commons and agreed
+to the compromise whereby William and Mary were declared
+joint sovereigns. On the 13th of February in the Banqueting
+House at Whitehall, he tendered the crown to them in the name
+of the nation, and conducted the proclamation of their accession
+in the city.</p>
+
+<p>At the opening of the new reign he had considerable influence,
+was made lord privy seal, while Danby his rival was obliged to
+content himself with the presidency of the council, and controlled
+the appointments to the new cabinet which were made on
+a &ldquo;trimming&rdquo; or comprehensive basis. His views on religious
+toleration were as wide as those of the new king. He championed
+the claims of the Nonconformists as against the high or rigid
+Church party, and he was bitterly disappointed at the miscarriage
+of the Comprehension Bill. He thoroughly approved also at
+first of William&rsquo;s foreign policy; but, having excited the hostility
+of both the Whig and Tory parties, he now became exposed to
+a series of attacks in parliament which finally drove him from
+power. He was severely censured, as it seems quite unjustly,
+for the disorder in Ireland, and an attempt was made to impeach
+him for his conduct with regard to the sentences on the Whig
+leaders. The inquiry resulted in his favour; but notwithstanding,
+and in spite of the king&rsquo;s continued support, he determined
+to retire. He had already resigned the speakership of the House
+of Lords, and he now (Feb. 8, 1690) quitted his place in
+the cabinet. He still nominally retained his seat in the privy
+council, but in parliament he became a bitter critic of the
+administration; and the rivalry of Halifax (the Black Marquess)
+with Danby, now marquess of Carmarthen (the White Marquess)
+threw the former at this time into determined opposition. He
+disapproved of William&rsquo;s total absorption in European politics,
+and his open partiality for his countrymen. In January 1691
+Halifax had an interview with Henry Bulkeley, the Jacobite
+agent, and is said to have promised &ldquo;to do everything that lay
+in his power to serve the king.&rdquo; This was probably merely
+a measure of precaution, for he had no serious Jacobite leanings.
+He entered bail for Lord Marlborough, accused wrongfully of
+complicity in a Jacobite plot in May 1692, and in June, during
+the absence of the king from England, his name was struck off
+the privy council.</p>
+
+<p>He spoke in favour of the Triennial Bill (Jan. 12, 1693) which
+passed the legislature but was vetoed by William, suggested
+a proviso in the Licensing Act, which restricted its operation
+to anonymous works, approved the Place Bill (1694), but
+opposed, probably on account of the large sums he had engaged
+in the traffic of annuities, the establishment of the bank of
+England in 1694. Early in 1695 he delivered a strong attack
+on the administration in the House of Lords, and, after a short
+illness arising from a neglected complaint, he died on the 5th of
+April at the age of sixty-one. He was buried in Henry VII.&rsquo;s
+chapel in Westminster Abbey.</p>
+
+<p>The influence of Halifax, both as orator and as writer, on
+the public opinion of his day was probably unrivalled. His intellectual
+powers, his high character, his urbanity, vivacity and
+satirical humour made a great impression on his contemporaries,
+and many of his witty sayings have been recorded. But the
+superiority of his statesmanship could not be appreciated till
+later times. Maintaining throughout his career a complete
+detachment from party, he never acted permanently or continuously
+with either of the two great factions, and exasperated
+both in turn by deserting their cause at the moment when their
+hopes seemed on the point of realization. To them he appeared
+weak, inconstant, untrustworthy. They could not see what to
+us now is plain and clear, that Halifax was as consistent in his
+principles as the most rabid Whig or Tory. But the principle
+which chiefly influenced his political action, that of compromise,
+differed essentially from those of both parties, and his attitude
+with regard to the Whigs or Tories was thus by necessity continually
+changing. Measures, too, which in certain circumstances
+appeared to him advisable, when the political scene had changed
+became unwise or dangerous. Thus the regency scheme, which
+Halifax had supported while Charles still reigned, was opposed
+by him with perfect consistency at the revolution. He readily
+accepted for himself the character of a &ldquo;trimmer,&rdquo; desiring, he
+said, to keep the boat steady, while others attempted to weigh
+it down perilously on one side or the other; and he concluded
+his tract with these assertions: &ldquo;that our climate is a Trimmer
+between that part of the world where men are roasted and the
+other where they are frozen; that our Church is a Trimmer
+between the frenzy of fanatic visions and the lethargic ignorance
+of Popish dreams; that our laws are Trimmers between the
+excesses of unbounded power and the extravagance of liberty
+not enough restrained; that true virtue hath ever been thought
+a Trimmer, and to have its dwelling in the middle between two
+extremes; that even God Almighty Himself is divided between
+His two great attributes, His Mercy and His Justice. In such
+company, our Trimmer is not ashamed of his name....&rdquo;<a name="fa5g" id="fa5g" href="#ft5g"><span class="sp">5</span></a></p>
+
+<p>His powerful mind enabled him to regard the various political
+problems of his time from a height and from a point of view
+similar to that from which distance from the events enables us
+to consider them at the present day; and the superiority of his
+vision appears sufficiently from the fact that his opinions and
+judgments on the political questions of his time are those which
+for the most part have ultimately triumphed and found general
+acceptance. His attitude of mind was curiously modern.<a name="fa6g" id="fa6g" href="#ft6g"><span class="sp">6</span></a>
+Reading, writing and arithmetic, he thinks, should be taught to
+all and at the expense of the state. His opinions again on the
+constitutional relations of the colonies to the mother country,
+already cited, were completely opposed to those of his own
+period. For that view of his character which while allowing him
+the merit of a brilliant political theorist denies him the qualities
+of a man of action and of a practical politician, there is no solid
+basis. The truth is that while his political ideas are founded
+upon great moral or philosophical generalizations, often vividly
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page842" id="page842"></a>842</span>
+recalling and sometimes anticipating the broad conceptions of
+Burke, they are at the same time imbued with precisely those
+practical qualities which have ever been characteristic of English
+statesmenship, and were always capable of application to actual
+conditions. He was no star-gazing philosopher, with thoughts
+superior to the contemplation of mundane affairs. He had no
+taste for abstract political dogma. He seems to venture no
+further than to think that &ldquo;men should live in some competent
+state of freedom,&rdquo; and that the limited monarchical and
+aristocratic government was the best adapted for his country.
+&ldquo;Circumstances,&rdquo; he writes in the <i>Rough Draft of a New Model
+at Sea</i>, &ldquo;must come in and are to be made a part of the matter
+of which we are to judge; positive decisions are always dangerous,
+more especially in politics.&rdquo; Nor was he the mere literary
+student buried in books and in contemplative ease. He had
+none of the &ldquo;indecisiveness which commonly renders literary
+men of no use in the world&rdquo; (Sir John Dalrymple). The incidents
+of his career show that there was no backwardness or hesitation
+in acting when occasion required. The constant tendency of
+his mind towards antithesis and the balancing of opinions did
+not lead to paralysis in time of action. He did not shrink from
+responsibility, nor show on any occasion lack of courage. At
+various times of crisis he proved himself a great leader. He
+returned to public life to defeat the Exclusion Bill. At the
+revolution it was Halifax who seized the reins of government,
+flung away by James, and maintained public security. His
+subsequent failure in collaborating with William is, it is true,
+disappointing. But the cause was one that has not perhaps
+received sufficient attention. Party government had come to
+the birth during the struggles over the Exclusion Bill, and there
+had been unconsciously introduced into politics a novel element
+of which the nature and importance were not understood or
+suspected. Halifax had consistently ignored and neglected
+party; and it now had its revenge. Detested by the Whigs and
+by the Tories alike, and defended by neither, the favour alone of
+the king and his own transcendent abilities proved insufficient
+to withstand the constant and violent attacks made upon him
+in parliament, and he yielded to the superior force. He seems
+indeed himself to have been at last convinced of the necessity
+in English political life of party government, for though in his
+Cautions to electors he warns them against men &ldquo;tied to a
+party,&rdquo; yet in his last words he declares &ldquo;If there are two parties
+a man ought to adhere to that which he disliked least though in
+the whole he doth not approve it; for whilst he doth not list
+himself in one or the other party, he is looked upon as such a
+straggler that he is fallen upon by both.... Happy those that
+are convinced so as to be of the general opinions&rdquo; (<i>Political
+Thoughts and Reflections of Parties</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The private character of Lord Halifax was in harmony with
+the greatness of his public career. He was by no means the
+&ldquo;voluptuary&rdquo; described by Macaulay. He was on the contrary
+free from self-indulgence; his manner of life was decent and
+frugal, and his dress proverbially simple. He was an affectionate
+father and husband. &ldquo;His heart,&rdquo; says Burnet (i. 492-493,
+ed. 1833), &ldquo;was much set on raising his family&rdquo;&mdash;his last concern
+even while on his deathbed was the remarriage of his son
+Lord Eland to perpetuate his name; and this is probably the
+cause of his acceptance of so many titles for which he himself
+affected a philosophical indifference. He was estimable in his
+social relations and habits. He showed throughout his career
+an honourable independence, and was never seen to worship the
+rising sun. In a period when even great men stooped to accept
+bribes, Halifax was known to be incorruptible; at a time when
+animosities were especially bitter, he was too great a man to
+harbour resentments. &ldquo;Not only from policy,&rdquo; says Reresby
+(<i>Mem.</i> p. 231), &ldquo;(which teaches that we ought to let no man
+be our enemy when we can help it), but from his disposition I
+never saw any man more ready to forgive than himself.&rdquo; Few
+were insensible to his personal charm and gaiety. He excelled
+especially in quick repartee, in &ldquo;exquisite nonsense,&rdquo; and in
+spontaneous humour. When quite a young man, just entering
+upon political life he is described by Evelyn as &ldquo;a witty gentleman,
+if not a little too prompt and daring.&rdquo; The latter characteristic
+was not moderated by time but remained through life.
+He was incapable of controlling his spirit of raillery, from jests
+on Siamese missionaries to sarcasms at the expense of the heir
+to the throne and ridicule of hereditary monarchy, and his
+brilliant paradoxes, his pungent and often profane epigrams
+were received by graver persons as his real opinions and as
+evidences of atheism. This latter charge he repudiated, assuring
+Burnet that he was &ldquo;a Christian in submission,&rdquo; but that he
+could not digest iron like an ostrich nor swallow all that the
+divines sought to impose upon the world.</p>
+
+<p>The speeches of Halifax have not been preserved, and his
+political writings on this account have all the greater value.
+<i>The Character of a Trimmer</i> (1684 or 1685), the authorship of
+which, long doubtful, is now established,<a name="fa7g" id="fa7g" href="#ft7g"><span class="sp">7</span></a> was his most ambitious
+production, written seemingly as advice to the king and as a
+manifesto of his own opinions. In it he discusses the political
+problems of the time and their solution on broad principles.
+He supports the Test Act and, while opposing the Indulgence,
+is not hostile to the repeal of the penal laws against the Roman
+Catholics by parliament. Turning to foreign affairs he contemplates
+with consternation the growing power of France and the
+humiliation of England, exclaiming indignantly at the sight of
+the &ldquo;Roses blasted and discoloured while lilies triumph and
+grow insolent upon the comparison.&rdquo; The whole is a masterly
+and comprehensive summary of the actual political situation and
+its exigencies; while, when he treats such themes as liberty,
+or discusses the balance to be maintained between freedom and
+government in the constitution, he rises to the political idealism
+of Bolingbroke and Burke. <i>The Character of King Charles II.</i>
+(printed 1750), to be compared with his earlier sketch of the king
+in the <i>Character of a Trimmer</i>, is perhaps from the literary point
+of view the most admirable of his writings. The famous <i>Letter
+to a Dissenter</i> (1687) was thought by Sir James Mackintosh to
+be unrivalled as a political pamphlet. <i>The Lady&rsquo;s New Year&rsquo;s
+Gift: or Advice to a Daughter</i>, refers to his daughter Elizabeth,
+afterwards wife of the 3rd and mother of the celebrated 4th earl
+of Chesterfield (1688). In <i>The Anatomy of an Equivalent</i> (1688)
+he treats with keen wit and power of analysis the proposal to
+grant a &ldquo;perpetual edict&rdquo; in favour of the Established Church
+in return for the repeal of the test and penal laws. <i>Maxims of
+State</i> appeared about 1692. <i>The Rough Draft of a New Model
+at Sea</i> (<i>c.</i> 1694), though apparently only a fragment, is one of the
+most interesting and characteristic of his writings. It opens
+with the question: &ldquo;&rsquo;What shall we do to be saved in this world?&rsquo;
+There is no other answer but this, &lsquo;Look to your moat.&rsquo; The
+first article of an Englishman&rsquo;s political creed must be that he
+believeth in the sea.&rdquo; He discusses the naval establishment,
+not from the naval point of view alone, but from the general
+aspect of the constitution of which it is a detail, and is thus led
+on to consider the nature of the constitution itself, and to show
+that it is not an artificial structure but a growth and product
+of the natural character. We may also mention <i>Some Cautions</i>
+to the electors of the parliament (1694), and <i>Political, Moral and
+Miscellaneous Thoughts and Reflections</i> (n.d.), a collection of
+aphorisms in the style of the maxims of La Rochefoucauld,
+inferior in style&mdash;but greatly excelling the French author in
+breadth of view and in moderation. (For other writings
+attributed to Halifax, see Foxcroft, <i>Life of Sir G. Savile</i>, ii.
+529 sqq.).</p>
+
+<p>Halifax was twice married, first in 1656 to the Lady Dorothy
+Spencer&mdash;daughter of the 1st earl of Sunderland and of Dorothy
+Sidney, &ldquo;Sacharissa&rdquo;&mdash;who died in 1670, leaving a family; and
+secondly, in 1672, to Gertrude, daughter of William Pierrepont
+of Thoresby, who survived him, and by whom he had one
+daughter, Elizabeth, Lady Chesterfield, who seems to have inherited
+a considerable portion of her father&rsquo;s intellectual abilities.
+On the death of his son William, 2nd marquess of Halifax, in
+August 1700 without male issue, the peerage became extinct,
+and the baronetcy passed to the Saviles of Lupset, the whole
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page843" id="page843"></a>843</span>
+male line of the Savile family ending in the person of Sir George
+Savile, 8th baronet, in 1784. Henry Savile, British envoy at
+Versailles, who died unmarried in 1687, was a younger brother
+of the first marquess. Halifax has been generally supposed to
+have been the father of the illegitimate Henry Carey, the poet,
+but this is doubtful.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Life and Letters of Sir George Savile, 1st Marquis of Halifax</i>
+(2 vols., 1898), by Miss H. C. Foxcroft, who has collected and made
+excellent use of all the material available at that date, including
+hitherto unexplored Savile MSS., at Devonshire House, in the
+Spencer Archives, in the Longleat and other collections, and who
+has edited the works of Halifax and printed a memorandum of
+conversations with King William of 1688-1690, left in MS. by Halifax.
+Macaulay, in his <i>History of England</i>, misjudged Halifax on some
+points, but nevertheless understood and did justice to the greatness
+of his statesmanship, and pronounced on him a well-merited and
+eloquent eulogy (iv. 545). Contemporary characters of Halifax
+which must be accepted with caution are Burnet&rsquo;s in the <i>History of
+His Own Times</i> (ed. 1833, vol. i. pp. 491-493, and iv. 268), that by the
+author of &ldquo;Savilianal,&rdquo; identified as William Mompesson, and
+&ldquo;Sacellum Apollinare,&rdquo; a panegyric in verse by Elkanah Settle
+(1695).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(P. C. Y.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Cal. State Papers, Dom.</i> (Nov. 1667-Sep. 1668). p. 106.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2g" id="ft2g" href="#fa2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Lords&rsquo; Journals</i>, 12, p. 567; <i>Savile Correspondence</i>, ed. by W. D.
+Cooper, p. 136; &ldquo;Character of a Trimmer,&rdquo; in <i>Life of Sir G. Savile</i>,
+by H. C. Foxcroft, ii. 316.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3g" id="ft3g" href="#fa3g"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Foxcroft i. 160, where Hallam is quoted to this effect.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4g" id="ft4g" href="#fa4g"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>Hist. MSS. Comm. House of Lords MSS.</i> 1689-1690, p. 287.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5g" id="ft5g" href="#fa5g"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>Character of a Trimmer</i>, conclusion.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6g" id="ft6g" href="#fa6g"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Saviliana quoted by Foxcroft i. 115.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7g" id="ft7g" href="#fa7g"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Foxcroft, ii. 273 et seq., and <i>Hist. MSS. Comm. MSS.</i> of F. W.
+Leyborne-Popham, p. 264.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALIFAX,<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> a city and port of entry, capital of the province of
+Nova Scotia, Canada. It is situated in 44° 59&prime; N. and 63° 35&prime; W.,
+on the south-east coast of the province, on a fortified hill, 225 ft.
+in height, which slopes down to the waters of Chebucto Bay,
+now known as Halifax Harbour. The harbour, which is open all
+the year, is about 6 m. long by 1 m. in width, and has excellent
+anchorage in all parts; to the north a narrow passage connects
+it with Bedford Basin, 6 m. in length by 4 m., and deep enough
+for the largest men-of-war. At the harbour mouth lies McNab&rsquo;s
+Island, thus forming two entrances; the eastern passage is
+only employed by small vessels, though in 1862 the Confederate
+cruiser, &ldquo;Tallahassee,&rdquo; slipped through by night, and escaped
+the northern vessels which were watching off the western
+entrance. The population in 1901 was 40,832.</p>
+
+<p>The town was originally built of wood, plastered or stuccoed,
+but though the wooden houses largely remain, the public buildings
+are of stone. Inferior in natural strength to Quebec alone, the
+city and its approaches have been fortified till it has become
+the strongest position in Canada, and one of the strongest in the
+British Empire. Till 1906 it was garrisoned by British troops,
+but in that year, with Esquimalt, on the Pacific coast, it was
+taken over by the Canadian government, an operation necessitating
+a large increase in the Canadian permanent military force.
+At the same time, the royal dockyard, containing a dry-dock
+610 ft. in length, and the residences in connexion, were also taken
+over for the use of the department of marine and fisheries.
+Till 1905 Halifax was the summer station of the British North
+American squadron. In that year, in consequence of a redistribution
+of the fleet, the permanent North American squadron
+was withdrawn; but Halifax is still visited periodically by
+powerful squadrons of cruisers.</p>
+
+<p>Though, owing to the growth of Sydney and other outports,
+it no longer monopolizes the foreign trade of the province,
+Halifax is still a thriving town, and has the largest export trade
+of the Dominion in fish and fish products, the export of fish
+alone, in 1904, amounting to over three-fifths that of the entire
+Dominion. Lumber (chiefly spruce deals) and agricultural products
+(especially apples) are also exported in large quantities.
+The chief imports are manufactures from Great Britain and
+the United States, and sugar, molasses, rum and fruit from the
+West Indies. Its industrial establishments include foundries,
+sugar refineries, manufactures of furniture and other articles of
+wood, a skate factory and rope and cordage works, the produce
+of which are all exported. It is the Atlantic terminus of the
+Intercolonial, Canadian Pacific and several provincial railways,
+and the chief winter port of Canada, numerous steamship lines
+connecting it with Great Britain, Europe, the West Indies and
+the United States. The public gardens, covering 14 acres, and
+Point Pleasant Park, left to a great extent in its natural state,
+are extremely beautiful. Behind the city is an arm of the sea
+(known as the North-West Arm), 5 m. in length and 1 m. in breadth,
+with high, well-wooded shores, and covered in summer with
+canoes and sailing craft. The educational institutions include
+a ladies&rsquo; college, several convents, a Presbyterian theological
+college and Dalhousie University, with faculties of arts, law,
+medicine and science. Established by charter in 1818 by the
+earl of Dalhousie, then lieutenant governor, and reorganized
+in 1863, it has since become much the most important seat of
+learning in the maritime provinces. Other prominent buildings
+are Government House, the provincial parliament and library,
+and the Roman Catholic cathedral. St Paul&rsquo;s church (Anglican)
+dates from 1750, and though not striking architecturally, is
+interesting from the memorial tablets and the graves of celebrated
+Nova Scotians which it contains. The city is the seat of the
+Anglican bishop of Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island, and
+of the Roman Catholic bishop of Halifax.</p>
+
+<p>Founded in 1749 by the Hon. Edward Cornwallis as a rival
+to the French town of Louisburg in Cape Breton, it was named
+after the 2nd earl of Halifax, president of the board of trade and
+plantations. In the following year it superseded Annapolis as
+capital of the province. Its privateers played a prominent part
+in the war of 1812-15 with the United States, and during the
+American Civil War it was a favourite base of operations for
+Confederate blockade-runners. The federation of the North
+American provinces in 1867 lessened its relative importance,
+but its merchants have gradually adapted themselves to the
+altered conditions.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALIFAX,<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> a municipal, county and parliamentary borough
+in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 194 m. N.N.W. from
+London and 7 m. S.W. from Bradford, on the Great Northern
+and the Lancashire &amp; Yorkshire railways. Pop. (1891), 97,714;
+(1901) 104,936. It lies in a bare hilly district on and above the
+small river Hebble near its junction with the Calder. Its appearance
+is in the main modern, though a few picturesque old houses
+remain. The North Bridge, a fine iron structure, spans the
+valley, giving connexion between the opposite higher parts of
+the town. The principal public building is the town hall,
+completed in 1863 after the designs of Sir Charles Barry; it is
+a handsome Palladian building with a tower. Of churches the
+most noteworthy is that of St John the Baptist, the parish church,
+a Perpendicular building with lofty western tower. Two earlier
+churches are traceable on this side, the first perhaps pre-Norman,
+the second of the Early English period. The old woodwork is
+fine, part being Perpendicular, but the greater portion dates
+from 1621. All Souls&rsquo; church was built in 1859 from the designs
+of Sir Gilbert Scott, of whose work it is a good example, at the
+expense of Mr Edward Akroyd. The style is early Decorated,
+and a rich ornamentation is carried out in Italian marble,
+serpentine and alabaster. A graceful tower and spire 236 ft.
+high rise at the north-west angle. The Square chapel, erected
+by the Congregationalists in 1857, is a striking cruciform building
+with a tower and elaborate crocketed spire. Both the central
+library and museum and the Akroyd museum and art gallery
+occupy buildings which were formerly residences, the one of
+Sir Francis Crossley (1817-1872) and the other of Mr Edward
+Akroyd. Among charitable institutions the principal is the
+handsome royal infirmary, a Renaissance building. The Heath
+grammar school was founded in 1585 under royal charter for
+instruction in classical languages. It possesses close scholarships
+at Oxford and Cambridge universities. The Waterhouse charity
+school occupies a handsome set of buildings forming three sides
+of a quadrangle, erected in 1855. The Crossley almshouses were
+erected and endowed by Sir Francis and Mr Joseph Crossley,
+who also endowed the Crossley orphan home and school.
+Technical schools are maintained by the corporation. Among
+other public buildings may be noted the Piece-Hall, erected
+in 1799 for the lodgment and sale of piece goods, now used as a
+market, a great quadrangular structure occupying more than
+two acres; the bonding warehouse, court-house, and mechanics&rsquo;
+institute. There are six parks, of which the People&rsquo;s Park of
+12½ acres, presented by Sir Francis Crossley in 1858, is laid out
+in ornate style from designs by Sir Joseph Paxton.</p>
+
+<p>Halifax ranks with Leeds, Bradford and Huddersfield as a
+seat of the woollen and worsted manufacture. The manufacture
+of carpets is a large industry, one establishment employing some
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page844" id="page844"></a>844</span>
+5000 hands. The worsted, woollen and cotton industries, and
+the iron, steel and machinery manufactures are very extensive.
+There are collieries and freestone quarries in the
+neighbourhood.</p>
+
+<p>The parliamentary borough returns two members. The
+county borough was created in 1888. The municipal borough
+is under a mayor, 15 aldermen and 45 councillors. Area,
+13,967 acres.</p>
+
+<p>At the time of the Conquest Halifax formed part of the
+extensive manor of Wakefield, which belonged to the king, but
+in the 13th century was in the hands of John, earl Warrenne
+(<i>c.</i> 1245-1305). The prosperity of the town began with the
+introduction of the cloth trade in the 15th century, when there
+are said to have been only thirteen houses, which before the end
+of the 16th century had increased to 520. Camden, about the
+end of the 17th century, wrote that &ldquo;the people are very industrious,
+so that though the soil about it be barren and improfitable,
+not fit to live on, they have so flourished ... by the
+clothing trade that they are very rich and have gained a reputation
+for it above their neighbours.&rdquo; The trade is said to have
+been increased by the arrival of certain merchants driven from
+the Netherlands by the persecution of the duke of Alva. Among
+the curious customs of Halifax was the Gibbet Law, which was
+probably established by a prescriptive right to protect the wool
+trade, and gave the inhabitants the power of executing any one
+taken within their liberty, who, when tried by a jury of sixteen
+of the frith-burgesses, was found guilty of the theft of any goods
+of the value of more than 13d. The executions took place on
+market days on a hill outside the town, the gibbet somewhat
+resembling a guillotine. The first execution recorded under this
+law took place in 1541, and the right was exercised in Halifax
+longer than in any other town, the last execution taking place
+in 1650. In 1635 the king granted the inhabitants of Halifax
+licence to found a workhouse in a large house given to them for
+that purpose by Nathaniel Waterhouse, and incorporated them
+under the name of the master and governors. Nathaniel Waterhouse
+was appointed the first master, his successors being elected
+every year by the twelve governors from among themselves.
+Halifax was a borough by prescription, its privileges growing
+up with the increased prosperity brought by the cloth trade,
+but it was not incorporated until 1848. Since the Reform Act
+of 1832 the burgesses have returned two members to parliament.
+In 1607 David Waterhouse, lord of the manor of Halifax,
+obtained a grant of two markets there every week on Friday
+and Saturday and two fairs every year, each lasting three days,
+one beginning on the 24th of June, the other on the 11th of
+November. Later these fairs and markets were confirmed with
+the addition of an extra market on Thursday to Sir William
+Ayloffe, baronet, who had succeeded David Waterhouse as lord
+of the manor. The market rights were sold to the Markets
+Company in 1810 and purchased from them by the corporation
+in 1853.</p>
+
+<p>During the Civil War Halifax was garrisoned by parliament,
+and a field near it is still called the Bloody Field on account of
+an engagement which took place there between the forces of
+parliament and the Royalists.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Victoria County History</i>, &ldquo;Yorkshire&rdquo;; T. Wright, <i>The
+Antiquities of the Town of Halifax</i> (Leeds, 1738); John Watson,
+<i>The History and Antiquities of the Parish of Halifax</i> (London, 1775);
+John Crabtree, <i>A Concise History of the Parish and Vicarage of
+Halifax</i> (Halifax and London, 1836).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">&#7716;ALI&#7778;AH<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> (Hebrew, <span title="halitza">&#1495;&#1500;&#1497;&#1510;&#1492;</span> &ldquo;untying&rdquo;), the ceremony by
+which a Jewish widow releases her brother-in-law from the
+obligation to marry her in accordance with Deuteronomy xxv.
+5-10, and obtains her own freedom to remarry. By the law
+of Moses it became obligatory upon the brother of a man
+dying childless to take his widow as wife. If he refused, &ldquo;then
+shall his brother&rsquo;s wife come unto him in the presence of the
+elders and loose his shoe from off his foot, and spit in his face,
+and shall answer and say, So shall it be done unto that man that
+will not build up his brother&rsquo;s house.&rdquo; By Rabbinical law the
+ceremony was later made more complex. The parties appear
+before a court of three elders with two assessors. The place is
+usually the synagogue house, or that of the Rabbi, sometimes
+that of the widow. After inquiry as to the relationship of the
+parties and their status (for if either be a minor or deformed,
+&#7717;ali&#7779;ah cannot take place), the shoe is produced. It is usually
+the property of the community and made entirely of leather
+from the skin of a &ldquo;clean&rdquo; animal. It is of two pieces, the upper
+part and the sole, sewn together with leathern threads. It has
+three small straps in front, and two white straps to bind it on
+the leg. After it is strapped on, the man must walk four cubits
+in the presence of the court. The widow then loosens and
+removes the shoe, throwing it some distance, and spits on the
+ground, repeating thrice the Biblical formula &ldquo;So shall it be
+done,&rdquo; &amp;c. &#7716;ali&#7779;ah, which is still common among orthodox
+Jews, must not take place on the Sabbath, a holiday, or the eve
+of either, or in the evening. To prevent brothers-in-law from
+extorting money from a widow as a price for releasing her from
+perpetual widowhood, Jewish law obliges all brothers at the time
+of a marriage to sign a document pledging themselves to submit
+to &#7717;ali&#7779;ah without payment. (Compare <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Levirate</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALKETT, HUGH,<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> <span class="sc">Freiherr von</span> (1783-1863), British
+soldier and general of infantry in the Hanoverian service, was the
+second son of Major-General F. G. Halkett, who had served
+many years in the army, and whose ancestors had for several
+generations distinguished themselves in foreign services. With
+the &ldquo;Scotch Brigade&rdquo; which his father had been largely instrumental
+in raising, Hugh Halkett served in India from 1798 to
+1801. In 1803 his elder brother Colin was appointed to command
+a battalion of the newly formed King&rsquo;s German Legion, and in
+this he became senior captain and then major. Under his
+brother&rsquo;s command he served with Cathcart&rsquo;s expeditions to
+Hanover, Rügen and Copenhagen, where his bold initiative on
+outpost duty won commendation. He was in the Peninsula in
+1808-1809, and at Walcheren. At Albuera, Salamanca, &amp;c., he
+commanded the 2nd Light Infantry Battalion, K.G.L., in succession
+to his brother, and at Venta del Pozo in the Burgos
+retreat he greatly distinguished himself. In 1813 he left the
+Peninsula and was subsequently employed in the organization
+of the new Hanoverian army. He led a brigade of these troops
+in Count Wallmoden&rsquo;s army, and bore a marked part in the battle
+of Göhrde and the action of Schestedt, where he took with his
+own hand a Danish standard. In the Waterloo campaign he
+commanded two brigades of Hanoverian militia which were sent
+to the front with the regulars, and during the fight with the
+Old Guard captured General Cambronne. After the fall of
+Napoleon he elected to stay in the Hanoverian service, though
+he retained his half-pay lieutenant-colonelcy in the English army.
+He rose to be general and inspector-general of infantry. In his
+old age he led the Xth Federal Army Corps in the Danish War
+of 1848, and defeated the Danes at Oversee. He had the G.C.H.,
+the C.B. and many foreign orders, including the Prussian
+order of the Black Eagle and <i>pour le Mérite</i> and the Russian
+St Anne.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Knesebeck, <i>Leben des Freiherrn Hugh von Halkett</i> (Stuttgart,
+1865).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>His brother, <span class="sc">Sir Colin Halkett</span> (1774-1856), British soldier,
+began his military career in the Dutch Guards and served in
+various &ldquo;companies&rdquo; for three years, leaving as a captain in
+1795. From 1800 to the peace of Amiens he served with the
+Dutch troops in English pay in Guernsey. In August 1803
+Halkett was one of the first officers assigned to the service of
+raising the King&rsquo;s German Legion, and he became major, and
+later lieutenant-colonel, commanding the 2nd Light Infantry
+Battalion. His battalion was employed in the various expeditions
+mentioned above, from Hanover to Walcheren, and in 1811
+Colin Halkett succeeded Charles Alten in the command of the
+Light Brigade, K.G.L., which he held throughout the Peninsula
+War from Albuera to Toulouse. In 1815 Major-General Sir Colin
+Halkett commanded the 5th British Brigade of Alten&rsquo;s division,
+and at Waterloo he received four wounds. Unlike his brother,
+he remained in the British service, in which he rose to
+general. At the time of his death he was governor of Chelsea
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page845" id="page845"></a>845</span>
+hospital. He had honorary general&rsquo;s rank in the Hanoverian
+service, the G.C.B. and G.C.H., as well as numerous foreign
+orders.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For information about both the Halketts, see Beamish, <i>History
+of the King&rsquo;s German Legion</i> (1832).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALL, BASIL<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> (1788-1844), British naval officer, traveller and
+miscellaneous writer, was born at Edinburgh on the 31st of
+December 1788. His father was Sir James Hall of Dunglass, the
+geologist. Basil Hall was educated at the High School, Edinburgh,
+and in 1802 entered the navy, where he rose to the rank of post-captain
+in 1817, after seeing active service in several fields.
+By observing the ethnological as well as the physical peculiarities
+of the countries he visited, he collected the materials for a very
+large number of scientific papers. In 1816 he commanded the
+sloop &ldquo;Lyra,&rdquo; which accompanied Lord Amherst&rsquo;s embassy to
+China; and he described his cruise in <i>An Account of a Voyage of
+Discovery to the West Coast of Corea and the Great Loo-choo Island
+in the Japan Sea</i> (London, 1818). In 1820 he held a command on
+the Pacific coast of America, and in 1824 published two volumes
+of <i>Extracts from a Journal written on the Coasts of Chili, Peru and
+Mexico in the Years 1820-21-22</i>. Retiring on half-pay in 1824,
+Hall in 1825 married Margaret, daughter of Sir John Hunter, and
+in her company travelled (1827-1828) through the United States.
+In 1829 he published his <i>Travels in North America in the Years
+1827 and 1828</i>, which was assailed by the American press for its
+views of American society. <i>Schloss Hainfeld, or a Winter in
+Lower Styria</i> (1836), is partly a romance, partly a description
+of a visit paid by the author to the castle of the countess Purgstall.
+<i>Spain and the Seat of War in Spain</i> appeared in 1837.
+<i>The Fragments of Voyages and Travels</i> (9 vols.) were issued in
+three detachments between 1831 and 1840. Captain Hall was a
+fellow of the Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh, and
+of the Royal Astronomical, Royal Geographical and Geological
+Societies. His last work, a collection of sketches and tales under
+the name of <i>Patchwork</i> (1841), had not been long published before
+its author became insane, and he died in Haslar hospital, Portsmouth,
+on the 11th of September 1844.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALL, CARL CHRISTIAN<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> (1812-1888), Danish statesman, son
+of the highly respected artisan and train-band colonel Mads Hall,
+was born at Christianshavn on the 25th of February 1812.
+After a distinguished career at school and college, he adopted the
+law as his profession, and in 1837 married the highly gifted but
+eccentric Augusta Marie, daughter of the philologist Peter Oluf
+Bröndsted. A natural conservatism indisposed Hall at first to
+take any part in the popular movement of 1848, to which almost
+all his friends had already adhered; but the moment he was convinced
+of the inevitability of popular government, he resolutely
+and sympathetically followed in the new paths. Sent to the
+<i>Rigsforsamling</i> of 1848 as member for the first district of Copenhagen,
+a constituency he continued to represent in the <i>Folketing</i>
+till 1881, he immediately took his place in the front rank of
+Danish politicians. From the first he displayed rare ability as
+a debater, his inspiring and yet amiable personality attracted
+hosts of admirers, while his extraordinary tact and temper
+disarmed opposition and enabled him to mediate between
+extremes without ever sacrificing principles.</p>
+
+<p>Hall was not altogether satisfied with the fundamental law of
+June; but he considered it expedient to make the best use
+possible of the existing constitution and to unite the best conservative
+elements of the nation in its defence. The aloofness
+and sulkiness of the aristocrats and landed proprietors he
+deeply deplored. Failing to rally them to the good cause he
+determined anyhow to organize the great cultivated middle class
+into a political party. Hence the &ldquo;June Union,&rdquo; whose programme
+was progress and reform in the spirit of the constitution,
+and at the same time opposition to the one-sided democratism
+and party-tyranny of the <i>Bondevenner</i> or peasant party. The
+&ldquo;Union&rdquo; exercised an essential influence on the elections of
+1852, and was, in fact, the beginning of the national Liberal
+party, which found its natural leader in Hall. During the years
+1852-1854 the burning question of the day was the connexion
+between the various parts of the monarchy. Hall was &ldquo;eiderdansk&rdquo;
+by conviction. He saw in the closest possible union
+between the kingdom and a Schleswig freed from all risk of
+German interference the essential condition for Denmark&rsquo;s
+independence; but he did not think that Denmark was strong
+enough to carry such a policy through unsupported, and he
+was therefore inclined to promote it by diplomatic means and
+international combinations, and strongly opposed to the Conventions
+of 1851-1852 (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Denmark</a></span>: <i>History</i>), though he was
+among the first, subsequently, to accept them as an established
+fact and the future basis for Denmark&rsquo;s policy.</p>
+
+<p>Hall first took office in the Bang administration (12th of
+December 1854) as minister of public worship. In May 1857
+he became president of the council after Andrae, Bang&rsquo;s successor,
+had retired, and in July 1858 he exchanged the ministry
+of public worship for the ministry of foreign affairs, while still
+retaining the premiership.</p>
+
+<p>Hall&rsquo;s programme, &ldquo;den Konstitutionelle Helstat,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> a
+single state with a common constitution, was difficult enough
+in a monarchy which included two nationalities, one of which,
+to a great extent, belonged to a foreign and hostile jurisdiction.
+But as this political monstrosity had already been guaranteed
+by the Conventions of 1851-1852, Hall could not rid himself
+of it, and the attempt to establish this &ldquo;Helstat&rdquo; was made
+accordingly by the Constitution of the 13th of November 1863.
+The failure of the attempt and its disastrous consequences for
+Denmark are described elsewhere. Here it need only be said that
+Hall himself soon became aware of the impossibility of the
+&ldquo;Helstat,&rdquo; and his whole policy aimed at making its absurdity
+patent to Europe, and substituting for it a constitutional Denmark
+to the Eider which would be in a position to come to terms
+with an independent Holstein. That this was the best thing
+possible for Denmark is absolutely indisputable, and &ldquo;the
+diplomatic Seven Years&rsquo; War&rdquo; which Hall in the meantime
+conducted with all the powers interested in the question is the
+most striking proof of his superior statesmanship. Hall knew
+that in the last resort the question must be decided not by the
+pen but by the sword. But he relied, ultimately, on the protection
+of the powers which had guaranteed the integrity of
+Denmark by the treaty of London, and if words have any
+meaning at all he had the right to expect at the very least the
+armed support of Great Britain.<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> But the great German powers
+and the force of circumstances proved too strong for him. On
+the accession of the new king, Christian IX., Hall resigned rather
+than repeal the November Constitution, which gave Denmark
+something to negotiate upon in case of need. But he made
+matters as easy as he could for his successors in the Monrad
+administration, and the ultimate catastrophe need not have
+been as serious as it was had his advice, frankly given, been
+intelligently followed.</p>
+
+<p>After 1864 Hall bore more than his fair share of the odium
+and condemnation which weighed so heavily upon the national
+Liberal party, making no attempt to repudiate responsibility
+and refraining altogether from attacking patently unscrupulous
+opponents. But his personal popularity suffered not the slightest
+diminution, while his clear, almost intuitive, outlook and his
+unconquerable faith in the future of his country made him, during
+those difficult years, a factor of incalculable importance in the
+public life of Denmark. In 1870 he joined the Holstein-Holsteinborg
+ministry as minister of public worship, and in
+that capacity passed many useful educational reforms, but on
+the fall of the administration, in 1873, he retired altogether
+from public life. In the summer of 1879 Hall was struck down
+by apoplexy, and for the remaining nine years of his life he
+was practically bedridden. He died on the 14th of August
+1888. In politics Hall was a practical, sagacious &ldquo;opportunist,&rdquo;
+in the best sense of that much abused word, with an eye
+rather for things than for persons. Moreover, he had no very
+pronounced political ambition, and was an utter stranger
+to that longing for power, which drives so many men of talent
+to adopt extreme expedients. His urbanity and perfect
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page846" id="page846"></a>846</span>
+equilibrium at the very outset incited sympathy, while his wit
+and humour made him the centre of every circle within which
+he moved.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Vilhelm Christian Sigurd Topsöe, <i>Polit. Portraetstudier</i> (Copenhagen,
+1878); Schöller Parelius Vilhelm Birkedal, <i>Personlige Oplevelser</i>
+(Copenhagen, 1890-1891).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> On this head see the 3rd marquess of Salisbury&rsquo;s <i>Political Essays</i>,
+reprinted from the <i>Quarterly Review</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALL, CHARLES FRANCIS<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> (1821-1871), American Arctic
+explorer, was born at Rochester, New Hampshire. After
+following the trade of blacksmith he became a journalist in
+Cincinnati; but his enthusiasm for Arctic exploration led him
+in 1859 to volunteer to the American Geographical Society
+to &ldquo;go in search for the bones of Franklin.&rdquo; With the proceeds
+of a public subscription he was equipped for his expedition
+and sailed in May 1860 on board a whaling vessel. The whaler
+being ice-bound, Hall took up his abode in the regions to the
+north of Hudson Bay, where he found relics of Frobisher&rsquo;s
+16th-century voyages, and living with the Eskimo for two years
+he acquired a considerable knowledge of their habits and language.
+He published an account of these experiences under the
+title of <i>Arctic Researches, and Life among the Esquimaux</i> (1864).
+Determined, however, to learn more about the fate of the Franklin
+expedition he returned to the same regions in 1864, and passing
+five years among the Eskimo was successful in obtaining a
+number of Franklin relics, as well as information pointing to the
+exact fate of 76 of the crew, whilst also performing some geographical
+work of interest. In 1871 he was given command of
+the North Polar expedition fitted out by the United States
+Government in the &ldquo;Polaris.&rdquo; Making a remarkably rapid
+passage up Smith Sound at the head of Baffin Bay, which was
+found to be ice-free, the &ldquo;Polaris&rdquo; reached on the 30th of August
+the lat. of 82° 11&prime;, at that time, and until the English expedition
+of 1876 the highest northern latitude attained by vessel. The
+expedition went into winter quarters in a sheltered cove on the
+Greenland coast. On the 24th of October, Hall on his return
+from a successful sledge expedition to the north was suddenly
+seized by an illness of which he died on the 8th of November.
+Capt. S. O. Buddington (1823-1888) assumed command, and
+although the &ldquo;Polaris&rdquo; was subsequently lost after breaking
+out of the ice, with only part of the crew aboard, the whole were
+ultimately rescued, and the scientific results of the expedition
+proved to be of considerable importance.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALL, CHRISTOPHER NEWMAN<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> (1816-1902), English
+Nonconformist divine, was born at Maidstone on the 22nd of
+May 1816. His father was John Vine Hall, proprietor and
+printer of the <i>Maidstone Journal</i>, and the author of a popular
+evangelical work called <i>The Sinner&rsquo;s Friend</i>. Christopher was
+educated at University College, London, and took the London
+B.A. degree. His theological training was gained at Highbury
+College, whence he was called in 1842 to his first pastorate at
+the Albion Congregational Church, Hull. During the twelve
+years of his ministry there the membership was greatly increased,
+and a branch chapel and school were opened. At Hull Newman
+Hall first began his active work in temperance reform, and in
+defence of his position wrote <i>The Scriptural Claims of Teetotalism</i>.
+In 1854 he accepted a call to Surrey chapel, London, founded
+in 1783 by the Rev. Rowland Hill. A considerable sum had
+been bequeathed by Hill for the perpetuation of his work on
+the expiration of the lease; but, owing to some legal flaw in the
+will, the money was not available, and Newman Hall undertook
+to raise the necessary funds for a new church. By weekly
+offertories and donations the money for the beautiful building
+called Christ Church at the junction of the Kennington and
+Westminster Bridge Roads was collected, and within four years
+of opening (1876) the total cost (£63,000) was cleared. In 1892
+Newman Hall resigned his charge and devoted himself to general
+evangelical work. Most of his writings are small booklets or
+tracts of a distinctly evangelical character. The best known
+of these is <i>Come to Jesus</i>, of which over four million copies
+have been circulated in forty different languages. Newman Hall
+visited the United States during the Civil War, and did much
+to promote a friendly understanding between England and
+America. A Liberal in politics, and a keen admirer of John
+Bright, few preachers of any denomination have exercised so
+far-reaching an influence as the &ldquo;Dissenters&rsquo; Bishop,&rdquo; as he
+came to be termed. He died on the 18th of February 1902.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See his <i>Autobiography</i> (1898); obituary notice in <i>The Congregational
+Year Book</i> for 1903.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALL, EDWARD<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1498-1547), English chronicler and
+lawyer, was born about the end of the 15th century, being a
+son of John Hall of Northall, Shropshire. Educated at Eton
+and King&rsquo;s College, Cambridge, he became a barrister and afterwards
+filled the offices of common sergeant of the city of London
+and judge of the sheriff&rsquo;s court. He was also member of parliament
+for Bridgnorth. Hall&rsquo;s great work, <i>The Union of the Noble
+and Illustre Famelies of Lancastre and York</i>, commonly called
+<i>Hall&rsquo;s Chronicle</i>, was first published in 1542. Another edition
+was issued by Richard Grafton in 1548, the year after Hall&rsquo;s
+death, and another in 1550; these include a continuation from
+1532 compiled by Grafton from the author&rsquo;s notes. In 1809
+an edition was published under the supervision of Sir Henry
+Ellis, and in 1904 the part dealing with the reign of Henry VIII.
+was edited by C. Whibley. The <i>Chronicle</i> begins with the
+accession of Henry IV. to the English throne in 1399; it follows
+the strife between the houses of Lancaster and York, and with
+Grafton&rsquo;s continuation carries the story down to the death of
+Henry VIII. in 1547. Hall presents the policy of this king in a
+very favourable light and shows his own sympathy with the
+Protestants. For all kinds of ceremonial he has all a lawyer&rsquo;s
+respect, and his pages are often adorned and encumbered with
+the pageantry and material garniture of the story. The value of
+the <i>Chronicle</i> in its early stages is not great, but this increases
+when dealing with the reign of Henry VII. and is very considerable
+for the reign of Henry VIII. Moreover, the work is not only
+valuable, it is attractive. To the historian it furnishes what is
+evidently the testimony of an eye-witness on several matters
+of importance which are neglected by other narrators; and to
+the student of literature it has the exceptional interest of being
+one of the prime sources of Shakespeare&rsquo;s historical plays.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. Gairdner, <i>Early Chroniclers of Europe; England</i> (1879).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALL, FITZEDWARD<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> (1825-1901), American Orientalist,
+was born in Troy, New York, on the 21st of March 1825. He
+graduated with the degree of civil engineer from the Rensselaer
+Polytechnic Institute at Troy in 1842, and entered Harvard in
+the class of 1846; just before his class graduated he left college
+and went to India in search of a runaway brother. In January
+1850 he was appointed tutor, and in 1853 professor of Sanskrit
+and English, in the government college at Benares; and in
+1855 was made inspector of public instruction in Ajmere-Merwara
+and in 1856 in the Central Provinces. He settled in England
+in 1862 and received the appointment to the chair of Sanskrit,
+Hindustani and Indian jurisprudence in King&rsquo;s College, London,
+and to the librarianship of the India Office. He died at Marlesford,
+Suffolk, on the 1st of February 1901. Hall was the first
+American to edit a Sanskrit text, the <i>Vishnupur&#257;na</i>; his library
+of a thousand Oriental MSS. he gave to Harvard University.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His works include: in Sanskrit, <i>Atmabodha</i> (1852), <i>S&#257;nkhyapr&#257;vachana</i>
+(1856), <i>S&#257;ryasiddh&#257;nta</i> (1859), <i>V&#257;savadatt&#363;</i> (1859),
+<i>S&#257;nkhyas&#257;ra</i> (1862) and <i>Dasar&#363;pa</i> (1865); in Hindi, Ballantynes&rsquo;
+<i>Hindi Grammar</i> (1868) and a <i>Reader</i> (1870); on English philology,
+<i>Recent Exemplifications of False Philology</i> (1872), attacking Richard
+Grant White, <i>Modern English</i> (1873), &ldquo;On English Adjectives in -able,
+with Special Reference to Reliable&rdquo; (<i>Am. Jour. Philology</i>,
+1877), <i>Doctor Indoctus</i> (1880).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALL, ISAAC HOLLISTER<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> (1837-1896), American Orientalist,
+was born in Norwalk, Connecticut, on the 12th of December
+1837. He graduated at Hamilton College in 1859, was a tutor
+there in 1859-1863, graduated at the Columbia Law School in
+1865, practised law in New York City until 1875, and in 1875-1877
+taught in the Syrian Protestant College at Beirut, where he
+discovered a valuable Syriac manuscript of the Philoxenian
+version of a large part of the New Testament, which he published
+in part in facsimile in 1884. He worked with General di Cesnola
+in classifying the famous Cypriote collection in the Metropolitan
+Museum of New York City, and was a curator of that museum
+from 1885 until his death in Mount Vernon, New York, on the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page847" id="page847"></a>847</span>
+2nd of July 1896. He was an eminent authority on Oriental
+inscriptions. Following the scanty clues given by George Smith
+and Samuel Birch, and working on the data furnished by the
+di Cesnola collection, he succeeded about 1874 in deciphering
+an entire Cypriote inscription, and in establishing the
+Hellenic character of the dialect and the syllabic nature of the
+script.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His work in Cypriote epigraphy is described in his articles in
+<i>Scribner&rsquo;s Magazine</i>, vol. 20 (June, 1880), pp. 205-211 and in the
+<i>Journal of the American Oriental Society</i>, vol. 10, No. 2 (1880),
+pp. 201-218. He published in facsimile the Antilegomena epistles
+(1886), which he deciphered from the W. F. Williams manuscript,
+and edited <i>A Critical Bibliography of the Greek New Testament as
+Published in America</i> (1884).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALL, SIR JAMES<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> (1761-1832), Scottish geologist and
+physicist, eldest son of Sir John Hall, Bart., was born at Dunglass
+on the 17th of January 1761; and became distinguished
+as the first to establish experimental research as an aid to geological
+investigation. He was intimately acquainted with James
+Hutton and John Playfair, and having studied rocks in various
+parts of Europe he was eventually led to accept and to demonstrate
+the truth of Hutton&rsquo;s views with regard to intrusive rocks.
+He commenced a series of experiments to illustrate the fusion of
+rocks, their vitreous and crystalline characters, and the influence
+of molten rocks in altering adjacent strata. He thus assisted
+in proving that granitic veins had been injected into overlying
+deposits after their consolidation. He studied the volcanic rocks
+in Italy and recognized that the old lava flows and the numerous
+dikes in Scotland must have had a similar origin. He made
+further experiments to illustrate the contortions of rocks. The
+results were brought before the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
+He died at Edinburgh on the 23rd of June 1832. He represented
+in parliament (1807-1812) the old borough of Michael in Cornwall;
+he also wrote an Essay on the <i>Origin, History and Principles
+of Gothic Architecture</i> (1813).</p>
+
+<p>His eldest son, John Hall (1787-1860), who succeeded him,
+was a Fellow of the Royal Society; the second son, Captain
+Basil Hall (<i>q.v.</i>), was the distinguished traveller; the third son,
+James Hall (1800-1854), was a painter, art-patron, and a friend
+of Sir David Wilkie.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALL, JAMES<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> (1793-1868), American judge and man of letters,
+was born at Philadelphia on the 19th of August 1793. After for
+some time prosecuting the study of law, he in 1812 joined the
+army, and in the war with Great Britain distinguished himself in
+engagements at Lundy&rsquo;s Lane, Niagara and Fort Erie. On
+the conclusion of the war he accompanied an expedition against
+Algiers, but in 1818 he resigned his commission, and continued
+the study of law at Pittsburg. In 1820 he removed to Shawneetown,
+Illinois, where he commenced practice at the bar and also
+edited the <i>Illinois Gazette</i>. Soon after he was appointed public
+prosecutor of the circuit, and in 1824 state circuit judge. In 1827
+he became state treasurer, and held that office till 1831, but he
+continued at the same time his legal practice and also edited
+the <i>Illinois Intelligencer</i>. Subsequently he became editor of the
+<i>Western Souvenir</i>, an annual publication, and of the <i>Illinois
+Monthly Magazine</i>, afterwards the <i>Western Monthly Magazine</i>.
+He died near Cincinnati on the 5th of July 1868.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The following are his principal works:&mdash;<i>Letters from the West</i>,
+originally contributed to the <i>Portfolio</i>, and collected and published
+in London in 1828; <i>Legends of the West</i> (1832); <i>The Soldier&rsquo;s Bride
+and other Tales</i> (1832); <i>The Harpe&rsquo;s Head, a Legend of Kentucky</i>
+(1833); <i>Sketches of the West</i> (2 vols., 1835); <i>Tales of the Border</i>
+(1835); <i>Notes on the Western States</i> (1838); <i>History of the Indian
+Tribes</i>, in conjunction with T. L. M&lsquo;Keeney (3 vols., 1838-1844);
+<i>The Wilderness and the War-Path</i> (1845); <i>Romance of Western
+History</i> (1857).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALL, JAMES<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span> (1811-1898). American geologist and palaeontologist,
+was born at Hingham, Massachusetts, on the 12th of
+September 1811. In early life he became attached to the study
+of natural history, and he completed his education at the polytechnic
+institute at Troy in New York, where he graduated in
+1832, and afterwards became professor of chemistry and natural
+science, and subsequently of geology. In 1836 he was appointed
+one of the geologists on the Geological Survey of the state of
+New York, and he was before long charged with the palaeontological
+work. Eventually he became state geologist and director
+of the museum of natural history at Albany. His published
+papers date from 1836, and include numerous reports on the
+geology and palaeontology of various portions of the United
+States and Canada. He dealt likewise with physical geology,
+and in 1859 discussed the connexion between the accumulation
+of sedimentary deposits and the elevation of mountain-chains.
+His chief work was the description of the invertebrate fossils of
+New York&mdash;in which he dealt with the graptolites, brachiopods,
+mollusca, trilobites, echini and crinoids of the Palaeozoic
+formations. The results were published in a series of quarto
+volumes entitled <i>Palaeontology of New York</i> (1847-1894), in
+which he was assisted in course of time by R. P. Whitfield and
+J. M. Clarke. He published also reports on the geology of Oregon
+and California (1845), Utah (1852), Iowa (1859) and Wisconsin
+(1862). He received the Wollaston medal from the Geological
+Society of London in 1858. He was a man of great energy and
+untiring industry, and in 1897, when in his eighty-sixth year, he
+journeyed to St Petersburg to take part in the International
+Geological Congress, and then joined the excursion to the Ural
+mountains. He died at Albany on the 7th of August 1898.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Life and Work of James Hall</i>, by H. C. Hovey, <i>Amer. Geol.</i>
+xxiii., 1899, p. 137 (portraits).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALL, JOSEPH<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> (1574-1656), English bishop and satirist,
+was born at Bristow park, near Ashby de la Zouch, Leicestershire,
+on the 1st of July 1574. His father, John Hall, was agent
+in the town for Henry, earl of Huntingdon, and his mother,
+Winifred Bambridge, was a pious lady, whom her son compared
+to St Monica. Joseph Hall received his early education at the
+local school, and was sent (1589) to Emmanuel College, Cambridge.
+Hall was chosen for two years in succession to read the
+public lecture on rhetoric in the schools, and in 1595 became fellow
+of his college. During his residence at Cambridge he wrote his
+<i>Virgidemiarum</i> (1597), satires written after Latin models. The
+claim he put forward in the prologue to be the earliest English
+satirist:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;I first adventure, follow me who list</p>
+<p class="i05">And be the second English satirist&rdquo;&mdash;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">gave bitter offence to John Marston, who attacks him in the
+satires published in 1598. The archbishop of Canterbury gave
+an order (1599) that Hall&rsquo;s satires should be burnt with works
+of John Marston, Marlowe, Sir John Davies and others on the
+ground of licentiousness, but shortly afterwards Hall&rsquo;s book,
+certainly unjustly condemned, was ordered to be &ldquo;staied at the
+press,&rdquo; which may be interpreted as reprieved (see <i>Notes and
+Queries</i>, 3rd series, xii. 436). Having taken holy orders, Hall
+was offered the mastership of Blundell&rsquo;s school, Tiverton, but
+he refused it in favour of the living of Halsted, Essex, to which
+he was presented (1601) by Sir Robert Drury. In his parish
+he had an opponent in a Mr Lilly, whom he describes as &ldquo;a
+witty and bold atheist.&rdquo; In 1603 he married; and in 1605 he
+accompanied Sir Edmund Bacon to Spa, with the special aim,
+he says, of acquainting himself with the state and practice of
+the Romish Church. At Brussels he disputed at the Jesuit
+College on the authentic character of modern miracles, and his
+inquiring and argumentative disposition more than once
+threatened to produce serious results, so that his patron at
+length requested him to abstain from further discussion. His
+devotional writings had attracted the notice of Henry, prince
+of Wales, who made him one of his chaplains (1608). In 1612
+Lord Denny, afterwards earl of Norwich, gave him the curacy
+of Waltham-Holy-Cross, Essex, and in the same year he received
+the degree of D.D. Later he received the prebend of Willenhall
+in the collegiate church of Wolverhampton, and in 1616 he
+accompanied James Hay, Lord Doncaster, afterwards earl of
+Carlisle, to France, where he was sent to congratulate Louis XIII.
+on his marriage, but Hall was compelled by illness to return.
+In his absence the king nominated him dean of Worcester, and
+in 1617 he accompanied James to Scotland, where he defended
+the five points of ceremonial which the king desired to impose
+upon the Scots. In the next year he was one of the English
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page848" id="page848"></a>848</span>
+deputies at the synod of Dort. In 1624 he refused the see of
+Gloucester, but in 1627 became bishop of Exeter.</p>
+
+<p>He took an active part in the Arminian and Calvinist controversy
+in the English church. He did his best in his <i>Via media,
+The Way of Peace</i>, to persuade the two parties to accept a compromise.
+In spite of his Calvinistic opinions he maintained
+that to acknowledge the errors which had arisen in the Catholic
+Church did not necessarily imply disbelief in her catholicity,
+and that the Church of England having repudiated these errors
+should not deny the claims of the Roman Catholic Church on
+that account. This view commended itself to Charles I. and
+his episcopal advisers, but at the same time Archbishop Laud
+sent spies into Hall&rsquo;s diocese to report on the Calvinistic tendencies
+of the bishop and his lenience to the Puritan and low-church
+clergy. Hall says he was thrice down on his knees to
+the King to answer Laud&rsquo;s accusations and at length threatened
+to &ldquo;cast up his rochet&rdquo; rather than submit to them. He was,
+however, amenable to criticism, and his defence of the English
+Church, entitled <i>Episcopacy by Divine Right</i> (1640), was twice
+revised at Laud&rsquo;s dictation. This was followed by <i>An Humble
+Remonstrance to the High Court of Parliament</i> (1640 and 1641),
+an eloquent and forceful defence of his order, which produced
+a retort from the syndicate of Puritan divines, who wrote under
+the name of &ldquo;Smectymnuus,&rdquo; and was followed by a long
+controversy to which Milton contributed five pamphlets,
+virulently attacking Hall and his early satires.</p>
+
+<p>In 1641 Hall was translated to the see of Norwich, and in the
+same year sat on the Lords&rsquo; Committee on religion. On the
+30th of December he was, with other bishops, brought before
+the bar of the House of Lords to answer a charge of high treason
+of which the Commons had voted them guilty. They were
+finally convicted of an offence against the Statute of Praemunire,
+and condemned to forfeit their estates, receiving a small maintenance
+from the parliament. They were immured in the Tower
+from New Year to Whitsuntide, when they were released on
+finding bail for £5000 each. On his release Hall proceeded to his
+new diocese at Norwich, the revenues of which he seems for a
+time to have received, but in 1643, when the property of the
+&ldquo;malignants&rdquo; was sequestrated, Hall was mentioned by name.
+Mrs Hall had difficulty in securing a fifth of the maintenance
+(£400) assigned to the bishop by the parliament; they were
+eventually ejected from the palace, and the cathedral was
+dismantled. Hall retired to the village of Higham, near Norwich,
+where he spent the time preaching and writing until &ldquo;he was
+first forbidden by man, and at last disabled by God.&rdquo; He bore
+his many troubles and the additional burden of much bodily
+suffering with sweetness and patience, dying on the 8th of
+September 1656. Thomas Fuller says: &ldquo;He was commonly
+called our English Seneca, for the purenesse, plainnesse, and
+fulnesse of his style. Not unhappy at <i>Controversies</i>, more happy
+at <i>Comments</i>, very good in his <i>Characters</i>, better in his <i>Sermons</i>,
+best of all in his <i>Meditations</i>.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Bishop Hall&rsquo;s polemical writings, although vigorous and effective,
+were chiefly of ephemeral interest, but many of his devotional
+writings have been often reprinted. It is by his early work as the
+censor of morals and the unsparing critic of contemporary literary
+extravagance and affectations that he is best known. <i>Virgidemiarum.</i>
+<i>Sixe Bookes.</i> <i>First three Bookes.</i> <i>Of Toothlesse Satyrs.</i>
+(1) <i>Poeticall</i>, (2) <i>Academicall</i>, (3) <i>Morall</i> (1597) was followed by an
+amended edition in 1598, and in the same year by <i>Virgidemiarum</i>.
+<i>The three last bookes.</i> <i>Of byting Satyres</i> (reprinted 1599). His claim
+to be reckoned the earliest English satirist, even in the formal sense,
+cannot be justified. Thomas Lodge, in his <i>Fig for Momus</i> (1593),
+had written four satires in the manner of Horace, and John Marston
+and John Donne both wrote satires about the same time, although
+the publication was in both cases later than that of <i>Virgidemiae</i>.
+But if he was not the earliest, Hall was certainly one of the best.
+He writes in the heroic couplet, which he man&oelig;uvres with great
+ease and smoothness. In the first book of his satires (<i>Poeticall</i>) he
+attacks the writers whose verses were devoted to licentious subjects,
+the bombast of <i>Tamburlaine</i> and tragedies built on similar lines, the
+laments of the ghosts of the <i>Mirror for Magistrates</i>, the metrical
+eccentricities of Gabriel Harvey and Richard Stanyhurst, the
+extravagances of the sonneteers, and the sacred poets (Southwell is
+aimed at in &ldquo;Now good St Peter weeps pure Helicon, And both the
+Mary&rsquo;s make a music moan&rdquo;). In Book II. Satire 6 occurs the well-known
+description of the trencher-chaplain, who is tutor and hanger-on
+in a country manor. Among his other satirical portraits is that of
+the famished gallant, the guest of &ldquo;Duke Humfray.&rdquo;<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Book VI.
+consists of one long satire on the various vices and follies dealt with
+in the earlier books. If his prose is sometimes antithetical and
+obscure, his verse is remarkably free from the quips and conceits
+which mar so much contemporary poetry.</p>
+
+<p>He also wrote <i>The King&rsquo;s Prophecie; or Weeping Joy</i> (1603),
+a gratulatory poem on the accession of James I.; <i>Epistles</i>, both the
+first and second volumes of which appeared in 1608 and a third in
+1611; <i>Characters of Virtues and Vices</i> (1608), versified by Nahum
+Tate (1691); <i>Solomons Divine Arts ...</i> (1609); and, probably
+<i>Mundus alter et idem sive Terra Australis antehac semper incognita
+... lustrata</i> (1605? and 1607), by &ldquo;Mercurius Britannicus,&rdquo;
+translated into English by John Healy (1608) as <i>The Discovery
+of a New World or A Description of the South Indies ... by an
+English Mercury</i>. <i>Mundus alter</i> is an excuse for a satirical description
+of London, with some criticism of the Romish church, its
+manners and customs, and is said to have furnished Swift with
+hints for <i>Gulliver&rsquo;s Travels</i>. It was not ascribed to him by name
+until 1674, when Thomas Hyde, the librarian of the Bodleian,
+identified &ldquo;Mercurius Britannicus&rdquo; with Joseph Hall. For the
+question of the authorship of this pamphlet, and the arguments that
+may be advanced in favour of the suggestion that it was written by
+Alberico Gentili, see E. A. Petherick, <i>Mundus alter et idem</i>, reprinted
+from the <i>Gentleman&rsquo;s Magazine</i> (July 1896). His controversial
+writings, not already mentioned, include:&mdash;<i>A Common Apology
+... against the Brownists</i> (1610), in answer to John Robinson&rsquo;s
+<i>Censorious Epistle</i>; <i>The Olde Religion: A treatise, wherein is laid
+downe the true state of the difference betwixt the Reformed and the
+Romane Church; and the blame of this schisme is cast upon the true
+Authors ...</i> (1628); <i>Columba Noae olivam adferens ...</i>, a sermon
+preached at St Paul&rsquo;s in 1623; <i>Episcopacie by Divine Right</i> (1640);
+<i>A Short Answer to the Vindication of Smectymnuus</i> (1641); <i>A Modest
+Confutation of ...</i> (<i>Milton&rsquo;s</i>) <i>Animadversions</i> (1642).</p>
+
+<p>His devotional works include:&mdash;<i>Holy Observations Lib. I. Some few
+of David&rsquo;s Psalmes Metaphrased</i> (1607 and 1609); three centuries of
+<i>Meditations and Vowes, Divine and Morall</i> (1606, 1607, 1609), edited
+by Charles Sayle (1901); <i>The Arte of Divine Meditation</i> (1607);
+<i>Heaven upon Earth, or of True Peace and Tranquillitie of Mind</i> (1606),
+reprinted with some of his letters in John Wesley&rsquo;s <i>Christian Library</i>,
+vol. iv. (1819); <i>Occasional Meditations ...</i> (1630), edited by his
+son Robert Hall; <i>Henochisme; or a Treatise showing how to walk
+with God</i> (1639), translated from Bishop Hall&rsquo;s Latin by Moses Wall;
+<i>The Devout Soul; or Rules of Heavenly Devotion</i> (1644), often since
+reprinted; <i>The Balm of Gilead ...</i> (1646, 1752); <i>Christ Mysticall;
+or the blessed union of Christ and his Members</i> (1647), of which
+General Gordon was a student (reprinted from Gordon&rsquo;s copy, 1893);
+<i>Susurrium cum Deo</i> (1659); <i>The Great Mysterie of Godliness</i> (1650);
+<i>Resolutions and Decisions of Divers Practicall cases of Conscience</i>
+(1649, 1650, 1654).</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;The chief authority for Hall&rsquo;s biography is to be
+found in his autobiographical tracts: <i>Observations of some Specialities
+of Divine Providence in the Life of Joseph Hall, Bishop of Norwich,
+Written with his own hand</i>; and his <i>Hard Measure</i>, a reprint of which
+may be consulted in Dr Christopher Wordsworth&rsquo;s <i>Ecclesiastical
+Biography</i>. The best criticism of his satires is to be found in Thomas
+Warton&rsquo;s <i>History of English Poetry</i>, vol. iv. pp. 363-409 (ed. Hazlitt,
+1871), where a comparison is instituted between Marston and Hall.
+In 1615 Hall published <i>A Recollection of such treatises as have been
+... published ...</i> (1615, 1617, 1621); in 1625 appeared his Works
+(reprinted 1627, 1628, 1634, 1662). The first complete <i>Works</i> appeared
+in 1808, edited by the Rev. Josiah Pratt. Other editions are
+by Peter Hall (1837) and by Philip Wynter (1863). See also <i>Bishop
+Hall, his Life and Times</i> (1826), by Rev. John Jones; <i>Life of Joseph
+Hall</i>, by Rev. George Lewis (1886); A. B. Grosart, <i>The Complete
+Poems of Joseph Hall ... with introductions, &amp;c.</i> (1879); <i>Satires,
+&amp;c.</i> (<i>Early English Poets</i>, ed. S. W. Singer, 1824). Many of Hall&rsquo;s
+works were translated into French, and some into Dutch, and there
+have been numerous selections from his devotional works.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The tomb of Sir John Beauchamp (d. 1358) in old St Paul&rsquo;s
+was commonly known, in error, as that of Duke Humphrey of Gloucester.
+&ldquo;To dine with Duke Humphrey&rdquo; was to go hungry among
+the debtors and beggars who frequented &ldquo;Duke Humphrey&rsquo;s Walk&rdquo;
+in the cathedral.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALL, MARSHALL<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> (1790-1857). English physiologist, was
+born on the 18th of February 1790, at Basford, near Nottingham,
+where his father, Robert Hall, was a cotton manufacturer.
+Having attended the Rev. J. Blanchard&rsquo;s academy at Nottingham,
+he entered a chemist&rsquo;s shop at Newark, and in 1809 began
+to study medicine at Edinburgh University. In 1811 he was
+elected senior president of the Royal Medical Society; the
+following year he took the M.D. degree, and was immediately
+appointed resident house physician to the Royal Infirmary,
+Edinburgh. This appointment he resigned after two years,
+when he visited Paris and its medical schools, and, on a walking
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page849" id="page849"></a>849</span>
+tour, those also of Berlin and Göttingen. In 1817, when he
+settled at Nottingham, he published his <i>Diagnosis</i>, and in 1818
+he wrote the <i>Mimoses</i>, a work on the affections denominated
+bilious, nervous, &amp;c. The next year he was elected a fellow of
+the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and in 1825 he became physician
+to the Nottingham general hospital. In 1826 he removed to
+London, and in the following year he published his <i>Commentaries</i>
+on the more important diseases of females. In 1830 he issued
+his <i>Observations on Blood-letting, founded on researches on the
+morbid and curative effects of loss of blood</i>, which were acknowledged
+by the medical profession to be of vast practical value,
+and in 1831 his <i>Experimental Essay on the Circulation of the
+Blood in the Capillary Vessels</i>, in which he showed that the
+blood-channels intermediate between arteries and veins serve
+the office of bringing the fluid blood into contact with the material
+tissues of the system. In the following year he read before the
+Royal Society a paper &ldquo;On the inverse ratio which subsists
+between Respiration and Irritability in the Animal Kingdom.&rdquo;
+His most important work in physiology was concerned with the
+theory of reflex action, embodied in a paper &ldquo;On the reflex
+Function of the Medulla Oblongata and the Medulla Spinalis&rdquo;
+(1832), which was supplemented in 1837 by another &ldquo;On the True
+Spinal Marrow, and the Excito-motor System of Nerves.&rdquo; The
+&ldquo;reflex function&rdquo; excited great attention on the continent of
+Europe, though in England some of his papers were refused
+publication by the Royal Society. Hall thus became the
+authority on the multiform deranged states of health referable
+to an abnormal condition of the nervous system, and he gained
+a large practice. His &ldquo;ready method&rdquo; for resuscitation in
+drowning and other forms of suspended respiration has been the
+means of saving innumerable lives. He died at Brighton of a
+throat affection, aggravated by lecturing, on the 11th of August
+1857.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A list of his works and details of his &ldquo;ready method,&rdquo; &amp;c., are
+given in his <i>Memoirs</i> by his widow (London, 1861).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALL, ROBERT<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span> (1764-1831), English Baptist divine, was born
+on the 2nd of May 1764, at Arnesby near Leicester, where his
+father, Robert Hall (1728-1791), a man whose cast of mind in
+some respects resembled closely that of the son, was pastor of a
+Baptist congregation. Robert was the youngest of a family of
+fourteen. While still at the dame&rsquo;s school his passion for books
+absorbed the greater part of his time, and in the summer it was
+his custom after school hours to retire to the churchyard with
+a volume, which he continued to peruse there till nightfall,
+making out the meaning of the more difficult words with the
+help of a pocket dictionary. From his sixth to his eleventh
+year he attended the school of Mr Simmons at Wigston, a village
+four miles from Arnesby. There his precocity assumed the
+exceptional form of an intense interest in metaphysics, partly
+perhaps on account of the restricted character of his father&rsquo;s
+library; and before he was nine years of age he had read and
+re-read Jonathan Edwards&rsquo;s <i>Treatise on the Will</i> and Butler&rsquo;s
+<i>Analogy</i>. This incessant study at such an early period of life
+seems, however, to have had an injurious influence on his health.
+After he left Mr Simmons&rsquo;s school his appearance was so sickly
+as to awaken fears of the presence of phthisis. In order, therefore,
+to obtain the benefit of a change of air, he stayed for some time
+in the house of a gentleman near Kettering, who with an impropriety
+which Hall himself afterwards referred to as &ldquo;egregious,&rdquo;
+prevailed upon the boy of eleven to give occasional addresses
+at prayer meetings. As his health seemed rapidly to recover,
+he was sent to a school at Northampton conducted by the Rev.
+John Ryland, where he remained a year and a half, and &ldquo;made
+great progress in Latin and Greek.&rdquo; On leaving school he for
+some time studied divinity under the direction of his father,
+and in October 1778 he entered the Bristol academy for the preparation
+of students for the Baptist ministry. Here the self-possession
+which had enabled him in his twelfth year to address
+unfalteringly various audiences of grown-up people seems to
+have strangely forsaken him; for when, in accordance with the
+arrangements of the academy, his turn came to deliver an
+address in the vestry of Broadmead chapel, he broke down on
+two separate occasions and was unable to finish his discourse.
+On the 13th of August 1780 he was set apart to the ministry,
+but he still continued his studies at the academy; and in 1781,
+in accordance with the provisions of an exhibition which he
+held, he entered King&rsquo;s College, Aberdeen, where he took the
+degree of master of arts in March 1785. At the university he was
+without a rival of his own standing in any of the classes, distinguishing
+himself alike in classics, philosophy and mathematics.
+He there formed the acquaintance of Mackintosh (afterwards
+Sir James), who, though a year his junior in age, was a year his
+senior as a student. While they remained at Aberdeen the two
+were inseparable, reading together the best Greek authors,
+especially Plato, and discussing, either during their walks by
+the sea-shore and the banks of the Don or in their rooms until
+early morning, the most perplexed questions in philosophy and
+religion.</p>
+
+<p>During the vacation between his last two sessions at Aberdeen,
+Hall acted as assistant pastor to Dr Evans at Broadmead chapel,
+Bristol, and three months after leaving the university he was
+appointed classical tutor in the Bristol academy, an office which
+he held for more than five years. Even at this period his extraordinary
+eloquence had excited an interest beyond the bounds
+of the denomination to which he belonged, and when he preached
+the chapel was generally crowded to excess, the audience including
+many persons of intellectual tastes. Suspicions in regard
+to his orthodoxy having in 1789 led to a misunderstanding with
+his colleague and a part of the congregation, he in July 1790
+accepted an invitation to make trial of a congregation at Cambridge,
+of which he became pastor in July of the following year.
+From a statement of his opinions contained in a letter to the
+congregation which he left, it would appear that, while a firm
+believer in the proper divinity of Christ, he had at this time
+disowned the cardinal principles of Calvinism&mdash;the federal
+headship of Adam, and the doctrine of absolute election and
+reprobation; and that he was so far a materialist as to &ldquo;hold
+that man&rsquo;s thinking powers and faculties are the result of a
+certain organization of matter, and that after death he ceases
+to be conscious till the resurrection.&rdquo; It was during his Cambridge
+ministry, which extended over a period of fifteen years,
+that his oratory was most brilliant and most immediately powerful.
+At Cambridge the intellectual character of a large part of
+the audience supplied a stimulus which was wanting at Leicester
+and Bristol.</p>
+
+<p>His first published compositions had a political origin. In
+1791 appeared <i>Christianity consistent with the Love of Freedom</i>,
+in which he defended the political conduct of dissenters against
+the attacks of the Rev. John Clayton, minister of Weighhouse,
+and gave eloquent expression to his hopes of great political and
+social ameliorations as destined to result nearly or remotely
+from the subversion of old ideas and institutions in the maelstrom
+of the French Revolution. In 1793 he expounded his political
+sentiments in a powerful and more extended pamphlet entitled
+an <i>Apology for the Freedom of the Press</i>. On account, however,
+of certain asperities into which the warmth of his feelings had
+betrayed him, and his conviction that he had treated his subject
+in too superficial a manner, he refused to permit the publication
+of the pamphlet beyond the third edition, until the references of
+political opponents and the circulation of copies without his
+sanction induced him in 1821 to prepare a new edition, from
+which he omitted the attack on Bishop Horsley, and to which
+he prefixed an advertisement stating that his political opinions
+had undergone no substantial change. His other publications
+while at Cambridge were three sermons&mdash;<i>On Modern Infidelity</i>
+(1801), <i>Reflections on War</i> (1802), and <i>Sentiments proper to the
+present Crisis</i> (1803). He began, however, to suffer from mental
+derangement in November 1804. He recovered so speedily
+that he was able to resume his duties in April 1805, but a recurrence
+of the malady rendered it advisable for him on his second
+recovery to resign his pastoral office in March 1806.</p>
+
+<p>On leaving Cambridge he paid a visit to his relatives in
+Leicestershire, and then for some time resided at Enderby,
+preaching occasionally in some of the neighbouring villages.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page850" id="page850"></a>850</span>
+Latterly he ministered to a small congregation in Harvey Lane,
+Leicester, from whom at the close of 1806 he accepted a call to
+be their stated pastor. In the autumn of 1807 he changed his
+residence from Enderby to Leicester, and in 1808 he married the
+servant of a brother minister. His proposal of marriage had
+been made after an almost momentary acquaintance, and,
+according to the traditionary account, in very abrupt and
+peculiar terms; but, judging from his subsequent domestic
+life, his choice did sufficient credit to his penetration and sagacity.
+His writings at Leicester embraced various tracts printed for
+private circulation; a number of contributions to the <i>Eclectic
+Review</i>, among which may be mentioned his articles on &ldquo;Foster&rsquo;s
+Essays&rdquo; and on &ldquo;Zeal without Innovation&rdquo;; several sermons,
+including those <i>On the Advantages of Knowledge to the Lower
+Classes</i> (1810), <i>On the Death of the Princess Charlotte</i> (1817),
+and <i>On the Death of Dr Ryland</i> (1825); and his pamphlet on
+<i>Terms of Communion</i>, in which he advocated intercommunion
+with all those who acknowledged the &ldquo;essentials&rdquo; of Christianity.
+In 1819 he published an edition in one volume of his sermons
+formerly printed. On the death of Dr Ryland, Hall was invited
+to return to the pastorate of Broadmead chapel, Bristol, and as
+the peace of the congregation at Leicester had been to some
+degree disturbed by a controversy regarding several cases of
+discipline, he resolved to accept the invitation, and removed
+there in April 1826. The malady of renal calculus had for many
+years rendered his life an almost continual martyrdom, and
+henceforth increasing infirmities and sufferings afflicted him.
+Gradually the inability to take proper exercise, by inducing
+a plethoric habit of body and impeding the circulation, led to a
+diseased condition of the heart, which resulted in his death on
+the 21st of February 1831. He is remembered as a great pulpit
+orator, of a somewhat laboured, rhetorical style in his written
+works, but of undeniable vigour in his spoken sermons.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Works of Robert Hall, A.M., with a Brief Memoir of his Life,
+by Olinthus Gregory, LL.D., and Observations on his Character as
+Preacher by John Foster</i>, originally published in 6 vols. (London,
+1832); <i>Reminiscences of the Rev. Robert Hall, A.M.</i>, by John Greene,
+(London, 1832); <i>Biographical Recollections of the Rev. Robert Hall</i>,
+by J. W. Morris (1848); <i>Fifty Sermons of Robert Hall from Notes
+taken at the time of their Delivery</i>, by the Rev. Thomas Grinfield,
+M.A. (1843); <i>Reminiscences of College Life in Bristol during the
+Ministry of the Rev. Robert Hall, A.M.</i>, by Frederick Trestrail (1879).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALL, SAMUEL CARTER<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> (1800-1889), English journalist,
+was born at Waterford on the 9th of May 1800, the son of an
+army officer. In 1821 he went to London, and in 1823 became
+a parliamentary reporter. From 1826 to 1837 he was editor of
+a great number and variety of public prints, and in 1839 he
+founded and edited <i>The Art Journal</i>. His exposure of the trade
+in bogus &ldquo;Old Masters&rdquo; earned for this publication a considerable
+reputation. Hall resigned the editorship in 1880, and was
+granted a Civil List pension &ldquo;for his long and valuable services
+to literature and art.&rdquo; He died in London on the 16th of March
+1889. His wife, Anna Maria Fielding (1800-1881), became
+well known as Mrs S. C. Hall, for her numerous novels, sketches
+of Irish life, and plays. Two of the last, <i>The Groves of Blarney</i>
+and <i>The French Refugee</i>, were produced in London with success.
+She also wrote a number of children&rsquo;s books, and was practically
+interested in various London charities, several of which she
+helped to found.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALL, WILLIAM EDWARD<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> (1835-1894), English writer on
+international law, was the only child of William Hall, M.D.,
+a descendant of a junior branch of the Halls of Dunglass, and
+of Charlotte, daughter of William Cotton, F.S.A. He was born
+on the 22nd of August 1835, at Leatherhead, Surrey, but passed
+his childhood abroad, Dr Hall having acted as physician to the
+king of Hanover, and subsequently to the British legation at
+Naples. Hence, perhaps, the son&rsquo;s taste in after life for art and
+modern languages. He was educated privately till, at the early
+age of seventeen, he matriculated at Oxford, where in 1856 he
+took his degree with a first class in the then recently instituted
+school of law and history, gaining, three years afterwards, the
+chancellor&rsquo;s prize for an essay upon &ldquo;the effect upon Spain of the
+discovery of the precious metals in America.&rdquo; In 1861 he was
+called to the bar at Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn, but devoted his time less to
+any serious attempt to obtain practice than to the study of Italian
+art, and to travelling over a great part of Europe, always bringing
+home admirable water-colour drawings of buildings and scenery.
+He was an early and enthusiastic member of the Alpine Club,
+making several first ascents, notably that of the Lyskamm. He
+was always much interested in military matters, and was
+under fire, on the Danish side, in the war of 1864. In 1867 he
+published a pamphlet entitled &ldquo;A Plan for the Reorganization
+of the Army,&rdquo; and, many years afterwards, he saw as much
+as he was permitted to see of the expedition sent for the rescue
+of Gordon. He would undoubtedly have made his mark in the
+army, but in later life his ideal, which he realized, with much
+success, first at Llanfihangel in Monmouthshire, and then at
+Coker Court in Somersetshire, was, as has been said, &ldquo;the English
+country gentleman, with cosmopolitan experiences, encyclopaedic
+knowledge, and artistic feeling.&rdquo; His travels took him to
+Lapland, Egypt, South America and India. He had done good
+work for several government offices, in 1871 as inspector of
+returns under the Elementary Education Act, in 1877 by reports
+to the Board of Trade upon Oyster Fisheries, in France as well
+as in England; and all the time was amassing materials for
+ambitious undertakings upon the history of civilization, and of
+the colonies. His title to lasting remembrance rests, however,
+upon his labours in the realm of international law, recognized
+by his election as <i>associé</i> in 1875, and as <i>membre</i> in 1882, of the
+<i>Institut de Droit International</i>. In 1874 he published a thin 8vo
+upon the <i>Rights and Duties of Neutrals</i>, and followed it up in
+1880 by his <i>magnum opus</i>, the <i>Treatise on International Law</i>,
+unquestionably the best book upon the subject in the English
+language. It is well planned, free from the rhetorical vagueness
+which has been the besetting vice of older books of a similar
+character, full of information, and everywhere bearing traces
+of the sound judgment and statesmanlike views of its author.
+In 1894 Hall published a useful monograph upon a little-explored
+topic, &ldquo;the Foreign Jurisdictions of the British Crown,&rdquo; but
+on the 30th of November of the same year, while apparently
+in the fullest enjoyment of bodily as well as mental vigour, he
+suddenly died. He married, in 1866, Imogen, daughter of
+Mr (afterwards Mr Justice) Grove, who died in 1886; and in
+1891, Alice, daughter of Colonel Hill of Court Hill, Shropshire,
+but left no issue.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See T. E. Holland in <i>Law Quarterly Review</i>, vol. xi. p. 113; and in
+<i>Studies in International Law</i>, p. 302.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. E. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALL,<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bad-Hall</span>, a market-place and spa of Austria, in
+Upper Austria, 25 m. S. of Linz by rail. Pop. (1900) 984. It
+is renowned for its saline springs, strongly impregnated with
+iodine and bromine, which are considered very efficacious in
+scrofulous affections and venereal skin diseases. Although the
+springs are known since the 8th century, Hall attained its actual
+importance only since 1855, when the springs became the
+property of the government. The number of visitors in 1901
+was 4300.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALL<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span> (generally known as <span class="sc">Schwäbisch-Hall</span>, to distinguish
+it from the small town of Hall in Tirol and Bad-Hall, a health
+resort in Upper Austria), a town of Germany, in the kingdom
+of Württemberg, situated in a deep valley on both sides of the
+Kocher, and on the railway from Heilbronn to Krailsheim,
+35 m. N.E. of Stuttgart. Pop. (1905) 9400. It possesses four
+Evangelical churches (of which the Michaeliskirche dates from
+the 15th century and has fine medieval carving), a Roman
+Catholic church, a handsome town hall and classical and modern
+schools. A short distance south from the town is the royal
+castle of Komburg, formerly a Benedictine abbey and now used
+as a garrison for invalid soldiers, with a church dating from the
+12th century. The town is chiefly known for its production of
+salt, which is converted into brine and piped from Wilhelmsglück
+mine, 5 m. distant. Connected with the salt-works there is a
+salt-bath and whey-diet establishment. The industries of the
+town also include cotton-spinning, iron founding, tanning, and
+the manufacture of soap, starch, brushes, machines, carriages
+and metal ware.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page851" id="page851"></a>851</span></p>
+
+<p>Hall was early of importance on account of its salt-mines,
+which were held as a fief of the Empire by the so-called Salzgrafen
+(Salt-graves), of whom the earliest known, the counts of Westheim,
+had their seat in the castle of Hall. Later the town
+belonged to the Knights Templars. It was made a free imperial
+city in 1276 by Rudolph of Habsburg. In 1802 it came into the
+possession of Württemberg.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALL<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> (O. E. <i>heall</i>, a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. <i>Halle</i>),
+a term which has two significations in England and is applied
+sometimes to the manor house, the residence of the lord of the
+manor, which implied a territorial possession, but more often to
+the entrance hall of a mansion. In the latter case it was the one
+large room in the feudal castle up to the middle of the 15th
+century, when it served as audience chamber, dining-room, and
+dormitory. The hall was generally a parallelogram on plan,
+with a raised daïs at the farther end, a large bow window on one
+side, and in one or two cases on both sides. At the entrance end
+was a passage, which was separated from the hall by a partition
+screen often elaborately decorated, and over which was provided
+a minstrels&rsquo; gallery; on the opposite side of the passage were the
+hatches communicating with the serveries. This arrangement
+is still found in some of the colleges at Oxford and Cambridge,
+such as those of New College, Christchurch, Wadham and
+Magdalen, Oxford, and in Trinity College, Cambridge. In
+private mansions, however, the kitchen and offices have been
+removed to a greater distance, and the great hall is only used for
+banquets. Among the more remarkable examples are the halls
+of Audley End; Hatfield; Brougham Castle; Hardwick;
+Knole Stanway in Gloucestershire; Wollaton, where it is
+situated in the centre of the mansion and lighted by clerestory
+windows; Burton Agnes in Yorkshire; Canons Ashley, Northamptonshire;
+Westwood Park, Worcestershire; Fountains,
+Yorkshire; Sydenham House, Devonshire; Cobham, Kent;
+Montacute, Somersetshire; Bolsover Castle, Derbyshire (vaulted
+and with two columns in the centre of the hall to carry the
+vault); Longford Castle, Wiltshire; Barlborough, Derbyshire;
+Rushton Hall, Northamptonshire, with a bow window at each
+end of the daïs and a third bow window at the other end;
+Knole, Kent; and at Mayfield, Sussex (with stone arches across
+to carry the roof), now converted into a Roman Catholic chapel.
+Many of these halls have hammer-beam roofs, the most remarkable
+of which is found in the Middle Temple Hall, London, where
+both the tie and collar beams have hammer-beams. Of other
+halls, Westminster is the largest, being 238 ft. long; followed
+by the Banqueting Hall, Whitehall, 110 ft.; Wolsey&rsquo;s Hall,
+Hampton Court, 106 ft.; the Egyptian Hall at the Mansion
+House; the hall at Lambeth, now the library; Crosby Hall;
+Gray&rsquo;s Inn Hall; the Guildhall; Charterhouse; and the
+following halls of the London City Companies&mdash;Clothworkers,
+Brewers, Goldsmiths, Fishmongers. The term hall is also given
+to the following English mansions:&mdash;Haddon, Hardwick,
+Apethorpe, Aston, Blickling, Brereton, Burton Agnes, Cobham,
+Dingley, Rushton, Kirby, Litford and Wollaton; and it was
+the name of some of the earlier colleges at Oxford and Cambridge,
+most of which have now been absorbed in other colleges, so that
+there remain only St Edmund&rsquo;s Hall, Oxford, and Trinity Hall,
+Cambridge.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALLAM, HENRY<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> (1777-1859), English historian, was the
+only son of John Hallam, canon of Windsor and dean of Bristol,
+and was born on the 9th of July 1777. He was educated at Eton
+and Christ Church, Oxford, where he graduated in 1799. Called
+to the bar, he practised for some years on the Oxford circuit;
+but his tastes were literary, and when, on the death of his father
+in 1812, he inherited a small estate in Lincolnshire, he gave
+himself up wholly to the studies of his life. He had early become
+connected with the brilliant band of authors and politicians who
+then led the Whig party, a connexion to which he owed his
+appointment to the well-paid and easy post of commissioner of
+stamps; but in practical politics, for which he was by nature
+unsuited, he took no active share. But he was an active supporter
+of many popular movements&mdash;particularly of that which
+ended in the abolition of the slave trade; and he was throughout
+his entire life sincerely and profoundly attached to the political
+principles of the Whigs, both in their popular and in their
+aristocratic aspect.</p>
+
+<p>Hallam&rsquo;s earliest literary work was undertaken in connexion
+with the great organ of the Whig party, the <i>Edinburgh Review</i>,
+where his review of Scott&rsquo;s <i>Dryden</i> attracted much notice. His
+first great work, <i>The View of the State of Europe during the
+Middle Ages</i>, was produced in 1818, and was followed nine years
+later by the <i>Constitutional History of England</i>. In 1838-1839
+appeared the <i>Introduction to the Literature of Europe in the 15th,
+16th and 17th Centuries</i>. These are the three works on which
+the fame of Hallam rests. They at once took a place in English
+literature which has never been seriously challenged. A volume
+of supplemental notes to his <i>Middle Ages</i> was published in 1848.
+These facts and dates represent nearly all the events of Hallam&rsquo;s
+career. The strongest personal interest in his life was the
+affliction which befell him in the loss of his children, one after
+another. His eldest son, Arthur Henry Hallam,&mdash;the &ldquo;A.H.H.&rdquo;
+of Tennyson&rsquo;s <i>In Memoriam</i>, and by the testimony of his contemporaries
+a man of the most brilliant promise,&mdash;died in 1833
+at the age of twenty-two. Seventeen years later, his second
+son, Henry Fitzmaurice Hallam, was cut off like his brother
+at the very threshold of what might have been a great career.
+The premature death and high talents of these young men, and
+the association of one of them with the most popular poem of the
+age, have made Hallam&rsquo;s family afflictions better known than
+any other incidents of his life. He survived wife, daughter and
+sons by many years. In 1834 Hallam published <i>The Remains
+in Prose and Verse of Arthur Henry Hallam, with a Sketch of his
+Life</i>. In 1852 a selection of <i>Literary Essays and Characters</i>
+from the <i>Literature of Europe</i> was published. Hallam was a
+fellow of the Royal Society, and a trustee of the British Museum,
+and enjoyed many other appropriate distinctions. In 1830 he
+received the gold medal for history, founded by George IV.
+He died on the 21st of January 1859.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Middle Ages</i> is described by Hallam himself as a series
+of historical dissertations, a comprehensive survey of the chief
+circumstances that can interest a philosophical inquirer during
+the period from the 5th to the 15th century. The work consists
+of nine long chapters, each of which is a complete treatise in itself.
+The history of France, of Italy, of Spain, of Germany, and of the
+Greek and Saracenic empires, sketched in rapid and general
+terms, is the subject of five separate chapters. Others deal
+with the great institutional features of medieval society&mdash;the
+development of the feudal system, of the ecclesiastical system,
+and of the free political system of England. The last chapter
+sketches the general state of society, the growth of commerce,
+manners, and literature in the middle ages. The book may be
+regarded as a general view of early modern history, preparatory
+to the more detailed treatment of special lines of inquiry carried
+out in his subsequent works, although Hallam&rsquo;s original intention
+was to continue the work on the scale on which it had been
+begun.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Constitutional History of England</i> takes up the subject
+at the point at which it had been dropped in the <i>View of the
+Middle Ages</i>, viz. the accession of Henry VII.,<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and carries it
+down to the accession of George III. Hallam stopped here for
+a characteristic reason, which it is impossible not to respect and
+to regret. He was unwilling to excite the prejudices of modern
+politics which seemed to him to run back through the whole
+period of the reign of George III. As a matter of fact they ran
+back much farther, as Hallam soon found. The sensitive
+impartiality which withheld him from touching perhaps the
+most interesting period in the history of the constitution did not
+save him from the charge of partisanship. The <i>Quarterly Review</i>
+for 1828 contains an article on the <i>Constitutional History</i>, written
+by Southey, full of railing and reproach. The work, he says,
+is the &ldquo;production of a decided partisan,&rdquo; who &ldquo;rakes in the
+ashes of long-forgotten and a thousand times buried slanders,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page852" id="page852"></a>852</span>
+for the means of heaping obloquy on all who supported the
+established institutions of the country.&rdquo; No accusation made
+by a critic ever fell so wide of the mark. Absolute justice is the
+standard which Hallam set himself and maintained. His view
+of constitutional history was that it should contain only so much
+of the political and general history of the time as bears directly
+on specific changes in the organization of the state, including
+therein judicial as well as ecclesiastical institutions. But while
+abstaining from irrelevant historical discussions, Hallam dealt
+with statesmen and policies with the calm and fearless impartiality
+of a judge. It was his cool treatment of such sanctified names
+as Charles, Cranmer and Laud that provoked the indignation of
+Southey and the <i>Quarterly</i>, who forgot that the same impartial
+measure was extended to statesmen on the other side. If
+Hallam can ever be said to have deviated from perfect fairness,
+it was in the tacit assumption that the 19th-century theory of
+the constitution was the right theory in previous centuries, and
+that those who departed from it on one side or the other were
+in the wrong. He did unconsciously antedate the constitution,
+and it is clear from incidental allusions in his last work that he
+did not regard with favour the democratic changes which he
+thought to be impending. Hallam, like Macaulay, ultimately
+referred all political questions to the standard of Whig constitutionalism.
+But though his work is thus, like that of many
+historians, coloured by his opinions, this was not the outcome
+of a conscious purpose, and he was scrupulously conscientious
+in collecting and weighing his materials. In this he was helped
+by his legal training, and it was doubtless this fact which made
+the <i>Constitutional History</i> one of the text-books of English
+politics, to which men of all parties appealed, and which, in
+spite of all the work of later writers, still leaves it a standard
+authority.</p>
+
+<p>Like the <i>Constitutional History</i>, the <i>Introduction to the Literature
+of Europe</i> continues one of the branches of inquiry which had
+been opened in the <i>View of the Middle Ages</i>. In the first chapter
+of the <i>Literature</i>, which is to a great extent supplementary to
+the last chapter of the <i>Middle Ages</i>, Hallam sketches the state
+of literature in Europe down to the end of the 14th century:
+the extinction of ancient learning which followed the fall of the
+Roman empire and the rise of Christianity; the preservation
+of the Latin language in the services of the church; and the slow
+revival of letters, which began to show itself soon after the 7th
+century&mdash;&ldquo;the <i>nadir</i> of the human mind&rdquo;&mdash;had been passed.
+For the first century and a half of his special period he is mainly
+occupied with a review of classical learning, and he adopts the
+plan of taking short decennial periods and noticing the most
+remarkable works which they produced. The rapid growth of
+literature in the 16th century compels him to resort to a classification
+of subjects. Thus in the period 1520-1550 we have separate
+chapters on ancient literature, theology, speculative philosophy
+and jurisprudence, the literature of taste, and scientific and
+miscellaneous literature; and the subdivisions of subjects is
+carried further of course in the later periods. Thus poetry, the
+drama and polite literature form the subjects of separate
+chapters. One inconvenient result of this arrangement is that
+the same author is scattered over many chapters, according as his
+works fall within this category or that period of time. Names
+like Shakespeare, Grotius, Bacon, Hobbes appear in half a dozen
+different places. The individuality of great authors is thus
+dissipated except when it has been preserved by an occasional
+sacrifice of the arrangement&mdash;and this defect, if it is to be
+esteemed a defect, is increased by the very sparing references
+to personal history and character with which Hallam was
+obliged to content himself. His plan excluded biographical
+history, nor is the work, he tells us, to be regarded as one of
+reference. It is rigidly an account of the books which would
+make a complete library of the period,<a name="fa2j" id="fa2j" href="#ft2j"><span class="sp">2</span></a> arranged according to the
+date of their publication and the nature of their subjects. The
+history of institutions like universities and academies, and that
+of great popular movements like the Reformation, are of course
+noticed in their immediate connexion with literary results;
+but Hallam had little taste for the spacious generalization which
+such subjects suggest. The great qualities displayed in this
+work have been universally acknowledged&mdash;conscientiousness,
+accuracy, judgment and enormous reading. Not the least
+striking testimony to Hallam&rsquo;s powers is his mastery over so
+many diverse forms of intellectual activity. In science and
+theology, mathematics and poetry, metaphysics and law, he is a
+competent and always a fair if not a profound critic. The bent
+of his own mind is manifest in his treatment of pure literature
+and of political speculation&mdash;which seems to be inspired with
+stronger personal interest and a higher sense of power than other
+parts of his work display. Not less worthy of notice in a literary
+history is the good sense by which both his learning and his tastes
+have been held in control. Probably no writer ever possessed a
+juster view of the relative importance of men and things. The
+labour devoted to an investigation is with Hallam no excuse for
+dwelling on the result, unless that is in itself important. He turns
+away contemptuously from the mere curiosities of literature,
+and is never tempted to make a display of trivial erudition.
+Nor do we find that his interest in special studies leads him to
+assign them a disproportionate place in his general view of the
+literature of a period.</p>
+
+<p>Hallam is generally described as a &ldquo;philosophical historian.&rdquo;
+The description is justified not so much by any philosophical
+quality in his method as by the nature of his subject and his own
+temper. Hallam is a philosopher to this extent that both in
+political and in literary history he fixed his attention on results
+rather than on persons. His conception of history embraced
+the whole movement of society. Beside that conception the
+issue of battles and the fate of kings fall into comparative
+insignificance. &ldquo;We can trace the pedigree of princes,&rdquo; he
+reflects, &ldquo;fill up the catalogue of towns besieged and provinces
+desolated, describe even the whole pageantry of coronations and
+festivals, but we cannot recover the genuine history of mankind.&rdquo;
+But, on the other hand, there is no trace in Hallam of anything
+like a philosophy of history or society. Wise and generally
+melancholy reflections on human nature and political society
+are not infrequent in his writings, and they arise naturally and
+incidentally out of the subject he is discussing. His object is
+the attainment of truth in matters of fact. Sweeping theories
+of the movement of society, and broad characterizations of
+particular periods of history seem to have no attraction for him.
+The view of mankind on which such generalizations are usually
+based, taking little account of individual character, was highly
+distasteful to him. Thus he objects to the use of statistics
+because they favour that tendency to regard all men as mentally
+and morally equal which is so unhappily strong in modern times.
+At the same time Hallam by no means assumes the tone of the
+mere scholar. He is even solicitous to show that his point of
+view is that of the cultivated gentleman and not of the specialist
+of any order. Thus he tells us that Montaigne is the first French
+author whom an English gentleman is ashamed not to have read.
+In fact, allusions to the necessary studies of a gentleman meet
+us constantly, reminding us of the unlikely erudition of the
+schoolboy in Macaulay. Hallam&rsquo;s prejudices, so far as he had
+any, belong to the same character. His criticism is apt to
+assume a tone of moral censure when he has to deal with certain
+extremes of human thought&mdash;scepticism in philosophy, atheism
+in religion and democracy in politics.</p>
+
+<p>Hallam&rsquo;s style is singularly uniform throughout all his writings.
+It is sincere and straightforward, and obviously innocent of any
+motive beyond that of clearly expressing the writer&rsquo;s meaning.
+In the <i>Literature of Europe</i> there are many passages of great
+imaginative beauty.</p>
+<div class="author">(E. R.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Lord Brougham, overlooking the constitutional chapter in the
+<i>Middle Ages</i>, censured Hallam for making an arbitrary beginning at
+this point, and proposed to write a more complete history himself.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2j" id="ft2j" href="#fa2j"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Technical subjects like painting or English law have been excluded
+by Hallam, and history and theology only partially treated.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALLAM, ROBERT<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span> (d. 1417), bishop of Salisbury and
+English representative at the council of Constance, was educated
+at Oxford, and was chancellor of the university from 1403 to
+1405. In the latter year the pope nominated him to be archbishop
+of York, but the king objected. However, in 1407 he
+was consecrated by Gregory XII. at Siena as bishop of Salisbury.
+At the council of Pisa in 1409 he was one of the English
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page853" id="page853"></a>853</span>
+representatives. On the 6th of June 1411 Pope John XXIII. made
+Hallam a cardinal, but there was some irregularity, and his title
+was not recognized. At the council of Constance (<i>q.v.</i>), which met
+in November 1414, Hallam was the chief English envoy. There
+he at once took a prominent position, as an advocate of the cause
+of Church reform, and of the superiority of the council to the
+pope. In the discussions which led up to the deposition of
+John XXIII. on the 29th of May 1415 he had a leading share.
+With the trials of John Hus and Jerome of Prague he had less
+concern. The emperor Sigismund, through whose influence
+the council had been assembled, was absent during the whole
+of 1416 on a diplomatic mission in France and England; but
+when he returned to Constance in January 1417, as the open
+ally of the English king, Hallam as Henry&rsquo;s trusted representative
+obtained increased importance. Hallam contrived skilfully
+to emphasize English prestige by delivering the address of
+welcome to Sigismund on his formal reception. Afterwards,
+under his master&rsquo;s direction, he gave the emperor vigorous
+support in the endeavour to secure a reform of the Church,
+before the council proceeded to the election of a new pope. This
+matter was still undecided when Hallam died suddenly, on the
+4th of September 1417. After his death the direction of the
+English nation fell into less skilful hands, with the result that
+the cardinals were able to secure the immediate election of a new
+pope (Martin V., elected on the 11th of November). It has been
+supposed that the abandonment of the reformers by the English
+was due entirely to Hallam&rsquo;s death; but it is more likely that
+Henry V., foreseeing the possible need for a change of front,
+had given Hallam discretionary powers which the bishop&rsquo;s
+successors used with too little judgment. Hallam himself,
+who had the confidence of Sigismund and was generally respected
+for his straightforward independence, might have achieved a
+better result. Hallam was buried in the cathedral at Constance,
+where his tomb near the high altar is marked by a brass of
+English workmanship.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For the acts of the council of Constance see H. von der Hardt&rsquo;s
+<i>Concilium Constantiense</i>, and H. Finke&rsquo;s <i>Acta concilii Constanciensis</i>.
+For a modern account see Mandell Creighton&rsquo;s <i>History of the Papacy</i>
+(6 vols., London, 1897).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. L. K.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALLÉ, SIR CHARLES<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span> (originally <span class="sc">Karl Halle</span>) (1819-1895),
+English pianist and conductor, German by nationality, was
+born at Hagen, in Westphalia, on the 11th of April 1819. He
+studied under Rink at Darmstadt in 1835, and as early as 1836
+went to Paris, where for twelve years he lived in constant intercourse
+with Cherubini, Chopin, Liszt and other musicians, and
+enjoyed the friendship of such great literary figures as Alfred
+de Musset and George Sand. He had started a set of chamber
+concerts with Alard and Franchomme with great success, and
+had completed one series of them when the revolution of 1848
+drove him from Paris, and he settled, with his wife and two
+children, in London. His pianoforte recitals, given at first from
+1850 in his own house, and from 1861 in St James&rsquo;s Hall, were an
+important feature of London musical life, and it was due in
+great measure to them that a knowledge of Beethoven&rsquo;s pianoforte
+sonatas became general in English society. At the Musical
+Union founded by John Ella, and at the Popular Concerts from
+their beginning, Hallé was a frequent performer, and from 1853
+was director of the Gentlemen&rsquo;s Concerts in Manchester, where,
+in 1857, he started a series of concerts of his own, raising the
+orchestra to a pitch of perfection quite unknown at that time
+in England. In 1888 he married Madame Norman Neruda
+(b. 1839), the violinist, widow of Ludwig Norman, and daughter
+of Josef Neruda, members of whose family had long been famous
+for musical talent. In the same year he was knighted; and
+in 1890 and 1891 he toured with his wife in Australia and elsewhere.
+He died at Manchester on the 25th of October 1895.
+Hallé exercised an important influence in the musical education
+of England; if his pianoforte-playing, by which he was mainly
+known to the public in London, seemed remarkable rather for
+precision than for depth, for crystal clearness rather than for
+warmth, and for perfect realization of the written text rather
+than for strong individuality, it was at least of immense value
+as giving the composer&rsquo;s idea with the utmost fidelity. Those
+who were privileged to hear him play in private, like those who
+could appreciate the power, beauty and imaginative warmth
+of his conducting, would have given a very different verdict;
+and they were not wrong in judging Hallé to be a man of the
+widest and keenest artistic sympathies, with an extraordinary
+gift of insight into music of every school, as well as a strong sense
+of humour. He fought a long and arduous battle for the best
+music, and never forgot the dignity of his art. In spite of the
+fact that his technique was that of his youth, of the period before
+Liszt, the ease and certainty he attained in the most modern
+music was not the less wonderful because he concealed the
+mechanical means so completely.</p>
+
+<p>Lady Hallé, who from 1864 onwards had been one of the leading
+solo violinists of the time, was constantly associated with her
+husband on the concert stage till his death; and in 1896 a public
+subscription was organized in her behalf, under royal patronage.
+She continued to appear occasionally in public, notably as late
+as 1907, when she played at the Joachim memorial concert. In
+1901 she was given by Queen Alexandra the title of &ldquo;violinist
+to the queen.&rdquo; A fine classical player and artist, frequently
+associated with Joachim, Lady Hallé was the first of the women
+violinists who could stand comparison with men.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALLE<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> (known as <span class="sc">Halle-an-der-Saale</span>, to distinguish it
+from the small town of Halle in Westphalia), a town of Germany,
+in the Prussian province of Saxony, situated in a sandy plain on
+the right bank of the Saale, which here divides into several arms,
+21 m. N.W. from Leipzig by the railway to Magdeburg. Pop.
+(1875), 60,503; (1885) 81,982; (1895) 116,304; (1905) 160,031.
+Owing to its situation at the junction of six important lines of
+railway, bringing it into direct communication with Berlin,
+Breslau, Leipzig, Frankfort-on-Main, the Harz country and
+Hanover, it has greatly developed in size and in commercial
+and industrial importance. It consists of the old, or inner, town
+surrounded by promenades, which occupy the site of the former
+fortifications, and beyond these of two small towns, Glaucha
+in the south and Neumarkt in the north, and five rapidly increasing
+suburbs. The inner town is irregularly built and
+presents a somewhat unattractive appearance, but it has been
+much improved and modernized by the laying out of new streets.</p>
+
+<p>The centre of the town proper is occupied by the imposing
+market square, on which stand the fine medieval town hall
+(restored in 1883) and the handsome Gothic Marienkirche,
+dating mainly from the 16th century, with two towers connected
+by a bridge. In the middle of the square are a clock-tower
+(<i>Der rote Turm</i>) 276 ft. in height, and a bronze statue of Handel,
+the composer, a native of Halle. West of the market-square lies
+the Halle, or the Tal, where the brine springs (see below) issue.
+Among the eleven churches, nine Protestant and two Roman
+Catholic, may also be mentioned the St Moritzkirche, dating
+from the 12th century, with fine wood carvings and sculptures,
+and the cathedral (belonging since 1689 to the Reformed or
+Calvinistic church), built in the 16th century and containing an
+altar-piece representing Duke Augustus of Saxony and his
+family. Of secular buildings the most noticeable are the ruins
+of the castle of Moritzburg, formerly a citadel and the residence
+of the archbishops of Magdeburg, destroyed by fire in the Thirty
+Years&rsquo; War, with the exception of the left wing now used for
+military purposes, the university buildings, the theatre and the
+new railway station. The famous university was founded by
+the elector Frederick III. of Brandenburg (afterwards king of
+Prussia), in 1694, on behalf of the jurist, Christian Thomasius
+(1655-1728), whom many students followed to Halle, when he was
+expelled from Leipzig through the enmity of his fellow professors.
+It was closed by Napoleon in 1806 and again in 1813, but in 1815
+was re-established and augmented by the removal to it of the
+university of Wittenberg, with which it thus became united.
+It has faculties of theology, law, medicine and philosophy.
+From the first it has been recognized as one of the principal seats
+of Protestant theology, originally of the pietistic and latterly of
+the rationalistic and critical school. In connexion with the
+university there are a botanical garden, a theological seminary,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page854" id="page854"></a>854</span>
+anatomical, pathological and physical institutes, hospitals, an
+agricultural institute&mdash;one of the foremost institutions of the
+kind in Germany&mdash;a meteorological institute, an observatory
+and a library of 180,000 printed volumes and 800 manuscripts.
+Among other educational establishments must be mentioned
+the Francke&rsquo;sche Stiftungen, founded in 1691 by August Hermann
+Francke (1663-1727), a bronze statue of whom by Rauch was
+erected in 1829 in the inner court of the building. They embrace
+an orphanage, a laboratory where medicines are prepared and
+distributed, a Bible press from which Bibles are issued at a cheap
+rate, and eight schools of various grades, attended in all by over
+3000 pupils. The other principal institutions are the city
+gymnasium, the provincial lunatic asylum, the prison, the town
+hospital and infirmary, and the deaf and dumb institute. The
+salt-springs of Halle have been known from a very early period.
+Some rise within the town and others on an island in the
+Saale; and together their annual yield of salt is about 8500
+tons.</p>
+
+<p>The workmen employed at the salt-works are of a peculiar race
+and are known as the <i>Halloren</i>. They have been usually regarded
+as descendants of the original Wendish inhabitants, or as Celtic
+immigrants, with an admixture of Frankish elements. They
+wear a distinct dress, the ordinary costume of about 1700,
+observe several ancient customs, and enjoy certain exemptions
+and privileges derived from those of the ancient <i>Pfannerschaft</i>
+(community of the salt-panners).</p>
+
+<p>Among the other industries of Halle are sugar refining, machine
+building, the manufacture of spirits, malt, chocolate, cocoa,
+confectionery, cement, paper, chicory, lubricating and illuminating
+oil, wagon grease, carriages and playing cards, printing,
+dyeing and coal mining (soft brown coal). The trade, which is
+supervised by a chamber of commerce, is very considerable, the
+principal exports being machinery, raw sugar and petroleum.
+Halle is also noted as the seat of several important publishing
+firms. The Bibelanstalt (Bible institution) of von Castein is the
+central authority for the revision of Luther&rsquo;s Bible, of which it
+sells annually from 60,000 to 70,000 copies.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Halle is first mentioned as a fortress erected on the Saale in 806
+by Charles, son of Charlemagne, during his expedition against the
+Sorbs. The place was, however, known long before, and owes its
+origin as well as its name to the salt springs (<i>Halis</i>). In 968 Halle,
+with the valuable salt works, was given by the emperor Otto I. to
+the newly founded archdiocese of Magdeburg, and in 981 Otto II.
+gave it a charter as a town. The interests of the archbishop were
+watched over by a <i>Vogt</i> (<i>advocatus</i>) and a burgrave, and from the
+first there were separate jurisdictions for the Halloren and the
+German settlers in the town, the former being under that of the
+<i>Salzgraf</i> (comes salis), the latter of a <i>Schultheiss</i> or bailiff, both
+subordinate to the burgrave. The conflict of interests and jurisdictions
+led to the usual internecine strife during the middle ages. The
+panners (<i>Pfänner</i>) of the Tal, feudatories or officials, became a close
+hereditary aristocracy in perpetual rivalry with the gilds in the town;
+and both resisted the pretensions of the archbishops. At the
+beginning of the 12th century Halle had attained considerable importance,
+and in the 13th and 14th centuries as a member of the
+Hanseatic League it carried on successful wars with the archbishops
+of Magdeburg; and in 1435 it resisted an army of 30,000 men under
+the elector of Saxony. Its liberty perished, however, as a result
+of the internal feud between the democratic gilds and the patrician
+panners. On the 20th of September 1478 a demagogue and cobbler
+named Jakob Weissak, a member of the town council, with his
+confederates opened the gates to the soldiers of the archbishop. The
+townsmen were subdued, and to hold them in check the archbishop,
+Ernest of Saxony, built the castle of Moritzburg. Notwithstanding
+the efforts of the archbishops of Mainz and Magdeburg, the Reformation
+found an entrance into the city in 1522; and in 1541 a
+Lutheran superintendent was appointed. After the peace of Westphalia
+in 1648 the city came into the possession of the house of
+Brandenburg. In 1806 it was stormed and taken by the French,
+after which, at the peace of Tilsit, it was united to the new kingdom
+of Westphalia. After the battle between the Prussians and French,
+in May 1813, it was taken by the Prussians. The rise of Leipzig
+was for a long time hurtful to the prosperity of Halle, and its present
+rapid increase in population and trade is principally due to its position
+as the centre of a network of railways.</p>
+
+<p>See Dreyhaupt, <i>Ausführliche Beschreibung des Saalkreises</i> (Halle,
+2 vols., 1755; 3rd edition, 1842-1844); Hoffbauer, <i>Geschichte der
+Universität zu Halle</i> (1806); <i>Halle in Vorzeit und Gegenwart</i> (1851);
+Knauth, <i>Kurze Geschichte und Beschreibung der Stadt Halle</i> (3rd ed.,
+1861); vom Hagen, <i>Die Stadt Halle</i> (1866-1867); Hertzberg,
+<i>Geschichte der Vereinigung der Universitäten von Wittenberg und
+Halle</i> (1867); Voss, <i>Zur Geschichte der Autonomie der Stadt Halle</i>
+(1874); Schrader, <i>Geschichte der Friedrichs-Universität zu Halle</i>
+(Berlin, 1894); Karl Hegel, <i>Städte und Gilden der germanischen
+Völker</i> (Leipzig, 1891), ii. 444-449.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALLECK, FITZ-GREENE<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> (1790-1867), American poet, was
+born at Guilford, Connecticut, on the 8th of July 1790. By his
+mother he was descended from John Eliot, the &ldquo;Apostle to the
+Indians.&rdquo; At an early age he became clerk in a store at Guilford,
+and in 1811 he entered a banking-house in New York.
+Having made the acquaintance of Joseph Rodman Drake, in 1819
+he assisted him under the signature of &ldquo;Croaker junior&rdquo; in
+contributing to the New York <i>Evening Post</i> the humorous series
+of &ldquo;Croaker Papers.&rdquo; In 1821 he published his longest poem,
+<i>Fanny</i>, a satire on local politics and fashions in the measure of
+Byron&rsquo;s <i>Don Juan</i>. He visited Europe in 1822-1823, and after
+his return published anonymously in 1827 <i>Alnwick Castle, with
+other Poems</i>. From 1832 to 1841 he was confidential agent of
+John Jacob Astor, who named him one of the trustees of the
+Astor library. In 1864 he published in the <i>New York Ledger</i>
+a poem of 300 lines entitled &ldquo;Young America.&rdquo; He died at
+Guilford, on the 19th of November 1867. The poems of Halleck
+are written with great care and finish, and manifest the possession
+of a fine sense of harmony and of genial and elevated sentiments.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His <i>Life and Letters</i>, by James Grant Wilson, appeared in 1869.
+His <i>Poetical Writings</i>, together with extracts from those of Joseph
+Rodman Drake, were edited by Wilson in the same year.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALLECK, HENRY WAGER<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> (1815-1872), American general
+and jurist, was born at Westernville, Oneida county, N.Y.,
+in 1815, entered the West Point military academy at the age of
+twenty, and on graduating in 1839 was appointed to the engineers,
+becoming at the same time assistant professor of engineering
+at the academy. In the following year he was made an assistant
+to the Board of Engineers at Washington, from 1841 to 1846
+he was employed on the defence works at New York, and in
+1845 he was sent by the government to visit the principal
+military establishments of Europe. After his return, Halleck
+delivered a course of lectures on the science of war, published
+in 1846 under the title <i>Elements of Military Art and Science</i>.
+A later edition of this work was widely used as a text-book by
+volunteer officers during the Civil War. On the outbreak of the
+Mexican War in 1846, he served with the expedition to California
+and the Pacific coast, in which he distinguished himself not only
+as an engineer, but by his skill in civil administration and by his
+good conduct before the enemy. He served for several years
+in California as a staff officer, and as secretary of state under the
+military government, and in 1849 he helped to frame the state
+constitution of California, on its being admitted into the Union.
+In 1852 he was appointed inspector and engineer of lighthouses,
+and in 1853 was employed in the fortification of the Pacific
+coast. In 1854 Captain Halleck resigned his commission and
+took up the practice of law with great success. He was also
+director of a quicksilver mine, and in 1855 he became president
+of the Pacific &amp; Atlantic railway. On the outbreak of the Civil
+War he returned to the army as a major-general, and in
+November 1861 he was charged with the supreme command in
+the western theatre of war. There can be no question that his
+administrative skill was mainly instrumental in bringing order
+out of chaos in the hurried formation of large volunteer armies
+in 1861, but the strategical and tactical successes of the following
+spring were due rather to the skill and activity of his subordinate
+generals Grant, Buell and Pope, than to the plans of the supreme
+commander, and when he assumed command of the united forces
+of these three generals before Corinth, the methodical slowness
+of his advance aroused much criticism. In July, however, he
+was called to Washington as general-in-chief of the armies. At
+headquarters his administrative powers were conspicuous,
+but he proved to be utterly wanting in any large grasp of the
+military problem; the successive reverses of Generals McClellan,
+Pope, Burnside and Hooker in Virginia were not infrequently
+traceable to the defects of the general-in-chief. No co-ordination
+of the military efforts of the Union was seriously undertaken by
+Halleck, and eventually in March 1864 Grant was appointed to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page855" id="page855"></a>855</span>
+replace him, Major-General Halleck becoming chief of staff at
+Washington. This post he occupied with credit until the
+end of the war. In April 1865 he held the command of the
+military division of the James and in August of the same year
+of the military division of the Pacific, which he retained till
+June 1869, when he was transferred to that of the South, a
+position he held till his death at Louisville, Ky., on the 9th of
+January 1872. Halleck&rsquo;s position as a soldier is easily defined
+by bis uniform success as an administrative official, his equally
+uniform want of success as an officer at the head of large armies
+in the field, and the popularity of his theoretical writings on
+war. His influence, for good or evil, on the course of the greatest
+war of modern times was greater than that of any soldier on
+either side save Grant and Lee, and whilst his interference with
+the dispositions of the commanders in the field was often disastrous,
+his services in organizing and instructing the Union
+forces were always of the highest value, and in this respect he
+was indispensable.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Besides <i>Military Art and Science</i>, Halleck wrote <i>Bitumen, its
+Varieties, Properties and Uses</i> (1841); <i>The Mining Laws of Spain
+and Mexico</i> (1859); <i>International Law</i> (1861; new edition, 1908);
+and <i>Treatise on International Law and the Laws of War, prepared
+for the use of Schools and Colleges</i>, abridged from the larger work.
+He translated Jomini&rsquo;s <i>Vie politique et militaire de Napoléon</i> (1864)
+and de Fooz <i>On the Law of Mines</i> (1860). The works on international
+law mentioned above entitle General Halleck to be considered as
+one of the great jurists of the 19th century.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HÄLLEFLINTA<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span> (a Swedish word meaning rock-flint), a white,
+grey, yellow, greenish or pink, fine-grained rock consisting of
+an intimate mixture of quartz and felspar. Many examples
+are banded or striated; others contain porphyritic crystals
+of quartz which resemble those of the felsites and porphyries.
+Mica, iron oxides, apatite, zircon, epidote and hornblende may
+also be present in small amount. The more micaceous varieties
+form transitions to granulite and gneiss. Hälleflinta under the
+microscope is very finely crystalline, or even cryptocrystalline,
+resembling the felsitic matrix of many acid rocks. It is essentially
+metamorphic and occurs with gneisses, schists and granulites,
+especially in the Scandinavian peninsula, where it is regarded
+as being very characteristic of certain horizons. Of its original
+nature there is some doubt, but its chemical composition and
+the occasional presence of porphyritic crystals indicate that it
+has affinities to the fine-grained acid intrusive rocks. In this
+group there may also have been placed metamorphosed acid
+tuffs and a certain number of adinoles (shales, contact altered
+by intrusions of diabase). The assemblage is not a perfectly
+homogeneous one but includes both igneous and sedimentary
+rocks, but the former preponderate. Rocks very <span class="correction" title="amended from similiar">similar</span> to the
+typical Swedish hälleflintas occur in Tirol, in Galicia and eastern
+Bohemia.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">HALLEL<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> (Heb. <span title="hallel">&#1492;&#1500;&#1500;</span> a Mishnic derivative from <span title="hallel">&#1492;&#1500;&#1500;</span> hill&#275;l,
+&ldquo;to praise&rdquo;), a term in synagogal liturgy for (<i>a</i>) Psalms
+cxiii.-cxviii., often called &ldquo;the Egyptian Hallel&rdquo; because of its
+recitation during the paschal meal on the night of the Passover,
+(<i>b</i>) Psalm cxxxvi. &ldquo;the Great Hallel.&rdquo; C. A. Briggs<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> points out
+that the term &ldquo;Hallelujah&rdquo; (Praise ye Yah) is found at the
+close of Pss. civ., cv., cxv., cxvi., cxvii., at the beginning of
+Pss. cxi., cxii. and at both ends of Pss. cvi., cxiii., cxxxv., cxlvi.
+to cl. The Septuagint also gives it at the beginning of Pss. cv.,
+cvii., cxiv., cxvi. to cxix., cxxxvi. There are thus four groups
+of Hallel psalms:&mdash;civ.-cvii. (a tetralogy on creation, the
+patriarchal age, the Exodus, and the Restoration); cxi.-cxvii.
+which includes most of the &ldquo;Egyptian Hallel&rdquo;; cxxxv.-cxxxvi.;
+cxlvi.-cl. All of these Hallels (except cxlvii. and cxlix. which
+are Maccabean) belong to the Greek period, forming a collection
+of sixteen psalms composed for public use by the choirs, especially
+at the great feasts. Their distribution into four groups was the
+work of the final editor of the psalter. Later liturgical use
+regarded Pss. cxviii. and even cxix. as Hallels, as well as Pss.
+cxx. to cxxxiv.</p>
+
+<p>It will be observed that the extent of the official Hallel varied
+from time to time. It would appear that in the time of Gamaliel
+(<i>Pesahim</i> x. 5) the custom of its recitation at the paschal meal
+was still of recent innovation. While the school of Shammai
+advised only Ps. cxiii., the school of Hillel favoured Pss. cxiii.
+and cxiv.<a name="fa2k" id="fa2k" href="#ft2k"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The further extension so as to include Pss. cxv. to
+cxviii. probably dates from the first half of the 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>,
+and these four psalms were recited after the pouring out of the
+fourth cup, the two earlier ones being taken at the beginning of
+the meal. From the 3rd century the use of the Hallel was
+extended to other occasions, and was gradually incorporated
+into the liturgy of eighteen festal days.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;Great Hallel&rdquo; (Ps. cxxxvi. and its later extension to
+cxx.-cxxxvi.) always served the wider purpose of a more general
+thanksgiving. According to Rabbi Johanan it derived its name
+from the allusion in v. 25 to the Holy One who sits in heaven and
+thence distributes food to all bis creatures.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>International Critical Commentary</i>, &ldquo;Psalms,&rdquo; Intro. lxxviii.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2k" id="ft2k" href="#fa2k"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The reference to a hymn at the institution of the Eucharist
+(Matt. xxvi. 30, Mark xiv. 26) must be interpreted in the light of this
+inceptive stage of the Hallel.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 12, Slice 7, by Various
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+</pre>
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+</body>
+</html>
+
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@@ -0,0 +1,17156 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 12, Slice 7, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 12, Slice 7
+       "Gyantse" to "Hallel"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: December 24, 2011 [EBook #38401]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 12, SLICE 7 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol, [oo] for infinity, and [alpha],
+      [beta], etc. for greek letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE GYROSCOPE AND GYROSTAT: "... in such a manner that a point
+      on the pendulum at a distance ..." ''pendulum'' amended from
+      ''pedulum''.
+
+    ARTICLE GYROSCOPE AND GYROSTAT: "Interpreted geometrically on the
+      deformable hyperboloid, flattened in the plane of the focal ellipse
+      ..." ''hyperboloid'' amended from ''hyperboloia''.
+
+    ARTICLE HAEMOSPORIDIA: "... this does not represent reserve
+      material, but is an excreted by-product derived from the
+      haemoglobin." ''by-product'' amended from ''bye-product''.
+
+    ARTICLE HALIFAX, GEORGE MONTAGU DUNK: "About this time he sought to
+      become a secretary of state, but in vain, although he was allowed
+      to enter the cabinet in 1757." ''become'' amended from ''became''.
+
+    ARTICLE HALLEFLINTA: "Rocks very similar to the typical Swedish
+      halleflintas occur in Tirol, in Galicia and eastern Bohemia."
+      ''similar'' amended from ''similiar?''.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+           VOLUME XII, SLICE VII
+
+             Gyantse to Hallel
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  GYANTSE                            HAHNEMANN, SAMUEL CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH
+  GYGES                              HAHN-HAHN, IDA
+  GYLIPPUS                           HAI
+  GYLLEMBOURG-EHRENSVARD, CHRISTINE  HAIBAK
+  GYLLENSTJERNA, JOHAN               HAIDA
+  GYMKHANA                           HAIDINGER, WILHELM KARL
+  GYMNASTICS AND GYMNASIUM           HAIDUK
+  GYMNOSOPHISTS                      HAIFA
+  GYMNOSPERMS                        HAIK
+  GYMNOSTOMACEAE                     HAIL
+  GYMPIE                             HAILES, DAVID DALRYMPLE
+  GYNAECEUM                          HAILSHAM
+  GYNAECOLOGY                        HAINAN
+  GYONGYOSI, ISTVAN                  HAINAU
+  GYOR                               HAINAUT
+  GYP                                HAINBURG
+  GYPSUM                             HAINICHEN
+  GYROSCOPE AND GYROSTAT             HAI-PHONG
+  GYTHIUM                            HAIR
+  GYULA-FEHERVAR                     HAIR-TAIL
+  H                                  HAITI
+  HAAG, CARL                         HAJIPUR
+  HAAKON                             HAJJ
+  HAARLEM                            HAJJI KHALIFA
+  HAARLEM LAKE                       HAKE, EDWARD
+  HAASE, FRIEDRICH                   HAKE, THOMAS GORDON
+  HAASE, FRIEDRICH GOTTLOB           HAKE
+  HAAST, SIR JOHANN JULIUS VON       HAKKAS
+  HABABS                             HAKLUYT, RICHARD
+  HABAKKUK                           HAKODATE
+  HABDALA                            HAL
+  HABEAS CORPUS                      HALA
+  HABERDASHER                        HALAESA
+  HABINGTON, WILLIAM                 HALAKHA
+  HABIT                              HALBERSTADT
+  HABITAT                            HALBERT
+  HABSBURG                           HALDANE, JAMES ALEXANDER
+  HACHETTE, JEAN NICOLAS PIERRE      HALDANE, RICHARD BURDON
+  HACHETTE, JEANNE                   HALDANE, ROBERT
+  HACHETTE, LOUIS FRANCOIS           HALDEMAN, SAMUEL STEHMAN
+  HACHURE                            HALDIMAND, SIR FREDERICK
+  HACIENDA                           HALE, EDWARD EVERETT
+  HACKBERRY                          HALE, HORATIO
+  HACKENSACK                         HALE, JOHN PARKER
+  HACKET, JOHN                       HALE, SIR MATTHEW
+  HACKETT, HORATIO BALCH             HALE, NATHAN
+  HACKETT, JAMES HENRY               HALE, WILLIAM GARDNER
+  HACKLANDER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM VON  HALEBID
+  HACKNEY (borough of London)        HALES, JOHN (d. 1571)
+  HACKNEY (riding-horse)             HALES, JOHN (1584-1656)
+  HADAD                              HALES, STEPHEN
+  HADDINGTON, EARL OF                HALESOWEN
+  HADDINGTON                         HALEVI, JUDAH BEN SAMUEL
+  HADDINGTONSHIRE                    HALEVY, JACQUES FRANCOIS ELIE
+  HADDOCK                            HALEVY, LUDOVIC
+  HADDON HALL                        HALFPENNY, WILLIAM
+  HADEN, SIR FRANCIS SEYMOUR         HALF-TIMBER WORK
+  HADENDOA                           HALFWAY COVENANT
+  HADERSLEBEN                        HALHED, NATHANIEL BRASSEY
+  HADING, JANE                       HALIBURTON, THOMAS CHANDLER
+  HADLEIGH                           HALIBUT
+  HADLEY, ARTHUR TWINING             HALICARNASSUS
+  HADLEY, JAMES                      HALICZ
+  HADLEY                             HALIFAX, CHARLES MONTAGUE
+  HADRAMUT                           HALIFAX, GEORGE MONTAGU DUNK
+  HADRIA                             HALIFAX, GEORGE SAVILE
+  HADRIAN                            HALIFAX (Canada)
+  HADRIAN'S WALL                     HALIFAX (Yorkshire, England)
+  HADRUMETUM                         HALISAH
+  HAECKEL, ERNST HEINRICH            HALKETT, HUGH
+  HAEMATITE                          HALL, BASIL
+  HAEMATOCELE                        HALL, CARL CHRISTIAN
+  HAEMOPHILIA                        HALL, CHARLES FRANCIS
+  HAEMORRHAGE                        HALL, CHRISTOPHER NEWMAN
+  HAEMORRHOIDS                       HALL, EDWARD
+  HAEMOSPORIDIA                      HALL, FITZEDWARD
+  HAETZER, LUDWIG                    HALL, ISAAC HOLLISTER
+  HAFIZ                              HALL, SIR JAMES
+  HAG                                HALL, JAMES (American judge)
+  HAGEDORN, FRIEDRICH VON            HALL, JAMES (American geologist)
+  HAGEN, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH VON DER  HALL, JOSEPH
+  HAGEN                              HALL, MARSHALL
+  HAGENAU                            HALL, ROBERT
+  HAGENBACH, KARL RUDOLF             HALL, SAMUEL CARTER
+  HAGENBECK, CARL                    HALL, WILLIAM EDWARD
+  HAGERSTOWN                         HALL (spa of Austria)
+  HAG-FISH                           HALL (town of Germany)
+  HAGGADA                            HALL (of a mansion)
+  HAGGAI                             HALLAM, HENRY
+  HAGGARD, HENRY RIDER               HALLAM, ROBERT
+  HAGGIS                             HALLE, SIR CHARLES
+  HAGIOLOGY                          HALLE
+  HAGIOSCOPE                         HALLECK, FITZ-GREENE
+  HAGONOY                            HALLECK, HENRY WAGER
+  HAGUE, THE                         HALLEFLINTA
+  HAHN, AUGUST                       HALLEL
+
+
+
+
+GYANTSE, one of the large towns of Tibet. It lies S.E. of Shigatse, 130
+m. from the Indian frontier and 145 m. from Lhasa. Its central position
+at the junction of the roads from India and Bhutan with those from
+Ladakh and Central Asia leading to Lhasa makes it a considerable
+distributing trade centre. Its market is the third largest in Tibet,
+coming after Lhasa and Shigatse, and is especially celebrated for its
+woollen cloth and carpet manufactures. Here caravans come from Ladakh,
+Nepal and upper Tibet, bringing gold, borax, salt, wool, musk and furs,
+to exchange for tea, tobacco, sugar, cotton goods, broadcloth and
+hardware. The town is compactly built of stone houses, with wooden
+balconies facing the main street, whence narrow lanes strike off into
+uninviting slums, and contains a fort and monastery. In the British
+expedition of 1904 Gyantse formed the first objective of the advance,
+and the force was besieged here in the mission post of Changlo for some
+time. The Tibetans made a night attack on the post, and were beaten off
+with some difficulty, but subsequently the British attacked and stormed
+the fort or jong. Under the treaty of 1904 a British trade agent is
+stationed at Gyantse.
+
+
+
+
+GYGES, founder of the third or Mermnad dynasty of Lydian kings, he
+reigned 687-652 B.C. according to H. Geizer, 690-657 B.C. according to
+H. Winckler. The chronology of the Lydian kings given by Herodotus has
+been shown by the Assyrian inscriptions to be about twenty years in
+excess. Gyges was the son of Dascylus, who, when recalled from
+banishment in Cappadocia by the Lydian king Sadyattes--called Candaules
+"the Dog-strangler" (a title of the Lydian Hermes) by the Greeks--sent
+his son back to Lydia instead of himself. Gyges soon became a favourite
+of Sadyattes and was despatched by him to fetch Tudo, the daughter of
+Arnossus of Mysia, whom the Lydian king wished to make his queen. On the
+way Gyges fell in love with Tudo, who complained to Sadyattes of his
+conduct. Forewarned that the king intended to punish him with death,
+Gyges assassinated Sadyattes in the night and seized the throne with the
+help of Arselis of Mylasa, the captain of the Carian bodyguard, whom he
+had won over to his cause. Civil war ensued, which was finally ended by
+an appeal to the oracle of Delphi and the confirmation of the right of
+Gyges to the crown by the Delphian god. Further to secure his title he
+married Tudo. Many legends were told among the Greeks about his rise to
+power. That found in Herodotus, which may be traced to the poet
+Archilochus of Paros, described how "Candaules" insisted upon showing
+Gyges his wife when unrobed, which so enraged her that she gave Gyges
+the choice of murdering her husband and making himself king, or of being
+put to death himself. Plato made Gyges a shepherd, who discovered a
+magic ring by means of which he murdered his master and won the
+affection of his wife (Hdt. i. 8-14; Plato, _Rep._ 359; Justin i. 7;
+Cicero, _De off._ iii. 9). Once established on the throne Gyges devoted
+himself to consolidating his kingdom and making it a military power. The
+Troad was conquered, Colophon captured from the Greeks, Smyrna besieged
+and alliances entered into with Ephesus and Miletus. The Cimmerii, who
+had ravaged Asia Minor, were beaten back, and an embassy was sent to
+Assur-bani-pal at Nineveh (about 650 B.C.) in the hope of obtaining his
+help against the barbarians. The Assyrians, however, were otherwise
+engaged, and Gyges turned to Egypt, sending his faithful Carian troops
+along with Ionian mercenaries to assist Psammetichus in shaking off the
+Assyrian yoke (660 B.C.). A few years later he fell in battle against
+the Cimmerii under Dugdamme (called Lygdamis by Strabo i. 3. 21), who
+took the lower town of Sardis. Gyges was succeeded by his son Ardys.
+
+  See Nicolaus Damascenus, quoting from the Lydian historian Xanthus, in
+  C. Muller, _Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum_, iii.; R. Schubert,
+  _Geschichte der Konige von Lydien_ (1884); M. G. Radet, _La Lydie et
+  le monde grec au temps de Mermnades_ (1892-1893): H. Gelzer, "Das
+  Zeitalter des Gyges" (_Rhein. Mus._, 1875); H. Winckler,
+  _Altorientalische Forschungen_, i. (1893); Macan's edition of
+  Herodotus.     (A. H. S.)
+
+
+
+
+GYLIPPUS, a Spartan general of the 5th century B.C.; he was the son of
+Cleandridas, who had been expelled from Sparta for accepting Athenian
+bribes (446 B.C.) and had settled at Thurii. His mother was probably a
+helot, for Gylippus is said to have been, like Lysander and
+Callicratidas, a _mothax_ (see HELOT). When Alcibiades urged the
+Spartans to send a general to lead the Syracusan resistance against the
+Athenian expedition, Gylippus was appointed, and his arrival was
+undoubtedly the turning point of the struggle (414-413). Though at first
+his long hair, his threadbare cloak and his staff furnished the subject
+of many a jest, and his harsh and overbearing manner caused grave
+discontent, yet the rapidity and decisiveness of his movements, won the
+sympathy and respect of the Syracusans. Diodorus (xiii. 28-32),
+probably following Timaeus, represents him as inducing the Syracusans
+to pass sentence of death on the captive Athenian generals, but we need
+have no hesitation in accepting the statement of Philistus (Plutarch,
+_Nicias_, 28), a Syracusan who himself took part in the defence, and
+Thucydides (vii. 86), that he tried, though without success, to save
+their lives, wishing to take them to Sparta as a signal proof of his
+success. Gylippus fell, as his father had done, through avarice;
+entrusted by Lysander with an immense sum which he was to deliver to the
+ephors at Sparta, he could not resist the temptation to enrich himself
+and, on the discovery of his guilt, went into exile.
+
+  Thucydides vi. 93. 104, vii.; Plutarch, _Nicias_, 19, 21, 27, 28,
+  _Lysander_, 16, 17; Diodorus xiii. 7, 8, 28-32; Polyaenus i. 39. 42.
+  See SYRACUSE (for the siege operations), commentaries on Thucydides
+  and the Greek histories.
+
+
+
+
+GYLLEMBOURG-EHRENSVARD, THOMASINE CHRISTINE, Baroness (1773-1856),
+Danish author, was born on the 9th of November 1773, at Copenhagen. Her
+maiden name was Buntzen. Her great beauty early attracted notice, and
+before she was seventeen she married the famous writer Peter Andreas
+Heiberg. To him she bore in the following year a son, afterwards
+illustrious as the poet and critic Johan Ludvig Heiberg. In 1800 her
+husband was exiled, and she obtained a divorce, marrying in December
+1801 the Swedish Baron K. F. Ehrensvard, himself a political fugitive.
+Her second husband, who presently adopted the name of Gyllembourg, died
+in 1815. In 1822 she followed her son to Kiel, where he was appointed
+professor, and in 1825 she returned with him to Copenhagen. In 1827 she
+first appeared as an author by publishing her romance of _The Polonius
+Family_ in her son's newspaper _Flyvende Post_. In 1828 the same journal
+contained _The Magic Ring_, which was immediately followed by _En
+Hverdags historie (An Everyday Story)_. The success of this anonymous
+work was so great that the author adopted until the end of her career
+the name of "The Author of _An Everyday Story_." In 1833-1834 she
+published three volumes of _Old and New Novels_. _New Stories_ followed
+in 1835 and 1836. In 1839 appeared two novels, _Montanus the Younger_
+and _Ricida_; in 1840, _One in All_; in 1841, _Near and Far_; in 1843,
+_A Correspondence_; in 1844, _The Cross Ways_; in 1845, _Two
+Generations_. From 1849 to 1851 the Baroness Ehrensvard-Gyllembourg was
+engaged in bringing out a library edition of her collected works in
+twelve volumes. On the 2nd of July 1856 she died in her son's house at
+Copenhagen. Not until then did the secret of her authorship transpire;
+for throughout her life she had preserved the closest reticence on the
+subject even with her nearest friends. The style of Madame
+Ehrensvard-Gyllembourg is clear and sparkling; for English readers no
+closer analogy can be found than between her and Mrs Gaskell, and
+_Cranford_ might well have been written by the witty Danish authoress.
+
+  See J. L. Heiberg, _Peter Andreas Heiberg og Thomasine Gyllembourg_
+  (Copenhagen, 1882), and L. Kornelius-Hybel, _Nogle Bemaerkninger om P.
+  A. Heiberg og Fru Gyllembourg_ (Copenhagen, 1883).
+
+
+
+
+GYLLENSTJERNA, JOHAN, COUNT (1635-1680), Swedish statesman, completed
+his studies at Upsala and then visited most of the European states and
+laid the foundations of that deep insight into international politics
+which afterwards distinguished him. On his return home he met King
+Charles X. in the Danish islands and was in close attendance upon him
+till the monarch's death in 1660. He began his political career at the
+diet which assembled in the autumn of the same year. An aristocrat by
+birth and inclination, he was nevertheless a true patriot and demanded
+the greatest sacrifices from his own order in the national interests. He
+was therefore one of those who laboured most zealously for the recovery
+of the crown lands. In the Upper House he was the spokesman of the
+gentry against the magnates, whose inordinate privileges he would have
+curtailed or abolished. His adversaries vainly endeavoured to gain him
+by favour, for as court-marshal and senator he was still more hostile to
+the dominant patricians who followed the adventurous policy of Magnus de
+la Gardie. Thus he opposed the French alliance which de la Gardie
+carried through in 1672, and consistently advocated economy in domestic
+and neutrality in foreign affairs. On the outbreak of the war in 1675 he
+was the most loyal and energetic supporter of the young Charles XI.,
+and finally his indispensable counsellor. Indeed, it may be said, that
+the political principles which he instilled into the youthful monarch
+were faithfully followed by Charles during the whole of his reign. In
+1679 Gyllenstjerna was appointed the Swedish plenipotentiary at the
+peace congress of Lund. The alliance which he then concluded with
+Denmark bound the two northern realms together in a common foreign
+policy, and he sought besides to facilitate their harmonious
+co-operation by every means in his power. In 1680, after bringing home
+Charles XI.'s Danish bride from Copenhagen, he was appointed
+governor-general of Scania (Skane), but expired a few weeks later.
+
+  See M. Hojer, _Ofversigt af Sveriges yttre politik under aren
+  1676-1680_ (Upsala, 1875).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+GYMKHANA, a display of miscellaneous sports, originally at the military
+stations of India. The word would seem to be a colloquial remodelling of
+the Hindustani _gend-khana_, ball-house or racquet-court, by
+substituting for _gend_ the first syllable of the English word
+"gymnastics." The definition given in Yule's _Glossary_ is as follows:
+"A place of public resort at a station, where the needful facilities for
+athletics and games ... are provided." The name of the place was
+afterwards applied to the games themselves, and the word is now used
+almost exclusively in this sense. According to Yule the first use of it
+that can be traced was, on the authority of Major John Trotter, at Rurki
+in the year 1861, when a gymkhana was instituted there. Gymkhana sports
+were invented to relieve the monotony of Indian station life, and both
+officers and men from the ranks took part in them. The first meetings
+consisted of promiscuous horse and pony races at catch weights. To these
+were soon added a second variety, originally called the _pagol_ (funny
+races), the one generally known outside India, which consisted of
+miscellaneous races and competitions of all kinds, some serious and some
+amusing, on horseback, on foot and on bicycles. Among these may be
+mentioned the usual military sports; such as tent-pegging, lemon-cutting
+and obstacle racing; rickshaw racing; tilting at the ring sack, pillion,
+hurdle, egg-and-spoon, blindfold, threading-the-needle and many other
+kinds of races depending upon the inventive powers of the committees in
+charge.
+
+
+
+
+GYMNASTICS AND GYMNASIUM, terms signifying respectively a system of
+physical exercises practised either for recreation or for the purpose of
+promoting the health and development of the body, and the building where
+such exercises are carried on. The gymnasium of the Greeks was
+originally the school where competitors in the public games received
+their training, and was so named from the circumstance that these
+competitors exercised naked ([Greek: gymnos]). The gymnasium was a
+public institution as distinguished from the palaestra, which was a
+private school where boys were trained in physical exercises, though the
+term palaestra is also often used for the part of a gymnasium specially
+devoted to wrestling and boxing. The athletic contests for which the
+gymnasium supplied the means of training and practice formed part of the
+social life of the Greeks from the earliest times. They were held in
+honour of heroes and gods; sometimes forming part of a periodic
+festival, sometimes of the funeral rites of a deceased chief. In course
+of time the Greeks grew more attached to such sports; their free active
+life, spent to a great extent in the open air, fostered the liking
+almost into a passion. The victor in any athletic contest, though he
+gained no money prize, was rewarded with the honour and respect of his
+fellow citizens; and a victory in the great religious festivals was
+counted an honour for the whole state. In these circumstances the
+training of competitors for the greater contests became a matter of
+public concern; and accordingly special buildings were provided by the
+state, and their management entrusted to public officials. The
+regulation of the gymnasium at Athens is attributed by Pausanias (i. 39.
+3) to Theseus. Solon made several laws on the subject; but according to
+Galen it was reduced to a system in the time of Cleisthenes. Ten
+_gymnasiarchs_, one from each tribe, were appointed annually. These
+performed in rotation the duties of their office, which were to maintain
+and pay the persons who were training for public contests, to conduct
+the games at the great Athenian festivals, to exercise general
+supervision over the morals of the youths, and to adorn and keep up the
+gymnasium. This office was one of the ordinary [Greek: leitourgiai]
+(public services), and great expense was entailed on the holders. Under
+them were ten _sophronistae_, whose duty was to watch the conduct of the
+youths at all times, and especially to be present at all their games.
+The practical teaching and selecting of the suitable exercises for each
+youth were in the hands of the _paedotribae_ and _gymnastae_, the latter
+of whom also superintended the effect on the constitution of the pupils,
+and prescribed for them when they were unwell. The _aleiptae_ oiled and
+rubbed dust on the bodies of the youths, acted as surgeons, and
+administered the drugs prescribed. According to Galen there was also a
+teacher of the various games of ball. The gymnasia built to suit these
+various purposes were large buildings, which contained not merely places
+for each kind of exercise, but also a stadium, baths, covered porticos
+for practice in bad weather, and outer porticos where the philosophers
+and men of letters read public lectures and held disputations.
+
+The gymnasium of the Greeks did not long remain an institution
+exclusively devoted to athletic exercises. It soon began to be applied
+to other uses even more important. The development arose naturally
+through the recognition by the Greeks of the important place in
+education occupied by physical culture, and of the relation between
+exercise and health. The gymnasium accordingly became connected with
+education on the one hand and with medicine on the other. Due training
+of the body and maintenance of the health and strength of children were
+the chief part of earlier Greek education. Except the time devoted to
+letters and music, the education of boys was conducted in the gymnasia,
+where provision was made, as already mentioned, for their moral as well
+as their physical training. As they grew older, conversation and social
+intercourse took the place of the more systematic discipline.
+Philosophers and sophists assembled to talk and to lecture in the
+gymnasia, which thus became places of general resort for the purpose of
+all less systematic intellectual pursuits, as well as for physical
+exercises. In Athens there were three great public gymnasia--Academy,
+Lyceum and Cynosarges--each of which was consecrated to a special deity
+with whose statue it was adorned; and each was rendered famous by
+association with a celebrated school of philosophy. Plato's teaching in
+the Academy has given immortality to that gymnasium; Aristotle conferred
+lustre on the Lyceum; and the Cynosarges was the resort of the Cynics.
+Plato when treating of education devotes much consideration to
+gymnastics (see especially _Rep._ iii. and various parts of _Laws_); and
+according to Plato it was the sophist Prodicus who first pointed out the
+connexion between gymnastics and health. Having found such exercises
+beneficial to his own weak health, he formulated a method which was
+adopted generally, and which was improved by Hippocrates. Galen lays the
+greatest stress on the proper use of gymnastics, and throughout ancient
+medical writers we find that special exercises are prescribed as the
+cure for special diseases.
+
+The Greek institution of the gymnasium never became popular with the
+Romans, who regarded the training of boys in gymnastics with contempt as
+conducive to idleness and immorality, and of little use from a military
+point of view; though at Sparta gymnastic training had been chiefly
+valued as encouraging warlike tastes and promoting the bodily strength
+needed for the use of weapons and the endurance of hardship. Among the
+Romans of the republic, the games in the Campus Martius, the duties of
+camp life, and the enforced marches and other hardships of actual
+warfare, served to take the place of the gymnastic exercises required by
+the Greeks. The first public gymnasium at Rome was built by Nero and
+another by Commodus. In the middle ages, though jousts and feats of
+horsemanship and field sports of various kinds were popular, the more
+systematic training of the body which the Greeks had associated with the
+gymnasium fell into neglect; while the therapeutic value of special
+exercises as understood by Hippocrates and Galen appears to have been
+lost sight of. Rousseau, in his _Emile_, was the first in modern times
+to call attention to the injurious consequences of such indifference,
+and he insisted on the importance of physical culture as an essential
+part of education. It was probably due in some measure to his influence
+that F. L. Jahn and his followers in Germany, encouraged by the Prussian
+minister Stein, established the _Turnplatze_, or gymnastic schools,
+which played an important part during the War of Liberation, and in the
+political agitations which followed the establishment of the German
+confederation by the Congress of Vienna. The educational reformers
+Pestalozzi and Froebel emphasized the need for systematic physical
+training in any complete scheme of education.
+
+The later development of the classical gymnasium (when it had become the
+school of Intellectual culture rather than of exclusively physical
+exercise), and not the original idea, has been perpetuated in the modern
+use of the word in Germany, where the name "gymnasium" is given to the
+highest grade of secondary school, and the association of the word with
+athleticism has been entirely abandoned. On the other hand, in England,
+France and elsewhere in Europe, as well as in America, the history of
+the word has been precisely the reverse; the connexion of the gymnasium
+with philosophy and mental culture has been dropped, and it indicates a
+building exclusively intended for the practice of physical exercises.
+But whereas the Greeks received training in the gymnasium for contests
+which are now designated as _athletic sports_ (q.v.), gymnastics in the
+modern sense is a term restricted to such exercises as are usually
+practised indoors, with or without the aid of mechanical appliances, as
+distinguished from sports or games practised in the open air.
+
+It was not until near the end of the 19th century that gymnastics were
+recognized in England as anything more than a recreation; their value as
+a specifically therapeutic agent, or as an article in the curriculum of
+elementary schools, was not realized. More recently, however,
+educationists have urged with increasing insistence the need for
+systematic physical training, and their views received greater attention
+when evidence of deterioration in the physique of the people began to
+accumulate. During the first decade of the 20th century more than one
+commission reported to parliament in England in favour of more
+systematic and general physical training being encouraged or even made
+compulsory by public authority. Voluntary associations were formed for
+encouraging such training and providing facilities for it. Gymnastics
+had already for several years been an essential part of the training of
+army recruits with exceedingly beneficial results, and gymnasia had been
+established at Aldershot and other military centres. Physical exercises,
+although not compulsory, obtained a permanent place in the code for
+elementary schools in Great Britain; and much care has been taken to
+provide a syllabus of exercises adapted for the improvement of the
+physique of the children. These exercises are partly gymnastic and
+partly of the nature of drill; they do not in most cases require the use
+of appliances, and are on that account known as "free movements," which
+numbers of children go through together, accompanied whenever possible
+by music. On the other hand at the larger public schools and
+universities there are elaborate gymnasia equipped with a great variety
+of apparatus, the skilful use of which demands assiduous practice; and
+this is encouraged by annual contests between teams of gymnasts
+representing rival institutions.
+
+
+  Gymnastic apparatus.
+
+The appliances vary to some extent in different gymnasia, some of the
+more complicated requiring a greater amount of space and involving a
+larger cost than is often practicable. But where these considerations
+are negligible, substantial uniformity is to be found in the equipment
+of gymnasia not designed for specifically medical purposes. The
+simplest, and in many respects the most generally useful, of all
+gymnastic apparatus is the dumb-bell. It was in use in England as early
+as the time of Elizabeth, and it has the advantage that it admits of
+being exactly proportioned to the individual strength of each learner,
+and can be adjusted in weight as his strength increases. The exercises
+that may be performed with the dumb-bell, combined with a few simple
+drill-like movements, give employment to all parts of the body and to
+both sides equally. Dumb-bell exercises, therefore, when arranged
+judiciously and with knowledge, are admirably suited for developing the
+physique, and are extensively employed in schools both for boys and
+girls. The bar-bell is merely a two-handed dumb-bell, and its use is
+similar in principle. The Indian club is also in use in most gymnasia;
+but the risk of overstraining the body by its unskilful handling makes
+it less generally popular than the dumb-bell. All these appliances may
+be, and often are, used either in ordinary schoolrooms or elsewhere
+outside the gymnasium. The usual fixed sorts of apparatus, the presence
+of which (or of some of them) in a building may be said to constitute it
+a gymnasium, are the following: a leaping-rope; a leaping-pole; a
+vaulting-horse; a horizontal bar, so mounted between two upright posts
+that its height from the ground may be adjusted as desired; parallel
+bars, used for exercises to develop the muscles of the trunk and arms;
+the trapeze consisting of a horizontal bar suspended by ropes at a
+height of 4 to 5 ft. from the ground; the bridge ladder; the plank; the
+inclined plane; the mast; swinging rings; the prepared wall; the
+horizontal beam.
+
+Before the end of the 19th century the therapeutic value of gymnastics
+was fully realized by the medical profession; and a number of medical or
+surgical gymnasia came into existence, provided with specially devised
+apparatus for the treatment of different physical defects or weaknesses.
+The exercises practised in them are arranged upon scientific principles
+based on anatomical and physiological knowledge; and these principles
+have spread thence to influence largely the practice of gymnastics in
+schools and in the army. A French medical writer enumerates seven
+distinct groups of maladies, each including a number of different
+complaints, for which gymnastic exercises are a recognized form of
+treatment; and there are many malformations of the human body, formerly
+believed to be incurable, which are capable of being greatly remedied if
+not entirely corrected by regular gymnastic exercises practised under
+medical direction.
+
+The value of gymnastics both for curing defects, and still more for
+promoting health and the development of normal physique, is recognized
+even more clearly on the continent of Europe than in Great Britain. In
+Germany the government not only controls the practice of gymnastics but
+makes it compulsory for every child and adult to undergo a prescribed
+amount of such physical training. In France also, physical training by
+gymnastics is under state control; in Sweden, Denmark, Switzerland,
+Italy, Russia, systems more or less distinct enjoy a wide popularity;
+and in Finland gymnastics are practised on lines that exhibit national
+peculiarities. The Finns introduce an exceptional degree of variety into
+their exercises as well as into the appliances devised to assist them;
+women are scarcely less expert than men in the performance of them; and
+the enthusiasm with which the system is supported produces the most
+beneficial results in the physique of the people. International
+gymnastic contests have become a feature of the revived Olympic Games
+(see ATHLETIC SPORTS), and in those held at Athens in 1906 a team of
+Danish ladies took part in the competition and proved by their skilful
+performance that gymnastics may be practised with as much success by
+women as by men.
+
+  The chief work on the ancient gymnastics is Krause, _Gymnastik und
+  Agonistik der Hellenen_ (1841); of more recent works mention may be
+  made of Jager, _Gymnastik der Hellenen_ (1881); L. Grasberger,
+  _Erziehung und Unterricht im klassischen Altertum_ (1881); J. P.
+  Mahaffy, _Old Greek Education_ (1883); A. S. Wilkins, _National
+  Education in Greece_ (1873); E. Paz, _Histoire de la gymnastique_
+  (1886); Wickenhagen, _Antike und moderne Gymnastik_ (1891);
+  Becker-Goll, _Charicles_ ii.; Brugsma, _Gymnasiorum apud Graecos
+  descriptio_ (1855); Petersen, _Das Gymnasium der Griechen_ (1858). See
+  also N. Laisne, _Gymnastique pratique_ (Paris, 1879); Collineau, _La
+  Gymnastique_ (Paris, 1884); _L'Hygiene a l'ecole_ (Paris, 1889); P. de
+  Coubertin, _La Gymnastique utilitaire_ (Paris, 1905); H. Nissen,
+  _Rational Home Gymnastics_ (Boston, 1903).     (R. J. M.)
+
+
+
+
+GYMNOSOPHISTS (Lat. _gymnosophistae_, from Gr. [Greek: gymnos,
+sophistes], "naked philosophers"), the name given by the Greeks to
+certain ancient Hindu philosophers who pursued asceticism to the point
+of regarding food and clothing as detrimental to purity of thought. From
+the fact that they often lived as hermits in forests, the Greeks also
+called them _Hylobioi_ (cf. the _Vana-prasthas_ in Sanskrit writings).
+Diogenes Laertius (ix. 61 and 63) refers to them, and asserts that
+Pyrrho of Elis, the founder of pure scepticism, came under their
+influence, and on his return to Elis imitated their habits of life, to
+what extent does not appear. Strabo (xv. 711, 714) divides them into
+Brahmans and Sarmans (or Shamans). See JAINS.
+
+
+
+
+GYMNOSPERMS, in Botany. The Gymnosperms, with the Angiosperms,
+constitute the existing groups of seed-bearing plants or Phanerogams:
+the importance of the seed as a distinguishing feature in the plant
+kingdom may be emphasized by the use of the designation Spermophyta for
+these two groups, in contrast to the Pteridophyta and Bryophyta in which
+true seeds are unknown. Recent discoveries have, however, established
+the fact that there existed in the Palaeozoic era fern-like plants which
+produced true seeds of a highly specialized type; this group, for which
+Oliver and Scott proposed the term Pteridospermae in 1904, must also be
+included in the Spermophyta. Another instance of the production of seeds
+in an extinct plant which further reduces the importance of this
+character as a distinguishing feature is afforded by the Palaeozoic
+genus _Lepidocarpon_ described by Scott in 1901; this lycopodiaceous
+type possessed an integumented megaspore, to which the designation seed
+may be legitimately applied (see PALAEOBOTANY: _Palaeozoic_).
+
+As the name Gymnosperm (Gr. [Greek: gymnos], naked, [Greek: sperma],
+seed) implies, one characteristic of this group is the absence of an
+ovary or closed chamber containing the ovules. It was the English
+botanist Robert Brown who first recognized this important distinguishing
+feature in conifers and cycads in 1825; he established the gymnospermy
+of these seed-bearing classes as distinct from the angiospermy of the
+monocotyledons and dicotyledons. As Sachs says in his history of botany,
+"no more important discovery was ever made in the domain of comparative
+morphology and systematic botany." As Coulter and Chamberlain express
+it, "the habitats of the Gymnosperms to-day indicate that they either
+are not at home in the more genial conditions affected by Angiosperms,
+or have not been able to maintain themselves in competition with this
+group of plants."
+
+These naked-seeded plants are of special interest on account of their
+great antiquity, which far exceeds that of the Angiosperms, and as
+comprising different types which carry us back to the Palaeozoic era and
+to the forests of the coal period. The best known and by far the largest
+division of the Gymnosperms is that of the cone-bearing trees (pines,
+firs, cedars, larches, &c.), which play a prominent part in the
+vegetation of the present day, especially in the higher latitudes of the
+northern hemisphere; certain members of this class are of considerable
+antiquity, but the conifers as a whole are still vigorous and show but
+little sign of decadence. The division known as the Cycadophyta is
+represented by a few living genera of limited geographical range and by
+a large number of extinct types which in the Mesozoic era (see
+PALAEOBOTANY: _Mesozoic_) played a conspicuous part in the vegetation of
+the world. Among existing Cycadophyta we find surviving types which, in
+their present isolation, their close resemblance to fossil forms, and in
+certain morphological features, constitute links with the past that not
+only connect the present with former periods in the earth's history, but
+serve as sign-posts pointing the way back along one of the many lines
+which evolution has followed.
+
+It is needless to discuss at length the origin of the Gymnosperms. The
+two views which find most favour in regard to the Coniferales and
+Cycadophyta are: (1) that both have been derived from remote filicinean
+ancestors; (2) that the cycads are the descendants of a fern-like stock,
+while conifers have been evolved from lycopodiaceous ancestors. The line
+of descent of recent cycads is comparatively clear in so far as they
+have undoubted affinity with Palaeozoic plants which combined cycadean
+and filicinean features; but opinion is much more divided as to the
+nature of the phylum from which the conifers are derived. The
+Cordaitales (see PALAEOBOTANY: _Palaeozoic_) are represented by extinct
+forms only, which occupied a prominent position in the Palaeozoic
+period; these plants exhibit certain features in common with the living
+Araucarias, and others which invite a comparison with the maidenhair
+tree (_Ginkgo biloba_), the solitary survivor of another class of
+Gymnosperms, the Ginkgoales (see PALAEOBOTANY: _Mesozoic_). The Gnetales
+are a class apart, including three living genera, of which we know next
+to nothing as regards their past history or line of descent. Although
+there are several morphological features in the three genera of Gnetales
+which might seem to bring them into line with the Angiosperms, it is
+usual to regard these resemblances as parallel developments along
+distinct lines rather than to interpret them as evidence of direct
+relationship.
+
+  _Gymnospermae._--Trees or shrubs; leaves vary considerably in size and
+  form. Flowers unisexual, except in a few cases (Gnetales) without a
+  perianth. Monoecious or dioecious. Ovules naked, rarely without
+  carpellary leaves, usually borne on carpophylls, which assume various
+  forms. The single megaspore enclosed in the nucellus is filled with
+  tissue (prothallus) before fertilization, and contains two or more
+  archegonia, consisting usually of a large egg-cell and a small neck,
+  rarely of an egg-cell only and no neck (_Gnetum_ and _Welwitschia_).
+  Microspore spherical or oval, with or without a bladder-like extension
+  of the exine, containing a prothallus of two or more cells, one of
+  which produces two non-motile or motile male cells. Cotyledons two or
+  several. Secondary xylem and phloem produced by a single cambium, or
+  by successive cambial zones; no true vessels (except in the Gnetales)
+  in the wood, and no companion-cells in the phloem.
+
+      I. _Pteridospermae_ (see PALAEOBOTANY, PALAEOZOIC).
+     II. _Cycadophyta_.
+            A. Cycadales (recent and extinct).
+            B. Bennettitales (see Palaeobotany: _Mesozoic_).
+    III. _Cordaitales_ (see PALAEOBOTANY: _Palaeozoic_).
+     IV. _Ginkgoales_ (recent and extinct).
+      V. _Coniferales_.
+            A. Taxaceae.
+            B. Pinaceae.
+
+  There is no doubt that the result of recent research and of work now
+  in progress will be to modify considerably the grouping of the
+  conifers. The family _Araucarieae_, represented by _Araucaria_ and
+  _Agathis_, should perhaps be separated as a special class and a
+  rearrangement of other genera more in accord with a natural system of
+  classification will soon be possible; but for the present its twofold
+  subdivision may be retained.
+
+     VI. _Gnetales_.
+            A. Ephedroideae.
+            B. Gnetoideae.
+            C. Welwitschioideae (Tumboideae).
+
+  CYCADOPHYTA.--A. _Cycadales._--Stems tuberous or columnar, not
+  infrequently branched, rarely epiphytic (Peruvian species of _Zamia_);
+  fronds pinnate, bi-pinnate in the Australian genus _Bowenia_.
+  Dioecious; flowers in the form of cones, except the female flowers of
+  _Cycas_, which consist of a rosette of leaf-like carpels at the apex
+  of the stem. Seeds albuminous, with one integument; the single embryo,
+  usually bearing two partially fused cotyledons, is attached to a long
+  tangled suspensor. Stems and roots increase in diameter by secondary
+  thickening, the secondary wood being produced by one cambium or
+  developed from successive cambium-rings.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Stem of _Cycas_. F, foliage-leaf bases; S,
+  scale-leaf bases.]
+
+  The cycads constitute a homogeneous group of a few living members
+  confined to tropical and sub-tropical regions. As a fairly typical and
+  well-known example of the Cycadaceae, a species of the genus _Cycas_
+  (e.g. _C. circinalis_, _C. revoluta_, &c.) is briefly described. The
+  stout columnar stem may reach a height of 20 metres, and a diameter of
+  half a metre; it remains either unbranched or divides near the summit
+  into several short and thick branches, each branch terminating in a
+  crown of long pinnate leaves. The surface of the stem is covered with
+  rhomboidal areas, which represent the persistent bases of foliage- and
+  scale-leaves. In some species of _Cycas_ there is a well-defined
+  alternation of transverse zones on the stem, consisting of larger
+  areas representing foliage-leaf bases, and similar but smaller areas
+  formed by the bases of scale-leaves (F and S, fig. 1). The
+  scale-leaves clothing the terminal bud are linear-lanceolate in form,
+  and of a brown or yellow colour; they are pushed aside as the
+  stem-axis elongates and becomes shrivelled, finally falling off,
+  leaving projecting bases which are eventually cut off at a still lower
+  level. Similarly, the dead fronds fall off, leaving a ragged petiole,
+  which is afterwards separated from the stem by an absciss-layer a
+  short distance above the base. In some species of _Cycas_ the
+  leaf-bases do not persist as a permanent covering to the stem, but the
+  surface is covered with a wrinkled bark, as in _Cycas siamensis_,
+  which has a stem of unusual form (fig. 2). Small tuberous shoots,
+  comparable on a large scale with the bulbils of _Lycopodium Selago_,
+  are occasionally produced in the axils of some of the persistent
+  leaf-bases; these are characteristic of sickly plants, and serve as a
+  means of vegetative reproduction. In the genus _Cycas_ the female
+  flower is peculiar among cycads in consisting of a terminal crown of
+  separate leaf-like carpels several inches in length; the apical
+  portion of each carpellary leaf may be broadly triangular in form, and
+  deeply dissected on the margins into narrow woolly appendages like
+  rudimentary pinnae. From the lower part of a carpel are produced
+  several laterally placed ovules, which become bright red or orange on
+  ripening; the bright fleshy seeds, which in some species are as large
+  as a goose's egg, and the tawny spreading carpels produce a pleasing
+  combination of colour in the midst of the long dark-green fronds,
+  which curve gracefully upwards and outwards from the summit of the
+  columnar stem. In _Cycas_ the stem apex, after producing a cluster of
+  carpellary leaves, continues to elongate and produces more bud-scales,
+  which are afterwards pushed aside as a fresh crown of fronds is
+  developed. The young leaves of _Cycas_ consist of a straight rachis
+  bearing numerous linear pinnae, traversed by a single midrib; the
+  pinnae are circinately coiled like the leaf of a fern (fig. 3). The
+  male flower of _Cycas_ conforms to the type of structure
+  characteristic of the cycads, and consists of a long cone of numerous
+  sporophylls bearing many oval pollen-sacs on their lower faces. The
+  type described serves as a convenient representative of its class.
+  There are eight other living genera, which may be classified as
+  follows:--
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--_Cycas siamensis._]
+
+  _Classification._--A. _Cycadeae._--Characterized by (a) the
+  alternation of scale- and foliage-leaves (fig. 1) on the branched or
+  unbranched stem; (b) the growth of the main stem through the female
+  flower; (c) the presence of a prominent single vein in the linear
+  pinnae; (d) the structure of the female flower, which is peculiar in
+  not having the form of a cone, but consists of numerous independent
+  carpels, each of which bears two or more lateral ovules. Represented
+  by a single genus, _Cycas_. (Tropical Asia, Australia, &c.).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--_Cycas._ Young Frond.]
+
+  B. _Zamieae._--The stem does not grow through the female flower; both
+  male and female flowers are in the form of cones. (a)
+  _Stangerieae._--Characterized by the fern-like venation of the pinnae,
+  which have a prominent midrib, giving off at a wide angle simple or
+  forked and occasionally anastomosing lateral veins. A single genus,
+  _Stangeria_, confined to South Africa, (b) _Euzamieae._--The pinnae
+  are traversed by several parallel veins. _Bowenia_, an Australian
+  cycad, is peculiar in having bi-pinnate fronds (fig. 5). The various
+  genera are distinguished from one another by the shape and manner of
+  attachment of the pinnae, the form of the carpellary scales, and to
+  some extent by anatomical characters. _Encephalartos_ (South and
+  Tropical Africa).--Large cones; the carpellary scales terminate in a
+  peltate distal expansion. _Macrozamia_ (Australia).--Similar to
+  _Encephalartos_ except in the presence of a spinous projection from
+  the swollen distal end of the carpels. _Zamia_ (South America,
+  Florida, &c.).--Stem short and often divided into several columnar
+  branches. Each carpel terminates in a peltate head. _Ceratozamia_
+  (Mexico).--Similar in habit to _Macrozamia_, but distinguished by the
+  presence of two horn-like spinous processes on the apex of the
+  carpels. _Microcycas_ (Cuba).--Like _Zamia_, except that the ends of
+  the stamens are flat, while the apices of the carpels are peltate.
+  _Dioon_ (Mexico) (fig. 4).--Characterized by the woolly scale-leaves
+  and carpels; the latter terminate in a thick laminar expansion of
+  triangular form, bearing two placental cushions, on which the ovules
+  are situated. _Bowenia_ (Australia).--Bi-pinnate fronds; stem short
+  and tuberous (fig. 5).
+
+  [Illustration: From a photograph of a plant in Peradeniya Gardens,
+  Ceylon, by Professor R. H. Yapp.
+
+  FIG. 4.--_Dioon edule._]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--_Bowenia spectabilis_: frond.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.--_Macrozamia heteromera_. A, part of frond; B,
+  single pinna.]
+
+
+    Stem and leaf.
+
+  The stems of cycads are often described as unbranched; it is true that
+  in comparison with conifers, in which the numerous branches, springing
+  from the main stem, give a characteristic form to the tree, the
+  tuberous or columnar stem of the Cycadaceae constitutes a striking
+  distinguishing feature. Branching, however, occurs not infrequently:
+  in _Cycas_ the tall stem often produces several candelabra-like arms;
+  in _Zamia_ the main axis may break up near the base into several
+  cylindrical branches; in species of _Dioon_ (fig. 4) lateral branches
+  are occasionally produced. The South African _Encephalartos_
+  frequently produces several branches. Probably the oldest example of
+  this genus in cultivation is in the Botanic Garden of Amsterdam, its
+  age is considered by Professor de Vries to be about two thousand
+  years: although an accurate determination of age is impossible, there
+  is no doubt that many cycads grow very slowly and are remarkable for
+  longevity. The thick armour of petiole-bases enveloping the stem is a
+  characteristic Cycadean feature; in _Cycas_ the alternation of
+  scale-leaves and fronds is more clearly shown than in other cycads; in
+  _Encephalartos_, _Dioon_, &c., the persistent scale-leaf bases are
+  almost equal in size to those of the foliage-leaves, and there is no
+  regular alternation of zones such as characterizes some species of
+  _Cycas_. Another type of stem is illustrated by _Stangeria_ and
+  _Zamia_, also by a few forms of _Cycas_ (fig. 2), in which the fronds
+  fall off completely, leaving a comparatively smooth stem. The _Cyas_
+  type of frond, except as regards the presence of a midrib in each
+  pinna, characterizes the cycads generally, except _Bowenia_ and
+  _Stangeria_. In the monotypic genus _Bowenia_ the large fronds, borne
+  singly on the short and thick stem, are bi-pinnate (fig. 5); the
+  segments, which are broadly ovate or rhomboidal, have several forked
+  spreading veins, and resemble the large pinnules of some species of
+  _Adiantum_. In _Stangeria_, also a genus represented by one species
+  (_S. paradoxa_ of South Africa), the long and comparatively broad
+  pinnae, with an entire or irregularly incised margin, are very
+  fern-like, a circumstance which led Kunze to describe the plant in
+  1835 as a species of the fern _Lomaria_. In rare cases the pinnae of
+  cycads are lobed or branched: in _Dioon spinulosum_ (Central America)
+  the margin of the segments bears numerous spinous processes; in some
+  species of _Encephalartos_, e.g. _E. horridus_, the lamina is deeply
+  lobed; and in a species of the Australian genus _Macrozamia_, _M.
+  heteromera_, the narrow pinnae are dichotomously branched almost to
+  the base (fig. 6), and resemble the frond of some species of the fern
+  _Schizaea_, or the fossil genus _Baiera_ (Ginkgoales). An interesting
+  species of _Cycas_, _C. Micholitzii_, has recently been described by
+  Sir William Thiselton-Dyer from Annam, where it was collected by one
+  of Messrs Sanders & Son's collectors, in which the pinnae instead of
+  being of the usual simple type are dichotomously branched as in
+  _Macrozamia heteromera_. In _Ceratozamia_ the broad petiole-base is
+  characterized by the presence of two lateral spinous processes,
+  suggesting stipular appendages, comparable, on a reduced scale, with
+  the large stipules of the Marattiaceae among Ferns. The vernation
+  varies in different genera; in _Cycas_ the rachis is straight and the
+  pinnae circinately coiled (fig. 3); in _Encephalartos_, _Dioon_, &c.,
+  both rachis and segments are straight; in _Zamia_ the rachis is bent
+  or slightly coiled, bearing straight pinnae. The young leaves arise on
+  the stem-apex as conical protuberances with winged borders on which
+  the pinnae appear as rounded humps, usually in basipetal order; the
+  scale-leaves in their young condition resemble fronds, but the lamina
+  remains undeveloped. A feature of interest in connexion with the
+  phylogeny of cycads is the presence of long hairs clothing the
+  scale-leaves, and forming a cap on the summit of the stem-apex or
+  attached to the bases of petioles; on some fossil cycadean plants
+  these outgrowths have the form of scales, and are identical in
+  structure with the ramenta (paleae) of the majority of ferns.
+
+
+    Flower.
+
+  The male flowers of cycads are constructed on a uniform plan, and in
+  all cases consist of an axis bearing crowded, spirally disposed
+  sporophylls. These are often wedge-shaped and angular; in some cases
+  they consist of a short, thick stalk, terminating in a peltate
+  expansion, or prolonged upwards in the form of a triangular lamina.
+  The sporangia (pollen-sacs), which occur on the under-side of the
+  stamens, are often arranged in more or less definite groups or sori,
+  interspersed with hairs (paraphyses); dehiscence takes place along a
+  line marked out by the occurrence of smaller and thinner-walled cells
+  bounded by larger and thicker-walled elements, which form a fairly
+  prominent cap-like "annulus" near the apex of the sporangium, not
+  unlike the annulus characteristic of the Schizaeaceae among ferns. The
+  sporangial wall, consisting of several layers of cells, encloses a
+  cavity containing numerous oval spores (pollen-grains). In structure a
+  cycadean sporangium recalls those of certain ferns (Marattiaceae,
+  Osmundaceae and Schizaeaceae), but in the development of the spores
+  there are certain peculiarities not met with among the Vascular
+  Cryptogams. With the exception of _Cycas_, the female flowers are also
+  in the form of cones, bearing numerous carpellary scales. In _Cycas
+  revoluta_ and _C. circinalis_ each leaf-like carpel may produce
+  several laterally attached ovules, but in _C. Normanbyana_ the carpel
+  is shorter and the ovules are reduced to two; this latter type brings
+  us nearer to the carpels of _Dioon_, in which the flower has the form
+  of a cone, and the distal end of the carpels is longer and more
+  leaf-like than in the other genera of the _Zamieae_, which are
+  characterized by shorter carpels with thick peltate heads bearing two
+  ovules on the morphologically lower surface. The cones of cycads
+  attain in some cases (e.g. _Encephalartos_) a considerable size,
+  reaching a length of more than a foot. Cases have been recorded (by
+  Thiselton-Dyer in _Encephalartos_ and by Wieland in _Zamia_) in which
+  the short carpellary cone-scales exhibit a foliaceous form. It is
+  interesting that no monstrous cycadean cone has been described in
+  which ovuliferous and staminate appendages are borne on the same axis:
+  in the Bennettitales (see PALAEOBOTANY: _Mesozoic_) flowers were
+  produced bearing on the same axis both androecium and gynoecium.
+
+
+    Microspores and megaspores.
+
+  The pollen-grains when mature consist of three cells, two small and
+  one large cell; the latter grows into the pollen-tube, as in the
+  Coniferales, and from one of the small cells two large ciliated
+  spermatozoids are eventually produced. A remarkable exception to this
+  rule has recently been recorded by Caldwell, who found that in
+  _Microcycas Calocoma_ the body-cells may be eight or even ten in
+  number and the sperm-cells twice as numerous. One of the most
+  important discoveries made during the latter part of the 19th century
+  was that by Ikeno, a Japanese botanist, who first demonstrated the
+  existence of motile male cells in the genus _Cycas_. Similar
+  spermatozoids were observed in some species of _Zamia_ by H. J.
+  Webber, and more recent work enables us to assume that all cycads
+  produce ciliated male gametes. Before following the growth of the
+  pollen-grain after pollination, we will briefly describe the structure
+  of a cycadean ovule. An ovule consists of a conical nucellus
+  surrounded by a single integument. At an early stage of development a
+  large cell makes its appearance in the central region of the nucellus;
+  this increases in size and eventually forms three cells; the lowest of
+  these grows vigorously and constitutes the megaspore (embryo-sac),
+  which ultimately absorbs the greater part of the nucellus. The
+  megaspore-nucleus divides repeatedly, and cells are produced from the
+  peripheral region inwards, which eventually fill the spore-cavity with
+  a homogeneous tissue (prothallus); some of the superficial cells at
+  the micropylar end of the megaspore increase in size and divide by a
+  tangential wall into two, an upper cell which gives rise to the short
+  two-celled neck of the archegonium, and a lower cell which develops
+  into a large egg-cell. Each megaspore may contain 2 to 6 archegonia.
+  During the growth of the ovum nourishment is supplied from the
+  contents of the cells immediately surrounding the egg-cell, as in the
+  development of the ovum of _Pinus_ and other conifers. Meanwhile the
+  tissue in the apical region of the nucellus has been undergoing
+  disorganization, which results in the formation of a pollen-chamber
+  (fig. 7, C) immediately above the megaspore. Pollination in cycads has
+  always been described as anemophilous, but according to recent
+  observations by Pearson on South African species it seems probable
+  that, at least in some cases, the pollen is conveyed to the ovules by
+  animal agency. The pollen-grains find their way between the
+  carpophylls, which at the time of pollination are slightly apart owing
+  to the elongation of the internodes of the flower-axis, and pass into
+  the pollen-chamber; the large cell of the pollen-grain grows out into
+  a tube (Pt), which penetrates the nucellar tissue and often branches
+  repeatedly; the pollen-grain itself, with the prothallus-cells,
+  projects freely into the pollen-chamber (fig. 7). The nucleus of the
+  outermost (second) small cell (fig. 7, G) divides, and one of the
+  daughter-nuclei passes out of the cell, and may enter the lowest
+  (first) small cell. The outermost cell, by the division of the
+  remaining nucleus, produces two large spermatozoids (fig. 8, a, a). In
+  _Microcycas_ 16 sperm-cells are produced. In the course of division
+  two bodies appear in the cytoplasm, and behave as centrosomes during
+  the karyokinesis; they gradually become threadlike and coil round each
+  daughter nucleus. This thread gives rise to a spiral ciliated band
+  lying in a depression on the body of each spermatozoid; the large
+  spermatozoids eventually escape from the pollen-tube, and are able to
+  perform ciliary movements in the watery liquid which occurs between
+  the thin papery remnant of nucellar tissue and the archegonial necks.
+  Before fertilization a neck-canal cell is formed by the division of
+  the ovum-nucleus. After the body of a spermatozoid has coalesced with
+  the egg-nucleus the latter divides repeatedly and forms a mass of
+  tissue which grows more vigorously in the lower part of the fertilized
+  ovum, and extends upwards towards the apex of the ovum as a peripheral
+  layer of parenchyma surrounding a central space. By further growth
+  this tissue gives rise to a proembryo, which consists, at the
+  micropylar end, of a sac; the tissue at the chalazal end grows into a
+  long and tangled suspensor, terminating in a mass of cells, which is
+  eventually differentiated into a radicle, plumule and two cotyledons.
+  In the ripe seed the integument assumes the form of a fleshy envelope,
+  succeeded internally by a hard woody shell, internal to which is a
+  thin papery membrane--the apical portion of the nucellus--which is
+  easily dissected out as a conical cap covering the apex of the
+  endosperm. A thorough examination of cycadean seeds has recently been
+  made by Miss Stopes, more particularly with a view to a comparison of
+  their vascular supply with that in Palaeozoic gymnospermous seeds
+  (_Flora_, 1904). The first leaves borne on the seedling axis are often
+  scale-like, and these are followed by two or more larger laminae,
+  which foreshadow the pinnae of the adult frond.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--_Zamia._ Part of Ovule in longitudinal
+  section. (After Webber.)
+
+    P,  Prothallus.
+    A,  Archegonia.
+    N,  Nucellus.
+    C,  Pollen-chamber.
+    Pt, Pollen-tube.
+    Pg, Pollen-grain.
+    G, Generative cell (second cell of pollen-tube).]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.--_Zamia._ Proximal end of Pollen-tube, a, a,
+  Spermatozoids from G of fig. 7; Pg, pollen-grain; c, proximal cell
+  (first cell). (After Webber.)]
+
+
+    Anatomy.
+
+    Roots.
+
+  The anatomical structure of the vegetative organs of recent cycads is
+  of special interest as affording important evidence of relationship
+  with extinct types, and with other groups of recent plants.
+  Brongniart, who was the first to investigate in detail the anatomy of
+  a cycadean stem, recognized an agreement, as regards the secondary
+  wood, with Dicotyledons and Gymnosperms, rather than with
+  Monocotyledons. He drew attention also to certain structural
+  similarities between _Cycas_ and _Ginkgo_. The main anatomical
+  features of a cycad stem may be summarized as follows: the centre is
+  occupied by a large parenchymatous pith traversed by numerous
+  secretory canals, and in some genera by cauline vascular bundles (e.g.
+  _Encephalartos_ and _Macrozamia_). In addition to these cauline
+  strands (confined to the stem and not connected with the leaves),
+  collateral bundles are often met with in the pith, which form the
+  vascular supply of terminal flowers borne at intervals on the apex of
+  the stem. These latter bundles may be seen in sections of old stems to
+  pursue a more or less horizontal course, passing outwards through the
+  main woody cylinder. This lateral course is due to the more vigorous
+  growth of the axillary branch formed near the base of each flower,
+  which is a terminal structure, and, except in the female flower of
+  _Cycas_, puts a limit to the apical growth of the stem. The vigorous
+  lateral branch therefore continues the line of the main axis. The pith
+  is encircled by a cylinder of secondary wood, consisting of single or
+  multiple radial rows of tracheids separated by broad medullary rays
+  composed of large parenchymatous cells; the tracheids bear numerous
+  bordered pits on the radial walls. The large medullary rays give to
+  the wood a characteristic parenchymatous or lax appearance, which is
+  in marked contrast to the more compact wood of a conifer. The
+  protoxylem-elements are situated at the extreme inner edge of the
+  secondary wood, and may occur as small groups of narrow,
+  spirally-pitted elements scattered among the parenchyma which abuts on
+  the main mass of wood. Short and reticulately-pitted tracheal cells,
+  similar to tracheids, often occur in the circummedullary region of
+  cycadean stems. In an old stem of _Cycas_, _Encephalartos_ or
+  _Macrozamia_ the secondary wood consists of several rather unevenly
+  concentric zones, while in some other genera it forms a continuous
+  mass as in conifers and normal dicotyledons. These concentric rings of
+  secondary xylem and phloem (fig. 9) afford a characteristic cycadean
+  feature. After the cambium has been active for some time producing
+  secondary xylem and phloem, the latter consisting of sieve-tubes,
+  phloem-parenchyma and frequently thick-walled fibres, a second cambium
+  is developed in the pericycle; this produces a second vascular zone,
+  which is in turn followed by a third cambium, and so on, until several
+  hollow cylinders are developed. It has been recently shown that
+  several cambium-zones may remain in a state of activity, so that the
+  formation of a new cambium does not necessarily mark a cessation of
+  growth in the more internal meristematic rings. It occasionally
+  happens that groups of xylem and phloem are developed internally to
+  some of the vascular rings; these are characterized by an inverse
+  orientation of the tissues, the xylem being centrifugal and the phloem
+  centripetal in its development. The broad cortical region, which
+  contains many secretory canals, is traversed by numerous vascular
+  bundles (fig. 9, c) some of which pursue a more or less vertical
+  course, and by frequent anastomoses with one another form a loose
+  reticulum of vascular strands; others are leaf-traces on their way
+  from the stele of the stem to the leaves. Most of these cortical
+  bundles are collateral in structure, but in some the xylem and phloem
+  are concentrically arranged; the secondary origin of these bundles
+  from procambium-strands was described by Mettenius in his classical
+  paper of 1860. During the increase in thickness of a cycadean stem
+  successive layers of cork-tissue are formed by phellogens in the
+  persistent bases of leaves (fig. 9, pd), which increase in size to
+  adapt themselves to the growth of the vascular zones. The leaf-traces
+  of cycads are remarkable both on account of their course and their
+  anatomy. In a transverse section of a stem (fig. 9) one sees some
+  vascular bundles following a horizontal or slightly oblique course in
+  the cortex, stretching for a longer or shorter distance in a direction
+  concentric with the woody cylinder. From each leaf-base two main
+  bundles spread right and left through the cortex of the stem (fig. 9,
+  lt), and as they curve gradually towards the vascular ring they
+  present the appearance of two rather flat ogee curves, usually spoken
+  of as the leaf-trace girdles (fig. 9, lt). The distal ends of these
+  girdles give off several branches, which traverse the petiole and
+  rachis as numerous collateral bundles. The complicated girdle-like
+  course is characteristic of the leaf-traces of most recent cycads, but
+  in some cases, e.g. in _Zamia floridana_, the traces are described by
+  Wieland in his recent monograph on American fossil cycads (_Carnegie
+  Institution Publications_, 1906) as possessing a more direct course
+  similar to that in Mesozoic genera. A leaf-trace, as it passes through
+  the cortex, has a collateral structure, the protoxylem being situated
+  at the inner edge of the xylem; when it reaches the leaf-base the
+  position of the spiral tracheids is gradually altered, and the endarch
+  arrangement (protoxylem internal) gives place to a mesarch structure
+  (protoxylem more or less central and not on the edge of the xylem
+  strand). In a bundle examined in the basal portion of a leaf the bulk
+  of the xylem is found to be centrifugal in position, but internally to
+  the protoxylem there is a group of centripetal tracheids; higher up in
+  the petiole the xylem is mainly centripetal, the centrifugal wood
+  being represented by a small arc of tracheids external to the
+  protoxylem and separated from it by a few parenchymatous elements.
+  Finally, in the pinnae of the frond the centrifugal xylem may
+  disappear, the protoxylem being now exarch in position and abutting on
+  the phloem. Similarly in the sporophylls of some cycads the bundles
+  are endarch near the base and mesarch near the distal end of the
+  stamen or carpel. The vascular system of cycadean seedlings presents
+  some features worthy of note; centripetal xylem occurs in the
+  cotyledonary bundles associated with transfusion-tracheids. The
+  bundles from the cotyledons pursue a direct course to the stele of the
+  main axis, and do not assume the girdle-form characteristic of the
+  adult plant. This is of interest from the point of view of the
+  comparison of recent cycads with extinct species (_Bennettites_), in
+  which the leaf-traces follow a much more direct course than in modern
+  cycads. The mesarch structure of the leaf-bundles is met with in a
+  less pronounced form in the flower peduncles of some cycads. This fact
+  is of importance as showing that the type of vascular structure, which
+  characterized the stems of many Palaeozoic genera, has not entirely
+  disappeared from the stems of modern cycads; but the mesarch bundle is
+  now confined to the leaves and peduncles. The roots of some cycads
+  resemble the stems in producing several cambium-rings; they possess 2
+  to 8 protoxylem-groups, and are characterized by a broad pericyclic
+  zone. A common phenomenon in cycads is the production of roots which
+  grow upwards (apogeotropic), and appear as coralline branched
+  structures above the level of the ground; some of the cortical cells
+  of these roots are hypertrophied, and contain numerous filaments of
+  blue-green Algae (Nostocaceae), which live as endoparasites in the
+  cell-cavities.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.--_Macrozamia._ Diagrammatic transverse section
+  of part of Stem. (After Worsdell.)
+
+    pd, Periderm in leaf-bases.
+    lt, Leaf-traces in cortex.
+    ph, Phloem.
+    x,  Xylem.
+    m,  Medullary bundles.
+    c,  Cortical bundles.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.--_Ginkgo biloba._ Leaves.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.--_Ginkgo adiantoides._ Fossil (Eocene) leaf
+  from the Island of Mull.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12.--_Ginkgo biloba._ A, Male flower; B, C, single
+  stamens; D, female flower.]
+
+  GINKGOALES.--This class-designation has been recently proposed to give
+  emphasis to the isolated position of the genus _Ginkgo_ (_Salisburia_)
+  among the Gymnosperms. _Ginkgo biloba_, the maidenhair tree, has
+  usually been placed by botanists in the Taxeae in the neighbourhood of
+  the yew (_Taxus_), but the proposal by Eichler in 1852 to institute a
+  special family, the _Salisburieae_, indicated a recognition of the
+  existence of special characteristics which distinguish the genus from
+  other members of the Coniferae. The discovery by the Japanese botanist
+  Hirase of the development of ciliated spermatozoids in the pollen-tube
+  of _Ginkgo_, in place of the non-motile male cells of typical
+  conifers, served as a cogent argument in favour of separating the
+  genus from the Coniferales and placing it in a class of its own. In
+  1712 Kaempfer published a drawing of a Japanese tree, which he
+  described under the name _Ginkgo_; this term was adopted in 1771 by
+  Linnaeus, who spoke of Kaempfer's plant as _Ginkgo biloba_. In 1797
+  Smith proposed to use the name _Salisburia adiantifolia_ in preference
+  to the "uncouth" genus _Ginkgo_ and "incorrect" specific term
+  _biloba_. Both names are still in common use. On account of the
+  resemblance of the leaves to those of some species of _Adiantum_, the
+  appellation maidenhair tree has long been given to _Ginkgo biloba_.
+  _Ginkgo_ is of special interest on account of its isolated position
+  among existing plants, its restricted geographical distribution, and
+  its great antiquity (see PALAEOBOTANY: _Mesozoic_). This solitary
+  survivor of an ancient stock is almost extinct, but a few old and
+  presumably wild trees are recorded by travellers in parts of China.
+  _Ginkgo_ is common as a sacred tree in the gardens of temples in the
+  Far East, and often cultivated in North America and Europe. _Ginkgo
+  biloba_, which may reach a height of over 30 metres, forms a tree of
+  pyramidal shape with a smooth grey bark. The leaves (figs. 10 and 11)
+  have a long, slender petiole terminating in a fan-shaped lamina, which
+  may be entire, divided by a median incision into two wedge-shaped
+  lobes, or subdivided into several narrow segments. The venation is
+  like that of many ferns, e.g. _Adiantum_; the lowest vein in each half
+  of the lamina follows a course parallel to the edge, and gives off
+  numerous branches, which fork repeatedly as they spread in a palmate
+  manner towards the leaf margin. The foliage-leaves occur either
+  scattered on long shoots of unlimited growth, or at the apex of short
+  shoots (spurs), which may eventually elongate into long shoots.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13.--_Ginkgo._ Apex of Ovule, and Pollen-grain.
+  (After Hirase.)
+
+    p,  Pollen-tube (proximal end).
+    c,  Pollen-chamber.
+    e,  Upward prolongation of megaspore.
+    a,  Archegonia.
+    Pg, Pollen-grain.
+    Ex, Exine.]
+
+
+    Flowers.
+
+  The flowers are dioecious. The male flowers (fig. 12), borne in the
+  axil of scale-leaves, consist of a stalked central axis bearing
+  loosely disposed stamens; each stamen consists of a slender filament
+  terminating in a small apical scale, which bears usually two, but not
+  infrequently three or four pollen-sacs (fig. 12, C). The axis of the
+  flower is a shoot bearing leaves in the form of stamens. A mature
+  pollen-grain contains a prothallus of 3 to 5 cells (Fig. 13, Pg); the
+  exine extends over two-thirds of the circumference, leaving a thin
+  portion of the wall, which on collapsing produces a longitudinal
+  groove similar to the median depression on the pollen-grain of a
+  cycad. The ordinary type of female flower has the form of a long,
+  naked peduncle bearing a single ovule on either side of the apex (fig.
+  12), the base of each being enclosed by a small, collar-like rim, the
+  nature of which has been variously interpreted. A young ovule consists
+  of a conical nucellus surrounded by a single integument terminating as
+  a two-lipped micropyle. A large pollen-chamber occupies the apex of
+  the nucellus; immediately below this, two or more archegonia (fig. 13,
+  a) are developed in the upper region of the megaspore, each consisting
+  of a large egg-cell surmounted by two neck-cells and a canal-cell
+  which is cut off shortly before fertilization. After the entrance of
+  the pollen-grain the pollen-chamber becomes roofed over by a blunt
+  protuberance of nucellar tissue. The megaspore (embryo-sac) continues
+  to grow after pollination until the greater part of the nucellus is
+  gradually destroyed; it also gives rise to a vertical outgrowth, which
+  projects from the apex of the megaspore as a short, thick column (fig.
+  13, e) supporting the remains of the nucellar tissue which forms the
+  roof of the pollen-chamber (fig. 13, c). Surrounding the pitted wall
+  of the ovum there is a definite layer of large cells, no doubt
+  representing a tapetum, which, as in cycads and conifers, plays an
+  important part in nourishing the growing egg-cell. The endosperm
+  detached from a large _Ginkgo_ ovule after fertilization bears a close
+  resemblance to that of a cycad; the apex is occupied by a depression,
+  on the floor of which two small holes mark the position of the
+  archegonia, and the outgrowth from the megaspore apex projects from
+  the centre as a short peg. After pollination the pollen-tube grows
+  into the nucellar tissue, as in cycads, and the pollen-grain itself
+  (fig. 13, Pg) hangs down into the pollen-chamber; two large spirally
+  ciliated spermatozoids are produced, their manner of development
+  agreeing very closely with that of the corresponding cells in _Cycas_
+  and _Zamia_. After fertilization the ovum-nucleus divides and
+  cell-formation proceeds rapidly, especially in the lower part of the
+  ovum, in which the cotyledon and axis of the embryo are
+  differentiated; the long, tangled suspensor of the cycadean embryo is
+  not found in _Ginkgo_. It is often stated that fertilization occurs
+  after the ovules have fallen, but it has been demonstrated by Hirase
+  that this occurs while the ovules are still attached to the tree. The
+  ripe seed, which grows as large as a rather small plum, is enclosed by
+  a thick, fleshy envelope covering a hard woody shell with two or
+  rarely three longitudinal keels. A papery remnant of nucellus lines
+  the inner face of the woody shell, and, as in cycadean seeds, the
+  apical portion is readily separated as a cap covering the summit of
+  the endosperm.
+
+
+    Anatomy.
+
+  The morphology of the female flowers has been variously interpreted by
+  botanists; the peduncle bearing the ovules has been described as
+  homologous with the petiole of a foliage-leaf and as a
+  shoot-structure, the collar-like envelope at the base of the ovules
+  being referred to as a second integument or arillus, or as the
+  representative of a carpel. The evidence afforded by normal and
+  abnormal flowers appears to be in favour of the following
+  interpretation: The peduncle is a shoot bearing two or more carpels.
+  Each ovule is enclosed at the base by an envelope or collar homologous
+  with the lamina of a leaf; the fleshy and hard coats of the nucellus
+  constitute a single integument. The stalk of an ovule, considerably
+  reduced in normal flowers and much larger in some abnormal flowers, is
+  homologous with a leaf-stalk, with which it agrees in the structure
+  and number of vascular bundles. The facts on which this description is
+  based are derived partly from anatomical evidence, and in part from an
+  account given by a Japanese botanist, Fujii, of several abnormal
+  female flowers; in some cases the collar at the base of an ovule,
+  often described as an arillus, is found to pass gradually into the
+  lamina of a leaf bearing marginal ovules (fig. 14, B). The occurrence
+  of more than two ovules on one peduncle is by no means rare; a
+  particularly striking example is described by Fujii, in which an
+  unusually thick peduncle bearing several stalked ovules terminates in
+  a scaly bud (fig. 14, A, b). The frequent occurrence of more than two
+  pollen-sacs and the equally common occurrence of additional ovules
+  have been regarded by some authors as evidence in favour of the view
+  that ancestral types normally possessed a greater number of these
+  organs than are usually found in the recent species. This view
+  receives support from fossil evidence. Close to the apex of a shoot
+  the vascular bundles of a leaf make their appearance as double
+  strands, and the leaf-traces in the upper part of a shoot have the
+  form of distinct bundles, which in the older part of the shoot form a
+  continuous ring. Each double leaf-trace passes through four internodes
+  before becoming a part of the stele; the double nature of the trace is
+  a characteristic feature. Secretory sacs occur abundantly in the
+  leaf-lamina, where they appear as short lines between the veins; they
+  are abundant also in the cortex and pith of the shoot, in the fleshy
+  integument of the ovule, and elsewhere. The secondary wood of the
+  shoot and root conforms in the main to the coniferous type; in the
+  short shoots the greater breadth of the medullary rays in the more
+  internal part of the xylem recalls the cycadean type. The secondary
+  phloem contains numerous thick-walled fibres, parenchymatous cells,
+  and large sieve-tubes with plates on the radial walls; swollen
+  parenchymatous cells containing crystals are commonly met with in the
+  cortex, pith and medullary-ray tissues. The wood consists of
+  tracheids, with circular bordered pits on their radial walls, and in
+  the late summer wood pits are unusually abundant on the tangential
+  walls. A point of anatomical interest is the occurrence in the
+  vascular bundles of the cotyledons, scale-leaves, and elsewhere of a
+  few centripetally developed tracheids, which give to the xylem-strands
+  a mesarch structure such as characterizes the foliar bundles of
+  cycads. The root is diarch in structure, but additional
+  protoxylem-strands may be present at the base of the main root; the
+  pericycle consists of several layers of cells.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14.--_Ginkgo._ Abnormal female Flowers. A,
+  Peduncle; b, scaly bud; B, leaf bearing marginal ovule. (After
+  Fujii.)]
+
+
+    Geological history.
+
+  This is not the place to discuss in detail the past history of
+  _Ginkgo_ (see PALAEOBOTANY: _Mesozoic_). Among Palaeozoic genera there
+  are some which bear a close resemblance to the recent type in the form
+  of the leaves; and petrified Palaeozoic seeds, almost identical with
+  those of the maidenhair tree, have been described from French and
+  English localities. During the Triassic and Jurassic periods the genus
+  _Baiera_--no doubt a representative of the Ginkgoales--was widely
+  spread throughout Europe and in other regions; _Ginkgo_ itself occurs
+  abundantly in Mesozoic and Tertiary rocks, and was a common plant in
+  the Arctic regions as elsewhere during the Jurassic and Lower
+  Cretaceous periods. Some unusually perfect _Ginkgo_ leaves have been
+  found in the Eocene leaf-beds between the lava-flows exposed in the
+  cliffs of Mull (fig. 11). From an evolutionary point of view, it is of
+  interest to note the occurrence of filicinean and cycadean characters
+  in the maidenhair tree. The leaves at once invite a comparison with
+  ferns; the numerous long hairs which form a delicate woolly covering
+  on young leaves recall the hairs of certain ferns, but agree more
+  closely with the long filamentous hairs of recent cycads. The
+  spermatozoids constitute the most striking link with both cycads and
+  ferns. The structure of the seed, the presence of two neck-cells in
+  the archegonia, the late development of the embryo, the
+  partially-fused cotyledons and certain anatomical characters, are
+  features common to _Ginkgo_ and the cycads. The maidenhair tree is one
+  of the most interesting survivals from the past; it represents a type
+  which, in the Palaeozoic era, may have been merged into the extinct
+  class Cordaitales. Through the succeeding ages the Ginkgoales were
+  represented by numerous forms, which gradually became more restricted
+  in their distribution and fewer in number during the Cretaceous and
+  Tertiary periods, terminating at the present day in one solitary
+  survivor.
+
+  CONIFERALES.--Trees and shrubs characterized by a copious branching of
+  the stem and frequently by a regular pyramidal form. Leaves simple,
+  small, linear or short and scale-like, usually persisting for more
+  than one year. Flowers monoecious or dioecious, unisexual, without a
+  perianth, often in the form of cones, but never terminal on the main
+  stem.
+
+
+    External features.
+
+  The plants usually included in the Coniferae constitute a less
+  homogeneous class than the Cycadaceae. Some authors use the term
+  Coniferae in a restricted sense as including those genera which have
+  the female flowers in the form of cones, the other genera,
+  characterized by flowers of a different type, being placed in the
+  Taxaceae, and often spoken of as Taxads. In order to avoid confusion
+  in the use of the term Coniferae, we may adopt as a class-designation
+  the name Coniferales, including both the Coniferae--using the term in
+  a restricted sense--and the Taxaceae. The most striking characteristic
+  of the majority of the Coniferales is the regular manner of the
+  monopodial branching and the pyramidal shape. _Araucaria imbricata_,
+  the Monkey-puzzle tree, _A. excelsa_, the Norfolk Island pine, many
+  pines and firs, cedars and other genera illustrate the pyramidal form.
+  The mammoth redwood tree of California, _Sequoia (Wellingtonia)
+  gigantea_, which represents the tallest Gymnosperm, is a good example
+  of the regular tapering main stem and narrow pyramidal form. The
+  cypresses afford instances of tall and narrow trees similar in habit
+  to Lombardy poplars. The common cypress (_Cupressus sempervirens_), as
+  found wild in the mountains of Crete and Cyprus, is characterized by
+  long and spreading branches, which give it a cedar-like habit. A
+  pendulous or weeping habit is assumed by some conifers, e.g. _Picea
+  excelsa_ var. _virgata_ represents a form in which the main branches
+  attain a considerable horizontal extension, and trail themselves like
+  snakes along the ground. Certain species of _Pinus_, the yews
+  (_Taxus_) and some other genera grow as bushes, which in place of a
+  main mast-like stem possess several repeatedly-branched leading
+  shoots. The unfavourable conditions in Arctic regions have produced a
+  dwarf form, in which the main shoots grow close to the ground.
+  Artificially induced dwarfed plants of _Pinus_, _Cupressus_,
+  _Sciadopitys_ (umbrella pine) and other genera are commonly cultivated
+  by the Japanese. The dying off of older branches and the vigorous
+  growth of shoots nearer the apex of the stem produce a form of tree
+  illustrated by the stone pine of the Mediterranean region (_Pinus
+  Pinea_), which Turner has rendered familiar in his "Childe Harold's
+  Pilgrimage" and other pictures of Italian scenery. Conifers are not
+  infrequently seen in which a lateral branch has bent sharply upwards
+  to take the place of the injured main trunk. An upward tendency of all
+  the main lateral branches, known as fastigiation, is common in some
+  species, producing well-marked varieties, e.g. _Cephalotaxus
+  pedunculata_ var. _fastigiata_; this fastigiate habit may arise as a
+  sport on a tree with spreading branches. Another departure from the
+  normal is that in which the juvenile or seedling form of shoot
+  persists in the adult tree; the numerous coniferous plants known as
+  species of _Retinospora_ are examples of this. The name _Retinospora_,
+  therefore, does not stand for a true genus, but denotes persistent
+  young forms of _Juniperus_, _Thuja_, _Cupressus_, &c., in which the
+  small scaly leaves of ordinary species are replaced by the slender,
+  needle-like leaves, which stand out more or less at right angles from
+  the branches. The flat branchlets of _Cupressus_, _Thuja_ (arbor
+  vitae), _Thujopsis dolabrata_ (Japanese arbor vitae) are
+  characteristic of certain types of conifers; in some cases the
+  horizontal extension of the branches induces a dorsiventral structure.
+  A characteristic feature of the genus _Agathis (Dammara)_ the Kauri
+  pine of New Zealand, is the deciduous habit of the branches; these
+  become detached from the main trunk leaving a well-defined
+  absciss-surface, which appears as a depressed circular scar on the
+  stem. A new genus of conifers, _Taiwania_, has recently been described
+  from the island of Formosa; it is said to agree in habit with the
+  Japanese _Cryptomeria_, but the cones appear to have a structure which
+  distinguishes them from those of any other genus.
+
+
+    Leaves.
+
+  With a few exceptions conifers are evergreen, and retain the leaves
+  for several years (10 years in _Araucaria imbricata_, 8 to 10 in
+  _Picea excelsa_, 5 in _Taxus baccata_; in _Pinus_ the needles usually
+  fall in October of their third year). The larch (_Larix_) sheds its
+  leaves in the autumn, in the Chinese larch (_Pseudolarix Kaempferi_)
+  the leaves turn a bright yellow colour before falling. In the swamp
+  cypress (_Taxodium distichum_) the tree assumes a rich brown colour in
+  the autumn, and sheds its leaves together with the branchlets which
+  bear them; deciduous branches occur also in some other species, e.g.
+  _Sequoia sempervirens_ (redwood), _Thuja occidentalis_, &c. The leaves
+  of conifers are characterized by their small size, e.g. the
+  needle-form represented by _Pinus_, _Cedrus_, _Larix_, &c., the linear
+  flat or angular leaves, appressed to the branches, of _Thuja_,
+  _Cupressus_, _Libocedrus_, &c. The flat and comparatively broad leaves
+  of _Araucaria imbricata_, _A. Bidwillii_, and some species of the
+  southern genus _Podocarpus_ are traversed by several parallel veins,
+  as are also the still larger leaves of _Agathis_, which may reach a
+  length of several inches. In addition to the foliage-leaves several
+  genera also possess scale-leaves of various kinds, represented by
+  bud-scales in _Pinus_, _Picea_, &c., which frequently persist for a
+  time at the base of a young shoot which has pushed its way through the
+  yielding cap of protecting scales, while in some conifers the
+  bud-scales adhere together, and after being torn near the base are
+  carried up by the growing axis as a thin brown cap. The cypresses,
+  araucarias and some other genera have no true bud-scales; in some
+  species, e.g. _Araucaria Bidwillii_, the occurrence of small
+  foliage-leaves, which have functioned as bud-scales, at intervals on
+  the shoots affords a measure of seasonal growth. The occurrence of
+  long and short shoots is a characteristic feature of many conifers. In
+  _Pinus_ the needles occur in pairs, or in clusters of 3 or 5 at the
+  apex of a small and inconspicuous short shoot of limited growth
+  (spur), which is enclosed at its base by a few scale-leaves, and borne
+  on a branch of unlimited growth in the axil of a scale-leaf. In the
+  Californian _Pinus monophylla_ each spur bears usually one needle, but
+  two are not uncommon; it would seem that rudiments of two needles are
+  always produced, but, as a rule, only one develops into a needle. In
+  _Sciadopitys_ similar spurs occur, each bearing a single needle,
+  which in its grooved surface and in the possession of a double
+  vascular bundle bears traces of an origin from two needle-leaves. A
+  peculiarity of these leaves is the inverse orientation of the vascular
+  tissue; each of the two veins has its phloem next the upper and the
+  xylem towards the lower surface of the leaf; this unusual position of
+  the xylem and phloem may be explained by regarding the needle of
+  _Sciadopitys_ as being composed of a pair of leaves borne on a short
+  axillary shoot and fused by their margins (fig. 15, A). Long and short
+  shoots occur also in _Cedrus_ and _Larix_, but in these genera the
+  spurs are longer and stouter, and are not shed with the leaves; this
+  kind of short shoot, by accelerated apical growth, often passes into
+  the condition of a long shoot on which the leaves are scattered and
+  separated by comparatively long internodes, instead of being crowded
+  into tufts such as are borne on the ends of the spurs. In the genus
+  _Phyllocladus_ (New Zealand, &c.) there are no green foliage-leaves,
+  but in their place flattened branches (phylloclades) borne in the
+  axils of small scale-leaves. The cotyledons are often two in number,
+  but sometimes (e.g. _Pinus_) as many as fifteen; these leaves are
+  usually succeeded by foliage-leaves in the form of delicate spreading
+  needles, and these primordial leaves are followed, sooner or later, by
+  the adult type of leaf, except in Retinosporas, which retain the
+  juvenile foliage. In addition to the first foliage-leaves and the
+  adult type of leaf, there are often produced leaves which are
+  intermediate both in shape and structure between the seedling and
+  adult foliage. Dimorphism or heterophylly is fairly common. One of the
+  best known examples is the Chinese juniper (_Juniperus chinensis_), in
+  which branches with spinous leaves, longer and more spreading than the
+  ordinary adult leaf, are often found associated with the normal type
+  of branch. In some cases, e.g. _Sequoia sempervirens_, the fertile
+  branches bear leaves which are less spreading than those on the
+  vegetative shoots. Certain species of the southern hemisphere genus
+  _Dacrydium_ afford particularly striking instances of heterophylly,
+  e.g. _D. Kirkii_ of New Zealand, in which some branches bear small and
+  appressed leaves, while in others the leaves are much longer and more
+  spreading. A well-known fossil conifer from Triassic strata--_Voltzia
+  heterophylla_--also illustrates a marked dissimilarity in the leaves
+  of the same shoot. The variation in leaf-form and the tendency of
+  leaves to arrange themselves in various ways on different branches of
+  the same plant are features which it is important to bear in mind in
+  the identification of fossil conifers. In this connexion we may note
+  the striking resemblance between some of the New Zealand Alpine
+  Veronicas, e.g. _Veronica Hectori_, _V. cupressoides_, &c. (also
+  _Polycladus cupressinus_, a Composite), and some of the cypresses and
+  other conifers with small appressed leaves. The long linear leaves of
+  some species of _Podocarpus_, in which the lamina is traversed by a
+  single vein, recall the pinnae of Cycas; the branches of some
+  Dacrydiums and other forms closely resemble those of lycopods; these
+  superficial resemblances, both between different genera of conifers
+  and between conifers and other plants, coupled with the usual
+  occurrence of fossil coniferous twigs without cones attached to them,
+  render the determination of extinct types a very unsatisfactory and
+  frequently an impossible task.
+
+
+    Flowers.
+
+  A typical male flower consists of a central axis bearing numerous
+  spirally-arranged sporophylls (stamens), each of which consists of a
+  slender stalk (filament) terminating distally in a more or less
+  prominent knob or triangular scale, and bearing two or more
+  pollen-sacs (microsporangia) on its lower surface. The pollen-grains
+  of some genera (e.g. _Pinus_) are furnished with bladder-like
+  extensions of the outer wall, which serve as aids to wind-dispersal.
+  The stamens of _Araucaria_ and _Agathis_ are peculiar in bearing
+  several long, and narrow free pollen-sacs; these may be compared with
+  the sporangiophores of the horsetails (_Equisetum_); in _Taxus_ (yew)
+  the filament is attached to the centre of a large circular distal
+  expansion, which bears several pollen-sacs on its under surface. In
+  the conifers proper the female reproductive organs have the form of
+  cones, which may be styled flowers or inflorescences according to
+  different interpretations of their morphology. In the Taxaceae the
+  flowers have a simpler structure. The female flowers of the
+  _Abietineae_ may be taken as representing a common type. A pine cone
+  reaches maturity in two years; a single year suffices for the full
+  development in _Larix_ and several other genera. The axis of the cone
+  bears numerous spirally disposed flat scales (cone-scales), each of
+  which, if examined in a young cone, is found to be double, and to
+  consist of a lower and an upper portion. The latter is a thin flat
+  scale bearing a median ridge or keel (e.g. _Abies_), on each side of
+  which is situated an inverted ovule, consisting of a nucellus
+  surrounded by a single integument. As the cone grows in size and
+  becomes woody the lower half of the cone-scale, which we may call the
+  carpellary scale, may remain small, and is so far outgrown by the
+  upper half (seminiferous scale) that it is hardly recognizable in the
+  mature cone. In many species of _Abies_ (e.g. _Abies pectinata_, &c.)
+  the ripe cone differs from those of _Pinus_, _Picea_ and _Cedrus_ in
+  the large size of the carpellary scales, which project as conspicuous
+  thin appendages beyond the distal margins of the broader and more
+  woody seminiferous scales; the long carpellary scale is a prominent
+  feature also in the cone of the Douglas pine (_Pseudotsuga
+  Douglasii_). The female flowers (cones) vary considerably in size; the
+  largest are the more or less spherical cones of _Araucaria_--a single
+  cone of _A. imbricata_ may produce as many as 300 seeds, one seed to
+  each fertile cone-scale--and the long pendent cones, 1 to 2 ft. in
+  length, of the sugar pine of California (_Pinus Lambertiana_) and
+  other species. Smaller cones, less than an inch long, occur in the
+  larch, _Athrotaxis_ (Tasmania), _Fitzroya_ (Patagonia and Tasmania),
+  &c. In the _Taxodieae_ and _Araucarieae_ the cones are similar in
+  appearance to those of the _Abietineae_, but they differ in the fact
+  that the scales appear to be single, even in the young condition; each
+  cone-scale in a genus of the _Taxodiinae_ (_Sequoia_, &c.) bears
+  several seeds, while in the _Araucariinae_ (_Araucaria_ and _Agathis_)
+  each scale has one seed. The _Cupressineae_ have cones composed of a
+  few scales arranged in alternate whorls; each scale bears two or more
+  seeds, and shows no external sign of being composed of two distinct
+  portions. In the junipers the scales become fleshy as the seeds ripen,
+  and the individual scales fuse together in the form of a berry. The
+  female flowers of the Taxaceae assume another form; in _Microcachrys_
+  (Tasmania) the reproductive structures are spirally disposed, and form
+  small globular cones made up of red fleshy scales, to each of which is
+  attached a single ovule enclosed by an integument and partially
+  invested by an arillus; in _Dacrydium_ the carpellary leaves are very
+  similar to the foliage leaves--each bears one ovule with two
+  integuments, the outer of which constitutes an arillus. Finally in the
+  yew, as a type of the family Taxeae, the ovules occur singly at the
+  apex of a lateral branch, enclosed when ripe by a conspicuous red or
+  yellow fleshy arillus, which serves as an attraction to animals, and
+  thus aids in the dispersal of the seeds.
+
+
+    Morphology of female flower.
+
+  It is important to draw attention to some structural features
+  exhibited by certain cone-scales, in which there is no external sign
+  indicative of the presence of a carpellary and a seminiferous scale.
+  In _Araucaria Cookii_ and some allied species each scale has a small
+  pointed projection from its upper face near the distal end; the scales
+  of _Cunninghamia_ (China) are characterized by a somewhat ragged
+  membranous projection extending across the upper face between the
+  seeds and the distal end of the scale; in the scales of _Athrotaxis_
+  (Tasmania) a prominent rounded ridge occupies a corresponding
+  position. These projections and ridges may be homologous with the
+  seminiferous scale of the pines, firs, cedars, &c. The simplest
+  interpretation of the cone of the _Abietineae_ is that which regards
+  it as a flower consisting of an axis bearing several open carpels,
+  which in the adult cone may be large and prominent or very small, the
+  scale bearing the ovules being regarded as a placental outgrowth from
+  the flat and open carpel. In _Araucaria_ the cone-scale is regarded as
+  consisting of a flat carpel, of which the placenta has not grown out
+  into the scale-like structure. The seminiferous scale of _Pinus_, &c.,
+  is also spoken of sometimes as a ligular outgrowth from the carpellary
+  leaf. Robert Brown was the first to give a clear description of the
+  morphology of the Abietineous cone in which carpels bear naked ovules;
+  he recognized gymnospermy as an important distinguishing feature in
+  conifers as well as in cycads. Another view is to regard the cone as
+  an inflorescence, each carpellary scale being a bract bearing in its
+  axil a shoot the axis of which has not been developed; the
+  seminiferous scale is believed to represent either a single leaf or a
+  fused pair of leaves belonging to the partially suppressed axillary
+  shoot. In 1869 van Tieghem laid stress on anatomical evidence as a key
+  to the morphology of the cone-scales; he drew attention to the fact
+  that the collateral vascular bundles of the seminiferous scale are
+  inversely orientated as compared with those of the carpellary scale;
+  in the latter the xylem of each bundle is next the upper surface,
+  while in the seminiferous scale the phloem occupies that position. The
+  conclusion drawn from this was that the seminiferous scale (fig. 15,
+  B, Sc) is the first and only leaf of an axillary shoot (b) borne on
+  that side of the shoot, the axis of which is suppressed, opposite the
+  subtending bract (fig. 15, A, B, C, Br). Another view is to apply to
+  the seminiferous scale an explanation similar to that suggested by von
+  Mohl in the case of the double needle of _Sciadopitys_, and to
+  consider the seed-bearing scale as being made up of a pair of leaves
+  (fig. 15, A, a, a) of an axillary shoot (b) fused into one by their
+  posterior margins (fig. 15, A). The latter view receives support from
+  abnormal cones in which carpellary scales subtend axillary shoots, of
+  which the first two leaves (fig. 15, C, l^1, l^1) are often harder and
+  browner than the others; forms have been described transitional
+  between axillary shoots, in which the leaves are separate, and others
+  in which two of the leaves are more or less completely fused. In a
+  young cone the seminiferous scale appears as a hump of tissue at the
+  base or in the axil of the carpellary scale, but Celakovsky, a strong
+  supporter of the axillary-bud theory, attaches little or no importance
+  to this kind of evidence, regarding the present manner of development
+  as being merely an example of a short cut adopted in the course of
+  evolution, and replacing the original production of a branch in the
+  axil of each carpellary scale. Eichler, one of the chief supporters of
+  the simpler view, does not recognize in the inverse orientation of the
+  vascular bundles an argument in support of the axillary-bud theory,
+  but points out that the seminiferous scale, being an outgrowth from
+  the surface of the carpellary scale, would, like outgrowths from an
+  ordinary leaf, naturally have its bundles inversely orientated. In
+  such cone-scales as show little or no external indication of being
+  double in origin, e.g. _Araucaria_ (fig. 15, D) Sequoia, &c., there
+  are always two sets of bundles; the upper set, having the phloem
+  uppermost, as in the seminiferous scale of _Abies_ or _Pinus_, are
+  regarded as belonging to the outgrowth from the carpellary scale and
+  specially developed to supply the ovules. Monstrous cones are fairly
+  common; these in some instances lend support to the axillary-bud
+  theory, and it has been said that this theory owes its existence to
+  evidence furnished by abnormal cones. It is difficult to estimate the
+  value of abnormalities as evidence bearing on morphological
+  interpretation; the chief danger lies perhaps in attaching undue
+  weight to them, but there is also a risk of minimizing their
+  importance. Monstrosities at least demonstrate possible lines of
+  development, but when the abnormal forms of growth in various
+  directions are fairly evenly balanced, trustworthy deductions become
+  difficult. The occurrence of buds in the axils of carpellary scales
+  may, however, simply mean that buds, which are usually undeveloped in
+  the axils of sporophylls, occasionally afford evidence of their
+  existence. Some monstrous cones lend no support to the axillary-bud
+  theory. In _Larix_ the axis of the cone often continues its growth;
+  similarly in _Cephalotaxus_ the cones are often proliferous. (In rare
+  cases the proliferated portion produces male flowers in the
+  leaf-axils.) In _Larix_ the carpellary scale may become leafy, and the
+  seminiferous scale may disappear. Androgynous cones may be produced,
+  as in the cone of _Pinus rigida_ (fig. 16), in which the lower part
+  bears stamens and the upper portion carpellary and seminiferous
+  scales. An interesting case has been figured by Masters, in which
+  scales of a cone of _Cupressus Lawsoniana_ bear ovules on the upper
+  surface and stamens on the lower face. One argument that has been
+  adduced in support of the axillary bud theory is derived from the
+  Palaeozoic type _Cordaites_, in which each ovule occurs on an axis
+  borne in the axil of a bract. The whole question is still unsolved,
+  and perhaps insoluble. It may be that the interpretation of the female
+  cone of the _Abietineae_ as an inflorescence, which finds favour with
+  many botanists, cannot be applied to the cones of _Agathis_ and
+  _Araucaria_. Without expressing any decided opinion as to the
+  morphology of the double cone-scale of the _Abietineae_, preference
+  may be felt in favour of regarding the cone-scale of the _Araucarieae_
+  as a simple carpellary leaf bearing a single ovule. A discussion of
+  this question may be found in a paper on the _Araucarieae_ by Seward
+  and Ford, published in the Transactions of the Royal Society of London
+  (1906). _Cordaites_ is an extinct type which in certain respects
+  resembles _Ginkgo_, cycads and the _Araucarieae_, but its agreement
+  with true conifers is probably too remote to justify our attributing
+  much weight to the bearing of the morphology of its female flowers on
+  the interpretation of that of the Coniferae. The greater simplicity of
+  the Eichler theory may prejudice us in its favour; but, on the other
+  hand, the arguments advanced in favour of the axillary-bud theories
+  are perhaps not sufficiently cogent to lead us to accept an
+  explanation based chiefly on the uncertain evidence of monstrosities.
+
+  [Illustration: (C and D after Worsdell.)
+
+  FIG. 15.--Diagrammatic treatment of:
+
+    A, Double needle of _Sciadopitys_ (a, a, leaves; b, shoot; Br,
+    bract).
+
+    B, seminiferous scale as leaf of axillary shoot (b, shoot; Sc,
+    seminiferous scale; Br, bract).
+
+    C, seminiferous scale as fused pair of leaves (l^1, l^2, 1^3,
+    first, second and third leaves; b, shoot; Br, bract),
+
+    D, cone-scale of _Araucaria_ (n, nucellus; i, integument; x,
+    xylem).]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Abnormal Cone of _Pinus rigida_. (After
+    Masters.)]
+
+
+    Micro-spores and megaspores.
+
+  A pollen-grain when first formed from its mother-cell consists of a
+  single cell; in this condition it may be carried to the nucellus of
+  the ovule (e.g. _Taxus_, _Cupressus_, &c.), or more usually (_Pinus_,
+  _Larix_, &c.) it reaches maturity before the dehiscence of the
+  microsporangium. The nucleus of the microspore divides and gives rise
+  to a small cell within the large cell, a second small cell is then
+  produced; this is the structure of the ripe pollen-grain in some
+  conifers (_Taxus_, &c.). The large cell grows out as a pollen-tube;
+  the second of the two small cells (body-cell) wanders into the tube,
+  followed by the nucleus of the first small cell (stalk-cell). In
+  _Taxus_ the body-cell eventually divides into two, in which the
+  products of division are of unequal size, the larger constituting the
+  male generative cell, which fuses with the nucleus of the egg-cell. In
+  _Juniperus_ the products of division of the body-cell are equal, and
+  both function as male generative cells. In the _Abietineae_
+  cell-formation in the pollen-grain is carried farther. Three small
+  cells occur inside the cavity of the microspore; two of them collapse
+  and the third divides into two, forming a stalk-cell and a larger
+  body-cell. The latter ultimately divides in the apex of the
+  pollen-tube into two non-motile generative cells. Evidence has lately
+  been adduced of the existence of numerous nuclei in the pollen-tubes
+  of the _Araucarieae_, and it seems probable that in this as in several
+  other respects this family is distinguished from other members of the
+  Coniferales. The precise method of fertilization in the Scots Pine was
+  followed by V. H. Blackman, who also succeeded in showing that the
+  nuclei of the sporophyte generation contain twice as many chromosomes
+  as the nuclei of the gametophyte. Other observers have in recent years
+  demonstrated a similar relation in other genera between the number of
+  chromosomes in the nuclei of the two generations. The ovule is usually
+  surrounded by one integument, which projects beyond the tip of the
+  nucellus as a wide-open lobed funnel, which at the time of pollination
+  folds inwards, and so assists in bringing the pollen-grains on to the
+  nucellus. In some conifers (e.g. _Taxus_, _Cephalotaxus_, _Dacrydium_,
+  &c.) the ordinary integument is partially enclosed by an arillus or
+  second integument. It is held by some botanists (Celakovsky) that the
+  seminiferous scale of the _Abietineae_ is homologous with the arillus
+  or second integument of the Taxaceae, but this view is too strained to
+  gain general acceptance. In _Araucaria_ and _Saxegothaea_ the nucellus
+  itself projects beyond the open micropyle and receives the
+  pollen-grains direct. During the growth of the cell which forms the
+  megaspore the greater part of the nucellus is absorbed, except the
+  apical portion, which persists as a cone above the megaspore; the
+  partial disorganization of some of the cells in the centre of the
+  nucellar cone forms an irregular cavity, which may be compared with
+  the larger pollen-chamber of _Ginkgo_ and the cycads. In each ovule
+  one megaspore comes to maturity, but, exceptionally, two may be
+  present (e.g. _Pinus sylvestris_). It has been shown by Lawson that in
+  _Sequoia sempervirens_ (_Annals of Botany_, 1904) and by other workers
+  in the genera that several megaspores may attain a fairly large size
+  in one prothallus. The megaspore becomes filled with tissue
+  (prothallus), and from some of the superficial cells archegonia are
+  produced, usually three to five in number, but in rare cases ten to
+  twenty or even sixty may be present. In the genus _Sequoia_ there may
+  be as many as sixty archegonia (Arnoldi and Lawson) in one megaspore;
+  these occur either separately or in some parts of the prothallus they
+  may form groups as in the _Cupressineae_; they are scattered through
+  the prothallus instead of being confined to the apical region as in
+  the majority of conifers. Similarly in the _Araucarieae_ and in
+  _Widdringtonia_ the archegonia are numerous and scattered and often
+  sunk in the prothallus tissue. In _Libocedrus decurrens_
+  (Cupressineae) Lawson describes the archegonia as varying in number
+  from 6 to 24 (_Annals of Botany_ xxi., 1907). An archegonium consists
+  of a large oval egg-cell surmounted by a short neck composed of one or
+  more tiers of cells, six to eight cells in each tier. Before
+  fertilization the nucleus of the egg-cell divides and cuts off a
+  ventral canal-cell; this cell may represent a second egg-cell. The
+  egg-cells of the archegonia may be in lateral contact (e.g.
+  _Cupressineae_) or separated from one another by a few cells of the
+  prothallus, each ovum being immediately surrounded by a layer of cells
+  distinguished by their granular contents and large nuclei. During the
+  development of the egg-cell, food material is transferred from these
+  cells through the pitted wall of the ovum. The tissue at the apex of
+  the megaspore grows slightly above the level of the archegonia, so
+  that the latter come to lie in a shallow depression. In the process of
+  fertilization the two male generative nuclei, accompanied by the
+  pollen-tube nucleus and that of the stalk-cell, pass through an open
+  pit at the apex of the pollen-tube into the protoplasm of the ovum.
+  After fertilization the nucleus of the egg divides, the first stages
+  of karyokinesis being apparent even before complete fusion of the male
+  and female nuclei has occurred. The result of this is the production
+  of four nuclei, which eventually take up a position at the bottom of
+  the ovum and become separated from one another by vertical cell-walls;
+  these nuclei divide again, and finally three tiers of cells are
+  produced, four in each tier. In the _Abietineae_ the cells of the
+  middle tier elongate and push the lowest tier deeper into the
+  endosperm; the cells of the bottom tier may remain in lateral contact
+  and produce together one embryo, or they may separate (_Pinus_,
+  _Juniperus_, &c.) and form four potential embryos. The ripe albuminous
+  seed contains a single embryo with two or more cotyledons. The seeds
+  of many conifers are provided with large thin wings, consisting in
+  some genera (e.g. _Pinus_) of the upper cell-layers of the
+  seminiferous scale, which have become detached and, in some cases,
+  adhere loosely to the seed as a thin membrane; the loose attachment
+  may be of use to the seeds when they are blown against the branches of
+  trees, in enabling them to fall away from the wing and drop to the
+  ground. The seeds of some genera depend on animals for dispersal, the
+  carpellary scale (_Microcachrys_) or the outer integument being
+  brightly coloured and attractive. In some _Abietineae_ (e.g. _Pinus_
+  and _Picea_)--in which the cone-scales persist for some time after the
+  seeds are ripe--the cones hang down and so facilitate the fall of the
+  seeds; in _Cedrus_, _Araucaria_ and _Abies_ the scales become detached
+  and fall with the seeds, leaving the bare vertical axis of the cone on
+  the tree. In all cases, except some species of _Araucaria_ (sect.
+  _Colymbea_) the germination is epigean. The seedling plants of some
+  Conifers (e.g. _Araucaria imbricata_) are characterized by a
+  carrot-shaped hypocotyl, which doubtless serves as a food-reservoir.
+
+
+    Anatomy.
+
+  The roots of many conifers possess a narrow band of primary
+  xylem-tracheids with a group of narrow spiral protoxylem-elements at
+  each end (diarch). A striking feature in the roots of several genera,
+  excluding the _Abietineae_, is the occurrence of thick and somewhat
+  irregular bands of thickening on the cell-walls of the cortical layer
+  next to the endodermis. These bands, which may serve to strengthen the
+  central cylinder, have been compared with the netting surrounding the
+  delicate wall of an inflated balloon. It is not always easy to
+  distinguish a root from a stem; in some cases (e.g. _Sequoia_) the
+  primary tetrarch structure is easily identified in the centre of an
+  old root, but in other cases the primary elements are very difficult
+  to recognize. The sudden termination of the secondary tracheids
+  against the pith-cells may afford evidence of root-structure as
+  distinct from stem-structure, in which the radial rows of secondary
+  tracheids pass into the irregularly-arranged primary elements next the
+  pith. The annual rings in a root are often less clearly marked than in
+  the stem, and the xylem-elements are frequently larger and thinner.
+  The primary vascular bundles in a young conifer stem are collateral,
+  and, like those of a Dicotyledon, they are arranged in a circle round
+  a central pith and enclosed by a common endodermis. It is in the
+  nature of the secondary xylem that the Coniferales are most readily
+  distinguished from the Dicotyledons and Cycadaceae; the wood is
+  homogeneous in structure, consisting almost entirely of tracheids with
+  circular or polygonal bordered pits on the radial walls, more
+  particularly in the late summer wood. In many genera xylem-parenchyma
+  is present, but never in great abundance. A few Dicotyledons, e.g.
+  _Drimys_ (Magnoliaceae) closely resemble conifers in the homogeneous
+  character of the wood, but in most cases the presence of large spring
+  vessels, wood-fibres and abundant parenchyma affords an obvious
+  distinguishing feature.
+
+  The abundance of petrified coniferous wood in rocks of various ages
+  has led many botanists to investigate the structure of modern genera
+  with a view to determining how far anatomical characters may be used
+  as evidence of generic distinctions. There are a few well-marked types
+  of wood which serve as convenient standards of comparison, but these
+  cannot be used except in a few cases to distinguish individual genera.
+  The genus _Pinus_ serves as an illustration of wood of a distinct type
+  characterized by the absence of xylem-parenchyma, except such as is
+  associated with the numerous resin-canals that occur abundantly in the
+  wood, cortex and medullary rays; the medullary rays are composed of
+  parenchyma and of horizontal tracheids with irregular ingrowths from
+  their walls. In a radial section of a pine stem each ray is seen to
+  consist in the median part of a few rows of parenchymatous cells with
+  large oval simple pits in their walls, accompanied above and below by
+  horizontal tracheids with bordered pits. The pits in the radial walls
+  of the ordinary xylem-tracheids occur in a single row or in a double
+  row, of which the pits are not in contact, and those of the two rows
+  are placed on the same level. The medullary rays usually consist of a
+  single tier of cells, but in the _Pinus_ type of wood broader
+  medullary rays also occur and are traversed by horizontal
+  resin-canals. In the wood of _Cypressus_, _Cedrus_, _Abies_ and
+  several other genera, parenchymatous cells occur in association with
+  the xylem-tracheids and take the place of the resin-canals of other
+  types. In the Araucarian type of wood (_Araucaria_ and _Agathis_) the
+  bordered pits, which occur in two or three rows on the radial walls of
+  the tracheids, are in mutual contact and polygonal in shape, the pits
+  of the different rows are alternate and not on the same level; in this
+  type of wood the annual rings are often much less distinct than in
+  _Cupressus_, _Pinus_ and other genera. In _Taxus_, _Torreya_
+  (California and the Far East) and _Cephalotaxus_ the absence of
+  resin-canals and the presence of spiral thickening-bands on the
+  tracheids constitute well-marked characteristics. An examination of
+  the wood of branches, stems and roots of the same species or
+  individual usually reveals a fairly wide variation in some of the
+  characters, such as the abundance and size of the medullary rays, the
+  size and arrangement of pits, the presence of
+  wood-parenchyma--characters to which undue importance has often been
+  attached in systematic anatomical work. The phloem consists of
+  sieve-tubes, with pitted areas on the lateral as well as on the
+  inclined terminal walls, phloem-parenchyma and, in some genera,
+  fibres. In the _Abietineae_ the phloem consists of parenchyma and
+  sieve-tubes only, but in most other forms tangential rows of fibres
+  occur in regular alternation with the parenchyma and sieve-tubes. The
+  characteristic companion-cells of Angiosperms are represented by
+  phloem-parenchyma cells with albuminous contents; other parenchymatous
+  elements of the bast contain starch or crystals of calcium oxalate.
+  When tracheids occur in the medullary rays of the xylem these are
+  replaced in the phloem-region by irregular parenchymatous cells known
+  as albuminous cells. Resin-canals, which occur abundantly in the
+  xylem, phloem or cortex, are not found in the wood of the yew.
+  _Cephalotaxus (Taxeae)_ is also peculiar in having resin-canals in the
+  pith (cf. _Ginkgo_). One form of _Cephalotaxus_ is characterized by
+  the presence of short tracheids in the pith, in shape like ordinary
+  parenchyma, but in the possession of bordered pits and lignified walls
+  agreeing with ordinary xylem-tracheids; it is probable that these
+  short tracheids serve as reservoirs for storing rather than for
+  conducting water. The vascular bundle entering the stem from a leaf
+  with a single vein passes by a more or less direct course into the
+  central cylinder of the stem, and does not assume the girdle-like
+  form characteristic of the cycadean leaf-trace. In species of which
+  the leaves have more than one vein (e.g. _Araucaria imbricata_, &c.)
+  the leaf-trace leaves the stele of the stem as a single bundle which
+  splits up into several strands in its course through the cortex. In
+  the wood of some conifers, e.g. _Araucaria_, the leaf-traces persist
+  for a considerable time, perhaps indefinitely, and may be seen in
+  tangential sections of the wood of old stems. The leaf-trace in the
+  Coniferales is simple in its course through the stem, differing in
+  this respect from the double leaf-trace of _Ginkgo_. A detailed
+  account of the anatomical characters of conifers has been published by
+  Professor D. P. Penhallow of Montreal and Dr. Gothan of Berlin which
+  will be found useful for diagnostic purposes. The characters of leaves
+  most useful for diagnostic purposes are the position of the stomata,
+  the presence and arrangement of resin-canals, the structure of the
+  mesophyll and vascular bundles. The presence of hypodermal fibres is
+  another feature worthy of note, but the occurrence of these elements
+  is too closely connected with external conditions to be of much
+  systematic value. A pine needle grown in continuous light differs from
+  one grown under ordinary conditions in the absence of hypodermal
+  fibres, in the absence of the characteristic infoldings of the
+  mesophyll cell-walls, in the smaller size of the resin-canals, &c. The
+  endodermis in _Pinus_, _Picea_ and many other genera is usually a
+  well-defined layer of cells enclosing the vascular bundles, and
+  separated from them by a tissue consisting in part of ordinary
+  parenchyma and to some extent of isodiametric tracheids; but this
+  tissue, usually spoken of as the pericycle, is in direct continuity
+  with other stem-tissues as well as the pericycle. The occurrence of
+  short tracheids in close proximity to the veins is a characteristic of
+  coniferous leaves; these elements assume two distinct forms--(1) the
+  short isodiametric tracheids (transfusion-tracheids) closely
+  associated with the veins; (2) longer tracheids extending across the
+  mesophyll at right angles to the veins, and no doubt functioning as
+  representatives of lateral veins. It has been suggested that
+  transfusion-tracheids represent, in part at least, the centripetal
+  xylem, which forms a distinctive feature of cycadean leaf-bundles;
+  these short tracheids form conspicuous groups laterally attached to
+  the veins in _Cunninghamia_, abundantly represented in a similar
+  position in the leaves of _Sequoia_, and scattered through the
+  so-called pericycle in _Pinus_, _Picea_, &c. It is of interest to note
+  the occurrence of precisely similar elements in the mesophyll of
+  _Lepidodendron_ leaves. An anatomical peculiarity in the veins of
+  _Pinus_ and several other genera is the continuity of the medullary
+  rays, which extend as continuous plates from one end of the leaf to
+  the other. The mesophyll of _Pinus_ and _Cedrus_ is characterized by
+  its homogeneous character and by the presence of infoldings of the
+  cell-walls. In many leaves, e.g. _Abies_, _Tsuga_, _Larix_, &c., the
+  mesophyll is heterogeneous, consisting of palisade and spongy
+  parenchyma. In the leaves of _Araucaria imbricata_, in which
+  palisade-tissue occurs in both the upper and lower part of the
+  mesophyll, the resin-canals are placed between the veins; in some
+  species of _Podocarpus_ (sect. _Nageia_) a canal occurs below each
+  vein; in _Tsuga_, _Torreya_, _Cephalotaxus_, _Sequoia_, &c., a single
+  canal occurs below the midrib; in _Larix_, _Abies_, &c., two canals
+  run through the leaf parallel to the margins. The stomata are
+  frequently arranged in rows, their position being marked by two white
+  bands of wax on the leaf-surface.
+
+
+    Distribution.
+
+  The chief home of the Coniferales is in the northern hemisphere, where
+  certain species occasionally extend into the Arctic circle and
+  penetrate beyond the northern limit of dicotyledonous trees. Wide
+  areas are often exclusively occupied by conifers, which give the
+  landscape a sombre aspect, suggesting a comparison with the forest
+  vegetation of the Coal period. South of the tree-limit a belt of
+  conifers stretches across north Europe, Siberia and Canada. In
+  northern Europe this belt is characterized by such species as _Picea
+  excelsa_ (spruce), which extends south to the mountains of the
+  Mediterranean region; _Pinus sylvestris_ (Scottish fir), reaching from
+  the far north to western Spain, Persia and Asia Minor; _Juniperus
+  communis_, &c. In north Siberia _Pinus Cembra_ (Cembra or Arolla Pine)
+  has a wide range; also _Abies sibirica_ (Siberian silver fir), _Larix
+  sibirica_ and _Juniperus Sabina_ (savin). In the North American area
+  _Picea alba_, _P. nigra_, _Larix americana_, _Abies balsamea_ (balsam
+  fir), _Tsuga canadensis_ (hemlock spruce), _Pinus Strobus_ (Weymouth
+  pine), _Thuja occidentalis_ (white cedar), _Taxus canadensis_ are
+  characteristic species. In the Mediterranean region occur _Cupressus
+  sempervirens_, _Pinus Pinea_ (stone pine), species of juniper, _Cedrus
+  atlantica_, _C. Libani_, _Callitris quadrivalvis_, _Pinus montana_,
+  &c. Several conifers of economic importance are abundant on the
+  Atlantic side of North America--_Juniperus virginiana_ (red cedar,
+  used in the manufacture of lead pencils, and extending as far south as
+  Florida), _Taxodium distichum_ (swamp cypress), _Pinus rigida_ (pitch
+  pine), _P. mitis_ (yellow pine), _P. taeda_, _P. palustris_, &c. On
+  the west side of the American continent conifers play a still more
+  striking role; among them are _Chamaecyparis nutkaensis_, _Picea
+  sitchensis_, _Libocedrus decurrens_, _Pseudotsuga Douglasii_ (Douglas
+  fir), _Sequoia sempervirens_, _S. gigantea_ (the only two surviving
+  species of this generic type are now confined to a few localities in
+  California, but were formerly widely spread in Europe and elsewhere),
+  _Pinus Coulteri_, _P. Lambertiana_, &c. Farther south, a few
+  representatives of such genera as _Abies_, _Cupressus_, _Pinus_ and
+  juniper are found in the Mexican Highlands, tropical America and the
+  West Indies. In the far East conifers are richly represented; among
+  them occur _Pinus densiflora_, _Cryptomeria japonica_, _Cephalotaxus_,
+  species of _Abies_, _Larix_, _Thujopsis_, _Sciadopitys verticillata_,
+  _Pseudolarix Kaempferi_, &c. In the Himalaya occur _Cedrus deodara_,
+  _Taxus_, species of _Cupressus_, _Pinus excelsa_, _Abies Webbiana_,
+  &c. The continent of Africa is singularly poor in conifers. _Cedrus
+  atlantica_, a variety of _Abies Pinsapo_, _Juniperus thurifera_,
+  _Callitris quadrivalvis_, occur in the north-west region, which may be
+  regarded as the southern limit of the Mediterranean region. The
+  greater part of Africa north of the equator is without any
+  representatives of the conifers; _Juniperus procera_ flourishes in
+  Somaliland and on the mountains of Abyssinia; a species of
+  _Podocarpus_ occurs on the Cameroon mountains, and _P. milanjiana_ is
+  widely distributed in east tropical Africa. _Widdringtonia Whytei_, a
+  species closely allied to _W. juniperoides_ of the Cedarberg mountains
+  of Cape Colony, is recorded from Nyassaland and from N.E. Rhodesia;
+  while a third species, _W. cupressoides_, occurs in Cape Colony.
+  _Podocarpus elongata_ and _P. Thunbergii_ (yellow wood) form the
+  principal timber trees in the belt of forest which stretches from the
+  coast mountains of Cape Colony to the north-east of the Transvaal.
+  _Libocedrus tetragona_, _Fitzroya patagonica_, _Araucaria
+  brasiliensis_, _A. imbricata_, _Saxegothaea_ and others are met with
+  in the Andes and other regions in South America. _Athrotaxis_ and
+  _Microcachrys_ are characteristic Australian types. _Phyllocladus_
+  occurs also in New Zealand, and species of _Dacrydium_, _Araucaria_,
+  _Agathis_ and _Podocarpus_ are represented in Australia, New Zealand
+  and the Malay regions.
+
+  GNETALES.--These are trees or shrubs with simple leaves. The flowers
+  are dioecious, rarely monoecious, provided with one or two perianths.
+  The wood is characterized by the presence of vessels in addition to
+  tracheids. There are no resin-canals. The three existing genera,
+  usually spoken of as members of the Gnetales, differ from one another
+  more than is consistent with their inclusion in a single family; we
+  may therefore better express their diverse characters by regarding
+  them as types of three separate families--(1) _Ephedroideae_, genus
+  _Ephedra_; (2) _Welwitschioideae_, genus _Welwitschia_; (3)
+  _Gnetoideae_, genus _Gnetum_. Our knowledge of the Gnetales leaves
+  much to be desired, but such facts as we possess would seem to
+  indicate that this group is of special importance as foreshadowing,
+  more than any other Gymnosperms, the Angiospermous type. In the more
+  heterogeneous structure of the wood and in the possession of true
+  vessels the Gnetales agree closely with the higher flowering plants.
+  It is of interest to note that the leaves of _Gnetum_, while typically
+  Dicotyledonous in appearance, possess a Gymnospermous character in the
+  continuous and plate-like medullary rays of their vascular bundles.
+  The presence of a perianth is a feature suggestive of an approach to
+  the floral structure of Angiosperms; the prolongation of the
+  integument furnishes the flowers with a substitute for a stigma and
+  style. The genus _Ephedra_, with its prothallus and archegonia, which
+  are similar to those of other Gymnosperms, may be safely regarded as
+  the most primitive of the Gnetales. In _Welwitschia_ also the
+  megaspore is filled with prothallus-tissue, but single egg-cells take
+  the place of archegonia. In certain species of _Gnetum_ described by
+  Karsten the megaspore contains a peripheral layer of protoplasm, in
+  which scattered nuclei represent the female reproductive cells; in
+  _Gnetum Gnemon_ a similar state of things exists in the upper half of
+  the megaspore, while the lower half agrees with the megaspore of
+  _Welwitschia_ in being full of prothallus-tissue, which serves merely
+  as a reservoir of food. Lotsy has described the occurrence of special
+  cells at the apex of the prothallus of _Gnetum Gnemon_, which he
+  regards as imperfect archegonia (fig. 17, C, a); he suggests they may
+  represent vestigial structures pointing back to some ancestral form
+  beyond the limits of the present group. The Gnetales probably had a
+  separate origin from the other Gymnosperms; they carry us nearer to
+  the Angiosperms, but we have as yet no satisfactory evidence that they
+  represent a stage in the direct line of Angiospermic evolution. It is
+  not improbable that the three genera of this ancient phylum survive as
+  types of a blindly-ending branch of the Gymnosperms; but be that as it
+  may, it is in the Gnetales more than in any other Gymnosperms that we
+  find features which help us to obtain a dim prospect of the lines
+  along which the Angiosperms may have been evolved.
+
+  _Ephedra._--This genus is the only member of the Gnetales represented
+  in Europe. Its species, which are characteristic of warm temperate
+  latitudes, are usually much-branched shrubs. The finer branches are
+  green, and bear a close resemblance to the stems of Equisetum and to
+  the slender twigs of _Casuarina_; the surface of the long internodes
+  is marked by fine longitudinal ribs, and at the nodes are borne pairs
+  of inconspicuous scale-leaves. The flowers are small, and borne on
+  axillary shoots. A single male flower consists of an axis enclosed at
+  the base by an inconspicuous perianth formed of two concrescent leaves
+  and terminating in two, or as many as eight, shortly stalked or
+  sessile anthers. The female flower is enveloped in a closely fitting
+  sac-like investment, which must be regarded as a perianth; within this
+  is an orthotropous ovule surrounded by a single integument prolonged
+  upwards as a beak-like micropyle. The flower may be described as a bud
+  bearing a pair of leaves which become fused and constitute a perianth,
+  the apex of the shoot forming an ovule. In function the perianth may
+  be compared with a unilocular ovary containing a single ovule; the
+  projecting integument, which at the time of pollination secretes a
+  drop of liquid, serves the same purpose as the style and stigma of an
+  angiosperm. The megaspore is filled with tissue as in typical
+  Gymnosperms, and from some of the superficial cells 3 to 5 archegonia
+  are developed, characterized by long multicellular necks. The
+  archegonia are separated from one another, as in _Pinus_, by some of
+  the prothallus-tissue, and the cells next the egg-cells (tapetal
+  layer) contribute food-material to their development. After
+  fertilization, some of the uppermost bracts below each flower become
+  red and fleshy; the perianth develops into a woody shell, while the
+  integument remains membranous. In some species of _Ephedra_, e.g. _E.
+  altissima_, the fertilized eggs grow into tubular proembryos, from the
+  tip of each of which embryos begin to be developed, but one only comes
+  to maturity. In _Ephedra helvetica_, as described by Jaccard, no
+  proembryo or suspensor is formed; but the most vigorous fertilized
+  egg, after undergoing several divisions, becomes attached to a tissue,
+  termed the columella, which serves the purpose of a primary suspensor;
+  the columella appears to be formed by the lignification of certain
+  cells in the central region of the embryo-sac. At a later stage some
+  of the cells in the upper (micropylar) end of the embryo divide and
+  undergo considerable elongation, serving the purpose of a secondary
+  suspensor. The secondary wood of _Ephedra_ consists of tracheids,
+  vessels and parenchyma; the vessels are characterized by their wide
+  lumen and by the large simple or slightly-bordered pits on their
+  oblique end-walls.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 17.--_Gnetum Gnemon._ (After Lotsy.)
+
+    A,  Female Flower. a, Imperfect Archegonia.
+    n,  Nucellus. e, Partially developed Megaspore.
+    pc, Pollen-chamber. F, Fertile half.
+    i,  Integument. S, Sterile half.
+    p', Inner Perianth. pt, Pollen-tube.
+    p", Outer Perianth. z, Zygote.
+    B,  C, Megaspore. z', Prothallus.
+    a,  Imperfect Archegonia.
+    e,  Partially developed Megaspore.
+    F,  Fertile half.
+    S,  Sterile half.
+    pt, Pollen-tube.
+    z,  Zygote.
+    z', Prothallus.]
+
+  _Gnetum._--This genus is represented by several species, most of which
+  are climbing plants, both in tropical America and in warm regions of
+  the Old World. The leaves, which are borne in pairs at the tumid
+  nodes, are oval in form and have a Dicotyledonous type of venation.
+  The male and female inflorescences have the form of simple or
+  paniculate spikes. The spike of an inflorescence bears whorls of
+  flowers at each node in the axils of concrescent bracts accompanied by
+  numerous sterile hairs (paraphyses); in a male inflorescence numerous
+  flowers occur at each node, while in a female inflorescence the number
+  of flowers at each node is much smaller. A male flower consists of a
+  single angular perianth, through the open apex of which the
+  flower-axis projects as a slender column terminating in two anthers.
+  The female flowers, which are more complex in structure, are of two
+  types, complete and incomplete; the latter occur in association with
+  male flowers in a male inflorescence. A complete female flower
+  consists of a nucellus (fig. 17, A, n), surrounded by a single
+  integument (fig. 17, A, i), prolonged upwards as a narrow tube and
+  succeeded by an inner and an outer perianth (fig. 17, A, p' and p").
+  The whole flower may be looked upon as an adventitious bud bearing two
+  pairs of leaves; each pair becomes concrescent and forms a perianth,
+  the apex of the shoot being converted into an orthotropous ovule. The
+  incomplete female flowers are characterized by the almost complete
+  suppression of the inner perianth. Several embryo-sacs (megaspores)
+  are present in the nucellus of a young ovule, but one only attains
+  full size, the smaller and partially developed megaspores (fig. 17, B
+  and C, e) being usually found in close association with the surviving
+  and fully-grown megaspore. In _Gnetum Gnemon_, as described by Lotsy,
+  a mature embryo-sac contains in the upper part a large central vacuole
+  and a peripheral layer of protoplasm, including several nuclei, which
+  take the place of the archegonia of _Ephedra_; the lower part of the
+  embryo-sac, separated from the upper by a constriction, is full of
+  parenchyma. The upper part of the megaspore may be spoken of as the
+  fertile half (fig. 17, B and C, F) and the lower part, which serves
+  only as food-reservoir for the growing embryo, may be termed the
+  sterile half (fig. 17, B and C, S). (Coulter, _Bot. Gazette_, xlvi.,
+  1908, regards this tissue as belonging to the nucellus.) At the time
+  of pollination the long tubular integument secretes a drop of fluid
+  at its apex, which holds the pollen-grains, brought by the wind, or
+  possibly to some extent by insect agency, and by evaporation these are
+  drawn on to the top of the nucellus, where partial disorganization of
+  the cells has given rise to an irregular pollen-chamber (fig. 17, A,
+  pc). The pollen-tube, containing two generative and one vegetative
+  nucleus, pierces the wall of the megaspore and then becomes swollen
+  (fig. 17, B and C, pt); finally the two generative nuclei pass out of
+  the tube and fuse with two of the nuclei in the fertile half of the
+  megaspore. As the result of fertilization, the fertilized nuclei of
+  the megaspore become surrounded by a cell-wall, and constitute
+  zygotes, which may attach themselves either to the wall of the
+  megaspore or to the end of a pollen-tube (fig. 17, C, z and z'); they
+  then grow into long tubes or proembryos, which make their way towards
+  the prothallus (C, z'), and eventually embryos are formed from the
+  ends of the proembryo tubes. One embryo only comes to maturity. The
+  embryo of _Gnetum_ forms an out-growth from the hypocotyl, which
+  serves as a feeder and draws nourishment from the prothallus. The
+  fleshy outer portion of the seed is formed from the outer perianth,
+  the woody shell being derived from the inner perianth. The climbing
+  species of _Gnetum_ are characterized by the production of several
+  concentric cylinders of secondary wood and bast, the additional
+  cambium-rings being products of the pericycle, as in _Cycas_ and
+  _Macrozamia_. The structure of the wood agrees in the main with that
+  of _Ephedra_.
+
+  _Welwitschia (Tumboa)._--This is by far the most remarkable member of
+  the Gnetales, both as regards habit and the form of its flowers. In a
+  supplement to the systematic work of Engler and Prantl the well-known
+  name _Welwitschia_, instituted by Hooker in 1864 in honour of
+  Welwitsch, the discoverer of the plant, is superseded by that of
+  _Tumboa_, originally suggested by Welwitsch. The genus is confined to
+  certain localities in Damaraland and adjoining territory on the west
+  coast of tropical South Africa. A well-grown plant projects less than
+  a foot above the surface of the ground; the stem, which may have a
+  circumference of more than 12 ft., terminates in a depressed crown
+  resembling a circular table with a median groove across the centre and
+  prominent broad ridges concentric with the margin. The thick tuberous
+  stem becomes rapidly narrower, and passes gradually downwards into a
+  tap-root. A pair of small strap-shaped leaves succeed the two
+  cotyledons of the seedling, and persist as the only leaves during the
+  life of the plant; they retain the power of growth in their basal
+  portion, which is sunk in a narrow groove near the edge of the crown,
+  and the tough lamina, 6 ft. in length, becomes split into narrow
+  strap-shaped or thong-like strips which trail on the ground. Numerous
+  circular pits occur on the concentric ridges of the depressed and
+  wrinkled crown, marking the position of former inflorescences borne in
+  the leaf-axil at different stages in the growth of the plant. An
+  inflorescence has the form of a dichotomously-branched cyme bearing
+  small erect cones; those containing the female flowers attain the size
+  of a fir-cone, and are scarlet in colour. Each cone consists of an
+  axis, on which numerous broad and thin bracts are arranged in regular
+  rows; in the axil of each bract occurs a single flower; a male flower
+  is enclosed by two opposite pairs of leaves, forming a perianth
+  surrounding a central sterile ovule encircled by a ring of stamens
+  united below, but free distally as short filaments, each of which
+  terminates in a trilocular anther. The integument of the sterile ovule
+  is prolonged above the nucellus as a spirally-twisted tube expanded at
+  its apex into a flat stigma-like organ. A complete and functional
+  female flower consists of a single ovule with two integuments, the
+  inner of which is prolonged into a narrow tubular micropyle, like that
+  in the flower of _Gnetum_. The megaspore of _Welwitschia_ is filled
+  with a prothallus-tissue before fertilization, and some of the
+  prothallus-cells function as egg-cells; these grow upwards as long
+  tubes into the apical region of the nucellus, where they come into
+  contact with the pollen-tubes. After the egg-cells have been
+  fertilized by the non-motile male cells they grow into tubular
+  proembryos, producing terminal embryos. The stem is traversed by
+  numerous collateral bundles, which have a limited growth, and are
+  constantly replaced by new bundles developed from strands of secondary
+  meristem. One of the best-known anatomical characteristics of the
+  genus is the occurrence of numerous spindle-shaped or branched fibres
+  with enormously-thickened walls studded with crystals of calcium
+  oxalate. Additional information has been published by Professor
+  Pearson of Cape Town based on material collected in Damaraland in 1904
+  and 1906-1907. In 1906 he gave an account of the early stages of
+  development of the male and female organs and, among other interesting
+  statements in regard to the general biology of _Welwitschia_, he
+  expressed the opinion that, as Hooker suspected, the ovules are
+  pollinated by insect-agency. In a later paper Pearson considerably
+  extended our knowledge of the reproduction and gametophyte of this
+  genus.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--General: Bentham and Hooker, _Genera Plantarum_ (London,
+  1862-1883); Engler and Prantl, _Die naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien_
+  (Leipzig, 1889 and 1897); Strasburger, _Die Coniferen und Gnetaceen_
+  (Jena, 1872); _Die Angiospermen und die Gymnospermen_ (Jena, 1879);
+  _Histologische Beitrage_, iv. (Jena, 1892); Coulter and Chamberlain,
+  _Morphology of Spermatophytes_ (New York, 1901); Rendle, _The
+  Classification of Flowering Plants_, vol. i. (Cambridge, 1904); "The
+  Origin of Gymnosperms" (A discussion at the Linnean Society; _New
+  Phytologist_, vol. v., 1906). Cycadales: Mettenius, "Beitrage zur
+  Anatomie der Cycadeen," _Abh. k. sachs_. _Ges. Wiss._ (1860); Treub,
+  "Recherches sur les Cycadees," _Ann. Bot. Jard. Buitenzorg_, ii.
+  (1884); Solms-Laubach, "Die Sprossfolge der Stangeria, &c.," _Bot.
+  Zeit._ xlviii. (1896); Worsdell, "Anatomy of Macrozamia," _Ann. Bot._
+  x. (1896) (also papers by the same author, _Ann. Bot._, 1898, _Trans.
+  Linn. Soc._ v., 1900); Scott, "The Anatomical Characters presented by
+  the Peduncle of Cycadaceae," Ann. Bot. xi. (1897); Lang, "Studies in
+  the Development and Morphology of Cycadean Sporangia, No. I.," Ann.
+  Bot. xi. (1897); No. II., _Ann. Bot._ xiv. (1900); Webber,
+  "Development of the Antherozoids of Zamia," Bot. Gaz. (1897); Ikeno,
+  "Untersuchungen uber die Entwickelung, &c., bei Cycas revoluta,"
+  _Journ. Coll. Sci. Japan_, xii. (1898); Wieland, "American Fossil
+  Cycads," Carnegie Institution Publication (1906); Stopes, "Beitrage
+  zur Kenntnis der Fortpflanzungsorgane der Cycadeen," _Flora_ (1904);
+  Caldwell, "Microcycas Calocoma," _Bot. Gaz._ xliv., 1907 (also papers
+  on this and other Cycads in the _Bot. Gaz._, 1907-1909); Matte,
+  _Recherches sur l'appareil libero-ligneux des Cycadacees_ (Caen,
+  1904). Ginkgoales: Hirase, "Etudes sur la fecondation, &c., de Ginkgo
+  biloba," _Journ. Coll. Sci. Japan_, xii. (1898); Seward and Gowan,
+  "Ginkgo biloba," _Ann. Bot._ xiv. (1900) (with bibliography); Ikeno,
+  "Contribution a l'etude de la fecondation chez le Ginkgo biloba,"
+  _Ann. Sci. Nat._ xiii. (1901); Sprecher, _Le Ginkgo biloba_ (Geneva,
+  1907). Coniferales: "Report of the Conifer Conference" (1891) _Journ.
+  R. Hort. Soc._ xiv. (1892); Beissner, _Handbuch der Nadelholzkunde_
+  (Berlin, 1891); Masters, "Comparative Morphology of the Coniferae,"
+  _Journ. Linn. Soc._ xxvii. (1891); ibid. (1896), &c.; Penhallow, "The
+  Generic Characters of the North American Taxaceae and Coniferae,"
+  _Proc. and Trans. R. Soc. Canada_, ii. (1896); Blackman,
+  "Fertilization in Pinus sylvestris," _Phil. Trans._ (1898) (with
+  bibliography); Worsdell, "Structure of the Female Flowers in
+  Conifers," _Ann. Bot._ xiv. (1900) (with bibliography); ibid. (1899);
+  Veitch, _Manual of the Coniferae_ (London, 1900); Penhallow, "Anatomy
+  of North American Coniferales," _American Naturalist_ (1904); Engler
+  and Pilger, _Das Pflanzenreich, Taxaceae_ (1903); Seward and Ford,
+  "The Araucarieae, recent and extinct," _Phil. Trans. R. Soc._ (1906)
+  (with bibliography); Lawson, "Sequoia sempervirens," _Annals of
+  Botany_ (1904); Robertson, "Torreya Californica," _New Phytologist_
+  (1904); Coker, "Gametophyte and Embryo of Taxodium," _Bot. Gazette_
+  (1903); E. C. Jeffrey, "The Comparative Anatomy and Phylogeny of the
+  Coniferales, part i. The Genus Sequoia," _Mem. Boston Nat. Hist. Soc._
+  v. No. 10 (1903); Gothan, "Zur Anatomie lebender und fossiler
+  Gymnospermen-Holzer," _K. Preuss. Geol. Landes._ (Berlin, 1905) (for
+  more recent papers, see _Ann. Bot., New Phytologist_, and _Bot.
+  Gazette_, 1906-1909). Gnetales: Hooker, "On Welwitschia mirabilis."
+  _Trans. Linn. Soc._ xxiv. (1864); Bower, "Germination, &., in Gnetum,"
+  _Journ. Mic. Sci._ xxii. (1882); ibid. (1881); Jaccard, "Recherches
+  embryologiques sur _l'Ephedra helvetica_," _Diss. Inaug. Lausanne_
+  (1894); Karsten, "Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Gattung Gnetum,"
+  _Cohn's Beitrage_, vi. (1893); Lotsy, "Contributions to the
+  Life-History of the genus Gnetum," _Ann. Bot. Jard. Buitenzorg_, xvi.
+  (1899); Land, "Ephedra trifurca," _Bot. Gazette_ (1904); Pearson,
+  "Some observations on Welwitschia mirabilis," _Phil. Trans. R. Soc._
+  (1906); Pearson, "Further Observations on Welwitschia," _Phil. Trans.
+  R. Soc._ vol. 200 (1909).     (A. C. Se.)
+
+
+
+
+GYMNOSTOMACEAE, an order of Ciliate Infusoria (q.v.), characterized by a
+closed mouth, which only opens to swallow food actively, and body cilia
+forming a general or partial investment (rarely represented by a girdle
+of membranellae), but not differentiated in different regions. With the
+Aspirotrochaceae (q.v.) it formed the Holotricha of Stein.
+
+
+
+
+GYMPIE, a mining town of March county, Queensland, Australia, 107 m. N.
+of Brisbane, and 61 m. S. of Maryborough by rail. Pop. (1901) 11,959.
+Numerous gold mines are worked in the district, which also abounds in
+copper, silver, antimony, cinnabar, bismuth and nickel. Extensive
+undeveloped coal-beds lie 40 m. N. at Miva. Gympie became a municipality
+in 1880.
+
+
+
+
+GYNAECEUM (Gr. [Greek: gynaikeion], from [Greek: gyne], woman), that
+part in a Greek house which was specially reserved for the women, in
+contradistinction to the "andron," the men's quarters; in the larger
+houses there was an open court with peristyles round, and as a rule all
+the rooms were on the same level; in smaller houses the servants were
+placed in an upper storey, and this seems to have been the case to a
+certain extent in the Homeric house of the Odyssey. "Gynaeconitis" is
+the term given by Procopius to the space reserved for women in the
+Eastern Church, and this separation of the sexes was maintained in the
+early Christian churches where there were separate entrances and
+accommodation for the men and women, the latter being placed in the
+triforium gallery, or, in its absence, either on one side of the church,
+the men being on the other, or occasionally in the aisles, the nave
+being occupied by the men.
+
+
+
+
+GYNAECOLOGY (from Gr. [Greek: gyne, gynaikos], a woman, and [Greek:
+logos], discourse), the name given to that branch of medicine which
+concerns the pathology and treatment of affections peculiar to the
+female sex.
+
+Gynaecology may be said to be one of the most ancient branches of
+medicine. The papyrus of Ebers, which is one of the oldest known works
+on medicine and dates from 1550 B.C., contains references to diseases of
+women, and it is recorded that specialism in this branch was known
+amongst Egyptian medical practitioners. The Vedas contain a list of
+therapeutic agents used in the treatment of gynaecological diseases. The
+treatises on gynaecology formerly attributed to Hippocrates (460 B.C.)
+are now said to be spurious, but the wording of the famous oath shows
+that he was at least familiar with the use of gynaecological
+instruments. Diocles Carystius, of the Alexandrian school (4th century
+B.C.), practised this branch, and Praxagoras of Cos, who lived shortly
+after, opened the abdomen by laparotomy. While the Alexandrine school
+represented Greek medicine, Greeks began to practise in Rome, and in the
+first years of the Christian era gynaecologists were much in demand
+(Haser). A speculum for gynaecological purposes has been found in the
+ruins of Pompeii, and votive offerings of anatomical parts found in the
+temples show that various gynaecological malformations were known to the
+ancients. Writers who have treated of this branch are Celsus (50
+B.C.-A.D. 7) and Soranus of Ephesus (A.D. 98-138), who refers in his
+works to the fact that the Roman midwives frequently called to their aid
+practitioners who made a special study of diseases of women. These
+midwives attended the simpler gynaecological ailments. This was no
+innovation, as in Athens, as mentioned by Hyginus, we find one Agnodice,
+a midwife, disguising herself in man's attire so that she might attend
+lectures on medicine and diseases of women. After instruction she
+practised as a gynaecologist. This being contrary to Athenian law she
+was prosecuted, but was saved by the wives of some of the chief men
+testifying on her behalf. Besides Agnodice we have Sotira, who wrote a
+work on menstruation which is preserved in the library at Florence,
+while Aspasia is mentioned by Aetius as the author of several chapters
+of his work. It is evident that during the Roman period much of the
+gynaecological work was in the hands of women. Martial alludes to the
+"_feminae medicae_" in his epigram on Leda. These women must not be
+confounded with the midwives who on monuments are always described as
+"obstetrices." Galen devotes the sixth chapter of his work _De locis
+affectis_ to gynaecological ailments. During the Byzantine period may be
+mentioned the work of Oribasius (A.D. 325) and Moschion (2nd century
+A.D.) who wrote a book in Latin for the use of matrons and midwives
+ignorant of Greek.
+
+In modern times James Parsons (1705-1770) published his _Elenchus
+gynaicopathologicus et obstetricarius_, and in 1755 Charles Perry
+published his _Mechanical account and explication of the hysterical
+passion and of all other nervous disorders incident to the sex, with an
+appendix on cancers_. In the early part of the 19th century fresh
+interest in diseases of women awakened. Joseph Recamier (1774-1852) by
+his writings and teachings advocated the use of the speculum and sound.
+This was followed in 1840 by the writings of Simpson in England and
+Huguier in France. In 1845 John Hughes Bennett published his great work
+on inflammation of the uterus, and in 1850 Tilt published his book on
+ovarian inflammation. The credit of being the first to perform the
+operation of ovariotomy is now credited to McDowell of Kentucky in 1809,
+and to Robert Lawson Tait (1845-1899) in 1883 the first operation for
+ruptured ectopic gestation.
+
+  _Menstruation._--Normal menstruation comprises the escape of from 4 to
+  6 oz. of blood together with mucus from the uterus at intervals of
+  twenty-eight days (more or less). The flow begins at the age of
+  puberty, the average age of which in England is between fourteen and
+  sixteen years. It ceases between forty-five and fifty years of age,
+  and this is called the menopause or climacteric period, commonly
+  spoken of as "the change of life." Both the age of puberty and that of
+  the menopause may supervene earlier or later according to local
+  conditions. At both times the menstrual flow may be replaced by
+  haemorrhage from distant organs (epistaxis, haematemesis,
+  haemoptysis); this is called _vicarious menstruation_. Menstruation is
+  usually but not necessarily coincident with ovulation. The usual
+  disorders of menstruation are: (1) _amenorrhoea_ (absence of flow),
+  (2) _dysmenorrhoea_ (painful flow), (3) _menorrhagia_ (excessive
+  flow), (4) _metrorrhagia_ (excessive and irregular flow). Amenorrhoea
+  may arise from physiological causes, such as pregnancy, lactation, the
+  menopause; constitutional causes, such as phthisis, anaemia and
+  chlorosis, febrile disorders, some chronic intoxications, such as
+  morphinomania, and some forms of cerebral disease; local causes, which
+  include malformations or absence of one or more of the genital parts,
+  such as absence of ovaries, uterus or vagina, atresia of vagina,
+  imperforate cervix, disease of the ovaries, or sometimes imperforate
+  hymen. The treatment of amenorrhoea must be directed towards the
+  cause. In anaemia and phthisis menstruation often returns after
+  improvement in the general condition, with good food and good sanitary
+  conditions, an outdoor life and the administration of iron or other
+  tonics. In local conditions of imperforate hymen, imperforate cervix
+  or ovarian disease, surgical interference is necessary. Amenorrhoea is
+  permanent when due to absence of the genital parts. The causes of
+  dysmenorrhoea are classified as follows: (1) ovarian, due to disease
+  of the ovaries or Fallopian tubes; (2) obstructive, due to some
+  obstacle to the flow, as stenosis, flexions and malpositions of the
+  uterus, or malformations; (3) congestive, due to subinvolution,
+  chronic inflammation of the uterus or its lining membrane, fibroid
+  growths and polypi of the uterus, cardiac or hepatic disease; (4)
+  neuralgic; (5) membranous. The foremost place in the treatment of
+  dysmenorrhoea must be given to aperients and purgatives administered a
+  day or two before the period is expected. By this means congestion is
+  reduced. Hot baths are useful, and various drugs such as hyoscyanus,
+  cannabis indica, phenalgin, ammonol or phenacetin have been
+  prescribed. Medicinal treatment is, however, only palliative, and
+  flexions and malpositions of the uterus must be corrected, stenosis
+  treated by dilatation, fibroid growths if present removed, and
+  endometritis when present treated by local applications or curetting
+  according to its severity. Menorrhagia signifies excessive bleeding at
+  the menstrual periods. Constitutional causes are purpura, haemophilia,
+  excessive food and alcoholic drinks and warm climates; while local
+  causes are congestion and displacements of the uterus, endometritis,
+  subinvolution, retention of the products of conception, new growths in
+  the uterus such as mucous and fibroid polypi, malignant growths,
+  tubo-ovarian inflammation and some ovarian tumours. Metrorrhagia is a
+  discharge of blood from the uterus, independent of menstruation. It
+  always arises from disease of the uterus or its appendages. Local
+  causes are polypi, retention of the products of conception, extra
+  uterine gestation, haemorrhages in connexion with pregnancy, and new
+  growths in the uterus. In the treatment of both menorrhagia and
+  metrorrhagia the local condition must be carefully ascertained. When
+  pregnancy has been excluded, and constitutional causes treated,
+  efforts should be made to relieve congestion. Uterine haemostatics, as
+  ergot, ergotin, tincture of hydrastis or hamamelis, are of use,
+  together with rest in bed. Fibroid polypi and other new growths must
+  be removed. Irregular bleeding in women over forty years of age is
+  frequently a sign of early malignant disease, and should on no account
+  be neglected.
+
+  _Diseases of the External Genital Organs._--The vulva comprises
+  several organs and structures grouped together for convenience of
+  description (see REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM). The affections to which these
+  structures are liable may be classified as follows: (1) Injuries to
+  the vulva, either accidental or occurring during parturition; these
+  are generally rupture of the perinaeum. (2) _Vulvitis._ Simple
+  Vulvitis is due to want of cleanliness, or irritating discharges, and
+  in children may result from threadworms. The symptoms are heat,
+  itching and throbbing, and the parts are red and swollen. The
+  treatment consists of rest, thorough cleanliness and fomentations.
+  Infective vulvitis is nearly always due to gonorrhoea. The symptoms
+  are the same as in simple vulvitis, with the addition of mucopurulent
+  yellow discharge and scalding pain on micturition; if neglected,
+  extension of the disease may result. The treatment consists of rest in
+  bed, warm medicated baths several times a day or fomentations of
+  boracic acid. The parts must be kept thoroughly clean and discharges
+  swabbed away. Diphtheritic vulvitis occasionally occurs, and
+  erysipelas of the vulva may follow wounds, but since the use of
+  antiseptics is rarely seen. (3) Vascular disturbances may occur in the
+  vulva, including varix, haematoma, oedema and gangrene; the treatment
+  is the same as for the same disease in other parts. (4) The vulva is
+  likely to be affected by a number of cutaneous affections, the most
+  important being erythema, eczema, herpes, lichen, tubercle,
+  elephantiasis, vulvitis pruriginosa, syphilis and kraurosis. These
+  affections present the same characters as in other parts of the body.
+  _Kraurosis vulvae_, first described by Lawson Tait in 1875, is an
+  atrophic change accompanied by pain and a yellowish discharge; the
+  cause is unknown. Pruritis vulvae is due to parasites, or to
+  irritating discharges, as leucorrhoea, and is frequent in diabetic
+  subjects. The hymen may be occasionally imperforate and require
+  incision. Cysts and painful carunculae may occur on the clitoris. Any
+  part of the vulva may be the seat of new growths, simple or malignant.
+
+  _Diseases of the Vagina._--(1) Malformations. The vagina may be absent
+  in whole or in part or may present a septum. Stenosis of the vagina
+  may be a barrier to menstruation. (2) Displacements of the vagina; (a)
+  cystocele, which is a hernia of the bladder into the vagina; (b)
+  rectocele, a hernia of the rectum into the vagina. The cause of these
+  conditions is relaxation of the tissues due to parturition. The
+  palliative treatment consists in keeping up the parts by the insertion
+  of a pessary; when this fails operative interference is called for.
+  (3) Fistulae may form between the vagina and bladder or vagina and
+  rectum; they are generally caused by injuries during parturition or
+  the late stages of carcinoma. Persistent fistulae require operative
+  treatment. The vagina normally secretes a thin opalescent acid fluid
+  derived from the lymph serum and the shedding of squamous epithelium.
+  This fluid normally contains the vagina bacillus. In pathological
+  conditions of the vagina this secretion undergoes changes. For
+  practical purposes three varieties of _vaginitis_ may be described:
+  (a) simple catarrhal vaginitis is due to the same causes as simple
+  vulvitis, and occasionally in children is important from a
+  medico-legal aspect when it is complicated by vulvitis. The symptoms
+  are heat and discomfort with copious mucopurulent discharge. The only
+  treatment required is rest, with vaginal douches of warm unirritating
+  lotions such as boracic acid or subacetate of lead. (b) Gonorrhoeal
+  vaginitis is most common in adults. The patient complains of pain and
+  burning, pain on passing water and discharge which is generally green
+  or yellow. The results of untreated gonorrhoeal vaginitis are serious
+  and far-reaching. The disease may spread up the genital passages,
+  causing endometritis, salpingitis and septic peritonitis, or may
+  extend into the bladder, causing cystitis. Strict rest should be
+  enjoined, douches of carbolic acid (1 in 40) or of perchloride of
+  mercury (1 in 2000) should be ordered morning and evening, the vagina
+  being packed with tampons of iodoform gauze. Saline purgatives and
+  alkaline diuretics should be given, (c) Chronic vaginitis (leucorrhoea
+  or "the whites") may follow acute conditions and persist indefinitely.
+  The vagina is rarely the seat of tumours, but cysts are common.
+
+  _Diseases of the Uterus._--The uterus undergoes important changes
+  during life, chiefly at puberty and at the menopause. At puberty it
+  assumes the pear shape characteristic of the mature uterus. At the
+  menopause it shares in the general atrophy of the reproductive organs.
+  It is subject to various disorders and misplacements. (a)
+  _Displacements of the Uterus._--The normal position of the uterus,
+  when the bladder is empty, is that of anteversion. We have therefore
+  to consider the following conditions as pathological: anteflexion,
+  retroflexion, retroversion, inversion, prolapse and procidentia.
+  Slight anteflexion or bending forwards is normal; when exaggerated it
+  gives rise to dysmenorrhoea, sterility and reflex nervous phenomena.
+  This condition is usually congenital and is often associated with
+  under-development of the uterus, from which the sterility results. The
+  treatment is by dilatation of the canal or by a plastic operation.
+  Retroflexion is a bending over of the uterus backwards, and occurs as
+  a complication of retroversion (or displacement backwards). The causes
+  are (1) any cause tending to make the fundus or upper part of the
+  uterus extra heavy, such as tumours or congestion, (2) loss of tone of
+  the uterine walls, (3) adhesions formed after cellulitis, (4) violent
+  muscular efforts, (5) weakening of the uterine supports from
+  parturition. The symptoms are dysmenorrhoea, pain on defaecation and
+  constipation from the pressure of the fundus on the rectum; the
+  patient is often sterile. The treatment is the replacing of the uterus
+  in position, where it can be kept by the insertion of a pessary;
+  failing this, operative treatment may be required. Retroversion when
+  pathological is rarer than retroflexion. It may be the result of
+  injury or is associated with pregnancy or a fibroid. The symptoms are
+  those of retroflexion with feeling of pain and weight in the pelvis
+  and desire to micturate followed by retention of urine due to the
+  pressure of the cervix against the base of the bladder. The uterus
+  must be skilfully replaced in position; when pessaries fail to keep it
+  there the operation of hysteropexy gives excellent results.
+
+  Inversion occurs when the uterus is turned inside out. It is only
+  possible when the cavity is dilated, either after pregnancy or by a
+  polypus. The greater number of cases follow delivery and are acute.
+  Chronic inversions are generally due to the weight of a polypus. The
+  symptoms are menorrhagia, metrorrhagia and bladder troubles; on
+  examination a tumour-like mass occupies the vagina. Reduction of the
+  condition is often difficult, particularly when the condition has
+  lasted for a long time. The tumour which has caused the inversion must
+  be excised. Prolapse and procidentia are different degrees of the same
+  variety of displacement. When the uterus lies in the vagina it is
+  spoken of as prolapse, when it protrudes through the vulva it is
+  procidentia. The causes are directly due to increased intra-abdominal
+  pressure, increased weight of the uterus by fibroids, violent
+  straining, chronic cough and weakening of the supporting structures of
+  the pelvic floor, such as laceration of the vagina and perinaeum.
+  Traction on the uterus from below (as a cervical tumour) may be a
+  cause; advanced age, laborious occupations and frequent pregnancies
+  are indirect causes. The symptoms are a "bearing down" feeling, pain
+  and fatigue in walking, trouble with micturition and defaecation. The
+  condition is generally obvious on examination. As a rule the uterus is
+  easy to replace in position. A rubber ring pessary will often serve to
+  keep it there. If the perinaeum is very much torn it may be necessary
+  to repair it. Various operations for retaining the uterus in position
+  are described. (b) _Enlargements of the Uterus_ (hypertrophy or
+  hyperplasia). This condition may sometimes involve the uterus as a
+  whole or may be most marked in the body or in the cervix. It follows
+  chronic congestion or inflammatory prolapse, or any condition
+  interfering with the circulation. The symptoms comprise local
+  discomfort and sometimes dysmenorrhoea, leucorrhoea or menorrhagia.
+  When the elongation occurs in the cervical portion the only possible
+  treatment is amputation of the cervix. Atrophy of the uterus is normal
+  after the menopause. It may follow the removal of the tubes and
+  ovaries. Some constitutional diseases produce the same result, as
+  tuberculosis, chlorosis, chronic morphinism and certain diseases of
+  the central nervous system.
+
+  (c) _Injuries and Diseases resultant from Pregnancy._--The most
+  frequent of these injuries is laceration of the cervix uteri, which is
+  frequent in precipitate labour. Once the cervix is torn the raw
+  surfaces become covered by granulations and later by cicatricial
+  tissue, but as a rule they do not unite. The torn lips may become
+  unhealthy, and the congestion and oedema spread to the body of the
+  uterus. A lacerated cervix does not usually give rise to symptoms;
+  these depend on the accompanying endometritis, and include
+  leucorrhoea, aching and a feeling of weight. Lacerations are to be
+  felt digitally. As lacerations predispose to abortion the operation of
+  trachelorraphy or repair of the cervix is indicated. Perforation of
+  the uterus may occur from the use of the sound in diseased conditions
+  of the uterine walls. Superinvolution means premature atrophy
+  following parturition. Subinvolution is a condition in which the
+  uterus fails to return to its normal size and remains enlarged.
+  Retention of the products of conception may cause irregular
+  haemorrhages and may lead to a diagnosis of tumour. The uterus should
+  be carefully explored.
+
+  (d) _Inflammations Acute and Chronic._--The mucous membrane lining the
+  cervical canal and body of the uterus is called the endometrium. Acute
+  inflammation or endometritis may attack it. The chief causes are
+  sepsis following labour or abortion, extension of a gonorrhoeal
+  vaginitis, or gangrene or infection of a uterine myoma. The puerperal
+  endometritis following labour is an avoidable disease due to lack of
+  scrupulous aseptic precautions.
+
+  Gonorrhoeal endometritis is an acute form associated with copious
+  purulent discharge and well-marked constitutional disturbance. The
+  temperature ranges from 99 deg. to 105 deg. F., associated with pelvic
+  pain, and rigors are not uncommon. The tendency is to recovery with
+  more or less protracted convalescence. The most serious complications
+  are extension of the disease and later sterility. Rest in bed and
+  intrauterine irrigation, followed by the introduction of iodoform
+  pencils into the uterine cavity, should be resorted to, while pain is
+  relieved by hot fomentations and sitz baths. Chronic endometritis may
+  be the sequela of the acute form, or may be septic in origin, or the
+  result of chronic congestion, acute retroflection or subinvolution
+  following delivery or abortion. The varieties are glandular,
+  interstitial, haemorrhagic and senile. The symptoms are disturbance of
+  the menstrual function, headache, pain and pelvic discomfort, and more
+  or less profuse thick leucorrhoeal discharge. The treatment consists
+  in attention to the general health, with suitable laxatives and local
+  injections, and in obstinate cases curettage is the most effectual
+  measure. The disease is frequently associated with adenomatous disease
+  of the cervix, formerly called erosion. In this disease there is a new
+  formation of glandular elements, which enlarge and multiply, forming a
+  soft velvety areola dotted with pink spots. This was formerly
+  erroneously termed ulceration. The cause is unknown. It occurs in
+  virgins as well as in mothers, but it often accompanies lacerations of
+  the cervix. The symptoms are indefinite pain and leucorrhoea. The
+  condition is visible on inspection with a speculum. The treatment is
+  swabbing with iodized phenol or curettage. The body of the uterus may
+  also be the seat of adenomatous disease. Tuberculosis may attack the
+  uterus; this usually forms part of a general tuberculosis.
+
+  (e) _New Growths in the Uterus._--The uterus is the most common seat
+  of new growths. From the researches of von Gurlt, compiled from the
+  Vienna Hospital _Reports_, embracing 15,880 cases of tumour, females
+  exceed males in the proportion of seven to three, and of this large
+  majority uterine growths account for 25%. When we consider its
+  periodic monthly engorgements and the alternate hypertrophy and
+  involution it undergoes in connexion with pregnancy, we can anticipate
+  the special proneness of the uterus to new growths. Tumours of the
+  uterus are divided into benign and malignant. The benign tumours known
+  as fibroids or myomata are very common. They are stated by Bayle to
+  occur in 20% of women over 35 years of age, but happily in a great
+  number of cases they are small and give rise to no symptoms. They are
+  definitely associated with the period of sexual activity and occur
+  more frequently in married women than in single, in the proportion of
+  two to one (Winckel). It is doubtful if they ever originate after the
+  menopause. Indeed if uncomplicated by changes in them they share in
+  the general atrophy of the sexual organs which then takes place. They
+  are divided according to their position in the tissues into
+  intramural, subserous and submucous (the last when it has a pedicle
+  forms a polypus), or as to the part of the uterus in which they
+  develop into fibroids of the cervix and fibroids of the body.
+  Intramural and submucous fibroids give rise to haemorrhage. The menses
+  may be so increased that the patient is scarcely ever free from
+  haemorrhage. The pressure of the growth may cause dysmenorrhoea, or
+  pressure on the bladder and rectum may cause dysuria, retention or
+  rectal tenesmus. The uterus may be displaced by the weight of the
+  tumour. Secondary changes take place in fibroids, such as mucous
+  degeneration, fatty metamorphosis, calcification, septic infection
+  (sloughing fibroid) and malignant (sarcomatous) degeneration.
+
+  The modes in which fibroids imperil life are haemorrhage (the
+  commonest of all), septic infection, which is one of the most
+  dangerous, impaction when it fits the true pelvis so tightly that the
+  tumour cannot rise, twisting of the pedicle by rotation, leading to
+  sloughing and intestinal and urinary obstruction. When fibroids are
+  complicated by pregnancy, impaction and consequent abortion may take
+  place, or a cervical myoma may offer a mechanical obstacle to delivery
+  or lead to serious post partem haemorrhage. In the treatment of
+  fibroids various drugs (ergot, hamamelis, hydrastis canadensis) may be
+  tried to control the haemorrhage, and repose and the injection of hot
+  water (120 deg. F.) are sometimes successful, together with electrical
+  treatment. Surgical measures are needed, however, in severe recurrent
+  haemorrhage, intestinal obstruction, sloughing and the co-existence of
+  pregnancy. An endeavour must be made if possible to enucleate the
+  fibroid, or hysterectomy (removal of the uterus) may be required. The
+  operation of removal of the ovaries to precipitate the menopause has
+  fallen into disuse.
+
+  (f) _Malignant Disease of the Uterus._--The varieties of malignant
+  disease met with in the uterus are sarcoma, carcinoma and
+  chorion-epithelioma malignum. Sarcomata may occur in the body and in
+  the neck. They occur at an earlier age than carcinomata. Marked
+  enlargement and haemorrhage are the symptoms. The differential
+  diagnosis is microscopic. Extirpation of the uterus is the only chance
+  of prolonging life. The age at which women are most subject to
+  carcinoma (cancer) of the uterus is towards the decline of sexual
+  life. Of 3385 collected cases of cancer of the uterus 1169 occurred
+  between 40 and 50, and 856 between 50 and 60. In contradistinction to
+  fibroid tumours it frequently arises after the menopause. It may be
+  divided into cancer of the body and cancer of the neck (cervix).
+  Cancer of the neck of the uterus is almost exclusively confined to
+  women who have been pregnant (Bland-Sutton). Predisposing causes may
+  be injuries during delivery. The symptoms which induce women to seek
+  medical aid are haemorrhage, foetid discharge, and later pain and
+  cachexia. An unfortunate belief amongst the public that the menopause
+  is associated with irregular bleeding and offensive discharges has
+  prevented many women from seeking medical advice until too late. It
+  cannot be too widely understood that cancer of the cervix is in its
+  early stages a purely local disease, and if removed in this stage
+  usually results in cure. So important is the recognition of this fact
+  in the saving of human life that at the meeting of the British Medical
+  Association in April 1909 the council issued for publication a special
+  appeal to medical practitioners, midwives and nurses, and directed it
+  to be published in British and colonial medical and nursing journals.
+  It will be useful to quote here a part of the appeal directed to
+  midwives and nurses: "Cancer may occur at any age and in a woman who
+  looks quite well, and who may have no pain, no wasting, no foul
+  discharge and no profuse bleeding. To wait for pain, wasting, foul
+  discharge or profuse bleeding is to throw away the chance of
+  successful treatment. The early symptoms of cancer of the womb
+  are:--(1) bleeding which occurs after the change of life, (2) bleeding
+  after sexual intercourse or after a vaginal douche, (3) bleeding,
+  slight or abundant, even in young women, if occurring between the
+  usual monthly periods, and especially when accompanied by a
+  bad-smelling or watery blood-tinged discharge, (4) thin watery
+  discharge occurring at any age." On examination the cervix presents
+  certain characteristic signs, though these may be modified according
+  to the variety of cancer present. Hard nodules or definite loss of
+  substance, extreme friability and bleeding after slight manipulation,
+  are suspicious. Epithelial cancer of the cervix may assume a
+  proliferating ulcerative type, forming the well-known "cauliflower"
+  excrescence. The treatment of cancer of the cervix is free removal at
+  the earliest possible moment. Cancer of the body of the uterus is rare
+  before the 45th year. It is most frequent at or subsequent to the
+  menopause. The majority of the patients are nulliparae (Bland-Sutton).
+  The signs are fitful haemorrhages after the menopause, followed by
+  profuse and offensive discharges. The uterus on examination often
+  feels enlarged. The diagnosis being made, hysterectomy (removal of the
+  uterus) is the only treatment. Cancer of the body of the uterus may
+  complicate fibroids. Chorion-epithelioma malignum (deciduoma) was
+  first described in 1889 by Sanger and Pfeiffer. It is a malignant
+  disease presenting microscopic characters resembling decidual tissue.
+  It occurs in connexion with recent pregnancy, and particularly with
+  the variety of abortion termed hydatid mole. In many cases it destroys
+  life with a rapidity unequalled by any other kind of growth. It
+  quickly ulcerates and infiltrates the uterine tissues, forming
+  metastatic growths in the lung and vagina. Clinically it is recognized
+  by the occurrence after pregnancy of violent haemorrhages, progressive
+  cachexia and fever with rigors. Recent suggestions have been made as
+  to chorion-epithelioma being the result of pathological changes in the
+  lutein tissue of the ovary. The growth is usually primary in the
+  uterus, but may be so in the Fallopian tubes and in the vagina. A few
+  cases have been recorded unconnected with pregnancy. The virulence of
+  chorion-epithelioma varies, but in the present state of our knowledge
+  immediate removal of the primary growth along with the affected organ
+  is the only treatment.
+
+  _Diseases of the Fallopian Tubes._--The Fallopian tubes or oviducts
+  are liable to inflammatory affections, tuberculosis, sarcomata,
+  cancer, chorion-epithelioma and tubal pregnancy. Salpingitis
+  (inflammation of the oviducts) is nearly always secondary to septic
+  infection of the genital tract. The chief causes are septic
+  endometritis following labour or abortion, gangrene of a myoma,
+  gonorrhoea, tuberculosis and cancer of the uterus; it sometimes
+  follows the specific fevers. When the pus escapes from the tubes into
+  the coelom it sets up pelvic peritonitis. When the inflammation is
+  adjacent to the ostium it leads to the matting together of the tubal
+  fimbriae and glues them to an adjacent organ. This seals the ostium.
+  The occluded tube may now have an accumulation of pus in it
+  (pyosalpinx). When in consequence of the sealing of the ostium the
+  tube becomes distended with serous fluid it is termed hydrosalpinx.
+  Haematosalpinx is a term applied to the non-gravid tube distended with
+  blood; later the tubes may become sclerosed. Acute septic salpingitis
+  is ushered in by a rigor, the temperature rising to 103 deg., 104 deg.
+  F., with severe pain and constitutional disturbance. The symptoms may
+  become merged in those of general peritonitis. In chronic disease
+  there is a history of puerperal trouble followed by sterility, with
+  excessive and painful menstruation. Acute salpingitis requires
+  absolute rest, opium suppositories and hot fomentations. With urgent
+  symptoms removal of the inflamed adnexa must be resorted to. Chronic
+  salpingitis often renders a woman an invalid. Permanent relief can
+  only be afforded by surgical intervention. Tuberculous salpingitis is
+  usually secondary to other tuberculous infections. The Fallopian tubes
+  may be the seat of malignant disease. This is rarely primary. By far
+  the most important of the conditions of the Fallopian tubes is tubal
+  pregnancy (or ectopic gestation). It is now known that fertilization
+  of the human ovum by the spermatozoon may take place even when the
+  ovum is in its follicle in the ovary, for oosperms have been found in
+  the ovary and Fallopian tubes as well as in the uterus. Belief in
+  ovarian pregnancy is of old standing, and had been regarded as
+  possible but unproved, no case of an early embryo in its membranes in
+  the sac of an ovary being forthcoming, until the remarkable case
+  published by Dr Catherine van Tussenboek of Amsterdam in 1899
+  (Bland-Sutton). Tubal pregnancy is most frequent in the left tube; it
+  sometimes complicates uterine pregnancy; rarely both tubes are
+  pregnant. When the oosperm lodges in the ampulla or isthmus it is
+  called tubal gestation; when it is retained in the portion traversing
+  the uterine wall it is called tubo-uterine gestation. Wherever the
+  fertilized ovum remains and implants its villi the tube becomes turgid
+  and swollen, and the abdominal ostium gradually closes. The ovum in
+  this situation is liable to apoplexy, forming tubal mole. When the
+  abdominal ostium remains pervious the ovum may escape into the
+  coelomic cavity (tubal abortion); death from shock and haemorrhage
+  into the abdominal cavity may result. When neither of these
+  occurrences has taken place the ovum continues to grow inside the
+  tube, the rupture of the distended tube usually taking place between
+  the sixth and the tenth week. The rupture of the tube may be
+  intraperitoneal or extraperitoneal. The danger is death from
+  haemorrhage occurring during the rupture, or adhesions may form, the
+  retained blood forming a haematocele. The ovum may be destroyed or may
+  continue to develop. In rare cases rupture may not occur, the tube
+  bulging into the peritoneal cavity; and the foetus may break through
+  the membranes and lie free among the intestines, where it may die,
+  becoming encysted or calcified. The tubal placenta possesses foetal
+  structures, the true decidua forming in the uterus. The signs
+  suggestive of tubal pregnancy before rupture are missed periods,
+  pelvic pains and the presence of an enlarged tube. When rupture takes
+  place it is attended in both varieties with sudden and severe pain and
+  more or less marked collapse, and a tumour may or may not be felt
+  according to the situation of the rupture. There is a general "feeling
+  of something having given way." If diagnosed before rupture, the sac
+  must be removed by abdominal section. In intraperitoneal rupture
+  immediate operation affords the only chance of saving life. In
+  extraperitoneal rupture the foetus may occasionally remain alive until
+  full term and be rescued by abdominal section, if the condition is
+  recognized, or a false labour may take place, accompanied by death of
+  the foetus.
+
+  _Diseases of the Ovaries and Parovarium._--The ovaries undergo
+  striking changes at puberty, and again at the menopause, after which
+  there is a gradual shrinkage. One or both may be absent or malformed,
+  or they are subject to displacements, being either undescended,
+  contained in a hernia or prolapsed. Either of these conditions, if a
+  source of pain, may necessitate their removal. The ovary is also
+  subject to haemorrhage or apoplexy. Acute inflammations (oophorites)
+  are constantly associated with salpingitis or other septic conditions
+  of the genital tract or with an attack of mumps. The relation of
+  oophoritis to mumps is at present unknown. Acute oophoritis may
+  culminate in abscess but more usually adhesions are formed. The
+  surgical treatment is that of pyosalpinx. Chronic inflammation may
+  follow acute or be consequent on pelvic cellulitis. Its constant
+  features are more or less pain followed by sterility. The ovary may be
+  the seat of tuberculosis, which is generally secondary to other
+  lesions. Suppuration and abscess of the ovary also occur.
+  Perioophoritis, or chronic inflammation in the neighbourhood, may also
+  involve the gland. The cause of cirrhosis of the ovaries is unknown,
+  though it may be associated with cirrhotic liver. The change is met
+  with in women between 20 and 40 years of age, the ovaries being in a
+  shrunken, hard, wrinkled condition. Under ovarian neuralgia are
+  grouped indefinite painful symptoms occurring frequently in neurotic
+  and alcoholic subjects, and often worse during menstruation. The
+  treatment, whether local or operative, is usually unsatisfactory. The
+  ovary is frequently the seat of tumours, dermoids and cysts. Cysts may
+  be simple, unilocular or multilocular, and may attain an enormous
+  size. The largest on record was removed by Dr Elizabeth Reifsnyder of
+  Shanghai, and contained 100 litres of fluid, and the patient
+  recovered. The operation is termed ovariotomy. Dermoid cysts
+  containing skin, bones, teeth and hair, are of frequent growth in the
+  ovary, and have attained the weight of from 20 to 40 kilogrammes. In
+  one case a girl weighed 27 kilogrammes and her tumour 44 kilogrammes
+  (Keen). Papillomatous cysts also occur in the ovary. Parovarian and
+  Gartnerian cysts are found, and adenomata form 20% of all ovarian
+  cysts. Occasionally the tunic of peritoneum surrounding the ovary
+  becomes distended with serous fluid. This is termed ovarian hydrocele.
+  Ovarian fibroids occur, and malignant disease (sarcoma and carcinoma)
+  is fairly frequent, sarcoma being the most usual ovarian tumour
+  occurring before puberty. Carcinoma of the ovary is rarely primary,
+  but it is a common situation for secondary cancer to that of the
+  breast, gall-bladder or gastro-intestinal tract. The treatment of all
+  rapidly-growing tumours of the ovary is removal.
+
+  _Diseases of the Pelvic Peritoneum and Connective Tissue._--Women are
+  excessively liable to peritoneal infections. (1) Septic infection
+  often follows acute salpingitis and may give rise to pelvic
+  peritonitis (perimetritis), which may be adhesive, serous or purulent.
+  It may follow the rupture of ovarian or dermoid cysts, rupture of the
+  uterus, extra uterine pregnancy or extension from pyosalpinx. The
+  symptoms are severe pain, fever, 103 deg. F. and higher, marked
+  constitutional disturbances, vomiting, restlessness, even delirium.
+  The abdomen is fixed and tympanitic. Its results are the formation of
+  adhesions causing abnormal positions of the organs, or chronic
+  peritonitis may follow. The treatment is rest in bed, opium, hot
+  stupes to the abdomen and quinine. (2) Epithelial infections take
+  place in the peritoneum in connexion with other malignant growths. (3)
+  Hydroperitoneum, a collection of free fluid in the abdominal cavity,
+  may be due to tumours of the abdominal viscera or to tuberculosis of
+  the peritoneum. (4) Pelvic cellulitis (parametritis) signifies the
+  inflammation of the connective tissue between the folds of the broad
+  ligament (mesometrium). The general causes are septic changes
+  following abortion, delivery at term (especially instrumental
+  delivery), following operations on the uterus or salpingitis. The
+  symptoms are chill followed by severe intrapelvic pain and tension,
+  fever 100 deg. to 102 deg. F. There may be nausea and vomiting,
+  diarrhoea, rectal tenseness and dysuria. If consequent on parturition
+  the lochia cease or become offensive. On examination there is
+  tenderness and swelling in one flank and the uterus becomes fixed and
+  immovable in the exudate as if embedded in plaster of Paris. The
+  illness may go to resolution if treated by rest, opium, hot stupes or
+  icebags and glycerine tampons, or may go on to suppuration forming
+  pelvic abscess, which signifies a collection of pus between the layers
+  of the broad ligament. The pus in a pelvic abscess may point and
+  escape through the walls of the vagina, rectum or bladder. It
+  occasionally points in the groin. If the pus can be localized an
+  incision should be made and the abscess drained. The tumours which
+  arise in the broad ligament are haematocele, solid tumours (as
+  myomata, lipomata and sarcomata), and echinnococcus colonies
+  (hydatids).
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Albutt, Playfair and Eden, _System of Gynaecology_
+  (1906); McNaughton Jones, _Manual of Diseases of Women_ (1904);
+  Bland-Sutton and Giles, _Diseases of Women_ (1906); C. Lockyer,
+  "Lutein Cysts in association with Chorio-Epithelioma," _Journal of
+  Obstetrics and Gynaecology_ (January, 1905); W. Stewart McKay,
+  _History of Ancient Gynaecology_; Hart and Barbour, _Diseases of
+  Women_; Howard Kelly, _Operative Gynaecology_.     (H. L. H.)
+
+
+
+
+GYONGYOSI, ISTVAN [STEPHEN] (1620-1704), Hungarian poet, was born of
+poor but noble parents in 1620. His abilities early attracted the notice
+of Count Ferencz Wesselenyi, who in 1640 appointed him to a post of
+confidence in Fulek castle. Here he remained till 1653, when he married
+and became an assessor of the judicial board. In 1681 he was elected as
+a representative of his county at the diet held at Soprony (Oedenburg).
+From 1686 to 1693, and again from 1700 to his death in 1704, he was
+deputy lord-lieutenant of the county of Gomor. Of his literary works the
+most famous is the epic poem _Muranyi Venus_ (Caschau, 1664), in honour
+of his benefactor's wife Maria Szecsi, the heroine of Murany. Among his
+later productions the best known are _Rozsa-Koszoru_, or Rose-Wreath
+(1690), _Kemeny-Janos_ (1693), _Cupido_ (1695), _Palinodia_ (1695) and
+_Chariklia_ (1700).
+
+  The earliest edition of his collected poetical works is by Dugonics
+  (Pressburg and Pest, 1796); the best modern selection is that of
+  Toldy, entitled _Gyongyosi Istvan valogatott poetai munkai_ (Select
+  poetical works of Stephen Gyongyosi, 2 vols., 1864-1865).
+
+
+
+
+GYOR (Ger. _Raab_), a town of Hungary, capital of a county of the same
+name, 88 m. W. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 27,758. It is situated
+at the confluence of the Raab with the Danube, and is composed of the
+inner town and three suburbs. Gyor is a well-built town, and is the seat
+of a Roman Catholic bishop. Amongst its principal buildings are the
+cathedral, dating from the 12th century, and rebuilt in 1639-1654; the
+bishop's palace; the town hall; the Roman Catholic seminary for priests
+and several churches. There are manufactures of cloth, machinery and
+tobacco, and an active trade in grain and horses. Twenty miles by rail
+W. S. W. of the town is situated Csorna, a village with a
+Premonstratensian abbey, whose archives contain numerous valuable
+historical documents.
+
+Gyor is one of the oldest towns in Hungary and occupies the site of the
+Roman _Arabona_. It was already a place of some importance in the 10th
+century, and its bishopric was created in the 11th century. It was a
+strongly fortified town which resisted successfully the attacks of the
+Turks, into whose hands it fell by treachery in 1594, but they retained
+possession of it only for four years. Montecucculi made Gyor a
+first-class fortress, and it remained so until 1783, when it was
+abandoned. At the beginning of the 19th century, the fortifications were
+re-erected, but were easily taken by the French in 1809, and were again
+stormed by the Austrians on the 28th of June 1849.
+
+About 11 m. S.E. of Gyor on a spur of the Bakony Forest lies the famous
+Benedictine abbey of Pannonhalma (Ger. _St Martinsberg_; Lat. _Mons
+Sancti Martini_), one of the oldest and wealthiest abbeys of Hungary. It
+was founded by King St Stephen, and the original deed from 1001 is
+preserved in the archives of the abbey. The present building is a block
+of palaces, containing a beautiful church, some of its parts dating from
+the 12th century, and lies on a hill 1200 ft. high. The church has a
+tower 130 ft. high. In the convent there are a seminary for priests, a
+normal school, a gymnasium and a library of 120,000 vols. The chief
+abbot has the rank of a bishop, and is a member of the Upper House of
+the Hungarian parliament, while in spiritual matters he is subordinate
+immediately to the Roman curia.
+
+
+
+
+GYP, the pen name of SIBYLLE GABRIELLE MARIE ANTOINETTE RIQUETI DE
+MIRABEAU, Comtesse de Martel de Janville (1850-   ) French writer, who
+was born at the chateau of Koetsal in the Morbihan. Her father, who was
+the grandson of the vicomte de Mirabeau and great-nephew of the orator,
+served in the Papal Zouaves, and died during the campaign of 1860. Her
+mother, the comtesse de Mirabeau, in addition to some graver
+compositions, contributed to the _Figaro_ and the _Vie parisienne_,
+under various pseudonyms, papers in the manner successfully developed by
+her daughter. Under the pseudonym of "Gyp" Madame de Martel, who was
+married in 1869, sent to the _Vie parisienne_, and later to the _Revue
+des deux mondes_, a large number of social sketches and dialogues,
+afterwards reprinted in volumes. Her later work includes stories of a
+more formal sort, essentially differing but little from the shorter
+studies. The following list includes some of the best known of Madame de
+Martel's publications, nearly seventy in number: _Petit Bob_ (1882);
+_Autour du mariage_ (1883); _Ce que femme veut_ (1883); _Le Monde a
+cote_ (1884), _Sans voiles_ (1885); _Autour du divorce_ (1886); _Dans le
+train_ (1886); _Mademoiselle Loulou_ (1888); _Bob au salon_ (1888-1889);
+_L'Education d'un prince_ (1890); _Passionette_ (1891); _Ohe! la grande
+vie_ (1891); _Une Election a Tigre-sur-mer_ (1890), an account of
+"Gyp's" experiences in support of a Boulangist candidate; _Mariage
+civil_ (1892); _Ces bons docteurs_ (1892); _Du haut en bas_ (1893);
+_Mariage de chiffon_ (1894); _Leurs ames_ (1895); _Le Coeur d'Ariane_
+(1895); _Le Bonheur de Ginette_ (1896); _Totote_ (1897); _Lune de miel_
+(1898); _Israel_ (1898); _L'Entrevue_ (1899); _Le Pays des champs_
+(1900); _Trop de chic_ (1900); _Le Friquet_ (1901); _La Fee_ (1902); _Un
+Mariage chic_ (1903); _Un Menage dernier cri_ (1903); _Maman_ (1904);
+_Le Coeur de Pierrette_ (1905). From the first "Gyp," writing of a
+society to which she belonged, displayed all the qualities which have
+given her a distinct, if not pre-eminent, position among writers of her
+class. Those qualities included an intense faculty of observation, much
+skill in innuendo, a mordant wit combined with some breadth of humour,
+and a singular power of animating ordinary dialogues without destroying
+the appearance of reality. Her Parisian types of the spoiled child, of
+the precocious schoolgirl, of the young bride, and of various masculine
+figures in the gay world, have become almost classical, and may probably
+survive as faithful pictures of luxurious manners in the 19th century.
+Some later productions, inspired by a violent anti-Semitic and
+Nationalist bias, deserve little consideration. An earlier attempt to
+dramatize _Autour du mariage_ was a failure, not owing to the audacities
+which it shares with most of its author's works, but from lack of
+cohesion and incident. More successful was _Mademoiselle Eve_ (1895),
+but indeed "Gyp's" successes are all achieved without a trace of
+dramatic faculty. In 1901 Madame de Martel furnished a sensational
+incident in the Nationalist campaign during the municipal elections in
+Paris. She was said to have been the victim of a kidnapping outrage or
+piece of horseplay provoked by her political attitude, but though a most
+circumstantial account of the outrages committed on her and of her
+adventurous escape was published, the affair was never clearly explained
+or verified.
+
+
+
+
+GYPSUM, a common mineral consisting of hydrous calcium sulphate, named
+from the Gr. [Greek: gypsos], a word used by Theophrastus to denote not
+only the raw mineral but also the product of its calcination, which was
+employed in ancient times, as it still is, as a plaster. When
+crystallized, gypsum is often called selenite, the [Greek: selenites] of
+Dioscorides, so named from [Greek: selene], "the moon," probably in
+allusion to the soft moon-like reflection of light from some of its
+faces, or, according to a legend, because it is found at night when the
+moon is on the increase. The granular, marble-like gypsum is termed
+alabaster (q.v.).
+
+Gypsum crystallizes in the monoclinic system, the habit of the crystals
+being usually either prismatic or tabular; in the latter case the broad
+planes are parallel to the faces of the clinopinacoid. The crystals may
+become lenticular by curvature of certain faces. In the characteristic
+type represented in fig. 1, f represents the prism, l the hemi-pyramid
+and P the clinopinacoid. Twins are common, as in fig. 2, forming in some
+cases arrow-headed and swallow-tailed crystals. Cleavage is perfect
+parallel to the clinopinacoid, yielding thin plates, often
+diamond-shaped, with pearly lustre; these flakes are usually flexible,
+but may be brittle, as in the gypsum of Montmartre. Two other cleavages
+are recognized, but they are imperfect. Crystals of gypsum, when
+occurring in clay, may enclose much muddy matter; in other cases a large
+proportion of sand may be mechanically entangled in the crystals without
+serious disturbance of form; whilst certain crystals occasionally
+enclose cavities with liquid and an air-bubble. Gypsum not infrequently
+becomes fibrous. This variety occurs in veins, often running through
+gypseous marls, with the fibres disposed at right angles to the
+direction of the vein. Such gypsum when cut and polished has a pearly
+opalescence, or satiny sheen, whence it is called satin-spar (q.v.).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+Gypsum is so soft as to be scratched even by the finger-nail (H = 1.5 to
+2). Its specific gravity is about 2.3. The mineral is slightly soluble
+in water, one part of gypsum being soluble, according to G. K. Cameron,
+in 372 parts of pure water at 26 deg. C. Waters percolating through
+gypseous strata, like the Keuper marls, dissolve the calcium sulphate
+and thus become permanently hard or "selenitic." Such water has special
+value for brewing pale ale, and the water used by the Burton breweries
+is of this character; hence the artificial dissolving of gypsum in water
+for brewing purposes is known as "burtonization." Deposits of gypsum are
+formed in boilers using selenitic water.
+
+Pure gypsum is colourless or white, but it is often tinted, especially
+in the alabaster variety, grey, yellow or pink. Gypsum crystallizes with
+two molecules of water, equal to about 21% by weight, and consequently
+has the formula CaSO4.2H2O. By exposure to strong heat all the water may
+be expelled, and the substance then has the composition of anhydrite
+(q.v.). When the calcination, however, is conducted at such a
+temperature that only about 75% of the water is lost, it yields a white
+pulverulent substance, known as "plaster of Paris," which may readily be
+caused to recombine with water, forming a hard cement. The gypsum
+quarries of Montmartre, in the north of Paris, were worked in Tertiary
+strata, rich in fossils. Gypsum is largely quarried in England for
+conversion into plaster of Paris, whence it is sometimes known as
+"plaster stone," and since much is sent to the Staffordshire potteries
+for making moulds it is also termed "potter's stone." The chief workings
+are in the Keuper marls near Newark in Nottinghamshire, Fauld in
+Staffordshire and Chellaston in Derbyshire. It is also worked in Permian
+beds in Cumberland and Westmorland, and in Purbeck strata near Battle in
+Sussex.
+
+Gypsum frequently occurs in association with rock-salt, having been
+deposited in shallow basins of salt water. Much of the calcium in
+sea-water exists as sulphate; and on evaporation of a drop of sea-water
+under the microscope this sulphate is deposited as acicular crystals of
+gypsum. In salt-lagoons the deposition of the gypsum is probably
+effected in most cases by means of micro-organisms. Waters containing
+sulphuretted hydrogen, on exposure to the air in the presence of
+limestone, may yield gypsum by the formation of sulphuric acid and its
+interaction with the calcium carbonate. In volcanic districts gypsum is
+produced by the action of sulphuric acid, resulting from the oxidation
+of sulphurous vapours, on lime-bearing minerals, like labradorite and
+augite, in the volcanic rocks: hence gypsum is common around solfataras.
+Again, by the oxidation of iron-pyrites and the action of the resulting
+sulphuric acid on limestone or on shells, gypsum may be formed; whence
+its origin in most clays. Gypsum is also formed in some cases by the
+hydration of anhydrite, the change being accompanied by an increase of
+volume to the extent of about 60%. Conversely gypsum may, under certain
+conditions, be dehydrated or reduced to anhydrite.
+
+Some of the largest known crystals of selenite have been found in
+southern Utah, where they occur in huge geodes, or crystal-lined
+cavities, in deposits from the old salt-lakes. Fine crystals, sometimes
+curiously bent, occur in the Permian rocks of Friedrichroda, near Gotha,
+where there is a grotto called the Marienglashohle, close to
+Rheinhardsbrunn. Many of the best localities for selenite are in the New
+Red Sandstone formation (Trias and Permian), notably the salt-mines of
+Hall and Hallein, near Salzburg, and of Bex in Switzerland. Excellent
+crystals, usually of a brownish colour arranged in groups, are often
+found in the brine-chambers and the launders used in salt-works.
+Selenite also occurs in fine crystals in the sulphur-bearing marls of
+Girgenti and other Sicilian localities; whilst in Britain very bold
+crystals are yielded by the Kimeridge clay of Shotover Hill near Oxford.
+Twisted crystals and rosettes of gypsum found in the Mammoth Cave,
+Kentucky, have been called "oulopholites" ([Greek: oulos], "woolly";
+[Greek: pholeos], "cave").
+
+In addition to the use of gypsum in cement-making, the mineral finds
+application as an agricultural agent in dressing land, and it has also
+been used in the manufacture of porcelain and glass. Formerly it was
+employed, in the form of thin cleavage-plates, for glazing windows, and
+seems to have been, with mica, called _lapis specularis_. It is still
+known in Germany as _Marienglas_ and _Fraueneis_. Delicate
+cleavage-plates of gypsum are used in microscopic petrography for the
+determination of certain optical constants in the rock-forming minerals.
+     (F. W. R.*)
+
+
+
+
+GYROSCOPE AND GYROSTAT. These are scientific models or instruments
+designed to illustrate experimentally the dynamics of a rotating body
+such as the spinning-top, hoop and bicycle, and also the precession of
+the equinox and the rotation of the earth.
+
+The gyroscope (Gr. [Greek: gyros], ring, [Greek: skopein], to see) may
+be distinguished from the gyrostat ([Greek: gyros], and [Greek:
+statikos], stationary) as an instrument in which the rotating wheel or
+disk is mounted in gimbals so that the principal axis of rotation
+always passes through a fixed point (fig. 1). It can be made to imitate
+the motion of a spinning-top of which the point is placed in a smooth
+agate cup as in Maxwell's dynamical top (figs. 2, 3). (_Collected
+Works_, i. 248.) A bicycle wheel, with a prolongation of the axle placed
+in a cup, can also be made to serve (fig. 4).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+The gyrostat is an instrument designed by Lord Kelvin (_Natural
+Philosophy_, S 345) to illustrate the more complicated state of motion
+of a spinning body when free to wander about on a horizontal plane, like
+a top spun on the pavement, or a hoop or bicycle on the road. It
+consists essentially of a massive fly-wheel concealed in a metal casing,
+and its behaviour on a table, or with various modes of suspension or
+support, described in Thomson and Tait, _Natural Philosophy_, serves to
+illustrate the curious reversal of the ordinary laws of statical
+equilibrium due to the _gyrostatic domination_ of the interior invisible
+fly-wheel, when rotated rapidly (fig. 5).
+
+The toy shown in figs. 6 and 7, which can be bought for a shilling, is
+acting as a gyroscope in fig. 6 and a gyrostat in fig. 7.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+The gyroscope, as represented in figs. 2 and 3 by Maxwell's dynamical
+top, is provided with screws by which the centre of gravity can be
+brought into coincidence with the point of support. It can then be used
+to illustrate Poinsot's theory of the motion of a body under no force,
+the gyroscope being made kinetically unsymmetrical by a setting of the
+screws. The discussion of this movement is required for Jacobi's
+theorems on the allied motion of a top and of a body under no force
+(Poinsot, _Theorie nouvelle de la rotation des corps_, Paris, 1857;
+Jacobi, _Werke_, ii. Note B, p. 476).
+
+To imitate the movement of the top the centre of gravity is displaced
+from the point of support so as to give a preponderance. When the motion
+takes place in the neighbourhood of the downward vertical, the bicycle
+wheel can be made to serve again mounted as in fig. 8 by a stalk in the
+prolongation of the axle, suspended from a universal joint at O; it can
+then be spun by hand and projected in any manner.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+The first practical application of the gyroscopic principle was invented
+and carried out (1744) by Serson, with a spinning top with a polished
+upper plane surface for giving an artificial horizon at sea, undisturbed
+by the motion of the ship, when the real horizon was obscured. The
+instrument has been perfected by Admiral Georges Ernest Fleuriais (fig.
+9), and is interesting theoretically as showing the correction required
+practically for the rotation of the earth. Gilbert's barogyroscope is
+devised for the same purpose of showing the earth's rotation; a
+description of it, and of the latest form employed by Foppl, is given in
+the _Ency. d. math. Wiss._, 1904, with bibliographical references in the
+article "Mechanics of Physical Apparatus." The rotation of the fly-wheel
+is maintained here by an electric motor, as devised by G. M. Hopkins,
+and described in the _Scientific American_, 1878. To demonstrate the
+rotation of the earth by the constancy in direction of the axis of a
+gyroscope is a suggestion that has often been made; by E. Sang in 1836,
+and others. The experiment was first carried out with success by
+Foucault in 1851, by a simple pendulum swung in the dome of the
+Pantheon, Paris, and it has been repeated frequently (_Memoires sur le
+pendule_, 1889).
+
+A gyroscopic fly-wheel will preserve its original direction in space
+only when left absolutely free in all directions, as required in the
+experiments above. If employed in steering, as of a torpedo, the
+gyroscope must act through the intermediary of a light relay; but if
+direct-acting, the reaction will cause precession of the axis, and the
+original direction is lost.
+
+The gyrostatic principle, in which one degree of freedom is suppressed
+in the axis, is useful for imparting steadiness and stability in a
+moving body; it is employed by Schlick to mitigate the rolling of a ship
+and to maintain the upright position of Brennan's monorail car.
+
+Lastly, as an application of gyroscopic theory, a stretched chain of
+fly-wheels in rotation was employed by Kelvin as a mechanical model of
+the rotary polarization of light in an electromagnetic field; the
+apparatus may be constructed of bicycle wheels connected by short links,
+and suspended vertically.
+
+
+  _Theory of the Symmetrical Top._
+
+  1. The physical constants of a given symmetrical top, expressed in
+  C.G.S. units, which are employed in the subsequent formulae, are
+  denoted by M, h, C and A. M is the weight in grammes (g) as given by
+  the number of gramme weights which equilibrate the top when weighed in
+  a balance; h is the distance OG in centimetres (cm.) between G the
+  centre of gravity and O the point of support, and Mh may be called the
+  preponderance in g.-cm.; Mh and M can be measured by a spring balance
+  holding up in a horizontal position the axis OC in fig. 8 suspended at
+  O. Then gMh (dyne-cm. or ergs) is the moment of gravity about O when
+  the axis OG is horizontal, gMh sin [theta] being the moment when the
+  axis OG makes an angle [theta] with the vertical, and g = 981
+  (cm./s^2) on the average; C is the moment of inertia of the top about
+  OG, and A about any axis through O at right angles to OG, both
+  measured in g-cm.^2.
+
+  To measure A experimentally, swing the top freely about O in small
+  plane oscillation, and determine the length, l cm., of the equivalent
+  simple pendulum; then
+
+    (1) l = A/Mh, A = Mhl.
+
+  Next make the top, or this simple pendulum, perform small conical
+  revolutions, nearly coincident with the downward vertical position of
+  equilibrium, and measure n, the mean angular velocity of the conical
+  pendulum in radians / second; and T its period in seconds; then
+
+    (2) 4[pi]^2/T^2 = n^2 = g/l = gMh/A;
+
+  and f = n/2[pi] is the number of revolutions per second, called the
+  _frequency_, T = 2[pi]/n is the period of a revolution, in seconds.
+
+
+    Steady motion of the top.
+
+  2. In the popular explanation of the steady movement of the top at a
+  constant inclination to the vertical, depending on the composition of
+  angular velocity, such as given in Perry's _Spinning Tops_, or
+  Worthington's _Dynamics of Rotation_, it is asserted that the moment
+  of gravity is always generating an angular velocity about an axis OB
+  perpendicular to the vertical plane COC' through the axis of the top
+  OC'; and this angular velocity, compounded with the resultant angular
+  velocity about an axis OI, nearly coincident with OC', causes the axes
+  OI and OC' to keep taking up a new position by moving at right angles
+  to the plane COC', at a constant precessional angular velocity, say
+  [mu] rad./sec., round the vertical OC (fig. 4).
+
+  If, however, the axis OC' is prevented from taking up this
+  precessional velocity, the top at once falls down; thence all the
+  ingenious attempts--for instance, in the swinging cabin of the
+  Bessemer ship--to utilise the gyroscope as a mechanical directive
+  agency have always resulted in failure (_Engineer_, October 1874),
+  unless restricted to actuate a light relay, which guides the
+  mechanism, as in steering a torpedo.
+
+  An experimental verification can be carried out with the gyroscope in
+  fig. 1; so long as the vertical spindle is free to rotate in its
+  socket, the rapidly rotating wheel will resist the impulse of tapping
+  on the gimbal by moving to one side; but when the pinch screw prevents
+  the rotation of the vertical spindle in the massive pedestal, this
+  resistance to the tapping at once disappears, provided the friction of
+  the table prevents the movement of the pedestal; and if the wheel has
+  any preponderance, it falls down.
+
+  Familiar instances of the same principles are observable in the
+  movement of a hoop, or in the steering of a bicycle; it is essential
+  that the handle of the bicycle should be free to rotate to secure the
+  stability of the movement.
+
+  The bicycle wheel, employed as a spinning top, in fig. 4, can also be
+  held by the stalk, and will thus, when rotated rapidly, convey a
+  distinct muscular impression of resistance to change of direction, if
+  brandished.
+
+
+    Elementary demonstration of the condition of steady motion.
+
+  3. A demonstration, depending on the elementary principles of
+  dynamics, of the exact conditions required for the axis OC' of a
+  spinning top to spin steadily at a constant inclination [theta] to the
+  vertical OC, is given here before proceeding to the more complicated
+  question of the general motion, when [theta], the inclination of the
+  axis, is varying by nutation.
+
+  It is a fundamental principle in dynamics that if OH is a vector
+  representing to scale the angular momentum of a system, and if Oh is
+  the vector representing the axis of the impressed couple or torque,
+  then OH will vary so that the velocity of H is represented to scale by
+  the impressed couple Oh, and if the top is moving freely about O, Oh
+  is at right angles to the vertical plane COC', and
+
+    (1) Oh = gMh sin [theta].
+
+  In the case of the steady motion of the top, the vector OH lies in the
+  vertical plane COC', in OK suppose (fig. 4), and has a component OC =
+  G about the vertical and a component OC' = G', suppose, about the axis
+  OC; and G' = CR, if R denotes the angular velocity of the top with
+  which it is spun about OC'.
+
+  If [mu] denotes the constant precessional angular velocity of the
+  vertical plane COC' the components of angular velocity and momentum
+  about OA are [mu] sin [theta] and A[mu] sin [theta], OA being
+  perpendicular to OC' in the plane COC'; so that the vector OK has the
+  components
+
+    (2) OC' = G', and C'K = A[mu] sin[theta],
+
+  and the horizontal component
+
+    (3) CK = OC' sin[theta] - C'K cos[theta]
+           = G' sin[theta] - A[mu] sin[theta] cos[theta].
+
+  The velocity of K being equal to the impressed couple Oh,
+
+    (4) gMh sin[theta] = [mu].CK = sin [theta] (G'[mu] - A[mu]^2 cos [theta]),
+
+  and dropping the factor sin[theta],
+
+    (5) A[mu]^2 cos[theta] - G'[mu] + gMh = 0, or A[mu]^2 cos[theta] - CR[mu] + An^2 = 0,
+
+  the condition for steady motion.
+
+  Solving this as a quadratic in [mu], the roots [mu]1, [mu]2 are given by
+                                       _                                      _
+                       G'             |                   4A^2n^2              |
+    (6) [mu]1, [mu]2 = -- sec [theta] |1 [+-] [root] (1 - ------- cos [theta]) |;
+                       2A             |_                   G'^2               _|
+
+  and the minimum value of G' = CR for real values of [mu] is given by
+
+          G'^2                 CR
+    (7) ------- = cos [theta], -- = 2[root](cos [theta]);
+        4A^2n^2                An
+
+  for a smaller value of R the top cannot spin steadily at the
+  inclination [theta] to the upward vertical.
+
+  Interpreted geometrically in fig. 4
+
+    (8) [mu] = gMh sin [theta]/CK = An^2/KN, and [mu] = C'K/A sin [theta] = KM/A,
+
+    (9) KM.KN = A^2n^2,
+
+  so that K lies on a hyperbola with OC, OC' as asymptotes.
+
+
+    Constrained motion of the gyroscope.
+
+  4. Suppose the top or gyroscope, instead of moving freely about the
+  point O, is held in a ring or frame which is compelled to rotate about
+  the vertical axis OC with constant angular velocity [mu]; then if N
+  denotes the couple of reaction of the frame keeping the top from
+  falling, acting in the plane COC', equation (4) S 3 becomes modified
+  into
+
+    (1) gMh sin [theta] - N = [mu].CK = sin [theta] G'[mu] - A[mu]^2 cos [theta],
+
+    (2) N = sin [theta] (A[mu]^2 cos [theta] - G'[mu] + gMh)
+          = A sin[theta] cos [theta] ([mu] - [mu]1)([mu] - [mu]2);
+
+  and hence, as [mu] increases through [mu]2 and [mu]1, the sign of N
+  can be determined, positive or negative, according as the tendency of
+  the axis is to fall or rise.
+
+  When G' = CR is large, [mu]2 is large, and
+
+    (3) [mu]1 [~=] gMh/G' = An^2/CR,
+
+  the same for all inclinations, and this is the precession observed in
+  the spinning top and centrifugal machine of fig. 10 This is true
+  accurately when the axis OC' is horizontal, and then it agrees with
+  the result of the popular explanation of S 2.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+  If the axis of the top OC' is pointing upward, the precession is in
+  the same direction as the rotation, and an increase of [mu] from [mu]1
+  makes N negative, and the top rises; conversely a decrease of the
+  procession [mu] causes the axis to fall (Perry, _Spinning Tops_, p.
+  48).
+
+  If the axis points downward, as in the centrifugal machine with upper
+  support, the precession is in the opposite direction to the rotation,
+  and to make the axis approach the vertical position the precession
+  must be reduced.
+
+
+    Centrifugal machine.
+
+  This is effected automatically in the Weston centrifugal machine (fig.
+  10) used for the separation of water and molasses, by the friction of
+  the indiarubber cushions above the support; or else the spindle is
+  produced downwards below the drum a short distance, and turns in a
+  hole in a weight resting on the bottom of the case, which weight is
+  dragged round until the spindle is upright; this second arrangement is
+  more effective when a liquid is treated in the drum, and wave action
+  is set up (_The Centrifugal Machine_, C. A. Matthey).
+
+  Similar considerations apply to the stability of the whirling bowl in
+  a cream-separating machine.
+
+  We can write equation (1)
+
+    (4) N = An^2 sin [theta] - [mu].CK = (A^n^2 - KM.KN) sin [theta]/A,
+
+  so that N is negative or positive, and the axis tends to rise or fall
+  according as K moves to the inside or outside of the hyperbola of free
+  motion. Thus a tap on the axis tending to hurry the precession is
+  equivalent to an impulse couple giving an increase to C'K, and will
+  make K move to the interior of the hyperbola and cause the axis to
+  rise; the steering of a bicycle may be explained in this way; but K1
+  will move to the exterior of the hyperbola, and so the axis will fall
+  in this second more violent motion.
+
+  Friction on the point of the top may be supposed to act like a tap in
+  the direction opposite to the precession; and so the axis of a top
+  spun violently rises at first and up to the vertical position, but
+  falls away again as the motion dies out. Friction considered as acting
+  in retarding the rotation may be compared to an impulse couple tending
+  to reduce OC', and so make K and K1 both move to the exterior of the
+  hyperbola, and the axis falls in both cases. The axis may rise or fall
+  according to the direction of the frictional couple, depending on the
+  shape of the point; an analytical treatment of the varying motion is
+  very intractable; a memoir by E. G. Gallop may be consulted in the
+  _Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc._, 1903.
+
+  The earth behaves in precession like a large spinning top, of which
+  the axis describes a circle round the pole of the ecliptic of mean
+  angular radius [theta], about 23-1/2 deg., in a period of 26,000
+  years, so that R/[mu] = 26000 X 365; and the mean couple producing
+  precession is
+
+    (5) CR[mu] sin [theta] = CR^2 sin 23-1/2 deg./(26000 X 365),
+
+  one 12 millionth part of 1/2CR^2, the rotation energy of the earth.
+
+  5. If the preponderance is absent, by making the C.G coincide with O,
+  and if A[mu] is insensible compared with G',
+
+    (1) N = -G'[mu] sin [theta],
+
+  the formula which suffices to explain most gyroscopic action.
+
+
+    Gyroscopic action of railway wheels.
+
+  Thus a carriage running round a curve experiences, in consequence of
+  the rotation of the wheels, an increase of pressure Z on the outer
+  track, and a diminution Z on the inner, giving a couple, if a is the
+  gauge,
+
+    (2) Za = G'[mu],
+
+  tending to help the centrifugal force to upset the train; and if c is
+  the radius of the curve, b of the wheels, C their moment of inertia,
+  and v the velocity of the train,
+
+    (3) [mu] = v/c, G' = Cv/b,
+
+    (4) Z = Cv^2/abc (dynes),
+
+  so that Z is the fraction C/Mab of the centrifugal force Mv^2/c, or
+  the fraction C/Mh of its transference of weight, with h the height of
+  the centre of gravity of the carriage above the road. A Brennan
+  carriage on a monorail would lean over to the inside of the curve at
+  an angle [alpha], given by
+
+    (6) tan [alpha] = G'[mu]/gMh = G'v/gMhc.
+
+  The gyroscopic action of a dynamo, turbine, and other rotating
+  machinery on a steamer, paddle or screw, due to its rolling and
+  pitching, can be evaluated in a similar elementary manner
+  (Worthington, _Dynamics of Rotation_), and Schlick's gyroscopic
+  apparatus is intended to mitigate the oscillation.
+
+  6. If the axis OC in fig. 4 is inclined at an angle [alpha] to the
+  vertical, the equation (2) S 4 becomes
+
+    (1) N = sin [theta] (A[mu]^2 cos [theta] - G'[mu]) + gMh sin ([alpha] -
+      [theta]).
+
+  Suppose, for instance, that OC is parallel to the earth's axis, and
+  that the frame is fixed in the meridian; then [alpha] is the
+  co-latitude, and [mu] is the angular velocity of the earth, the square
+  of which may be neglected; so that, putting N = 0, [alpha] - [theta] =
+  E,
+
+    (2) gMh sin E - G'[mu] sin ([alpha] - E) = 0,
+
+                   G'[mu] sin [alpha]         G'[mu]
+    (3) tan E = ------------------------ [~=] ------ sin [alpha].
+                gMh + G'[mu] cos [alpha]       gMh
+
+
+    The barogyroscope.
+
+  This is the theory of Gilbert's barogyroscope, described in Appell's
+  _Mecanique rationnelle_, ii. 387: it consists essentially of a rapidly
+  rotated fly-wheel, mounted on knife-edges by an axis perpendicular to
+  its axis of rotation and pointing east and west; spun with
+  considerable angular momentum G', and provided with a slight
+  preponderance Mh, it should tilt to an angle E with the vertical, and
+  thus demonstrate experimentally the rotation of the earth.
+
+
+    Foucault's gyroscope.
+
+  In Foucault's gyroscope (_Comptes rendus_, 1852; Perry, p. 105) the
+  preponderance is made zero, and the axis points to the pole, when free
+  to move in the meridian.
+
+  Generally, if constrained to move in any other plane, the axis seeks
+  the position nearest to the polar axis, like a dipping needle with
+  respect to the magnetic pole. (_A gyrostatic working model of the
+  magnetic compass_, by Sir W. Thomson. British Association Report,
+  Montreal, 1884. A. S. Chessin, St Louis Academy of Science, January
+  1902.)
+
+
+    Gyroscopic horizon.
+
+  A spinning top with a polished upper plane surface will provide an
+  artificial horizon at sea, when the real horizon is obscured. The
+  first instrument of this kind was constructed by Serson, and is
+  described in the _Gentleman's Magazine_, vol. xxiv., 1754; also by
+  Segner in his _Specimen theoriae turbinum_ (Halae, 1755). The inventor
+  was sent to sea by the Admiralty to test his instrument, but he was
+  lost in the wreck of the "Victory," 1744. A copy of the Serson top,
+  from the royal collection, is now in the Museum of King's College,
+  London. Troughton's Nautical Top (1819) is intended for the same
+  purpose.
+
+  The instrument is in favour with French navigators, perfected by
+  Admiral Fleuriais (fig. 9); but it must be noticed that the horizon
+  given by the top is inclined to the true horizon at the angle E given
+  by equation (3) above; and if [mu]1 is the precessional angular
+  velocity as given by (3) S 4, and T = 2[pi]/[mu], its period in
+  seconds,
+
+                 [mu]           T cos lat         T cos lat
+    (4) tan E = ----- cos lat = ---------, or E = ---------,
+                [mu]1             86400             8[pi]
+
+  if E is expressed in minutes, taking [mu] = 2[pi]/86400; thus making
+  the true latitude E nautical miles to the south of that given by the
+  top (_Revue maritime_, 1890; _Comptes rendus_, 1896).
+
+  This can be seen by elementary consideration of the theory above, for
+  the velocity of the vector OC' of the top due to the rotation of the
+  earth is
+
+    (5) [mu].OC' cos lat = gMh sin E = [mu]1.OC' sin E,
+
+              [mu]               T cos lat
+      sin E = ----- cos lat, E = ---------,
+              [mu]1                8[pi]
+
+  in which 8[pi] can be replaced by 25, in practice; so that the
+  Fleuriais gyroscopic horizon is an illustration of the influence of
+  the rotation of the earth and of the need for its allowance.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.]
+
+
+    Euler's coordinate angles.
+
+  7. In the ordinary treatment of the general theory of the gyroscope,
+  the motion is referred to two sets of rectangular axes; the one Ox,
+  Oy, Oz fixed in space, with Oz vertically upward and the other OX, OY,
+  OZ fixed in the rotating wheel with OZ in the axis of figure OC.
+
+  The relative position of the two sets of axes is given by means of
+  Euler's unsymmetrical angles [theta], [phi], [psi], such that the
+  successive turning of the axes Ox, Oy, Oz through the angles (i.)
+  [psi] about Oz, (ii.) [theta] about OE, (iii.) [phi] about OZ, brings
+  them into coincidence with OX, OY, OZ, as shown in fig. 11,
+  representing the _concave_ side of a spherical surface.
+
+  The component angular velocities about OD, OE, OZ are
+
+    (1) [.[psi]] sin [theta], .[theta], .[phi] + .[psi] cos [theta];
+
+  so that, denoting the components about OX, OY, OZ by P, Q, R,
+
+    (2) P =  .[theta] cos [phi] + .[psi] sin [theta] sin [phi],
+        Q = -.[theta] sin [phi] + .[psi] sin [theta] cos [phi],
+        R =              .[phi] + .[psi] cos [theta].
+
+  Consider, for instance, the motion of a fly-wheel of preponderance Mh,
+  and equatoreal moment of inertia A, of which the axis OC is held in a
+  light ring ZCX at a constant angle [gamma] with OZ, while OZ is held
+  by another ring zZ, which constrains it to move round the vertical Oz
+  at a constant inclination [theta] with constant angular velocity [mu],
+  so that
+
+    (3) .[theta] = 0, .[psi] = [mu];
+
+    (4) P = [mu] sin [theta] sin [phi],
+        Q = [mu] sin [theta] cos [phi],
+        R = .[phi] + [mu] cos [theta].
+
+  With CXF a quadrant, the components of angular velocity and momentum
+  about OF, OY, are
+
+    (5) P cos [gamma] - R sin [gamma], Q, and A(P cos [gamma]
+      - R sin [gamma]), AQ,
+
+  so that, denoting the components of angular momentum of the fly-wheel
+  about OC, OX, OY, OZ by K or G', h1, h2, h3,
+
+    (6) h1 = A(P cos [gamma] - R sin [gamma]) cos [gamma] + K sin [gamma],
+
+    (7) h2 = AQ,
+
+    (8) h3 = -A(P cos [gamma] - R sin [gamma]) sin [gamma]
+      + K cos [gamma];
+
+  and the dynamical equation
+
+        dh3
+    (9) --- - h1Q + h2P = N,
+        dt
+
+  with K constant, and with preponderance downward
+
+    (10) N = gMh cos zY sin [gamma]
+           = gMh sin [gamma] sin [theta] cos [phi],
+
+  reduces to
+
+           d^2[phi]
+    (11) A -------- sin [gamma]
+             dt^2
+
+      + A[mu]^2 sin [gamma] sin^2 [theta] sin [phi] cos [phi]
+      + A[mu]^2 cos [gamma] sin [theta] cos [theta] cos [phi]
+      - (K[mu] + gMh) sin [theta] cos [phi] = 0.
+
+  The position of relative equilibrium is given by
+
+    (12) cos [phi] = 0, and sin [phi]
+
+        K[mu] + gMh - A[mu]^2 cos [gamma] cos [theta]
+      = ---------------------------------------------.
+              A[mu]^2 sin [gamma] sin [theta]
+
+  For small values of [mu] the equation becomes
+
+           d^2[phi]
+    (13) A -------- sin [gamma] - (K[mu] + gMh) sin [theta] cos [phi] = 0,
+             dt^2
+
+  so that [phi] = 1/2[pi] gives the position of stable equilibrium, and
+  the period of a small oscillation is 2[pi] [root]{A sin [gamma]/(K[mu] +
+  gMh) sin [theta]}.
+
+  In the general case, denoting the periods of vibration about [phi] =
+  1/2[pi], -1/2[pi], and the sidelong position of equilibrium by
+  2[pi]/(n1, n2, or n3), we shall find
+
+                 sin [theta]
+    (14) n1^2 = ------------- {gMh + K[mu] - A[mu]^2 cos ([gamma] - [theta])},
+                A sin [gamma]
+
+                 sin [theta]
+    (15) n2^2 = ------------- {-gMh - K[mu] + A[mu]^2 cos ([gamma] + [theta])},
+                A sin [gamma]
+
+    (16) n3 = n1 n2/[mu] sin [theta].
+
+  The first integral of (11) gives
+
+               /d[phi]\^2
+    (17) 1/2A ( ------ ) sin [gamma]
+               \  dt  /
+
+      + 1/2A[mu]^2 sin [gamma] sin^2 [theta] sin^2 [phi]
+      - A[mu]^2 cos [gamma] sin [theta] cos [theta] sin [phi]
+      + (K[mu] + gMh) sin [theta] sin [phi] - H = 0,
+
+  and putting tan (1/4[pi] + 1/2[phi]) = z, this reduces to
+
+         dz
+    (18) -- = n [root]Z
+         dt
+
+  where Z is a quadratic in z^2, so that z is a Jacobian elliptic
+  function of t, and we have
+
+    (19) tan (1/4[pi] + 1/2[phi]) = C(tn, dn, nc, or cn)nt,
+
+  according as the ring ZC performs complete revolutions, or oscillates
+  about a sidelong position of equilibrium, or oscillates about the
+  stable position of equilibrium [phi] = [+-]1/2[pi].
+
+  Suppose Oz is parallel to the earth's axis, and [mu] is the diurnal
+  rotation, the square of which may be neglected, then if Gilbert's
+  barogyroscope of S 6 has the knife-edges turned in azimuth to make an
+  angle [beta] with E. and W., so that OZ lies in the horizon at an
+  angle E.[beta].N., we must put [gamma] = 1/2[pi], cos [theta] = sin
+  [alpha] sin [beta]; and putting [phi] = 1/2[pi] - [delta] + E, where
+  [delta] denotes the angle between Zz and the vertical plane Z[zeta]
+  through the zenith [zeta],
+
+    (20) sin [theta] cos [delta] = cos [alpha], sin [theta] sin [delta]
+      = sin [alpha] cos [beta];
+
+  so that equations (9) and (10) for relative equilibrium reduce to
+
+    (21) gMh sin E = KQ = K[mu] sin [theta] cos [phi]
+      = K[mu] sin [theta] sin ([delta] - E),
+
+  and will change (3) S 6 into
+
+                 K[mu] sin [alpha] cos [beta]
+    (22) tan E = ----------------------------,
+                   gMh + K[mu] cos [alpha]
+
+  a multiplication of (3) S 6 by cos [beta] (Gilbert, _Comptes rendus_,
+  1882).
+
+  Changing the sign of K or h and E and denoting the revolutions/second
+  of the gyroscope wheel by F, then in the preceding notation, T
+  denoting the period of vibration as a simple pendulum,
+
+                  K[mu] sin [alpha] cos [beta]     F sin [alpha] cos [beta]
+    (23) tan E = ----------------------------- = ----------------------------,
+                    gMh - K[mu] cos [alpha]      86400 A/T^2C - F cos [alpha]
+
+  so that the gyroscope would reverse if it were possible to make F cos
+  [alpha] > 86400 A/T^2C (Foppl, _Munch. Ber_, 1904).
+
+  A gyroscopic pendulum is made by the addition to it of a fly-wheel,
+  balanced and mounted, as in Gilbert's barogyroscope, in a ring movable
+  about an axis fixed in the pendulum, in the vertical plane of motion.
+
+  As the pendulum falls away to an angle [theta] with the upward
+  vertical, and the axis of the fly-wheel makes an angle [phi] with the
+  vertical plane of motion, the three components of angular momentum are
+
+    (24) h1 = K cos [phi], h2 = A .[theta] + K sin [phi], h3 = A .[phi],
+
+  where h3 is the component about the axis of the ring and K of the
+  fly-wheel about its axis; and if L, M', N denote the components of the
+  couple of reaction of the ring, L may be ignored, while N is zero,
+  with P = 0, Q = [.[theta]], R = 0, so that
+
+    (25) M' = h2 = A :[theta] + K .[phi] cos [phi],
+
+    (26) 0 = h3 - h1 .[theta] = A :[phi] - K .[theta] cos [phi].
+
+  For the motion of the pendulum, including the fly-wheel,
+
+    (27) MK^2 :[theta] = gMH sin [theta] - M'
+                       = gMH sin [theta] - A :[theta] - K .[phi] cos [phi].
+
+  If [theta] and [phi] remain small,
+
+    (28) A :[phi] = K .[theta], A .[phi] = K([theta] - [alpha]),
+
+    (29) (MK^2 + A) :[theta] + (K^2/A) ([theta] - [alpha]) - gMH[theta] = 0;
+
+  so that the upright position will be stable if K^2 > gMHA, or the
+  rotation energy of the wheel greater than 1/2A/C times the energy
+  acquired by the pendulum in falling between the vertical and
+  horizontal position; and the vibration will synchronize with a simple
+  pendulum of length
+
+    (30) (MK^2 + A)/[(K^2/gA) - MH].
+
+  This gyroscopic pendulum may be supposed to represent a ship among
+  waves, or a carriage on a monorail, and so affords an explanation of
+  the gyroscopic action essential in the apparatus of Schlick and
+  Brennan.
+
+
+    General motion of the top.
+
+  8. Careful scrutiny shows that the steady motion of a top is not
+  steady absolutely; it reveals a small nutation superposed, so that a
+  complete investigation requires a return to the equations of unsteady
+  motion, and for the small oscillation to consider them in a
+  penultimate form.
+
+  In the general motion of the top the vector OH of resultant angular
+  momentum is no longer compelled to lie in the vertical plane COC'
+  (fig. 4), but since the axis Oh of the gravity couple is always
+  horizontal, H will describe a curve in a fixed horizontal plane
+  through C. The vector OC' of angular momentum about the axis will be
+  constant in length, but vary in direction; and OK will be the
+  component angular momentum in the vertical plane COC', if the planes
+  through C and C' perpendicular to the lines OC and OC' intersect in
+  the line KH; and if KH is the component angular momentum perpendicular
+  to the plane COC', the resultant angular momentum OH has the three
+  components OC', C'K, KH, represented in Euler's angles by
+
+    (1) KH = A d[theta]/dt, C'K = A sin [theta] d[psi]/dt, OC' = G'.
+
+  Drawing KM vertical and KN parallel to OC', then
+
+    (2) KM = A d[psi]/dt, KN = CR - A cos [theta] d[psi]/dt
+           = (C - A)R + A d[phi]/dt
+
+  so that in the spherical top, with C = A, KN = A d[phi]/dt.
+
+  The velocity of H is in the direction KH perpendicular to the plane
+  COC', and equal to gMh sin [theta] or An^2 sin [theta], so that if a
+  point in the axis OC' at a distance An^2 from O is projected on the
+  horizontal plane through C in the point P on CK, the curve described
+  by P, turned forwards through a right angle, will be the hodograph of
+  H; this is expressed by
+
+    (3) An^2 sin [theta] e^{([psi] + 1/2[pi])i}
+      = iAn^2 sin [theta] e^{[psi]i} = d/dt ([rho]e^{[pi]i})
+
+  where [rho]e[varpi]i is the vector CH; and so the curve described by P
+  and the motion of the axis of the top is derived from the curve
+  described by H by a differentiation.
+
+  Resolving the velocity of H in the direction CH,
+
+    (4) d.CH/dt = An^2 sin [theta] sin KCH = An^2 sin [theta] KH/CH,
+
+    (5) d.1/2CH^2/dt = A^2n^2sin [theta] d[theta]/dt.
+
+  and integrating
+
+    (6) 1/2CH^2 = A^2n^2(E - cos [theta]),
+
+    (7) 1/2OH^2 = A^2n^2(F - cos [theta]),
+
+    (8) 1/2C'H^2 = A^2n^2(D - cos [theta]),
+
+  where D, E, F are constants, connected by
+
+    (9) F = E + G^2/2A^2n^2 = D + G'^2/2A^2n^2.
+
+  Then
+
+    (10) KH^2 = OH^2 - OK^2,
+
+    (11) OK^2 sin^2 [theta] = CC'^2 = G^2 - 2GG' cos [theta] + G'^2,
+
+    (12) A^2 sin^2 [theta] (d[theta]/dt)^2
+      = 2A^2n^2(F - cos [theta]) sin^2 [theta] - G^2 + 2GG' cos [theta] - G'^2;
+
+  and putting cos [theta] = z,
+
+    (13) (dz/dt)^2 = 2n^2(F - z) (1 - z^2) - (G^2 - 2GG'z + G'^2)/A^2
+                   = 2n^2(E - z)(1-z^2) - (G' - Gz)^2/A^2
+                   = 2n^2(D - z)(1-z^2) - (G - G'z)^2/A^2
+                   = 2n^2 Z suppose.
+
+  Denoting the roots of Z = 0 by z1, z2, z3, we shall have them arranged
+  in the order
+
+    (14) z1 > 1 > z2 > z > z3 > -1.
+
+    (15) (dz/dt)^2 = 2n^2(z1 - z)(z2 - z)(z - z3).
+
+                _z
+               /         /
+    (16) nt =  |   dz/ \/(2Z),
+              _/z3
+
+
+  an elliptic integral of the first kind, which with
+
+                   /z1 - z3              z2 - z3
+    (17) m = n \  / -------, [kappa]^2 = -------,
+                \/     2                 z1 - z2
+
+  can be expressed, when normalized by the factor [root](z1 - z3)/2, by
+  the inverse elliptic function in the form
+
+                _z
+               /          [root](z1 - z3)dz
+    (18) mt =  |   ---------------------------------
+              _/z3 [root][4(z1 - z)(z2 - z)(z - z3)]
+
+                         / z - z3              /z2 - z               /z1 - z
+            = sn^(-1)\  / ------- = cn^(-1)\  / ------- = dn^(-1)\  / -------.
+                      \/  z2 - z3           \/  z2 - z3           \/  z1 - z3
+
+    (19) z - z3 = (z2 - z3)sn^2mt, z2 - z = (z2 - z3)cn^2mt,
+         z1 - z = (z1 - z3)dn^2mt.
+
+    (20) z = z2sn^2mt + z3cn^2mt.
+
+  Interpreted dynamically, the axis of the top keeps time with the beats
+  of a simple pendulum of length
+
+    (21) L = l/1/2(z1 - z3),
+
+  suspended from a point at a height 1/2(z1 + z3)l above 0, in such a
+  manner that a point on the pendulum at a distance
+
+    (22) 1/2(z1 - z3)l = l^2/L
+
+  from the point of suspension moves so as to be always at the same
+  level as the centre of oscillation of the top.
+
+  The polar co-ordinates of H are denoted by [rho], [varpi] in the
+  horizontal plane through C; and, resolving the velocity of H
+  perpendicular to CH,
+
+    (23) [rho] d[~omega]/dt = An^2 sin [theta] cos KCH.
+
+    (24) [rho]^2 d[~omega]/dt = An^2 sin [theta] CK
+
+                             = An^2 (G' - G cos [theta])
+                         _               _
+                        / G' - Gz dt    /   (G' - Gz)/2An    dz
+    (25) [~omega] = 1/2 | ------- -- =  |   ------------- ----------,
+                       _/  E - z  A    _/z3     E - z     [root](2Z)
+
+  an elliptic integral, of the third kind, with pole at z = E; and then
+
+  (26) [~omega] - [psi] = KCH = tan^(-1) KH/CH
+
+                A sin [theta] d[theta]/dt             [root](2Z)
+     = tan^(-1) ------------------------- = tan^(-1) ------------,
+                   G' - G cos [theta]                (G' - Gz)/An
+
+  which determines [psi].
+
+  Otherwise, from the geometry of fig. 4,
+
+    (27) C'K sin [theta] = OC - OC' cos [theta],
+
+    (28) A sin^2 [theta] d[psi]/dt = G - G' cos [theta],
+                  _                  _                 _
+                 / G - G'z dt       / G - G' dt       / G + G' dt
+    (29) [psi] = | ------- -- = 1/2 | ------ -- + 1/2 | ------ --,
+                _/ 1 - z^2 A       _/  1 - z A       _/  1 + z A
+
+  the sum of two elliptic integrals of the third kind, with pole at z =
+  [+-]1; and the relation in (25) (26) shows the addition of these two
+  integrals into a single integral, with pole at z = E.
+
+  The motion of a sphere, rolling and spinning in the interior of a
+  spherical bowl, or on the top of a sphere, is found to be of the same
+  character as the motion of the axis of a spinning top about a fixed
+  point.
+
+  The curve described by H can be identified as a Poinsot herpolhode,
+  that is, the curve traced out by rolling a quadric surface with centre
+  fixed at O on the horizontal plane through C; and Darboux has shown
+  also that a deformable hyperboloid made of the generating lines, with
+  O and H at opposite ends of a diameter and one generator fixed in OC,
+  can be moved so as to describe the curve H; the tangent plane of the
+  hyperboloid at H being normal to the curve of H; and then the other
+  generator through O will coincide in the movement with OC', the axis
+  of the top; thus the Poinsot herpolhode curve H is also the trace made
+  by rolling a line of curvature on an ellipsoid confocal to the
+  hyperboloid of one sheet, on the plane through C.
+
+  Kirchhoff's _Kinetic Analogue_ asserts also that the curve of H is the
+  projection of a tortuous elastica, and that the spherical curve of C'
+  is a hodograph of the elastica described with constant velocity.
+
+  Writing the equation of the focal ellipse of the Darboux hyperboloid
+  through H, enlarged to double scale so that O is the centre,
+
+    (30) x^2/[alpha]^2 + y^2/[beta]^2 + z^2/O = 1,
+
+  with [alpha]^2 + [lambda], [beta]^2 + [lambda], [lambda] denoting the
+  squares of the semiaxes of a confocal ellipsoid, and [lambda] changed
+  into [mu] and [nu] for a confocal hyperboloid of one sheet and of two
+  sheets.
+
+    (31) [lambda] > O > [mu] > -[beta]^2 > [nu] > -[alpha]^2,
+
+  then in the deformation of the hyperboloid, [lambda] and [nu] remain
+  constant at H; and utilizing the theorems of solid geometry on
+  confocal quadrics, the magnitudes may be chosen so that
+
+    (32) [alpha]^2 + [lambda] + [beta]^2 + [mu] + [nu] = OH^2 = 1/2k^2(F - z)
+      = [rho]^2 + OC^2.
+
+    (33) [alpha]^2 + [mu] = 1/2k^2(z1 - z) = [rho]^2 - [rho]1^2,
+
+    (34) [beta]^2 + [mu] = 1/2k^2(z2 - z) = [rho]^2 - [rho]2^2,
+
+    (35) [mu] = 1/2k^2(z3 - z) = [rho]^2 - [rho]3^2,
+
+    (36) [rho]1^2 < 0 < [rho]2^2 < [rho]^2 < [rho]3^2,
+
+    (37) F = z1 + z2 + z3,
+
+    (38) [lambda] - 2[mu] + [nu] = k^2z, [lambda] - [nu] = k^2,
+
+          [lambda] - [mu]   1 + z     [mu] - [nu]     1 - z
+    (39) ---------------- = -----,  --------------- = -----
+          [lambda] - [nu]     2     [lambda] - [nu]     2
+
+  with z = cos [theta], [theta] denoting the angle between the
+  generating lines through H; and with OC = [delta], OC' = [delta]', the
+  length k has been chosen so that in the preceding equations
+
+    (40) [delta]/k = G/2An, [delta]'/k = G'/2An;
+
+  and [delta], [delta]', k may replace G, G', 2An; then
+
+           2Z       1   /d[theta]\^2   4KH^2
+    (41) ------- = --- ( -------- )  = -----,
+         1 - z^2   n^2  \   dt   /      k^2
+
+  while from (33-39)
+
+           2Z      4([alpha]^2 + [mu])([beta]^2 + [mu])[mu]
+    (42) ------- = ----------------------------------------,
+         1 - z^2      k^2([mu] - [lambda])([mu] - [nu])
+
+  which verifies that KH is the perpendicular from O on the tangent
+  plane of the hyperboloid at H, and so proves Darboux's theorem.
+
+  Planes through O perpendicular to the generating lines cut off a
+  constant length HQ = [delta], HQ' = [delta]', so the line of curvature
+  described by H in the deformation of the hyperboloid, the intersection
+  of the fixed confocal ellipsoid [lambda] and hyperboloid of two sheets
+  [nu], rolls on a horizontal plane through C and at the same time on a
+  plane through C' perpendicular to OC'.
+
+  Produce the generating line HQ to meet the principal planes of the
+  confocal system in V, T, P; these will also be fixed points on the
+  generator; and putting
+
+    (43) (HV, HT, HP,)/HQ = D/(A, B, C,),
+
+  then
+
+    (44) Ax^2 + By^2 + Cz^2 = D[delta]^2
+
+  is a quadric surface with the squares of the semiaxes given by HV.HQ,
+  HT.HQ, HP.HQ, and with HQ the normal line at H, and so touching the
+  horizontal plane through C; and the direction cosines of the normal
+  being
+
+    (45) x/HV, y/HT, z/HP,
+
+    (46) A^2x^2 + B^2y^2 + C^2z^2 = D^2[delta]^2,
+
+  the line of curvature, called the polhode curve by Poinsot, being the
+  intersection of the quadric surface (44) with the ellipsoid (46).
+
+  There is a second surface associated with (44), which rolls on the
+  plane through C', corresponding to the other generating line HQ'
+  through H, so that the same line of curvature rolls on two planes at a
+  constant distance from O, [delta] and [delta]'; and the motion of the
+  top is made up of the combination. This completes the statement of
+  Jacobi's theorem (_Werke_, ii. 480) that the motion of a top can be
+  resolved into two movements of a body under no force.
+
+  Conversely, starting with Poinsot's polhode and herpolhode given in
+  (44) (46), the normal plane is drawn at H, cutting the principal axes
+  of the rolling quadric in X, Y, Z; and then
+
+    (47) [alpha]^2 + [mu] = x.OX, [beta]^2 + [mu] = y.OY, [mu] = z.OZ,
+
+  this determines the deformable hyperboloid of which one generator
+  through H is a normal to the plane through C; and the other generator
+  is inclined at an angle [theta], the inclination of the axis of the
+  top, while the normal plane or the parallel plane through O revolves
+  with angular velocity d[psi]/dt.
+
+  The curvature is useful in drawing a curve of H; the diameter of
+  curvature D is given by
+
+             dp^2        1/2k^2sin^3 [theta]       1/2D   1/4k^2
+    (48) D = ---- = -----------------------------, ---- = ------.
+              dp    [delta] - [delta]' cos[theta]   p     KM.KN
+
+  The curvature is zero and H passes through a point of inflexion when
+  C' comes into the horizontal plane through C; [psi] will then be
+  stationary and the curve described by C' will be looped.
+
+  In a state of steady motion, z oscillates between two limits z2 and z3
+  which are close together; so putting z2 = z3 the coefficient of z in Z
+  is
+
+                               GG'         (OM cos[theta] + ON)(OM + ON cos [theta])
+    (49) 2Z1z3 + z^23 = -1 + ------  = -1 + ----------------------------------------,
+                             A^2n^2                          OM.ON
+
+                 OM^2 + ON^2                   OM^2 + ON^2
+    (50) 2z1z3 = ----------- cos [theta], z1 = -----------,
+                    OM.ON                        2OM.ON
+
+                      OM^2 - 2OM.ON cos [theta] + ON^2    MN^2
+    (51) 2(z1 - z3) = -------------------------------- = -----.
+                                   OM.ON                 OM.ON
+
+  With z2 = z3, [kappa] = [omicron], K = 1/2[pi]; and the number of
+  beats per second of the axis is
+
+          m      n       /z1 - z3        MN         n
+    (52) ---- = ---- \  / ------- = ------------- -----,
+         [pi]   [pi]  \/     2      [root](OM.ON) 2[pi]
+
+  beating time with a pendulum of length
+
+                   l         4OM.ON
+    (53)  L = ------------ = ------ l.
+              1/2(z1 - z3)    MN^2
+
+  The wheel making R/2[pi] revolutions per second,
+
+             beats/second            MN        n    C    MN
+    (54)  ------------------  = -------------  -- = -- . ---,
+          revolutions/second    [root](OM.ON)  R    A    OC'
+
+  from (8) (9) S 3; and the apsidal angle is
+
+              1/2[pi]   A[mu] n                ON          2[root](OM.ON)             ON
+    (55) [mu] ------- = -----.--.1/2[pi] = ------------- . -------------- . 1/2[pi] = -- [pi],
+                 m       An   m            [root](OM.ON)         MN                   MN
+
+  and the height of the equivalent conical pendulum [lambda] is given by
+
+         [lambda]      g        n^2    OM   KC    OL
+    (56) -------- = ------- = ------ = -- = --- = ---,
+             l      l[mu]^2   [mu]^2   ON   KC'   OC'
+
+  if OR drawn at right angles to OK cuts KC' in R, and RL is drawn
+  horizontal to cut the vertical CO in L; thus if OC^2 represents l to
+  scale, then OL will represent [lambda].
+
+  9. The gyroscope motion in fig. 4 comes to a stop when the rim of the
+  wheel touches the ground; and to realize the motion when the axis is
+  inclined at a greater angle with the upward vertical, the stalk is
+  pivoted in fig. 8 in a lug screwed to the axle of a bicycle hub,
+  fastened vertically in a bracket bolted to a beam. The wheel can now
+  be spun by hand, and projected in any manner so as to produce a
+  desired gyroscopic motion, undulating, looped, or with cusps if the
+  stalk of the wheel is dropped from rest.
+
+  As the principal part of the motion takes place now in the
+  neighbourhood of the lowest position, it is convenient to measure the
+  angle [theta] from the downward vertical, and to change the sign of z
+  and G.
+
+  Equation (18) S 8 must be changed to
+
+                               _z3
+                   /z3 - z1   /    [root](z3 - z1)dz
+    (1) mt = nt   / ------- = |    -----------------,
+                \/     2     _/z       [root](4Z)
+
+
+    (2) Z = (z - F)(1 - z^2) - (G^2- 2GG'z + G'^2) / 2A^2n^2
+          = (z - D)(1 - z^2) - (G - G'z)^2 / 2A^2n^2
+          = (z - E)(1 - z^2) - (G'- Gz)^2 / 2A^2n^2
+          = (z3 - z)(z - z2)(z - z1),
+
+    (3) 1 > z3 > z > z2 > -1, D, E > z1,
+
+    (4) z1 + z2 + z3 = F = D - G'^2 / 2A^2n^2 = E - G^2/2A^2n^2,
+
+  and expressed by the inverse elliptic function
+
+                       /z3 - z              /z - z2              /z - z1
+    (5) mt = sn^(-1)  / ------- = cn^(-1)  / ------- = dn^(-1)  / -------,
+                    \/  z3 - z2          \/  z3 - z2          \/  z3 - z1
+
+    (6) z = z2sn^2mt + z3cn^2mt, [kappa]^2 = (z3 - z2)/(z3 - z1),
+
+  Equation (25) and (29) S 8 is changed to
+                        _                  _
+                       / G'- Gz  dt       / G'-GE dt   Gt
+    (7) [~omega] = 1/2 | ------- -- = 1/2 | ----- -- - --,
+                      _/  z - E  A       _/  z-E  A    2A
+                 _                  _                 _
+                / G'z - G dt       / G' + G dt       / G' - G dt
+    (8) [psi] = | ------- -- = 1/2 | ------ -- - 1/2 | ------ --,
+               _/ 1 - z^2 A       _/ 1 - z  A       _/ 1 + z  A
+
+  while [psi] and [varpi] change places in (26).
+
+  The Jacobian elliptic parameter of the third elliptic integral in (7)
+  can be given by [nu], where
+
+                _z3     /                _z3   _z2
+               /   [root](z3 - z1)      /     /
+    (9) [nu] = |   --------------- dz = |   + |   = K + (1 - f)Ki',
+              _/E     [root](4Z)       _/z2  _/E
+
+  where f is a real fraction,
+
+                      _E
+                     /   [root](z3 - z1)
+    (10) (1 - f)K' = |   --------------- dz,
+                    _/z1   [root](-4Z)
+
+                _E    /
+               /   [root](z3 - z1)
+    (11) fK' = |   --------------- dz,
+              _/z1   [root](-4Z)
+
+                         / E - z1             / z2 - E             / z3 - E
+             = sn^(-1)  / ------- = cn^(-1)  / ------- = dn^(-1)  / -------,
+                      \/  z2 - z1          \/  z2 - z1          \/  z3 - z1
+
+  with respect to the comodulus [kappa]'.
+
+  Then, with z = E, and
+
+    (12) 2Z{E} = -{(G'- GE)/An}^2,
+
+  if II denotes the apsidal angle of [~omega], and T the time of a single
+  beat of the axle, up or down,
+
+                    _z3
+              GT   /  [root](-2Z_E)     dz
+    (13) II + -- = |  ------------- ----------,
+             2A   _/z2    z - E     [root](2Z)
+
+                 = 1/2[pi]f + KznfK',
+
+  in accordance with the theory of the complete elliptic integral of the
+  third kind.
+
+  Interpreted geometrically on the deformable hyperboloid, flattened in
+  the plane of the focal ellipse, if OQ is the perpendicular from the
+  centre on the tangent HP, AOQ = amfK', and the eccentric angle of P,
+  measured from the minor axis, is am(1 - f)K', the eccentricity of the
+  focal ellipse being the comodulus [kappa]'.
+
+  A point L is taken in QP such that
+
+    (14) QL/OA = znfK',
+
+    (15) QV, QT, QP = OA(zs, zc, zd)fK';
+
+  and with
+
+    (16) mT = K, m/n = [root](z3 - z1)/2 = OA/k,
+
+         GT    G     k     QH
+    (17) -- = --- . -- K = -- K,
+         2A   2An   OA     OA
+
+                         QL + QH                HL
+    (18) II = 1/2[pi]f + ------- K = 1/2[pi]f + -- K.
+                           OA                   OA
+
+  By choosing for f a simple rational fraction, such as 1/2, 1/3, 1/4,
+  1/5, ... an algebraical case of motion can be constructed (_Annals of
+  Mathematics_, 1904).
+
+  Thus with G' - GE = 0, we have E = z1 or z2, never z3; f = 0 or 1;
+  and P is at A or B on the focal ellipse; and then
+
+    (19) [~omega] = -pt, p = G/2A,
+
+                               n[root](2Z)
+    (20) [psi] + pt = tan^(-1) -----------,
+                                2p(z - E)
+
+    (21) sin [theta] exp ([psi] + pt)i
+      = i[root][(-z2 - z3)(z - z1)] + [root][(z3 - z)(z - z2)],
+
+           1 + z2z3     /-z2 - z3    G    p      G'
+      z1 = --------,   / -------- = --- = -- = -----, or
+           z2 + z3   \/      2      2An   n    2Anz1
+
+    (22) sin [theta] exp ([psi] + pt)i =
+      i[root][(-z1 - z3)(z - z2)] + [root][(z3 - z)(z - z1)],
+
+           1 + z1z3     /-z1 - z3    G    p      G'
+      z2 = --------,   / -------- = --- = -- = -----.
+           z1 + z3   \/      2      2An   n    2Anz2
+
+  Thus z2 = 0 in (22) makes G' = 0; so that if the stalk is held out
+  horizontally and projected with angular velocity 2p about the vertical
+  axis OC without giving any spin to the wheel, the resulting motion of
+  the stalk is like that of a spherical pendulum, and given by
+
+                                             / /2p^2            \
+    (23) sin [theta] exp ([psi] + pt)i = i  / ( ---- cos [theta] )
+                                          \/   \ n^2            /
+
+           / /                  p^2            \
+      +   / ( sin^2 [theta] - 2 --- cos [theta] ),
+        \/   \                  n^2            /
+
+      = i sin [alpha] [root](sec [alpha] cos [theta])
+        + [root][(sec [alpha] + cos [theta])(cos [alpha] - cos [theta])],
+
+  if the axis falls in the lowest position to an angle [alpha] with the
+  downward vertical.
+
+  With z3 = 0 in (21) and z2 = -cos [beta], and changing to the upward
+  vertical measurement, the motion is given by
+
+    (24) sin [theta] e^([psi]i)
+      = e^(int) [root]1/2 cos [beta][[root](1 - cos [beta] cos [theta])
+      + i[root](cos [beta] cos [theta] - cos^2 [theta])],
+
+  and the axis rises from the horizontal position to a series of cusps;
+  and the mean precessional motion is the same as in steady motion with
+  the same rotation and the axis horizontal.
+
+  The special case of f = 1/2 may be stated here; it is found that
+
+         p                           /(1 + x)([kappa] - x)       /(1 - x)([kappa] + x)
+    (25) -- exp ([~omega] - pt)i =  / -------------------- + i  / --------------------,
+         a                        \/           2              \/            2
+
+    (26) [rho]^2 = a^2 ([kappa] - x^2),
+
+    (27) 1/2[lambda]^2 sin [theta] exp ([psi] - pt)i
+
+                                /(1 - x)([kappa] + x)
+      = (L - 1 + [kappa] - x)  / --------------------
+                             \/           2
+
+                                 /(1 + x)([kappa] - x)
+      + i(L - 1 + [kappa] + x)  / --------------------
+                              \/           2
+
+    (28) L = 1/2(1 - [kappa]) + [lambda]p/n,
+
+  so that p = 0 and the motion is made algebraical by taking L = 1/2(1 -
+  [kappa]).
+
+  The stereoscopic diagram of fig. 12 drawn by T. I. Dewar shows these
+  curves for [kappa] = 15/17, 3/5, and 1/3 (cusps).
+
+  10. So far the motion of the axis OC' of the top has alone been
+  considered; for the specification of any point of the body, Euler's
+  third angle [phi] must be introduced, representing the angular
+  displacement of the wheel with respect to the stalk. This is given by
+
+        d[phi]               d[psi]
+    (1) ------ + cos [theta] ------ = R,
+          dt                   dt
+
+        d([phi] + [psi])    /    C \            G' + G
+    (2) ---------------- = ( 1 - -- ) R + ------------------,
+               dt           \    A /      A(1 + cos [theta])
+
+        d([phi] - [psi])    /    C \           G' - G
+        ---------------- = ( 1 - -- ) R + ------------------.
+               dt           \    A /      A(1 - cos [theta])
+
+  It will simplify the formulas by cancelling a secular term if we make
+  C = A, and the top is then called a _spherical top_; OH becomes the
+  axis of instantaneous angular velocity, as well as of resultant
+  angular momentum.
+
+  When this secular term is restored in the general case, the axis OI of
+  angular velocity is obtained by producing Q'H to I, making
+
+        HI    A - C  HI    A - C
+    (3) --- = -----, --- = -----,
+        Q'H     C    Q'I     A
+
+  and then the four vector components OC', C'K, KH, HI give a resultant
+  vector OI, representing the angular velocity [omega], such that
+
+    (4) OI/Q'I = [omega]/R.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12.]
+
+  The point I is then fixed on the generating line Q'H of the deformable
+  hyperboloid, and the other generator through I will cut the fixed
+  generator OC of the opposite system in a fixed point O', such that IO'
+  is of constant length, and may be joined up by a link, which
+  constrains I to move on a sphere.
+
+  In the spherical top then,
+                             _                                 _
+                            / G' + G dt                       / G' - G dt
+    (5) 1/2([phi] + [psi])= | ------ --, 1/2([phi] - [psi]) = | ------ --
+                           _/  1 + z 2A                      _/ 1 - z  2A
+
+  depending on the two elliptic integrals of the third kind, with pole
+  at z = [+-]1; and measuring [theta] from the downward vertical, their
+  elliptic parameters are:--
+
+                _[oo]
+               /   [root](z3 - z1)dz
+    (6)  v1 =  |   ----------------- = f1K'i,
+              _/1      [root](4Z)
+
+                _-1
+               /    [root](z3 - z1)dz
+    (7)  v2 =  |    ----------------- = K + (1 - f2)K'i
+              _/[oo]   [root](4Z)
+
+                    _[oo]
+                   /   [root](z3 - z1)dz
+    (8)  f1K' =  |   -----------------
+                  _/1     [root](-4Z)
+
+                  /z3 - z1             /1 - z3             /1 - z2
+      = sn^(-1)  / ------- = cn^(-1)  / ------ = dn^(-1)  / --------,
+               \/  1 - z1           \/  1 - z1          \/  1 - z1
+
+                       _-1
+                      /   [root](z3 - z1)dz
+    (9) (1 - f2)K' =  |   -----------------
+                     _/z1    [root](-4Z)
+
+                              /-1 - z1             /1 + z2
+                   = sn^(-1) / ------- = cn^(-1)  / -------
+                           \/  z2 - z1          \/  z2 - z1
+
+                                                   /1 + z3
+                                       = dn^{-1}  / -------
+                                                \/  z3 - z1
+
+  Then if v' = K + (1 - f')K'i is the parameter corresponding to z = D,
+  we find
+
+    (10) f = f2 - f1, f' = f2 + f1,
+
+    (11) v = v1 + v2, v' = v1 - v2.
+
+  The most symmetrical treatment of the motion of any point fixed in the
+  top will be found in Klein and Sommerfeld, Theorie des Kreisels, to
+  which the reader is referred for details; four new functions, [alpha],
+  [beta], [gamma], [delta], are introduced, defined in terms of Euler's
+  angles, [theta], [psi], [phi], by
+
+    (12) [alpha] = cos 1/2[theta] exp 1/2([phi] + [psi]i),
+
+    (13) [beta]  = i sin 1/2[theta] exp 1/2(-[phi] + [psi])i,
+
+    (14) [gamma] = i sin 1/2[theta] exp 1/2([phi] - [psi])i,
+
+    (15) [delta] = cos 1/2[theta] exp 1/2(-[phi] - [psi])i.
+
+  Next Klein takes two functions or co-ordinates [lambda] and [Lambda],
+  defined by
+
+                    x + yi   r + z
+    (16) [lambda] = ------ = ------,
+                    r - z    x - yi
+
+  and [Lambda] the same function of X, Y, Z, so that [lambda], [Lambda]
+  play the part of stereographic representations of the same point (x,
+  y, z) or (X, Y, Z) on a sphere of radius r, with respect to poles in
+  which the sphere is intersected by Oz and OZ.
+
+  These new functions are shown to be connected by the bilinear relation
+
+                     [alpha][Lambda] + [beta]
+    (17) [lambda] = --------------------------,
+                    [gamma][Lambda] + [delta]'
+
+      [alpha][delta] - [beta][gamma] = 1,
+
+  in accordance with the annexed scheme of transformation of
+  co-ordinates--
+
+           |      [Xi]      |      [Eta]    |            [Zeta]
+    -------+----------------+-----------+-----------------------------------
+     [xi]  |    [alpha]^2   |    [beta]^2   |         2[alpha][beta]
+    -------+----------------+-----------+-----------------------------------
+    [eta]  |    [gamma]^2   |    [delta]^2  |        2[gamma][delta]
+    -------+----------------+-----------+-----------------------------------
+    [zeta] | [alpha][gamma] | [beta][delta] | [alpha][delta] + [beta][gamma]
+
+  where
+
+    (18) [xi] = x + yi,  [eta] = -x + yi,  [zeta] = -z,
+         [Xi] = X + Yi,  [Eta] = -X + Yi,  [Zeta] = -Z;
+
+  and thus the motion in space of any point fixed in the body defined by
+  [Lambda] is determined completely by means of [alpha], [beta], [gamma],
+  [delta]; and in the case of the symmetrical top these functions are
+  elliptic transcendants, to which Klein has given the name of
+  _multiplicative elliptic functions_; and
+
+    (19) [alpha][delta] = cos^2 1/2[theta], [beta][gamma] = -sin^2 1/2[theta],
+         [alpha][delta] - [beta][gamma] = 1, [alpha][delta] + [beta][gamma]
+           = cos [theta],
+         [root](-4[alpha][beta][gamma][delta]) = sin [theta];
+
+  while, for the motion of a point on the axis, putting [Lambda] = 0, or
+  [infinity],
+
+    (20) [lambda] = [beta]/[delta] = i tan 1/2[theta]e^{[psi]i}, or
+         [lambda] = [alpha]/[gamma] = -i cot 1/2[theta]e^{[psi]i},
+
+  and
+
+    (21) [alpha][beta] = 1/2i sin [theta]e^([psi]i),
+         [alpha][gamma] = 1/2i sin  [theta]e^([psi]i),
+
+  giving orthogonal projections on the planes GKH, CHK; and
+
+                 d[beta]   d[alpha]           [rho]
+    (22) [alpha] ------- - --------[beta] = n ---- e^([~omega]i),
+                   dt        dt                k
+
+  the vectorial equation in the plane GKH of the herpolhode of H for a
+  spherical top.
+
+  When f1 and f2 in (9) are rational fractions, these multiplicative
+  elliptic functions can be replaced by algebraical functions, qualified
+  by factors which are exponential functions of the time t; a series of
+  quasi-algebraical cases of motion can thus be constructed, which
+  become purely algebraical when the exponential factors are cancelled
+  by a suitable arrangement of the constants.
+
+  Thus, for example, with f = 0, f' = 1, f1 = 1/2, f2 = 1/2, as in (24)
+  S 9, where P and P' are at A and B on the focal ellipse, we have for
+  the spherical top
+
+    (23) (1 + cos [theta]) exp ([phi] + [psi] - qt)i
+         = [root](sec [beta] - cos [theta]) [root](cos [beta] - cos [theta])
+         + i([root]sec [beta] + [root] cos [beta])[root]cos [theta],
+
+    (24) (1 - cos [theta]) exp ([phi] - [psi] - q't)i
+         = [root](sec [beta] - cos [theta])[root](cos [beta] - cos [theta])
+         + i([root]sec [beta] - [root]cos [beta]) [root]cos [theta],
+
+    (25) q, q' = n[root](2 sec [beta]) [+-] n[root](2 cos [beta]);
+
+  and thence [alpha], [beta], [gamma], [delta] can be inferred.
+
+  The physical constants of a given symmetrical top have been denoted in
+  S 1 by M, h, A, C, and l, n, T; to specify a given state of general
+  motion we have G, G' or CR, D, E, or F, which may be called the
+  dynamical constants; or [kappa], v, w, v1, v2, or f, f', f1, f2, the
+  analytical constants; or the geometrical constants, such as [alpha],
+  [beta], [delta], [delta]', k of a given articulated hyperboloid.
+
+  There is thus a triply infinite series of a state of motion; the
+  choice of a typical state can be made geometrically on the
+  hyperboloid, flattened in the plane of the local ellipse, of which
+  [kappa] is the ratio of the semiaxes [alpha] and [beta], and am(1 - f)
+  K' is the eccentric angle from the minor axis of the point of contact
+  P of the generator HQ, so that two analytical constants are settled
+  thereby; and the point H may be taken arbitrarily on the tangent line
+  PQ, and HQ' is then the other tangent of the focal ellipse; in which
+  case [theta]3 and [theta]2 are the angles between the tangents HQ,
+  HQ', and between the focal distances HS, HS', and k^2 will be HS.HS',
+  while HQ, HQ' are [delta], [delta]'. As H is moved along the tangent
+  line HQ, a series of states of motion can be determined, and drawn
+  with accuracy.
+
+  11. Equation (5) S 3 with slight modification will serve with the same
+  notation for the steady rolling motion at a constant inclination
+  [alpha] to the vertical of a body of revolution, such as a disk, hoop,
+  wheel, cask, wine-glass, plate, dish, bowl, spinning top, gyrostat, or
+  bicycle, on a horizontal plane, or a surface of revolution, as a coin
+  in a conical lamp-shade.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13.]
+
+  The point O is now the intersection of the axis GC' with the vertical
+  through the centre B of the horizontal circle described by the centre
+  of gravity, and through the centre M of the horizontal circle
+  described by P, the point of contact (fig. 13). Collected into a
+  particle at G, the body swings round the vertical OB as a conical
+  pendulum, of height AB or GL equal to g/[mu]^2 = [lambda], and GA
+  would be the direction of the thread, of tension gM(GA/GL) dynes. The
+  reaction with the plane at P will be an equal parallel force; and its
+  moment round G will provide the couple which causes the velocity of
+  the vector of angular momentum appropriate to the steady motion; and
+  this moment will be gM.Gm dyne-cm. or ergs, if the reaction at P cuts
+  GB in m.
+
+  Draw GR perpendicular to GK to meet the horizontal AL in R, and draw
+  RQC'K perpendicular to the axis Gz, and KC perpendicular to LG.
+
+  The velocity of the vector GK of angular momentum is [mu] times the
+  horizontal component, and
+
+    (1) horizontal component / A[mu] sin [alpha] = KC/KC',
+
+  so that
+
+    (2) gM.Gm = A[mu]^2 sin [alpha](KC/KC'),
+
+        A    KC'         g
+    (3) -- = --- ------------------ Gm = GQ.Gm.
+        M    KC  [mu]^2 sin [alpha]
+
+  The instantaneous axis of rotation of the case of a gyrostat would be
+  OP; drawing GI parallel to OP, and KK' parallel to OG, making tan
+  K'GC' = (A/C) tan IGC'1; then if GK represents the resultant angular
+  momentum, K'K will represent the part of it due to the rotation of the
+  fly-wheel. Thus in the figure for the body rolling as a solid, with
+  the fly-wheel clamped, the points m and Q move to the other side of G.
+  The gyrostat may be supposed swung round the vertical at the end of a
+  thread PA' fastened at A' where Pm produced cuts the vertical AB, and
+  again at the point where it crosses the axis GO. The discussion of the
+  small oscillation superposed on the state of steady motion requisite
+  for stability is given in the next paragraph.
+
+
+    General motion of a gyrostat rolling on a plane.
+
+  12. In the theoretical discussion of the general motion of a gyrostat
+  rolling on a horizontal plane the safe and shortest plan apparently is
+  to write down the most general equations of motion, and afterwards to
+  introduce any special condition.
+
+  Drawing through G the centre of gravity any three rectangular axes Gx,
+  Gy, Gz, the notation employed is
+
+    u, v, w,    the components of linear velocity of G;
+    p, q, r,    the components of angular velocity about the axes,
+    h1, h2, h3, the components of angular momentum;
+    [theta]1, [theta]2, [theta]3, the components of angular velocity of
+                  the coordinate axes;
+    x, y, z,    the co-ordinates of the point of contact with the
+                  horizontal plane;
+    X, Y, Z,    the components of the reaction of the plane;
+    [alpha], [beta], [gamma], the direction cosines of the downward
+                vertical.
+
+  The geometrical equations, expressing that the point of contact is at
+  rest on the plane, are
+
+    (1) u - ry + qz = 0,
+
+    (2) v - pz + rx = 0,
+
+    (3) w - qx + py = 0.
+
+  The dynamical equations are
+
+    (4) du/dt - [theta]3v + [theta]2w = g[alpha] + X/M,
+
+    (5) dv/dt - [theta]1w + [theta]2u = g[beta] + Y/M,
+
+    (6) dw/dt - [theta]2u + [theta]1v = g[gamma] + Z/M,
+
+  and
+
+    (7) dh1/dt - [theta]3h2 + [theta]2h3 = yZ - zY,
+
+    (8) dh2/dt - [theta]1h3 + [theta]3h1 = zX - xZ,
+
+    (9) dh3/dt - [theta]2h1 + [theta]1h2 = xY - yX.
+
+  In the special case of the gyrostat where the surface is of revolution
+  round Gz, and the body is kinetically symmetrical about Gz, we take Gy
+  horizontal and Gzx through the point of contact so that y = 0; and
+  denoting the angle between Gz and the downward vertical by [theta]
+  (fig. 13)
+
+    (10) [alpha] = sin[theta], [beta] = 0, [gamma] = cos[theta].
+
+  The components of angular momentum are
+
+    (11) h1 = Ap, h2 = Aq, h3 = Cr + K,
+
+  where A, C denote the moment of inertia about Gx, Gz, and K is the
+  angular momentum of a fly-wheel fixed in the interior with its axis
+  parallel to Gz; K is taken as constant during the motion.
+
+  The axis Gz being fixed in the body,
+
+    (12) [theta]1 = p, [theta]2 = q = -d[theta]/dt,
+         [theta]3 = p cot [theta].
+
+  With y = 0, (1), (2), (3) reduce to
+
+    (13) u = -qz, v = pz - rx, w = qx;
+
+  and, denoting the radius of curvature of the meridian curve of the
+  rolling surface by [rho],
+
+         dx                    d[theta]
+    (14) -- = [rho] cos[theta] --------  = -q [rho] cos[theta],
+         dt                       dt
+
+         dz                     d[theta]
+         -- = -[rho] sin[theta] -------- = q [rho] sin[theta];
+         dt                        dt
+
+  so that
+
+         du     dq
+    (15) -- = - -- z - q^2[rho] sin[theta],
+         dt     dt
+
+         dv   dp     dr
+    (16) -- = -- z - -- x + pq[rho] sin[theta] + qr[rho] sin[theta],
+         dt   dt     dt
+
+         dw   dq
+    (17) -- = -- x - q^2[rho] cos[theta].
+         dt   dt
+
+  The dynamical equations (4)...(9) can now be reduced to
+
+         X      dq
+    (18) -- = - -- z - p^2z cot[theta] + q^2(x - [rho] sin[theta])
+         M      dt
+
+         + prx cot[theta] - g sin[theta],
+
+         Y    dp     dr
+    (19) -- = -- z - -- x - pq(x + z cot[theta] - [rho] sin[theta])
+         M    dt     dt
+
+         + qrp cos[theta],
+
+         Z    dq
+    (20) -- = -- x + q^2(z - [rho] cos[theta]) + p^2z - prx - g cos[theta],
+         M    dt
+
+                 dp
+    (21) -zY = A -- - Apq cot[theta] + qh3,
+                 dt
+
+                      dq
+    (22) -zX - xZ = A -- + Ap^2 cot [theta] - ph3,
+                      dt
+
+              dh3     dr          d
+    (23) xY = --- = C -- = -Cq --------.
+              dt      dt       d[theta]
+
+  Eliminating Y between (19) and (23),
+
+          /C     \  dr      dp
+    (24) (-- + x^2) -- - xz -- + pqx(x + z cot[theta] - [rho] sin[theta])
+          \M     /  dt      dt
+
+         - qrx[rho] cos[theta] = 0,
+
+         /C     \     dr            dp
+    (A) (-- + x^2) -------- - xz -------- - px(x + z cot[theta]
+         \M     /  d[theta]      d[theta]
+
+        - [rho] sin[theta]) + rx[rho] cos[theta] = 0.
+
+  Eliminating Y between (19) and (21)
+
+          /A     \  dp      dr A                     h3
+    (25) (-- + z^2) -- - xz -- -- -pq cot[theta] + q --
+          \M     /  dt      dt M                     M
+
+    - pqz(x + z cot[theta] - [rho] sin[theta]) + qrz[rho] cos[theta] = 0,
+
+               dr       /A     \     dp      A                 h3
+    (B) -xz -------- + (-- + z^2) -------- + -- p cot[theta] - --
+            d[theta]    \M     /  d[theta]   M                 M
+
+     + pz(x + z cot[theta] - [rho] sin[theta]) + rz[rho] cos[theta] = 0.
+
+  In the special case of a gyrostat rolling on the sharp edge of a
+  circle passing through G, z = 0, [rho] = 0, (A) and (B) reduce to
+
+              / C     \     dr       / 1    1  \    dh3
+    (26) p = ( --- + 1 ) -------- = ( ---- + -- ) --------,
+              \Mx^2   /  d[theta]    \Mx^2   C /  d[theta]
+
+            dp                     h3  d.p sin[theta]   h3sin [theta]
+    (27) -------- + p cot[theta] = --, -------------- = -------------;
+         d[theta]                  A      d[theta]            A
+
+           d^2h3         dh3                   CMx^2
+    (28) ---------- + -------- cot[theta] = -----------,
+         d[theta]^2   d[theta]              A(Mx^2 + C)
+
+  a differential equation of a hypergeometric series, of the form of
+  Legendre's zonal harmonic of fractional order n, given by
+
+    (29) n(n + 1) = CMx^2/A(Mx^2 + C).
+
+  For a sharp point, x = 0, [rho] = 0, and the previous equations are
+  obtained of a spinning top.
+
+  The elimination of X and Z between (18) (20) (22), expressed
+  symbolically as
+
+    (30) (22) - z(18) + x(20) = 0,
+
+  gives
+
+         /A             \  dq     h3    /A       \
+    (C) ( -- + x^2 + z^2 ) -- - p -- + ( -- + z^2 ) p^2 cot [theta] + p^2xz
+         \M             /  dt     M     \M       /
+
+        + q^2[rho](x cos[theta] - z sin[theta]) - prx(x + z cot[theta])
+        - g(x cos[theta] - z sin[theta]) = 0,
+
+  and this combined with (A) and (B) will lead to an equation the
+  integral of which is the equation of energy.
+
+  13. The equations (A) (B) (C) are intractable in this general form;
+  but the restricted case may be considered when the axis moves in
+  steady motion at a constant inclination [alpha] to the vertical; and
+  the stability is secured if a small nutation of the axis can be
+  superposed.
+
+  It is convenient to put p = [Omega] sin [theta], so that [Omega] is
+  the angular velocity of the plane Gzx about the vertical; (A) (B) (C)
+  become
+
+          /C      \     dr                     d[Omega]
+    (A*) ( -- + x^2) --------  - xz sin[theta] --------
+          \M      /  d[theta]                  d[theta]
+
+         - [Omega]x(x sin[theta] - 2z cos[theta]
+         - [rho] sin^2[theta]) + rx[rho] cos[theta] = 0,
+
+                dr       /A      \             d[Omega]   h3            /A      \
+    (B*) -xz -------- + ( -- + z^2) sin[theta] -------- - -- + 2[Omega]( -- + z^2) cos [theta]
+             d[theta]    \M      /             d[theta]   M             \M      /
+
+         + [Omega]z sin[theta](x - [rho] sin[theta]) - rz[rho] cos[theta] = 0,
+
+          /A            \  dq                                               h3
+    (C*) ( -- + x^2 + z^2) -- + q^2p(x cos[theta] - z sin[theta]) - [Omega] -- sin [theta]
+          \M            /  dt                                               M
+
+                   /A      \
+      + [Omega]^2 ( -- + z^2) sin [theta] cos [theta] + [Omega]^2xz sin^2[theta]
+                   \M      /
+
+      - [Omega]rx(x sin [theta] + z cos [theta]) - g(x cos [theta] - z sin [theta]) = 0.
+
+  The steady motion and nutation superposed may be expressed by
+
+    (1) [theta] = [alpha] + L, sin [theta] = sin[alpha] + L cos[alpha],
+        cos[theta] = cos[alpha] - L sin [alpha],
+        [Omega] = [mu] + N, r = R + Q,
+
+  where L, N, Q are small terms, involving a factor e^(nti), to express
+  the periodic nature of the nutation; and then if a, c denote the mean
+  value of x, z, at the point of contact
+
+    (2) x = a + L[rho] cos[alpha], z = c - L[rho] sin[alpha],
+
+    (3) x sin [theta] + z cos [theta] = a sin [alpha] + c cos [alpha]
+        + L(a cos [alpha] - c sin [alpha]),
+
+    (4) x cos [theta] - z sin [theta] = a cos [alpha] - c sin [alpha]
+        - L(a sin [alpha] + c cos [alpha] - [rho]).
+
+  Substituting these values in (C*) with dq/dt = -d^2[theta]/dt^2 = n^2L,
+  and ignoring products of the small terms, such as L^2, LN, ...
+
+           /A            \                    /CR + K   CQ\
+    (C**) ( -- + a^2 + c^2) Ln^2 - ([mu] + N)( ------ + -- )(sin[alpha] + L cos[alpha])
+           \M            /                    \  M      M /
+
+                          /A                            \
+      + ([mu]^2 + 2[mu]N)( -- + c^2 - 2L[rho]c sin[alpha]) (sin [alpha] cos[alpha] + L cos[alpha])
+                          \M                            /
+
+      + ([mu]^2 + 2[mu]N) [ac - L[rho](a sin [alpha] - c sin[alpha])] (sin^2 [alpha] + L sin 2[alpha])
+      - ([mu] + N)(R + Q)(a + L[rho]cos[alpha])[a sin [alpha] + c cos[alpha]
+      + L(a cos[alpha] - c sin [alpha])] - g(a cos[alpha] - c sin[alpha])
+      + gL(a sin[alpha] + c cos[alpha] - [rho]) = 0,
+
+  which is equivalent to
+
+              CR + K                      /A      \
+    (5) -[mu] ------ sin[alpha] + [mu]^2 ( -- + c^2) sin [alpha] cos [alpha]
+                M                         \M      /
+
+        + [mu]^2 ac sin^2[alpha] - [mu]Ra(a sin[alpha] + c cos[alpha])
+        - g(a cos[alpha] - c sin[alpha]) = 0,
+
+  the condition of steady motion; and
+
+    (6) DL + EQ + FN = 0,
+
+  where
+
+             /A            \             CK + K
+    (7) D = ( -- + a^2 + c^2) n^2 - [mu] ------ cos[alpha]
+             \M            /               M
+
+          - 2[mu]^2[rho]c sin^2[alpha] cos[alpha]
+
+                    /A      \
+          + [mu]^2 ( -- + c^2) cos [alpha] - [mu]^2[rho](a sin [alpha]
+                    \M      /
+
+          - c cos[alpha]) sin^2[alpha] + [mu]^2ac sin 2[alpha]
+          - [mu]R[rho] cos [alpha](a sin [alpha] + c cos[alpha])
+          - [mu]Ra(a cos [alpha] - c sin[alpha])
+          + g(a sin[alpha] + c cos[alpha] - [rho]),
+
+                  C
+    (8) E = -[mu] -- sin [alpha] - [mu]a(a sin [alpha] + c cos [alpha]),
+                  M
+
+              CR + K                      /A      \
+    (9) F = - ------ sin [alpha] + 2[mu] ( -- + c^2) sin [alpha] cos [alpha]
+                M                         \M      /
+
+            + 2[mu]ac sin^2 [alpha] - Ra(a sin [alpha] + c cos [alpha]).
+
+  With the same approximation (A*) and (B*) are equivalent to
+
+           /C      \  Q                  N
+    (A**) ( -- + a^2) -- - ac sin [alpha]--
+           \M      /  L                  L
+
+          - [mu]a(a sin [alpha] + 2c cos [alpha] - [rho] sin^2 [alpha])
+          + Ra[rho] cos [alpha] = 0,
+
+              Q     /A      \             N    CR + K          /A      \
+    (B**) -ac -- + ( -- + c^2) sin [alpha]-- - ------ + 2[mu] ( -- + c^2) cos [alpha]
+              L     \M      /             L      M             \M      /
+
+          + [mu]c sin [alpha](a - [rho] sin [alpha])
+          - Rc[rho] cos [alpha] = 0.
+
+  The elimination of L, Q, N will lead to an equation for the
+  determination of n^2, and n^2 must be positive for the motion to be
+  stable.
+
+  If b is the radius of the horizontal circle described by G in steady
+  motion round the centre B,
+
+    (10) b = v/[mu] = (cP - aR)/[mu] = c sin [alpha] - aR/[mu],
+
+  and drawing GL vertically upward of length [lambda] = g/[mu]^2, the
+  height of the equivalent conical pendulum, the steady motion condition
+  may be written
+
+    (11) (CR + K)[mu] sin[alpha] - [mu]^2 sin[alpha] cos[alpha]
+         = -gM(a cos[alpha] - c sin[alpha])
+           + M([mu]^2c sin[alpha] - [mu]Ra) (a sin[alpha] + c cos[alpha])
+         = gM[b[lambda]^(-1) (a sin [alpha] + c cos [alpha])
+           - a cos [alpha] + c sin [alpha]]
+         = gM.PT,
+
+  LG produced cuts the plane in T.
+
+  Interpreted dynamically, the left-hand side of this equation
+  represents the velocity of the vector of angular momentum about G, so
+  that the right-hand side represents the moment of the applied force
+  about G, in this case the reaction of the plane, which is parallel to
+  GA, and equal to gM.GA/GL; and so the angle AGL must be less than the
+  angle of friction, or slipping will take place.
+
+  Spinning upright, with [alpha] = 0, a = 0, we find F = 0, Q = 0, and
+
+            CR + K         /A      \
+    (12)  - ------ + 2[mu]( -- + c^2) - Rcp = 0,
+              M            \M      /
+
+          /A      \             CR + K          /A      \
+    (13) ( -- + c^2) n^2 = [mu] ------ - [mu]^2( -- + c^2) + [mu]R[rho]c - g(c - [rho]),
+          \M      /               M             \M      /
+
+          /A      \^2          /CK + R          \^2    /A      \
+    (14) ( -- + c^2) n^2 = 1/4( ------ + Rc[rho] ) - g( -- + c^2) (c - [rho]),
+          \M      /            \  M             /      \M      /
+
+  Thus for a top spinning upright on a rounded point, with K = 0, the
+  stability requires that
+
+    (15) R > 2k' [root]{g(c - [rho])}/(k^2 + c[rho]),
+
+  where k, k' are the radii of gyration about the axis Gz, and a
+  perpendicular axis at a distance c from G; this reduces to the
+  preceding case of S 3 (7) when [rho] = 0.
+
+  Generally, with [alpha] = 0, but a [+-] 0, the condition (A) and (B)
+  becomes
+
+          /C     \  Q
+    (16) ( - + a^2) -- = 2[mu]ac - Ra[rho],
+          \M     /  L
+
+             Q    CR + K                   /A      \
+         -ac -- = ------ + Rc[rho] - 2[mu]( -- + a^2),
+             L      M                      \M      /
+
+  so that, eliminating Q/L,
+            _                              _
+           |  /A      \  /C      \          |         /C      \  /CR + K\    C
+    (17) 2 | ( -- + c^2)( -- + a^2) - a^2c^2| [mu] = ( -- + a^2)( ------ ) + -- Rc[rho],
+           |_ \M      /  \M      /         _|         \M      /  \  M   /    M
+
+  the condition when a coin or platter is rolling nearly flat on the
+  table.
+
+  Rolling along in a straight path, with [alpha] = 1/2[pi], c = 0, [mu]
+  = 0, E = 0; and
+
+    (18) N/L = (CR + K)/A,
+
+              /A      \
+    (19) D = ( -- + a^2) n^2 + g(a - [rho]),
+              \M      /
+
+               CR + K
+         F = - ------ - Ra^2,
+                 M
+
+                      /A      \
+                     ( -- + a^2) n^2 + g(a - [rho])
+         N      D     \M      /
+    (20) -- = - -- = ----------------------------,
+         L      F          /C      \      K
+                          ( -- + a^2) R + -
+                           \M      /      M
+                                     _                   _
+          /A      \        (CR + K) |  /C      \      K   |
+    (21) ( -- + a^2) n^2 = -------- | ( -- + a^2) R + --  | - g(a - [rho]).
+          \M      /           A     |_ \M      /      M  _|
+
+  Thus with K = 0, and rolling with velocity V = Ra, stability
+  requires
+
+         V^2       a - [rho]           A  a - [rho]
+    (22) --- > ---------------- > 1/2  -- ---------,
+         2g     C   / C      \         C    C
+              2 -- ( ---- + 1 )           ---- + 1
+                A   \Ma^2    /            Ma^2
+
+  or the body must have acquired velocity greater than attained by
+  rolling down a plane through a vertical height 1/2(a - [rho])A/C.
+
+  On a sharp edge, with [rho] = 0, a thin uniform disk or a thin ring
+  requires
+
+    (23) V^2/2g > a/6 or a/8.
+
+  The gyrostat can hold itself upright on the plane without advance when
+  R = 0, provided
+
+    (24) K^2/AM - g(a - [rho]) is positive.
+
+  For the stability of the monorail carriage of S 5 (6), ignoring the
+  rotary inertia of the wheels by putting C = 0, and replacing K by G'
+  the theory above would require
+
+         G'  /     G'\
+    (25) -- ( aV + -- ) > gh.
+         A   \     A /
+
+  For further theory and experiments consult Routh, _Advanced Rigid
+  Dynamics_, chap. v., and Thomson and Tait, _Natural Philosophy_, S
+  345; also Bourlet, _Traite des bicycles_ (analysed in Appell,
+  _Mecanique rationnelle_, ii. 297, and Carvallo, _Journal de l'ecole
+  polytechnique_, 1900); Whipple, _Quarterly Journal of Mathematics_,
+  vol. xxx., for mathematical theories of the bicycle, and other bodies.
+
+
+    Gyrostatic chain.
+
+  14. Lord Kelvin has studied theoretically and experimentally the
+  vibration of a chain of stretched gyrostats (_Proc. London Math.
+  Soc._, 1875; J. Perry, _Spinning Tops_, for a diagram). Suppose each
+  gyrostat to be equivalent dynamically to a fly-wheel of axial length
+  2a, and that each connecting link is a light cord or steel wire of
+  length 2l, stretched to a tension T.
+
+  Denote by x, y the components of the slight displacement from the
+  central straight line of the centre of a fly-wheel; and let p, q, 1
+  denote the direction cosines of the axis of a fly-wheel, and r, s, 1
+  the direction cosines of a link, distinguishing the different bodies
+  by a suffix.
+
+  Then with the previous notation and to the order of approximation
+  required,
+
+    (1) [theta]1 = -dq/dt, [theta]2 = dp/dt,
+
+    (2) h1 = A[theta]1, h2 = A[theta]2, h3 = K,
+
+  to be employed in the dynamical equations
+
+    (3) dh1/dt - [theta]3 h2 + [theta]2 h3 = L, ...
+
+  in which [theta]3 h1 and [theta]3 h2 can be omitted.
+
+  For the kth fly-wheel
+
+    (4) -A :q_k + K .p_k = Ta(q_k - s_k) + Ta[q_k - s_(k+1)],
+
+    (5) A :p_k + K .q_k = -Ta(p_k - r_k) - Ta[p_k - r_(k+1)];
+
+  and for the motion of translation
+
+    (6) M :x_k = T[r_(k+1) - r_k], M :y_k = T[s(k+1) - s_k];
+
+  while the geometrical relations are
+
+    (7) x_(k+1) - x_k = a [p_(k+1) + p_k] + 2lr_(k+1),
+
+    (8) y_(k+1) - y_k = a [q_(k+1) + q_k] + 2ls_(k+1).
+
+  Putting
+
+    (9) x + yi = w, p + qi = [~omega], r + si = [sigma],
+
+  these three pairs of equations may be replaced by the three equations
+
+    (10) A :[~omega]_k - K .[~omega]_ki + 2Ta[~omega]_k
+         - Ta([sigma]_(k+1) + [sigma]_k) = 0,
+
+    (11) M :[~omega]_k - T([sigma]_(k+1) - [sigma]_k) = 0,
+
+    (12) w_(k+1) - w_k - a([~omega]_(k+1) +
+         [~omega]_k - 2l[sigma]_(k+1) = 0.
+
+  For a vibration of circular polarization assume a solution
+
+    (13) w_k, [~omega]_k, [sigma]_k = (L, P, Q) exp (nt + kc)i,
+
+  so that c/n is the time-lag between the vibration of one fly-wheel and
+  the next; and the wave velocity is
+
+    (14) U = 2(a + l)n/c.
+
+  Then
+
+    (15) P(-An^2 + Kn + 2Ta) - QTa[e^(ci) + 1] = 0,
+
+    (16) -LMn^2 - QT[e^(ci) - 1] = 0,
+
+    (17) L[e^(ci) - 1] -Pa[e^(ci) + 1] - 2Qle^(ci) = 0,
+
+  leading, on elimination of L, P, Q, to
+
+                 (2 Ta + Kn - An^2) (1 - Mn^2l/T) - Mn^2
+    (18) cos c = ---------------------------------------,
+                         2Ta + Kn - An^2 + Mna^2
+
+                        M  n^2 2Ta(a + l) + KNl - An^2l
+    (19) 2 sin^2 1/2c = -- ----------------------------.
+                        T   2Ta + Kn - An^2 + Mn^2a^2
+
+  With K = 0, A = 0, this reduces to Lagrange's condition in the
+  vibration of a string of beads.
+
+  Putting
+
+    (20) [rho] = M/2(a + l),   the mass per unit length of the chain,
+
+    (21) [kappa] = K/2(a + l), the gyrostatic angular momentum per unit
+                                 length,
+
+    (22) [alpha] = A/2(a + l), the transverse moment of inertia per unit
+                                length,
+
+    (23) 1/2c = (a + l)n/U,
+
+  equation (19) can be written
+
+    (24) {sin (a + l)n/U}^2
+
+                   [rho]                Ta + [kappa]nl - [alpha]n^2l
+    = (a + l)^2n^2 ----- -------------------------------------------------------------,
+                     T   Ta + [kappa]n(a + l) - [alpha]n^2(a + l) + [rho]n^2a^2(a + l)
+
+          /    (a + l)n    \^2
+    (25) ( ---------------  )
+          \ sin (a + l)n/U /
+
+         T     T + ([kappa]n - [alpha]n^2) (1 + l/a) + [rho]n^2a(a + l)
+     = ----- . --------------------------------------------------------.
+       [rho]                T + ([kappa]n - an^2)l/a
+
+  In a continuous chain of such gyrostatic links, with a and l
+  infinitesimal,
+
+                T     /         [kappa]n - [alpha]n^2      \
+    (26) U^2 = ----- ( 1 + -------------------------------  )
+              [rho]   \    T + ([kappa]n - [alpha]n^2 l/a) /
+
+  for the vibration of helical nature like circular polarization.
+
+  Changing the sign of n for circular polarization in the opposite
+  direction
+
+                 T     /         [kappa]n + [alpha]n^2      \
+    (27) U'^2 = ----- ( 1 - -------------------------------  ).
+               [rho]   \    T - ([kappa]n + [alpha]n^2 l/a) /
+
+  In this way a mechanical model is obtained of the action of a
+  magnetized medium on polarized light, [kappa] representing the
+  equivalent of the magnetic field, while [alpha] may be ignored as
+  insensible (J. Larmor, _Proc. Lond. Math. Soc._, 1890; _Aether and
+  Matter_, Appendix E).
+
+  We notice that U^2 in (26) can be positive, and the gyrostatic chain
+  stable, even when T is negative, and the chain is supporting a thrust,
+  provided [kappa]n is large enough, and the thrust does not exceed
+
+    (28) ([kappa]n - an^2)(1 + l/a);
+
+  while U'^2 in (27) will not be positive and the straight chain will be
+  unstable unless the tension exceeds
+
+    (29) ([kappa]n + [alpha]n^2)(1 + l/a).
+
+  15. _Gyrostat suspended by a Thread._--In the discussion of the small
+  vibration of a single gyrostat fly-wheel about the vertical position
+  when suspended by a single thread of length 2l = b, the suffix k can
+  be omitted in the preceding equations of S 14, and we can write
+
+    (1) A :[~omega] - K .[~omega]i + Ta[~omega] - Ta[sigma] = 0,
+
+    (2) M :w + T[sigma] = 0, with T = gM,
+
+    (3) w - a[~omega] - b[sigma] = 0.
+
+  Assuming a periodic solution of these equations
+
+    (4) w, [~omega], [sigma], = (L, P, Q) exp nti,
+
+  and eliminating L, P, Q, we obtain
+
+    (5) (-An^2 + Kn + gMa)(g - n^2b) - gMn^2a^2 = 0,
+
+  and the frequency of a vibration in double beats per second is
+  n/2[pi], where n is a root of this quartic equation.
+
+  For upright spinning on a smooth horizontal plane, take b = [oo] and
+  change the sign of a, then
+
+    (6) An^2 - Kn + gMa = 0,
+
+  so that the stability requires
+
+    (7) K^2 > 4gAMa.
+
+  Here A denotes the moment of inertia about a diametral axis through
+  the centre of gravity; when the point of the fly-wheel is held in a
+  small smooth cup, b = 0, and the condition becomes
+
+    (8) (A + Ma^2)n^2 - Kn + gMa = 0,
+
+  requiring for stability, as before in S 3,
+
+    (9) K^2 > 4g(A + M^2)Ma.
+
+  For upright spinning inside a spherical surface of radius b, the sign
+  of a must be changed to obtain the condition at the lowest point, as
+  in the gyroscopic horizon of Fleuriais.
+
+  For a gyrostat spinning upright on the summit of a sphere of radius b,
+  the signs of a and b must be changed in (5), or else the sign of g,
+  which amounts to the same thing.
+
+  Denoting the components of horizontal displacement of the point of the
+  fly-wheel by [xi], [eta], then
+
+    (10) br = [xi], bs = [eta], b[sigma] = [xi] + [eta]i = [lambda]
+        (suppose),
+
+    (11) [omega] = [alpha][~omega] + [lambda].
+
+  If the point is forced to take the motion ([xi], [eta], [zeta]) by
+  components of force X, Y, Z, the equations of motion become
+
+    (12) -A :q + K .p = Ya - Zaq,
+
+    (13) A :p + K .q = -Xa + Zap,
+
+    (14) M :w = X + Yi, M( :[zeta] - g) = Z;
+
+  so that
+
+    (15) A :[~omega] - K .[~omega]i + gMa[~omega] + Ma :w
+         = Ma[~omega] :[zeta],
+
+  or
+
+    (16) (A + Ma^2) :[~omega] - K .[~omega]i + gMa[~omega] + Ma[lambda] =
+         Ma[~omega] :[zeta].
+
+  Thus if the point of the gyrostat is made to take the periodic motion
+  given by [lambda] = R exp nti, [zeta] = 0, the forced vibration of the
+  axis is given by [~omega] = P exp nti, where
+
+    (17) P{-(A + Ma^2)n^2 + Kn + gMa} - RMn^2a = 0;
+
+  and so the effect may be investigated on the Fleuriais gyroscopic
+  horizon of the motion of the ship.
+
+  Suppose the motion [lambda] is due to the suspension of the gyrostat
+  from a point on the axis of a second gyrostat suspended from a fixed
+  point.
+
+  Distinguishing the second gyrostat by a suffix, then [lambda] =
+  b[~omega]1, if b denotes the distance between the points of suspension
+  of the two gyrostats; and the motion of the second gyrostat influenced
+  by the reaction of the first, is given by
+
+    (18) (A1 + M1h1^2) :[~omega]1 - K1 .[~omega]1 i
+         = -g(M1h1 + Mb)[~omega]1 - b(X + Yi)
+         = -g(M1h1 + Mb)[~omega]1 - Mb(a :[~omega] + :[lambda]);
+
+  so that, in the small vibration,
+
+          R   /                                      \
+    (19)  -- ( -(A1 + M1h1^2)n^2 + K1n + g(M1h1 + Mb) ) = Mn^2b(aP + R),
+          b   \                                      /
+
+    (20) R { -(A1 + M1h1^2 + Mb^2)n^2 + K1n + g(M1h1 + Mb)} - PMn^2ab^2 = 0.
+
+  Eliminating the ratio of P to R, we obtain
+
+    (21) { -(A + Ma^2)n^2 + Kn + gMa}
+         X {-(A1 + M1h1^2 + Mb^2)n^2 + K1n + g (M1h1 + Mb)} - M^2n^4a^2b^2 = 0,
+
+  a quartic for n, giving the frequency n/2[pi] of a fundamental
+  vibration.
+
+  Change the sign of g for the case of the gyrostats spinning upright,
+  one on the top of the other, and so realize the gyrostat on the top of
+  a gyrostat described by Maxwell.
+
+  In the gyrostatic chain of S 14, the tension T may change to a limited
+  pressure, and U^2 may still be positive, and the motion stable; and so
+  a motion is realized of a number of spinning tops, superposed in a
+  column.
+
+  16. _The Flexure Joint._--In Lord Kelvin's experiment the gyrostats
+  are joined up by equal light rods and short lengths of elastic wire
+  with rigid attachment to the rod and case of a gyrostat, so as to keep
+  the system still, and free from entanglement and twisting due to pivot
+  friction of the fly-wheels.
+
+  When this gyrostatic chain is made to revolve with angular velocity n
+  in relative equilibrium as a plane polygon passing through Oz the axis
+  of rotation, each gyrostatic case moves as if its axis produced was
+  attached to Oz by a flexure joint. The instantaneous axis of resultant
+  angular velocity bisects the angle [pi] - [theta], if the axis of the
+  case makes an angle [theta] with Oz, and, the components of angular
+  velocity being n about Oz, and -n about the axis, the resultant
+  angular velocity is 2n cos 1/2([pi] - [theta]) = 2n sin 1/2[theta];
+  and the components of this angular velocity are
+
+    (1) -2n sin 1/2[theta] sin 1/2[theta] = -n(1-cos[theta]), along the
+  axis, and
+
+    (2) -2n sin 1/2[theta] cos 1/2[theta] = -n sin [theta], perpendicular
+  to the axis of the case. The flexure joint behaves like a pair of
+  equal bevel wheels engaging.
+
+  The component angular momentum in the direction Ox is therefore
+
+    (3) L = -An sin [theta] cos [theta] - Cn (1 - cos [theta]) sin [theta]
+          + K sin [theta],
+
+  and Ln is therefore the couple acting on the gyrostat.
+
+  If [alpha] denotes the angle which a connecting link makes with Oz,
+  and T denotes the constant component of the tension of a link parallel
+  to Oz, the couple acting is
+
+    (4) Ta cos [theta]_k(tan [alpha]_(k+1) + tan [alpha]_k)
+        - 2T[alpha]sin[theta]_k,
+
+  which is to be equated to Ln, so that
+
+    (5) -An^2 sin [theta]_k cos [theta]_k
+          - Cn(1 - cos [theta]_k) sin [theta]_k
+          + Kn sin [theta]_k
+          - T[alpha] cos [theta]_k(tan [alpha]_(k+1) + tan [alpha]_k)
+          + 2T[alpha] sin [theta]_k = 0.
+
+  In addition
+
+    (6) Mn^2[chi]_k + T(tan [alpha]_(k+1) - tan [alpha]_k) = 0,
+
+  with the geometrical relation
+
+    (7) [chi]_(k+1) - [chi]_k - [alpha](sin [theta]_(k+1) + sin [theta]_k)
+          - 2l sin{k + 1} = 0.
+
+  When the polygon is nearly coincident with Oz, these equations can be
+  replaced by
+
+    (8) (-An^2 + Kn + 2Ta)[theta]_k - Ta([alpha]_(k+1) + [alpha]_k) = 0,
+
+    (9) Mn^2x_k + T([alpha]_(k+1) - [alpha]_k) = 0,
+
+    (10) x_(k+1) - x_k - a([theta]_(k+1) + [theta]_k) - 2la_k = 0,
+
+  and the rest of the solution proceeds as before in S 14, putting
+
+    (11) x_k, [theta]_k, [alpha]_k = (L, P, Q) exp cki.
+
+  A half wave length of the curve of gyrostats is covered when ck =
+  [pi], so that [pi]/c is the number of gyrostats in a half wave, which
+  is therefore of wave length 2[pi](a + l)/c.
+
+  A plane polarized wave is given when exp cki is replaced by exp (nt +
+  ck)i, and a wave circularly polarized when w, [~omega], [sigma] of S
+  14 replace this x, [theta], [alpha].
+
+  _Gyroscopic Pendulum._--The elastic flexure joint is useful for
+  supporting a rod, carrying a fly-wheel, like a gyroscopic pendulum.
+
+  Expressed by Euler's angles, [theta], [phi], [psi], the kinetic energy
+  is
+
+    (12) T = 1/2A( .[theta]^2 + sin^2 [theta] .[psi]^2)
+           + 1/2C'(1 - cos [theta])^2 .[psi]^2
+           + 1/2C( .[phi] + .[psi] cos [theta])^2,
+
+  where A refers to rod and gyroscope about the transverse axis at the
+  point of support, C' refers to rod about its axis of length, and C
+  refers to the revolving fly-wheel.
+
+  The elimination of .[psi] between the equation of conservation of
+  angular momentum about the vertical, viz.
+
+    (13) A sin^2 [theta] .[psi] - C'(1 - cos [theta]) cos [theta] .[psi] +
+  C( .[phi] +  .[psi] cos [theta]) cos [theta] = G, a constant, and the
+  equation of energy, viz.
+
+    (14) T - gMh cos [theta] = H, a constant, with [theta] measured from
+  the downward vertical, and
+
+    (15) .[phi] + .[psi] cos [theta] = R, a constant, will lead to an
+  equation for d[theta]/dt, or dz/dt, in terms of cos [theta] or z, the
+  integral of which is of hyperelliptic character, except when A = C'.
+
+  In the suspension of fig. 8, the motion given by .[phi] is suppressed
+  in the stalk, and for the fly-wheel .[phi] gives the rubbing angular
+  velocity of the wheel on the stalk; the equations are now
+
+    (16) T = 1/2A( .[theta]^2 + sin^2 [theta] .[psi]^2)
+           + 1/2C' cos^2 [theta] .[psi]^2 + 1/2CR^2 = H + gMh cos [theta],
+
+    (17) A sin^2 [theta][.[psi]] + C' cos^2 [theta] .[psi] + CR cos [theta]
+           = G,
+
+  and the motion is again of hyperelliptic character, except when A =
+  C', or C' = 0. To realize a motion given completely by the elliptic
+  function, the suspension of the stalk must be made by a smooth ball
+  and socket, or else a Hooke universal joint.
+
+  Finally, there is the case of the general motion of a top with a
+  spherical rounded point on a smooth plane, in which the centre of
+  gravity may be supposed to rise and fall in a vertical line. Here
+
+    (18) T = 1/2(A + Mh^2 sin^2 [theta]) .[theta]^2 + 1/2A sin^2 [theta] .[psi]^2
+           + 1/2CR^2 = H - gMh cos [theta],
+
+  with [theta] measured from the upward vertical, and
+
+    (19) A sin^2 [theta] .[psi] + CR cos [theta] = G,
+
+  where A now refers to a transverse axis through the centre of gravity.
+  The elimination of [.[psi]] leads to an equation for z, = cos [theta],
+  of the form
+
+          /dz\^2    g         Z             g  (z1 - z)(z2 - z)(z3 - z)
+    (20) ( -- ) = 2 -- ---------------- = 2 -- ------------------------,
+          \dt/      h  1 - z^2 + A/Mh^2     h      (z4 - z)(z - z5)
+
+  with the arrangement
+
+    (21) z1, z4 > / > z2 > z > z3 > - / > z5;
+
+  so that the motion is hyperelliptic.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--In addition to the references in the text the following
+  will be found useful:--_Ast. Notices_, vol. i.; _Comptes rendus_,
+  Sept. 1852; Paper by Professor Magnus translated in Taylor's _Foreign
+  Scientific Memoirs_, n.s., pt. 3, p. 210; _Ast. Notices_, xiii.
+  221-248; _Theory of Foucault's Gyroscope Experiments_, by the Rev.
+  Baden Powell, F.R.S.; _Ast. Notices_, vol. xv.; articles by Major J.
+  G. Barnard in _Silliman's Journal_, 2nd ser., vols. xxiv. and xxv.; E.
+  Hunt on "Rotatory Motion," _Proc. Phil. Soc. Glasgow_, vol. iv.; J.
+  Clerk Maxwell, "On a Dynamical Top," _Trans. R.S.E._ vol. xxi.; _Phil.
+  Mag._ 4th ser. vols. 7, 13, 14; _Proc. Royal Irish Academy_, vol.
+  viii.; Sir William Thomson on "Gyrostat," _Nature_, xv. 297; G. T.
+  Walker, "The Motion of a Celt," _Quar. Jour. Math._, 1896; G. T.
+  Walker, _Math. Ency._ iv. 1, xi. 1; Gallop, _Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc._
+  xii. 82, pt. 2, 1903, "Rise of a Top"; Price's _Infinitesimal
+  Calculus_, vol. iv.; Worms, _The Earth and its Mechanism_; Routh,
+  _Rigid Dynamics_; A. G. Webster, _Dynamics_ (1904); H. Crabtree,
+  _Spinning Tops and Gyroscopic Motion_ (1909). For a complete list of
+  the mathematical works on the subject of the Gyroscope and Gyrostat
+  from the outset, Professor Cayley's Report to the British Association
+  (1862) on the _Progress of Dynamics_ should be consulted. Modern
+  authors will be found cited in Klein and Sommerfeld, _Theorie des
+  Kreisels_ (1897), and in the _Encyclopadie der mathematischen
+  Wissenschaften_.     (G. G.)
+
+
+
+
+GYTHIUM, the harbour and arsenal of Sparta, from which it was some 30 m.
+distant. The town lay at the N.W. extremity of the Laconian Gulf, in a
+small but fertile plain at the mouth of the Gythius. Its reputed
+founders were Heracles and Apollo, who frequently appear on its coins:
+the former of these names may point to the influence of Phoenician
+traders, who, we know, visited the Laconian shores at a very early
+period. In classical times it was a community of _perioeci_, politically
+dependent on Sparta, though doubtless with a municipal life of its own.
+In 455 B.C., during the first Peloponnesian War, it was burned by the
+Athenian admiral Tolmides. In 370 B.C. Epaminondas besieged it
+unsuccessfully for three days. Its fortifications were strengthened by
+the tyrant Nabis, but in 195 B.C. it was invested and taken by Titus and
+Lucius Quintius Flamininus, and, though recovered by Nabis two or three
+years later, was recaptured immediately after his murder (192 B.C.) by
+Philopoemen and Aulus Atilius and remained in the Achaean League until
+its dissolution in 146 B.C. Subsequently it formed the most important of
+the Eleutherolaconian towns, a group of twenty-four, later eighteen,
+communities leagued together to maintain their autonomy against Sparta
+and declared free by Augustus. The highest officer of the confederacy
+was the general ([Greek: strategos]), who was assisted by a treasurer
+([Greek: tamias]), while the chief magistrates of the several
+communities bore the title of ephors ([Greek: ephoroi]).
+
+Pausanias (iii. 21 f.) has left us a description of the town as it
+existed in the reign of Marcus Aurelius, the agora, the Acropolis, the
+island of Cranae (Marathonisi) where Paris celebrated his nuptials with
+Helen, the Migonium or precinct of Aphrodite Migonitis (occupied by the
+modern town of Marathonisi or Gythium), and the hill Larysium (Koumaro)
+rising above it. The numerous remains extant, of which the theatre and
+the buildings partially submerged by the sea are the most noteworthy,
+all belong to the Roman period.
+
+The modern town is a busy and flourishing port with a good harbour
+protected by Cranae, now connected by a mole with the mainland: it is
+the capital of the prefecture ([Greek: nomos]) of [Greek: Lakonike] with
+a population in 1907 of 61,522.
+
+  See G. Weber, _De Gytheo et Lacedaemoniorum rebus navalibus_
+  (Heidelberg, 1833); W. M. Leake, _Travels in the Morea_, i. 244 foll.;
+  E. Curtius, _Peloponnesos_, ii. 267 foll. Inscriptions: Le
+  Bas-Foucart, _Voyage archeologique_, ii. Nos. 238-248 f.;
+  Collitz-Bechtel, _Sammlung d. griech. Dialekt-Inschriften_, iii. Nos.
+  4562-4573; _British School Annual_, x. 179 foll. Excavations: [Greek:
+  A. Skias, Praktika tes Arch. Hetaireias], 1891, 69 foll.     (M. N. T.)
+
+
+
+
+GYULA-FEHERVAR (Ger. _Karlsburg_), a town of Hungary, in Transylvania,
+in the county of Also-Felier, 73 m. S. of Kolozsvar by rail. Pop. (1900)
+11,507. It is situated on the right bank of the Maros, on the outskirts
+of the Transylvanian Erzgebirge or Ore Mountains, and consists of the
+upper town, or citadel, and the lower town. Gyula-Fehervar is the seat
+of a Roman Catholic bishop, and has a fine Roman Catholic cathedral,
+built in the 11th century in Romanesque style, and rebuilt in 1443 by
+John Hunyady in Gothic style. It contains among other tombs that of John
+Hunyady. Near the cathedral is the episcopal palace, and in the same
+part of the town is the Batthyaneum, founded by Bishop Count Batthyany
+in 1794. It contains a valuable library with many incunabula and old
+manuscripts, amongst which is one of the _Nibelungenlied_, an
+astronomical observatory, a collection of antiquities, and a mineral
+collection. Gyula-Fehervar carries on an active trade in cereals, wine
+and cattle.
+
+Gyula-Fehervar occupies the site of the Roman colony _Apulum_. Many
+Roman relics found here, and in the vicinity, are preserved in the
+museum of the town. The bishopric was founded in the 11th century by
+King Ladislaus I. (1078-1095). In the 16th century, when Transylvania
+separated from Hungary, the town became the residence of the
+Transylvanian princes. From this period dates the castle, and also the
+buildings of the university, founded by Gabriel Bethlen, and now used as
+barracks. After the reversion of Transylvania in 1713 to the Habsburg
+monarchy the actual strong fortress was built in 1716-1735 by the
+emperor Charles VI., whence the German name of the town.
+
+
+
+
+H The eighth symbol in the Phoenician alphabet, as in its descendants,
+has altered less in the course of ages than most alphabetic symbols.
+From the beginning of Phoenician records it has consisted of two
+uprights connected by transverse bars, at first either two or three in
+number. The uprights are rarely perpendicular and the cross bars are not
+so precisely arranged as they are in early Greek and Latin inscriptions.
+In these the symbol takes the form of two rectangles [symbol] out of
+which the ordinary H develops by the omission of the cross bars at top
+and bottom. It is very exceptional for this letter to have more than
+three cross bars, though as many as five are occasionally found in N.W.
+Greece. Within the same inscription the appearance of the letter often
+varies considerably as regards the space between and the length of the
+uprights. When only one bar is found it regularly crosses the uprights
+about the middle. In a few cases the rectangle is closed at top and
+bottom but has no middle cross bar [symbol]. The Phoenician name for the
+letter was Heth (Het). According to Semitic scholars it had two values,
+(1) a glottal spirant, a very strong _h_, (2) an unvoiced velar spirant
+like the German _ch_ in _ach_. The Greeks borrowed it with the value of
+the ordinary aspirate and with the name [Greek: eta]. Very early in
+their history, however, most of the Greeks of Asia Minor lost the
+aspirate altogether, and having then no further use for the symbol with
+this value they adopted it to represent the long _e_-sound, which was
+not originally distinguished by a different symbol from the short sound
+(see E). With this value its name has always been [Greek: eta] in Greek.
+The alphabet of the Asiatic Greeks was gradually adopted elsewhere. In
+official documents at Athens H represented the rough breathing or
+aspirate ' till 403 B.C.; henceforth it was used for [eta]. The Western
+Greeks, however, from whom the Romans obtained their alphabet, retained
+their aspirate longer than those of Asia Minor, and hence the symbol
+came to the Romans with the value not of a long vowel but of the
+aspirate, which it still preserves. The Greek aspirate was itself the
+first or left-hand half of this letter |-, while the smooth breathing '
+was the right-hand portion -|. At Tarentum |- is found for H in
+inscriptions. The Roman aspirate was, however, a very slight sound which
+in some words where it was etymologically correct disappeared at an
+early date. Thus the cognate words of kindred languages show that the
+Lat. _anser_ "goose" ought to begin with _h_, but nowhere is it so
+found. In none of the Romance languages is there any trace of initial or
+medial _h_, which shows that vulgar Latin had ceased to have the
+aspirate by 240 B.C. The Roman grammarians were guided to its presence
+by the Sabine forms where _f_ occurred; as the Sabines said _fasena_
+(sand), it was recognised that the Roman form ought to be _harena_, and
+so for _haedus_ (goat), _hordeum_ (barley), &c. Between vowels _h_ was
+lost very early, for _ne-hemo_ (no man) is throughout the literature
+_nemo_, _bi-himus_ (two winters old) _bimus_. In the Ciceronian age
+greater attention was paid to reproducing the Greek aspirates in
+borrowed words, and this led to absurd mistakes in Latin words, mistakes
+which were satirized by Catullus in his epigram (84) upon Arrius, who
+said _chommoda_ for _commoda_ and _hinsidias_ for _insidias_. In Umbrian
+_h_ was often lost, and also used without etymological value to mark
+length, as in _comohota_ (= Lat. _commota_), a practice to which there
+are some doubtful parallels in Latin.
+
+In English the history of _h_ is very similar to that in Latin. While
+the parts above the glottis are in position to produce a vowel, an
+aspirate is produced without vibration of the vocal chords, sometimes,
+like the pronunciation of Arrius, with considerable effort as a reaction
+against the tendency to "drop the h's." Though _h_ survives in Scotland,
+Ireland and America as well as in the speech of cultivated persons, the
+sound in most of the vulgar dialects is entirely lost. Where it is not
+ordinarily lost, it disappears in unaccented syllables, as "_Give it
+'im_" and the like. Where it is lost, conscious attempts to restore it
+on the part of uneducated speakers lead to absurd misplacements of _h_
+and to its restoration in Romance words when it never was pronounced, as
+_humble_ (now recognized as standard English), _humour_ and even
+_honour_.     (P. Gi.)
+
+
+
+
+HAAG, CARL (1820-   ), a naturalized British painter, court painter to
+the duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, was born in Bavaria, and was trained
+in the academies at Nuremburg and Munich. He practised first as an
+illustrator and as a painter, in oil, of portraits and architectural
+subjects; but after he settled in England, in 1847, he devoted himself
+to water colours, and was elected associate of the Royal Society of
+Painters in Water Colours in 1850 and member in 1853. He travelled much,
+especially in the East, and made a considerable reputation by his firmly
+drawn and carefully elaborated paintings of Eastern subjects. Towards
+the end of his professional career Carl Haag quitted England and
+returned to Germany.
+
+  See _A History of the "Old Water-Colour" Society, now the Royal
+  Society of Painters in Water Colours_, by John Lewis Roget (2 vols.,
+  London, 1891).
+
+
+
+
+HAAKON (Old Norse _Hakon_), the name of several kings of Norway, of whom
+the most important are the following:--
+
+HAAKON I., surnamed "the Good" (d. 961), was the youngest son of Harald
+Haarfager. He was fostered by King Aethelstan of England, who brought
+him up in the Christian religion, and on the news of his father's death
+in 933 provided him with ships and men for an expedition against his
+half-brother Erik, who had been proclaimed king. On his arrival in
+Norway Haakon gained the support of the landowners by promising to give
+up the rights of taxation claimed by his father over inherited real
+property. Erik fled, and was killed a few years later in England. His
+sons allied themselves with the Danes, but were invariably defeated by
+Haakon, who was successful in everything he undertook except in his
+attempt to introduce Christianity, which aroused an opposition he did
+not feel strong enough to face. He was killed at the battle of Fitje in
+961, after a final victory over Erik's sons. So entirely did even his
+immediate circle ignore his religion that a court skald composed a poem
+on his death representing his welcome by the heathen gods into Valhalla.
+
+HAAKON IV., surnamed "the Old" (1204-1263), was declared to be the son
+of Haakon III., who died shortly before the former's birth in 1204. A
+year later the child was placed under the protection of King Inge, after
+whose death in 1217 he was chosen king; though until 1223 the church
+refused to recognize him, on the ground of illegitimacy, and the Pope's
+dispensation for his coronation was not gained until much later. In the
+earlier part of his reign much of the royal power was in the hands of
+Earl Skule, who intrigued against the king until 1239, when he proceeded
+to open hostility and was put to death. From this time onward Haakon's
+reign was marked by more peace and prosperity than Norway had known for
+many years, until in 1263 a dispute with the Scottish king concerning
+the Hebrides, a Norwegian possession, induced Haakon to undertake an
+expedition to the west of Scotland. A division of his army seems to have
+repulsed a large Scottish force at Largs (though the later Scottish
+accounts claim this battle as a victory), and, having won back the
+Norwegian possessions in Scotland, Haakon was wintering in the Orkneys,
+when he was taken ill and died on the 15th of December 1263. A great
+part of his fleet had been scattered and destroyed by storms. The most
+important event in his reign was the voluntary submission of the
+Icelandic commonwealth. Worn out by internal strife fostered by Haakon's
+emissaries, the Icelandic chiefs acknowledged the Norwegian king as
+overlord in 1262. Their example was followed by the colony of Greenland.
+
+HAAKON VII. (1872-   ), the second son of Frederick VIII., king of
+Denmark, was born on the 3rd of August 1872, and was usually known as
+Prince Charles of Denmark. When in 1905 Norway decided to separate
+herself from Sweden the Norwegians offered their crown to Charles, who
+accepted it and took the name of Haakon VII., being crowned at Trondhjem
+in June 1906. The king married Maud, youngest daughter of Edward VII.,
+king of Great Britain, their son, Prince Olav, being born in 1903.
+
+
+
+
+HAARLEM, a town of Holland in the province of North Holland, on the
+Spaarne, having a junction station 11 m. by rail W. of Amsterdam. It is
+connected by electric and steam tramways with Zandvoort, Leiden,
+Amsterdam and Alkmaar. Pop. (1900) 65,189. Haarlem is the seat of the
+governor of the province of North Holland, and of a Roman Catholic and a
+Jansenist bishopric. In appearance it is a typical Dutch town, with
+numerous narrow canals and quaintly gabled houses. Of the ancient city
+gates the Spaarnewouder or Amsterdam gate alone remains. Gardens and
+promenades have taken the place of the old ramparts, and on the south
+the city is bounded by the Frederiks and the Flora parks, between which
+runs the fine avenue called the Dreef, leading to the Haarlemmer Hout or
+wood. In the Frederiks Park is a pump-room supplied with a powerful
+chalybeate water from a spring, the Wilhelminabron, in the Haarlemmer
+Polder not far distant, and in connexion with this there is an
+orthopaedic institution adjoining. In the great market place in the
+centre of the city are gathered together the larger number of the most
+interesting buildings, including the quaint old Fleshers' Hall, built by
+Lieven de Key in 1603, and now containing the archives; the town hall;
+the old Stadsdoelen, where the burgesses met in arms; the Groote Kerk,
+or Great Church; and the statue erected in 1856 to Laurenz Janszoon
+Koster, the printer. The Great Church, dedicated to St Bavo, with a
+lofty tower (255 ft.), is one of the most famous in Holland, and dates
+from the end of the 15th and the beginning of the 16th centuries. Its
+great length (460 ft.) and the height and steepness of its vaulted
+cedar-wood roof (1538) are very impressive. The choir-stalls and screen
+(1510) are finely carved, and of further interest are the ancient pulpit
+sounding-board (1432), some old stained glass, and the small models of
+ships, copies dating from 1638 of yet earlier models originally
+presented by the Dutch-Swedish Trading Company. The church organ was
+long considered the largest and finest in existence. It was constructed
+by Christian Muller in 1738, and has 4 keyboards, 64 registers and 5000
+pipes, the largest of which is 15 in. in diameter and 32 ft. long. Among
+the monuments in the church are those of the poet Willem Bilderdyk (d.
+1831) and the engineer Frederik Willem Conrad (d. 1808), who designed
+the sea-sluices at Katwyk. In the belfry are the _damiaatjes_, small
+bells presented to the town, according to tradition, by William I.,
+count of Holland (d. 1222), the crusader. The town hall was originally a
+palace of the counts of Holland, begun in the 12th century, and some old
+13th-century beams still remain; but the building was remodelled in the
+beginning of the 17th century. It contains a collection of antiquities
+(including some beautiful goblets) and a picture gallery which, though
+small, is celebrated for its fine collection of paintings by Frans Hals.
+The town library contains several _incunabula_ and an interesting
+collection of early Dutch literature. At the head of the scientific
+institutions of Haarlem may be placed the Dutch Society of Sciences
+(_Hollandsche Maatschappij van Wetenschappen_), founded in 1752, which
+possesses valuable collections in botany, natural history and geology.
+Teyler's Stichting (i.e. foundation), enlarged in modern times, was
+instituted by the will of Pieter Teyler van der Hulst (d. 1778), a
+wealthy merchant, for the study of theology, natural science and art,
+and has lecture-theatres, a large library, and a museum containing a
+physical and a geological cabinet, as well as a collection of paintings,
+including many modern pictures, and a valuable collection of drawings
+and engravings by old masters. The Dutch Society for the Promotion of
+Industry (_Nederlaandsche Maatschappij ter Bevordering van Nijverheid_),
+founded in 1777, has its seat in the Pavilion Welgelegen, a villa on the
+south side of the Frederiks Park, built by the Amsterdam banker John
+Hope in 1778, and afterwards acquired by Louis Bonaparte, king of
+Holland. The colonial museum and the museum of industrial art were
+established in this villa by the society in 1871 and 1877 respectively.
+Besides these there are a museum of ecclesiastical antiquities, chiefly
+relating to the bishopric of Haarlem; the old weigh-house (1598) and the
+orphanage for girls (1608), originally an almshouse for old men, both
+built by the architect Lieven de Key of Ghent.
+
+The staple industries of Haarlem have been greatly modified in the
+course of time. Cloth weaving and brewing, which once flourished
+exceedingly, declined in the beginning of the 16th century. A century
+later, silk, lace and damask weaving were introduced by French refugees,
+and became very important industries. But about the close of the 18th
+century this remarkable prosperity had also come to an end, and it was
+not till after the Belgian revolution of 1830-1831 that Haarlem began to
+develop the manufactures in which it is now chiefly engaged. Cotton
+manufacture, dyeing, printing, bleaching, brewing, type-founding, and
+the manufacture of tram and railway carriages are among the more
+important of its industries. One of the printing establishments has the
+reputation of being the oldest in the Netherlands, and publishes the
+oldest Dutch paper, _De Opragte Haarlemmer Courant_. Market-gardening,
+especially horticulture, is extensively practised in the vicinity, so
+that Haarlem is the seat of a large trade in Dutch bulbs, especially
+hyacinths, tulips, fritillaries, spiraeas and japonicas.
+
+Haarlem, which was a prosperous place in the middle of the 12th century,
+received its first town charter from William II., count of Holland and
+king of the Romans, in 1245. It played a considerable part in the wars
+of Holland with the Frisians. In 1492 it was captured by the insurgent
+peasants of North Holland, was re-taken by the duke of Saxony, the
+imperial stadholder, and deprived of its privileges. In 1572 Haarlem
+joined the revolt of the Netherlands against Spain, but on the 13th of
+July 1573, after a seven months' siege, was forced to surrender to
+Alva's son Frederick, who exacted terrible vengeance. In 1577 it was
+again captured by William of Orange and permanently incorporated in the
+United Netherlands.
+
+  See Karl Hegel, _Stadte und Gilden_ (Leipzig, 1891); Allan,
+  _Geschiedenis en beschrijving van Haarlem_ (Haarlem, 1871-1888).
+
+
+
+
+HAARLEM LAKE (Dutch _Harlemmer Meer_), a commune of the province of
+North Holland, constituted by the law of the 16th of July 1855. It has
+an area of about 46,000 acres, and its population increased from 7237 in
+1860 to 16,621 in 1900. As its name indicates, the commune was formerly
+a lake, which is said to have been a relic of a northern arm of the
+Rhine which passed through the district in the time of the Romans. In
+1531 the Haarlemmer Meer had an area of 6430 acres, and in its vicinity
+were three smaller sheets of water--the Leidsche Meer or Leiden Lake,
+the Spiering Meer, and the Oude Meer or Old Lake, with a united area of
+about 7600 acres. The four lakes were formed into one by successive
+inundations, whole villages disappearing in the process, and by 1647 the
+new Haarlem Lake had an area of about 37,000 acres, which a century
+later had increased to over 42,000 acres. As early as 1643 Jan
+Adriaanszoon Leeghwater proposed to endike and drain the lake; and
+similar schemes, among which those of Nikolaas Samuel Cruquius in 1742
+and of Baron van Lijnden van Hemmen in 1820 are worthy of special
+mention, were brought forward from time to time. But it was not till a
+furious hurricane in November 1836 drove the waters as far as the gates
+of Amsterdam, and another on Christmas Day sent them in the opposite
+direction to submerge the streets of Leiden, that the mind of the nation
+was seriously turned to the matter. In August 1837 the king appointed a
+royal commission of inquiry; the scheme proposed by the commission
+received the sanction of the Second Chamber in March 1839, and in the
+following May the work was begun. A canal was first dug round the lake
+for the reception of the water and the accommodation of the great
+traffic which had previously been carried on. This canal was 38 m. in
+length, 123-146 ft. wide, and 8 ft. deep, and the earth which was taken
+out of it was used to build a dike from 30 to 54 yds. broad containing
+the lake. The area enclosed by the canal was rather more than 70 sq. m.,
+and the average depth of the lake 13 ft. 1-1/2 in., and as the water had
+no natural outfall it was calculated that probably 1000 million tons
+would have to be raised by mechanical means. This amount was 200
+million tons in excess of that actually discharged. Pumping by
+steam-engines began in 1848, and the lake was dry by the 1st of July
+1852. At the first sale of the highest lands along the banks on the 16th
+of August 1853, about L28 per acre was paid; but the average price
+afterwards was less. The whole area of 42,096 acres recovered from the
+waters brought in 9,400,000 florins, or about L780,000, exactly covering
+the cost of the enterprise; so that the actual cost to the nation was
+only the amount of the interest on the capital, or about L368,000. The
+soil is of various kinds, loam, clay, sand and peat; most of it is
+sufficiently fertile, though in the lower portions there are barren
+patches where the scanty vegetation is covered with an ochreous deposit.
+Mineral springs occur containing a very high percentage (3.245 grams per
+litre) of common salt; and in 1893 a company was formed for working
+them. Corn, seeds, cattle, butter and cheese are the principal produce.
+The roads which traverse the commune are bordered by pleasant-looking
+farm-houses built after the various styles of Holland, Friesland or
+Brabant. Hoofddorp, Venneperdorp or Nieuw Vennep, Abbenes and the
+vicinities of the pumping-stations are the spots where the population
+has clustered most thickly. The first church was built in 1855; in 1877
+there were seven. In 1854 the city of Leiden laid claim to the
+possession of the new territory, but the courts decided in favour of the
+nation.
+
+
+
+
+HAASE, FRIEDRICH (1827-   ), German actor, was born on the 1st of
+November 1827, in Berlin, the son of a valet to King Frederick William
+IV., who became his godfather. He was educated for the stage under
+Ludwig Tieck and made his first appearance in 1846 in Weimar, afterwards
+acting at Prague (1849-1851) and Karlsruhe (1852-1855). From 1860 to
+1866 he played in St Petersburg, then was manager of the court theatre
+in Coburg, and in 1869 (and again in 1882-1883) visited the United
+States. He was manager of the Stadt Theater in Leipzig from 1870 to
+1876, when he removed to Berlin, where he devoted his energies to the
+foundation and management of the Deutsches Theater. He finally retired
+from the stage in 1898. Haase's aristocratic appearance and elegant
+manner fitted him specially to play high comedy parts. His chief roles
+were those of Rocheferrier in the _Partie Piquet_; Richelieu; Savigny in
+_Der feiner Diplomat_, and der Furst in _Der geheime Agent_. He is the
+author of _Ungeschminkte Briefe and Was ich erlebte 1846-1898_ (Berlin,
+1898).
+
+  See Simon, _Friedrich Haase_ (Berlin, 1898).
+
+
+
+
+HAASE, FRIEDRICH GOTTLOB (1808-1867), German classical scholar, was born
+at Magdeburg on the 4th of January 1808. Having studied at Halle,
+Greifswald and Berlin, he obtained in 1834 an appointment at
+Schulpforta, from which he was suspended and sentenced to six years'
+imprisonment for identifying himself with the _Burschenschaften_
+(students' associations). Having been released after serving one year of
+his sentence, he visited Paris, and on his return in 1840 he was
+appointed professor at Breslau, where he remained till his death on the
+16th of August 1867. He was undoubtedly one of the most successful
+teachers of his day in Germany, and exercised great influence upon all
+his pupils.
+
+  He edited several classic authors: Xenophon ([Greek: Lakedaimonion
+  politeia], 1833); Thucydides (1840); Velleius Paterculus (1858);
+  Seneca the philosopher (2nd ed., 1872, not yet superseded); and
+  Tacitus (1855), the introduction to which is a masterpiece of
+  Latinity. His _Vorlesungen uber lateinische Sprachwissenschaft_ was
+  published after his death by F. A. Eckstein and H. Peter (1874-1880).
+  See C Bursian, _Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in Deutschland_
+  (1883); G. Fickert, _Friderici Haasii memoria_ (1868), with a list of
+  works; T. Oelsner in _Rubezahl (Schlesische Provinzialblatter)_, vii.
+  Heft 3 (Breslau, 1868).
+
+
+
+
+HAAST, SIR JOHANN FRANZ JULIUS VON (1824-1887), German and British
+geologist, was born at Bonn on the 1st of May 1824. He received his
+early education partly in that town and partly in Cologne, and then
+entered the university at Bonn, where he made a special study of geology
+and mineralogy. In 1858 he started for New Zealand to report on the
+suitability of the colony for German emigrants. He then became
+acquainted with Dr von Hochstetter, and rendered assistance to him in
+the preliminary geological survey which von Hochstetter had undertaken.
+Afterwards Dr Haast accepted offers from the governments of Nelson and
+Canterbury to investigate the geology of those districts, and the
+results of his detailed labours greatly enriched our knowledge with
+regard to the rocky structure, the glacial phenomena and the economic
+products. He discovered gold and coal in Nelson, and he carried on
+important researches with reference to the occurrence of _Dinornis_ and
+other extinct wingless birds (Moas). His _Geology of the Provinces of
+Canterbury and Westland, N.Z._, was published in 1879. He was the
+founder of the Canterbury museum at Christchurch, of which he became
+director, and which he endeavoured to render the finest collection in
+the southern hemisphere. He was surveyor-general of Canterbury from 1861
+to 1871, and professor of geology at Canterbury College. He was elected
+F.R.S. in 1867; and he was knighted for his services at the time of the
+colonial exhibition in London in 1887. He died at Wellington, N.Z., on
+the 15th of August 1887.
+
+
+
+
+HABABS (AZ-HIBBEHS), a nomadic pastoral people of Hamitic stock, living
+in the coast region north-west of Massawa. Physically they are Beja, by
+language and traditions Abyssinians. They were Christians until the 19th
+century, but are now Mahommedans. Their sole wealth consists in cattle.
+
+
+
+
+HABAKKUK, the name borne by the eighth book of the Old Testament "Minor
+Prophets." It occurs twice in the book itself (i. 1, iii. 1) in titles,
+but nowhere else in the Old Testament. The meaning of the name is
+uncertain. If Hebrew, it might be derived from the root [Hebrew: habak]
+(to embrace) as an intensive term of affection. It has also been
+connected more plausibly with an Assyrian plant name, _[h)]ambakuku_
+(Delitzsch, _Assyrisches Handworterbuch_, p. 281). The Septuagint has
+[Greek: Ambakoum]. Of the person designated, no more is known than may
+be inferred from the writing which bears his name. Various legends are
+connected with him, of which the best known is given in the Apocryphal
+story of "Bel and the Dragon" (v. 33-39); but none of these has any
+historic value.[1]
+
+The book itself falls into three obvious parts, viz. (1) a dialogue
+between the prophet and God (i. 2-ii. 4); (2) a series of five woes
+pronounced on wickedness (ii. 5-ii. 20); (3) a poem describing the
+triumphant manifestation of God (iii.). There is considerable difficulty
+in regard to the interpretation of (1), on which that of (2) will turn;
+while (3) forms an independent section, to be considered separately.
+
+In the dialogue, the prophet cries to God against continued violence and
+injustice, though it is not clear whether this is done _within_ or _to_
+Israel (i. 2-4). The divine answer declares that God raises up the
+Chaldaeans, whose formidable resources are invincible (i. 5-11). The
+prophet thereupon calls God's attention to the tyranny which He
+apparently allows to triumph, and declares his purpose to wait till an
+answer is given to his complaint (i. 12-ii. 2). God answers by demanding
+patience, and by declaring that the righteous shall live by his
+faithfulness (ii. 3-4).
+
+The interpretation of this dialogue which first suggests itself is that
+the prophet is referring to wickedness _within_ the nation, which is to
+be punished by the Chaldaeans as a divine instrument; in the process,
+the tyranny of the instrument itself calls for punishment, which the
+prophet is bidden to await in patient fidelity. On this view of the
+dialogue, the subsequent woes will be pronounced against the Chaldaeans,
+and the date assigned to the prophecy will be about 600 B.C., i.e. soon
+after the battle of Carchemish (605 B.C.), when the Chaldaean victory
+over Egypt inaugurated a period of Chaldaean supremacy which lasted till
+the Chaldaeans themselves were overthrown by Cyrus in 538 B.C. Grave
+objections, however, confront this interpretation, as is admitted even
+by such recent defenders of it as Davidson and Driver. Is it likely that
+a prophet would begin a complaint against Chaldaean tyranny (admittedly
+central in the prophecy) by complaining of that wickedness of his
+fellow-countrymen which seems partly to justify it? Are not the terms of
+reference in i. 2 f. and 1. 12 f. too similar for the supposition that
+two distinct, even contradictory, complaints are being made (cf.
+"wicked" and "righteous" in i. 4 and i. 13, interchanged in regard to
+Israel, on above theory)? And if i. 5-11 is a genuine _prophecy_ of the
+raising up of the Chaldaeans, whence comes that long experience of their
+rule required to explain the _detailed_ denunciation of their tyranny?
+To meet the last objection, Davidson supposes i. 5-11 to be really a
+reference to the past, prophetic in form only, and brings down the whole
+section to a later period of Chaldaean rule, "hardly, one would think,
+before the deportation of the people under Jehoiachin in 597" (p. 49).
+Driver prefers to bisect the dialogue by supposing i. 2-11 to be written
+at an earlier period than i. 12 f. (p. 57). The other objections,
+however, remain, and have provoked a variety of theories from Old
+Testament scholars, of which three call for special notice. (1) The
+first of these, represented by Giesebrecht,[2] Nowack and Wellhausen,
+refers i. 2-4 to Chaldaean oppression of Israel, the same subject being
+continued in i. 12 f. Obviously, the reference to the Chaldaeans as a
+divine instrument could not then stand in its present place, and it is
+accordingly regarded as a misplaced earlier prophecy. This is the
+minimum of critical procedure required to do justice to the facts. (2)
+Budde, followed by Cornill, also regards i. 2-4 as referring to the
+oppression of Israel by a foreign tyrant, whom, however, he holds to be
+Assyria. He also removes i. 5-11 from its present place, but makes it
+part of the divine answer, following ii. 4. On this view, the Chaldaeans
+are the divine instrument for punishing the tyranny of the Assyrians, to
+whom the following woes will therefore refer. The date would fall
+between Josiah's reformation (621) and his death (609). This is a
+plausible and even attractive theory; its weakness seems to lie in the
+absence of any positive evidence in the prophecy itself, as is
+illustrated by the fact that even G. A. Smith, who follows it, suggests
+"Egypt from 608-605" as an alternative to Assyria (p. 124). (3) Marti
+(1904) abandons the attempt to explain the prophecy as a unity, and
+analyses it into three elements, viz. (a) The original prophecy by
+Habakkuk, consisting of i. 5-10, 14 f., belonging to the year 605, and
+representing the emergent power of the Chaldaeans as a divine scourge of
+the faithless people; (b) Woes against the Chaldaeans, presupposing not
+only tyrannous rule over many peoples, but the beginning of their
+decline and fall, and therefore of date about 540 B.C. (ii. 5-19); (c) A
+psalm of post-exilic origin, whose fragments, i. 2-4, 12 a, 13, ii. 1-4,
+have been incorporated into the present text from the margins on which
+they were written, its subject being the suffering of the righteous.
+Each of these three theories[3] encounters difficulties of detail; none
+can be said to have secured a dominant position. The great variety of
+views amongst competent critics is significant of the difficulty of the
+problem, which can hardly be regarded as yet solved; this divergence of
+opinion perhaps points to the impossibility of maintaining the unity of
+chs. i. and ii., and throws the balance of probability towards some such
+analysis as that of Marti, which is therefore accepted in the present
+article.
+
+In regard to the poem which forms the third and closing chapter of the
+present book of Habakkuk, there is much more general agreement. Its most
+striking characteristic lies in the superscription ("A prayer of
+Habakkuk the prophet, set to Shigionoth"), the subscription ("For the
+chief musician, on my stringed instruments"), and the insertion of the
+musical term "Selah" in three places (v. 3, 9, 13). These liturgical
+notes make extremely probable the supposition that the poem has been
+taken from some collection like that of our present book of Psalms,
+probably on the ground of the authorship asserted by the superscription
+there attached to it. It cannot, however, be said that the poem itself
+supports this assertion, which carries no more intrinsic weight than
+the Davidic titles of the Psalms. The poem begins with a prayer that God
+will renew the historic manifestation of the exodus, which inaugurated
+the national history and faith; a thunderstorm moving up from the south
+is then described, in which God is revealed (3-7); it is asked whether
+this manifestation, whose course is further described, is against nature
+only (8-11); the answer is given that it is for the salvation of Israel
+against its wicked foes (12-15); the poet describes the effect in terror
+upon himself (16) and declares his confidence in God, even in utter
+agricultural adversity (17-19). As Wellhausen says (p. 171): "The poet
+appears to believe that in the very act of describing enthusiastically
+the ancient deed of deliverance, he brings home to us the new; we are
+left sometimes in doubt whether he speaks of the past to suggest the new
+by analogy, or whether he is concerned directly with the future, and
+simply paints it with the colours of the past." In any case, there is
+nothing in this fine poem to connect it with the conception of the
+Chaldaeans as a divine instrument. It is the nation that speaks through
+the poet (cf. v. 14), but at what period of its post-exilic history we
+have no means of inferring.
+
+Our estimate of the theological teaching of this book will naturally be
+influenced by the particular critical theory which is adopted. The
+reduction of the book to four originally independent sections requires
+that the point of each be stated separately. When this is done, it will,
+however, be found that there is a broad unity of subject, and of natural
+development in its treatment, such as to some extent justifies the
+instinct or the judgment of those who were instrumental in effecting the
+combination of the separate parts. (1) The poem (iii.), though possibly
+latest in date,[4] claims first consideration, because it avowedly moves
+in the circle of primitive ideas, and supplicates a divine intervention,
+a direct and immediate manifestation of the transcendent God. He is
+conceived as controlling or overcoming the forces of nature; and though
+an earlier mythology has supplied some of the ideas, yet, as with the
+opening chapters of Genesis, they are transfigured by the moral purpose
+which animates them, the purpose to subdue all things that could
+frustrate the destiny of God's anointed (v. 13). The closing verses
+strike that deep note of absolute dependence on God, which is the glory
+of the religion of the Old Testament and its chief contribution to the
+spirit of the Gospels. (2) The prophecy of the Chaldaeans as the
+instruments of the divine purpose involves a different, yet related,
+conception of the divine providence. The philosophy of history, by which
+Hebrew prophets could read a deep moral significance into national
+disaster and turn the flank of resistless attack, became one of the most
+important elements in the nation's faith. If the world-powers were hard
+as flint in their dealings with Israel, the people of God were steeled
+to such moral endurance that each clash of their successive onsets
+kindled some new flame of devotion. Through the Chaldaeans God worked a
+work which required centuries of life and literature to disclose its
+fulness (i. 5). (3) When we turn from this view of the Chaldaeans to the
+denunciation of their tyranny in "taunt songs" (ii. 5-20), we have
+simply a practical application of the doctrine of divine government. God
+being what He is, at once moral and all-powerful, the immoral life is
+doomed to overthrow, whether the immorality consist in grasping
+rapacity, proud self-aggrandizement, cruel exaction, exulting triumph or
+senseless idolatry. (4) Yet, because the doom so often tarries, there
+arises the problem of the suffering of the innocent and the upright. How
+can God look down with tolerance that seems favour on so much that
+conflicts with His declared will and character? This is the great
+problem of Israel, finding its supreme expression for all time in the
+book of Job (q.v.). In that book the solution of the problem of innocent
+suffering lies hidden from the sufferer, even to the end, for he is not
+admitted with the reader to the secret of the prologue; it is the
+practical solution of faithfulness resting on faith which is offered to
+us. So here, with the principle of ii. 4, "the righteous shall live by
+his faithfulness." The different application of these words in the New
+Testament to "faith" is well known (Rom. i. 17; Gal. iii. 11; Heb. x.
+38) though the difference is apt to be exaggerated by those who forget
+how much of the element of [Hebrew: emuna]: lies in Paul's conception of
+[Greek: pistis]. In G. A. Smith's words, "as Paul's adaptation, 'the
+just shall live by faith,' has become the motto of evangelical
+Christianity, so we may say that Habakkuk's original of it has been the
+motto and the fame of Judaism: 'the righteous shall live by his
+faithfulness.'"
+
+  The Hebrew text of this impressive and varied book is unfortunately
+  corrupt in many places; even so cautious a critic as Driver accepts or
+  favourably notices eighteen textual emendations in the three chapters,
+  and suspects the text in at least seven other cases. For the
+  interpretation of the book in detail, the English reader will find
+  Driver's commentary (1906) the most useful.
+
+  References to earlier literature will be found in the following
+  noteworthy studies of recent date: Davidson, "Nahum, Habakkuk and
+  Zephaniah," in _Cambridge Bible_ (1896); Nowack, _Die kleinen
+  Propheten_ (Hdkr.) (1897); Wellhausen, _Die kleinen Propheten_^3
+  (1898); G. A. Smith, "The Book of the Twelve Prophets," in _The
+  Expositor's Bible_, vol. ii. (1898); Driver, article "Habakkuk" in
+  Hastings' _Dictionary of the Bible_, vol. ii. pp. 269-272 (1900);
+  Budde, article "Habakkuk" in _Ency. Biblica_, vol. ii., c. 1921-1928
+  (1901); Stevenson, "The Interpretation of Habakkuk," in _The
+  Expositor_ (1902), pp. 388-401; Peake, _The Problem of Suffering in
+  the Old Testament_ (1904), pp. 4-11 and app. A, "Recent Criticism of
+  Habakkuk"; Marti, _Dodekapropheton_ (K. H. C.) (1904); Driver, "Minor
+  Prophets," vol. ii., in _Century Bible_ (1906); Duhm, _Das Buch
+  Habakkuk_ (Text, Ubersetzung und Efklarung), 1906 (regards the book as
+  a unity belonging to the time of Alexander the Great). Max L. Margolis
+  discusses the anonymous Greek version of Habakkuk iii. in a volume of
+  _Old Test. and Semitic Studies: in Memory of William Rainey Harper_
+  (Chicago, 1908).     (H. W. R.*)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] These legends are collected in Hastings, D. B. vol. ii. p. 272.
+    He is the watchman of Is. xxi. 6 (cf. Hab. ii. 1); the son of the
+    Shunammite (2 Kings iv. 16); and is miraculously lifted by his hair
+    to carry his own dinner to Daniel in the lions' den (_supra_).
+
+  [2] Followed by Peake in _The Problem of Suffering_, pp. 4 f., 151
+    f., to whose appendix (A) reference may be made for further details
+    of recent criticism.
+
+  [3] For the less probable theories of Rothstein, Lauterburg, Happel
+    and Peiser (amongst others), cf. Marti's _Commentary_, pp. 328 f. and
+    332. Stevenson (_The Expositor_, 1902) states clearly the
+    difficulties for those who regard ch. i. as a unity. He sees two
+    independent sections, 2-4 + 12-13, and 5-11 + 14-17.
+
+  [4] Earlier, however, than Ps. lxxvii. 17-20, which is drawn from it.
+
+
+
+
+HABDALA (lit. "separation"), a Hebrew term chiefly appropriated to
+ceremonies at the conclusion of Sabbath and festivals, marking the
+separation between times sacred and secular. On the Saturday night the
+ceremony consists of three items: (a) benediction over a cup of wine
+(common to many other Jewish functions); (b) benediction over a lighted
+taper, of which possibly the origin is utilitarian, as no light might be
+kindled on the Sabbath day, but the rite may be symbolical; and (c)
+benediction over a box of sweet-smelling spices. The origin of the
+latter has been traced to the bowl of burning spice which in Talmudic
+times was introduced after each meal. But here too symbolic ideas must
+be taken into account. Both the light and the spices would readily fit
+into the conception of the Sabbath "Over-soul" of the mystics. (I. A.)
+
+
+
+
+HABEAS CORPUS, in English law, a writ issued out of the High Court of
+Justice commanding the person to whom it is directed to bring the body
+of a person in his custody before that or some other court for a
+specified purpose.
+
+There are various forms of the writ, of which the most famous is that
+known as _habeas corpus ad subjiciendum_, the well-established remedy
+for violation of personal liberty. From the earliest records of the
+English law no free man could be detained in custody except on a
+criminal charge or conviction or for a civil debt. That right is
+expressed in the Great Charter in the words: "_Nullus liber homo
+capiatur vel imprisonetur aut dissaisietur aut utlagetur, aut exuletur
+aut aliquo modo destruatur nec super eum ibimus nec super eum mittemus,
+nisi per legale judicium parium suorum, vel per legem terrae._"[1] The
+writ is a remedial mandatory writ of right existing by the common law,
+i.e. it is one of the extraordinary remedies--such as _mandamus_,
+_certiorari_ and prohibitions, which the superior courts may grant.
+While "of right," it is not "of course," and is granted only on
+application to the High Court or a judge thereof, supported by a sworn
+statement of facts setting up at least a probable case of illegal
+confinement. It is addressed to the person in whose custody another is
+detained, and commands him to bring his prisoner before the court
+immediately after the receipt of the writ, together with the day and
+cause of his being taken and detained, to undergo and receive (_ad
+subjiciendum et recipiendum_) whatsoever the court awarding the writ
+"may consider of concerning him in that behalf."
+
+It is often stated that the writ is founded on the article of the Great
+Charter already quoted; but there are extant instances of the issue of
+writs of _habeas corpus_ before the charter. Other writs having somewhat
+similar effect were in use at an early date, e.g. the writ _de odio et
+atia_, used as early as the 12th century to prevent imprisonment on
+vexatious appeals of felony, and the writ of mainprise (_de
+manucaptione_), long obsolete if not abolished in England but which it
+was attempted to use in India so late as 1870. In the ease of
+imprisonment on accusation of crime the writ issued from the court of
+king's bench (or from the chancery), and on its return the court judged
+of the legality of the imprisonment, and discharged the prisoner or
+admitted him to bail or remanded him to his former custody according to
+the result of the examination.
+
+By the time of Charles I. the writ was fully established as the
+appropriate process for checking illegal imprisonment by inferior courts
+or by public officials. But it acquired its full and present
+constitutional importance by legislation.
+
+In Darnel's case (1627) the judges held that the command of the king was
+a sufficient answer to a writ of _habeas corpus_. The House of Commons
+thereupon passed resolutions to the contrary, and after a conference
+with the House of Lords the measure known as the Petition of Right was
+passed (1627, 3 Car. I. c. i.) which, inter alia, recited (s. 5) that,
+contrary to the Great Charter and the good laws and statutes of the
+realm, divers of the king's subjects had of late been imprisoned without
+any cause shown, and when they were brought up on _habeas corpus ad
+subjiciendum_, and no cause was shown other than the special command of
+the king signified by the privy council, were nevertheless remanded to
+prison, and enacted "that no freeman in any such manner as is before
+mentioned be imprisoned or detained." The Petition of Right was
+disregarded in Selden's case (1629), when it was successfully returned
+to a _habeas corpus_ that Selden and others were committed by the king's
+special command "for notable contempts against the king and his
+government and for stirring up sedition against him."[2] This led to
+legislation in 1640 by which, after abolishing the Star Chamber, the
+right to a _habeas corpus_ was given to test the legality of commitments
+by command or warrant of the king or the privy council.[3]
+
+The reign of Charles II. was marked by further progress towards securing
+the freedom of the subject from wrongful imprisonment. Lord Clarendon
+was impeached, _inter alia_, for causing many persons to be imprisoned
+against law and to be conveyed in custody to places outside England. In
+1668 a writ of _habeas corpus_ was issued to test the legality of an
+imprisonment in Jersey. Though the authority of the courts had been
+strengthened by the Petition of Right and the act of 1640, it was still
+rendered insufficient by reason of the insecurity of judicial tenure,
+the fact that only the chancellor (a political as well as a legal
+officer) and the court of king's bench had undoubted right to issue the
+writ, and the inability or hesitation of the competent judges to issue
+the writ except during the legal term, which did not cover more than
+half the year. A series of bills was passed through the Commons between
+1668 and 1675, only to be rejected by the other House. In Jenkes's case
+(1676) Lord Chancellor Nottingham refused to issue the writ in vacation
+in a case in which a man had been committed by the king in council for a
+speech at Guildhall, and could get neither bail nor trial. In 1679, but
+rather in consequence of Lord Clarendon's arbitrary proceedings[4] than
+of Jenkes's case, a fresh bill was introduced which passed both Houses
+(it is said the upper House by the counting of one stout peer as ten)
+and became the famous Habeas Corpus Act of 1679 (31 Car. II. c. 2). The
+passing of the act was largely due to the experience and energy of Lord
+Shaftesbury, after whom it was for some time called. The act, while a
+most important landmark in the constitutional history of England, in no
+sense creates any right to personal freedom, but is essentially a
+procedure act for improving the legal mechanism by means of which that
+acknowledged right may be enforced.[5] It declares no principles and
+defines no rights, but is for practical purposes worth a hundred
+articles guaranteeing constitutional liberty.[6]
+
+In the manner characteristic of English legislation the act is limited
+to the particular grievances immediately in view and is limited to
+imprisonment for criminal or supposed criminal matters, leaving
+untouched imprisonment on civil process or by private persons. It
+recites that great delays have been used by sheriffs and gaolers in
+making returns of writs of _habeas corpus_ directed to them; and for the
+prevention thereof, and the more speedy relief of all persons imprisoned
+for criminal or supposed criminal matters, it enacts in substance as
+follows: (1) When a writ of _habeas corpus_ is directed to a sheriff or
+other person in charge of a prisoner, he must within 3, 10 or 20 days,
+according to the distance of the place of commitment, bring the body of
+his prisoner to the court, with the true cause of his detainer or
+imprisonment--unless the commitment was for treason or felony plainly
+expressed in the warrant of commitment. (2) If any person be committed
+for any crime--unless for treason or felony plainly expressed in the
+warrant--it shall be lawful for such person or persons (other than
+persons convicted or in execution by legal process) _in time of
+vacation_, to appeal to the lord chancellor as a judge, who shall issue
+a _habeas corpus_ returnable immediately, and on the return thereof
+shall discharge the prisoner on giving security for his appearance
+before the proper court--unless the party so committed is detained upon
+a legal process or under a justice's warrant for a non-bailable offence.
+Persons neglecting for two terms to pray for a _habeas corpus_ shall
+have none in vacation. (3) Persons set at large on _habeas corpus_ shall
+not be recommitted for the same offence unless by the legal order and
+process of the court having cognizance of the case. (4) A person
+committed to prison for treason or felony shall, if he requires it, in
+the first week of the next term or the first day of the next session of
+oyer and terminer, be indicted in that term or session or else admitted
+to bail, unless it appears on affidavit that the witnesses for the crown
+are not ready; and if he is not indicted and tried in the second term or
+session after commitment, or if after trial he is acquitted, he shall be
+discharged from imprisonment. (5) No inhabitant of England (except
+persons contracting, or, after conviction for felony, electing to be
+transported) shall be sent prisoner to Scotland, Ireland, Jersey, &c.,
+or any place beyond the seas. Stringent penalties are provided for
+offences against the act. A judge delaying _habeas corpus_ forfeits L500
+to the party aggrieved. Illegal imprisonment beyond seas renders the
+offender liable in an action by the injured party to treble costs and
+damages to the extent of not less than L500, besides subjecting him to
+the penalties of _praemunire_ and to other disabilities. "The great rank
+of those who were likely to offend against this part of the statute
+was," says Hallam, "the cause of this unusual severity." Indeed as early
+as 1591 the judges had complained of the difficulty of enforcing the
+writ in the case of imprisonment at the instance of magnates of the
+realm. The effect of the act was to impose upon the judges under severe
+sanction the duty of protecting personal liberty in the case of criminal
+charges and of securing speedy trial upon such charges when legally
+framed; and the improvement of their tenure of office at the revolution,
+coupled with the veto put by the Bill of Rights on excessive bail, gave
+the judicature the independence and authority necessary to enable them
+to keep the executive within the law and to restrain administrative
+development of the scope or penalties of the criminal law; and this
+power of the judiciary to control the executive, coupled with the
+limitations on the right to set up "act of state" as an excuse for
+infringing individual liberty is the special characteristic of English
+constitutional law.
+
+It is to be observed that neither at common law nor under the act of
+1679 was the writ the appropriate remedy in the case of a person
+convicted either on indictment or summarily. It properly applied to
+persons detained before or without trial or sentence; and for convicted
+persons the proper remedy was by writs of error or _certiorari_ to
+which a writ of _habeas corpus_ might be used as ancillary.
+
+As regards persons imprisoned for debt or on civil process the writ was
+available at common law to test the legality of the detention: but the
+practice in these cases is unaffected by the act of 1679, and is of no
+present interest, since imprisonment on civil process is almost
+abolished. As regards persons in private custody, e.g. persons not _sui
+juris_ detained by those not entitled to their guardianship or lunatics,
+or persons kidnapped, _habeas corpus ad subjiciendum_ seems not to have
+been the ordinary common law remedy. The appropriate writ for such cases
+was that known as _de homine replegiando_. The use of this writ in most
+if not all criminal cases was forbidden in 1553; but it was used in the
+17th century in a case of kidnapping (Designy's case, 1682), and against
+Lord Grey for abducting his wife's sister (1682), and in the earl of
+Banbury's case to recover his wife (1704). The latest recorded instance
+of its use is Trebilcock's case (1736), in which a ward sought to free
+himself from the custody of his guardian.
+
+Since that date the _habeas corpus ad subjiciendum_ has been used in
+cases of illegal detention in private custody. In 1758 questions arose
+as to its application to persons in naval or military custody, including
+pressed men, which led to the introduction of a bill in parliament and
+to the consultation by the House of Lords of the judges (see Wilmot's
+_Opinions_, p. 77). In the same year the writ was used to release the
+wife of Earl Ferrers from his custody and maltreatment, and was
+unsuccessfully applied for by John Wilkes to get back his wife, who was
+separated from him by mutual agreement. But perhaps the most interesting
+instances of that period are the case of the negro Somerset (1771), who
+was released from a claim to hold him as a slave in England: and that of
+the Hottentot Venus (1810), where an alien woman on exhibition in
+England was brought before the court by Zachary Macaulay in order to
+ascertain whether she was detained against her will.
+
+The experience of the 18th century disclosed defects in the procedure
+for obtaining liberty in cases not covered by the act of 1679. But it
+was not till 1816 that further legislation was passed for more
+effectually securing the liberty of the subject. The act of 1816 (56
+Geo. III. c. 100), does not touch cases covered by the act of 1679. It
+enacts (1) that a writ of _habeas corpus_ shall be issued in vacation
+time in favour of a person restrained of his liberty otherwise than for
+some criminal or supposed criminal matter (except persons imprisoned for
+debt or by civil process); (2) that though the return to the writ be
+good and sufficient in law, the judge shall examine into the truth of
+the facts set forth in such return, and if they appear doubtful the
+prisoner shall be bailed; (3) that the writ shall run to any port,
+harbour, road, creek or bay on the coast of England, although not within
+the body of any county. The last clause was intended to meet doubts on
+the applicability of _habeas corpus_ in cases of illegal detention on
+board ship, which had been raised owing to a case of detention on a
+foreign ship in an English port.
+
+It will appear from the foregoing statement that the issue and
+enforcement of the writ rests on the common law as strengthened by the
+acts of 1627, 1640, 1679 and 1816, and subject also to the regulations
+as to procedure contained in the _Crown Office Rules_, 1906. The effect
+of the statutes is to keep the courts always open for the issue of the
+writ. It is available to put an end to all forms of illegal detention in
+public or private custody. In the case of the Canadian prisoners (1839)
+it was used to obtain the release of persons sentenced in Canada for
+participating in the rebellion of 1837, who were being conveyed
+throughout England in custody on their way to imprisonment in another
+part of the empire, and it is matter of frequent experience for the
+courts to review the legality of commitments under the Extradition Acts
+and the Fugitive Offenders Act 1881, of fugitives from the justice of a
+foreign state or parts of the king's dominions outside the British
+Islands.
+
+In times of public danger it has occasionally been thought necessary to
+"suspend" the Habeas Corpus Act 1679 by special and temporary
+legislation. This was done in 1794 (by an act annually renewed until
+1801) and again in 1817, as to persons arrested and detained by his
+majesty for conspiring against his person and government. The same
+course was adopted in Ireland in 1866 during a Fenian rising. It has
+been the practice to make such acts annual and to follow their
+expiration by an act of indemnity. In cases where martial law exists the
+use of the writ is _ex hypothesi_ suspended during conditions amounting
+to a state of war within the realm or the British possession affected
+(e.g. the Cape Colony and Natal during the South African War), and it
+would seem that the acts of courts martial during the period are not the
+subject of review by the ordinary courts. The so-called "suspension of
+the Habeas Corpus Act" bears a certain similarity to what is called in
+Europe "suspending the constitutional guarantees" or "proclaiming a
+state of siege," but "is not in reality more than suspension of one
+particular remedy for the protection of personal freedom."
+
+  There are various other forms of the writ according to the purpose for
+  which it is granted. Thus _habeas corpus ad respondendum_ is used to
+  bring up a prisoner confined by the process of an inferior court in
+  order to charge him in another proceeding (civil or criminal) in the
+  superior court or some other court. As regards civil proceedings, this
+  form of the writ is now rarely used, owing to the abolition of arrest
+  on mesne process and the restriction of imprisonment for debt, or in
+  execution of a civil judgment. The right to issue the writ depends on
+  the common law, supplemented by an act of 1802. It is occasionally
+  used for the purpose of bringing a person in custody for debt or on a
+  criminal charge before a criminal court to be charged in respect of a
+  criminal proceeding: but the same result may be obtained by means of
+  an order of a secretary of state, made under s. 11 of the Prison Act
+  1898, or by the written order of a court of criminal jurisdiction
+  before which he is required to take his trial on indictment (Criminal
+  Law Amendment Act 30 & 31 Vict. c. 35, s. 10.)
+
+  Other forms are _ad satisfaciendum_; _ad faciendum et recipiendum_, to
+  remove into a superior court proceedings under which the defendant is
+  in custody: _ad testificandum_, where a prisoner is required as a
+  witness, issued under an act of 1804 (s. 11), which is in practice
+  replaced by orders under s. 11 of the Prison Act 1898 (_supra_) or the
+  order of a judge under s. 9 of the Criminal Procedure Act 1853: and
+  _ad deliberandum et recipias_, to authorize the transfer from one
+  custody to another for purposes of trial, which is in practice
+  superseded by the provisions of the Prison Acts 1865, 1871 and 1898,
+  and the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1867 (_supra_).
+
+  The above forms are now of little or no importance; but the procedure
+  for obtaining them and the forms of writ are included in the _Crown
+  Office Rules_ 1906.
+
+  _Ireland._--The common law of Ireland as to the writs of _habeas
+  corpus_ is the same as that in England. The writ has in past times
+  been issued from the English court of king's bench into Ireland; but
+  does not now so issue. The acts of 1803 and 1816 already mentioned
+  apply to Ireland. The Petition of Right is not in terms applicable to
+  Ireland. The Habeas Corpus Act 1679 does not apply to Ireland; but its
+  equivalent is supplied by an act of 1781-1782 of the Irish parliament
+  (21 & 22 Geo. III. c. 11). Sec. 16 contains a provision empowering the
+  chief governor and privy council of Ireland by a proclamation under
+  the great seal of Ireland to suspend the act during such time only as
+  there shall be an actual invasion or rebellion in Ireland; and it is
+  enacted that during the currency of the proclamation no judge or
+  justices shall bail or try any person charged with being concerned in
+  the rebellion or invasion without an order from the lord lieutenant or
+  lord deputy and senior of the privy council. In Ireland by an act of
+  1881 the Irish executive was given an absolute power of arbitrary and
+  preventive arrest on suspicion of treason or of an act tending to
+  interfere with the maintenance of law and order: but the warrant of
+  arrest was made conclusive. This act continued by annual renewals
+  until 1906, when it expired.
+
+  _Scotland._--The writ of _habeas corpus_ is unknown to Scots law, nor
+  will it issue from English courts into Scotland. Under a Scots act of
+  1701 (c. 6) provision is made for preventing wrongous imprisonment and
+  against undue delay in trials. It was applied to treason felony in
+  1848. The right to speedy trial is now regulated by s. 43 of the
+  Criminal Procedure Scotland Act 1887. These enactments are as to
+  Scotland equivalent to the English Act of 1679. Under the Court of
+  Exchequer Scotland Act 1856 (19 & 20 V. c. 56) provision is made for
+  bringing before the court of session persons and proceedings before
+  inferior courts and public officers--which is analogous to the powers
+  to issue _habeas corpus_ in such cases out of the English court of
+  exchequer (now the revenue side of the king's bench division).
+
+  _British Possessions._--The act of 1679 expressly applies to Wales,
+  Berwick-on-Tweed, Jersey and Guernsey, and the act of 1816 also
+  extends to the Isle of Man. The court of king's bench has also issued
+  the writ to the king's foreign dominions beyond seas, e.g. to St
+  Helena, and so late as 1861 to Canada (Anderson's case 1861, 30
+  L.J.Q.B. 129). In consequence of the last decision it was provided by
+  the Habeas Corpus Act 1862 that no writ of _habeas corpus_ should
+  issue out of England by authority of any court or judge "into any
+  colony or foreign dominion of the crown where the crown has a lawfully
+  established court of justice having authority to grant or issue the
+  writ and to ensure its due execution in the 'colony' or dominion" (25
+  & 26 V. c. 20). The expression "foreign dominion" is meant to apply to
+  places outside the British Islands, and does not include the Isle of
+  Man or the Channel Islands (see _re Brown_ [1864], 33 L.J.Q.B. 193).
+
+  In Australasia and Canada and in most if not all the British
+  possessions whose law is based on the common law, the power to issue
+  and enforce the writ is possessed and is freely exercised by colonial
+  courts, under the charters or statutes creating and regulating the
+  courts. The writ is freely resorted to in Canada, and in 1905, 1906,
+  two appeals came to the privy council from the dominion, one with
+  reference to an extradition case, the other with respect to the right
+  to expel aliens.
+
+  Under the Roman-Dutch law as applied in British Guiana the writ was
+  unknown and no similar process existed (2nd report of West Indian law
+  commissioners). But by the Supreme Court Ordinance of 1893 that court
+  possesses (_inter alia_) all the authorities, powers and functions
+  belonging to or incident to a superior court of record in England,
+  which appears to include the power to issue the writ of _habeas
+  corpus_. Under the Roman-Dutch law as applied to South Africa free
+  persons appear to have a right to release under a writ _de libero
+  homine exhibendo_, which closely resembles the writ of _habeas
+  corpus_, and the procedure described as "manifestation" used in the
+  kingdom of Aragon (Hallam, _Middle Ages_, vol. ii., c. iv.). The writ
+  of _habeas corpus_ has not been formally adopted or the Habeas Corpus
+  Acts formally extended to South Africa; but in the Cape Colony, under
+  the charter of justice and colonial legislation, the supreme court on
+  petition grants a remedy equivalent to that obtained in England by
+  writ of _habeas corpus_; and the remedy is sometimes so described
+  (_Koke_ v. _Balie_, 1879, 9 Buchanan, 45, 64, arising out of a rising
+  in Griqualand). During and after the South African War of 1899-1902
+  many attempts were made by this procedure to challenge or review the
+  sentences of courts martial; see _re Fourie_ (1900). 18 _Cape Rep._ 8.
+
+  The laws of Ceylon being derived from the Roman-Dutch law, the writ of
+  _habeas corpus_ is not indigenous: but, under s. 49 of the Supreme
+  Court Ordinance 1889, the court or a judge has power to grant and
+  issue "mandates in the nature of writs of _habeas corpus_." The
+  chartered high courts in India have power to issue and enforce the
+  writ of _habeas corpus_. The earliest record of its use was in 1775,
+  when it was directed to Warren Hastings. It has been used to test the
+  question whether Roman Catholic religious orders could enter India,
+  and in 1870 an attempt was made thereby to challenge the validity of a
+  warrant in the nature of a _lettre de cachet_ issued by the viceroy
+  (Ind. L. Rep. 6 Bengal, 392, 456, 498), and it has also been applied
+  to settle controversies between Hindus and missionaries as to the
+  custody of a young convert (_R._ v. _Vaughan_, 1870, 5 Bengal, 418),
+  and between a Mahommedan husband and his mother-in-law as to the
+  custody of a girl-wife (_Khatija Bibi_, 1870, 5 Bengal, 557).
+
+_United States._--Before the Declaration of Independence some of the
+North American colonies had adopted the act of 1679; and the federal and
+the other state legislatures of the United States have founded their
+procedure on that act. The common law as to the writ of _habeas corpus_
+has been inherited from England, and has been generally made to apply to
+commitments and detentions of all kinds. Difficult questions, unknown to
+English law, have arisen from the peculiar features of the American
+state-system. Thus the constitution provides that "the privilege of the
+writ of _habeas corpus_ shall not be suspended unless when, in cases of
+rebellion or invasion, the public safety may require it"; and it has
+been the subject of much dispute whether the power of suspension under
+this provision is vested in the president or the congress. The weight of
+opinion seems to lean to the latter alternative. Again, conflicts have
+arisen between the courts of individual states and the courts of the
+union. It seems that a state court has no right to issue a _habeas
+corpus_ for the discharge of a person held under the authority of the
+federal government. On the other hand, the courts of the union issue the
+writ only in those cases in which the power is expressly conferred on
+them by the constitution.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Paterson, _Liberty of the Subject_ (1877); Short and
+  Mellor, _Crown Practice_ (1890); American: Church on _Habeas Corpus_
+  (2nd ed. 1893).     (W. F. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See Hallam, _Const. Hist._ vol. i., c. vii. (12th ed.) p. 384.
+
+  [2] Hallam, _Const. Hist._ vol. ii., c. viii. (12th ed.) p. 2.
+
+  [3] _Ibid._ c. ix. (12th ed.) p. 98.
+
+  [4] _Ibid._ vol. iii., c. xiii. (12th ed.) p. 12.
+
+  [5] Dicey, _Law of the Constitution_ (6th ed.), p. 217.
+
+  [6] Dicey, Law of the Constitution (6th ed.), p. 195.
+
+
+
+
+HABERDASHER, a name for a tradesman who sells by retail small articles
+used in the making or wearing of dress, such as sewing cottons or silks,
+tapes, buttons, pins and needles and the like. The sale of such articles
+is not generally carried on alone, and a "haberdashery counter" usually
+forms a department of drapers' shops. The word, found in Chaucer, and
+even earlier (1311), is of obscure origin; the suggestion that it is
+connected with an Icelandic _haprtask_, "haversack," is, according to
+the _New English Dictionary_, impossible. _Haperlas_ occurs in an early
+Anglo-French customs list, which includes articles such as were sold by
+haberdashers, but this word may itself have been a misspelling of
+"haberdash." The obscurity of origin has left room for many conjectures
+such as that of Minsheu that "haberdasher" was perhaps merely a
+corruption of the German _Habt ihr das?_ "Have you that?" or _Habe das,
+Herr_, "Have that, sir," used descriptively for a general dealer in
+miscellaneous wares. The Haberdashers' Company is one of the greater
+Livery Companies of the City of London. Originally a branch of the
+mercers, the fraternity took over the selling of "small wares," which
+included not only articles similar to those sold as "haberdashery" now,
+but such things as gloves, daggers, glass, pens, lanterns, mousetraps
+and the like. They were thus on this side connected with the Milliners.
+On the other hand there was early a fusion with the old gild of the
+"Hurers," or cap makers, and the hatters, and by the reign of Henry VII.
+the amalgamation was complete. There were long recognized two branches
+of the haberdashers, the haberdashers of "small wares," and the
+haberdashers of hats (see further LIVERY COMPANIES). The haberdashers
+are named, side by side with the _capellarii_, in the White Book (_Liber
+Albus_) of the city of London (see _Munimenta Gildhallae Londiniensis_,
+ed. H. T. Riley, Rolls Series, 12, 1859-1862), and a haberdasher forms
+one of the company of pilgrims in the _Canterbury Tales_ (Prologue,
+361).
+
+
+
+
+HABINGTON, WILLIAM (1605-1654), English poet, was born at Hendlip Hall,
+Worcestershire, on the 4th of November 1605. He belonged to a well-known
+Catholic family. His father, Thomas Habington (1560-1647), an antiquary
+and historical scholar, had been implicated in the plots on behalf of
+Mary queen of Scots; his uncle, Edward Habington, was hanged in 1586 on
+the charge of conspiring against Elizabeth in connexion with Anthony
+Babington; while to his mother, Mary Habington, was attributed the
+revelation of the Gunpowder Plot. The poet was sent to the college at St
+Omer, but, pressure being brought to bear on him to induce him to become
+a Jesuit, he removed to Paris. He married about 1632 Lucy, second
+daughter of Sir William Herbert, first Baron Powys. This lady he had
+addressed in the volume of lyrical poems arranged in two parts and
+entitled _Castara_, published anonymously in 1634. In 1635 appeared a
+second edition enlarged by three prose characters, fourteen new lyrics
+and eight touching elegies on his friend and kinsman, George Talbot. The
+third edition (1640) contains a third part consisting of a prose
+character of "A Holy Man" and twenty-two devotional poems. Habington's
+lyrics are full of the far-fetched "conceits" which were fashionable at
+court, but his verse is quite free from the prevailing looseness of
+morals. Indeed his reiterated praises of Castara's virtue grow
+wearisome. He is at his best in his reflective poems on the uncertainty
+of human life and kindred topics. He also wrote a _Historie of Edward
+the Fourth_ (1640), based on notes provided by his father; a
+tragi-comedy, _The Queene of Arragon_ (1640), published without his
+consent by his kinsman, the earl of Pembroke, and revived at the
+Restoration; and six essays on events in modern history, _Observations
+upon History_ (1641). Anthony a Wood insinuated that during the
+Commonwealth the poet "did run with the times, and was not unknown to
+Oliver the usurper." He died on the 30th of November 1654.
+
+  The works of Habington have not been collected. _The Queene of
+  Arragon_ was reprinted in Dodsley's "Old Plays," vol. ix. (1825);
+  _Castara_ was edited by Charles Elton (1812), and by E. Arber with a
+  compact and comprehensive introduction (1870) for his "English
+  Reprints."
+
+
+
+
+HABIT (through the French from Lat. _habitus_, from _habere_, to have,
+hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many
+of the English senses the French use _habitude_, not _habit_), condition
+of body or mind, especially one that has become permanent or settled by
+custom or persistent repetition, hence custom, usage. In botany and
+zoology the term is used both in the above sense of instinctive action
+of animals and tendencies of plants, and also of the manner of growth
+or external appearance of a plant or animal. From the use of the word
+for external appearances comes its use for fashion in dress, and hence
+as a term for a lady's riding dress and for the particular form of
+garment adopted by the members of a religious order, like "cowl" applied
+as the mark of a monk or nun.
+
+
+
+
+HABITAT (a French word derived from _habiter_, Lat. _habitare_, to
+dwell), in botany and zoology, the term for the locality in which a
+particular species of plants or animals thrives.
+
+
+
+
+HABSBURG, or HAPSBURG, the name of the famous family from which have
+sprung the dukes and archdukes of Austria from 1282, kings of Hungary
+and Bohemia from 1526, and emperors of Austria from 1804. They were also
+Roman emperors and German kings from 1438 to 1806, and kings of Spain
+from 1516 to 1700, while the minor dignities held by them at different
+times are too numerous to mention.
+
+The name Habsburg, a variant of an older form, Habichtsburg (hawk's
+castle), was taken from the castle of Habsburg, which was situated on
+the river Aar not far from its junction with the Rhine. The castle was
+built about 1020 by Werner, bishop of Strassburg, and his brother,
+Radbot, the founder of the abbey of Muri. These men were grandsons of a
+certain Guntram, who, according to some authorities, is identical with a
+Count Guntram who flourished during the reign of the emperor Otto the
+Great, and whose ancestry can be traced back to the time of the
+Merovingian kings. This conjecture, however, is extremely problematical.
+Among Radbot's sons was one Werner, and Werner and his son Otto were
+called counts of Habsburg, Otto being probably made landgrave of upper
+Alsace late in the 11th or early in the 12th century. At all events
+Otto's son Werner (d. 1167), and the latter's son Albert (d. 1199), held
+this dignity, and both landgraves increased the area of the Habsburg
+lands. Albert became count of Zurich and protector of the monastery of
+Sackingen, and obtained lands in the cantons of Unterwalden and Lucerne;
+his son Rudolph, having assisted Frederick of Hohenstaufen, afterwards
+the emperor Frederick II., against the emperor Otto IV., received the
+county of Aargau. Both counts largely increased their possessions in the
+districts now known as Switzerland and Alsace, and Rudolph held an
+influential place among the Swabian nobility. After his death in 1232
+his two sons, Albert and Rudolph, divided his lands and founded the
+lines of Habsburg-Habsburg and Habsburg-Laufenburg. Rudolph's
+descendants, counts of Habsburg-Laufenburg, were soon divided into two
+branches, one of which became extinct in 1408 and the other seven years
+later. Before this date, however, Laufenburg and some other districts
+had been sold to the senior branch of the family, who thus managed to
+retain the greater part of the Habsburg lands.
+
+Rudolph's brother Albert (d. 1239), landgrave of Alsace, married Hedwig
+of Kyburg (d. 1260), and from this union there was born in 1218 Rudolph,
+the founder of the greatness of the house of Habsburg, and the first of
+the family to ascend the German throne. Through his mother he inherited
+a large part of the lands of the extinct family of Zahringen; he added
+in other ways to his possessions, and was chosen German king in
+September 1273. Acting vigorously in his new office, he defeated and
+killed his most formidable adversary, Ottakar II., king of Bohemia, in
+1278, and in December 1282 he invested his sons, Albert and Rudolph,
+with the duchies of Austria and Styria, which with other lands had been
+taken from Ottakar. This was an event of supreme moment in the history
+of the Habsburgs, and was the first and most important stage in the
+process of transferring the centre of their authority from western to
+eastern Europe, from the Rhine to the Danube. On Rudolph's death in July
+1291 the German crown passed for a time away from the Habsburgs, but in
+July 1298 it was secured by his son, Albert, whose reign, however, was
+short and uneventful. But before 1308, the year of Albert's death, the
+long and troubled connexion of the Habsburgs with Bohemia had already
+begun. In 1306 Wenceslas III., the last Bohemian king of the
+P[vr]myslide dynasty, was murdered. Seizing the opportunity and
+declaring that the vacant kingdom was an imperial fief, King Albert
+bestowed it upon his eldest son, Rudolph, and married this prince to
+Elizabeth, widow of Wenceslas II. and stepmother of Wenceslas III. But
+Rudolph died in 1307, and his father's attempt to keep the country in
+his own hands was ended by his murder in 1308.
+
+Albert's successor as German king was Henry of Luxemburg (the emperor
+Henry VII.), and this election may be said to initiate the long rivalry
+between the houses of Habsburg and Luxemburg. But the immediate enemy of
+the Habsburgs was not a Luxemburg but a Wittelsbach. Without making any
+definite partition, Albert's five remaining sons spent their time in
+governing their lands until 1314, when one of them, Frederick called the
+Fair, forsook this comparatively uneventful occupation and was chosen by
+a minority of the electors German king in succession to Henry VII. At
+the same time the Wittelsbach duke of Bavaria, Louis, known to history
+as the emperor Louis the Bavarian, was also chosen. War was inevitable,
+and the battle of Muhldorf, fought in September 1322, sealed the fate of
+Frederick. Louis was victorious: his rival went into an honourable
+captivity, and the rising Habsburg sun underwent a temporary eclipse.
+
+For more than a century after Frederick's death in 1330 the Habsburgs
+were exiles from the German throne. But they were not inactive. In 1335
+his two surviving brothers, Albert and Otto, inherited Carinthia and
+part of Carniola by right of their mother, Elizabeth; in 1363 Albert's
+son Rudolph received Tirol; and during the same century part of Istria,
+Trieste and other districts were acquired. All King Albert's six sons
+had died without leaving male issue save Otto, whose family became
+extinct in 1344, and Albert, the ancestor of all the later Habsburgs. Of
+Albert's four sons two also left no male heirs, but the remaining two,
+Albert III. and Leopold III., were responsible for a division of the
+family which is of some importance. By virtue of a partition made upon
+their brother Rudolph's death in 1365 Albert and his descendants ruled
+over Austria, while Leopold and his sons took Styria, Carinthia and
+Tirol, Alsace remaining undivided as heretofore.
+
+Towards the middle of the 15th century the German throne had been
+occupied for nearly a hundred years by members of the Luxemburg family.
+The reigning emperor Sigismund, who was also king of Hungary and
+Bohemia, was without sons, and his daughter Elizabeth was the wife of
+Albert of Habsburg, the grandson and heir of Duke Albert III., who had
+died in 1395. Sigismund died in December 1437, leaving his two kingdoms
+to his son-in-law, who was crowned king of Hungary in January 1438 and
+king of Bohemia in the following June. Albert was also chosen and
+crowned German king in succession to Sigismund, thus beginning the long
+and uninterrupted connexion of his family with the imperial throne, a
+connexion which lasted until the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in
+1806. He did not, however, enjoy his new dignities for long, as he died
+in October 1439 while engaged in a struggle with the Turks. Albert left
+no sons, but soon after his death one was born to him, called Ladislaus,
+who became duke of Austria and king of Hungary and Bohemia. Under the
+guardianship of his kinsman, the emperor Frederick III., the young
+prince's reign was a troubled one, and when he died unmarried in 1457
+his branch of the family became extinct, and Hungary and Bohemia passed
+away from the Habsburgs, who managed, however, to retain Austria.
+
+Leopold III., duke of Carinthia and Styria, who was killed in 1386 at
+the battle of Sempach, had four sons, of whom two only, Frederick and
+Ernest, left male issue. Frederick and his only son, Sigismund, confined
+their attention mainly to Tirol and Alsace, leaving the larger destinies
+of the family in the hands of Ernest of Carinthia and Styria (d. 1424)
+and his sons, Frederick and Albert and after the death of King Ladislaus
+in 1457 these two princes and their cousin Sigismund were the only
+representatives of the Habsburgs. In February 1440 Frederick of Styria
+was chosen German king in succession to his kinsman Albert. He was a
+weak and incompetent ruler, but a stronger and abler man might have
+shrunk from the task of administering his heterogeneous and unruly
+realm. Although very important in the history of the house of Habsburg,
+Frederick's long reign was a period of misfortune, and the motto which
+he assumed, A.E.I.O.U. (_Austriae est imperare orbi universo_), seemed
+at the time a particularly foolish boast. He acted as guardian both to
+Ladislaus of Hungary, Bohemia and Austria, and to Sigismund of Tirol,
+and in all these countries his difficulties were increased by the
+hostility of his brother Albert. Having disgusted the Tirolese he gave
+up the guardianship of their prince in 1446, while in Hungary and
+Bohemia he did absolutely nothing to establish the authority of his
+ward; in 1452 the Austrians besieged him in Vienna Neustadt and
+compelled him to surrender the person of Ladislaus, thus ending even his
+nominal authority. When the young king died in 1457 the Habsburgs lost
+Hungary and Bohemia, but they retained Austria, which, after some
+disputing, Frederick and Albert divided between themselves, the former
+taking lower and the latter upper Austria. This arrangement was of short
+duration. In 1461 Albert made war upon his brother and forced him to
+resign lower Austria, which, however, he recovered after Albert's death
+in December 1463. Still more unfortunate was the German king in
+Switzerland. For many years the Swiss had chafed under the rule of the
+Habsburgs; during the reign of Rudolph I. they had shown signs of
+resentment as the kingly power increased; and the struggle which had
+been carried on for nearly two centuries had been almost uniformly in
+their favour. It was marked by the victory of Morgarten over Duke
+Leopold I. in 1315, and by that of Sempach over Leopold III. in 1386, by
+the conquest of Aargau at the instigation of the emperor Sigismund early
+in the 15th century, and by the final struggle for freedom against
+Frederick III. and Sigismund of Tirol. Taking advantage of some
+dissensions among the Swiss, the king saw an opportunity to recover his
+lost lands, and in 1443 war broke out. But his allies, the men of
+Zurich, were defeated, and when in August 1444 some French mercenaries,
+who had advanced to his aid, suffered the same fate at St Jakob, he was
+compelled to give up the struggle. A few years later Sigismund became
+involved in a war with the same formidable foemen; he too was worsted,
+and the "Perpetual Peace" of 1474 ended the rule of the Habsburgs in
+Switzerland. This humiliation was the second great step in the process
+of removing the Habsburgs from western to eastern Europe. In 1453, just
+after his coronation as emperor at Rome, Frederick legalized the use of
+the title archduke, which had been claimed spasmodically by the
+Habsburgs since 1361. This title is now peculiar to the house of
+Habsburg.
+
+The reverses suffered by the Habsburgs during the reign of Frederick
+III. were many and serious, but an improvement was at hand. The emperor
+died in August 1493, and was followed on the imperial throne by his son
+Maximilian I., perhaps the most versatile and interesting member of the
+family. Before his father's death Maximilian had been chosen German
+king, or king of the Romans, and had begun to repair the fortunes of his
+house. He had married Mary, daughter and heiress of Charles the Bold,
+duke of Burgundy; he had driven the Hungarians from Vienna and the
+Austrian archduchies, which Frederick had, perforce, allowed them to
+occupy; and he had received Tirol on the abdication of Sigismund in
+1490. True it is that upon Mary's death in 1482 part of her inheritance,
+the rich and prosperous Netherlands, held that her husband's authority
+was at an end, while another part, the two Burgundies and Artois, had
+been seized by the king of France; nevertheless, after a protracted
+struggle the German king secured almost the whole of Charles the Bold's
+lands for his son, the archduke Philip, the duchy of Burgundy alone
+remaining in the power of France after the conclusion of the peace of
+Senlis in 1493. Maximilian completed his work by adding a piece of
+Bavaria, Gorz and then Gradiska to the Habsburg lands.
+
+After Sigismund's death in 1496 Maximilian and Philip were the only
+living male members of the family. Philip married Joanna, daughter of
+Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, and died in 1506 leaving two sons,
+Charles and Ferdinand. Charles succeeded his father in the Netherlands;
+he followed one grandfather, Ferdinand, as king of Spain in 1516, and
+when the other, Maximilian, died in 1519 he became the emperor Charles
+V., and succeeded to all the hereditary lands of the Habsburgs. But
+provision had to be made for Ferdinand, and in 1521 this prince was
+given the Austrian archduchies, Austria, Styria, Carinthia and Carniola;
+in the same year he married Anne, daughter of Wladislaus, king of
+Hungary and Bohemia, and when his childless brother-in-law, King Louis,
+was killed at the battle of Mohacs in August 1526 he claimed the two
+kingdoms, both by right of his wife and by treaty. After a little
+trouble Bohemia passed under his rule, but Hungary was more
+recalcitrant. A long war took place between Ferdinand and John Zapolya,
+who was also crowned king of Hungary, but in 1538 a treaty was made and
+the country was divided, the Habsburg prince receiving the western and
+smaller portion. However, he was soon confronted with a more formidable
+foe, and he spent a large part of his subsequent life in defending his
+lands from the attacks of the Turks.
+
+The Habsburgs had now reached the summit of their power. The prestige
+which belonged to Charles as head of the Holy Roman Empire was backed by
+the wealth and commerce of the Netherlands and of Spain, and by the
+riches of the Spanish colonies in America. In Italy he ruled over
+Sardinia, Naples and Sicily, which had passed to him with Spain, and the
+duchy of Milan, which he had annexed in 1535; to the Netherlands he had
+added Friesland, the bishopric of Utrecht, Groningen and Gelderland, and
+he still possessed Franche-Comte and the fragments of the Habsburg lands
+in Alsace and the neighbourhood. Add to this Ferdinand's inheritance,
+the Austrian archduchies and Tirol, Bohemia with her dependent
+provinces, and a strip of Hungary, and the two brothers had under their
+sway a part of Europe the extent of which was great, but the wealth and
+importance of which were immeasurably greater. Able to scorn the rivalry
+of the other princely houses of Germany, the Habsburgs saw in the kings
+of the house of Valois the only foemen worthy of their regard.
+
+When Charles V. abdicated he was succeeded as emperor, not by his son
+Philip, but by his brother Ferdinand. Philip became king of Spain,
+ruling also the Netherlands, Franche-Comte, Naples, Sicily, Milan and
+Sardinia, and the family was definitely divided into the Spanish and
+Austrian branches. For Spain and the Spanish Habsburgs the 17th century
+was a period of loss and decay, the seeds of which were sown during the
+reign of Philip II. The northern provinces of the Netherlands were lost
+practically in 1609 and definitely by the treaty of Westphalia in 1648;
+Roussillon and Artois were annexed to France by the treaty of the
+Pyrenees in 1659, while Franche-Comte and a number of towns in the
+Spanish Netherlands suffered a similar fate by the treaty of Nijmwegen
+in 1678. Finally Charles II., the last Habsburg king of Spain, died
+childless in November 1700, and his lands were the prize of the War of
+the Spanish Succession. The Austrian Habsburgs fought long and valiantly
+for the kingdom of their kinsman, but Louis XIV. was too strong for
+them, and by the peace of Rastatt Spain passed from the Habsburgs to the
+Bourbons. However, the Austrian branch of the family received in 1714
+the Italian possessions of Charles II., except Sicily, which was given
+to the duke of Savoy, and also the southern Netherlands, which are thus
+often referred to as the Austrian Netherlands; and retained the duchy of
+Mantua, which it had seized in 1708.
+
+Ferdinand I., the founder of the line of the Austrian Habsburgs,
+arranged a division of his lands among his three sons before his death
+in 1564. The eldest, Maximilian II., received Austria, Bohemia and
+Hungary, and succeeded his father as emperor; he married Maria, a
+daughter of Charles V., and though he had a large family his male line
+became extinct in 1619. The younger sons were Ferdinand, ruler of Tirol,
+and Charles, archduke of Styria. The emperor Maximilian II. left five
+sons, two of whom, Rudolph and Matthias, succeeded in turn to the
+imperial throne, but, as all the brothers were without male issue, the
+family was early in the 17th century threatened with a serious crisis.
+Rudolph died in 1612, the reigning emperor Matthias was old and ill, and
+the question of the succession to the Empire, to the kingdoms of
+Hungary and Bohemia, and to the hereditary lands of the Habsburgs became
+acute. Turning to the collateral branches of the family, the sons of the
+archduke Ferdinand were debarred from the succession owing to their
+father's morganatic marriage with Philippine Welser, and the only hope
+of the house was in the sons of Charles of Styria. To prevent the
+Habsburg monarchy from falling to pieces the emperor's two surviving
+brothers renounced their rights, and it was decided that Ferdinand, a
+son of Charles of Styria, should succeed his cousin Matthias. The
+difficulties which impeded the completion of this scheme were gradually
+overcome, and the result was that when Matthias died in 1619 the whole
+of the lands of the Austrian Habsburgs was united under the rule of the
+emperor Ferdinand II. Tirol, indeed, a few years later was separated
+from the rest of the monarchy and given to the emperor's brother, the
+archduke Leopold, but this separation was ended when Leopold's son died
+in 1665.
+
+The arbitrary measures which followed Ferdinand's acquisition of the
+Bohemian crown contributed to the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War, but
+in a short time the Bohemians were subdued, and in 1627, following a
+precedent set in 1547, the emperor declared the throne hereditary in the
+house of Habsburg. The treaty of Westphalia which ended this war took
+comparatively little from the Habsburgs, though they ceded Alsace to
+France; but the Empire was greatly weakened, and its ruler was more than
+ever compelled to make his hereditary lands in the east of Europe the
+base of his authority, finding that he derived more strength from his
+position as archduke of Austria than from that of emperor. Ferdinand
+III. succeeded his father Ferdinand II., and during the long reign of
+the former's son, Leopold I., the Austrian, like the Spanish, Habsburgs
+were on the defensive against the aggressive policy of Louis XIV., and
+in addition they had to withstand the assaults of the Turks. In two ways
+they sought to strengthen their position. The unity of the Austrian
+lands was strictly maintained, and several marriages kept up a close and
+friendly connexion with Spain. A series of victories over the sultan
+during the later part of the 17th century rolled back the tide of the
+Turkish advance, and the peace of Karlowitz made in 1699 gave nearly the
+whole of Hungary to the Habsburgs. Against France Austria was less
+successful, and a number of humiliations culminated in 1714 in the
+failure to secure Spain, to which reference has already been made.
+
+The hostility of Austria and France, or rather of Habsburg and Bourbon,
+outlived the War of the Spanish Succession. In 1717 Spain conquered
+Sardinia, which was soon exchanged by Austria for Sicily; other
+struggles and other groupings of the European powers followed, and in
+1735, by the treaty of Vienna, Austria gave up Naples and Sicily and
+received the duchies of Parma and Piacenza. These surrenders were
+doubtless inevitable, but they shook the position of the house of
+Habsburg in Italy. However, a domestic crisis was approaching which
+threw Italian affairs into the shade. Charles VI., who had succeeded his
+brother, Joseph I., as emperor in 1711, was without sons, and his prime
+object in life was to secure the succession of his elder daughter, Maria
+Theresa, to the whole of his lands and dignities. But in 1713, four
+years before the birth of Maria Theresa, he had first issued the famous
+_Pragmatic Sanction_, which declared that the Habsburg monarchy was
+indivisible and that in default of male heirs a female could succeed to
+it. Then after the death of his only son and the birth of Maria Theresa
+the emperor bent all his energies to securing the acceptance of the
+Pragmatic Sanction. Promulgated anew in 1724, it was formally accepted
+by the estates of the different Habsburg lands; in 1731 it was
+guaranteed by the imperial diet. By subordinating every other interest
+to this, Charles at length procured the assent of the various powers of
+Europe to the proposed arrangement; he married the young princess to
+Francis Stephen, duke of Lorraine, afterwards grand-duke of Tuscany, and
+when he died on the 20th of October 1740 he appeared to have realized
+his great ambition. With the emperor's death the house of Habsburg,
+strictly speaking, became extinct, its place being taken by the house of
+Habsburg-Lorraine, which sprang from the union of Maria Theresa and
+Francis Stephen; and it is interesting to note that the present
+Habsburgs are only descended in the female line from Rudolph I. and
+Maximilian I.
+
+
+GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE HOUSE OF HABSBURG-LORRAINE.
+
+                 Maria Theresa (1717-1780) = Francis I., emperor (1708-1765).
+                                           |
+           +-------------------+-----------+----------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
+           |                   |                            |                                                                                                   |
+  Joseph II., emperor   Leopold II., emperor   Maximilian, elector of Cologne                                                                                   |
+      (1741-1790).          (1747-1792).               (1756-1801).                                                                                             |
+                                                                                                                                                                |
+           +--------------------+--------------------+--------------+-------------+-------------+------------+--------------+-------------+--------------+      |
+           |                    |                    |              |             |             |            |              |             |              |      |
+  Francis II., emperor    Ferdinand III.,         Charles        Leopold        Joseph        Antony        John          Rainer        Louis         Rudolph   |
+  (1768-1835).         grand-duke of Tuscany     (1771-1847).  (1772-1795).  (1776-1847).  (1780-1835).  (1782-1859).  (1783-1853).  (1784-1864).  (1788-1831). |
+              |            (1769-1824).              |                            |                                         |                                   |
+              |           (see below.)               |                            |              +-------------+------------+-+------------+-----------+        |
+              |                                      |                            |              |             |              |            |           |        |
+         +----+-----------------+                    |                          Joseph        Leopold        Ernest      Sigismund      Rainer      Henry       |
+         |                      |                    |                        (1833-1905).  (1823-1898).  (1824-1899).  (1826-1891).  (b. 1827).  (1828-1891).  |
+    Ferdinand I.         Francis Charles             |                            |                                                                             |
+  emperor of Austria     (1802-1878).                |                            |                                                                             |
+     (1793-1875).               |                    +-------------------+    Joseph Augustus                                                 +-----------------+
+                                |                                        |      (b. 1872).                                                    |
+         +------------------+---+---------------+--------------+         |           |                                                        |
+         |                  |                   |              |         |        +--+--------------+                                         |
+    Francis Joseph,      Maximilian,      Charles Louis   Louis Victor   |        |                 |                                         |
+  emperor of Austria   emperor of Mexico   (1833-1896).    (b. 1842).    |  Joseph Francis      Ladislaus                          Ferdinand, duke of Modena
+      (b. 1830).          (1832-1867).           |                       |  (b. 1895).          (b. 1901).                               (1754-1806).
+         |                                       |                       |                                                                    |
+      Rudolph           +-----------------+------+--------+              +--+----------------+---------------+                +---------------+-----------+
+    (1858-1889).        |                 |               |                 |                |               |                |               |           |
+               Francis Ferdinand        Otto          Ferdinand          Albert,      Charles Ferdinand   William        Francis IV.     Maximilian   Ferdinand
+                   (b. 1863).        (1865-1906).    Charles Louis   duke of Teschen     (1818-1874).    (1827-1894).   duke of Modena     Joseph    (1781-1850).
+                                          |           (b. 1868).      (1817-1895).            |                           (1779-1846).  (1782-1863).
+                                          |                                                   |                               |
+                               +----------+-----------+                                       |                               |
+                               |                      |                                       |                               |
+                      Charles Francis Joseph   Maximilian Eugene           +------------------+-+-----------+              +--+-----------+
+                         (b. 1887).               (b. 1895).               |                    |           |              |              |
+                                                                       Frederick        Charles Stephen   Eugene      Francis V.,     Ferdinand
+                                                                    duke of Teschen        (b. 1860).    (b. 1863).  duke of Modena  (1821-1849).
+                                                                       (b. 1856).               |                     (1819-1875).
+                                                                          |                     |
+                                                                          |               +-----+---------+------------+
+                                                                          |               |               |            |
+                                                                       Albert       Charles Albert   Leo Charles     William
+                                                                      (b. 1897).     (b. 1888).       (b. 1893).    (b. 1895).
+
+
+                                                                                     TUSCANY.
+
+                                                                      Ferdinand III., grand-duke of Tuscany
+                                                                                    (1769-1824).
+                                                                                         |
+                                                                       Leopold II., grand-duke of Tuscany
+                                                                                    (1797-1870).
+                                                                                         |
+                                           +------------------------+--------------------+----------+--------------------+
+                                           |                        |                               |                    |
+                                     Ferdinand IV.          Louis Salvator                  Charles Salvator    John Nepomuck Salvator
+                                 grand-duke of Tuscany         (b. 1847).                      (1839-1892).           (1852-1891).
+                                       (b. 1835).                                                   |
+                                           |                                               +--------+-------------+----------------+
+                  +--------------------+---+--------------+-----------------+              |                      |                |
+                  |                    |                  |                 |       Leopold Salvator       Francis Salvator  Albert Salvator
+          Leopold Ferdinand    Joseph Ferdinand   Peter Ferdinand   Henry Ferdinand     (b. 1863).             (b. 1866).      (1871-1896).
+                                   (b. 1872).         (b. 1874).        (b. 1878).         |                      |
+                                                          |                                |         +----------+-+--------+-----------+
+                                                  +-------+----+                           |         |          |          |           |
+                                                  |            |                           |  Francis Charles  Hubert    Theodore    Clement
+                                               Godfrey      George                         |     Salvator     Salvator   Salvator    Salvator
+                                              (b. 1902).   (b. 1905).                      |    (b. 1893).    (b. 1894). (b. 1899). (b. 1904).
+                                                                                           |
+                                                                            +--------------+-----------+--------------+
+                                                                            |              |           |              |
+                                                                      Rainer Charles    Leopold     Antony     Francis Joseph
+                                                                         (b. 1895).    (b. 1897).  (b. 1901).    (b. 1905).
+
+Immediately after the death of Charles the Pragmatic Sanction was
+forgotten. A crowd of claimants called for various parts of the Habsburg
+lands; Frederick the Great, talking less but acting more, invaded and
+conquered Silesia, and it seemed likely that the dissolution of the
+Habsburg monarchy would at no long interval follow the extinction of the
+Habsburg race. A Wittelsbach prince, Charles Albert, elector of Bavaria,
+the emperor Charles VII., and not Francis Stephen, was chosen emperor in
+January 1742, and by the treaty of Breslau, made later in the same year,
+nearly all Silesia was formally surrendered to Prussia. But the worst
+was now over, and when in 1748 the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, which
+practically confirmed the treaty of Breslau, had cleared away the dust
+of war, Maria Theresa and her consort were found to occupy a strong
+position in Europe. In the first place, in September 1745, Francis had
+been chosen emperor; then the imperial pair ruled Hungary and Bohemia,
+although the latter kingdom was shorn of Silesia; in spite of French
+conquests the Austrian Netherlands remained in their hands; and in Italy
+Francis had added Tuscany to his wife's heritage, although Parma and
+Piacenza had been surrendered to Spain and part of Milan to the king of
+Sardinia. The diplomatic _volte-face_ and the futile attempts of Maria
+Theresa to recover Silesia which followed this treaty belong to the
+general history of Europe.
+
+The emperor Francis I. died in 1765 and was succeeded by his son Joseph
+II., an ambitious and able prince, whose aim was to restore the
+Habsburgs and the Empire to their former great positions in Europe, and
+whose pride did not prevent him from learning from Frederick the Great,
+the despoiler of his house. His projects, however, including one of
+uniting Bavaria with Austria, which was especially cherished, failed
+completely, and when he died in February 1790 he left his lands in a
+state of turbulence which reflected the general condition of Europe. The
+Netherlands had risen against the Austrians, and in January 1790 had
+declared themselves independent; Hungary, angered by Joseph's despotic
+measures, was in revolt, and the other parts of the monarchy were hardly
+more contented. But the 18th century saw a few successes for the
+Habsburgs. In 1718 a successful war with Turkey was ended by the peace
+of Passarowitz, which advanced the Austrian boundary very considerably
+to the east, and although by the treaty of Belgrade, signed twenty-one
+years later, a large part of this territory was surrendered, yet a
+residuum, the banate of Temesvar, was permanently incorporated with
+Hungary. The struggle over the succession to Bavaria, which was
+concluded in 1779 by the treaty of Teschen, was responsible for adding
+Innviertel, or the quarter of the Inn, to Austria; the first partition
+of Poland brought eastern Galicia and Lodomeria, and in 1777 the sultan
+ceded Bukovina. Joseph II. was followed by his brother, Leopold II., who
+restored the Austrian authority in the Netherlands, and the latter by
+his son Francis II., who resigned the crown of the Holy Roman Empire in
+August 1806, having two years before taken the title of emperor of
+Austria as Francis I.
+
+Before the abdication of the emperor Francis in 1806 Austria had met and
+suffered from the fury of revolutionary France, but the cessions of
+territory made by her at the treaties of Campo Formio (1797), of
+Luneville (1801) and of Pressburg (1805) were of no enduring importance.
+This, however, cannot be said for the treaties of Paris and of Vienna,
+which in 1814 and 1815 arranged the map of Europe upon the conclusion of
+the Napoleonic wars. These were highly favourable to the Habsburgs. In
+eastern and central Europe Austria regained her former position, the
+lands ceded to Bavaria and also eastern Galicia, which had been in the
+hands of Russia since 1809, being restored; she gave up the Austrian
+Netherlands, soon to be known as Belgium, to the new kingdom of the
+Netherlands, and acquiesced in the arrangement which had taken from her
+the Breisgau and the remnant of the Habsburg lands upon the Rhine. In
+return for these losses Austria became the dominant power In Italy. A
+mass of northern Italy, including her former possessions in Milan and
+the neighbourhood, and also the lands recently forming the republic of
+Venice, was made into the kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia, and this owned
+the emperor of Austria as king. Across the Adriatic Dalmatia was added
+to the Habsburg monarchy, the population of which, it has been
+estimated, was increased at this time by over four millions.
+
+The illiberal and oppressive character of the Austrian rule in Italy
+made it very unpopular; it was hardly less so in Hungary and Bohemia,
+and the advent of the year 1848 found the subject kingdoms eager to
+throw off the Habsburg yoke. The whole monarchy was quickly in a state
+of revolution, in the midst of which the emperor Ferdinand, who had
+succeeded his father Francis in 1835, abdicated, and his place was taken
+by his young nephew Francis Joseph. The position of the Habsburg
+monarchy now seemed desperate. But it was strong in its immemorial
+tradition, which was enough to make the efforts of the Frankfort
+parliament to establish German unity under Prussian hegemony abortive;
+it was strong also in the general loyalty to the throne of the imperial
+army; and its counsels were directed by statesmen who knew well how to
+exploit in the interests of the central power the national rivalries
+within the monarchy. With the crushing of the Hungarian revolt by the
+emperor Nicholas I. of Russia in 1849 the monarchy was freed from the
+most formidable of its internal troubles; in 1850 the convention of
+Olmutz restored its influence in Germany.
+
+Though the _status quo_ was thus outwardly re-established, the
+revolutions of 1848 had really unchained forces which made its
+maintenance impossible. In Germany Prussia was steadily preparing for
+the inevitable struggle with Austria for the mastery; in France Napoleon
+III. was preparing to pose as the champion of the oppressed
+nationalities which had once more settled down sullenly under the
+Habsburg yoke. The alliance of the French emperor and the king of
+Sardinia, and the Italian war of 1859 ended in the loss of Lombardy to
+the Habsburgs. Seven years later the crushing defeat of Koniggratz not
+only ended their long rule in Italy, based on the tradition of the
+medieval empire, by leading to the cession of Venetia to the new Italian
+kingdom, but led to their final exclusion from the German confederation,
+soon to become, under the headship of Prussia, the German empire.
+
+By the loss of the predominance in Germany conceded to it by the
+treaties of Vienna, and by the shifting of its "centre of gravity"
+eastward, the Habsburg monarchy, however, perhaps gained more than it
+lost. One necessary result, indeed, was the composition (_Ausgleich_)
+with Hungary in 1867, by which the latter became an independent state
+(Francis Joseph being crowned king at Pest in June 1867) bound to the
+rest of the monarchy only by the machinery necessary for the carrying
+out of a common policy in matters of common interest. This at least
+restored the loyalty of the Hungarians to the Habsburg dynasty; it is
+too soon yet to say that it secured permanently the essential unity of
+the Habsburg monarchy. By the system of the Dual Monarchy the rest of
+the Austrian emperor's dominions (Cis-Leithan) were consolidated under a
+single central government, the history of which has been mainly that of
+the rival races within the empire struggling for political predominance.
+Since the development of the constitution has been consistently in a
+democratic direction and the Slavs are in a great majority, the tendency
+has been for the German element--strong in its social status and
+tradition of predominance--to be swamped by what it regards as an
+inferior race; and a considerable number of Austrian "Germans" have
+learned to look not to their Habsburg rulers, but to the power of the
+German empire for political salvation. The tendency eastwards of the
+monarchy was increased when in 1878 the congress of Berlin placed Bosnia
+and Herzegovina under Austrian rule. Old ambitions were now revived at
+the expense of the Ottoman empire, the goal of which was the port of
+Salonica; and not the least menacing aspect of the question of the near
+East has been that the rivalry of Italy and the Habsburg monarchy has
+been transferred to the Balkan peninsula. Yet, in spite of internal
+dissensions arising out of questions fundamentally insoluble, and in
+spite of the constant threat of external complications that may lead to
+war, the Habsburg monarchy as the result of the changes in the 19th and
+20th centuries is seemingly stronger than ever. The shadow of universal
+claims to empire and sonorous but empty titles have vanished, but so
+have the manifold rivalries and entanglements which accompanied the
+Habsburg rule in Italy and the Netherlands and Habsburg preponderance in
+Germany. The monarchy is stronger because its sphere is more defined;
+because as preserving the _pax Romana_ among the jostling races of
+eastern Europe, it is more than ever recognized as an essential element
+in the maintenance of European peace, and is recognized as necessary and
+beneficial even by the ambitious and restless nationalities that chafe
+under its rule.
+
+A few words must be said about the cadet branches of the Habsburg
+family. When, in 1765, Francis I. died and Joseph II. became emperor,
+the grand-duchy of Tuscany passed by special arrangement not to Joseph,
+but to his younger brother Leopold. Then in 1791, after Leopold had
+succeeded Joseph as emperor, he handed over the grand-duchy to his
+second son, Ferdinand (1769-1824). In 1801 this prince was deposed by
+Napoleon and Tuscany was seized by France. Restored to the Habsburgs in
+the person of Ferdinand in 1814, it remained under his rule, and then
+under that of his son Leopold (1797-1870), until the rising of 1859,
+when the Austrians were driven out and the grand-duchy was added to the
+kingdom of Sardinia. A similar fate attended the duchy of Modena, which
+had passed to the Habsburgs through the marriage of its heiress Mary
+Beatrice of Este (d. 1829) with the archduke Ferdinand (1754-1806),
+brother of the emperor Leopold II. From 1814 to 1846 this duchy was
+governed by Ferdinand's son, Duke Francis IV., and from 1846 to 1859 by
+his grandson, Francis V. This family became extinct on the death of
+Francis V. in 1875.
+
+In addition to his successor Francis II., and to Ferdinand, grand-duke
+of Tuscany, the emperor Leopold II. had eight sons, five of whom,
+including the archduke John (1782-1859), who saw a good deal of service
+during the Napoleonic Wars and was chosen regent (_Reichsverweser_) of
+Germany in 1848, have now no living male descendants. Thus the existing
+branches of the family are descended from Leopold's five other sons. The
+descendants of Leopold, the dispossessed grand-duke of Tuscany, were in
+1909 represented by his son, Ferdinand (b. 1835), who still claimed the
+title of grand-duke of Tuscany, and his son and grandsons; by the
+numerous descendants of the archduke Charles Salvator (1830-1892); and
+by the archduke Louis Salvator (b. 1847), a great traveller and a
+voluminous writer. The grand-duke's fourth son was the archduke John
+Nepomuck Salvator, who, after serving in the Austrian army, resigned all
+his rights and titles and under the name of Johann Orth took command of
+a sailing vessel. He is supposed to have been drowned off the coast of
+South America in 1891, but reports of his continued existence were
+circulated from time to time after that date. Of the emperor Leopold's
+other sons the archduke Charles, perhaps the most distinguished soldier
+of the family, left four sons, including Albert, duke of Teschen
+(1817-1895), who inherited some of his father's military ability.
+Charles's family was in 1909 represented by his grandsons, the sons of
+the archduke Charles Ferdinand (1818-1874). The archduke Joseph
+(1776-1847), palatine of Hungary, was represented by a grandson, Joseph
+Augustus (b. 1872), and the archduke Rainer (1783-1853), viceroy of
+Lombardy-Venetia, by a son Rainer (b. 1827), and by several grandsons.
+
+The eldest and reigning branch of the family was in 1909 represented by
+the emperor Francis Joseph, whose father was the archduke Francis
+Charles (1802-1878), and whose grandfather was the emperor Francis II.
+Francis Joseph's only son Rudolph died in 1889; consequently the heir to
+the Habsburg monarchy was the emperor's nephew Francis Ferdinand (b.
+1863), the eldest of the three sons of his brother Charles Louis
+(1833-1896). In 1875 Francis Ferdinand inherited the wealth of the Este
+family and took the title of archduke of Austria-Este; in 1900 he
+contracted a morganatic marriage with Sophia, countess of Chotek,
+renouncing for his sons the succession to the monarchy. Thus after
+Francis Ferdinand this would pass to the sons of his brother, the
+archduke Otto (1865-1906). One of the emperor's three brothers was
+Maximilian, emperor of Mexico from 1863 to 1867.
+
+With the exception of Charles V. the Habsburgs have produced no
+statesmen of great ability, while several members of the family have
+displayed marked traces of insanity. Nevertheless they secured, and for
+over 350 years they kept, the first place among the potentates of
+Europe; a dignity in origin and theory elective becoming in practice
+hereditary in their house. This position they owe to some extent to the
+tenacity with which they have clung to the various lands and dignities
+which have passed into their possession, but they owe it much more to a
+series of fortunate marriages and opportune deaths. The union of
+Maximilian and Mary of Burgundy, of Philip the Handsome and Joanna of
+Spain, of Ferdinand and Anna of Hungary and Bohemia; the death of
+Ottakar of Bohemia, of John, the only son of Ferdinand and Isabella of
+Spain, of Louis of Hungary and Bohemia--these are the corner-stones upon
+which the Habsburg monarchy has been built.
+
+  For the origin and early history of the Habsburgs see G. de Roo,
+  _Annales rerum ab Austriacis Habsburgicae gentis principibus a
+  Rudolpho I. usque ad Carolum V. gestarum_ (Innsbruck, 1592, fol.); M.
+  Herrgott, _Genealogia diplomatica augustae gentis Habsburgicae_
+  (Vienna, 1737-1738); E. M. Furst von Lichnowsky, _Geschichte des
+  Hauses Habsburg_ (Vienna, 1836-1844); A. Schulte, _Geschichte der
+  Habsburger in den ersten drei Jahrhunderten_ (Innsbruck, 1887); T. von
+  Liebenau, _Die Anfange des Hauses Habsburg_ (Vienna, 1883); W. Merz,
+  _Die Habsburg_ (Aarau, 1896); W. Gisi, _Der Ursprung der Hauser
+  Zahringen und Habsburg_ (1888); and F. Weihrich, _Stammtafel zur
+  Geschichte des Hauses Habsburg_ (Vienna, 1893). For the history of the
+  Habsburg monarchy see Langl, _Die Habsburg und die denkwurdigen
+  Statten ihrer Umgebung_ (Vienna, 1895); and E. A. Freeman, _Historical
+  Geography of Europe_ (1881). Two English books on the subject are J.
+  Gilbart-Smith, _The Cradle of the Hapsburgs_ (1907); and A. R. and E.
+  Colquhoun, _The Whirlpool of Europe, Austria-Hungary and the
+  Hapsburgs_ (1906).     (A. W. H.*)
+
+
+
+
+HACHETTE, JEAN NICOLAS PIERRE (1769-1834), French mathematician, was
+born at Mezieres, where his father was a bookseller, on the 6th of May
+1769. For his early education he proceeded first to the college of
+Charleville, and afterwards to that of Reims. In 1788 he returned to
+Mezieres, where he was attached to the school of engineering as
+draughtsman to the professors of physics and chemistry. In 1793 he
+became professor of hydrography at Collioure and Port-Vendre. While
+there he sent several papers, in which some questions of navigation were
+treated geometrically, to Gaspard Monge, at that time minister of
+marine, through whose influence he obtained an appointment in Paris.
+Towards the close of 1794, when the Ecole Polytechnique was established,
+he was appointed along with Monge over the department of descriptive
+geometry. There he instructed some of the ablest Frenchmen of the day,
+among them S. D. Poisson, F. Arago and A. Fresnel. Accompanying Guyton
+de Morveau in his expedition, earlier in the year, he was present at the
+battle of Fleurus, and entered Brussels with the French army. In 1816,
+on the accession of Louis XVIII., he was expelled from his chair by
+government. He retained, however, till his death the office of professor
+in the faculty of sciences in the Ecole Normale, to which he had been
+appointed in 1810. The necessary royal assent was in 1823 refused to the
+election of Hachette to the Academie des Sciences, and it was not till
+1831, after the Revolution, that he obtained that honour. He died at
+Paris on the 16th of January 1834. Hachette was held in high esteem for
+his private worth, as well as for his scientific attainments and great
+public services. His labours were chiefly in the field of descriptive
+geometry, with its application to the arts and mechanical engineering.
+It was left to him to develop the geometry of Monge, and to him also is
+due in great measure the rapid advancement which France made soon after
+the establishment of the Ecole Polytechnique in the construction of
+machinery.
+
+  Hachette's principal works are his _Deux Supplements a la Geometrie
+  descriptive de Monge_ (1811 and 1818); _Elements de geometrie a trois
+  dimensions_ (1817); _Collection des epures de geometrie_, &c. (1795
+  and 1817); _Applications de geometrie descriptive_ (1817); _Traite de
+  geometrie descriptive_, &c. (1822); _Traite elementaire des machines_
+  (1811); _Correspondance sur l'Ecole Polytechnique_ (1804-1815). He
+  also contributed many valuable papers to the leading scientific
+  journals of his time.
+
+  For a list of Hachette's writings see the _Catalogue of Scientific
+  Papers of the Royal Society of London_; also F. Arago, _Oeuvres_
+  (1855); and Silvestre, _Notice sur J. N. P. Hachette_ (Bruxelles,
+  1836).
+
+
+
+
+HACHETTE, JEANNE, French heroine. Jeanne Laine, or Fourquet, called
+Jeanne Hachette, was born about 1454. We have no precise information
+about her family or origin. She is known solely for her act of heroism
+which on the 27th of June 1472 saved Beauvais when it was on the point
+of being taken by the troops of Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy. The
+town was defended by only 300 men-at-arms, commanded by Louis de
+Balagny. The Burgundians were making an assault, and one of their number
+had actually planted a flag upon the battlements, when Jeanne, axe in
+hand, flung herself upon him, hurled him into the moat, tore down the
+flag, and revived the drooping courage of the garrison. In gratitude for
+this heroic deed, Louis XI. instituted a procession in Beauvais called
+the Procession of the Assault, and married Jeanne to her chosen lover
+Colin Pilon, loading them with favours.
+
+  See Georges Vallat, _Jeanne Hachette_ (Abbeville, 1898).
+
+
+
+
+HACHETTE, LOUIS CHRISTOPHE FRANCOIS (1800-1864), French publisher, was
+born at Rethel in the Ardennes on the 5th of May 1800. After studying
+three years at a normal school with the view of becoming a teacher, he
+was in 1822 on political grounds expelled from the seminary. He then
+studied law, but in 1826 he established in Paris a publishing business
+for the issue of works adapted to improve the system of school
+instruction, or to promote the general culture of the community. He
+published manuals in various departments of knowledge, dictionaries of
+modern and ancient languages, educational journals, and French, Latin
+and Greek classics annotated with great care by the most eminent
+authorities. Subsequently to 1850 he, in conjunction with other
+partners, published a cheap railway library, scientific and
+miscellaneous libraries, an illustrated library for the young, libraries
+of ancient literature, of modern foreign literature, and of modern
+foreign romance, a series of guide-books and a series of dictionaries of
+universal reference. In 1855 he also founded _Le Journal pour tous_, a
+publication with a circulation of 150,000 weekly. Hachette also
+manifested great interest in the formation of mutual friendly societies
+among the working classes, in the establishment of benevolent
+institutions, and in other questions relating to the amelioration of the
+poor, on which subjects he wrote various pamphlets; and he lent the
+weight of his influence towards a just settlement of the question of
+international literary copyright. He died on the 31st of July 1864.
+
+
+
+
+HACHURE (French for "hatching"), the term for the conventional lines
+used in hill or mountain shading upon a map (q.v.) to indicate the slope
+of the surface, the depth of shading being greatest where the slope is
+steepest. The method is less accurate than that of contour lines, but
+gives an indication of the trend and extent of a range or mountain
+system, especially upon small-scale maps.
+
+
+
+
+HACIENDA (O. Span, _facienda_, from the Latin, meaning "things to be
+done"), a Spanish term for a landed estate. It is commonly applied in
+Spanish America to a country estate, on which stock-raising,
+manufacturing or mining may be carried on, usually with a dwelling-house
+for the owner's residence upon it. It is thus used loosely for a country
+house.
+
+
+
+
+HACKBERRY, a name given to the fruit of _Celtis occidentalis_, belonging
+to the natural botanical order _Ulmaceae_, to which also belongs the elm
+(_Ulmus_). It is also known under the name of "sugar-berry,"
+"beaver-wood" and "nettle-tree." The hackberry tree is of middle size,
+attaining from 60 to 80 ft. in height (though sometimes reaching 130
+ft.), and with the aspect of an elm. The leaves are ovate in shape, with
+a very long taper point, rounded and usually very oblique at the base,
+usually glabrous above and soft-pubescent beneath. The soft filmy
+flowers appear early in the spring before the expansion of the leaves.
+The fruit is oblong, about half to three-quarters of an inch long, of a
+reddish or yellowish colour when young, turning to a dark purple in
+autumn. This tree is distributed through the deep shady forests
+bordering river banks from Canada (where it is very rare) to the
+southern states. The fruit has a sweetish and slightly astringent taste,
+and is largely eaten in the United States. The seeds contain an oil like
+that of almonds. The bark is tough and fibrous like hemp, and the wood
+is heavy, soft, fragile and coarse-grained, and is used for making
+fences and furniture. The root has been used as a dye for linens.
+
+
+
+
+HACKENSACK, a town and the county-seat of Bergen county, New Jersey,
+U.S.A., on the Hackensack river, 13 m. N. of Jersey City. Pop. (1890),
+6004; (1900), 9443, of whom 2009 were foreign-born and 515 were negroes;
+(1905) 11,098; (1910) 14,050. It is served by the New York, Susquehanna
+& Western, and the New Jersey & New York railways, both being controlled
+by the Erie Company; and indirectly by the West Shore (at Bogota, 1/2 m.
+S.E.). Electric lines connect Hackensack with Newark, Passaic and
+Paterson, and with New York ferries. The town extends from the low bank
+of the river W. to the top of a ridge, about 40 ft. higher up, from
+which there are good views to the S. and E. Hackensack is principally a
+residential town, though there are a number of manufacturing
+establishments in and near it. Silk and silk goods and wall-paper are
+the principal manufactures. In 1905 the value of the town's factory
+product was $1,488,358, an increase of 90.3% since 1900. There are an
+historic mansion-house and an interesting old Dutch church, both erected
+during the 18th century; and a monument marks the grave of General Enoch
+Poor (1736-1780), an officer in the War of Independence, who was born at
+Andover, Mass., entered the Continental Army from New Hampshire, and
+took part in the campaign against Burgoyne, in the battle of Monmouth
+and in General Sullivan's expedition against the Iroquois. Hackensack
+was settled by the Dutch about 1640, and was named after the Hackensack
+Indians, a division of the Unami Delawares, who lived in the valleys of
+the Hackensack and Passaic rivers, and whose best-known chief was
+Oritany, a friend of the whites. Hackensack is coextensive with the
+township of New Barbadoes, first incorporated with considerably larger
+territory in 1693.
+
+
+
+
+HACKET, JOHN (1592-1670), bishop of Lichfield and Coventry, was born in
+London and educated at Westminster and Trinity College, Cambridge. On
+taking his degree he was elected a fellow of his college, and soon
+afterwards wrote the comedy of _Loiola_ (London, 1648), which was twice
+performed before James I. He was ordained in 1618, and through the
+influence of John Williams (1582-1650) became rector in 1621 of Stoke
+Hammond, Bucks, and Kirkby Underwood, Lincolnshire. In 1623 he was
+chaplain to James, and in 1624 Williams presented him to the livings of
+St Andrew's, Holborn, and Cheam, Surrey. When the so-called
+"root-and-branch bill" was before parliament in 1641, Hacket was
+selected to plead in the House of Commons for the continuance of
+cathedral establishments. In 1645 his living of St Andrew's was
+sequestered, but he was allowed to retain the rectory of Cheam. On the
+accession of Charles II. his fortunes improved; he frequently preached
+before the king, and in 1661 was consecrated bishop of Lichfield and
+Coventry. His best-known book is the excellent biography of his patron,
+Archbishop Williams, entitled _Scrinia reserata: a Memorial offered to
+the great Deservings of John Williams, D.D._ (London, 1693).
+
+
+
+
+HACKETT, HORATIO BALCH (1808-1875), American biblical scholar, was born
+in Salisbury, Massachusetts, on the 27th of December 1808. He was
+educated at Phillips-Andover Academy, at Amherst College, where he
+graduated as valedictorian in 1830, and at Andover Theological Seminary,
+where he graduated in 1834. He was adjunct professor of Latin and Greek
+Languages and Literature at Brown University in 1835-1838 and professor
+of Hebrew Literature there in 1838-1839, was ordained to the Baptist
+ministry in 1839--he had become a Baptist at Andover as the result of
+preparing a paper on baptism in the New Testament and the Fathers--and
+in 1839-1868 he was professor of Biblical literature and interpretation
+in Newton Theological Institution where his most important work was the
+introduction of the modern German methods of Biblical criticism, which
+he had learned from Moses Stuart at Andover and with which he made
+himself more familiar in Germany (especially under Tholuck at Halle) in
+1841. He travelled in Egypt and Palestine in 1852, and in 1858-1859 in
+Greece, becoming proficient in modern Greek. From 1870 until his death
+in Rochester, New York, on the 2nd of November 1875, he was professor of
+Biblical literature and New Testament exegesis in the Rochester
+Theological Seminary. He was a great teacher but a greater critical and
+exegetical scholar.
+
+  He wrote _Christian Memorials of the War_ (1864); an English version
+  of Winer's _Grammar of the Chaldee Language_ (1844); _Exercises in
+  Hebrew Grammar_ (1847); and various articles on the Semitic language
+  and literature in periodicals; but his best-known work was in general
+  commentary on the Bible and translation, and in the special text study
+  of the New Testament. Under these two headings fall: _Illustrations of
+  Scripture; suggested by a Tour through the Holy Land_ (1855); the
+  American revision, with Ezra Abbot, of Smith's _Dictionary of the
+  Bible_, to the British edition of which he had contributed about
+  thirty articles; _Commentary on the Original Text of the Acts of the
+  Apostles_ (1852; 2nd edition, 1858), for many years the best English
+  commentary; _Notes on the Greek Text of the Epistle of Paul to
+  Philemon_, and a _Revised Version_ of Philemon, both published in
+  1860; the English versions, in Schaff's edition of Lange's
+  _Commentaries_, of Van Oosterzee's _Philemon_ and Braune's
+  _Philippians_; and for the American Bible Union Version of the Bible
+  he translated the books of Ruth and Judges, and aided T. J. Conant in
+  editorial revision; and he was one of the American translators for the
+  English Bible revision.
+
+  See _Memorials of Horatio Batch Hackett_ (Rochester, N.Y., 1876),
+  edited by G. H. Whittemore.
+
+
+
+
+HACKETT, JAMES HENRY (1800-1871), American actor, was born in New York.
+After an unsuccessful entry into business, in 1826 he went on the stage,
+where he soon established a reputation as a player of eccentric
+character parts. As Falstaff he was no less successful in England than
+in America. At various times he went into management, and he was the
+author of _Notes and Comments on Shakespeare_ (1863).
+
+His son, JAMES KETELTAS HACKETT (1869-   ), born at Wolfe Island,
+Ontario, and educated at the College of the City of New York, also
+became an actor. He came into prominence at the Lyceum in Daniel
+Frohman's company, and afterwards had considerable success in romantic
+parts. As a manager he stood outside the American syndicate of theatres,
+and organized several companies to play throughout the United States. In
+1897 he married Mary Mannering, the Anglo-American actress.
+
+
+
+
+HACKLANDER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM VON (1816-1877), German novelist and
+dramatist, was born at Burtscheid near Aix-la-Chapelle on the 1st of
+November 1816. Having served an apprenticeship in a commercial house, he
+entered the Prussian artillery, but, disappointed at not finding
+advancement, returned to business. A soldier's life had a fascination
+for him, and he made his debut as an author with _Bilder aus dem
+Soldatenleben im Frieden_ (1841). After a journey to the east, he was
+appointed secretary to the crown prince of Wurttemberg, whom he
+accompanied on his travels. _Wachtstubenabenteuer_, a continuation of
+his first work, appeared in 1845, and it was followed by _Bilder aus dem
+Soldatenleben im Kriege_ (1849-1850). As a result of a tour in Spain in
+1854, appeared _Ein Winter in Spanien_ (1855). In 1857 he founded, in
+conjunction with Edmund von Zoller, the illustrated weekly, _Uber Land
+und Meer_. In 1859 Hacklander was appointed director of royal parks and
+public gardens at Stuttgart, and in this post did much towards the
+embellishment of the city. In 1859 he was attached to the headquarters
+staff of the Austrian army during the Italian war; in 1861 he was raised
+to an hereditary knighthood in Austria; in 1864 he retired into private
+life, and died on the 6th of July 1877. Hacklander's literary talent is
+confined within narrow limits. There is much in his works of lively,
+adventurous and even romantic description, but the character-drawing is
+feeble and superficial.
+
+  Hacklander was a voluminous writer; the most complete edition of his
+  works is the third, published at Stuttgart in 1876, in 60 volumes.
+  There is also a good selection in 20 volumes (1881). Among his novels,
+  _Namenlose Geschichten_ (1851); _Eugen Stillfried_ (1852); _Krieg und
+  Frieden_ (1859), and the comedies _Der geheime Agent_ (1850) and
+  _Magnetische Kuren_ (1851) may be specially mentioned. His
+  autobiography appeared in 1878 under the title, _Der Roman meines
+  Lebens_ (2 vols.). See H. Morning, _Erinnerungen an F. W. Hacklander_
+  (1878).
+
+
+
+
+HACKNEY, a north-eastern metropolitan borough of London, England,
+bounded W. by Stoke Newington and Islington, and S. by Shoreditch,
+Bethnal Green and Poplar, and extending N. and E. to the boundary of the
+county of London. Pop. (1901), 219,272. It is a poor and populous
+district, in which the main thoroughfares are Kingsland Road, continued
+N. as Stoke Newington Road and Stamford Hill; Mare Street, continued
+N.W. as Clapton Road to join Stamford Hill; and Lea Bridge Road running
+N.E. towards Walthamstow and Low Leyton. The borough includes the
+districts of Clapton in the north, Homerton in the east, and Dalston and
+part of Kingsland in the west. On the east lies the open flat valley of
+the Lea, which flows in several branches, and is bordered, immediately
+outside the confines of the borough, by the extensive reservoirs of the
+East London water-works. In these low lands lie the Hackney Marshes (338
+acres; among several so-called marshes in the Lea valley), and the
+borough also contains part of Victoria Park and a number of open spaces
+collectively called the Hackney Commons, including Mill Fields, Hackney
+Downs, London Fields, &c. The total area of open spaces exceeds 500
+acres. The tower of the ancient parish church of St Augustine, with the
+chapel of the Rowe family, still stands, and is the only historic
+building of importance. Among institutions are the German hospital,
+Dalston, Metropolitan hospital, Kingsland Road, and Eastern Fever
+hospital, Homerton; and the Hackney polytechnic institute, with which is
+incorporated the Sir John Cass institute. Cass (1666-1718), a merchant
+of the city of London, also a member of parliament and sheriff,
+bequeathed L1000 for the foundation of a free school; in 1732 the
+bequest was increased in accordance with an unfinished codicil to his
+will; and the income provided from it is now about L6000, some 250 boys
+and girls being educated. The parliamentary borough of Hackney comprises
+north, central and south divisions, each returning one member; and the
+northern division includes the metropolitan borough of Stoke Newington.
+The metropolitan borough of Hackney includes part of the Hornsey
+parliamentary division of Middlesex. The borough council consists of a
+mayor, 10 aldermen and 60 councillors. Area, 3288.9 acres.
+
+In the 13th century the name appears as _Hackenaye_ or _Hacquenye_, but
+no certain derivation is advanced. Roman and other remains have been
+found in Hackney Marshes. In 1290 the bishop of London was lord of the
+manor, which was so held until 1550, when it was granted to Thomas, Lord
+Wentworth. In 1697 it came into the hands of the Tyssen family.
+Extensive property in the parish also belonged to the priory of the
+Knights Hospitallers of St John of Jerusalem at Clerkenwell. From the
+16th to the early 19th century there were many fine residences in
+Hackney. The neighbourhood of Hackney had at one time an evil reputation
+as the haunt of highwaymen.
+
+
+
+
+HACKNEY (from Fr. _haquenee_, Lat. _equus_, an ambling horse or mare,
+especially for ladies to ride; the English "hack" is simply an
+abbreviation), originally a riding-horse. At the present day, however,
+the hackney (as opposed to a thoroughbred) is bred for driving as well
+as riding (see HORSE: _Breeds_). From the hiring-out of hackneys, the
+word came to be associated with employment for hire (so "a hack," as a
+general term for "drudge"), especially in combination, e.g.
+hackney-chair, hackney-coach, hackney-boat. The hackney-coach, a coach
+with four wheels and two horses, was a form of hired public conveyance
+(see CARRIAGE).
+
+
+
+
+HADAD, the name of a Syrian deity, is met with in the Old Testament as
+the name of several human persons; it also occurs in compound forms like
+Benhadad and Hadadezer. The divinity primarily denoted by it is the
+storm-god who was known also as Ramman, Bir and Dadda. The Syrian kings
+of Damascus seem to have habitually assumed the title of Benhadad, or
+son of Hadad (three of this name are mentioned in Scripture), just as a
+series of Egyptian monarchs are known to have been accustomed to call
+themselves sons of Amon-Ra. The word Hadadrimmon, for which the inferior
+reading Hadarrimmon is found in some MSS. in the phrase "the mourning of
+(or at) Hadadrimmon" (Zech. xii. 11), has been a subject of much
+discussion. According to Jerome and all the older Christian
+interpreters, the mourning for something that occurred at a place called
+Hadadrimmon (Maximianopolis) in the valley of Megiddo is meant, the
+event alluded to being generally held to be the death of Josiah (or, as
+in the Targum, the death of Ahab at the hands of Hadadrimmon); but more
+recently the opinion has been gaining ground that Hadadrimmon is merely
+another name for Adonis (q.v.) or Tammuz, the allusion being to the
+mournings by which the Adonis festivals were usually accompanied (Hitzig
+on Zech. xii. 11, Isa. xvii. 8; Movers, _Phonizier_, i. 196). T. K.
+Cheyne (_Encycl. Bibl._ s.v.) points out that the Septuagint reads
+simply Rimmon, and argues that this may be a corruption of Migdon
+(Megiddo), in itself a corruption of Tammuz-Adon. He would render the
+verse, "In that day there shall be a great mourning in Jerusalem, as the
+mourning of the women who weep for Tammuz-Adon" (_Adon_ means lord).
+
+
+
+
+HADDINGTON, EARL OF, a Scottish title bestowed in 1627 upon Thomas
+Hamilton, earl of Melrose (1563-1637). Thomas, who was a member of the
+great family of Hamilton, being a son of Thomas Hamilton of Priestfield,
+was a lawyer who became a lord of session as Lord Drumcairn in 1592. He
+was on very friendly terms with James VI., his legal talents being
+useful to the king, and he was one of the eight men who, called the
+Octavians, were appointed to manage the finances of Scotland in 1596.
+Having also become king's advocate in 1596, Hamilton was entrusted with
+a large share in the government of his country when James went to London
+in 1603; in 1612 he was appointed secretary of state for Scotland, and
+in 1613 he was created Lord Binning and Byres. In 1616 he became lord
+president of the court of session, and three years later was created
+earl of Melrose, a title which he exchanged in 1627 for that of earl of
+Haddington. After the death of James I. the earl resigned his offices of
+president of the court of session and secretary of state, but he served
+Charles I. as lord privy seal. He died on the 29th of May 1637.
+Haddington, who was both scholarly and wealthy, left a large and
+valuable collection of papers, which is now in the Advocates' library at
+Edinburgh. James referred familiarly to his friend as _Tam o' the
+Cowgate_, his Edinburgh residence being in this street.
+
+The earl's eldest son THOMAS, the 2nd earl (1600-1640), was a covenanter
+and a soldier, being killed by an explosion at Dunglass castle on the
+30th of August 1640. His sons, THOMAS (d. 1645) and JOHN (d. 1669),
+became respectively the 3rd and 4th earls of Haddington, and John's
+grandson THOMAS (1679-1735) succeeded his father CHARLES (c. 1650-1685),
+as 6th earl in 1685, although he was not the eldest but the second son.
+This curious circumstance arose from the fact that when Charles married
+Margaret (d. 1700), the heiress of the earldom of Rothes, it was agreed
+that the two earldoms should be left separate; thus the eldest son John
+became earl of Rothes while Thomas became earl of Haddington. Thomas was
+a supporter of George I. during the rising of 1715, and was a
+representative peer for Scotland from 1716 to 1734. He died on the 28th
+of November 1735.
+
+The 6th earl was a writer, but in this direction his elder son, CHARLES,
+Lord Binning (1697-1732), is perhaps more celebrated. After fighting by
+his father's side at Sheriffmuir in 1715 and serving as member of
+parliament for St Germans, Binning died at Naples on the 27th of
+December 1732. His eldest son, THOMAS (c. 1720-1794), became the 7th
+earl in 1735, and the latter's grandson THOMAS (1780-1858) became the
+9th earl in 1828. The 9th earl had been a member of parliament from 1802
+to 1827, when he was made a peer of the United Kingdom as Baron Melros
+of Tyninghame, a title which became extinct upon his death. In 1834 he
+became lord-lieutenant of Ireland under Sir Robert Peel, leaving office
+in the following year, and in Peel's second administration (1841-1846)
+he served as first lord of the admiralty and then as lord privy seal.
+When he died without sons on the 1st of December 1858 the earldom
+passed to his kinsman, GEORGE BAILLIE (1802-1870), a descendant of the
+6th earl. This nobleman took the name of Baillie-Hamilton, and his son
+GEORGE (b. 1827) became 11th earl of Haddington in 1870.
+
+  See _State Papers of Thomas, Earl of Melrose_, published by the
+  Abbotsford Club in 1837, and Sir W. Fraser, _Memorials of the Earls of
+  Haddington_ (1889).
+
+
+
+
+HADDINGTON, a royal, municipal and police burgh, and county town of
+Haddingtonshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901), 3993. It is situated on the
+Tyne, 18 m. E. of Edinburgh by the North British railway, being the
+terminus of a branch line from Longniddry Junction. Five bridges cross
+the river, on the right bank of which lies the old and somewhat decayed
+suburb of Nungate, interesting as having contained the Giffordgate,
+where John Knox was born, and where also are the ruins of the
+pre-Reformation chapel of St Martin. The principal building in the town
+is St Mary's church, a cruciform Decorated edifice in red sandstone,
+probably dating from the 13th century. It is 210 ft. long, and is
+surmounted by a square tower 90 ft. high. The nave, restored in 1892, is
+used as the parish church, but the choir and transepts are roofless,
+though otherwise kept in repair. In a vault is a fine monument in
+alabaster, consisting of the recumbent figures of John, Lord Maitland of
+Thirlestane (1545-1595), chancellor of Scotland, and his wife. The
+laudatory sonnet composed by James VI. is inscribed on the tomb. In the
+same vault John, duke of Lauderdale (1616-1682), is buried. In the choir
+is the tombstone which Carlyle erected over the grave of his wife, Jane
+Baillie Welsh (1801-1866), a native of the town. Other public edifices
+include the county buildings in the Tudor style, in front of which
+stands the monument to George, 8th marquess of Tweeddale (1787-1876),
+who was such an expert and enthusiastic coachman that he once drove the
+mail from London to Haddington without taking rest; the corn exchange,
+next to that of Edinburgh the largest in Scotland; the town house, with
+a spire 150 ft. high, in front of which is a monument to John Home, the
+author of _Douglas_; the district asylum to the north of the burgh; the
+western district hospital; the Tenterfield home for children; the free
+library and the Knox Memorial Institute. This last-named building was
+erected in 1879 to replace the old and famous grammar school, where John
+Knox, William Dunbar, John Major and possibly George Buchanan and Sir
+David Lindsay were educated. John Brown (1722-1787), a once celebrated
+dissenting divine, author of the _Self-Interpreting Bible_, ministered
+in the burgh for 36 years and is buried there; his son John the
+theologian (1754-1832), and his grandson Samuel (1817-1856), the
+chemist, noted for his inquiries into the atomic theory, were natives.
+Samuel Smiles (1812-1904), author of _Character, Self-Help_ and other
+works, was also born there, and Edward Irving was for years mathematical
+master in the grammar school. In Hardgate Street is "Bothwell Castle,"
+the town house of the earl of Bothwell, where Mary Queen of Scots rested
+on her way to Dunbar. The ancient market cross has been restored. The
+leading industries are the making of agricultural implements,
+manufactures of woollens and sacking, brewing, tanning and
+coach-building, besides corn mills and engineering works.
+
+The burgh is the retail centre for a large district, and its grain
+markets, once the largest in Scotland, are still of considerable
+importance. Haddington was created a royal burgh by David I. It also
+received charters from Robert Bruce, Robert II. and James VI. In 1139 it
+was given as a dowry to Ada, daughter of William de Warenne, earl of
+Surrey, on her marriage to Prince Henry, the only son of David I. It was
+occasionally the residence of royalty, and Alexander II. was born there
+in 1198. Lying in the direct road of the English invaders, the town was
+often ravaged. It was burned by King John in 1216 and by Henry III. in
+1244. Fortified in 1548 by Lord Grey of Wilton, the English commander,
+it was besieged next year by the Scots and French, who forced the
+garrison to withdraw. So much slaughter had gone on during that period
+of storm and stress that it was long impossible to excavate in any
+direction without coming on human remains. The town has suffered much
+periodically from floods. One of the most memorable of these occurred on
+the 4th of October 1775, when the Tyne rose 8 ft. 9 in. above its bed
+and inundated a great part of the burgh. An inscription in the centre of
+the town records the event and marks the point to which the water rose.
+
+  There are many interesting places within a few miles of Haddington.
+  Five miles E. is Whittingehame House, and 5 m. N.E. is the thriving
+  village of East Linton (pop. 919). About 2-1/2 m. N. lies
+  Athelstaneford (locally, Elshinford), so named from the victory of
+  Hungus, king of the Picts, in the 8th century over the Northumbrian
+  Athelstane. On a hill near Drem, 3-1/2 m. N. by W., are traces of a
+  Romano-British settlement, and the remains of the priest's house of
+  the Knights Templars, to whom the barony once belonged. On the coast
+  is the pretty village of Aberlady on a fine bay, and in the
+  neighbourhood are some of the finest golf links in Scotland, such as
+  Luffness, Gullane, Archerfield and Muirfield. On Gosford Bay is
+  Gosford House, an 18th-century mansion, the seat of the earl of
+  Wemyss. At Gladsmuir, 3-1/2 m. W. of Haddington, alleged by some to
+  have been the birthplace of George Heriot. Principal Robertson was
+  minister and wrote most of his _History of Scotland_. Of the old seat
+  of the Douglases at Longniddry few traces remain, and in the chapel,
+  now in ruins, at the eastern end of the village, John Knox is said to
+  have preached occasionally. At Gifford, 4 m. to the S., John
+  Witherspoon (1722-1794), president of the College of New Jersey
+  (Princeton), and Charles Nisbet (1736-1804), president of Dickinson
+  College, Carlisle, Pennsylvania, were born. A little to the south of
+  Gifford are Yester House, a seat of the marquess of Tweeddale, finely
+  situated in a park of old trees, and the ruins of Yester Castle. The
+  cavern locally known as Hobgoblin Hall is described in _Marmion_, and
+  is associated with all kinds of manifestations of the black art.
+  Lennoxlove, 1-1/2 m. to the S., a seat of Lord Blantyre, was
+  originally called Lethington, and for a few centuries was associated
+  with the Maitlands. Amisfield, adjoining Haddington on the N.E., is
+  another seat of the earl of Wemyss.
+
+
+
+
+HADDINGTONSHIRE, or _East Lothian_, a south-eastern county of Scotland,
+bounded N. by the Firth of Forth, N.E. by the North Sea, E., S.E. and S.
+by Berwickshire, and S.W. and W. by Edinburghshire. It covers an area of
+171,011 acres, or 267 sq. m. Its sea-coast measures 41 m. The Bass Rock
+and Fidra Isle belong to the shire, and there are numerous rocks and
+reefs off the shore, especially between Dunbar and Gullane Bay. Broadly
+speaking, the northern half of the shire slopes gently to the coast, and
+the southern half is hilly. Several of the peaks of the Lammermuirs
+exceed 1500 ft., and the more level tract is broken by Traprain Law
+(724) in the parish of Prestonkirk, North Berwick Law (612), and
+Garleton Hill (590) to the north of the county town. The only important
+river is the Tyne, which rises to the south-east of Borthwick in
+Mid-Lothian, and, taking a generally north-easterly direction, reaches
+the sea just beyond the park of Tynninghame House, after a course of 28
+m., for the first 7 m. of which it belongs to its parent shire. It is
+noted for a very fine variety of trout, and salmon are sometimes taken
+below the linn at East Linton. The Whiteadder rises in the parish of
+Whittingehame, but, flowing towards the south-east, leaves the shire and
+at last joins the Tweed near Berwick. There are no natural lakes, but in
+the parish of Stenton is found Pressmennan Loch, an artificial sheet of
+water of somewhat serpentine shape, about 2 m. in length, with a width
+of some 400 yds., which was constructed in 1819 by damming up the ravine
+in which it lies. The banks are wooded and picturesque, and the water
+abounds with trout.
+
+  _Geology._--The higher ground in the south, including the Lammermuir
+  Hills, is formed by shales, greywackes and grits of Ordovician and
+  Silurian age; a narrow belt of the former lying on the north-western
+  side of the latter, the strike being S.W. to N.E. The granitic mass of
+  Priestlaw and other felsitic rocks have been intruded into these
+  strata. The lower Old Red Sandstone has not been observed in this
+  county, but the younger sandstones and conglomerates fill up ancient
+  depressions in the Silurian and Ordovician, such as that running
+  northward from Oldhamstocks towards Dunbar and the valley of
+  Lauderdale. A faulted-in tract of the same formation, about 1 m. in
+  breadth, runs westward from Dunbar to near Gifford. Carboniferous
+  rocks form the remainder of the county. The Calciferous Sandstone
+  series, shales, thin limestones and sandstones, is exposed on the
+  south-eastern coast; but between Gifford and North Berwick and from
+  Aberlady to Dunbar it is represented by a great thickness of volcanic
+  rocks consisting of tuffs and coarse breccias in the lower beds, and
+  of porphyritic and andesitic lavas above. These rocks are well exposed
+  on the coast, in the Garleton Hills and Traprain Law; the latter and
+  North Berwick Law are volcanic necks or vents. The Carboniferous
+  Limestone series which succeeds the Calciferous Sandstone consists of
+  a middle group of sandstones, shales, coals and ironstones, with a
+  limestone group above and below. The coal-field is synclinal in
+  structure, Port Seton being about the centre; it contains ten seams of
+  coal, and the area covered by it is some 30 sq. m. Glacial boulder
+  clay lies over much of the lower ground, and ridges of gravel and sand
+  flank the hills and form extensive sheets. Traces of old raised
+  sea-beaches are found at several points along the coast. At North
+  Berwick, Tynninghame and elsewhere there are stretches of blown sand.
+  Limestone is worked at many places, and hematite was formerly obtained
+  from the Garleton Hills.
+
+_Climate and Agriculture._--Though the county is exposed to the full
+sweep of the east wind during March, April and May, the climate is on
+the whole mild and equable. The rainfall is far below the average of
+Great Britain, the mean for the year being 25 in., highest in midsummer
+and lowest in spring. The average temperature for the year is 47 deg. 5
+F., for January 38 deg. and for July 59 deg. Throughout nearly the whole
+of the 19th century East Lothian agriculture was held to be the best in
+Scotland, not so much in consequence of the natural fertility of the
+soil as because of the enterprise of the cultivators, several of whom,
+like George Hope of Fenton Barns (1811-1876), brought scientific farming
+almost to perfection. Mechanical appliances were adopted with
+exceptional alacrity, and indeed some that afterwards came into general
+use were first employed in Haddington. Drill sowing of turnips dates
+from 1734. The threshing machine was introduced by Andrew Meikle
+(1719-1811) in 1787, the steam plough in 1862, and the reaping machine
+soon after its invention, while tile draining was first extensively used
+in the county. East Lothian is famous for the richness of its grain and
+green crops, the size of its holdings (average 200 acres) and the good
+housing of its labourers. The soils vary. Much of the Lammermuirs is
+necessarily unproductive, though the lower slopes are cultivated, a
+considerable tract of the land being very good. In the centre of the
+shire occurs a belt of tenacious yellow clay on a tilly subsoil which is
+not adapted for agriculture. Along the coast the soil is sandy, but
+farther inland it is composed of rich loam and is very fertile. The land
+about Dunbar is the most productive, yielding a potato--the "Dunbar
+red"--which is highly esteemed in the markets. Of the grain crops oats
+and barley are the principal, and their acreage is almost a constant,
+but wheat, after a prolonged decline, has experienced a revival. Turnips
+and potatoes are cultivated extensively, and with marked success, and
+constitute nearly all the green crops raised. Although pasture-land is
+below the average, live-stock are reared profitably. About one-sixteenth
+of the total area is under wood.
+
+_Other Industries._--Fisheries are conducted from Dunbar, North Berwick,
+Port Seton and Prestonpans, the catch consisting chiefly of cod,
+haddock, whiting and shellfish. Fireclay as well as limestone is worked,
+and there are some stone quarries, but the manufactures are mainly
+agricultural implements, pottery, woollens, artificial manures,
+feeding-stuffs and salt, besides brewing. Coal of a very fair quality is
+extensively worked at Tranent, Ormiston, Macmerry and near Prestonpans,
+the coal-field having an area of about 30 sq. m. Limestone is found
+throughout the greater part of the shire. A vein of hematite of a
+peculiarly fine character was discovered in 1866 at Garleton Hill, and
+wrought for some years. Ironstone has been mined at Macmerry.
+
+The North British Company possess the sole running powers in the county,
+through which is laid their main line to Berwick and the south. Branches
+are sent off at Drem to North Berwick, at Longniddry to Haddington and
+also to Gullane, at Smeaton (in Mid-Lothian) to Macmerry, and at
+Ormiston to Gifford.
+
+_Population and Government._--The population was 37,377 in 1891, and
+38,665 in 1901, when 459 persons spoke Gaelic and English, and 7 spoke
+Gaelic only. The chief towns are Dunbar (pop. in 1901, 3581), Haddington
+(3993), North Berwick (2899), Prestonpans (2614) and Tranent (2584). The
+county, which returns one member to Parliament, forms part of the
+sheriffdom of the Lothians and Peebles, and there is a resident
+sheriff-substitute at Haddington, who sits also at Dunbar, Tranent and
+North Berwick. The shire is under school-board jurisdiction, and besides
+high schools at Haddington and North Berwick, some of the elementary
+schools earn grants for higher education. The county council spends a
+proportion of the "residue" grant in supporting short courses of
+instruction in technical subjects (chiefly agriculture), in experiments
+in the feeding of cattle and the growing of crops, and in defraying the
+travelling expenses of technical students.
+
+_History._--Of the Celts, who were probably the earliest inhabitants,
+traces are found in a few place names and circular camps (in the
+parishes of Garvald and Whittinghame) and hill forts (in the parish of
+Bolton). After the Roman occupation, of which few traces remain, the
+district formed part of the Saxon kingdom of Northumbria until 1018,
+when it was joined to Scotland by Malcolm II. It was comparatively
+prosperous till the wars of Bruce and Baliol, but from that period down
+to the union of the kingdoms it suffered from its nearness to the Border
+and from civil strife. The last battles fought in the county were those
+of Dunbar (1650) and Prestonpans (1745).
+
+  See J. Miller, _History of Haddington_ (1844); D. Croal, _Sketches of
+  East Lothian_ (Haddington, 1873); John Martine, _Reminiscences of the
+  County of Haddington_ (Haddington, 1890, 1894); Dr Wallace James,
+  _Writs and Charters of Haddington_ (Haddington, 1898).
+
+
+
+
+HADDOCK (_Gadus aeglefinus_), a fish which differs from the cod in
+having the mental barbel very short, the first anal fin with 22 to 25
+rays, instead of 17 to 20, and the lateral line dark instead of whitish;
+it has a large blackish spot above each pectoral fin--associated in
+legend with the marks of St Peter's finger and thumb, the haddock being
+supposed to be the fish from whose mouth he took the tribute-money. It
+attains to a weight of 15 [lb] and is one of the most valuable food
+fishes of Europe, both fresh and smoked, the "finnan haddie" of Scotland
+being famous. It is common round the British and Irish coasts, and
+generally distributed along the shores of the North Sea, extending
+across the Atlantic to the coast of North America.
+
+
+
+
+HADDON HALL, one of the most famous ancient mansions in England. It lies
+on the left bank of the river Wye, 2 m. S.E. of Bakewell in Derbyshire.
+It is not now used as a residence, but the fabric is maintained in
+order. The building is of stone and oblong in form, and encloses two
+quadrangles separated by the great banqueting-hall and adjoining
+chambers. The greater part is of two storeys, and surmounted by
+battlements. To the south and south-east lie terraced gardens, and the
+south front of the eastern quadrangle is occupied by the splendid
+ball-room or long gallery. At the south-west corner of the mansion is
+the chapel; at the north-east the Peveril tower. The periods of building
+represented are as follows. Norman work appears in the chapel (which
+also served as a church for the neighbouring villagers), also in certain
+fundamental parts of the fabric, notably the Peveril tower. There are
+Early English and later additions to the chapel; the banqueting-hall,
+with the great kitchen adjacent to it, and part of the Peveril tower are
+of the 14th century. The eastern range of rooms, including the
+state-room, are of the 15th century; the western and north-western parts
+were built shortly after 1500. The ball-room is of early 17th-century
+construction, and the terraces and gardens were laid out at this time. A
+large number of interesting contemporary fittings are preserved,
+especially in the banqueting-hall and kitchen; and many of the rooms are
+adorned with tapestries of the 16th and 17th centuries, some of which
+came from the famous works at Mortlake in Surrey.
+
+A Roman altar was found and is preserved here, but no trace of Roman
+inhabitants has been discovered. Haddon was a manor which before the
+Conquest and at the time of the Domesday Survey belonged to the king,
+but was granted by William the Conqueror to William Peverel, whose son,
+another William Peverel, forfeited it for treason on the accession of
+Henry II. Before that time, however, the manor of Haddon had been
+granted to the family of Avenell, who continued to hold it until one
+William Avenell died without male issue and his property was divided
+between his two daughters and heirs, one of whom married Richard Vernon,
+whose successors acquired the other half of the manor in the reign of
+Edward III. Sir George Vernon, who died in 1561, was known as the "King
+of the Peak" on account of his hospitality. His daughter Dorothy married
+John Manners, second son of the earl of Rutland, who is said to have
+lived for some time in the woods round Haddon Hall, disguised as a
+gamekeeper, until he persuaded Dorothy to elope with him. On Sir
+George's death without male issue Haddon passed to John Manners and
+Dorothy, who lived in the Hall. Their grandson John Manners succeeded to
+the title of earl of Rutland in 1641, and the duke of Rutland is still
+lord of the manor.
+
+  See _Victoria County History, Derbyshire_; S. Rayner, _History and
+  Antiquities of Haddon Hall_ (1836-1837); Haddon Hall, _History and
+  Antiquities of Haddon Hall_ (1867); G. le Blanc Smith, _Haddon, the
+  Manor, the Hall, its Lords and Traditions_ (London, 1906).
+
+
+
+
+HADEN, SIR FRANCIS SEYMOUR (1818-1910), English surgeon and etcher, was
+born in London on the 16th of September 1818, his father, Charles Thomas
+Haden, being a well-known doctor and amateur of music. He was educated
+at University College school and University College, London, and also
+studied at the Sorbonne, Paris, where he took his degree in 1840. He was
+admitted as a member of the College of Surgeons in London in 1842.
+Besides his many-sided activities in the scientific world, during a busy
+and distinguished career as a surgeon, he followed the art of original
+etching with such vigour that he became not only the foremost British
+exponent of that art but was the principal cause of its revival in
+England. By his strenuous efforts and perseverance, aided by the
+secretarial ability of Sir W. R. Drake, he founded the Royal Society of
+Painter-Etchers and Engravers. As president he ruled the destinies of
+that society with a strong hand from its first beginnings in 1880. In
+1843-1844, with his friends Duval, Le Cannes and Col. Guibout, he had
+travelled in Italy and made his first sketches from nature. Haden
+attended no art school and had no art teachers, but in 1845, 1846, 1847
+and 1848 he studied portfolios of prints belonging to an old second-hand
+dealer named Love, who had a shop in Bunhill Row, the old Quaker quarter
+of London. These portfolios he would carry home, and arranging the
+prints in chronological order, he studied the works of the great
+original engravers, Durer, Lucas van Leyden and Rembrandt. These
+studies, besides influencing his original work, led to his important
+monograph on the etched work of Rembrandt. By lecture and book, and with
+the aid of the memorable exhibition at the Burlington Fine Arts Club in
+1877, he endeavoured to give a just idea of Rembrandt's work, separating
+the true from the false, and giving altogether a nobler idea of the
+master's mind by taking away from the list of his works many dull and
+unseemly plates that had long been included in the lists. His reasons
+are founded upon the results of a study of the master's works in
+chronological order, and are clearly expressed in his monograph, _The
+Etched Work of Rembrandt critically reconsidered_, privately printed in
+1877, and in _The Etched Work of Rembrandt True and False_ (1895).
+Notwithstanding all this study of the old masters of his art, Haden's
+own plates are perhaps more individual than any artist's, and are
+particularly noticeable for a fine original treatment of landscape
+subjects, free and open in line, clear and well divided in mass, and
+full of a noble and dignified style of his own. Even when working from a
+picture his personality dominates the plate, as for example in the large
+plate he etched after J. M. W. Turner's "Calais Pier," which is a
+classical example of what interpretative work can do in black and white.
+Of his original plates, more than 250 in number, one of the most notable
+was the large "Breaking up of the Agamemnon." An early plate, rare and
+most beautiful, is "Thames Fisherman." "Mytton Hall" is broad in
+treatment, and a fine rendering of a shady avenue of yew trees leading
+to an old manor-house in sunlight. "Sub Tegmine" was etched in Greenwich
+Park in 1859; and "Early Morning--Richmond," full of the poetry and
+freshness of the hour, was done, the artist has said, actually at
+sunrise. One of the rarest and most beautiful of his plates is "A
+By-Road in Tipperary"; "Combe Bottom" is another; and "Shere Mill Pond"
+(both the small study and the larger plate), "Sunset in Ireland,"
+"Penton Hook," "Grim Spain" and "Evening Fishing, Longparish," are also
+notable examples of his genius. A catalogue of his works was begun by
+Sir William Drake and completed by Mr N. Harrington (1880). During later
+years Haden began to practise the sister art of mezzotint engraving,
+with a measure of the same success that he had already achieved in pure
+etching and in dry-point. Some of his mezzotints are: "An Early Riser,"
+a stag seen through the morning mists, "Grayling Fishing" and "A Salmon
+Pool on the Spey." He also produced some remarkable drawings of trees
+and park-like country in charcoal.
+
+Other books by Haden not already mentioned are--_Etudes a l'eau forte_
+(Paris, 1865); _About Etching_ (London, 1878-1879); _The Art of the
+Painter-Etcher_ (London, 1890); _The Relative Claims of Etching and
+Engraving to rank as Fine Arts and to be represented in the Royal
+Academy_ (London, 1883); _Address to Students of Winchester School of
+Art_ (Winchester, 1888); _Cremation: a Pamphlet_ (London, 1875); and
+_The Disposal of the Dead, a Plea for Legislation_ (London, 1888). As
+the last two indicate, he was an ardent champion of a system of "earth
+to earth" burial.
+
+Among numerous distinctions he received the Grand Prix, Paris, in 1889
+and 1900, and was made a member of the Institut de France, Academie des
+Beaux-Arts and Societe des Artistes Francais. He was knighted in 1894,
+and died on the 1st of June 1910. He married in 1847 a sister of the
+artist J. A. M. Whistler; and his elder son, Francis Seymour Haden (b.
+1850), had a distinguished career as a member of the government in Natal
+from 1881 to 1893, being made a C.M.G. in 1890.     (C. H.*)
+
+
+
+
+HADENDOA (from Beja _Hada_, chief, and _endowa_, people), a nomad tribe
+of Africans of "Hamitic" origin. They inhabit that part of the eastern
+Sudan extending from the Abyssinian frontier northward nearly to Suakin.
+They belong to the Beja people, of which, with the Bisharin and the
+Ababda, they are the modern representatives. They are a pastoral people,
+ruled by a hereditary chief who is directly responsible to the
+(Anglo-Egyptian) Sudan government. Although the official capital of the
+Hadendoa country is Miktinab, the town of Fillik on an affluent of the
+Atbara is really their headquarters. A third of the total population is
+settled in the Suakin country. Osman Digna, one of the best-known chiefs
+during the Madhia, was a Hadendoa, and the tribe contributed some of the
+fiercest of the dervish warriors in the wars of 1883-98. So determined
+were they in their opposition to the Anglo-Egyptian forces that the name
+Hadendoa grew to be nearly synonymous with "rebel." But this was the
+result of Egyptian misgovernment rather than religious enthusiasm; for
+the Hadendoa are true Beja, and Mahommedans only in name. Their
+elaborate hairdressing gained them the name of "Fuzzy-wuzzies" among the
+British troops. They earned an unenviable reputation during the wars by
+their hideous mutilations of the dead on the battlefields. After the
+reconquest of the Egyptian Sudan (1896-98) the Hadendoa accepted the new
+order without demur.
+
+  See _Anglo-Egyptian Sudan_, edited by Count Gleichen (London, 1905);
+  Sir F. R. Wingate, _Mahdism and the Egyptian Sudan_ (London, 1891); G.
+  Sergi, _Africa: Anthropology of the Hamitic Race_ (1897); A. H. Keane,
+  _Ethnology of the Egyptian Sudan_ (1884).
+
+
+
+
+HADERSLEBEN (Dan. _Haderslev_), a town of Germany, in the Prussian
+province of Schleswig-Holstein, 31 m. N. from Flensburg. Pop. (1905)
+9289. It lies in a pleasant valley on the Hadersleben fjord, which is
+about 9 m. in length, and communicates with the Little Belt, and at the
+junction of the main line of railway from Woyens with three vicinal
+lines. The principal buildings are the beautiful church of St Mary,
+dating from the 13th century, the theological seminary established in
+1870, the gymnasium and the hospital. The industries include
+iron-founding, tanning, and the manufacture of machines, tobacco and
+gloves. The harbour is only accessible to small vessels.
+
+Hadersleben is first mentioned in 1228, and received municipal rights
+from Duke Waldemar II. in 1292. It suffered considerably during the wars
+between Schleswig and Holstein in the 15th century. In November 1864 it
+passed with Schleswig to Prussia. Two Danish kings, Frederick II. and
+Frederick III., were born at Hadersleben.
+
+  See A. Sach, _Der Ursprung der Stadt Hadersleben_ (Hadersleben, 1892).
+
+
+
+
+HADING, JANE (1859-   ), French actress, whose real name was Jeanne
+Alfredine Trefouret, was born on the 25th of November 1859 at
+Marseilles, where her father was an actor at the Gymnase. She was
+trained at the local Conservatoire and was engaged in 1873 for the
+theatre at Algiers, and afterwards for the Khedivial theatre at Cairo,
+where she played, in turn, coquette, soubrette and _ingenue_ parts.
+Expectations had been raised by her voice, and when she returned to
+Marseilles she sang in operetta, besides acting in _Ruy Blas_. Her Paris
+debut was in _La Chaste Suzanne_ at the Palais Royal, and she was again
+heard in operetta at the Renaissance. In 1883 she had a great success at
+the Gymnase in _Le Maitre de forges_. In 1884 she married Victor Koning
+(1842-1894), the manager of that theatre, but divorced him in 1887. In
+1888 she toured America with Coquelin, and on her return helped to give
+success to Lavedan's _Prince d'Aurec_, at the Vaudeville. Her reputation
+as one of the leading actresses of the day was now established not only
+in France but in America and England. Her later repertoire included _Le
+Demi-monde_, Capus's _La Chatelaine_, Maurice Donnay's _Retour de
+Jerusalem_, _La Princesse Georges_ by Dumas fils, and Emile Bergerat's
+_Plus que reine_.
+
+
+
+
+HADLEIGH, a market town in the Sudbury parliamentary division of
+Suffolk, England; 70 m. N.E. from London, the terminus of a branch of
+the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of Urban district (1901), 3245. It lies
+pleasantly in a well-wooded country on the small river Brett, a
+tributary of the Stour. The church of St Mary is of good Perpendicular
+work, with Early English tower and Decorated spire. The Rectory Tower, a
+turreted gate-house of brick, dates from c. 1495. The gild-hall is a
+Tudor building, and there are other examples of this period. There are a
+town-hall and corn exchange, and an industry in the manufacture of
+matting and in malting. Hadleigh was one of the towns in which the
+woollen industry was started by Flemings, and survived until the 18th
+century. Among the rectors of Hadleigh several notable names appear,
+such as Rowland Taylor, the martyr, who was burned at the stake outside
+the town in 1555, and Hugh James Rose, during whose tenancy of the
+rectory an initiatory meeting of the leaders of the Oxford Movement took
+place here in 1833.
+
+Hadleigh, called by the Saxons Heapde-leag, appears in Domesday Book as
+Hetlega. About 885 Aethelflaed, lady of the Mercians, with the consent of
+Aethelred her husband, gave Hadleigh to Christ Church, Canterbury. The
+dean and chapter of Canterbury have held possession of it ever since the
+Dissolution. In the 17th century Hadleigh was famous for the manufacture
+of cloth, and in 1618 was sufficiently important to receive
+incorporation. It was constituted a free borough under the title of the
+mayor, aldermen and burgesses of Hadleigh. In 1635, in a list of the
+corporate towns of Suffolk to be assessed for ship money, Hadleigh is
+named as third in importance. In 1636, owing to a serious visitation of
+the plague, 200 families were thrown out of work, and in 1687 so much
+had its importance declined that it was deprived of its charter. An
+unsuccessful attempt to recover it was made in 1701. There is evidence
+of the existence of a market here as early as the 13th century. James
+I., in his charter of incorporation, granted fairs on Monday and Tuesday
+in Whitsun week, and confirmed an ancient fair at Michaelmas and a
+market on Monday.
+
+
+
+
+HADLEY, ARTHUR TWINING (1856-   ), American political economist and
+educationist, president of Yale University, was born in New Haven,
+Connecticut, on the 23rd of April 1856. He was the son of James Hadley,
+the philologist, from whom, as from his mother--whose brother, Alexander
+Catlin Twining (1801-1884), was an astronomer and authority on
+constitutional law--he inherited unusual mathematical ability. He
+graduated at Yale in 1876 as valedictorian, having taken prizes in
+English, classics and astronomy; studied political science at Yale
+(1876-1877) and at Berlin (1878-1879); was a tutor at Yale in 1879-1883,
+instructor in political science in 1883-1886, professor of political
+science in 1886-1891, professor of political economy in 1891-1899, and
+dean of the Graduate School in 1892-1895; and in 1899 became president
+of Yale University--the first layman to hold that office. He was
+commissioner of the Connecticut bureau of labour statistics in
+1885-1887. As an economist he first became widely known through his
+investigation of the railway question and his study of railway rates,
+which antedated the popular excitement as to rebates. His _Railroad
+Transportation, its History and Laws_ (1885) became a standard work, and
+appeared in Russian (1886) and French (1887); he testified as an expert
+on transportation before the Senate committee which drew up the
+Interstate Commerce Law; and wrote on railways and transportation for
+the Ninth and Tenth Editions (of which he was one of the editors) of the
+_Encyclopaedia Britannica_, for Lalor's _Cyclopaedia of Political
+Science, Political Economy, and Political History of the United Stales_
+(3 vols., 1881-1884), for _The American Railway_ (1888), and for _The
+Railroad Gazette_ in 1884-1891, and for other periodicals. His idea of
+the broad scope of economic science, especially of the place of ethics
+in relation to political economy and business, is expressed in his
+writings and public addresses. In 1907-1908 he was Theodore Roosevelt
+professor of American History and Institutions in the university of
+Berlin.
+
+  Among his other publications are: _Economics: an Account of the
+  Relations between Private Property and Public Welfare_ (1896); _The
+  Education of the American Citizen_ (1901); _The Relations between
+  Freedom and Responsibility in the Evolution of Democratic Government_
+  (1903, in Yale Lectures on the Responsibilities of Citizenship);
+  _Baccalaureate Addresses_ (1907); and _Standards of Public Morality_
+  (1907), being the Kennedy Lectures for 1906.
+
+
+
+
+HADLEY, JAMES (1821-1872), American scholar, was born on the 30th of
+March 1821 in Fairfield, Herkimer county, New York, where his father was
+professor of chemistry in Fairfield Medical College. At the age of nine
+an accident lamed him for life. He graduated from Yale in 1842, having
+entered the Junior class in 1840; studied in the Theological Department
+of Yale, and in 1844-1845 was a tutor in Middlebury College. He was
+tutor at Yale in 1845-1848, assistant professor of Greek in 1848-1851,
+and professor of Greek, succeeding President Woolsey, from 1851 until
+his death in Hew Haven on the 14th of November 1872. As an undergraduate
+he showed himself an able mathematician, but the influence of Edward
+Elbridge Salisbury, under whom Hadley and W. D. Whitney studied Sanskrit
+together, turned his attention toward the study of language. He knew
+Greek, Latin, Sanskrit, Hebrew, Arabic, Armenian, several Celtic
+languages and the languages of modern Europe; but he published little,
+and his scholarship found scant outlet in the college class-room. His
+most original written work was an essay on Greek accent, published in a
+German version in Curtius's _Studien zur griechischen und lateinischen
+Grammatik_. Hadley's _Greek Grammar_ (1860; revised by Frederic de
+Forest Allen, 1884) was based on Curtius's _Schulgrammatik_ (1852, 1855,
+1857, 1859), and long held its place in American schools. Hadley was a
+member of the American Committee for the revision of the New Testament,
+was president of the American Oriental Society (1871-1872), and
+contributed to Webster's dictionary an essay on the _History of the
+English Language_. In 1873 were published his _Introduction to Roman
+Law_ (edited by T. D. Woolsey) and his _Essays, Philological and
+Critical_ (edited by W. D. Whitney).
+
+  See the memorial by Noah Porter in _The New Englander_, vol. xxxii.
+  (Jan. 1873), pp. 35-55; and the sketch by his son, A. T. Hadley, in
+  _Biographical Memoirs_ of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. v.
+  (1905), pp. 247-254.
+
+
+
+
+HADLEY, a township of Hampshire county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., on the
+Connecticut river, about 20 m. N. of Springfield, served by the Boston &
+Maine railway. Pop. (1900), 1789; (1905, state census), 1895; (1910)
+1999. Area, about 20 sq. m. The principal villages are Hadley (or Hadley
+Center) and North Hadley. The level country along the river is well
+adapted to tobacco culture, and the villages are engaged in the
+manufacture of tobacco and brooms. Hadley was settled in 1659 by members
+of the churches in Hartford and Wethersfield, Connecticut, who were
+styled "Strict Congregationalists" and withdrew from these Connecticut
+congregations because of ecclesiastical and doctrinal laxity there. At
+first the town was called Norwottuck, but within a year or two it was
+named after Hadleigh in England, and was incorporated under this name in
+1661. Hopkins Academy (1815) developed from Hopkins school, founded here
+in 1664. The English regicides Edward Whalley and his son-in-law William
+Goffe found a refuge at Hadley from 1664 apparently until their deaths,
+and there is a tradition that Goffe or Whalley in 1675 led the people in
+repelling an Indian attack. From 1675 to 1713 Hadley, being in almost
+constant danger of attack from the Indians, was protected by a palisade
+enclosure and by stockades around the meeting-house. From Hadley,
+Hatfield was set apart in 1670, South Hadley in 1753, and Amherst in
+1759.
+
+  See Alice M. Walker, _Historic Hadley_ (New York, 1906); and Sylvester
+  Judd, _History of Hadley_ (Northampton, 1863; new ed., 1905).
+
+
+
+
+HADRAMUT, a district on the south coast of Arabia, bounded W. by Yemen,
+E. by Oman and N. by the Dahna desert. The modern Arabs restrict the
+name to the coast between Balhaf and Sihut, and the valley of the Wadi
+Hadramut in the interior; in its wider and commonly accepted
+signification it includes also the Mahra and Gara coasts extending
+eastwards to Mirbat; thus defined, its limits are between 14 deg. and 18
+deg. N. and 47 deg. 30' to 55 deg. E., with a total length of 550 m. and
+a breadth of 150 m.
+
+  The coastal plain is narrow, rarely exceeding 10 m. in width, and in
+  places the hills extend to the seashore. The principal ports are
+  Mukalla and Shihr, both considerable towns, and Kusair and Raida,
+  small fishing villages; inland there are a few villages near the foot
+  of the hills, with a limited area of cultivation irrigated by springs
+  or wells in the hill torrent beds. Behind the littoral plain a range
+  of mountains, or rather a high plateau, falling steeply to the south
+  and more gently to the north, extends continuously from the Yemen
+  highlands on the west to the mouth of the Hadramut valley, from which
+  a similar range extends with hardly a break to the border of Oman. Its
+  crest-line is generally some 30 m. from the coast, and its average
+  height between 4000 and 5000 ft. A number of wadis or ravines cutting
+  deeply into the plateau run northward to the main Wadi Hadramut, a
+  broad valley lying nearly east and west, with a total length from its
+  extreme western heads on the Yemen highlands to its mouth near Sihut
+  of over 500 m. Beyond the valley and steadily encroaching on it lies
+  the great desert extending for 300 m. to the borders of Nejd. The most
+  westerly village in the main valley is Shabwa, in ancient days the
+  capital, but now almost buried by the advancing desert. Lower down the
+  first large villages are Henan and Ajlania, near which the wadis 'Amd,
+  Duwan and el 'Ain unite, forming the W. Kasr. In the W. Duwan and its
+  branches are the villages of Haura, el Hajren, Kaidun and al Khureba.
+  Below Haura for some 60 m. there is a succession of villages with
+  fields, gardens and date groves; several tributaries join on either
+  side, among which the W. bin Ali and W. Adim from the south contain
+  numerous villages. The principal towns are Shibam, al Ghurfa, Saiyun,
+  Tariba, el Ghuraf, Tarim, formerly the chief place, 'Ainat and el
+  Kasm. Below the last-named place there is little cultivation Or
+  settled population. The shrines of Kabr Salih and Kabr Hud are looked
+  on as specially sacred, and are visited by numbers of pilgrims. The
+  former, which is in the Wadi Ser about 20 m. N.W. of Shibam, was
+  explored by Theodore Bent in 1894; the tomb itself is of no interest,
+  but in the neighbourhood there are extensive ruins with Himyaritic
+  inscriptions on the stones. Kabr Hud is in the main valley some
+  distance east of Kasm; not far from it is Bir Borhut, a natural
+  grotto, where fumes of burning sulphur issue from a number of volcanic
+  vents; al-Masudi mentions it in the 10th century as an active volcano.
+  Except after heavy rain, there is no running water in the Hadramut
+  valley, the cultivation therefore depends on artificial irrigation
+  from wells. The principal crops are wheat, millet, indigo, dates and
+  tobacco; this latter, known as Hamumi tobacco, is of excellent
+  quality.
+
+Hadramut has preserved its name from the earliest times; it occurs in
+Genesis as Hazarmaveth and Hadoram, sons of Joktan; and the old Greek
+geographers mention Adramytta and Chadramotites in their accounts of the
+frankincense country. The numerous ruins discovered in the W. Duwan and
+Adim, as well as in the main valley, are evidences of its former
+prosperity and civilization.
+
+The people, known as Hadrami (plural Hadarim), belong generally to the
+south Arabian stock, claiming descent from Ya'rab bin Kahtan. There is,
+however, a large number of Seyyids or descendants of the Prophet, and
+of townsmen of northern origin, besides a considerable class of African
+or mixed descent. Van den Berg estimates the total population of
+Hadramut (excluding the Mahra and Gara) at 150,000, of which he locates
+50,000 in the valley between Shibam and Tarim, 25,000 in the W. Duwan
+and its tributaries, and 25,000 in Mukalla, Shihr and the coast
+villages, leaving 50,000 for the non-agricultural population scattered
+over the rest of the country, probably an excessive estimate.
+
+The Seyyids, descendants of [H.]osain, grandson of Mahomet, form a
+numerous and highly respected aristocracy. They are divided into
+families, the chiefs of which are known as Munsibs, who are looked on as
+the religious leaders of the people, and are even in some cases
+venerated as saints. Among the leading families are the Sheikh Abu Bakr
+of Ainat, the el-Aidrus of Shihr and the Sakkaf of Saiyun. They do not
+bear arms, nor occupy themselves in trade or manual labour or even
+agriculture; though owning a large proportion of the land, they employ
+slaves or hired labourers to cultivate it. As compared with the other
+classes, they are well educated, and are strict in their observance of
+religious duties, and owing to the respect due to their descent, they
+exercise a strong influence both in temporal and spiritual affairs.
+
+The tribesmen, as in Arabia generally, are the predominant class in the
+population; all the adults carry arms; some of the tribes have settled
+towns and villages, others lead a nomadic life, keeping, however, within
+the territory which is recognized as belonging to the tribe. They are
+divided into sections or families, each headed by a chief or abu (lit.
+father), while the head of the tribe is called the mukaddam or sultan;
+the authority of the chief depends largely on his personality: he is the
+leader in peace and in war, but the tribesmen are not his subjects; he
+can only rule with their support. The most powerful tribe at present in
+Hadramut is the Kaiti, a branch of the Yafa tribe whose settlements lie
+farther west. Originally invited by the Seyyids to protect the settled
+districts from the attacks of marauding tribes, they have established
+themselves as practically the rulers of the country, and now possess the
+coast district with the towns of Shihr and Mukalla, as well as Haura,
+Hajren and Shibam in the interior. The head of the family has
+accumulated great wealth, and risen to the highest position in the
+service of the nizam of Hyderabad in India, as Jamadar, or commander of
+an Arab levy composed of his tribesmen, numbers of whom go abroad to
+seek their fortune. The Kathiri tribe was formerly the most powerful;
+they occupy the towns of Saiyun, Tarim and el-Ghuraf in the richest part
+of the main Hadramut valley. The chiefs of both the Kaiti and Kathiri
+are in political relations with the British government, through the
+resident at Aden (q.v.). The 'Amudi in the W. Duwan, and the Nahdi,
+Awamir and Tamimi in the main valley, are the principal tribes
+possessing permanent villages; the Saiban, Hamumi and Manahil occupy the
+mountains between the main valley and coast.
+
+The townsmen are the free inhabitants of the towns and villages as
+distinguished from the Seyyids and the tribesmen: they do not carry
+arms, but are the working members of the community, merchants,
+artificers, cultivators and servants, and are entirely dependent on the
+tribes and chiefs under whose protection they live. The servile class
+contains a large African element, brought over formerly when the slave
+trade flourished on this coast; as in all Mahommedan countries they are
+well treated, and often rise to positions of trust.
+
+As already mentioned, a large number of Arabs from Hadramut go abroad;
+the Kaiti tribesmen take service in India in the irregular troops of
+Hyderabad; emigration on a large scale has also gone on, to the Dutch
+colonies in Java and Sumatra, since the beginning of the 19th century.
+According to the census of 1885, quoted by Van den Berg in his _Report_
+published by the government of the Dutch East Indies in 1886, the number
+of Arabs in those colonies actually born in Arabia was 2500, while those
+born in the colonies exceeded 20,000; nearly all of the former are from
+the towns in the Hadramut valley between Shibam and Tarim. Mukalla and
+Shihr have a considerable trade with the Red Sea and Persian Gulf
+ports, as well as with the ports of Aden, Dhafar and Muscat; a large
+share of this is in the hands of Parsee and other British Indian traders
+who have established themselves in the Hadramut ports. The principal
+imports are wheat, rice, sugar, piece goods and hardware. The exports
+are small; the chief items are honey, tobacco and sharks' fins. In the
+towns in the interior the principal industries are weaving and dyeing.
+
+  The Mahra country adjoins the Hadramut proper, and extends along the
+  coast from Sihut eastwards to the east of Kamar Bay, where the Gara
+  coast begins and stretches to Mirbat. The sultan of the Mahra, to whom
+  Sokotra also belongs, lives at Kishin, a poor village consisting of a
+  few scattered houses about 30 m. west of Ras Fartak. Sihut is a
+  similar village 20 m. farther west. The mountains rise to a height of
+  4000 ft. within a short distance of the coast, covered in places with
+  trees, among which are the myrrh- and frankincense-bearing shrubs.
+  These gums, for which the coast was celebrated in ancient days, are
+  still produced; the best quality is obtained in the Gara country, on
+  the northern slope of the mountains. Dhafar and the mountains behind
+  it were visited and surveyed by Mr Bent's party in 1894. There are
+  several thriving villages on the coast, of which el-Hafa is the
+  principal port of export for frankincense; 9000 cwt. is exported
+  annually to Bombay.
+
+  Ruins of Sabaean buildings were found by J. T. Bent in the
+  neighbourhood of Dhafar, and a remarkable cove or small harbour was
+  discovered at Khor Rori, which he identified with the ancient port of
+  Moscha.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--L. Van den Berg, _Le Hadramut et les colonies arabes_
+  (Batavia, 1885); L. Hirsch, _Reise in Sudarabien_ (Leiden, 1897); J.
+  T. Bent, _Southern Arabia_ (London, 1895); A. von Wrede, _Reise in
+  Hadhramut_ (Brunswick, 1870); H. J. Carter, _Trans. Bombay As. Soc._
+  (1845), 47-51; _Journal R.G.S._ (1837).     (R. A. W.)
+
+
+
+
+HADRIA [mod. _Atri_ (q.v.)], perhaps the original terminal point of the
+Via Caecilia, Italy. It belonged to the Praetutii. It became a colony of
+Rome in 290 B.C. and remained faithful to Rome. The coins which it
+issued (probably during the Punic Wars), are remarkable. The crypt of
+the cathedral of the modern town was originally a large Roman cistern;
+another forms the foundation of the ducal palace; and in the eastern
+portion of the town there is a complicated system of underground
+passages for collecting and storing water.
+
+  See _Notizie degli scavi_ (1902), 3.     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+HADRIAN (PUBLIUS AELIUS HADRIANUS), Roman emperor A.D. 117-138, was born
+on the 24th of January A.D. 76, at Italica in Hispania Baetica
+(according to others, at Rome), where his ancestors, originally from
+Hadria in Picenum, had been settled since the time of the Scipios. On
+his father's death in 85 or 86 he was placed under the guardianship of
+two fellow-countrymen, his kinsman Ulpius Trajanus (afterwards the
+emperor Trajan), and Caelius Attianus (afterwards prefect of the
+praetorian guard). He spent the next five years at Rome, but at the age
+of fifteen he returned to his native place and entered upon a military
+career. He was soon, however, recalled to Rome by Trajan, and appointed
+to the offices of _decemvir stlitibus judicandis_, _praefectus feriarum
+Latinarum_, and _sevir turmae equitum Romanorum_. About 95 he was
+military tribune in lower Moesia. In 97 he was sent to upper Germany to
+convey the congratulations of the army to Trajan on his adoption by
+Nerva; and, in January of the following year, he hastened to announce
+the death of Nerva to Trajan at Cologne. Trajan, who had been set
+against Hadrian by reports of his extravagance, soon took him into
+favour again, chiefly owing to the goodwill of the empress Plotina, who
+brought about the marriage of Hadrian with (Vibia) Sabina, Trajan's
+great-niece. In 101 Hadrian was quaestor, in 105 tribune of the people,
+in 106 praetor. He served with distinction in both Dacian campaigns: in
+the second Trajan presented him with a valuable ring which he himself
+had received from Nerva, a token of regard which seemed to designate
+Hadrian as his successor. In 107 Hadrian was _legatus praetorius_ of
+lower Pannonia, in 108 _consul suffectus_, in 112 _archon_ at Athens,
+_legatus_ in the Parthian campaign (113-117), in 117 _consul designatus_
+for the following year, in 119 consul for the third and last time only
+for four months. When Trajan, owing to a severe illness, decided to
+return home from the East, he left Hadrian in command of the army and
+governor of Syria. On the 9th of August 117, Hadrian, at Antioch, was
+informed of his adoption by Trajan, and, on the 11th, of the death of
+the latter at Selinus in Cilicia. According to Dio Cassius (lxix. 1) the
+adoption was entirely fictitious, the work of Plotina and Attianus, by
+whom Trajan's death was concealed for a few days in order to facilitate
+the elevation of Hadrian. Whichever may have been the truth, his
+succession was confirmed by the army and the senate. He hastened to
+propitiate the former by a donative of twice the usual amount, and
+excused his hasty acceptance of the throne to the senate by alleging the
+impatient zeal of the soldiers and the necessity of an imperator for the
+welfare of the state.
+
+Hadrian's first important act was to abandon as untenable the conquests
+of Trajan beyond the Euphrates (Assyria, Mesopotamia and Armenia), a
+recurrence to the traditional policy of Augustus. The provinces were
+unsettled, the barbarians on the borders restless and menacing, and
+Hadrian wisely judged that the old limits of Augustus afforded the most
+defensible frontier. Mesopotamia and Assyria were given back to the
+Parthians, and the Armenians were allowed a king of their own. From
+Antioch Hadrian set out for Dacia to punish the Roxolani, who, incensed
+by a reduction of the tribute hitherto paid them, had invaded the
+Danubian provinces. An arrangement was patched up, and while Hadrian was
+still in Dacia he received news of a conspiracy against his life. Four
+citizens of consular rank were accused of being concerned in it, and
+were put to death by order of the senate before he could interfere.
+Hurrying back to Rome, Hadrian endeavoured to remove the unfavourable
+impression produced by the whole affair and to gain the goodwill of
+senate and people. He threw the responsibility for the executions upon
+the prefect of the praetorian guard, and swore that he would never
+punish a senator without the assent of the entire body, to which he
+expressed the utmost deference and consideration. Large sums of money
+and games and shows were provided for the people, and, in addition, all
+the arrears of taxation for the last fifteen years (about L10,000,000)
+were cancelled and the bonds burnt in the Forum of Trajan. Trajan's
+scheme for the "alimentation" of poor children was carried out upon a
+larger scale under the superintendence of a special official called
+_praefectus alimentorum_.
+
+The record of Hadrian's journeys[1] through all parts of the empire
+forms the chief authority for the events of his life down to his final
+settlement in the capital during his last years. They can only be
+briefly touched upon here. His first great journey probably lasted from
+121 to 126. After traversing Gaul he visited the Germanic provinces on
+the Rhine, and crossed over to Britain (spring, 122), where he built the
+great rampart from the Tyne to the Solway, which bears his name (see
+BRITAIN: _Roman_). He returned through Gaul into Spain, and then
+proceeded to Mauretania, where he suppressed an insurrection. A war with
+the Parthians was averted by a personal interview with their king (123).
+From the Parthian frontier he travelled through Asia Minor and the
+islands of the Aegean to Athens (autumn, 125), where he introduced
+various political and commercial changes, was initiated at the
+Eleusinia, and presided at the celebration of the greater Dionysia.
+After visiting Central Greece and Peloponnesus, he returned by way of
+Sicily to Rome (end of 126). The next year was spent at Rome, and, after
+a visit to Africa, he set out on his second great journey (September
+128). He travelled by way of Athens, where he completed and dedicated
+the buildings (see ATHENS) begun during his first visit, chief of which
+was the Olympieum or temple of Olympian Zeus, on which occasion Hadrian
+himself assumed the name of Olympius. In the spring of 129 he visited
+Asia Minor and Syria, where he invited the kings and princes of the East
+to a meeting (probably at Samosata). Having passed the winter at
+Antioch, he set out for the south (spring, 130). He ordered Jerusalem to
+be rebuilt (see JERUSALEM) under the name of Aelia Capitolina, and made
+his way through Arabia to Egypt, where he restored the tomb of Pompey
+at Pelusium with great magnificence. After a short stay at Alexandria he
+took an excursion up the Nile, during which he lost his favourite
+Antinous. On the 21st of November 130, Hadrian (or at any rate his wife
+Sabina) heard the music which issued at sunrise from the statue of
+Memnon at Thebes (see MEMNON). From Egypt Hadrian returned through Syria
+to Europe (his movements are obscure), but was obliged to hurry back to
+Palestine (spring, 133) to give his personal attention (this is denied
+by some historians) to the revolt of the Jews, which had broken out
+(autumn, 131, or spring, 132) after he had left Syria. The founding of a
+Roman colony on the site of Jerusalem (Dio Cass. lxix. 12) and the
+prohibition of circumcision (Spartianus, _Hadrianus_, 14) are said to
+have been the causes of the war, but authorities differ considerably as
+to this and as to the measures which followed the revolt (see art. JEWS;
+also E. Schurer, _Hist. of the Jewish People_, Eng. tr., div. 1, vol.
+ii. p. 288; and S. Krauss in _Jewish Encyc. s.v._ "Hadrian"), which
+lasted till 135. Leaving the conduct of affairs in the hands of his most
+capable general, Julius Severus, in the spring of 134 Hadrian returned
+to Rome. The remaining years of his life were spent partly in the
+capital, partly in his villa at Tibur. His health now began to fail, and
+it became necessary for him to choose a successor, as he had no children
+of his own. Against the advice of his relatives and friends he adopted
+L. Ceionius Commodus under the name of L. Aelius Caesar, who was in a
+feeble state of health and died on the 1st of January 138, before he had
+an opportunity of proving his capabilities. Hadrian then adopted Arrius
+Antoninus (see ANTONINUS PIUS) on condition that he should adopt M.
+Annius Verus (afterwards the emperor Marcus Aurelius) and the son of L.
+Aelius Caesar, L. Ceionius Commodus (afterwards the emperor Commodus).
+Hadrian died at Baiae on the 10th of July 138.
+
+He was without doubt one of the most capable emperors who ever occupied
+the throne, and devoted his great and varied talents to the interests of
+the state. One of his chief objects was the abolition of distinctions
+between the provinces and the mother country, finally carried out by
+Caracalla, while at the same time he did not neglect reforms that were
+urgently called for in Italy. Provincial governors were kept under
+strict supervision; extortion was practically unheard of; the _jus
+Latii_ was bestowed upon several communities; special officials were
+instituted for the control of the finances; and the emperor's interest
+in provincial affairs was shown by bis personal assumption of various
+municipal offices. New towns were founded and old ones restored; new
+streets were laid out, and aqueducts, temples and magnificent buildings
+constructed. In Italy itself the administration of justice and the
+finances required special attention. Four _legati juridici_ (or simply
+_juridici_) of consular rank were appointed for Italy, who took over
+certain important judicial functions formerly exercised by local
+magistrates (cases of _fideicommissa_, the nomination of guardians). The
+judicial council (_consiliarii Augusti_, later called _consistorium_),
+composed of persons of the highest rank (especially jurists), became a
+permanent body of advisers, although merely consultative. Roman law owes
+much to Hadrian, who instructed Salvius Julianus to draw up an _edictum
+perpetuum_, to a great extent the basis of Justinian's _Corpus juris_
+(see M. Schanz, _Geschichte der romischen Literatur_, iii. p. 167). In
+the administration of finance, in addition to the remission of arrears
+already mentioned, a revision of claims was ordered to be made every
+fifteen years, thereby anticipating the "indictions" (see CALENDAR;
+CHRONOLOGY). Direct collection of taxes by imperial procurators was
+substituted for the system of farming, and a special official
+(_advocatus fisci_) was instituted to look after the interests of the
+imperial treasury. The gift of "coronary gold" (_aurum coronarium_),
+presented to the emperor on certain occasions, was entirely remitted in
+the case of Italy, and partly in the case of the provinces. The
+administration of the postal service throughout the empire was taken
+over by the state, and municipal officials were relieved from the burden
+of maintaining the imperial posts. Humane regulations as to the
+treatment of slaves were strictly enforced; the master was forbidden to
+put his slave to death, but was obliged to bring him before a court of
+justice; if he ill-treated him it was a penal offence. The sale of
+slaves (male and female) for immoral and gladiatorial purposes was
+forbidden; the custom of putting all the household to death when their
+master was murdered was modified. The public baths were kept under
+strict supervision; the toga was ordered to be worn in public by
+senators and equites on solemn occasions; extravagant banquets were
+prohibited; rules were made to prevent the congestion of traffic in the
+streets. In military matters Hadrian was a strict disciplinarian, but
+his generosity and readiness to share their hardships endeared him to
+the soldiers. He effected a material and moral improvement in the
+conditions of service and mode of life, but in other respects he does
+not appear to have introduced any important military reforms. During his
+reign an advance was made in the direction of creating an organized body
+of servants at the disposal of the emperor by the appointment of equites
+to important administrative posts, without their having performed the
+_militiae equestres_ (see EQUITES). Among these posts were various
+procuratorships (chief of which was that of the imperial fisc), and the
+offices _ab epistulis_, _a rationibus_ and _a libellis_ (secretary,
+accountant, receiver of petitions). The prefect of the praetorian guard
+was now the most important person in the state next to the emperor, and
+subsequently became a supreme judge of appeal. Among the magnificent
+buildings erected by Hadrian mention may be made of the following: In
+the capital, the temple of Venus and Roma; his splendid mausoleum, which
+formed the groundwork of the castle of St Angelo; the pantheon of
+Agrippa; the Basilica Neptuni; at Tibur the great villa 8 m. in extent,
+a kind of epitome of the world, with miniatures of the most celebrated
+places in the provinces. Athens, however, was the favourite site of his
+architectural labours; here he built the temple of Olympian Zeus, the
+Panhellenion, the Pantheon, the library, a gymnasium and a temple of
+Hera.
+
+Hadrian was fond of the society of learned men--poets, scholars,
+rhetoricians and philosophers--whom he alternately humoured and
+ridiculed. In painting, sculpture and music he considered himself the
+equal of specialists. The architect Apollodorus of Damascus owed his
+banishment and death to his outspoken criticism of the emperor's plans.
+The sophist Favorinus was more politic; when reproached for yielding too
+readily to the emperor in some grammatical discussion, he replied that
+it was unwise to contradict the master of thirty legions. The Athenaeum
+(q.v.) owed its foundation to Hadrian. He was a man of considerable
+intellectual attainments, of prodigious memory, master of both Latin and
+Greek, and wrote prose and verse with equal facility. His taste,
+however, was curious; he preferred Cato the elder, Ennius and Caelius
+Antipater to Cicero, Virgil and Sallust, the obscure poet Antimachus to
+Homer and Plato. As a writer he displayed great versatility. He composed
+an autobiography, published under the name of his freedman Phlegon;
+wrote speeches, fragments of two of which are preserved in inscriptions
+(a panegyric on his mother-in-law Matidia, and an address to the
+soldiers at Lambaesis in Africa). In imitation of Antimachus he wrote a
+work called _Catachannae_, probably a kind of miscellanea. The Latin and
+Greek anthologies contain about a dozen epigrams under his name. The
+letter of Hadrian to the consul Servianus (in Vopiscus, _Vita
+Saturnini_, 8) is no longer considered genuine. Hadrian's celebrated
+dying address to his soul may here be quoted:--
+
+  "Animula vagula, blandula,
+   Hospes comesque corporis,
+   Quae nunc abibis in loca
+   Pallidula, rigida, nudula;
+   Nec, ut soles, dabis iocos?"
+
+The character of Hadrian exhibits a mass of contradictions, well summed
+up by Spartianus (14, 11). He was grave and gay, affable and dignified,
+cruel and gentle, mean and generous, eager for fame yet not vain,
+impulsive and cautious, secretive and open. He hated eminent qualities
+in others, but gathered round him the most distinguished men of the
+state; at one time affectionate towards his friends, at another he
+mistrusted and put them to death. In fact, he was only consistent in his
+inconsistency (_semper in omnibus varius_). Although he endeavoured to
+win the popular favour, he was more feared than loved. A man of
+unnatural passions and grossly superstitious, he was an ardent lover of
+nature. But, with all his faults, he devoted himself so indefatigably to
+the service of the state, that the period of his reign could be
+characterized as a "golden age."
+
+  The chief ancient authorities for the reign of Hadrian are: the life
+  by Aelius Spartianus in the _Scriptores historiae Augustae_ (see
+  AUGUSTAN HISTORY and bibliography); the epitome of Dio Cassius (lxix.)
+  by Xiphilinus; Aurelius Victor, Epit. 14, probably based on Marius
+  Maximus; Eutropius viii. 6; Zonaras xi. 23; Suidas, _s.v._ [Greek:
+  Adrianos]: and numerous inscriptions and coins. The autobiography was
+  used by both Dio Cassius and Marius Maximus. Modern authorities: C.
+  Merivale, _Hist. of the Romans under the Empire_, ch. lxvi.; H.
+  Schiller, _Geschichte der romischen Kaiserzeit_, i. 2, p. 602 (1883);
+  J. B. Bury, _The Student's Roman Empire_ (1893), where a concise table
+  of the journeys is given; P. von Rohden, _s.v._ "Aelius" (No. 64) in
+  Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_, i. 1 (1894); J. Durr, _Die Reisen
+  des Kaisers Hadrian_ (1881); F. Gregorovius, _The Emperor Hadrian_
+  (Eng. tr. by Mary E. Robinson, 1898); A. Hausrath, _Neutestamentliche
+  Zeitgeschichte_, iii. (1874); W. Schurz, _De mutationibus in imperio
+  ordinando ab imp. Hadr. factis_, i. (Bonn, 1883); J. Plew,
+  _Quellenuntersuchungen zur Geschichte des Kaisers Hadrian_
+  (Strassburg, 1890); O. T. Schulz, "Leben des Kaisers Hadrian,"
+  _Quellenanalysen_ [of Spartianus' _Vita_] (1904); E. Kornemann,
+  _Kaiser Hadrian und der letzte grosse Historiker von Rom_ (1905); W.
+  Weber, _Untersuchungen zur Geschichte des Kaisers Hadrianus_ (1908);
+  H. F. Hitzig, _Die Stellung Kaiser Hadrians in der romischen
+  Rechtsgeschichte_ (1892); C. Schultess, _Bauten des Kaisers Hadrian_
+  (1898); G. Doublet, _Notes sur les oeuvres litteraires de l'empereur
+  Hadrien_ (Toulouse, 1893); J. B. Lightfoot, _Apostolic Fathers_, ii.
+  1, 476 seq.; Sir W. M. Ramsay, _Church in the Roman Empire_, pp. 320
+  seq.; V. Schultze, in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_, vii. 315;
+  histories of Roman literature by Teuffel-Schwabe and Schanz. On Aelius
+  Caesar, see _Class. Quart._, 1908, i.     (T. K.; J. H. F.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The chronology of Hadrian's journeys--indeed, of the whole
+    reign--is confused and obscure. In the above the article by von
+    Rohden in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_ has been followed.
+    Weber's (see Bibliog.) is the most important discussion.
+
+
+
+
+HADRIAN'S WALL, the name usually given to the remains of the Roman
+fortifications which defended the northern frontier of the Roman
+province of Britain, between the Tyne and the Solway. The works
+consisted of (1) a continuous defensive rampart with a ditch in front
+and a road behind; (2) various forts, blockhouses and towers along the
+rampart; and (3) an earthwork to the south of it, generally called the
+Vallum, of uncertain use. The defensive wall was probably first erected
+by Hadrian about A.D. 122 as a turf wall, and rebuilt in stone by
+Septimius Severus about A.D. 208. See further BRITAIN: _Roman_.
+
+
+
+
+HADRUMETUM, a town of ancient Africa on the southern extremity of the
+_sinus Neapolitanus_ (mod. Gulf of Hammamet) on the east coast of
+Tunisia. The site is partly occupied by the modern town of Susa (q.v.).
+The form of the name Hadrumetum varied much in antiquity; the Greeks
+called it [Greek: Adrymes, Adrymetos, Adramytes, Adrametos]: the Romans
+_Adrumetum_, _Adrimetum_, _Hadrumetum_, _Hadrymetum_, &c.; inscriptions
+and coins gave _Hadrumetum_. The town was originally a Phoenician colony
+founded by Tyrians long before Carthage (Sallust, _Jug._ 19). It became
+subject to Carthage, but lost none of its prosperity. Often mentioned
+during the Punic Wars, it was captured by Agathocles in 310, and was the
+refuge of Hannibal and the remnants of his army after the battle of Zama
+in 202. During the last Punic War it gave assistance to the Romans;
+after the fall of Carthage in 146 it received an accession of territory
+and the title of _civitas libera_ (Appian, _Punica_, xciv.; _C.I.L._ i.
+p. 84). Caesar landed there in 46 B.C. on his way to the victory of
+Thapsus (_De bello Afric._ iii.; Suetonius, _Div. Jul._ lix.).
+
+In the organization of the African provinces Hadrumetum became a capital
+of the province of Byzacena. Its harbour was extremely busy and the
+surrounding country unusually fertile. Trajan made it a Latin colony
+under the title of _Colonia Concordia Ulpia Trajana Augusta Frugifera
+Hadrumetina_; a dedication to the emperor Gordian the Good, found by M.
+Cagnat at Susa in 1883 gives these titles to the town, and at the same
+time identifies it with Susa. Quarrels arose between Hadrumetum and its
+neighbour Thysdrus in connexion with the temple of Minerva situated on
+the borders of their respective territories (Frontinus, _Gromatici_, ed.
+Lachmannus, p. 57); Vespasian when pro-consul of Africa had to repress
+a sedition among its inhabitants (Suetonius, _Vesp._ iv.; Tissot,
+_Fastes de la prov. d'Afrique_, p. 66); it was the birthplace of the
+emperor Albinus. At this period the metropolis of Byzacena was after
+Carthage the most important town in Roman Africa. It was the seat of a
+bishopric, and its bishops are mentioned at the councils of 258, 348,
+393 and even later. Destroyed by the Vandals in 434 it was rebuilt by
+Justinian and renamed Justinianopolis (Procop. _De aedif._ vi. 6). The
+Arabic invasion at the end of the 7th century destroyed the Byzantine
+towns, and the place became the haunt of pirates, protected by the
+Kasbah (citadel); it was built on the substructions of the Punic, Roman
+and Byzantine acropolis, and is used by the French for military
+purposes. The Arabic geographer Bakri gave a description of the chief
+Roman buildings which were standing in his time (Bakri, _Descr. de
+l'Afrique_, tr. by de Slane, p. 83 et seq.). The modern town of Susa,
+despite its commercial prosperity, occupies only a third of the old
+site.
+
+In 1863 the French engineer, A. Daux, discovered the jetties and the
+moles of the commercial harbour, and the line of the military harbour
+(Cothon); both harbours, which were mainly artificial, are entirely
+silted up. There remains a fragment of the fortifications of the Punic
+town, which had a total length of 6410 metres, and remains of the
+substructions of the Byzantine acropolis, of the circus, the theatre,
+the water cisterns, and of other buildings, notably the interesting
+Byzantine basilica which is now used as an Arab cafe (Kahwat-el-Kubba).
+In the ruins there have been found numerous columns of Punic
+inscriptions, Roman inscriptions and mosaic, among which is one
+representing Virgil seated, holding the _Aeneid_ in his hand; another
+represents the Cretan labyrinth with Theseus and the Minotaur (Heron de
+Villefosse, _Revue de l'Afrique francaise_, v., December 1887, pp. 384
+and 394; _Comptes rendus de l'Acad. des Inscr. et Belles-Lettres_, 1892,
+p. 318; other mosaics, _ibid._, 1896, p. 578; _Revue archeol._, 1897).
+In 1904 Dr Carton and the abbe Leynaud discovered huge Christian
+catacombs with several miles of subterranean galleries to which access
+is obtained by a small vaulted chamber. In these catacombs we find
+numerous sarcophagi and inscriptions painted or engraved of the Roman
+and Byzantine periods (_Comptes rendus de l'Acad. des Inscr. et
+Belles-Lettres_, 1904-1907; Carton and Leynaud, _Les Catacombes
+d'Hadrumete_, Susa, 1905). We can recognize also the Punic and
+Pagan-Roman cemeteries (_C. R. de l'Acad. des Inscr. et Belles-Lettres_,
+1887; _Bull. archeol. du Comite_, 1885, p. 149; 1903, p. 157). The town
+had no Punic coins, but under the Roman domination there were coins from
+the time of the Republic. These are of bronze and bear the name of the
+city in abbreviations, HADR or HADRVM accompanying the head of Neptune
+or the Sun. We find also the names of local duumvirs. Under Augustus the
+coins have on the obverse the imperial effigy, and on the reverse the
+names and often the effigies of the pro-consuls who governed the
+province, P. Quintilius Varus, L. Volusius Saturninus and Q. Fabius
+Maximus Africanus. After Augustus the mint was finally closed.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--A. Daux, _Recherches sur l'origine et l'emplacement des
+  emporia pheniciens dans le Zeugis et le Byzacium_ (Paris, 1869); Ch.
+  Tissot, _Geographie comparee de la province romaine d'Afrique_, ii. p.
+  149; Cagnat, _Explorations archeol. en Tunisie_ (2nd and 3rd fasc.,
+  1885); Lud. Muller, _Numismatique de l'Afrique ancienne_, ii p. 51; M.
+  Palat, in the _Bulletin arch. du Comite des travaux historiques_
+  (1885), pp. 121 and 150; _Revue archeologique_ (1884 and 1897);
+  _Bulletin des antiquites africaines_ (1884 and 1885); _Bulletin de la
+  Societe archeologique de Sousse_ (first published in 1903); _Atlas
+  archeol. de Tunisie_ (4th fascicule, with the plan of Hadrumetum).
+       (E. B.*)
+
+
+
+
+HAECKEL, ERNST HEINRICH (1834-   ), German biologist, was born at
+Potsdam on the 16th of February 1834. He studied medicine and science at
+Wurzburg, Berlin and Vienna, having for his masters such men as Johannes
+Muller, R. Virchow and R. A. Kolliker, and in 1857 graduated at Berlin
+as M.D. and M.Ch. At the wish of his father he began to practise as a
+doctor in that city, but his patients were few in number, one reason
+being that he did not wish them to be many, and after a short time he
+turned to more congenial pursuits. In 1861, at the instance of Carl
+Gegenbaur, he became _Privatdozent_ at Jena; in the succeeding year he
+was chosen extraordinary professor of comparative anatomy and director
+of the Zoological Institute in the same university; in 1865 he was
+appointed to a chair of zoology which was specially established for his
+benefit. This last position he retained for 43 years, in spite of
+repeated invitations to migrate to more important centres, such as
+Strassburg or Vienna, and at Jena he spent his life, with the exception
+of the time he devoted to travelling in various parts of the world,
+whence in every case he brought back a rich zoological harvest.
+
+As a field naturalist Haeckel displayed extraordinary power and
+industry. Among his monographs may be mentioned those on _Radiolaria_
+(1862), _Siphonophora_ (1869), _Monera_ (1870) and _Calcareous Sponges_
+(1872), as well as several _Challenger_ reports, viz. _Deep-Sea Medusae_
+(1881), _Siphonophora_ (1888), _Deep-Sea Keratosa_ (1889) and
+_Radiolaria_ (1887), the last being accompanied by 140 plates and
+enumerating over four thousand new species. This output of systematic
+and descriptive work would alone have constituted a good life's work,
+but Haeckel in addition wrote copiously on biological theory. It
+happened that just when he was beginning his scientific career Darwin's
+_Origin of Species_ was published (1859), and such was the influence it
+exercised over him that he became the apostle of Darwinism in Germany.
+He was, indeed, the first German biologist to give a whole-hearted
+adherence to the doctrine of organic evolution and to treat it as the
+cardinal conception of modern biology. It was he who first brought it
+prominently before the notice of German men of science in his first
+memoir on the _Radiolaria_, which was completely pervaded with its
+spirit, and later at the congress of naturalists at Stettin in 1863.
+Darwin himself has placed on record the conviction that Haeckel's
+enthusiastic propagandism of the doctrine was the chief factor of its
+success in Germany. His book on _General Morphology_ (1866), published
+when he was only thirty-two years old, was called by Huxley a suggestive
+attempt to work out the practical application of evolution to its final
+results; and if it does not take rank as a classic, it will at least
+stand out as a landmark in the history of biological doctrine in the
+19th century. Although it contains a statement of most of the views with
+which Haeckel's name is associated, it did not attract much attention on
+its first appearance, and accordingly its author rewrote much of its
+substance in a more popular style and published it a year or two later
+as the _Natural History of Creation (Naturliche Schopfungsgeschichte)_,
+which was far more successful. In it he divided morphology into two
+sections--tectology, the science of organic individuality; and
+promorphology, which aims at establishing a crystallography of organic
+forms. Among other matters, he laid particular stress on the
+"fundamental biogenetic law" that ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny, that
+the individual organism in its development is to a great extent an
+epitome of the form-modifications undergone by the successive ancestors
+of the species in the course of their historic evolution. His well-known
+"gastraea" theory is an outcome of this generalization. He divided the
+whole animal creation into two categories--the Protozoa or unicellular
+animals, and the Metazoa or multicellular animals, and he pointed out
+that while the former remain single-celled throughout their existence,
+the latter are only so at the beginning, and are subsequently built up
+of innumerable cells, the single primitive egg-cell (_ovum_) being
+transformed by cleavage into a globular mass of cells (_morula_), which
+first becomes a hollow vesicle and then changes into the _gastrula_. The
+simplest multicellular animal he conceived to resemble this gastrula
+with its two primary layers, ectoderm and endoderm, and the earliest
+hypothetical form of this kind, from which the higher animals might be
+supposed to be actually descended, he called the "gastraea." This theory
+was first put forward in the memoir on the calcareous sponges, which in
+its sub-title was described as an attempt at an analytical solution of
+the problem of the origin of species, and was subsequently elaborated in
+various _Studies on the Gastraea Theory_ (1873-1884). Haeckel, again,
+was the first to attempt to draw up a genealogical tree (_Stammbaum_)
+exhibiting the relationship between the various orders of animals with
+regard both to one another and their common origin. His earliest attempt
+in the _General Morphology_ was succeeded by many others, and his
+efforts in this direction may perhaps be held to culminate in the paper
+he read before the fourth International Zoological Congress, held at
+Cambridge in 1898, when he traced the descent of the human race in
+twenty-six stages from organisms like the still-existing _Monera_,
+simple structureless masses of protoplasm, and the unicellular
+_Protista_, through the chimpanzees and the _Pithecanthropus erectus_,
+of which a few fossil bones were discovered in Java in 1894, and which
+he held to be undoubtedly an intermediate form connecting primitive man
+with the anthropoid apes.
+
+Not content with the study of the doctrine of evolution in its
+zoological aspects, Haeckel also applied it to some of the oldest
+problems of philosophy and religion. What he termed the integration of
+his views on these subjects he published under the title of _Die
+Weltratsel_ (1899), which in 1901 appeared in English as _The Riddle of
+the Universe_. In this book, adopting an uncompromising monistic
+attitude, he asserted the essential unity of organic and inorganic
+nature. According to his "carbon-theory," which has been far from
+achieving general acceptance, the chemico-physical properties of carbon
+in its complex albuminoid compounds are the sole and the mechanical
+cause of the specific phenomena of movement which distinguish organic
+from inorganic substances, and the first development of living
+protoplasm, as seen in the _Monera_, arises from such nitrogenous
+carbon-compounds by a process of spontaneous generation. Psychology he
+regarded as merely a branch of physiology, and psychical activity as a
+group of vital phenomena which depend solely on physiological actions
+and material changes taking place in the protoplasm of the organism in
+which it is manifested. Every living cell has psychic properties, and
+the psychic life of multicellular organisms is the sum-total of the
+psychic functions of the cells of which they are composed. Moreover,
+just as the highest animals have been evolved from the simplest forms of
+life, so the highest faculties of the human mind have been evolved from
+the soul of the brute-beasts, and more remotely from the simple
+cell-soul of the unicellular Protozoa. As a consequence of these views
+Haeckel was led to deny the immortality of the soul, the freedom of the
+will, and the existence of a personal God.
+
+Haeckel's literary output was enormous, and at the time of the
+celebration of his sixtieth birthday at Jena in 1894 he had produced 42
+works with 13,000 pages, besides numerous scientific memoirs. In
+addition to the works already mentioned, he wrote _Freie Wissenschaft
+und freie Lehre_ (1877) in reply to a speech in which Virchow objected
+to the teaching of the doctrine of evolution in schools, on the ground
+that it was an unproved hypothesis; _Die systematische Phylogenie_
+(1894), which has been pronounced his best book; _Anthropogenie_ (1874,
+5th and enlarged edition 1903), dealing with the evolution of man; _Uber
+unsere gegenwartige Kenntnis vom Ursprung des Menschen_ (1898,
+translated into English as _The Last Link_, 1898); _Der Kampf um den
+Entwickelungsgedanken_ (1905, English version, _Last Words on
+Evolution_, 1906); _Die Lebenswunder_ (1904), a supplement to the
+_Riddle of the Universe_; books of travel, such as _Indische
+Reisebriefe_ (1882) and _Aus Insulinde_ (1901), the fruits of journeys
+to Ceylon and to Java; _Kunstformen der Natur_ (1904), with plates
+representing beautiful marine animal forms; and _Wanderbilder_ (1905),
+reproductions of his oil-paintings and water-colour landscapes.
+
+  There are biographies by W. Bolsche (Dresden, 1900, translated into
+  English by Joseph McCabe, with additions, London, 1906) and by
+  Breitenbach (Odenkirchen, 1904). See also Walther May, _Ernst
+  Haeckel_; _Versuch einer Chronik seines Lebens und Werkens_ (Leipzig,
+  1909).
+
+
+
+
+HAEMATITE, or HEMATITE, a mineral consisting of ferric oxide (Fe2O3),
+named from the Greek word [Greek: haima] "blood," in allusion to its
+typical colour, whence it is called also red iron ore. When
+crystallized, however, haematite often presents a dark colour, even
+iron-black; but on scratching the surface, the powder of the streak
+shows the colour of dried blood. Haematite crystallizes in the
+rhombohedral system, and is isomorphous with corundum (Al2O3). The
+habit of the crystals may be rhombohedral, pyramidal or tabular, rarely
+prismatic. In fig. 1 the crystal, from Elba, shows a combination of the
+fundamental rhombohedron (R), an obtuse rhombohedron (s), and the
+hexagonal bi-pyramid (n). Fig. 2 is a tabular crystal in which the basal
+pinacoid (o) predominates. Haematite has no distinct cleavage, but may
+show, in consequence of a lamellar structure, a tendency to parting
+along certain planes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+Crystallized haematite, such as that from the iron-mines of Elba,
+presents a steel-grey or iron-black colour, with a brilliant metallic
+lustre, sometimes beautifully iridescent. The splendent surface has
+suggested for this mineral such names as specular iron ore,
+looking-glass ore, and iron glance (_fer oligiste_ of French writers).
+The hardness of the crystallized haematite is about 6, and the specific
+gravity 5.2. The so-called "iron roses" (_Eisenrosen_) of Switzerland
+are rosette-like aggregates of hexagonal tabular crystals, from fissures
+in the gneissose rocks of the Alps. Specular iron ore occurs in the form
+of brilliant metallic scales on many lavas, as at Vesuvius and Etna, in
+the Auvergne and the Eifel, and notably in the Island of Ascension,
+where the mineral forms beautiful tabular crystals. It seems to be a
+sublimation-product formed in volcanoes by the interaction of the vapour
+of ferric chloride and steam.
+
+Specular haematite forms a constituent of certain schistose rocks, such
+as the Brazilian itabirite. In the Marquette district of Michigan (Lake
+Superior) schistose specular ore occurs in important deposits,
+associated with a jasper rock, in which the ore alternates with bands of
+red quartzite. Micaceous iron ore consists of delicate steel-grey scales
+of specular haematite, unctuous to the touch, used as a lubricant and
+also as a pigment. It is worked in Devonshire under the name of shining
+ore. Very thin laminae of haematite, blood-red by transmitted light,
+occur as microscopic enclosures in certain minerals, such as carnallite
+and sun-stone, to which they impart colour and lustre.
+
+Much haematite occurs in a compact or massive form, often mammillary,
+and presenting on fracture a fibrous structure. The reniform masses are
+known as kidney ore. Such red ore is generally neither so dense nor so
+hard as the crystals. It often passes into an earthy form, termed soft
+red ore, and when mixed with more or less clay constitutes red ochre,
+ruddle or reddle (Ger. _Rotel_).
+
+The hard haematite is occasionally cut and polished as an ornamental
+stone, and certain kinds have been made into beads simulating black
+pearls. It was worked by the Assyrians for their engraved
+cylinder-seals, and was used by the gnostics for amulets. Some of the
+native tribes in the Congo basin employ it as a material for axes. The
+hard fibrous ore of Cumberland is known as pencil ore, and is employed
+for the burnishers used by bookbinders and others. Santiago de
+Compostela in Spain furnishes a considerable supply of haematite
+burnishers.
+
+Haematite is an important ore of iron (q.v.), and is extensively worked
+in Elba, Spain (Bilbao), Scandinavia, the Lake Superior region and
+elsewhere. In England valuable deposits occur in the Carboniferous
+Limestone of west Cumberland (Whitehaven district) and north Lancashire
+(Ulverston district). The hard ore is siliceous, and fine crystallized
+specimens occur in association with smoky quartz. The ore is remarkably
+free from phosphorus, and is consequently valued for the production of
+pig-iron to be converted into Bessemer steel.     (F. W. R.*)
+
+
+
+
+HAEMATOCELE (Gr. [Greek: haima], blood, and [Greek: kele], tumour), the
+medical term for a localized collection of blood in the tunica vaginalis
+or cord. It is usually the result of a sudden blow or severe strain, but
+may arise from disease. At first it forms a smooth, fluctuating, opaque
+swelling, but later becomes hard and firm. In chronic cases the walls of
+the tunica vaginalis undergo changes. The treatment of a case seen soon
+after the injury is directed towards keeping the patient at rest,
+elevating the parts, and applying an evaporating lotion or ice-bag. In
+chronic cases it may be necessary to lay open the cavity and remove the
+coagulum.
+
+
+
+
+HAEMOPHILIA, the medical term for a condition of the vascular system,
+often running in families, the members of which are known as "bleeders,"
+characterized by a disposition towards bleeding, whether with or without
+the provocation of an injury to the tissue. When this bleeding is
+spontaneous it comes from the mucous membranes, especially from the
+nose, but also from the mouth, bowel and bronchial tubes. Slight bruises
+are apt to be followed by extravasations of blood into the tissues; the
+swollen joints (knee especially) of a bleeder are probably due, in the
+first instance, to the escape of blood into the joint cavity or synovial
+membrane. It is always from the smallest vessels that the blood escapes,
+and may do so in such quantities as to cause death in a few hours.
+
+
+
+
+HAEMORRHAGE (Gr. [Greek: haima], blood, and [Greek: rhegnynai], to
+burst), a general term for any escape of blood from a blood-vessel (see
+Blood). It commonly results from injury, as the tearing or cutting of a
+blood-vessel, but certain forms result from disease, as in scurvy and
+purpura. The chief varieties of haemorrhage are _arterial_, _venous_ and
+_capillary_. Bleeding from an artery is of a bright red colour, and
+escapes from the end of the vessel nearest the heart in jets synchronous
+with the heart's beat. Bleeding from a vein is of a darker colour; the
+flow is steady, and the bleeding is from the distal end of the vessel.
+Capillary bleeding is a general oozing from a raw surface. By
+_extravasation of blood_ is meant the pouring out of blood into the
+areolar tissues, which become boggy. This is termed a _bruise_ or
+_ecchymosis_. _Epistaxis_ is a term given to bleeding from the nose.
+_Haematemesis_ is vomiting of blood, the colour of which may be altered
+by digestion, as is also the case in _melaena_, or passage of blood with
+the faeces, in which the blood becomes dark and tarry-looking from the
+action of the intestinal fluids. _Haemoptysis_ denotes an escape of
+blood from the air-passages, which is usually bright red and frothy from
+admixture with air. _Haematuria_ means passage of blood with the urine.
+
+Cessation of bleeding may take place from natural or from artificial
+means. Natural arrest of haemorrhage arises from (1) the coagulation of
+the blood itself, (2) the diminution of the heart's action as in
+fainting, (3) changes taking place in the cut vessel causing its
+retraction and contraction. In the surgical treatment of haemorrhage
+minor means of arresting bleeding are: cold, which is most valuable in
+general oozing and local extravasations; very hot water, 130 deg. to 160
+deg. F., a powerful haemostatic; position, such as elevation of the
+limb, valuable in bleeding from the extremities; styptics or
+astringents, applied locally, as perchloride of iron, tannic acid and
+others, the most valuable being suprarenal extract. In arresting
+haemorrhage temporarily the chief thing is to press directly on the
+bleeding part. The pressure to be effectual need not be severe, but must
+be accurately applied. If the bleeding point cannot be reached, the
+pressure should be applied to the main artery between the bleeding point
+and the heart. In small blood-vessels pressure will be sufficient to
+arrest haemorrhage permanently. In large vessels it is usual to pass a
+ligature round the vessel and tie it with a reef-knot. Apply the
+ligature, if possible, at the bleeding point, tying both ends of the cut
+vessel. If this cannot be done, the main artery of the limb must be
+exposed by dissection at the most accessible point between the wound and
+the heart, and there ligatured.
+
+Haemorrhage has been classified as--(1) primary, occurring at the time
+of the injury; (2) reactionary, or within twenty-four hours of the
+accident, during the stage of reaction; (3) secondary, occurring at a
+later period and caused by faulty application of a ligature or septic
+condition of the wound. In severe haemorrhage, as from the division of a
+large artery, the patient may collapse and death ensue from syncope. In
+this case stimulants and strychnine may be given, but they should be
+avoided until it is certain the bleeding has been properly controlled,
+as they tend to increase it. Transfusion of blood directly from the
+vein of a healthy person to the blood-vessels of the patient, and
+infusion of saline solution into a vein, may be practised (see Shock).
+In a congenital condition known as _haemophylia_ (q.v.) it is difficult
+to stop the flow of blood.
+
+The surgical procedure for the treatment of an open wound is--(1) arrest
+of haemorrhage; (2) cleansing of the wound and removal of any foreign
+bodies; (3) careful apposition of its edges and surfaces--the edges
+being best brought in contact by sutures of aseptic silk or catgut, the
+surfaces by carefully applied pressure; (4) free drainage, if necessary,
+to prevent accumulation either of blood or serous effusion; (5)
+avoidance of sepsis; (6) perfect rest of the part. These methods of
+treatment require to be modified for wounds in special situations and
+for those in which there is much contusion and laceration. When a
+special poison has entered the wound at the time of its infliction or at
+some subsequent date, it is necessary to provide against septic
+conditions of the wound itself and blood-poisoning of the general
+circulation.
+
+
+
+
+HAEMORRHOIDS, or Hemorrhoids (from Gr. [Greek: haima], blood, and [Greek:
+rhein], to flow), commonly called _piles_, swellings formed by the
+dilatation of veins of the lowest part of the bowel, or of those just
+outside the margin of its aperture. The former, _internal piles_, are
+covered by mucous membrane; the latter, _external piles_, are just
+beneath the skin. As the veins of the lining of the bowel become dilated
+they form definite bulgings within the bowel, and, at last increasing in
+size, escape through the anus when a motion is being passed. Growing
+still larger, they may come down spontaneously when the individual is
+standing or walking, and they are apt to be a grave source of pain or
+annoyance. Eventually they may remain constantly protruded--nevertheless,
+they are still _internal_ piles because they arise from the interior of
+the bowel. Though a pile is sometimes solitary, there are usually several
+of them. They are apt to become inflamed, and the inflammation is
+associated with heat, pain, discharge and general uneasiness; ulceration
+and bleeding are also common symptoms, hence the term "bleeding piles."
+The _external pile_ is covered by the thin dark-coloured skin of the anal
+margin. Severe pressure upon the large abdominal veins may retard the
+upward flow of blood to the heart and so give rise to piles; this is apt
+to happen in the case of disease of the liver, malignant and other
+tumours, and pregnancy. General weakness of the constitution or of the
+blood-vessels and habitual constipation may be predisposing causes of
+piles. The exciting cause may be vigorous straining at stool or exposure
+to damp, as from sitting on the wet ground. Piles are often only a
+symptom, and in their treatment this fact should be kept in view; if the
+cause is removed the piles may disappear. But in some cases it may be
+impossible to remove the cause, as when a widely-spreading cancerous
+growth of the rectum, or of the interior of the pelvis or abdomen, is
+blocking the upward flow of blood in the veins. Sometimes when a pile has
+been protruded, as during defaecation, it is tightly grasped by spasmodic
+contraction of the circular muscular fibres which guard the outlet of the
+bowel, and it then becomes swollen, engorged and extremely painful; the
+strangulation may be so severe that the blood in the vessels coagulates
+and the pile mortifies. This, indeed, is nature's attempt at curing a
+pile, but it is distressing, and, as a rule, it is not entirely
+successful.
+
+The palliative treatment of piles consists in obtaining a daily and easy
+action of the bowels, in rest, cold bathing, astringent injections,
+lotions and ointments. The radical treatment consists in their removal
+by operation, but this should not be contemplated until palliative
+treatment has failed. The operation consists in drawing the pile well
+down, and strangling the vessels entering and leaving its base, either
+by a strong ligature tightly applied, by crushing, or by cautery. Before
+dealing with the pile the anus is vigorously dilated in order that the
+pile may be dealt with with greater precision, and also that the
+temporary paralysis of the sphincter muscle, which follows the
+stretching, may prevent the occurrence of painful and spasmodic
+contractions subsequently. The ligatures by which the base of the piles
+are strangulated slough off with the pile in about ten days, and in
+about ten days more the individual is, as a rule, well enough to return
+to his work. If, for one reason or another, no operation is to be
+undertaken, and the piles are troublesome, relief may be afforded by
+warm sponging and by sitz-baths, the pile being gently dried afterwards
+by a piece of soft linen, smeared with vaseline, and carefully returned
+into the bowel. Under surgical advice, cocaine or morphia may be brought
+in contact with the tender parts, either in the form of lotion,
+suppository or ointment. In operating upon internal piles it is
+undesirable to remove all the external piles around the anus, lest the
+contraction of the circumferential scar should cause permanent narrowing
+of the orifice. If, as often happens, blood clots in the vein of an
+external pile, the small, hard, tender swelling may be treated with
+anodyne fomentations, or it may be rendered insensitive by the ether
+spray and opened by a small incision, the clot being turned out.
+     (E. O.*)
+
+
+
+
+HAEMOSPORIDIA, in zoology, an order of Ectospora, which although
+comparatively few in number and very inconspicuous in size and
+appearance, have of late years probably attracted greater attention and
+been more generally studied than any other Sporozoa; the reason being
+that they include the organisms well known as malarial parasites. In
+spite, however, of much and careful recent research--to a certain
+extent, rather, as a result of it--it remains the case that the
+Haemosporidia are, in some respects, the group of the Ectospora about
+which our knowledge is, for the time being, in the most unsatisfactory
+condition. Such important questions, indeed, as the scope and boundaries
+of the group, its exact origin and affinities, the rank and
+interclassification of the forms admittedly included in it, are answered
+quite differently by different workers. For example, one well-known
+Sporozoan authority (M. Luhe) has recently united the two groups,
+Haemosporidia and Haemoflagellates, bodily into one, while others (e.g.
+Novy and McNeal) deny that there is any connexion whatever between
+"Cytozoa" and Trypanosomes. Again, the inclusion or exclusion of forms
+like _Piroplasma_ and _Halteridium_ is also the subject of much
+discussion. The present writer accepts here the view that the
+Haemosporidia are derived from Haemoflagellates which have developed a
+gregariniform (Sporozoan) phase at the expense, largely or entirely, of
+the flagelliform one. The not inconsiderable differences met with among
+different types are capable of explanation on the ground that certain
+forms have advanced farther than others along this particular line of
+evolution. In other words, it is most probable that the Haemosporidia
+are to be regarded as comprising various parasites which represent
+different stages intermediate between, on the one side, a Flagellate,
+and on the other, a typical chlamydospore-forming Ectosporan parasite.
+While, however, it is easy enough sharply to separate off all
+Haemosporidia from other Ectospora, it is a very difficult matter to
+define their limits on the former side. Two principal criteria which a
+doubtful haemal parasite might very well be required to satisfy in order
+to be considered as a Haemosporidian rather than a Haemoflagellate are
+(a) the occurrence of schizogony during the "corpuscular" phase in the
+Vertebrate host, and (b) the formation of many germs ("sporozoites")
+from the zygote; so long as these conditions were complied with, the
+present writer, at all events, would not feel he was countenancing any
+protozoological heresy in allowing for the possibility of a Flagellate
+(perhaps trypaniform) phase or features being present at some period or
+other in the life-cycle.[1] To render this article complete, however,
+one or two well-known parasites, hitherto referred to this order, must
+also be mentioned, which, judged by the above (arbitrary) standard, are,
+it may be, on the Haemoflagellate side of the dividing line (e.g.
+_Halteridium_, according to Schaudinn).
+
+The chief characters which distinguish the Haemosporidia from other
+Ectospora are the following. They are invariably blood parasites, and
+for part or all of the trophic period come into intimate relation with
+the cellular elements in the blood. There is always an alternation of
+hosts and of generations, an Invertebrate being the definitive host, in
+which sexual conjugation is undergone and which is to be regarded as the
+primary one, a Vertebrate being the intermediate or secondary one. The
+zygote or sporont is at first capable of movement and known as an
+ookinete. No resistant spores (chlamydospores) are formed, the ultimate
+germs or sporozoites always being free in the oocyst and not enclosed by
+sporocysts.
+
+To Sir E. Ray Lankester is due the honour of discovering the first
+Haemosporidian, a discovery which did not take place until after most of
+the other kinds of Sporozoa were known. In 1871 this author described
+the parasite of the frog, which he later termed _Drepanidium ranarum_.
+The next discovery was the great and far-reaching one of Laveran, who in
+1883 described all the characteristic phases of the malarial parasite
+which are met with in human blood. While regarding the organism as the
+cause of the disease, Laveran did not at once recognize its animal and
+Sporozoan nature, but considered it rather as a vegetable, and termed it
+_Oscillaria malariae_. As in the case of the Trypanosomes, we owe to
+Danilewsky (1885-1889) the first serious attempts to study the
+comparative anatomy and life-history of these parasites, from a
+zoological point of view. Danilewsky first named them Haemosporidia, and
+distinguished between _Haemocytozoa_ and _Leucocytozoa_. To the
+brilliant researches of R. Ross and Grassi in the closing years of the
+19th century is due the realization of the essential part played by the
+gnat or mosquito in the life-cycle and transmission of the parasites;
+and to MacCallum belongs the credit of first observing the true sexual
+conjugation, in the case of a _Halteridium_. Since then, thanks to the
+labours of Argutinsky and Schaudinn, our knowledge of the malarial
+parasites has steadily increased. Until quite recently, however, very
+little was known about the Haemosporidia of cold-blooded Vertebrates;
+but in 1903 Siegel and Schaudinn demonstrated that the same role is
+performed in their case by a leech or a tick, and since then many new
+forms have been described.
+
+
+  Occurrence: habitat; effects on host.
+
+The Haemosporidia are widely distributed and of very general occurrence
+among the chief classes of Vertebrates. Among Invertebrates they are
+apparently limited to bloodsucking insects, ticks and leeches.[2] As
+already stated, the universal habitat of the parasites in the Vertebrate
+is the blood; as a result, of course, they are to be met with in the
+capillaries of practically all the important organs of the body; and it
+is to be noted that while certain phases (e.g. growing trophozoites,
+mature gametocytes) are found in the peripheral circulation, others
+(e.g. schizogonous "rosettes," young gametocytes) occur in the internal
+organs, liver, kidneys, &c., where the circulation is sluggish. The
+relation of the parasites to the blood-cells varies greatly. Most
+attack, probably exclusively, the red blood corpuscles (haematids); a
+few, however, select the leucocytes, and are therefore known as
+Leucocytozoa. In the case of Mammalian and Avian forms (malarial
+parasites) Schaudinn and Argutinsky have shown that the trophic and
+schizogonic phases are not really endoglobular but closely attached to
+the corpuscle, hollowing out a depression or space into which they
+nestle; the gametocytes, on the other hand, are actually intercellular.
+Forms parasitic in cold-blooded Vertebrates, on the contrary, are
+always, so far as is known, endoglobular when in relation with the
+corpuscles; and the same is apparently the case with the Mammalian
+parasite, _Piroplasma_. Although in no instance so far described is the
+parasite actually intranuclear (as certain Coccidia are), in one or two
+cases (e.g. _Karyolysus_ of lizards and certain species of
+_Haemogregarina_) it reacts markedly upon the nucleus and soon causes
+its disintegration. While many Haemosporidia (e.g. malarial parasites,
+with the exception of _Halteridium_) remain in connexion with the same
+corpuscle throughout the whole period of growth and schizogony, the new
+generation of merozoites first being set free from the broken-down cell,
+others (the Haemogregarines, broadly speaking, and also _Halteridium_)
+leave one corpuscle after a short time, wander about free in the plasma,
+and then seek out another; and this may be repeated until the parasite
+is ready for schizogony, which generally occurs in the corpuscle.
+
+As in the case of Trypanosomes (q.v.), normally--that is to say, when in
+an accustomed, tolerant host, and under natural conditions--Haemosporidia
+are non-pathogenic and do not give rise to any ill-effects in the animals
+harbouring them. When, however, the parasites gain an entry into the
+blood of man or other unadapted animals,[3] they produce, as is well
+known, harmful and often very serious effects. There are three recognized
+types of malarial fever, each caused by a distinct form and characterized
+by the mode of manifestation. Two, the so-called benign fevers, are
+intermittent; namely, tertian and quartan fever, in which the fever
+recurs every second and third day respectively. This is due to the fact
+that schizogony takes different lengths of time in the two cases, 48
+hours in the one, 72 in the other; the height of the fever-period
+coincides with the break-down of the corpuscle at the completion of the
+process, and the liberation of great numbers of merozoites in the blood.
+The third type is the dangerous aestivo-autumnal or pernicious malaria,
+in which the fever is irregular or continuous during long periods.
+
+A very general symptom is anaemia, which is sometimes present to a
+marked extent, when it may lead to a fatal termination. This is the
+result of the very considerable destruction of the blood-corpuscles
+which takes place, the haemoglobin of which is absorbed by the parasites
+as nutriment. A universal feature connected with this mode of nutrition
+is the production, in the cytoplasm of the parasite, of a brown pigment,
+termed melanin; this does not represent reserve material, but is an
+excreted by-product derived from the haemoglobin. These pigment-grains
+are at length liberated into the blood-stream and become deposited in
+the various organs, spleen, liver, kidneys, brain, causing pronounced
+pigmentation.
+
+Another type of fever, more acute and more generally fatal, is that
+produced by forms belonging to the genus _Piroplasma_, in cattle, dogs,
+horses and other domestic animals in different regions of the globe; and
+recently Wilson and Chowning have stated that the "spotted fever of the
+Rockies" is a human piroplasmosis caused by _P. hominis_. The disease of
+cattle is known variously as Texas-fever, Tristeza, Red-water, Southern
+cattle-fever, &c. In this type of illness the endogenous multiplication
+of the parasites is very great and rapid, and brings about an enormous
+diminution in the number of healthy red blood corpuscles. Their sudden
+destruction results in the liberation of large quantities of haemoglobin
+in the plasma, which turns deep-red in colour; and hence
+haemoglobinuria, which occurs only rarely in malaria, is a constant
+symptom in piroplasmosis.
+
+
+  Example of the life-history.
+
+The parasite of pernicious malaria, here termed _Laverania malariae_,
+will serve very well as a type of the general life-cycle (fig. 1).
+Slight differences shown by the other malarial parasites (_Plasmodium_)
+will be mentioned in passing, but the main divergences which other
+Haemosporidian types exhibit are best considered separately. With the
+bite of an infected mosquito, the minute sickle-like sporozoites are
+injected into the blood. They rapidly penetrate into the blood
+corpuscles, in which they appear as small irregular, more or less
+amoeboid trophozoites. A vacuole next arises in the cytoplasm, which
+increases greatly in size, and gives rise to the well-known, much
+discussed ring-form of the parasite, in which it resembles a
+signet-ring, the nucleus forming a little thickening to one side. Some
+authorities (e.g. Argutinsky) have regarded this structure as being
+really a greatly distended vesicular nucleus, and, to a large extent,
+indeed, an artifact, resulting from imperfect fixation; but Schaudinn
+considers it is a true vacuole, and explains it on the ground of the
+rapid nutrition and growth. Later on this vacuole disappears, and the
+grains of pigment make their appearance. The trophozoite is now large
+and full-grown, and has become rounded and ready for schizogony. The
+nucleus of the schizont divides several times (more or less directly, by
+simple or multiple fission) to form a number of daughter-nuclei, which
+take up a regular position near the periphery. Around these the
+cytoplasm becomes segmented, giving rise to the well-known _corps en
+rosace_. Eventually the merozoites, in the form of little round
+uninuclear bodies, are liberated from the now broken-down corpuscle,
+leaving behind a certain amount of residual cytoplasm containing the
+pigment grains. Besides the difference in the time taken by the complete
+process of schizogony in the various species (see above), there are
+distinctions in the composition of the rosettes. Thus, in _Laverania_,
+the number of merozoites formed is very variable; in _Plasmodium vivax_
+(the tertian parasite) there are only few (9 to 12) merozoites, but in
+_P. malariae_ (the quartan form) they are more numerous, from 12 to 24.
+The liberated merozoites proceed to infect fresh blood corpuscles and a
+new endogenous cycle is started.
+
+After asexual multiplication has gone on for some time, sexual forms
+become developed. According to Schaudinn, the stimulus which determines
+the production of gametocytes instead of schizonts is the reaction of
+the host (at the height of a fever period) upon the parasites. A young
+trophozoite which is becoming a gametocyte is distinguished from one
+which gives rise to a schizont by its much slower rate of growth, and
+the absence of any vacuoles in its cytoplasm. The gametocytes themselves
+are characterized by their peculiar shape, like that of a sausage,
+whence they are very generally known as "crescents." Male and female
+gametocytes are distinguished (roughly) by the arrangement of the
+pigment-grains; in the former, they are fairly evenly scattered
+throughout the cytoplasm, but in the megagametocytes the pigment tends
+to be aggregated centrally, around the nucleus. As they become
+full-grown and mature, however, the gametocytes lose their crescentic
+form and assume that of an oval, and finally of a sphere. At the same
+time, they are set free from the remains of the blood corpuscle. The
+spherical stage is practically the limit of development in the
+Vertebrate host, although, sometimes, the nucleus of the microgametocyte
+may proceed to division. The "crescents" of the pernicious parasite
+afford a very important diagnostic difference from the gametocytes of
+both species of _Plasmodium_, which have the ordinary, rounded shape of
+the schizonts. In the case of the latter, points such as their slower
+growth, their less amoeboid character, and their size furnish the means
+of distinction.
+
+When a gnat or mosquito sucks blood, all phases of the parasite in the
+peripheral circulation at that point may succeed in passing into the
+insect. If this occurs all trophic and schizogonic phases are forthwith
+digested, and the survival of the sexual phases depends entirely upon
+whether the insect is a gnat or mosquito. Only in the latter case can
+further development of the gametocytes go on; in other words, only the
+genus _Anopheles_, and not the genus _Culex_, furnishes specific hosts
+for the malarial parasites. This is a biological fact of considerable
+importance in connexion with the prophylactic measures against malaria.
+In the stomach of an _Anopheles_, the gametocytes quickly proceed to
+gamete-formation. The nucleus of the microgametocyte divides up, and the
+daughter-nuclei pass to the periphery. The surface of the body grows out
+into long, whip-like processes, of which there are usually 6 to 8
+(probably the typical number is 8); each is very motile, in this respect
+strongly resembling a flagellum. This phase may also develop in drawn
+blood, which has, of course, become suddenly cooled by the exposure; and
+it seems evident that it is the change in temperature, from the warm to
+the cold-blooded host, which brings about the development of the actual
+sexual elements. Earlier observers regarded the phase just described as
+representing another parasite altogether, of a Flagellate nature--whence
+the well-known term, _Polymitus_-form; and even more recent workers,
+such as Labbe who connected it with the malarial parasite, failed to
+appreciate its true significance, and considered it rather as a
+degeneration-appearance. The micro-gametes soon liberate themselves from
+the residual cytoplasm of the parent and swim away in search of a
+megagamete; each is a very slender, wavy filament, composed largely of
+chromatic substance. The finer details of structure of the microgamete
+of a malarial parasite cannot be said, however, to be thoroughly known,
+and it is by no means impossible that its structure is really
+trypaniform, as, according to Schaudinn's great work, is the case with
+the merozoites and sporozoites.
+
+[Illustration: From Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_.
+
+FIG. 1.--Diagram of the complete life-cycle of the parasite of
+pernicious malaria, _Laverania malariae_, Gr. et Fel. The stages on the
+upper side of the dotted line are those found in human blood; below the
+dotted line are seen the phases through which the parasite passes in the
+intermediate host, the mosquito. Plan and arrangement chiefly after
+Neveu-Lemaire; details of the figures founded on those of Grassi,
+Schaudinn (Leuckart's _Zoologische Wandtafeln_), Ross and others.
+
+  I.-V. and 6-10 show the schizogony.
+  VI.-XII., The sexual generation.
+  XIII., The motile zygote.
+  XIV.-XIX., Sporogony.
+  I.-III., Young amoebulae in blood-corpuscles.
+  IV., Older, actively amoeboid trophozoite.
+  V., Still older, less amoeboid trophozoite.
+  6, Mature schizont.
+  7, Schizont, with nucleus dividing up.
+  8, Young rosette stage.
+  9, Fully formed rosette stage.
+  10, Merozoites free in the blood by breaking down of the corpuscle.
+  VI., Young indifferent gametocyte.
+  VII., a, Male crescent.
+  VII., b, Female crescent.
+  VIII., a and b, The gametocytes becoming oval.
+  IX., a and b, Spherical gametocytes; in the male (IX. a) the nucleus
+    has divided up.
+  X., a and b, Formation of gametes; in the male (X. a) the so-called
+    flagella or male gametes (fl) are thrown out, one of them is seen
+    detached; in the female (X. b) a portion of the nucleus has been
+    expelled.
+  XI., A male gamete penetrating a female gamete at a cone of reception
+    formed near the nucleus.
+  XII., Zygote with two pronuclei in proximity.
+  XIII., Zygote in the motile stage (vermicule or ookinete).
+  XIV., Encysted zygote (oocyst).
+  XV., Commencing multiplication of the nuclei in the oocyst.
+  XVI., Oocyst with numerous sporoblasts.
+  XVII., Commencing formation of sporozoites.
+  XVIII., Full-grown oocyst crammed with ripe sporozoites; on one side
+    the cyst has burst and the sporozoites are escaping.
+  XIX., Free sporozoites, showing their changes of form.
+  n, Nucleus of the parasite.
+  p, Melanin pigment.
+  fl, "Flagella."
+  sp. bl., Sporoblasts.
+  r. n., Residual nuclei.
+  r. p., Residual protoplasm.]
+
+[Illustration: From Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_.
+
+FIG. 2.--Stomach of a mosquito, with cysts of Haemosporidia. (After
+Ross.)
+
+  oes, Oesophagus.
+  st, Stomach.
+  cy, Cysts.
+  Mt, Malpighian tubules.
+  int, Intestine.]
+
+The megagametocyte becomes a megagamete directly after a process of
+maturation, which consists in the expulsion of a certain amount of
+nuclear substance. The actual conjugation is quite similar to the
+process in Coccidia, and the resulting zygote perfectly homologous. In
+the present case, however, the zygote does not at once secrete an
+oocyst, with a thick resistant wall; on the contrary, it changes its
+shape, and becomes markedly gregariniform and active, and is known for
+this reason as an ookinete. The ookinete passes through the epithelial
+layer of the stomach, the thinner and more pointed end leading the way,
+and comes to rest in the connective tissue forming the outer layer of
+the stomach-wall (fig. 2). Here it becomes rounded and cyst-like, and
+grows considerably; for only a thin, delicate cyst-membrane is secreted,
+which does not impede the absorption of nutriment. Meanwhile, the
+nucleus has divided into several, around each of which the cytoplasm
+becomes segmented. Each of these segments ("blastophores,"
+"zoidophores") is entirely comparable to a sporoblast in the Coccidian
+oocyst, the chief difference being that it never forms a spore; moreover
+the segments or sporoblasts in the oocyst of a malarial parasite are
+irregular in shape and do not become completely separated from one
+another, but remain connected by thin cytoplasmic strands. Repeated
+multiplication of the sporoblast-nuclei next takes place, with the
+result that a great number of little nuclei are found all round the
+periphery. A corresponding number of fine cytoplasmic processes grow out
+from the surface, each carrying a nucleus with it, and in this manner a
+huge number of slender, slightly sickle-shaped germs or sporozoites
+("blasts," "zoids," &c.) are formed. Each oocyst may contain from
+hundreds to thousands of sporozoites.
+
+When the sporogony (which lasts about 10 days) is completed, the oocyst
+ruptures and the sporozoites are set free into the body-cavity, leaving
+behind a large quantity of residual cytoplasm, including pigment grains,
+&c. The sporozoites are carried about by the blood-stream; ultimately,
+however, apparently by virtue of some chemotactic attraction, they
+practically all collect in the salivary glands, filling the secretory
+cells and also invading the ducts. When the mosquito next bites a man,
+numbers of them are injected, together with the minute drop of saliva,
+into his blood, where they begin a fresh endogenous cycle.
+
+There is only one other point with regard to the life-history that need
+be mentioned. With the lapse of time all trophic and schizogonic
+(asexual) phases of the parasite in the blood die off. But it has long
+been known that malarial patients, apparently quite cured, may suddenly
+exhibit all the symptoms again, without having incurred a fresh
+infection. Schaudinn has investigated the cause of this recurrence, and
+finds that it is due to the power of the megagametocytes, which are very
+resistant and long-lived, to undergo a kind of parthenogenesis under
+favourable conditions and give rise to the ordinary asexual schizonts,
+which in turn can repopulate the host with all the other phases.
+Microgametocytes, on the other hand, die off in time if they cannot pass
+into a mosquito.
+
+  [Illustration: From Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_.
+
+  FIG. 3.--_Haemogregarina bigemina_, Laveran, from the blood of
+  blennies. (After Laveran, magnified about 1800 diameters.)
+
+    a, The form of the parasite found free in the blood-plasma.
+    b, Parasite within a blood-corpuscle, preparing for division; the
+      nucleus has already divided.
+    c, The parasite has divided into two rounded corpuscles, which
+      assume the form of the free parasite, as seen in d, e and f.
+    N, Nucleus of the blood-corpuscle.
+    n, Nucleus of the parasite. The outline of the blood-corpuscle is
+      indicated by a thick black line.]
+
+
+    Comparative Morphology; variations in the life-cycle where known.
+
+  Various types of form are to be met with among the Haemosporidia. In
+  one, characteristic of most (though not of absolutely all) parasites
+  of warm-blooded Vertebrates, the trophozoites are of irregular
+  amoeboid shape; hence this section is generally known as the
+  _Haemamoebidae_. In another type, characteristic of the parasites of
+  cold-blooded Vertebrates, the body possesses a definite, vermiform,
+  i.e. gregariniform shape, which is retained during the
+  intracorpuscular as well as during the free condition; this section
+  comprises the _Haemogregarinidae_. Allied to this latter type of form
+  are the trophozoites of _Piroplasma_, which are normally pear-shaped;
+  they differ, however, in being very minute, and, moreover, exhibit
+  considerable polymorphism, rod-like (so-called bacillary) and
+  ring-forms being of common occurrence. It is important to note that in
+  a certain species of _Haemogregarina_ (fig. 3) the young trophozoites
+  markedly resemble _Piroplasma_ in their pyriform appearance; and a
+  further point of agreement between the two forms is mentioned below.
+  Lastly there is the Avian genus _Halteridium_, the trophozoites of
+  which are characteristically bean-shaped or reniform. True
+  Haemogregarines also differ in other slight points from "Haemamoebae."
+  Thus the young endoglobular trophozoite does not exhibit a ring
+  (vacuolar) phase; and the cytoplasm never contains, at any period, the
+  characteristic melanin pigment above noted. In some species of
+  _Haemogregarina_ the parasite, while intracorpuscular, becomes
+  surrounded by a delicate membrane, the cytocyst; on entering upon an
+  active, "free" period, the cytocyst is ruptured and left behind with
+  the remains of the corpuscle. A very interesting cytological feature
+  is the occurrence, in one or two Haemosporidia, of nuclear dimorphism,
+  i.e. of a larger and smaller chromatic body, probably comparable to
+  the trophic and kinetic nuclei of a Trypanosome, or of the
+  "Leishman-Donovan" bodies. Schaudinn was the first to notice this
+  character, in _Piroplasma canis_, and his observation has since been
+  confirmed by Luhe.[4] Moreover, Brumpt has also noticed nuclear
+  dimorphism in the ookinete of a species of _Haemogregarina_ in a leech
+  (as the Invertebrate host)--a highly important observation.
+
+  As regards the life-history, the endogenous (schizogonous) cycle is
+  known in many cases. Sometimes schizogony takes the primitive form of
+  simple binary (probably) longitudinal fission; this is the case in
+  _Piroplasma_ (fig. 4) and also in _Haemogregarina bigemina_ just
+  referred to. From this result the pairs of individuals ("twins") so
+  often found in the corpuscles. In addition, however, at any rate in
+  _Piroplasma_, it is probable that multiple division (more allied to
+  ordinary schizogony) also takes place; such is the case, according to
+  Laveran, in _P. equi_, and the occurrence at times of four parasites
+  in a corpuscle, arranged in a cruciform manner, is most likely to be
+  thus explained. Labbe has described schizogony in _Halteridium
+  danilewskyi_ as taking place in a rather peculiar manner; the parasite
+  becomes much drawn-out and halter-like, and the actual division is
+  restricted to its two ends, two clumps of merozoites being formed, at
+  first connected by a narrow strand of unused cytoplasm, which
+  subsequently disappears. Some doubt, however, attaches to this
+  account, as no one else appears to have seen the process. For the
+  rest, schizogony takes place more or less in the customary way,
+  allowing for variations in the mode of arrangement of the merozoites.
+  It remains to be noted that in _Karyolysus lacertarum_, according to
+  Labbe, two kinds of schizont are developed, which give rise,
+  respectively, to micromerozoites and megamerozoites, in either case
+  enclosed in a delicate cytocyst. This probably corresponds to an early
+  sexual differentiation (such as is found among certain Coccidia
+  (q.v.), the micromerozoites producing eventually micro-gametocytes,
+  the others megagametocytes.
+
+  [Illustration: From Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_.
+
+  FIG. 4.--Development and schizogony of _Piroplasma bigeminum_ in the
+  blood-corpuscles of the ox. (After Laveran and Nicolle.)
+
+    a, Youngest form.
+    b, Slightly older.
+    c and d. Division of the nucleus.
+    e and f, Division of the body of the parasite.
+    g, h, i, j, Various forms of the twin parasite.
+    k and l, Doubly infected corpuscles.]
+
+  It has now been recognized for some time that the sexual (exogenous)
+  part of the life-cycle of all the _Haemamoebidae_ takes place in an
+  Invertebrate (Insectan) host, and is fundamentally similar to that
+  above described in those cases where it has been followed. In
+  contradistinction to the malarial parasites, this host, in the Avian
+  forms (_Haemoproteus_ and _Halteridium_)[5] is a species of _Culex_
+  and not of _Anopheles_; in other words, gamete-formation, conjugation
+  and subsequent sporozoite-formation in these cases will only go on in
+  the former. On the other hand, in the case of the Haemogregarines, it
+  was thought until quite lately that the entire life-history, including
+  conjugation and sporogony, went on in the Vertebrate host; and only in
+  1902 Hintze described what purported to be the complete life-history
+  of _Lankesterella (Drepanidium) ranarum_ undergone in the frog. This
+  view was rendered obsolete by the work of Siegel and Schaudinn, who
+  demonstrated the occurrence of an alternation of hosts and of
+  generations in the case of _Haemogregarina stepanovi_, parasitic in a
+  tortoise, and in _Karyolysus lacertarum_; the Invertebrate hosts, in
+  which, in both cases, the sexual process is undergone, being
+  respectively a leech (_Placobdella_) and a tick (_Ixodes_). With this
+  discovery the main distinction (as supposed) between the Haemosporidia
+  of warm and of cold-blooded Vertebrates vanished. It was further
+  acknowledged by Schaudinn (under whom Hintze had worked) that the
+  latter had been misled by Coccidian cysts and spores, which he took
+  for those of _Lankesterella_. The gametogony and sporogony of
+  _Haemogregarina stepanovi_ in the leech agree in essential particulars
+  with the process above described. The microgametes are extremely
+  minute, and the sporozoites, which are developed in the salivary
+  glands, where the motile ookinetes finally come to rest, are extremely
+  "spirochaetiform"--the full significance of this latter fact being,
+  perhaps, not appreciated.
+
+  Christophers recently described some remarkable phases which he
+  regarded as belonging to the cycle of _Haemogregarina gerbilli_ (one
+  of the few Mammalian Haemogregarines known) in a louse
+  (_Haematopinus_). In a private communication, however, the author
+  states that he has probably mistaken phases in the development of an
+  ordinary gregarine parasite in the louse for part of the life-cycle of
+  this Haemogregarine.
+
+  The Mammalian parasite _Piroplasma_ is the one about whose
+  life-history our knowledge is most vague. Besides the typical and
+  generally occurring forms, others have also been observed in the
+  blood, but it is doubtful how far these are to be looked upon as
+  normal; for instance, Bowhill and Le Doux have described, in various
+  species, a phase in which a long, slender pseudopodial-like outgrowth
+  is present, with a swelling at the distal end. It is, moreover, quite
+  uncertain which are the sexual forms, comparable to gametocytes.
+  Doflein regards large pear-shaped forms as such (megagametocytes?),
+  which become spherical when maturing; and Nocard and Motas have
+  figured amoeboid, irregular forms, with the nucleus fragmented and
+  possessing flagella-like processes (possibly microgametes?). The
+  Invertebrate host is well known to be, in the case of all species, a
+  tick; thus bovine piroplasmosis (_P. bigeminum_) in America is
+  conveyed by _Rhipicephalus annulatus_ (_Boophilus bovis_), canine
+  piroplasmosis (_P. canis_) in South Africa by _Haemaphysalis leachi_
+  (and perhaps _Dermacentor reticulatus_), and so on. The manner in
+  which the infection is transmitted by the tick varies greatly. In some
+  cases (e.g. _P. bigeminum_ and _P. canis_) only the generation
+  subsequent to that which receives the infection (by feeding on an
+  infected ox) can transmit it back again to another ox; in other words,
+  true hereditary infection of the ova in the mother-tick is found to
+  occur. The actual period in the life of the daughter-tick at which it
+  can convey the infection apparently varies. On the other hand, in the
+  case of East African coast-fever, Theiler found that hereditary
+  infection does not occur, the same generation transmitting the
+  parasite (_P. parvum_) at different periods of life. Little is
+  certainly known regarding the phases of the parasite which are passed
+  through in the tick. Lignieres has observed a kind of multiple fission
+  in the stomach, several very minute bodies, consisting mostly of
+  chromatin, being formed, which may serve for endogenous reproduction.
+  Koch has published an account of certain curious forms of _P.
+  bigeminum_, in which the body is produced into many stiff, ray-like
+  processes, giving the appearance of a star; according to him fusion of
+  such forms takes place, and the resulting zygote becomes rounded,
+  perhaps transitional to the pear-shaped forms.
+
+
+    Classification.
+
+  The classification and nomenclature of the Haemosporidia are in a very
+  unsettled condition. For an account of the various systems and
+  modifications hitherto adopted, the article of Minchin (see under
+  SPOROZOA: _Bibliography_) should be consulted. With the realization
+  that the life-history in the case of the "Haemamoebae" and the
+  Haemogregarines is fundamentally similar in type, the chief reason for
+  grouping them as distinct suborders has disappeared. It is most
+  convenient to regard them as separate, but closely allied families,
+  the _Plasmodidae_ ("_Haemamoebidae_") and the _Haemogregarinidae_. The
+  _Piroplasmata_, on the other hand, constitute another family, which is
+  better placed in a distinct section or sub-order. In addition there
+  are, as already noted, two or three genera whose systematic position
+  must be considered as quite uncertain. One is the well-known
+  _Halteridium_ of Labbe, parasitic in various birds; the type-species
+  is _H. danilewskyi_ (Gt. and Fel.). Another is the much-debated
+  parasite of white blood-corpuscles (leucocytes), originally described
+  in birds by Danilewsky under the name of _Leucocytozoon_, a form of
+  which has been recently observed in Mammals.
+
+  In conclusion, the chief members of the above-mentioned families may
+  be enumerated.
+
+  Fam. _Plasmodidae_ ("_Haemamoebidae_").
+
+  Genus _Laverania_, Gr. and Fel. (syn. _Haemamoenas_, Ross), for L.
+  _malariae_, Gr. and Fel. (synn. L. s. _Plasmodium_, s. "_Haemamoeba_,"
+  &c., _praecox_ s. _immaculatum_, &c.), the parasite of pernicious
+  malaria. Genus _Plasmodium_, March. and Celli (syn. "_Haemamoeba_")
+  for _P. vivax_ and _P. malariae_, the tertian and quartan parasite,
+  respectively. There is also a form known in apes, _P. kochi_. Genus
+  _Haemoproteus_, Kruse (syn. _Proteosoma_), for _H. danilewskyi_ (syn.
+  _Proteosoma grassi_, _Plasmodium praecox_, &c.), parasitic in numerous
+  birds. Recently, another form has been described, from reptiles, which
+  Castellani and Willey have termed _Haemocystidium simondi_.
+
+  _Remarks._--The distinguishing characters of the malarial parasites
+  have been mentioned above. Some authorities would include _Laverania_
+  in the genus _Plasmodium_, as differing only specifically from the
+  other two forms. It has, moreover, been suggested by Sergent that all
+  three are merely different phases of the same parasite, predominating
+  at different seasons; this idea cannot be regarded, however, as in any
+  way proved so far. From what is known of the morphology and mode of
+  manifestation of these forms, the differences between _Laverania_ and
+  the two species of _Plasmodium_ are considerably more pronounced than
+  those between _P. vivax_ and _P. malariae_; if the latter are to be
+  considered as distinct species, the first-named is probably
+  generically distinct. Luhe, it may be noted, in his recent
+  comprehensive account of the Haematozoa, also takes this view. Lastly,
+  whatever be the correct solution of the above problem, there is
+  certainly not sufficient justification for including the Avian genus
+  _Haemoproteus_, as also only a species of _Plasmodium_, which is done
+  by some. Its different Vertebrate habitat, and also the fact that its
+  Insectan definitive host is Culex and not _Anopheles_, differentiate
+  it sharply from _Laverania_ and _Plasmodium_.
+
+  [Illustration: From Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_.
+
+  FIG. 5.--_Haemoproteus danilewskyi_, Kruse (parasite of various
+  birds). X about 1200. a, b, c and d from the chaffinch; d and e from
+  the lark. (After Labbe.)
+
+    a, Young trophozoite in a blood-corpuscle,
+    b and c, Older trophozoite.
+    d and e, Sporulation.
+    d, Precocious sporulation with few merozoites.
+    e, Sporulation of a full-grown schizont, with numerous merozoites.
+    f, Gametocyte.
+    N, Nucleus of blood-corpuscle.
+    n, Nucleus of parasite.
+    p, Pigment.
+    mz, Merozoites.
+    r.p, Residual protoplasm.]
+
+  [Illustration: From Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_.
+
+  FIG. 6.--_Haemogregarina stepanovi_, Danilewsky (par. _Emys_ and
+  _Cistudo_), phases of the schizogony. (a-e and j after Laveran; f-i
+  after Borner.) X 1000 to 1200 diameters.
+
+    a, Blood-corpuscle with young trophozoite.
+    b, Older trophozoite.
+    c, Full-grown trophozoite, ready to leave the corpuscle.
+    d and e, Trophozoites free in the blood-plasma, showing changes of
+      form.
+    f-i, Trophozoites, still within the blood-corpuscle (not drawn),
+      showing the structure of the nucleus, the coarse chromatoid
+      granules in the protoplasm and the manner in which the parasite
+      grows into the U-shaped Haemogregarine without increase of
+      body-mass.
+    j, Commencement of sporulation; the nucleus has divided into eight
+      nuclei, and the body of the parasite is beginning to divide up
+      into as many merozoites within a blood-corpuscle.
+    N, Nucleus of the blood-corpuscle.
+    n, Nucleus of the parasite.]
+
+  Fam. _Haemogregarinidae._--The different genera are characterized
+  chiefly by their size relative to the blood-corpuscles, and their
+  disposition in the latter. Here, again, it has been suggested to unite
+  the various types all in one genus, _Haemogregarina_, but this seems
+  at least premature when it is remembered how little is known in most
+  cases of the life-cycle, which may prove to exhibit important
+  divergences.
+
+  Genus _Haemogregarina_, Danilewsky (syn. _Danilewskya_, Labbe). The
+  body of the parasite exceeds the blood-corpuscle in length, when
+  adult, and is bent upon itself, like a U. A very great number of
+  species are known, mostly from reptiles and fishes; among them may be
+  mentioned _H. stepanovi_ (fig. 6), from _Emys_ and _Cistudo_, whose
+  sexual-cycle in a leech has been worked out by Siegel (see above), _H.
+  delagei_, from _Raja_, _H. bigemina_, from blennies, and _H. simondi_,
+  from soles. Recently one or two Mammalian forms have been observed,
+  _H. gerbilli_, from an Indian rat (_Gerbillus_), and _H. jaculi_, from
+  the jerboa.
+
+  Genus _Lankesterella_, Labbe (syn. _Drepanidium_, Lankester). The
+  parasite is not more than three-quarters the length of the corpuscle.
+  _L. ranarum_ from _Rana_ is the type-species; another, recently
+  described by Fantham, is _L. tritonis_, from the newt.
+
+  [Illustration: From Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_.
+
+  FIG. 7.--_Karyolysus lacertarum_ (Danil.), in the blood-corpuscles of
+  Lacerta muralis, showing the effects of the parasite upon the nucleus
+  of the corpuscle. In c and d the nucleus is broken up. N, Nucleus of
+  the corpuscle; n, nucleus of the parasite, seen as a number of masses
+  of chromatin, not enclosed by a distinct membrane. (After Marceau.)]
+
+  Genus _Karyolysus_, Labbe. The parasite does not exceed the corpuscle
+  in length; the forms included in this genus, moreover, although not
+  actually intranuclear, have a marked karyolytic and disintegrating
+  action upon the nucleus of the corpuscle. The type-species is the
+  well-known _K. lacertarum_, of lizards; another is _K.
+  (Haemogregarina) viperini_, from _Tropidonotus_.
+
+  In the section of the _Piroplasmata_ there is only the genus
+  _Piroplasma_, Patton (synn. _Babesia_, Starcovici, _Pyrosoma_, Smith
+  and Kilborne), the principal species of which are as follows: _P.
+  bigeminum_, the cause of Texas cattle-fever, tick-fever
+  (Rinder-malaria) of South Africa, and _P. bovis_, causing
+  haemoglobinuria of cattle in Southern Europe; there is some
+  uncertainty as to whether these two are really distinct; _P. canis_,
+  _P. ovis_ and _P. equi_ associated, respectively, with those animals.
+  Lately, a very small form, _P. parvum_, has been described by Theiler
+  in Rhodesia, which causes East-African coast-fever; and another, _P.
+  muris_, has been observed in white rats by Fantham.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--(The older literature is enumerated in most treatises
+  on Sporozoa--see bibliography under SPOROZOA). P. Argutinsky,
+  "Malariastudien," _Arch. mikr. Anat._ 59, p. 315, pls. 18-21 (1901),
+  and _op. cit._ 61, p. 331, pl. 18 (1902); A. Balfour, "Haemogregarine
+  of Mammals," _J. Trop. Med._ 8, p. 241, 8 figs. (1905); C. A. Bentley,
+  "Leucocytozoan of the Dog," _B.M.J._ (1905), 1, pp. 988 and 1078; N.
+  Berestneff, "Uber einen neuen Blutparasiten der indischen Frosche,"
+  _Arch. Protistenk._ 2, p. 343, pl. 8 (1903); "Uber das
+  _'Leucocytozoan' danilewskyi_," _op. cit._ 3, p. 376, pl. 15 (1904);
+  A. Billet, "Contribution a l'etude du paludisme et de son hematozoaire
+  en Algerie," _Ann. Inst. Pasteur_, 16, p. 186 (1902); (Notes on
+  various Haemogregarines). _C. R. Soc. Biol._ 56, pp. 482, 484, 607 and
+  741 (1904); C. Borner, "Untersuchungen uber Hamosporidien," _Zeitschr.
+  wiss. Zool._ 69, p. 398, 1 pl. (1901); T. Bowhill, "Equine
+  piroplasmosis," &c., _J. Hyg._ 5, p. 7, pls. 1-3 (1905); Bowhill and
+  C. le Doux, "Contribution to the Study of '_Piroplasmosis canis_,'"
+  _op. cit._ 4, p. 217, pl. 11 (1904); E. Brumpt and C. Lebailly,
+  "Description de quelques nouvelles especes de trypanosomes et
+  d'hemogregarines," &c., C. R. Ac. Sci. 139, p. 613 (1904); A.
+  Castellani and A. Willey, "Observations on the Haematozoa of
+  Vertebrates in Ceylon," _Spolia Zeylan_. 2, p. 78, 1 pl. (1904), and
+  _Q. J. Micr. Sci._ 49, p. 383, pl. 24 (1905); S. R. Christophers,
+  "_Haemogregarina gerbilli_," _Sci. Mem. India_, 18, 15 pp., 1 pl.
+  (1905); H. B. Fantham, "_Lankesterella tritonis_, n. sp.," &c., _Zool.
+  Anz._ 29, p. 257, 17 figs. (1905); "_Piroplasma muris_," &c., _Q. J.
+  Micr. Sci._ 50, p. 493, pl. 28 (1906); C. Graham-Smith, "A new Form of
+  Parasite found in the Red Blood-Corpuscles of Moles," _J. Hyg._ 5, p.
+  453, pls. 13 and 14 (1905); R. Hintze, "Lebensweise und Entwickelung
+  von _Lankesterella minima_," _Zool. Jahrb. Anat._ 15, p. 693, pl. 36
+  (1902); S. James, "On a Parasite found in the White Blood-Corpuscles
+  of Dogs," _Sci. Mem. India_, 14, 12 pp. 1 pl. (1905); R. Koch,
+  "Vorlaufige Mitteilungen uber die Ergebnisse einer Forschungsreise
+  nach Ostafrika," _Deutsch. med. Wochenschr._, 1905, p. 1865, 24 figs.;
+  A. Labbe, "Recherches sur les parasites endoglobulaires du sang des
+  vertebres," _Arch. zool. exp._ (3) ii. p. 55, 10 pls. (1894); A.
+  Laveran, "Sur quelques hemogregarines des ophidiens," _C. R. Ac. Sci._
+  135, p. 1036, 13 figs. (1902); "Sur une _Haemamoeba_ d'une mesange
+  (_Parus major_)," _C. R. Soc. Biol._ 54, p. 1121, 10 figs. (1902);
+  "Sur la piroplasmose bovine bacilliforme," _C. R. Ac. Sci._ 138, p.
+  648, 18 figs. (1903); "Contribution a l'etude de _Haemamoeba
+  ziemanni_," _C. R. Soc. Biol._ 55, p. 620, 7 figs. (1903); "Sur une
+  hemogregarine des gerboises," _C. R. Ac. Sci._ 141, p. 295, 9 figs.
+  (1905); (On different Haemogregarines) _C. R. Soc. Biol._ 59, pp. 175,
+  176, with figs. (1905); "Haemocytozoa. Essai de classification,"
+  _Bull. Inst. Pasteur_, 3, p. 809 (1905); Laveran and F. Mesnil, "Sur
+  les hematozoaires des poissons marins," _C. R. Ac. Sci._ 135, p. 567
+  (1902); "Sur quelques protozoaires parasites d'une tortue d'Asie,"
+  _t.c._ p. 609, 14 figs. (1902); Laveran and Negre, "Sur un protozoaire
+  parasite de _Hyalomma aegyptium_," _C. R. Soc. Biol._ 58, p. 964, 6
+  figs. (1905); (for various earlier papers by these authors, reference
+  should be made to the C. R. Ac. Sci. and C R. Soc. Biol. for previous
+  years); C. Lebailly (On Piscine Haemogregarines) _C. R. Ac. Sci._ 139,
+  p. 576 (1904), and _C. R. Soc. Biol._ 59, p. 304 (1905); J. Lignieres,
+  "Sur la 'Tristeza,'" _Ann. Inst. Pasteur_, 15, p. 121, pl. 6 (1901);
+  "La Piroplasmose bovine; nouvelles recherches," &c., _Arch. parasit._
+  7, p. 398, pl. 4 (1903); M. Luhe, "Die im Blute schmarotzenden
+  Protozoen," in Mense's _Handbuch der Tropenkrankheiten_ (Leipzig,
+  1906), 3, 1; F. Marceau, "Note sur le _Karyolysus lacertarum_," _Arch.
+  parasitol._ 4, p. 135, 46 figs. (1901); W. MacCallum, "On the
+  Haematozoan Infection of Birds," _J. Exp. Med._ 3, p. 117, pl. 12
+  (1898); G. Mauser, "Die Malaria perniciosa," _Centrbl. Bakter._ (1)
+  32, Orig. p. 695, 3 pls. (1902); C. Nicolle (On various Reptilian
+  Haemogregarines), _C. R. Soc. Biol._ 56, pp. 330, 608 and 912, with
+  figs. (1904); Nicolle and C. Comte, "Sur le role ... de _Hyalomma_ ...
+  dans l'infection hemogregarinienne," op. cit. 58, p. 1045 (1905);
+  Norcard and Motas, "Contribution a l'etude de la piroplasmose canine,"
+  _Ann. Inst. Pasteur_, 16, p. 256, pls. 5 and 6 (1902); G. Nuttall and
+  G. Graham-Smith, "Canine piroplasmosis," _J. Hygiene_, p. 237, pl. 9
+  (1905); F. Schaudinn, "Der Generationswechsel der Coccidien und
+  Hamosporidien," _Zool. Centrbl._ 6, p. 675 (1899); "Studien uber
+  krankheitserregende Protozoen--II. _Plasmodium vivax_," _Arb. Kais.
+  Gesundheitsamte_, 19, p. 169, pls. 4-6 (1902); E. and E. Sergent (On
+  different Haemogregarines), _C. R. Soc. Biol._ 56, pp. 130, 132
+  (1904), _op. cit._ 58, pp. 56, 57, 670 (1905); J. Siegel, "Die
+  geschlechtliche Entwickelung von _Haemogregarina_," &c., _Arch.
+  Protistenk._ 2, p. 339, 7 figs. (1903); P. L. Simond, "Contribution a
+  l'etude des hematozoaires endoglobulaires des reptiles," _Ann. Inst.
+  Pasteur_, 15, p. 319, 1 pl. (1901); T. Smith and F. Kilborne,
+  "Investigations into the Nature, Causation and Prevention of Texas
+  Cattle Fever," _Rep. Bureau Animal Industry_, U.S.A., 9 and 10, p.
+  177, pls. (1893); A. Theiler, "The _Piroplasma bigeminum_ of the
+  Immune Ox," _J. Army Med. Corps_, 3, pp. 469, 599, 1 pl. (1904); J.
+  Vassal, "Sur une hematozoaire endoglobulaire nouveau d'un mammifere,"
+  _Ann. Inst. Pasteur_, 19, p. 224, pl. 10 (1905); L. B. Wilson and W.
+  Chowning, "Studies in _Piroplasmosis hominis_," _J. Infect. Diseases_,
+  1, p. 31, 2 pls. (1904).     (H. M. Wo.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Compare, for example, the flagellated granules of certain
+    Coccidia, which point unmistakably to a Flagellate ancestry.
+
+  [2] A possible exception is a doubtful species of _Haemogregarina_,
+    which has been described from the walls of the blood-vessels of an
+    Annelid.
+
+  [3] For an interesting account of the biological relations between
+    parasites and their hosts, and the penalty Man pays for his roving
+    propensities, the reader should see Lankester's article in the
+    _Quarterly Review_, July 1904.
+
+  [4] This does away with one of the principal reasons on account of
+    which some authorities consider _Piroplasma (Leishmania) donovani_ as
+    quite distinct from other _Piroplasmata_ (see TRYPANOSOMES).
+
+  [5] It must not be forgotten that one species of _Halteridium (H.
+    [Trypanomorpha] noctuae)_ is said to have well-marked trypaniform
+    phases in its life-cycle; these are preferably considered under
+    _Trypanosomes_ (q.v.), and therefore, to avoid repetition, are only
+    thus alluded to here. Whether _H. danilewskyi_ also becomes
+    trypaniform in certain phases, and how far it really agrees with the
+    criteria of a Haemosporidian above postulated, are matters which are
+    not yet definitely known.
+
+
+
+
+HAETZER, or HETZER, LUDWIG (d. 1529), Swiss divine, was born in
+Switzerland, at Bischofszell, in Thurgau. He studied at
+Freiburg-im-Breisgau, and began his career in a chaplaincy at Wadenswil,
+on the Lake of Zurich. At this time his attachment to the old faith was
+tempered by a mystical turn, and by a devotion to the prophetical
+writings of the Old Testament, which he studied in the original. By 1523
+we find him in Zurich, where he published, at first anonymously and in
+Latin (_Judicium Dei_), later with his name and in German (Sept. 24,
+1523), a small tract against the religious use of images, and bearing
+the motto attached to all his subsequent works, "O Got erlosz die (or
+dein) Gefangnen" ("O God, set the prisoners free"). An attempt to give
+effect to the teaching of this (frequently reprinted) tract was followed
+by a public religious disputation, of which Haetzer drew up the official
+account. In 1524 he brought out a tract on the conversion of the Jews,
+and published a German version of Johann Bugenhagen's brief exposition
+of the epistles of St Paul (Ephesians to Hebrews); in the dedication
+(dated Zurich, June 29, 1524) he undertakes to translate Bugenhagen's
+comment on the Psalter. He then went to Augsburg, bearing Zwingli's
+introduction to Johann Frosch. Here he came for a time under the
+influence of Urbanus Regius, and was for a short time the guest of Georg
+Regel. Returning to Zurich, he was in intercourse with leading
+Anabaptists (though his own position was simply the disuse of infant
+baptism) till their expulsion in January 1525. Again resorting to
+Augsburg, and resuming work as corrector of the press for his printer
+Silvan Ottmar, he pushed his views to the extreme of rejecting all
+sacraments, reaching something like the mystical standpoint of the early
+Quakers. He was expelled from Augsburg in the autumn of 1525, and made
+his way through Constance to Basel, where Oecolampadius received him
+kindly. He translated into German the first treatise of Oecolampadius on
+the Lord's Supper (in which the words of institution are taken
+figuratively), and proceeding to Zurich in November, published his
+version there in February 1526, with a preface disclaiming connexion
+with the Anabaptists. His relations with Zwingli were difficult;
+returning to Basel he published (July 18, 1526) his translation of
+Malachi, with Oecolampadius's exposition, and with a preface reflecting
+on Zwingli. This he followed by a version of Isaiah xxxvi.-xxxvii. He
+next went to Strassburg, and was received by Wolfgang Capito. At
+Strassburg in the late autumn of 1526 he fell in with Hans Dengk or
+Denck, who collaborated with him in the production of his _opus magnum_,
+the translation of the Hebrew Prophets, _Alle Propheten nach hebraischer
+Sprach vertuetscht_. The preface is dated Worms, 3 April 1527; and there
+are editions, Worms, 13 April 1527, folio; Augsburg, 22 June 1527,
+folio; Worms, 7 Sept. 1527, 16 deg.; and Augsburg, 1528, folio. It was
+the first Protestant version of the prophets in German, preceding
+Luther's by five years, and highly spoken of by him. Haetzer and Denck
+now entered on a propagandist mission from place to place, with some
+success, but of short duration. Denck died at Basel in November 1527.
+Haetzer was arrested at Constance in the summer of 1528. After long
+imprisonment and many examinations he was condemned on the 3rd of
+February 1529 to die by the sword, and the sentence was executed on the
+following day. His demeanour on the scaffold impressed impartial
+witnesses, Hans Zwick and Thomas Blaurer, who speak warmly of his
+fervour and courage. The Dutch Baptist Martyrology describes him as "a
+servant of Jesus Christ." The Moravian Chronicle says "he was condemned
+for the sake of divine truth." His papers included an unpublished
+treatise against the essential deity of Christ, which was suppressed by
+Zwingli; the only extant evidence of his anti-trinitarian views being
+contained in eight quaint lines of German verse preserved in Sebastian
+Frank's _Chronica_. The discovery of his heterodox Christology (which
+has led modern Unitarians to regard him as their proto-martyr) was
+followed by charges of loose living, never heard of in his lifetime, and
+destitute of evidence or probability.
+
+  See Breitinger, "Anecdota quaedam de L. H." in _Museum Helveticum_
+  (1746), parts 21 and 23; Wallace, _Antitrinitarian Biography_ (1850);
+  _Dutch Martyrology_ (Hanserd Knollys Society) (1856); Th. Keim, in
+  Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_ (1899).     (A. Go.*)
+
+
+
+
+HAFIZ. Shams-ud-din Mahommed, better known by his _takhallus_ or _nom de
+plume_ of Hafiz, was one of the most celebrated writers of Persian
+lyrical poetry. He was born at Shiraz, the capital of Fars, in the early
+part of the 8th century of the Mahommedan era, that is to say, in the
+14th of our own. The exact date of his birth is uncertain, but he
+attained a ripe old age and died in 791 A.H. (A.D. 1388). This is the
+date given in the chronogram which is engraved on his tomb, although
+several Persian biographers give a different year. Very little is
+actually known about his life, which appears to have been passed in
+retirement in Shiraz, of which he always speaks in terms of affectionate
+admiration. He was a subject of the Muzaffar princes, who ruled in
+Shiraz, Yazd, Kirman and Ispahan, until the dynasty was overthrown by
+Timur (Tamerlane). Of these princes his especial patrons were Shah
+Shuja' and Shah Mansur. He early devoted himself to the study of poetry
+and theology, and also became learned in mystic philosophy, which he
+studied under Shaik Mahmud 'Attar, chief of an order of dervishes. Hafiz
+afterwards enrolled himself in the same order and became a professor of
+Koranic exegesis in a college which his friend and patron Haji
+Kiwam-ud-din, the vizier, specially founded for him. This was probably
+the reason of his adopting the sobriquet of Hafiz ("one who remembers"),
+which is technically applied to any person who has learned the Koran by
+heart. The restraints of an ascetic life seem to have been very little
+to Hafiz's taste, and his loose conduct and wine-bibbing propensities
+drew upon him the severe censure of his monastic colleagues. In revenge
+he satirizes them unmercifully in his verses, and seldom loses an
+opportunity of alluding to their hypocrisy. Hafiz's fame as a poet was
+soon rapidly spread throughout the Mahommedan world, and several
+powerful monarchs sent him presents and pressing invitations to visit
+them. Amongst others he was invited by Mahmud Shah Bahmani, who reigned
+in the south of India. After crossing the Indus and passing through
+Lahore he reached Hurmuz, and embarked on board a vessel sent for him by
+the Indian prince. He seems, however, to have been a bad sailor, and,
+having invented an excuse for being put ashore, made the best of his way
+back to Shiraz. Some biographies narrate a story of an interview between
+Hafiz and the invader Timur. The latter sent for him and asked angrily,
+"Art thou he who was so bold as to offer my two great cities Samarkand
+and Bokhara for the black mole on thy mistress's cheek?" alluding to a
+well-known verse in one of his odes. "Yes, sire," replied Hafiz, "and it
+is by such acts of generosity that I have brought myself to such a state
+of destitution that I have now to solicit your bounty." Timur was so
+pleased at his ready wit that he dismissed the poet with a handsome
+present. Unfortunately for the truth of this story Timur did not capture
+Shiraz till A.D. 1393, while the latest date that can be assigned to
+Hafiz's death is 1391. Of his private life little or nothing is known.
+One of his poems is said to record the death of his wife, another that
+of a favourite unmarried son, and several others speak of his love for a
+girl called _Shakh i Nabat_, "Sugar-cane branch," and this is almost all
+of his personal history that can be gathered from his writings. He was,
+like most Persians, a Shi'ite by religion, believing in the transmission
+of the office of Imam (head of the Moslem Church) in the family of Ali,
+cousin of the prophet, and rejecting the _Hadith_ (traditional sayings)
+of Mahomet, which form the Sunna or supplementary code of Mahommedan
+ceremonial law. One of his odes which contains a verse in praise of Ali
+is engraved on the poet's tomb, but is omitted by Sudi, the Turkish
+editor and commentator, who was himself a rigid Sunnite. Hafiz's
+heretical opinions and dissipated life caused difficulties to be raised
+by the ecclesiastical authorities on his death as to his interment in
+consecrated ground. The question was at length settled by Hafiz's own
+works, which had then already begun to be used, as they are now
+throughout the East, for the purposes of divination, in the same manner
+as Virgil was employed in the middle ages for the divination called
+_Sortes Virgilianae_. Opening the book at random after pronouncing the
+customary formula asking for inspiration, the objectors hit upon the
+following verse--"Turn not away thy foot from the bier of Hafiz, for
+though immersed in sin, he will be admitted into Paradise." He was
+accordingly buried in the centre of a small cemetery at Shiraz, now
+included in an enclosure called the Hafiziyeh.
+
+His principal work is the _Diwan_, that is, a collection of short odes
+or sonnets called _ghazals_, and consisting of from five to sixteen
+_baits_ or couplets each, all the couplets in each ode having the same
+rhyme in the last hemistich, and the last couplet always introducing the
+poet's own _nom de plume_. The whole of these are arranged in
+alphabetical order, an arrangement which certainly facilitates reference
+but makes it absolutely impossible to ascertain their chronological
+order, and therefore detracts from their value as a means of throwing
+light upon the growth and development of his genius or the incidents of
+his career. They are often held together by a very slender thread of
+continuous thought, and few editions agree exactly in the order of the
+couplets. Still, a careful study of them, especially from the point of
+view indicated by the Sufiistic system of philosophy, will always show
+that a single idea does run throughout the whole. The nature of these
+poems has been the subject of much discussion in the West, some scholars
+seeing in their anacreontic utterances nothing but sensuality and
+materialism, while others, following the Oriental school, maintain that
+they are wholly and entirely mystic and philosophic. Something between
+the two would probably be nearer the truth. It must be remembered that
+Hafiz was a professed dervish and Sufi, and that his _ghazals_ were in
+all probability published from a _takia_, and arranged with at least a
+view to Sufiistic interpretation. At the same time it is ridiculous to
+suppose that the glowing imagery, the gorgeous and often tender
+descriptions of natural beauties, the fervent love passages, and the
+roystering drinking songs were composed in cool blood or with deliberate
+ascetic purpose. The beauty of Hafiz's poetry is that it is natural. It
+is the outcome of a fervent soul and a lofty genius delighting in
+nature and enjoying life; and it is the poet's misfortune that he lived
+in an age and amongst a people where rigid conventionality demanded that
+his free and spontaneous thoughts should be recast in an artificial
+mould.
+
+  Besides the _Diwan_, Hafiz wrote a number of other poems; the Leipzig
+  edition of his works contains 573 _ghazals_ (forming the _Diwan_), 42
+  _kit'as_ or fragments, 69 _ruba'iyat_ or tetrastics, 6 _masnaviyat_ or
+  poems in rhyming couplets, 2 _kasaid_, idylls or panegyrics, and 1
+  _mukhammes_ or poem in five-line strophes. Other editions contain
+  several _tarji'-band_ or poems with a refrain. The whole _Diwan_ was
+  translated into English prose by H. Wilberforce Clarke in 1891, with
+  introduction and exhaustive commentary and bibliography; a few rhyming
+  versions of single poems by Sir William Jones, J. Nott, J. Hindley,
+  Falconer, &c., are to be found scattered through the pages of the
+  _Oriental Miscellany_ and other periodicals, and a fine edition
+  containing a verse rendering of the principal poems by H. Bicknell
+  appeared in 1875. Other selections by S. Robinson (1875), A. Rogers
+  (1889), J. H. M'Carthy (1893), and Gertrude L. Bell (1897). The
+  principal German versions are by von Hammer Purgstall (1812), which
+  gave the first impulse to Goethe's _Westostlicher Diwan_; a rhyming
+  and rhythmical translation of a large portion of Hafiz's works by
+  Vincenz von Rosenzweig of Vienna (Vienna, 1858), which contains also
+  the Persian text and notes; _Der Diwan des Schemseddin Muhammed
+  Hafis_, by G. H. F. Nesselmann (Berlin, 1865), in which the rhyming
+  system of the original is imitated. Besides these, the reader may
+  consult d'Herbelot, _Bibliotheque orientale_, article "Hafiz"; Sir
+  William Ouseley's _Oriental Collections_ (1797-1798); _A Specimen of
+  Persian Poetry, or Odes of Hafiz_, by John Richardson (London, 1802);
+  _Biographical Notices of Persian Poets_, by Sir Gore Ouseley (Oriental
+  Translation Fund, 1846); and an excellent article by Professor E. B.
+  Cowell in _Macmillan's Magazine_ (No. 177, July 1874); J. A. Vullers,
+  _Vitae poetarum Persicorum_ (1839, translated from Daulatshah); S.
+  Robinson, _Persian Poetry for English Readers_ (1883). The best
+  edition of the text is perhaps that edited by Hermann Brockhaus of
+  Leipzig (1854-1856). which is based on the recension of the Turkish
+  editor Sudi, and contains his commentary in Turkish on the first
+  eighty _ghazals_. See also H. Ethe in _Grundriss der iranischen
+  Philologie_, ii. (Strassburg, 1896); P. Horn, _Geschichte der
+  persischen Literatur_ (Leipzig, 1901).     (E. H. P.)
+
+
+
+
+HAG. (1) (Probably a shortened form of the O. Eng. _haegtesse_, _hegtes_,
+cognate with Ger. _Hexe_, witch, Dutch _hecse_), a word common during
+the 16th and 17th centuries for a female demon or evil spirit, and so
+particularly applied to such supernatural beings as the harpies and
+fairies of classical mythology, and also to witches. In modern usage the
+word is generally used of a hideous old woman whose repulsive exterior
+is accompanied by malice or wickedness. The name is also used of an
+eel-like parasitic fish, _Myxine glutinosa_, allied to the lamprey.
+
+(2) A word common in Scottish and northern English dialects for an
+enclosed piece of wood, a copse. This is the same word as "hedge" (see
+HEDGES) and "haw." "Hag" also means "to cut," and is used in Scotland of
+an extent of woodland marked out for felling, and of a quantity of
+felled wood. This word is also used of a cutting in the peat of a "moss"
+or "bog," and hence applied to the small plots of firm ground or heather
+in a bog; it is common in the form "moss-hags."
+
+
+
+
+HAGEDORN, FRIEDRICH VON (1708-1754), German poet, was born on the 23rd
+of April 1708 at Hamburg, where his father, a man of scientific and
+literary taste, was Danish minister. He was educated at the gymnasium of
+Hamburg, and later (1726) became a student of law at Jena. Returning to
+Hamburg in 1729, he obtained the appointment of unpaid private secretary
+to the Danish ambassador in London, where he lived till 1731. Hagedorn's
+return to Hamburg was followed by a period of great poverty and
+hardship, but in 1733 he was appointed secretary to the so-called
+"English Court" (_Englischer Hof_) in Hamburg, a trading company founded
+in the 13th century. He shortly afterwards married, and from this time
+had sufficient leisure to pursue his literary occupations till his death
+on the 28th of October 1754. Hagedorn is the first German poet who bears
+unmistakable testimony to the nation's recovery from the devastation
+wrought by the Thirty Years' War. He is eminently a social poet. His
+light and graceful love-songs and anacreontics, with their undisguised
+_joie de vivre_, introduced a new note into the German lyric; his fables
+and tales in verse are hardly inferior in form and in delicate
+persiflage to those of his master La Fontaine, and his moralizing poetry
+re-echoes the philosophy of Horace. He exerted a dominant influence on
+the German lyric until late in the 18th century.
+
+  The first collection of Hagedorn's poems was published at Hamburg
+  shortly after his return from Jena in 1729, under the title _Versuch
+  einiger Gedichte_ (reprinted by A. Sauer, Heilbronn, 1883). In 1738
+  appeared _Versuch in poetischen Fabeln und Erzahlungen_; in 1742 a
+  collection of his lyric poems, under the title _Sammlung neuer Oden
+  und Lieder_; and his _Moralische Gedichte_ in 1750. A collection of
+  his entire works was published at Hamburg after his death in 1757. The
+  best is J. J. Eschenburg's edition (5 vols., Hamburg, 1800).
+  Selections of his poetry with an excellent introduction in F.
+  Muncker's _Anakreontiker und preussisch-patriotische Lyriker_
+  (Stuttgart, 1894). See also H. Schuster, _F. von Hagedorn und seine
+  Bedeutung fur die deutsche Literatur_ (Leipzig, 1882); W. Eigenbrodt,
+  _Hagedorn und die Erzahlung in Reimversen_ (Berlin, 1884).
+
+
+
+
+HAGEN, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH VON DER (1780-1856), German philologist,
+chiefly distinguished for his researches in Old German literature, was
+born at Schmiedeberg In Brandenburg on the 19th of February 1780. After
+studying law at the university of Halle, he obtained a legal appointment
+in the state service at Berlin, but in 1806 resigned this office in
+order to devote himself exclusively to letters. In 1810 he was appointed
+_professor extraordinarius_ of German literature in the university of
+Berlin; in the following year he was transferred in a similar capacity
+to Breslau, and in 1821 returned to Berlin as _professor ordinarius_. He
+died at Berlin on the 11th of June 1856. Although von der Hagen's
+critical work is now entirely out of date, the chief merit of awakening
+an interest in old German poetry belongs to him.
+
+  His principal publications are the _Nibelungenlied_, of which he
+  issued four editions, the first in 1810 and the last in 1842; the
+  _Minnesinger_ (Leipzig, 1838-1856, 4 vols, in 5 parts); _Lieder der
+  altern Edda_ (Berlin, 1812); _Gottfried von Strassburg_ (Berlin,
+  1823); a collection of Old German tales under the title
+  _Gesamtabenteuer_ (Stuttgart, 1850, 3 vols.) and _Das Heldenbuch_
+  (Leipzig, 1855). He also published _Uber die altesten Darstellungen
+  der Faustsage_ (Berlin, 1844); and from 1835 he edited _Das neue
+  Jahrbuch der Berlinischen Gesellschaft fur deutsche Sprache und
+  Altertumskunde_. His correspondence with C. G. Heyne and G. F. Benecke
+  was published by K. Dziatzko (Leipzig, 1893).
+
+
+
+
+HAGEN, a town of Germany, In the Prussian province of Westphalia. Pop.
+(1905), 77,498. It lies amid well-wooded hills at the confluence of the
+Ennepe with the Volme, 15 m. N.E. of Elberfeld, on the main line to
+Brunswick and Berlin, and at the junction of important lines of railway,
+connecting it with the principal towns of the Westphalian iron district.
+It has five Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic church, an Old
+Catholic church, a synagogue, a gymnasium, realgyrnnasium, and a
+technical school with special classes for machine-building. There are
+also a museum, a theatre, and a prettily arranged municipal park. Hagen
+is one of the most flourishing commercial towns in Westphalia, and
+possesses extensive iron and steel works, large cotton print works,
+woollen and cotton factories, manufactures of leather, paper, tobacco,
+and iron and steel wares, breweries and distilleries. There are large
+limestone quarries in the vicinity and also an alabaster quarry.
+
+
+
+
+HAGENAU, a town of Germany, in the imperial province of Alsace-Lorraine,
+situated in the middle of the Hagenau Forest, on the Moder, and on the
+railway from Strassburg to Weissenburg, 10 m. N.N.E. of the former city.
+Pop. (1905), 18,500. It has two Evangelical and two ancient Catholic
+churches (one dating from the 12th, the other from the 13th century), a
+gymnasium, a public library, a hospital, and a theatre. The principal
+industries are wool and cotton spinning, and the manufacture of
+porcelain, earthenware, boots, soap, oil, sparkling wines and beer.
+There is also considerable trade in hops and vegetables. Hagenau is an
+important military centre and has a large garrison, including three
+artillery battalions.
+
+Hagenau dates from the beginning of the 12th century, and owes its
+origin to the erection of a hunting lodge by the dukes of Swabia. The
+emperor Frederick I. surrounded it with walls and gave it town rights in
+1154. On the site of the hunting lodge he founded an imperial palace, in
+which were preserved the jewelled imperial crown, sceptre, imperial
+globe, and sword of Charlemagne. Subsequently it became the seat of the
+_Landvogt_ of Hagenau, the imperial _advocatus_ in Lower Alsace.
+Richard of Cornwall, king of the Romans, made it an imperial city in
+1257. In 1648 it came into the possession of France, and in 1673 Louis
+XIV. caused the fortifications to be razed. In 1675 it was captured by
+imperial troops, but in 1677 it was retaken by the French and nearly all
+destroyed by fire. In 1871 it fell, with the rest of Alsace-Lorraine,
+into the possession of Germany.
+
+
+
+
+HAGENBACH, KARL RUDOLF (1801-1874). German church historian, was born on
+the 4th of March 1801 at Basel, where his father was a practising
+physician. His preliminary education was received at a Pestalozzian
+school, and afterwards at the gymnasium, whence in due course he passed
+to the newly reorganized local university. He early devoted himself to
+theological studies and the service of the church, while at the same
+time cherishing and developing broad "humanistic" tendencies which found
+expression in many ways and especially in an enthusiastic admiration for
+the writings of Herder. The years 1820-1823 were spent first at Bonn,
+where G. C. F. Lucke (1791-1855) exerted a powerful influence on his
+thought, and afterwards at Berlin, where Schleiermacher and Neander
+became his masters. Returning in 1823 to Basel, where W. M. L. de Wette
+had recently been appointed to a theological chair, he distinguished
+himself greatly by his trial-dissertation, _Observationes
+historico-hermeneuticae circa Origenis methodum interpretendae sacrae
+Scripturae_; in 1824 he became professor extraordinarius, and in 1829
+professor ordinarius of theology. Apart from his academic labours in
+connexion with the history of dogma and of the church, he lived a life
+of great and varied usefulness as a theologian, a preacher and a
+citizen; and at his "jubilee" in 1873, not only the university and town
+of Basel but also the various churches of Switzerland united to do him
+honour. He died at Basel on the 7th of June 1874.
+
+Hagenbach was a voluminous author in many departments, but he is
+specially distinguished as a writer on church history. Though neither so
+learned and condensed as the contributions of Gieseler, nor so original
+and profound as those of Neander, his lectures are clear, attractive and
+free from narrow sectarian prejudice. In dogmatics, while avowedly a
+champion of the "mediation theology" (_Vermittelungstheologie_), based
+upon the fundamental conceptions of Herder and Schleiermacher, he was
+much less revolutionary than were many others of his school. He sought
+to maintain the old confessional documents, and to make the objective
+prevail over the purely subjective manner of viewing theological
+questions. But he himself was aware that in the endeavour to do so he
+was not always successful, and that his delineations of Christian dogma
+often betrayed a vacillating and uncertain hand.
+
+  His works include _Tabellarische Ubersicht der Dogmengeschichte_
+  (1828); _Encyclopadie u. Methodologie der theol. Wissenschaften_
+  (1833); _Vorlesungen uber Wesen u. Geschichte der Reformation u. des
+  Protestantismus_ (1834-1843); _Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte_
+  (1840-1841, 5th ed., 1867; English transl., 1850); _Vorlesungen uber
+  die Geschichte der alien Kirche_ (1853-1855); _Vorlesungen uber die
+  Kirchengeschichte des Mittelalters_ (1860-1861); _Grundlinien der
+  Homiletik u. Liturgik_ (1863); biographies of Johannes Oecolampadius
+  (1482-1564) and Oswald Myconius (1488-1552) and a _Geschichte der
+  theol. Schule Basels_ (1860); his _Predigten_ (1858-1875), two volumes
+  of poems entitled _Luther u. seine Zeit_ (1838), and _Gedichte_
+  (1846). The lectures on church history under the general title
+  _Vorlesungen uber die Kirchengeschichte von der altesten Zeit bis zum
+  19ten Jahrhundert_ were reissued in seven volumes (1868-1872).
+
+  See especially the article in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_.
+
+
+
+
+HAGENBECK, CARL (1844-   ), wild-animal collector and dealer, was born
+at Hamburg in 1844. In 1848 his father purchased some seals and a Polar
+bear brought to Hamburg by a whaler, and subsequently acquired many
+other wild animals. At the age of twenty-one Carl Hagenbeck was given
+the whole collection, and before long had greatly extended the business,
+so that in 1873 he had to erect large buildings in Hamburg to house his
+animals. In 1875 he began to exhibit a collection of the representative
+animals of many countries, accompanied by troupes of the natives of the
+respective countries, throughout all the large cities of Europe. The
+educational value of these exhibitions was officially recognized by the
+French government, which in 1891 awarded Hagenbeck the diploma of the
+Academy. Most of the wild animals exhibited in music-halls and other
+popular places of entertainment throughout the world have come from
+Hagenbeck's collection at Stellingen, near Hamburg.
+
+
+
+
+HAGERSTOWN, a city and the county-seat of Washington county, Maryland,
+U.S.A., near Antietam Creek, about 86 m. by rail W.N.W. from Baltimore.
+Pop. (1890), 10,118; (1900), 13,591, of whom 1277 were negroes; (1910,
+census), 16,507. Hagerstown is served by the Baltimore & Ohio, the
+Western Maryland, the Norfolk & Western, and the Cumberland Valley
+railways, and by an interurban electric line. It lies in a fertile
+valley overlooked by South Mountain to the E. and North Mountain, more
+distant, to the W. The city is the seat of Kee Mar College (1852;
+non-sectarian) for women. Hagerstown is a business centre for the
+surrounding agricultural district, has good water power, and as a
+manufacturing centre ranked third in the state in 1905, its factory
+products being valued in that year at $3,026,901, an increase of 66.3%
+over their value in 1900. Among the manufactures are flour, shirts,
+hosiery, gloves, bicycles, automobiles, agricultural implements, print
+paper, fertilizers, sash, doors and blinds, furniture, carriages, spokes
+and wheels. The municipality owns and operates its electric lighting
+plant. Hagerstown was laid out as a town in 1762 by Captain Jonathan
+Hager (who had received a patent to 200 acres here from Lord Baltimore
+in 1739), and was incorporated in 1791. It was an important station on
+the old National (or Cumberland) Road. General R. E. Lee concentrated
+his forces at Hagerstown before the battle of Gettysburg.
+
+
+
+
+HAG-FISH, GLUTINOUS HAG, Or BORER (_Myxine_), a marine fish which forms
+with the lampreys one of the lowest orders of vertebrates
+(_Cyclostomata_). Similar in form to a lamprey, it is usually found
+within the body of dead cod or haddock, on the flesh of which it feeds
+after having buried itself in the abdomen. When caught, it secretes a
+thick glutinous slime in such quantity that it is commonly believed to
+have the power of converting water into glue. It is found in the North
+Atlantic and other temperate seas of the globe, being taken in some
+localities in large numbers, e.g. off the east coast of Scotland and the
+west coast of California (see CYCLOSTOMATA).
+
+
+
+
+HAGGADA, or 'AGADA (literally "narrative"), includes the more homiletic
+elements of rabbinic teaching. It is not logically distinguishable from
+the halakha (q.v.), for the latter or forensic element makes up with the
+haggada the Midrash (q.v.), but, being more popular than the halakha, is
+often itself styled the Midrash. It may be described as the poetical and
+ethical element as contrasted with the legal element in the Talmud
+(q.v.), but the two elements are always closely connected. From one
+point of view the haggada, amplifying and developing the contents of
+Hebrew scripture in response to a popular religious need, may be termed
+a rabbinical commentary on the Old Testament, containing traditional
+stories and legends, sometimes amusing, sometimes trivial, and often
+beautiful. The haggada abounds in parables. The haggadic passages of the
+Talmud were collected in the _Eye of Jacob_, a very popular compilation
+completed by Jakob ibn Habib in the 16th century.
+
+
+
+
+HAGGAI, in the Bible, the tenth in order of the "minor prophets," whose
+writings are preserved in the Old Testament. The name Haggai ([Hebrew:
+Haggai], Gr. [Greek: 'Aggaios], whence Aggeus in the English version of
+the Apocrypha) perhaps means "born on the feast day," "festive." But
+Wellhausen[1] is probably right in taking the word as a contraction for
+Hagariah ("Yahweh hath girded"), just as Zaccai (Zacchaeus) is known to
+be a contraction of Zechariah.
+
+The book of Haggai contains four short prophecies delivered between the
+first day of the sixth month and the twenty-fourth day of the ninth
+month--that is, between September and December--of the second year of
+Darius the king. The king in question must be Darius Hystaspis (521-485
+B.C.). The language of the prophet in ii. 3 suggests the probability
+that he was himself one of those whose memories reached across the
+seventy years of the captivity, and that his prophetic work began in
+extreme old age. This supposition agrees well with the shortness of the
+period covered by his book, and with the fact that Zechariah, who began
+to prophesy in the same autumn and was associated with Haggai's labours
+(Ezra v. 1), afterwards appears as the leading prophet in Jerusalem
+(Zech. vii. 1-4). We know nothing further of the personal history of
+Haggai from the Bible. Later traditions may be read in Carpzov's
+_Introductio_, pars 3, cap. xvi. Epiphanius (_Vitae prophetarum_) says
+that he came up from Babylon while still young, prophesied the return,
+witnessed the building of the temple and received an honoured burial
+near the priests. Haggai's name is mentioned in the titles of several
+psalms in the Septuagint (Psalms cxxxvii., cxlv.-cxlviii.) and other
+versions, but these titles are without value, and moreover vary in MSS.
+Eusebius did not find them in the Hexaplar Septuagint.[2]
+
+In his first prophecy (i. 1-11) Haggai addresses Zerubbabel and Joshua,
+rebuking the people for leaving the temple unbuilt while they are busy
+in providing panelled houses for themselves. The prevalent famine and
+distress are due to Yahweh's indignation at such remissness. Let them
+build the house, and Yahweh will take pleasure in it and acknowledge the
+honour paid to Him. The rebuke took effect, and the people began to work
+at the temple, strengthened by the prophet's assurance that the Lord was
+with them (i. 12-15). In a second prophecy (ii. 1-9) delivered in the
+following month, Haggai forbids the people to be disheartened by the
+apparent meanness of the new temple. The silver and gold are the Lord's.
+He will soon shake all nations and their choicest gifts will be brought
+to adorn His house. Its glory shall be greater than that of the former
+temple, and in this place He will give peace. A third prophecy (ii.
+10-19) contains a promise, enforced by a figure drawn from the priestly
+ritual, that God will remove famine and bless the land from the day of
+the foundation of the temple onwards. Finally, in ii. 20-23, Zerubbabel
+is assured of God's special love and protection in the impending
+catastrophe of kingdoms and nations to which the prophet had formerly
+pointed as preceding the glorification of God's house on Zion. In thus
+looking forward to a shaking of all nations Haggai agrees with earlier
+prophecies, especially Isa. xxiv.-xxvii., while his picture of the glory
+and peace of the new Zion and its temple is drawn from the great
+anonymous prophet who penned Isa. lx and lxvi. The characteristic
+features of the book are the importance assigned to the personality of
+Zerubbabel, who, though a living contemporary, is marked out as the
+Messiah; and the almost sacramental significance attached to the temple.
+The hopes fixed on Zerubbabel, the chosen of the Lord, dear to Him as
+His signet ring (cf. Jer. xxii. 24), are a last echo in Old Testament
+prophecy of the theocratic importance of the house of David. In the book
+of Zechariah Zerubbabel has already fallen into the background and the
+high priest is the leading figure of the Judean community.[3] The stem
+of David is superseded by the house of Zadok, the kingship has yielded
+to the priesthood, and the extinction of national hopes gives new
+importance to that strict organization of the hierarchy for which
+Ezekiel had prepared the way by his sentence of disfranchisement against
+the non-Zadokite priests.
+
+The indifference of the Jews to the desolate conditions of their
+sanctuary opens up a problem of some difficulty. It is strange that
+neither Haggai nor his contemporary Zechariah mentions or implies any
+return of exiles from Babylon, and the suggestion has accordingly been
+made that the return under Cyrus described in Ezra i.-iv. is
+unhistorical, and that the community addressed by Haggai consisted of
+the remnant that had been left in Jerusalem and its neighbourhood after
+the majority had gone into exile or fled to Egypt (Jer. xliii.). Such a
+remnant, amongst whom might be members of the priestly and royal
+families, would gather strength and boldness as the troubles of Babylon
+increased and her vigilance was relaxed, and might receive from Babylon
+and other lands both refugees and some account at least of the writings
+of Ezekiel and the Second Isaiah. Stimulated by such causes and
+obtaining formal permission from the Persian government, they would
+arise as a new Israel and enter on a new phase of national life and
+divine revelation.
+
+In spite, however, of the plausibility of this theory, it seems
+preferable to adhere to the story of Ezra i.-iv. Apart from the weighty
+objections that the Edomites would have frustrated such a recrudescence
+of the remnant Jews as has been described, it must be remembered that
+the main stream of Jewish life and thought had been diverted to Babylon.
+Thence, when the opportunity came under Cyrus, some 50,000 Jews, the
+spiritual heirs of the best elements of the old Israel, returned to
+found the new community. With them were all the resources, and the only
+people they found at Jerusalem were hostile gentiles and Samaritans.
+Full of enthusiasm, they set about rebuilding the temple and realizing
+the glowing promises about the prosperity and dominance of Zion that had
+fallen from the lips of the Second Isaiah (xlix. 14-26, xlv. 14). Bitter
+disappointment, however, soon overcame them, the Samaritans were strong
+enough to thwart and hinder their temple-building, and it seemed as
+though the divine favour was withdrawn. Apathy took the place of
+enthusiasm, and sordid worries succeeded to high hopes. "The like
+collapse has often been experienced in history when bands of religious
+men, going forth, as they thought, to freedom and the immediate erection
+of a holy commonwealth, have found their unity wrecked and their
+enthusiasm dissipated by a few inclement seasons on a barren and hostile
+shore."[4]
+
+From this torpor they were roused by tidings which might well be
+interpreted as the restoration of divine favour. Away in the East Cyrus
+had been succeeded in 529 B.C. by Cambyses, who had annexed Egypt and on
+whose death in 522 a Magian impostor, Gaumata, had seized the throne.
+The fraud was short-lived, and Darius I. became king and the founder of
+a new dynasty. These events shook the whole Persian empire; Babylon and
+other subject states rose in revolt, and to the Jews it seemed that
+Persia was tottering and that the Messianic era was nigh. It was
+therefore natural that Haggai and Zechariah should urge the speedy
+building of the temple, in order that the great king might be fittingly
+received.
+
+It is sometimes levied as a reproach against Haggai that he makes no
+direct reference to moral duties. But it is hardly fair to contrast his
+practical counsel with the more ethical and spiritual teaching of the
+earlier Hebrew prophets. One thing was needful--the temple. "Without a
+sanctuary Yahweh would have seemed a foreigner to Israel. The Jews would
+have thought that He had returned to Sinai, the holy mountain; and that
+they were deprived of the temporal blessings which were the gifts of a
+God who literally dwelt in the midst of his people." Haggai argued that
+material prosperity was conditioned by zeal in worship; the prevailing
+distress was an indication of divine anger due to the people's religious
+apathy. Haggai's reproofs touched the conscience of the Jews, and the
+book of Zechariah enables us in some measure to follow the course of a
+religious revival which, starting with the restoration of the temple,
+did not confine itself to matters of ceremony and ritual worship. On the
+other hand, Haggai's treatment of his theme, practical and effective as
+it was for the purpose in hand, moves on a far lower level than the
+aspirations of the prophet who wrote the closing chapters of Isaiah. To
+the latter the material temple is no more than a detail in the picture
+of a work of restoration eminently ideal and spiritual, and he expressly
+warns his hearers against attaching intrinsic importance to it (Isa.
+lxvi. 1). To Haggai the temple appears so essential that he teaches that
+while it lay waste, the people and all their works and offerings were
+unclean (Hag. ii. 14). In this he betrays his affinity with Ezekiel, who
+taught that it is by the possession of the sanctuary that Israel is
+sanctified (Ezek. xxxvii. 28). In truth the new movement of religious
+thought and feeling which started from the fall of the Hebrew state took
+two distinct lines, of which Ezekiel and the anonymous authors of Isa.
+xl.-lxvi. are the respective representatives. While the latter developed
+their great picture of Israel the mediatorial nation, the systematic and
+priestly mind of Ezekiel had shaped a more material conception of the
+religious vocation of Israel in that picture of the new theocracy where
+the temple and its ritual occupy the largest place, with a sanctity
+which is set in express contrast to the older conception of the holiness
+of the city of Jerusalem (cf. Ezek. xliii. 7 seq. with Jer. xxxi. 40,
+Isa. iv. 5), and with a supreme significance for the religious life of
+the people which is expressed in the figure of the living waters issuing
+from under the threshold of the house (Ezek. xlvii.). It was the
+conception of Ezekiel which permanently influenced the citizens of the
+new Jerusalem, and took final shape in the institutions of Ezra. To this
+consummation, with its necessary accompaniment in the extinction of
+prophecy, the book of Haggai already points.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The elaborate and valuable German commentary of A.
+  Kohler (Erlangen, 1860) forms the first part of his work on the
+  _Nachexilische Propheten_. Reinke's _Commentary_ (Munster, 1868) is
+  the work of a scholarly Roman Catholic. Haggai has generally been
+  treated in works on all the prophets, as by Ewald (2nd ed., 1868; Eng.
+  trans., vol. iii., 1878); or along with the other minor prophets, as
+  by Hitzig (3rd ed., by H. Steiner, Leipzig, 1881), Keil (1866, 3rd
+  ed., 1888, Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1868), and Pusey (1875), S. R.
+  Driver (1906), W. Nowack (2nd ed., 1905), K. Marti (1904), J.
+  Wellhausen (3rd ed., 1898); or with the other post-exile prophets, as
+  by Kohler, Pressel (Gotha, 1870), Dods (1879) and others. The older
+  literature will be found in books of introduction or in Rosenmuller's
+  _Scholia_. The learned commentary of Marckius may be specially
+  mentioned. On the place of Haggai in the history of Old Testament
+  prophecy, see Duhm, _Theologie der Propheten_ (Bonn, 1875); A. B.
+  Davidson, _The Theology of the Old Testament_ (1904); A. F.
+  Kirkpatrick, _The Doctrine of the Prophets_; G. A. Smith, _The Book of
+  the Twelve Prophets_, vol. 2 (1903); Tony Andree, _Le Prophete Aggee_;
+  Ed. Meyer, _Entstehung des Judentums_ (1896).     (W. R. S.; A. J. G.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] In Bleek's _Einleitung_, 4th ed., p. 434.
+
+  [2] See the note on Ps. cxlv. 1 in Field's _Hexapla_; Kohler,
+    _Weissagungen Haggai's_, 32; Wright, _Zechariah and his Prophecies_,
+    xix.
+
+  [3] After the foundation of the temple Zerubbabel disappears from
+    history and lives only in legend, which continued to busy itself with
+    his story, as we see from the apocryphal book of Esdras (cf.
+    Derenbourg, _Hist. de la Palestine_, chap. i).
+
+  [4] G. A. Smith, _Minor Prophets_, ii. 235.
+
+
+
+
+HAGGARD, HENRY RIDER (1856-   ), English novelist, was born at Bradenham
+Hall, Norfolk, on the 22nd of June 1856. When he was nineteen he went to
+South Africa as secretary to Sir Henry Bulwer, governor of Natal. At the
+time of the first annexation of the Transvaal (1877), he was on the
+staff of the special commissioner, Sir Theophilus Shepstone; and he
+subsequently became a master of the high court of the Transvaal. He
+married in 1879 a Norfolk heiress, Miss Margitson, but returned to the
+Transvaal in time to witness its surrender to the Boers and the
+overthrow of the policy of his former chief. He returned to England and
+read for the bar, but soon took to literary work; he published _Cetywayo
+and his White Neighbours_ (1882), written in defence of Sir T.
+Shepstone's policy. This was followed by the novels _Dawn_ (1884), _The
+Witch's Head_ (1885), which contains an account of the British defeat at
+Isandhlwana; and in 1886 _King Solomon's Mines_, suggested by the
+Zimbabwe ruins, which first made him popular. _She_ (1887), another
+fantastic African story, was also very successful, a sequel, _Ayesha, or
+the Return of She_, being published in 1905. The scene of _Jess_ (1887)
+and of _Allan Quatermain_ (1888) was also laid in Africa. In 1895 he
+unsuccessfully contested the East Norfolk parliamentary division in the
+Unionist interest; he showed great interest in rural and agricultural
+questions, being a practical gardener and farmer on his estate in
+Norfolk. In his _Rural England_ (2 vols., 1902) he exposed the evils of
+depopulation in country districts. In 1905 he was commissioned by the
+colonial office to inquire into the Salvation Army settlements at Fort
+Romie, S. California, and Fort Amity, Colorado, with a view to the
+establishment of similar colonies in South Africa. His report on the
+subject was first published as a blue book, and afterwards, in an
+enlarged form, as _The Poor and the Land_ (1905), with suggestions for a
+scheme of national land settlement in Great Britain itself.
+
+  His other books include _Maiwa's Revenge_ (1888), _Mr Meeson's Will_
+  (1888), _Colonel Quaritch_, V.C. (1888), _Cleopatra_ (1889), _Eric
+  Brighteyes_ (1891), _The World's Desire_ (1890), a romance of Helen of
+  Troy, written with Mr Andrew Lang; _Nada the Lily_ (1892),
+  _Montezuma's Daughter_ (1894), _The People of the Mist_ (1894), _Joan
+  Haste_ (1895), _Heart of the World_ (1896), _Dr Therne_ (1898), _A
+  Farmer's Year_ (1899), _The New South Africa_ (1900), _Lysbeth, A Tale
+  of the Dutch_ (1901). _Stella Fregelius_ (1903), _A Gardener's Year_
+  (1905), _A Farmer's Year_ (1899, revised ed., 1906), _The Way of the
+  Spirit_ (1906).
+
+
+
+
+
+HAGGIS, a dish consisting of a calf's, sheep's or other animal's heart,
+liver and lungs, and also sometimes of the smaller intestines, boiled in
+the stomach of the animal with seasoning of pepper, salt, onions, &c.,
+chopped fine with suet and oatmeal. It is considered peculiarly a
+Scottish dish, but was common in England till the 18th century. The
+derivation of the word is obscure. The Fr. _hachis_, English "hash," is
+of later appearance than "haggis." It may be connected with a verb "to
+hag," meaning to cut in small pieces, and would then be cognate
+ultimately with "hash."
+
+
+
+
+HAGIOLOGY (from Gr. [Greek: hagios], saint, [Greek: logos], discourse),
+that branch of the historical sciences which is concerned with the lives
+of the saints. If hagiology be considered merely in the sense in which
+the term has come to be understood in the later stages of its
+development, i.e. the critical study of hagiographic remains, there
+would be no such science before the 17th century. But the bases of
+hagiology may fairly be said to have been laid at the time when
+hagiographic documents, hitherto dispersed, were first brought together
+into collections. The oldest collection of this kind, the [Greek:
+sunagoge ton archaion marturion] of Eusebius, to which the author refers
+in several passages in his writings (_Hist. Eccl._, v. proem 2; v. 20,
+5), and which has left more than one trace in Christian literature, is
+unfortunately lost in its entirety. The _Martyrs of Palestine_, as also
+the writings of Theodoret, Palladius and others, on the origins of the
+monastic life, and, similarly, the _Dialogues_ of St Gregory (Pope
+Gregory I.), belong to the category of sources rather than to that of
+hagiologic collections. The _In gloria martyrum_ and _In gloria
+confessorum_ of Gregory of Tours are valuable for the sources used in
+their compilation. The most important collections are those which
+comprise the Acts of the Martyrs and the lives of saints, arranged in
+the order of the calendar. In the Greek Church these are called
+menologies (from Gr. [Greek: men], month, [Greek: logos], discourse),
+and their existence can be traced back with certainty to the 9th century
+(Theodore of Studium, _Epist._ i. 2). One of them, the menology of
+Metaphrastes, compiled in the second half of the 10th century, enjoyed a
+universal vogue (see SYMEON METAPHRASTES). The corresponding works in
+the Western Church are the _passionaries_ or _legendaries_, varieties of
+which are dispersed in libraries and have not been studied collectively.
+They generally draw from a common source, the Roman legendary, and the
+lives of the local saints, i.e. those specially honoured in a church, a
+province or a country. One of the best known is the Austrian legendary
+(_De magno legendario Austriaco_ in the _Analecta Bollandiana_, xvii.
+24-264). From the menologies and legendaries various compilations were
+made: in the Greek Church, the Synaxaria (see SYNAXARIUM); in the
+Western Church, abridgments and extracts such as the _Speculum
+hisloriale_ of Vincent de Beauvais; the _Legenda aurea_ of Jacobus de
+Voragine; the _Sanctorale_ of Bernard Guy [d. 1331] (see L. Delisle,
+_Notice sur les manuscrits de Bernard Guy_, Paris, 1879); the
+_Sanctilogium_ of John of Tynemouth (c. 1366), utilized by John
+Capgrave, and published in 1516 under the name of _Nova legenda Angliae_
+(new edition by C. Horstman, Oxford, 1901); and the _Catalogus
+sanctorum_ of Petrus de Natalibus (c. 1375), published at Vicenza in
+1493, and many times reprinted. The _Sanctuarium_ of B. Mombritius,
+published at Milan about 1480, is particularly valuable because it gives
+a faithful reproduction of the ancient texts according to the
+manuscripts. One of the most zealous collectors of lives of saints was
+John Gielemans of Brabant (d. 1487), whose work is of great value
+(Bollandists, _De codicibus hagiographicis Iohannis Gielemans_,
+Brussels, 1895), and with him must be associated Anton Geens, or
+Gentius, of Groenendael, who died in 1543 (_Analecta Bollandiana_, vi.
+31-34).
+
+Hagiology entered on a new development with the publication of the
+_Sanctorum priscorum patrum vitae_ (Venice and Rome, 1551-1560) of
+Aloysius Lipomanus (Lippomano), bishop of Verona. As a result of the
+co-operation of humanist scholars a great number of Greek hagiographic
+texts became for the first time accessible to the West in a Latin
+translation. The Carthusian, Laurentius Surius, carried on the work of
+Lippomano, completed it, and arranged the materials strictly in the
+order of the calendar (_De probatis sanctorum historiis_, Cologne,
+1570-1575). What prevents the work of Surius from being regarded as an
+improvement upon Lippomano's is that Surius thought it necessary to
+retouch the style of those documents which appeared to him badly
+written, without troubling himself about the consequent loss of their
+documentary value.
+
+The actual founder of hagiologic criticism was the Flemish Jesuit,
+Heribert Rosweyde (d. 1629), who, besides his important works on the
+martyrologies (see MARTYROLOGY), published the celebrated collection of
+the _Vitae patrum_ (Antwerp, 1615), a veritable masterpiece for the time
+at which it appeared. It was he, too, who conceived the plan of a great
+collection of lives of saints, compiled from the manuscripts and
+augmented with notes, from which resulted the collection of the _Acta
+sanctorum_ (see BOLLANDISTS). This last enterprise gave rise to others
+of a similar character but less extensive in scope.
+
+  Dom T. Ruinart collected the best _Acta_ of the martyrs in his _Acta
+  martyrum sincera_ (Paris, 1689). The various religious orders
+  collected the Acta of their saints, often increasing the lists beyond
+  measure. The best publication of this kind, the _Acta sanctorum
+  ordinis S. Benedicti_ (Paris, 1668-1701) of d'Achery and Mabillon,
+  does not entirely escape this reproach. Countries, provinces and
+  dioceses also had their special hagiographic collections, conceived
+  according to various plans and executed with more or less historical
+  sense. Of these, the most important collections are those of O.
+  Caietanus, _Vitae sanctorum Siculorum_ (Palermo, 1657); G. A.
+  Lobineau, _Vie des saints de Bretagne_ (Rennes, 1725); and J. H.
+  Ghesquiere, _Acta sanctorum Belgii_ (Brussels and Tongerloo,
+  1783-1794). The principal lives of the German saints are published in
+  the _Monumenta Germaniae_, and a special section of the _Scriptores
+  rerum Merovingicarum_ is devoted to the lives of the saints. For
+  Scotland and Ireland mention must be made of T. Messingham's
+  _Florilegium insulae sanctorum_ (Paris, 1624); I. Colgan's _Acta
+  sanctorum veteris et maioris Scotiae seu Hiberniae_ (Louvain,
+  1645-1647); John Pinkerton's _Vitae antiquae sanctorum ..._ (London,
+  1789, of which a revised and enlarged edition was published by W. M.
+  Metcalfe at Paisley in 1889, under the title of _Lives of the Scottish
+  Saints_); W. J. Rees's _Lives of the Cambro-British Saints_
+  (Llandovery, 1853); _Acta sanctorum Hiberniae_ (Edinburgh, 1888);
+  Whitley Stokes's _Lives of Saints from the Book of Lismore_ (Oxford,
+  1890); and J. O'Hanlon's _Lives of the Irish Saints_ (Dublin,
+  1875-1904). Towards the 13th century vernacular collections of lives
+  of saints began to increase. This literature is more interesting from
+  the linguistic than from the hagiologic point of view, and comes
+  rather within the domain of the philologist.
+
+  The hagiography of the Eastern and the Greek church also has been the
+  subject of important publications. The Greek texts are very much
+  scattered. Of them, however, may be mentioned J. B. Malou's "Symeonis
+  Metaphrastae opera omnia" (_Patrologia Graeca_, 114, 115, 116) and
+  Theophilos Ioannu, [Greek: Mnemeia agiologika] (Venice, 1884). For
+  Syriac, there are S. E. Assemani's _Acta sanctorum martyrum
+  orientalium_ (Rome, 1748) and P. Bedjan's _Acta martyrum et sanctorum_
+  (Paris, 1890-1897); for Armenian, the acts of martyrs and lives of
+  saints, published in two volumes by the Mechitharist community of
+  Venice in 1874; for Coptic, Hyvernat's _Les Actes des martyrs de
+  l'Egypte_ (Paris, 1886); for Ethiopian, K. Conti Rossini's _Scriptores
+  Aethiopici, vitae sanctorum_ (Paris, 1904 seq.); and for Georgian,
+  Sabinin's _Paradise of the Georgian Church_ (St Petersburg, 1882).
+
+  In addition to the principal collections must be mentioned the
+  innumerable works in which the hagiographic texts have been subjected
+  to detailed critical study.
+
+  To realize the present state of hagiology, the _Bibliotheca
+  hagiographica_, both Latin and Greek, published by the Bollandists,
+  and the _Bulletin hagiographique_, which appears in each number of the
+  _Analecta Bollandiana_ (see BOLLANDISTS), must be consulted. Thanks to
+  the combined efforts of a great number of scholars, the classification
+  of the hagiographic texts has in recent years made notable progress.
+  The criticism of the sources, the study of literary styles, and the
+  knowledge of local history now render it easier to discriminate in
+  this literature between what is really historical and what is merely
+  the invention of the genius of the people or of the imagination of
+  pious writers (see H. Delehaye, _Les Legendes hagiographiques_, 2nd
+  ed., pp. 121-141, Brussels, 1906). "Though the lives of saints," says
+  a recent historian, "are filled with miracles and incredible stories,
+  they form a rich mine of information concerning the life and customs
+  of the people. Some of them are 'memorials of the best men of the time
+  written by the best scholars of the time,'" (C. Gross, _The Sources
+  and Literature of English History_, p. 34, London, 1900).     (H. De.)
+
+
+
+
+HAGIOSCOPE (from Gr. [Greek: hagios], holy, and [Greek: skopein], to
+see), in architecture, an opening through the wall of a church in an
+oblique direction, to enable the worshippers in the transepts or other
+parts of the church, from which the altar was not visible, to see the
+elevation of the Host. As a rule these hagioscopes, or "squints" as they
+are sometimes called, are found on one or both sides of the chancel
+arch. In some cases a series of openings has been cut in the walls in an
+oblique line to enable a person standing in the porch (as in Bridgewater
+church, Somerset) to see the altar; in this case and in other instances
+such openings were sometimes provided for an attendant, who had to ring
+the Sanctus bell when the Host was elevated. Though rarely met with on
+the continent of Europe, there are occasions where they are found, so as
+to enable a monk in one of the vestries to follow the service and
+communicate with the bell-ringers.
+
+
+
+
+HAGONOY, a town of the province of Bulacan, Luzon, Philippine Islands,
+on Manila Bay and on the W. branch and the delta of the Pampanga Grande
+river, about 25 m. N.W. of Manila. Pop. (1903), 21,304. Hagonoy is
+situated in a rich agricultural region, producing rice, Indian corn,
+sugar and a little coffee. Alcohol is made in considerable quantities
+from the fermented juice of the nipa palm, which grows in the
+neighbouring swamps, and from the leaves of which the nipa thatch is
+manufactured. There is good fishing. The women of the town are very
+skilful in weaving the native fabrics. The language is Tagalog. Hagonoy
+was founded in 1581.
+
+
+
+
+HAGUE, THE (in Dutch, _'s Gravenhage_, or, abbreviated, _den Haag_; in
+Fr. _La Haye_; and in Late Lat. _Haga Comitis_), the chief town of the
+province of South Holland, about 2-1/2 m. from the sea, with a junction
+station 9-1/2 m. by rail S.W. by S. of Leiden. Steam tramways connect it
+with the seaside villages of Scheveningen, Kykduin and 's Gravenzande,
+as well as with Delft, Wassenaar and Leiden, and it is situated on a
+branch of the main canal from Rotterdam to Amsterdam. Pop. (1900),
+212,211. The Hague is the chief town of the province, the usual
+residence of the court and diplomatic bodies, and the seat of the
+government, the states-general, the high council of the Netherlands, the
+council of state, the chamber of accounts and various other
+administrative bodies. The characteristics of the town are quite in
+keeping with its political position; it is as handsome as it is
+fashionable, and was rightly described by de Amicis in his _Olanda_ as
+half Dutch, half French. The Hague has grown very largely in modern
+times, especially on its western side, which is situated on the higher
+and more sandy soil, the south-eastern half of the town comprising the
+poorer and the business quarters. The main features in a plan of the
+town are its fine streets and houses and extensive avenues and
+well-planted squares; while, as a city, the neighbourhood of an
+attractive seaside resort, combined with the advantages and importance
+of a large town, and the possession of beautiful and wooded
+surroundings, give it a distinction all its own.
+
+The medieval-looking group of government buildings situated in the
+Binnenhof (or "inner court"), their backs reflected in the pretty sheet
+of water called the Vyver, represent both historically and
+topographically the centre of the Hague. On the opposite side of the
+Vyver lies the parallelogram formed by the fine houses and magnificent
+avenue of trees of the Lange Voorhout, the Kneuterdyk and the Vyverburg,
+representing the fashionable kernel of the city. Close by lies the
+entrance to the Haagsche Bosch, or the wood, on one side of which is
+situated the deer-park, and a little beyond on the other the zoological
+gardens (1862). Away from the Lange Voorhout the fine Park Straat
+stretches to the "1813 Plein" or square, in the centre of which rises the
+large monument (1869) by Jaquet commemorating the jubilee of the
+restoration of Dutch independence in 1813. Beyond this is the Alexander
+Veld, used as a military drill ground, and close by is the entrance to
+the beautiful road called the Scheveningensche Weg, which leads through
+the "little woods" to Scheveningen. Parallel to the Park Straat is the
+busy Noordeinde, in which is situated the royal palace. The palace was
+purchased by the States in 1595, rebuilt by the stadtholder William III.,
+and extended by King William I. in the beginning of the 19th century. In
+front of the building is an equestrian statue of William I. of Orange by
+Count Nieuerkerke (1845), and behind are the gardens and extensive
+stables. The Binnenhof, which has been already mentioned, was once
+surrounded by a moat, and is still entered through ancient gateways. The
+oldest portion was founded in 1249 by William II., count of Holland,
+whose son, Florens V., enlarged it and made it his residence. Several
+centuries later the stadtholders also lived here. The fine old hall of
+the knights, built by Florens, and now containing the archives of the
+home office, is the historic chamber in which the states of the
+Netherlands abjured their allegiance to Philip II. of Spain, and in front
+of which the grey-headed statesman Johan van Oldenbarneveldt was executed
+in 1619. Close by on the one side are the courts of justice, and on the
+other the first and second chambers of the states-general, containing
+some richly painted ceilings and the portraits of various stadtholders.
+Government offices occupy the remainder of the buildings, and in the
+middle of the court is a fountain surmounted by a statuette of William
+II., count of Holland (1227-1256). In the adjoining Buitenhof, or "outer
+court," is a statue of King William II. (d. 1849), and the old Gevangen
+Poort, or prison gate (restored 1875), consisting of a tower and gateway.
+It was here that the brothers Cornelis and Jan de Witt were killed by the
+mob in 1672. On the opposite side of the Binnenhof is the busy square
+called the Plein, where all the tram-lines meet. Round about it are the
+buildings of the ministry of justice and other government buildings,
+including one to contain the state archives, the large club-house of the
+Witte Societeit, and the Mauritshuis. The Mauritshuis was built in
+1633-1644 by Count John Maurice of Nassau, governor of Brazil, and
+contains the famous picture gallery of the Hague. The nucleus of this
+collection was formed by the princes of Orange, notably by the
+stadtholder William V. (1748-1806). King William I. did much to restore
+the losses caused by the removal of many of the pictures during the
+French occupation. Other artistic collections in the Hague are the
+municipal museum (_Gernsente_ Museum), containing paintings by both
+ancient and modern Dutch artists, and some antiquities; the fine
+collection of pictures in the Steengracht gallery, belonging to Jonkheer
+Steengracht; the museum Meermanno-Westreenianum, named after Count
+Meermann and Baron Westreenen (d. 1850), containing some interesting MSS.
+and specimens of early typography and other curiosities; and the Mesdag
+Museum, containing the collection of the painter H. W. Mesdag (b. 1831)
+presented by him to the state. The royal library (1798) contains upwards
+of 500,000 volumes, including some early illuminated MSS., a valuable
+collection of coins and medals and some fine antique gems. In addition to
+the royal palace already mentioned, there are the palaces of the
+queen-dowager, of the prince of Orange (founded about 1720 by Count Unico
+of Wassenaar Twiekels) and of the prince von Wied, dating from 1825, and
+containing some good early Dutch and Flemish masters. There are numerous
+churches of various denominations in the Hague as well as an English
+church, a Russian chapel and two synagogues, one of which is Portuguese.
+The Groote Kerk of St James (15th and 16th centuries) has a fine vaulted
+interior, and contains some old stained glass, a carved wooden pulpit
+(1550), a large organ and interesting sepulchral monuments, and some
+escutcheons of the knights of the Golden Fleece, placed here after the
+chapter of 1456. The Nieuwe Kerk, or new church (first half 17th
+century), contains the tombs of the brothers De Witt and of the
+philosopher Spinoza. Spinoza is further commemorated by a monument in
+front of the house in which he died in 1677. The picturesque town hall
+(built in 1565 and restored and enlarged in 1882) contains a historical
+picture gallery. The principal other buildings are the provincial
+government offices, the royal school of music, the college of art, the
+large building (1874) of the society for arts and sciences, the
+ethnographical institute of the Netherlands Indies with fine library, the
+theatres, civil and military hospitals, orphanage, lunatic asylum and
+other charitable institutions; the fine modern railway station (1892),
+the cavalry and artillery and the infantry barracks, and the cannon
+foundry. The chief industries of the town are iron casting, copper and
+lead smelting, cannon founding, the manufacture of furniture and
+carriages, liqueur distilling, lithographing and printing.
+
+The Hague wood has been described as the city's finest ornament. It is
+composed chiefly of oaks and alders and magnificent avenues of gigantic
+beech-trees. Together with the Haarlem wood it is thought to be a
+remnant of the immense forest which once extended along the coast. At
+the end of one of the avenues which penetrates into it from the town is
+the large summer club-house of the Witte Societeit, under whose auspices
+concerts are given here in summer. Farther into the wood are some pretty
+little lakes, and the famous royal villa called the Huis ten Bosch, or
+"house in the wood." This villa was built by Pieter Post for the
+Princess Amelia of Solms, in memory of her husband the stadtholder,
+Frederick Henry of Orange (d. 1647), and wings were added to it by
+Prince William IV. in 1748. The chief room is the Orange Saloon, an
+octagonal hall 50 ft. high, covered with paintings by Dutch and Flemish
+artists, chiefly of incidents in the life of Prince Frederick. In this
+room the International Peace Conference had its sittings in the summer
+of 1899. The collections in the Chinese and Japanese rooms, and the
+grisailles in the dining-room painted by Jacobus de Wit (1695-1754), are
+also noteworthy.
+
+The history of the Hague is in some respects singular. In the 13th
+century it was no more than a hunting-lodge of the counts of Holland,
+and though Count Floris V. (b. 1254-1296) made it his residence and it
+thus became the seat of the supreme court of justice of Holland and the
+centre of the administration, and from the time of William of Orange
+onward the meeting-place of the states-general, it only received the
+status of a town, from King Louis Bonaparte, early in the 19th century.
+
+In the latter part of the 17th and the first half of the 18th century
+the Hague was the centre of European diplomacy. Among the many treaties
+and conventions signed here may be mentioned the treaty of the Triple
+Alliance (January 23, 1688) between England, Sweden and the Netherlands;
+the concert of the Hague (March 31, 1710) between the Emperor, England
+and Holland, for the maintenance of the neutrality of the Swedish
+provinces in Germany during the war of the northern powers against
+Sweden; the Triple Alliance (January 4, 1717) between France, England
+and Holland for the guarantee of the treaty of Utrecht; the treaty of
+peace (Feb. 17, 1717) between Spain, Savoy and Austria, by which the
+first-named acceded to the principles of the Triple Alliance; the treaty
+of peace between Holland and France (May 16, 1795); the first "Hague
+Convention," the outcome of the "peace conference" assembled on the
+initiative of the emperor Nicholas II. of Russia (July 27, 1899), and
+the series of conventions, the results of the second peace conference
+(June 15-October 18, 1907). The International court of arbitration or
+Hague Tribunal was established in 1899 (see EUROPE: _History_;
+ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL). The Palace of Peace designed to be
+completed in 1913 as the seat of the tribunal, on the Scheveningen
+avenue, is by a French architect, L. M. Cordonnier, and A. Carnegie
+contributed L300,000 towards its cost.
+
+
+
+
+HAHN, AUGUST (1792-1863), German Protestant theologian, was born on the
+27th of March 1792 at Grossosterhausen near Eisleben, and studied
+theology at the university of Leipzig. In 1819 he was nominated
+_professor extraordinarius_ of theology and pastor of Altstadt in
+Konigsberg, and in 1820 received a superintendency in that city. In 1822
+he became _professor ordinarius_. In 1826 he removed as professor of
+theology to Leipzig, where, hitherto distinguished only as editor of
+Bardesanes, Marcion (_Marcion's Evangelium in seiner ursprunglichen
+Gestalt_, 1823), and Ephraem Syrus, and the joint editor of a _Syrische
+Chrestomathie_ (1824), he came into great prominence as the author of a
+treatise, _De rationalismi qui dicitur vera indole et qua cum
+naturalismo contineatur ratione_ (1827), and also of an _Offene
+Erklarung an die Evangelische Kirche zunachst in Sachsen u. Preussen_
+(1827), in which, as a member of the school of E. W. Hengstenberg, he
+endeavoured to convince the rationalists that it was their duty
+voluntarily and at once to withdraw from the national church. In 1833
+Hahn's pamphlet against K. G. Bretschneider (_Uber die Lage des
+Christenthums in unserer Zeit_, 1832) having attracted the notice of
+Friedrich Wilhelm III., he was called to Breslau as theological
+professor and consistorial councillor, and in 1843 became "general
+superintendent" of the province of Silesia. He died at Breslau on the
+13th of May 1863. Though uncompromising in his "supra-naturalism," he
+did not altogether satisfy the men of his own school by his own
+doctrinal system. The first edition of his _Lehrbuch des christlichen
+Glaubens_ (1828) was freely characterized as lacking in consistency and
+as detracting from the strength of the old positions in many important
+points. Many of these defects, however, he is considered to have
+remedied in his second edition (1857). Among his other works are his
+edition of the Hebrew Bible (1833), his _Bibliothek der Symbole und
+Glaubensregeln der apostolisch-katholischen Kirche_ (1842; 2nd ed. 1877)
+and _Predigten_ (1852).
+
+His eldest son, HEINRICH AUGUST HAHN (1821-1861), after studying
+theology at Breslau and Berlin, became successively _Privatdozent_ at
+Breslau (1845), professor _ad interim_ (1846) at Konigsberg on the death
+of Heinrich Havernick, professor extraordinarius (1851) and professor
+ordinarius (1860) at Greifswald. Amongst his published works were a
+commentary on the Book of Job (1850), a translation of the Song of Songs
+(1852), an exposition of Isaiah xl.-lxvi. (1857) and a commentary on the
+Book of Ecclesiastes (1860).
+
+  See the articles in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_, and the
+  _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_.
+
+
+
+
+HAHNEMANN, SAMUEL CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1755-1843), German physician and
+founder of "homoeopathy," was born at Meissen in Saxony on the 10th of
+April 1755. He was educated at the "elector's school" of Meissen, and
+studied medicine at Leipzig and Vienna, taking the degree of M.D. at
+Erlangen in 1779. After practising in various places, he settled in
+Dresden in 1784, and thence removed to Leipzig in 1789. In the following
+year, while translating W. Cullen's _Materia medica_ into German, he was
+struck by the fact that the symptoms produced by quinine on the healthy
+body were similar to those of the disordered states it was used to cure.
+He had previously felt dissatisfied with the state of the science of
+medicine, and this observation led him to assert the truth of the "law of
+similars," _similia similibus curantur_ or _curentur_--i.e. diseases are
+cured (or should be treated) by those drugs which produce symptoms
+similar to them in the healthy. He promulgated his new principle in a
+paper published in 1796 in C. W. Hufeland's _Journal_, and four years
+later, convinced that drugs in much smaller doses than were generally
+employed effectually exerted their curative powers, he advanced his
+doctrine of their potentization or dynamization. In 1810 he published his
+chief work, _Organon der rationellen Heilkunde_, containing an exposition
+of his system, which he called homoeopathy (q.v.), and in the following
+years appeared the six volumes of his _Reine Arzneimittellehre_, which
+detailed the symptoms produced by "proving" a large number of drugs, i.e.
+by systematically administering them to healthy subjects. In 1821 the
+hostility of established interests, and especially of the apothecaries,
+whose services were not required under his system, forced him to leave
+Leipzig, and at the invitation of the grand-duke of Anhalt-Cothen he went
+to live at Cothen. Fourteen years later he removed to Paris, where he
+practised with great success until his death on the 2nd of July 1843.
+Statues were erected to his memory at Leipzig in 1851 and at Cothen in
+1855. He also wrote, in addition to the works already mentioned,
+_Fragmenta de viribus medicamentorum positivis_ (1805) and _Die
+chronischen Krankheiten_ (1828-1830).
+
+  See the article HOMOEOPATHY; also Albrecht, _Hahnemann's Leben und
+  Werken_ (Leipzig, 1875); Bradford, _Hahnemann's Life and Letters_
+  (Philadelphia, 1895).
+
+
+
+
+HAHN-HAHN, IDA, COUNTESS VON (1805-1880), German author, was born at
+Tressow, in Mecklenburg-Schwerin, on the 22nd of June 1805, daughter of
+Graf (Count) Karl Friedrich von Hahn (1782-1857), well known for his
+enthusiasm for the stage, upon which he squandered a large portion of
+his fortune. She married in 1826 her wealthy cousin Count Adolf von
+Hahn-Hahn. With him she had an extremely unhappy life, and in 1829 her
+husband's irregularities led to a divorce. The countess travelled,
+produced some volumes of poetry indicating true lyrical feeling, and in
+1838 appeared as a novelist with _Aus der Gesellschaft_, a title which,
+proving equally applicable to her subsequent novels, was retained as
+that of a series, the book originally so entitled being renamed _Ida
+Schonholm_. For several years the countess continued to produce novels
+bearing a certain subjective resemblance to those of George Sand, but
+less hostile to social institutions, and dealing almost exclusively with
+aristocratic society. The author's patrician affectations at length drew
+upon her the merciless ridicule of Fanny Lewald in a parody of her style
+entitled _Diogena_ (1847), and this and the revolution of 1848 together
+seem to have co-operated in inducing her to embrace the Roman Catholic
+religion in 1850. She justified her step in a polemical work entitled
+_Von Babylon nach Jerusalem_ (1851), which elicited a vigorous reply
+from H. Abeken. In 1852 she retired into a convent at Angers, which she,
+however, soon left, taking up her residence at Mainz where she founded a
+nunnery, in which she lived without joining the order, and continued her
+literary labours. For many years her novels were the most popular works
+of fiction in aristocratic circles; many of her later publications,
+however, passed unnoticed as mere party manifestoes. Her earlier works
+do not deserve the neglect into which they have fallen. If their
+sentimentalism is sometimes wearisome, it is grounded on genuine feeling
+and expressed with passionate eloquence. _Ulrich_ and _Grafin Faustine_,
+both published in 1841, mark the culmination of her power; but
+_Sigismund Forster_ (1843), _Cecil_ (1844), _Sibylle_ (1846) and _Maria
+Regina_ (1860) also obtained considerable popularity. She died at Mainz
+on the 12th of January 1880.
+
+  Her collected works, _Gesammelte Werke_, with an introduction by O.
+  von Schaching, were published in two series, 45 volumes in all
+  (Regensburg, 1903-1904). See H. Keiter, _Grafin Hahn-Hahn_ (Wurzburg,
+  undated); P. Haffner, _Grafin Ida Hahn-Hahn_, _eine psychologische
+  Studie_ (Frankfort, 1880); A. Jacoby, _Ida Grafin Hahn-Hahn_ (Mainz,
+  1894).
+
+
+
+
+HAI (939-1038), Jewish Talmudical scholar, was born in 939. He was
+educated by his father Sherira, gaon of Pombeditha (Pumbedita), whom he
+afterwards assisted in his work. They were cast into prison for a short
+time by the caliph Qadir, and subsequently on Sherira's death Hai was
+appointed gaon in his place (998). This office he held till his death on
+the 28th of March 1038. He is famous chiefly for his answers to problems
+of ritual and civil law. He composed important treatises on Talmudic law
+and the _Mishnah_; many poems are also attributed to him on doubtful
+authority. In his _responsa_ he laid stress on custom and tradition
+provided no infringement of the law were involved, and was essentially
+conservative in theology. He had considerable knowledge not only of
+religious movements within the Jewish body, but also of Mahommedan
+theology and controversial method, and frequently consulted theologians
+of other beliefs.
+
+  See Steinschneider, _Hebr. Ubersetz_. p. 910, and article in _Jewish
+  Encyclopedia_, vi. 153.
+
+
+
+
+HAIBAK, a town and khanate of Afghan Turkestan. The valley of Haibak,
+which is 3100 ft. above sea level, is fertile and richly cultivated. The
+town, which is famed in Persian legend, consists now of only a couple of
+streets, containing many Hindu shops and a small garrison. The
+inhabitants call themselves Jagatais, a Turki race, though now generally
+mixed with Tajiks and speaking Persian. In the neighbourhood of Haibak
+are some very typical Buddhist ruins. Haibak derives its importance from
+its position on the main line of communication between Kabul and Afghan
+Turkestan.
+
+
+
+
+HAIDA, a tribe of North American Indians of Skittagetan stock. They
+still occupy their original home, the Queen Charlotte islands, British
+Columbia. They are skilful seamen, making long fishing expeditions in
+cedarwood canoes. They are noted for their carving and basket-work. They
+formerly made raids on the coast tribes. Slavery was hereditary, the
+slaves being prisoners of war. The population, some 7000 in the middle
+of the 19th century, is now reduced to a few hundreds.
+
+  See _Handbook of American Indians_ (Washington, 1907). For "Haida
+  Texts and Myths," see _Bull. 29 Smithsonian Institution Bureau Amer.
+  Ethnol._ (1905).
+
+
+
+
+HAIDINGER, WILHELM KARL, RITTER VON (1795-1871), Austrian mineralogist,
+geologist and physicist, was born at Vienna on the 5th of February 1795.
+His father, Karl Haidinger, contributed largely to the development of
+mineralogical science in the latter half of the 18th century. Having
+studied at the normal school of St Anne, and attended classes at the
+university, Wilhelm, at the age of seventeen, joined Professor F. Mohs
+at Gratz, and five years later accompanied the professor to Freiberg on
+the transfer of his labours to the mining academy of that town.
+
+In 1822 Haidinger visited France and England with Count Breunner, and,
+journeying northward, took up his abode in Edinburgh. He translated into
+English, with additions of his own, Mohs's _Grundriss der Mineralogie_,
+published at Edinburgh in three volumes under the title _Treatise on
+Mineralogy_ (1825). After a tour in northern Europe, including the
+Scandinavian mining districts, he undertook the scientific direction of
+the porcelain works at Elbogen, belonging to his brothers. In 1840 he
+was appointed counsellor of mines (Bergrat) at Vienna in the place of
+Professor Mohs, a post which included the charge of the imperial cabinet
+of minerals. He devoted himself to the rearrangement and enrichment of
+the collections, and the museum became the first in Europe. Shortly
+after (1843) Haidinger commenced a series of lectures on mineralogy,
+which was given to the world under the title _Handbuch der bestimmenden
+Mineralogie_ (Vienna, 1845; tables, 1846). On the establishment of the
+imperial geological institute, he was chosen director (1849); and this
+important position he occupied for seventeen years. He was elected a
+member of the imperial board of agriculture and mines, and a member of
+the imperial academy of sciences of Vienna. He organized the society of
+the Freunde der Naturwissenschaften. As a physicist Haidinger ranked
+high, and he was one of the most active promoters of scientific progress
+in Austria. He was the discoverer of the interesting optical appearances
+which have been called after him "Haidinger's brushes." Knighted in
+1865, the following year he retired to his estate at Dornbach near
+Vienna, where he died on the 19th of March 1871.
+
+  In addition to the works already named, Haidinger published
+  _Anfangsgrunde der Mineralogie_ (Leipzig, 1829); _Geognostische
+  Ubersichtskarte der osterreich. Monarchie_ (Vienna, 1847);
+  _Bemerkungen uber die Anordnung der kleinsten Theilchen in
+  Christallen_ (Vienna, 1853); _Interferenzlinien am Glimmer_ (Vienna,
+  1855); _Vergleichungen von Augit und Amphibol_ (Vienna, 1855). He also
+  edited the _Naturwissenschaftliche Abhandlungen_ (Vienna, 1847); the
+  _Berichte uber die Mittheilungen von Freunden der Naturwissenschaften
+  in Wien_ (Vienna, 1847-1851); and the _Jahrbuch_ of the Vienna K. K.
+  Geologische Reichsanstalt (1850), &c. Some of his papers will be found
+  in the _Transactions_ of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (vol. x.) and
+  of the Wernerian Society (1822-1823), _Edinburgh Phil. Journal,
+  Brewster's Journal of Science_, and _Poggendorff's Annalen_.
+       (H. B. Wo.)
+
+
+
+
+HAIDUK (also written _Hayduk, Heiduc, Heyduke_ and _Heyduque_), a term
+which appears originally to have meant "robber" or "brigand," a sense it
+retains in Servia and some other parts of the Balkan Peninsula. It is
+probably derived from the Turkish _haidud_, "marauder," but its origin
+is not absolutely certain. Most of the European races with which the
+Turks came into close contact during the 15th and 16th centuries seem to
+have adopted it as a loan-word, and it appears in Magyar as _hajdu_
+(plural _hajduk_), in Serbo-Croatian, Rumanian, Polish and [)C]ech as
+_hajduk_, in Bulgarian as _hajdutin_ and in Greek as [Greek:
+chaintoutes]. By the beginning of the 17th century its use had spread
+north and west as far as Sweden and Great Britain. In Hungary it was
+applied to a class of mercenary foot-soldiers of Magyar stock. In 1605
+these haiduks were rewarded for their fidelity to the Protestant party
+(see HUNGARY: _History_) with titles of nobility and territorial rights
+over a district situated on the left bank of the river Theiss, known
+thenceforward as the Haiduk region. This was enlarged in 1876 and
+converted into the county of Hajdu (Ger. _Hajduken_). _Hajdu_ is also a
+common prefix in Hungarian place-names, e.g. Hajdu-Szoboszlo,
+Hajdu-Namas. In Austria-Hungary, Germany, Poland, Sweden and some other
+countries, _haiduk_ came to mean an attendant in a court of law, or a
+male servant, dressed in Hungarian semi-military costume. It is also
+occasionally used as a synonym for "footman" or "lackey."
+
+
+
+
+HAIFA, a town of Palestine at the foot of Mt. Carmel, on the south of
+the Bay of Acre. It represents the classical Sycaminum, but the present
+town is entirely modern. It has developed since about 1890 into an
+important port, and is connected by railway with Damascus. The
+population is estimated at 12,000 (Moslems 6000, Christians 4000, Jews
+1500, Germans 500; the last belong for the greater part to the Unitarian
+sect of the "Templars," who have colonies also at Jaffa and Jerusalem).
+The exports (grain and oil) were valued at L178,738 in 1900. Much of the
+trade that formerly went to Acre has been attracted to Haifa. This port
+is the best natural harbour on the Palestine coast.
+
+
+
+
+HAIK (an Arabic word, from _hak_, to weave), a piece of cloth, usually
+of coarse hand-woven wool, worn by Arabs, Moors and other Mahommedan
+peoples. It is generally 6 to 6-1/2 yds. long, and about 2 broad. It is
+either striped or plain, and is worn equally by both sexes, usually as
+an outer covering; but it is often the only garment of the poorer
+classes. By women the "haik" is arranged to cover the head and, in the
+presence of men, is held so as to conceal the face. A thin "haik" of
+silk, like a veil, is used by brides at their marriage.
+
+
+
+
+HAIL (O. Eng. _haegl_ and _hagol_,[1] cf. the cognate Teutonic _hagel_,
+as in German, Dutch, Swedish, &c.; the Gr. [Greek: kachlex], pebble, is
+probably allied), the name for rounded masses or single pellets of ice
+falling from the clouds in a shower. True hail has a concentric
+structure caused by the frozen particles of moisture first descending
+into a warm cloud, whence they are carried upwards on an ascending
+current of heated air into a cold stratum where the fresh coating of
+water vapour deposited in the cloud is frozen. The hailstone descends
+again, receives a fresh coating, is carried up once more, refrozen, and
+again descends. Thus the hailstone grows until the current is no longer
+strong enough to support it when it falls to the ground. At times masses
+of hail are frozen together, and a very sudden cooling will sometimes
+result in the formation of ragged masses of ice that fall with
+disastrous results. Hail must be distinguished from the frozen snow,
+"soft-hail" or "graupel," that often falls at the rear of a spring
+cyclone, since true hail is almost entirely a summer phenomenon, and
+falls most frequently in thunderstorms which are produced under the
+conditions that are favourable to the formation of hail, i.e. great
+heat, a still atmosphere, the production of strong local convection
+currents in consequence, and the passage of a cold upper drift.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] "Hail," a call of greeting or salutation, a shout to attract
+    attention, must, of course, be distinguished. This word represents
+    the Old Norwegian _heill_, prosperity, cognate with O. Eng. _hal_,
+    whence "hale," "whole," and _hael_, whence "health," "heal."
+
+
+
+
+HAILES, DAVID DALRYMPLE, LORD (1726-1792), Scottish lawyer and
+historian, was born at Edinburgh on the 28th of October 1726. His
+father, Sir James Dalrymple, Bart., of Hailes, in the county of
+Haddington, auditor-general of the exchequer of Scotland, was a grandson
+of James, first Viscount Stair; and his mother, Lady Christian Hamilton,
+was a daughter of Thomas, 6th earl of Haddington. David was the eldest
+of sixteen children. He was educated at Eton, and studied law at
+Utrecht, being intended for the Scottish bar, to which he was admitted
+shortly after his return to Scotland in 1748. As a pleader he attained
+neither high distinction nor very extensive practice, but he rapidly
+established a well-deserved reputation for sound knowledge, unwearied
+application and strict probity; and in 1766 he was elevated to the
+bench, when he assumed the title of Lord Hailes. Ten years later he was
+appointed a lord of justiciary. He died on the 29th of November 1792. He
+was twice married, and had a daughter by each wife. The baronetcy to
+which he had succeeded passed to the son of his brother John, provost of
+Edinburgh. Another brother was Alexander Dalrymple (1737-1808), the
+first admiralty hydrographer, who distinguished himself in the East
+India Company's service and as a geographer. Lord Hailes's younger
+daughter married Sir James Fergusson; and their grandson, Sir Charles
+Dalrymple, 1st Bart. (cr. 1887), M.P. for Bute from 1868 to 1885,
+afterwards came into Lord Hailes's estate and took his family name.
+
+Lord Hailes's most important contribution to literature was the _Annals
+of Scotland_, of which the first volume, "From the accession of Malcolm
+III., surnamed Canmore, to the accession of Robert I.," appeared in
+1776, and the second, "From the accession of Robert I., surnamed Bruce,
+to the accession of the house of Stewart," in 1779. It is, as Dr Johnson
+justly described this work at the time of its appearance, a "Dictionary"
+of carefully sifted facts, which tells all that is wanted and all that
+is known, but without any laboured splendour of language or affected
+subtlety of conjecture. The other works of Lord Hailes include
+_Historical Memoirs concerning the Provincial Councils of the Scottish
+Clergy_ (1769); _An Examination of some of the Arguments for the High
+Antiquity of Regiam Majestatem_ (1769); three volumes entitled _Remains
+of Christian Antiquity_ ("Account of the Martyrs of Smyrna and Lyons in
+the Second Century," 1776; "The Trials of Justin Martyr, Cyprian, &c.,"
+1778; "The History of the Martyrs of Palestine, translated from
+Eusebius," 1780); _Disquisitions concerning the Antiquities of the
+Christian Church_ (1783); and editions or translations of portions of
+Lactantius, Tertullian and Minucius Felix. In 1786 he published _An
+Inquiry into the Secondary Causes which Mr Gibbon has assigned for the
+Rapid Growth of Christianity_ (Dutch translation, Utrecht, 1793), one of
+the most respectable of the very many replies which were made to the
+famous 15th and 16th chapters of the _Decline and Fall of the Roman
+Empire_.
+
+A "Memoir" of Lord Hailes is prefixed to the 1808 reprint of his
+_Inquiry into the Secondary Causes_.
+
+
+
+
+HAILSHAM, a market-town in the Eastbourne parliamentary division of
+Sussex, England, 54 m. S.S.E. from London by the London, Brighton &
+South Coast railway. Pop. (1901), 4197. The church of St Mary is
+Perpendicular. The picturesque Augustinian priory of Michelham lies 2 m.
+W. by the Cuckmere river; it is altered into a dwelling house, but
+retains a gate-house, crypt and other portions of Early English date.
+There was also a Premonstratensian house at Otham, 3 m. S., but the
+remains are scanty. Hailsham has a considerable agricultural trade, and
+manufactures of rope and matting are carried on.
+
+
+
+
+HAINAN, or, as it is usually called in Chinese, _K'iung-chow-fu_, a
+large island belonging to the Chinese province of Kwang-tung, and
+situated between the Chinese Sea and the Gulf of Tong-king from 20 deg.
+8' to 17 deg. 52' N., and from 108 deg. 32' to 111 deg. 15' E. It
+measures 160 m. from N.E. to S.W., and the average breadth is about 90
+m. The area is estimated at from 1200 to 1400 sq. m., or two-thirds the
+size of Sicily. From the peninsula of Lei-chow on the north it is
+separated by the straits of Hainan, which have a breadth of 15 or 20 m.
+
+With the exception of a considerable area in the north, and broad tracts
+on the north-east and north-west sides, the whole island is occupied by
+jungle-covered mountains, with rich valleys between. The central range
+bears the name of Li-mou shan or Wu-tchi shan (the Five-Finger
+Mountain), and attains a height of 6000 or 7000 ft. Its praises are
+celebrated in a glowing ode by Ch'iu, a native poet. The island appears
+to be well watered, and some of its rivers are not without importance as
+possible highways of commerce; but the details of its hydrography are
+very partially ascertained. A navigable channel extends in an irregular
+curve from the bay of Hoi-how (Hai-K'ow) in the north to Tan-chow on the
+west coast. Being exposed to the winter monsoon, the northern parts of
+the island enjoy much the same sort of temperate climate as the
+neighbouring provinces of the mainland, but in the southern parts,
+protected from the monsoon by the mountain ranges, the climate is almost
+or entirely tropical. Snow falls so rarely that its appearance in 1684
+is reported in the native chronicles as a remarkable event. Earthquakes
+are a much more familiar phenomenon, having occurred, according to the
+same authority, in 1523, 1526, 1605, 1652, 1677, 1681, 1684, 1702, 1704,
+1725, 1742, 1816, 1817 and 1822. Excellent timber of various
+kinds--eagle-wood, rose-wood, liquidambar, &c.--is one of the principal
+products of the island, and has even been specially transported to
+Peking for imperial purposes. The coco palm flourishes freely even in
+the north, and is to be found growing in clumps with the _Pinus
+sinensis_. Rice, cotton, sugar, indigo, cinnamon, betel-nuts, sweet
+potatoes, ground-nuts and tobacco are all cultivated in varying
+quantities. The aboriginal inhabitants collect a kind of tea called
+t'ien ch'a, or celestial tea, which looks like the leaves of a wild
+camellia, and has an earthy taste when infused. Lead, silver, copper and
+iron occur in the Shi-lu shan or "stone-green-hill"; the silver at least
+was worked till 1850. Gold and lapis lazuli are found in other parts of
+the island.
+
+The ordinary cattle of Hainan are apparently a cross between the little
+yellow cow of south China and the zebu of India. Buffaloes are common,
+and in the neighbourhood of Nanlu at least they are frequently albinos.
+Horses are numerous but small. Hogs and deer are both common wild
+animals, and of the latter there are three species, _Cervus Eldi, Cervus
+hippelaphus_ and _Cervus vaginalis_. Among the birds, of which 172
+species are described by Mr Swinhoe in his paper in _The Ibis_ (1870),
+there are eagles, notably a new species _Spilornis Rutherfordi_,
+buzzards, harriers, kites, owls, goatsuckers and woodpeckers. The _Upupa
+ceylonensis_ is familiar to the natives as the "bird of the Li matrons,"
+and the _Palaeornis javanica_ as the "sugar-cane bird."
+
+Hainan forms a fu or department of the province of Kwang-tung, though
+strictly it is only a portion of the island that is under Chinese
+administration, the remainder being still occupied by unsubjugated
+aborigines. The department contains three _chow_ and ten _hien_
+districts. K'iung-chow-hien, in which the capital is situated;
+Ting-an-hien, the only inland district; Wen-ch'ang-hien, in the
+north-east of the island; Hui-t'ung-hien, Lo-hui-hien, Ling-shu-hien,
+Wan-chow, Yai-chow (the southmost of all), Kan-en-hien, Ch'ang-hwa-hien,
+Tan-chow, Lin-kao-hien and Ch'eng-mai-hien. The capital K'iung-chow-fu
+is situated in the north about 10 li (or 3 m.) from the coast on the
+river. It is a well-built compact city, and its temples and examination
+halls are in good preservation. Carved articles in coco-nuts and scented
+woods are its principal industrial product. In 1630 it was made the seat
+of a Roman Catholic mission by Benoit de Mathos, a Portuguese Jesuit,
+and the old cemetery still contains about 113 Christian graves. The port
+of K'iung-chow-fu at the mouth of the river, which is nearly dry at low
+water, is called simply Hoi-how, or in the court dialect Hai-K'ow, i.e.
+seaport. The two towns are united by a good road, along which a large
+traffic is maintained partly by coolie porters but more frequently by
+means of wheel-barrows, which serve the purpose of cabs and carts. The
+value of the trade of the port has risen from L670,600 in 1899 to
+L719,333 in 1904. In the same year 424 vessels, representing a tonnage
+of 312,554, visited the port. This trade is almost entirely with the
+British colony of Hong-Kong, with which the port is connected by small
+coasting steamers, but since 1893 it has had regular steamboat
+communication with Haiphong in Tongking. The population of K'iung-chow,
+including its shipping port of Hoi-how, is estimated at 52,000. The
+number of foreign residents in 1900 was about 30, most of them officials
+or missionaries.
+
+The inhabitants of Hainan may be divided into three classes, the Chinese
+immigrants, the civilized aborigines or Shu-li and the wild aborigines
+or Sheng-li. The Chinese were for the most part originally from Kwang-si
+and the neighbouring provinces, and they speak a peculiar dialect, of
+which a detailed account by Mr Swinhoe was given in _The Phoenix, a
+Monthly Magazine for China, &c._ (1870). The Shu-li as described by Mr
+Taintor are almost of the same stature as the Chinese, but have a more
+decided copper colour, higher cheek-bones and more angular features,
+while their eyes are not oblique. Their hair is long, straight and
+black, and their beards, if they have any, are very scanty. They till
+the soil and bring rice, fuel, timber, grass-cloth, &c., to the Chinese
+markets. The Sheng-li or Li proper, called also La, Le or Lauy, are
+probably connected with the Laos of Siam and the Lolos of China. Though
+not gratuitously aggressive, they are highly intractable, and have given
+great trouble to the Chinese authorities. Among themselves they carry on
+deadly feuds, and revenge is a duty and an inheritance. Though they are
+mainly dependent on the chase for food, their weapons are still the
+spear and the bow, the latter being made of wood and strung with bamboo.
+In marriage no avoidance of similarity of name is required. The bride's
+face is tattooed according to a pattern furnished by the bridegroom.
+Their funeral mourning consists of abstaining from drink and eating raw
+beef, and they use a wooden log for a coffin. When sick they sacrifice
+oxen. In the spring-time there is a festival in which the men and women
+from neighbouring settlements move about in gay clothing hand in hand
+and singing songs. The whole population of the island is estimated at
+about 2-1/2 millions. At its first conquest 23,000 families were
+introduced from the mainland. In 1300 the Chinese authorities assign
+166,257 inhabitants; in 1370, 291,000; in 1617, 250,524; and in 1835,
+1,350,000.
+
+It was in 111 B.C. that Lu-Po-Teh, general of the emperor Wu-ti, first
+made the island of Hainan subject to the Chinese, who divided it into
+the two prefectures, Tan-urh or Drooping Ear in the south, so-called
+from the long ears of the native "king," and Chu-yai or Pearl Shore in
+the north. During the decadence of the elder branch of the Han dynasty
+the Chinese supremacy was weakened, but in A.D. 43 the natives were led
+by the success of Ma-yuan in Tong-king to make a new tender of their
+allegiance. About this time the whole island took the name of Chu-yai.
+In A.D. 627 the name of K'iung-chow came into use. On its conquest by
+the generals of Kublai Khan in 1278 the island was incorporated with the
+western part of the province of Kwang-tung in a new satrapy, Hai-peh
+Hai-nan Tao, i.e. the circuit north of the sea and south of the sea. It
+was thus that Hai-nan-Tao, or district south of the sea or strait, came
+into use as the name of the island, which, however, has borne the
+official title of K'iung-chow-fu, probably derived from the Kiung shan
+or Jade Mountains, ever since 1370, the date of its erection into a
+department of Kwang-tung. For a long time Hainan was the refuge of the
+turbulent classes of China and the place of deportation for delinquent
+officials. It was there, for example, that Su-She or Su-Tung-po was
+banished in 1097. From the 15th to the 19th century pirates made the
+intercourse with the mainland dangerous, and in the 17th they were
+considered so formidable that merchants were allowed to convey their
+goods only across the narrow Hainan Strait. Since 1863 the presence of
+English men-of-war has put an end to this evil. According to the treaty
+of Tientsin, the capital K'iung-chow and the harbour Hoi-how (Hai-Kow)
+were opened to European commerce; but it was not till 1876 that
+advantage was taken of the permission.
+
+
+
+
+HAINAU (officially HAYNAU), a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
+of Silesia, on the Schnelle Deichsa and the railway from Breslau to
+Dresden, 12 m. N.W. of Liegnitz. Pop. 10,500. It has an Evangelical and
+a Roman Catholic church, manufactories of gloves, patent leather, paper,
+metal ware and artificial manures, and a considerable trade in cereals.
+Near Hainau the Prussian cavalry under Blucher inflicted a defeat on the
+French rearguard on the 26th of May 1813.
+
+
+
+
+HAINAUT (Flem. _Henegouwen_, Ger. _Hennegau_), a province of Belgium
+formed out of the ancient county of Hainaut. Modern Hainaut is famous as
+containing the chief coal and iron mines of Belgium. There are about
+150,000 men and women employed in the mines, and about as many more in
+the iron and steel works of the province. About 1880 these numbers were
+not more than half their present totals. The principal towns of Hainaut
+are Mons, the capital, Charleroi, Tournai, Jumet and La Louviere. The
+province is watered by both the Scheldt and the Sambre, and is connected
+with Flanders by the Charleroi-Ghent canal. The area of the province is
+computed at 930,405 acres or 1453 sq. m. In 1904 the population was
+1,192,967, showing an average of 821 per square mile.
+
+Under the successors of Clovis Hainaut formed part, first of the kingdom
+of Metz, and then of that of Lotharingia. It afterwards became part of
+the duchy of Lorraine. The first to bear the title of count of Hainaut
+was Reginar "Long-Neck" (c. 875), who, later on, made himself master of
+the duchy of Lorraine and died in 916. His eldest son inherited Lower
+Lorraine, the younger, Reginar II., the countship of Hainaut, which
+remained in the male line of his descendants, all named Reginar, until
+the death of Reginar V. in 1036. His heiress, Richildis, married _en
+secondes noces_ Baldwin VI. of Flanders, and, by him, became the
+ancestress of the Baldwin (VI. of Hainaut) who in 1204 was raised by the
+Crusaders to the empire of Constantinople. The emperor Baldwin's elder
+daughter Jeanne brought the countship of Hainaut to her husbands
+Ferdinand of Portugal (d. 1233) and Thomas of Savoy (d. 1259). On her
+death in 1244, however, it passed to her sister Margaret, on whose death
+in 1279 it was inherited by her grandson, John of Avesnes, count of
+Holland (d. 1304). The countship of Hainaut remained united with that of
+Holland during the 14th and 15th centuries. It was under the counts
+William I. "the Good" (1304-1337), whose daughter Philippa married
+Edward III. of England, and William II. (1337-1345) that the communes of
+Hainaut attained great political importance. Margaret, who succeeded her
+brother William II. in 1345, by her marriage with the emperor Louis IV.
+brought Hainaut with the rest of her dominions to the house of
+Wittelsbach. Finally, early in the 15th century, the countess Jacqueline
+was dispossessed by Philip the Good of Burgundy, and Hainaut
+henceforward shared the fate of the rest of the Netherlands.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The _Chronicon Hanoniense_ or _Chronica Honnoniae_ of
+  Giselbert of Mons (d. 1223-1225), chancellor of Count Baldwin V.,
+  covering the period between 1040 and 1195, is published in Pertz,
+  _Monum. Germ._ (Hanover, 1840, &c.). The _Chronicon Hanoniense_,
+  ascribed to Baldwin, count of Avesnes (d. 1289), and written between
+  1278 and 1281, was published under the title _Hist. genealogica
+  comitum Hannoniae_, &c., at Antwerp (1691 and 1693) and Brussels
+  (1722). The Annals of Jacques de Guise (b. 1334; d. 1399) were
+  published by de Fortia d'Urban under the title, _Histoire de Hainault
+  par Jacques de Guyse_, in 19 vols. (Paris, 1826-1838); C. Delacourt,
+  "Bibliographie de l'hist. du Hainaut," in the _Annales du cercle
+  archeologique de Mons_, vol. v. (Mons, 1864); T. Bernier, _Dict.
+  geograph. historique, &c., de Hainault_ (Mons, 1891). See also Ulysse
+  Chevalier, _Repertoire des sources_ s.v.
+
+
+
+
+HAINBURG, or HAIMBURG, a town of Austria, in Lower Austria, 38 m. E.S.E
+of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900), 5134. It is situated on the Danube, only
+2-1/2 m. from the Hungarian frontier, and since the fire of 1827
+Hainburg has been much improved, being now a handsomely built town. It
+has one of the largest tobacco manufactories in Austria, employing about
+2000 hands, and a large needle factory. It occupies part of the site of
+the old Celtic town Carnuntum (q.v.). It is still surrounded by ancient
+walls, and has a gate guarded by two old towers. There are numerous
+Roman remains, among which may be mentioned the altar and tower at the
+town-house, on the latter of which is a statue, said to be of Attila. A
+Roman aqueduct is still used to bring water to the town. On the
+neighbouring Hainberg is an old castle, built of Roman remains, which
+appears in German tradition under the name of Heimburc; it was wrested
+from the Hungarians in 1042 by the emperor Henry III. At the foot of the
+same hill is a castle of the 12th century, where Ottakar of Bohemia was
+married to Margaret of Austria in 1252; earlier it was the residence of
+the dukes of Babenberg. Outside the town, on an island in the Danube, is
+the ruined castle of Rothelstein or Rothenstein, held by the Knights
+Templars. Hainburg was besieged by the Hungarians in 1477, was captured
+by Matthias Corvinus in 1482, and was sacked and its inhabitants
+massacred by the Turks in 1683.
+
+
+
+
+HAINICHEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, on the Kleine
+Striegis, 15 m. N.E. of Chemnitz, on the railway to Rosswein. Pop.
+(1905), 7752. It has two Evangelical churches, a park, and commercial
+and technical schools. Hainichen is a place of considerable industry.
+Its chief manufacture is that of flannels, baize, and similar fabrics;
+indeed it may be called the centre of this industry in Germany. The
+special whiteness and excellence of the flannel made in Hainichen are
+due to the peculiar nature of the water used in the manufacture. There
+are also large dye-works and bleaching establishments. Hainichen is the
+birthplace of Gellert, to whose memory a bronze statue was erected in
+the market-place in 1865. The Gellert institution for the poor was
+erected in 1815.
+
+
+
+
+HAI-PHONG, a seaport of Tongking, French Indo-China, on the Cua-Cam, a
+branch of the Song-koi (Red river) delta. The population numbers between
+21,000 and 22,000, of whom 12,500 are Annamese, 7500 Chinese (attracted
+by the rice trade of the port) and 1200 Europeans. It is situated about
+20 m. from the Gulf of Tongking and 58 m. E. by S. of Hanoi, with which
+it communicates by river and canal and by railway. It is the second
+commercial port of French Indo-China, is a naval station, and has
+government and private ship-building yards. The harbour is accessible at
+all times to vessels drawing 19 to 20 ft., but is obstructed by a bar.
+Hai-phong is the seat of a resident who performs the functions of mayor,
+and the residency is the chief building of the town. A civil tribunal, a
+tribunal of commerce and a branch of the Bank of Indo-China are also
+among its institutions. It is the headquarters of the river steamboat
+service (_Messageries fluviales_) of Tongking, which plies as far as
+Lao-kay on the Song-koi, to the other chief towns of Tongking and
+northern Annam, and also to Hong-kong. Cotton-spinning and the
+manufacture of cement are carried on.
+
+
+
+
+HAIR (a word common to Teutonic languages), the general term for the
+characteristic outgrowth of the epidermis forming the coat of mammals.
+The word is also applied by analogy to the filamentous outgrowths from
+the body of insects, &c., plants, and metaphorically to anything of like
+appearance.
+
+For anatomy, &c. of animal hair see SKIN AND EXOSKELETON; FIBRES and
+allied articles; FUR, and LEATHER.
+
+_Anthropology._--The human hair has an important place among the
+physical criteria of race. While its general structure and quantity vary
+comparatively little, its length in individuals and relatively in the
+two sexes, its form, its colour, its general consistency and the
+appearance under the microscope of its transverse section show
+persistent differences in the various races. It is the persistence of
+these differences and specially in regard to its colour and texture,
+which has given to hair its ethnological importance. So obvious a racial
+differentiation had naturally long ago attracted the attention of
+anthropologists. But it was not until the 19th century that microscopic
+examination showed the profound difference in structure between the hair
+characteristic of the great divisions of mankind. It was in 1863 that Dr
+Pruner-Bey read a paper before the Paris Anthropological Society
+entitled "On the Human Hair as a Race Character, examined by aid of the
+Microscope." This address established the importance of hair as a racial
+criterion. He demonstrated that the structure of the hair is
+threefold:--
+
+(1) Short and crisp, generally termed "woolly," elliptical or
+kidney-shaped in section, with no distinguishable medulla or pith. Its
+colour is almost always jet black, and it is characteristic of all the
+black races except the Australians and aborigines of India. This type of
+hair has two varieties. When the hairs are relatively long and the
+spiral of the curls large, the head has the appearance of being
+completely covered, as with some of the Melanesian races and most of the
+negroes. Haeckel has called this "_eriocomous_" or "woolly" proper. In
+some negroid peoples, however, such as the Hottentots and Bushmen, the
+hair grows in very short curls with narrow spirals and forms little
+tufts separated by spaces which appear bare. The head looks as if it
+were dotted over with pepper-seed, and thus this hair has gained the
+name of "peppercorn-growth." Haeckel has called it "_lophocomous_" or
+"crested." Most negroes have this type of hair in childhood and, even
+when fully grown, signs of it around the temples. The space between each
+tuft is not bald, as was at one time generally assumed. The hair grows
+uniformly over the head, as in all races.
+
+2. Straight, lank, long and coarse, round or nearly so in section, with
+the medulla or pith easily distinguishable, and almost without exception
+black. This is the hair of the yellow races, the Chinese, Mongols and
+Indians of the Americas.
+
+3. Wavy and curly, or smooth and silky, oval in section, with medullary
+tube but no pith. This is the hair of Europeans, and is mainly fair,
+though black, brown, red or towy varieties are found.
+
+There is a fourth type of hair describable as "frizzy." It is easily
+distinguishable from the Asiatic and European types, but not from the
+negroid wool. It is always thick and black, and is characteristic of the
+Australians, Nubians, and certain of the Mulattos. Generally hair curls
+in proportion to its flatness. The rounder it is the stiffer and lanker.
+These extremes are respectively represented by the Papuans and the
+Japanese. Of all hair the woolly type is found to be the most
+persistent, as in the case of the Brazilian Cafusos, negro and native
+hybrids. Quatrefages quotes the case of a triple hybrid, "half negro,
+quarter Cherokee, quarter English," who had short crisp furry-looking
+hair.
+
+Wavy types of hair vary most in colour: almost the deepest hue of black
+being found side by side with the most flaxen and towy. Colour varies
+less in the lank type, and scarcely at all in the woolly. The only
+important exception to the uniform blackness of the negroid wool is to
+be found among the Wochuas, a tribe of African pigmies whose hair is
+described by Wilhelm Junker (_Travels in Africa_, iii. p. 82) as "of a
+dark, rusty brown hue." Fair hair in all its shades is frequent among
+the populations of northern Europe, but much rarer in the south.
+According to Dr John Beddoe there are sixteen blonds out of every
+hundred Scotch, thirteen out of every hundred English, and two only out
+of a hundred Italians. The percentage of brown hair is 75% among
+Spaniards, 39 among French and 16 only in Scandinavia. Among the
+straight-haired races fair hair is far rarer; it is, however, found
+among the western Finns. Among those races with frizzy hair, red is
+almost as common as among those with wavy hair. Red hair, however, is an
+individual anomaly associated ordinarily with freckles. There are no
+red-haired races.
+
+A certain correlation appears to exist between the nature of hair and
+its absolute or relative length in the two sexes. Thus straight hair is
+the longest (Chinese, Red Indians), while woolly is shortest. Wavy hair
+holds an intermediate position. In the two extremes the difference of
+length in man and woman is scarcely noticeable. In some lank-haired
+races, men's tresses are as long as women's, e.g. the Chinese pigtail,
+and the hair of Redskins which grows to the length sometimes of upwards
+of 9 ft. In the frizzy-haired peoples, men and women have equally short
+growths. Bushwomen, the female Hottentot and negresses have hair no
+longer than men's. It is only in the wavy, and now and again in the
+frizzy types, that the difference in the sexes is marked. Among European
+men the length rarely exceeds 12 to 16 in., while with women the mean
+length is between 25 and 30 in. and in some cases has been known to
+reach 6 ft. or more.
+
+The growth of hair on the body corresponds in general with that on the
+head. The hairiest races are the Australians and Tasmanians, whose heads
+are veritable mops in the thickness and unkempt luxuriance of the locks.
+Next to them are the Todas, and other hill-tribesmen of India, and the
+Hairy Ainu of Japan. Traces, too, of the markedly hairy race, now
+extinct, supposed to be the ancestor of Toda and Ainu alike, are to be
+found here and there in Europe, especially among the Russian peasantry.
+The least hairy peoples are the yellow races, the men often scarcely
+having rudimentary beards, e.g. Indians of America and the Mongols.
+Negroid peoples may be said to be intermediate, but usually incline to
+hairlessness. The wavy-haired populations hold also an intermediate
+position, but somewhat incline to hairiness. Among negroes especially no
+rule can be formulated. Bare types such as the Bushmen and western
+negroes are found contiguous to hairy types such as the inhabitants of
+Ashantee. Neither is there any rule as to baldness. From statistics
+taken in America it would seem that it is ten times less frequent among
+negroes than among whites between the ages of thirty-three and
+forty-five years, and thirty times less between twenty-one and
+thirty-two years. Among Mulattos it is more frequent than among negroes
+but less than among whites. It is rarer among Redskins than among
+negroes. The _lanugo_ or downy hairs, with which the human foetus is
+covered for some time before birth and which is mostly shed in the womb,
+and the minute hairs which cover nearly every part of the adult human
+body, may be regarded as rudimentary remains of a complete hairy
+covering in the ancestors of mankind. The Pliocene, or at all events
+Miocene precursor of man, was a furred creature. The discovery of
+Egyptian mummies six thousand years old or more has proved that this
+physical criterion remains unchanged, and that it is to-day what it was
+so many scores of centuries back. Perhaps, then, the primary divisions
+of mankind were distinguished by hair the same in texture and colour as
+that which characterizes to-day the great ethnical groups. The wavy type
+bridges the gulf between the lank and woolly types, all in turn derived
+from a common hair-covered being. In this connexion it is worth mention,
+as pointed out by P. Topinard, that though the regions occupied by the
+negroid races are the habitat of the anthropoid apes, the hair of the
+latter is real hair, not wool. Further in the eastern section of the
+dark domain, while the Papuan is still black and dolichocephalic, his
+presumed progenitor, the orang-utan, is brachycephalic with decidedly
+red hair. Thus the white races are seen to come nearest the higher apes
+in this respect, yellow next, and black farthest removed.
+
+No test has proved, on repeated examination, to be a safer one of racial
+purity than the quality of hair, and Pruner-Bey goes so far as to
+suggest that "a single hair presenting the average form characteristic
+of the race might serve to define it." At any rate a hair of an
+individual bears the stamp of his origin.
+
+  See Dr Pruner-Bey in _Memoires de la societe d'anthropologie_, ii. P.
+  A. Brown, _Classification of Mankind by the Hair_; P. Topinard,
+  _L'Homme dans la nature_ (1891), chap. vi.
+
+  _Commerce._--Hair enters into a considerable variety of manufactures.
+  Bristles are the stout elastic hairs obtained from the backs of
+  certain breeds of pigs. The finest qualities, and the greatest
+  quantities as well, are obtained from Russia, where a variety of pig
+  is reared principally on account of its bristles. The best and most
+  costly bristles are used by shoemakers, secondary qualities being
+  employed for toilet and clothes-brushes, while inferior qualities are
+  worked up into the commoner kinds of brushes used by painters and for
+  many mechanical purposes. For artists' use and for decorative
+  painting, brushes or pencils of hair from the sable, camel, badger,
+  polecat, &c., are prepared. The hair of various animals which is too
+  short for spinning into yarn is utilized for the manufacture of felt.
+  For this use the hair of rabbits, hares, beavers and of several other
+  rodents is largely employed, especially in France, in making the finer
+  qualities of felt hats. Cow hair, obtained from tanneries, is used in
+  the preparation of roofing felts, and felt for covering boilers or
+  steam-pipes, and for other similar purposes. It is also largely used
+  by plasterers for binding the mortar of the walls and roofs of houses;
+  and it is to some extent being woven up into coarse friezes,
+  horse-cloths, railway rugs and inferior blankets. The tail hair of
+  oxen is also of value for stuffing cushions and other upholstery work,
+  for which purpose, as well as for making the official wigs of law
+  officers, barristers, &c., the tail and body hair of the yak or Tibet
+  ox is also sometimes imported into Europe. The tail and mane hair of
+  horses is in great demand for various purposes. The long tail hair is
+  especially valuable for weaving into hair-cloth, mane hair and the
+  short tail hair being, on the other hand, principally prepared and
+  curled for stuffing the chairs, sofas and couches which are covered
+  with the cloth manufactured from the long hair. The horse hair used in
+  Great Britain is principally obtained from South America, Germany and
+  Russia, and its sorting, cleaning and working up into the various
+  manufactures dependent on the material are industries of some
+  importance. In addition to the purposes already alluded to, horse hair
+  is woven into crinoline for ladies' bonnets, plaited into fishing
+  lines, woven into bags for oil and cider pressers, and into straining
+  cloths for brewers, &c., and for numerous other minor uses. The
+  manufactures which arise in connexion with human hair are more
+  peculiar than important, although occasionally fashions arise which
+  cause a large demand for human hair. The fluctuations of such fashions
+  determine the value of hair; but at all times long tresses are of
+  considerable value. Grey, light, pale and auburn hair are
+  distinguished as extra colours, and command much higher prices than
+  the common shades. The light-coloured hair is chiefly obtained in
+  Germany and Austria, and the south of France is the principal source
+  of the darker shades. In the south of France the cultivation and sale
+  of heads of hair by peasant girls is a common practice; and hawkers
+  attend fairs for the special purpose of engaging in this traffic. Hair
+  5 and even 6 ft. long is sometimes obtained. Scarcely any of the "raw
+  material" is obtained in the United Kingdom except in the form of
+  ladies' "combings." Bleaching of hair by means of peroxide of hydrogen
+  is extensively practised, with the view of obtaining a supply of
+  golden locks, or of preparing white hair for mixing to match grey
+  shades; but in neither case is the result very successful. Human hair
+  is worked up into a great variety of wigs, scalps, artificial fronts,
+  frizzets and curls, all for supplementing the scanty or failing
+  resources of nature. The plaiting of human hair into articles of
+  jewellery, watch-guards, &c., forms a distinct branch of trade.
+
+
+
+
+
+HAIR-TAIL (_Trichiurus_), a marine fish belonging to the
+_Acanthopterygii scombriformes_, with a long band-like body terminating
+in a thread-like tail, and with strong prominent teeth in both jaws.
+Several species are known, of which one, common in the tropical
+Atlantic, not rarely reaches the British Islands.
+
+
+
+
+HAITI [HAITI, HAYTI, SAN DOMINGO, or _Hispaniola_], an island in the
+West Indies. It lies almost in the centre of the chain and, with the
+exception of Cuba, is the largest of the group. Its greatest length
+between Cape Engano on the east and Cape des Irois on the west is 407
+m., and its greatest breadth between Cape Beata on the south and Cape
+Isabella on the north 160 m. The area is 28,000 sq. m., being rather
+less than that of Ireland. From Cuba, 70 m. W.N.W., and from Jamaica,
+130 m. W.S.W., it is separated by the Windward Passage; and from Porto
+Rico, 60 m. E., by the Mona Passage. It lies between 17 deg. 37' and 20
+deg. 0' N. and 68 deg. 20' and 74 deg. 28' W. From the west coast
+project two peninsulas. The south-western, of which Cape Tiburon forms
+the extremity, is the larger. It is 150 m. long and its width varies
+from 20 to 40 m. Columbus landed at Mole St Nicholas at the point of the
+north-western peninsula, which is 50 m. long, with an average breadth of
+40 m. Between these lies the Gulf of Gonaive, a triangular bay, at the
+apex of which stands the city of Port-au-Prince. The island of Gonaive,
+opposite the city at a distance of 27 m., divides the entrance to
+Port-au-Prince into two fine channels, and forms an excellent harbour,
+200 sq. m. In extent, the coral reefs along the coast being its only
+defect. On the north-east coast is the magnificent Bay of Samana, formed
+by the peninsula of that name, a mountain range projecting into the sea;
+its mouth is protected by a coral reef stretching 8-1/2m. from the south
+coast. There is however, a good passage for ships, and within lies a
+safe and beautiful expanse of water 300 sq. m. in extent. Beyond Samana,
+with the exception of the poor harbour of Santo Domingo, there are no
+inlets on the east and south coasts until the Bays of Ocoa and Neyba are
+reached. The south coast of the Tiburon peninsula has good harbours at
+Jacmel, Bainet, Aquin and Les Cayes or Aux Cayes. The only inlets of any
+importance between Aux Cayes and Port-au-Prince are Jeremie and the Bay
+of Baraderes. The coast line is estimated at 1250 m.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Haiti.]
+
+  Haiti is essentially a mountainous island. Steep escarpments, leading
+  to the rugged uplands of the interior, reach almost everywhere down to
+  the shores, leaving only here and there a few strips of beach. There
+  are three fairly distinct mountain ranges, the northern, central and
+  southern, with parallel axes from E. to W.; while extensive and
+  fertile plains lie between them. The northern range usually called the
+  Sierra de Monti Cristi, extends from Cape Samana on the east to Cape
+  Fragata on the west. It has a mean elevation of 3000 ft., culminating
+  in the Loma Diego Campo (3855 ft.), near the centre of the range. The
+  central range runs from Cape Engano to Cape St Nicholas, some 400 m.
+  in an oblique direction from E. to W. Towards the centre of the island
+  it broadens and forms two distinct chains; the northern, the Sierra
+  del Cibao, constituting the backbone of Haiti; the southern curving
+  first S.W., then N.W., and reaching the sea near St Marc. In addition
+  to these there are a number of secondary crests, difficult to trace to
+  the backbone of the system, since the loftiest peaks are usually on
+  some lateral ridge. Such for instance is Loma Tina (10,300 ft.) the
+  highest elevation on the island, which rises as a spur N.W. of the
+  city of Santo Domingo. In the Sierra del Cibao, the highest summit is
+  the Pico del Yaqui (9700 ft.). The southern range runs from the Bay of
+  Neyba due W. to Cape Tiburon. Its highest points are La Selle (8900
+  ft.) and La Hotte (7400 ft.). The plain of Seybo or Los Llanos is the
+  largest of the Haitian plains. It stretches eastwards from the river
+  Ozama for 95 m. and has an average width of 16 m. It is perfectly
+  level, abundantly watered, and admirably adapted for the rearing of
+  cattle. But perhaps the grandest is the Vega Real, or Royal Plain, as
+  it was called by Columbus, which lies between the Cibao and Monti
+  Cristi ranges. It stretches from Samana Bay to Manzanillo Bay, a
+  distance of 140 m., but is interrupted in the centre by a range of
+  hills in which rise the rivers which drain it. The northern part of
+  this plain, however, is usually known as the Valley of Santiago. Most
+  of the large valleys are in a state of nature, in part savanna, in
+  part wooded, and all very fertile.
+
+  There are four large rivers. The Yaqui, rising in the Pico del Yaqui,
+  falls, after a tortuous north-westerly course through the valley of
+  Santiago, into Manzanillo Bay; its mouth is obstructed by shallows,
+  and it is navigable only for canoes. The Neyba, or South Yaqui, also
+  rises in the Pico del Yaqui and flows S. into the Bay of Neyba. In the
+  mountains within a few miles from the sources of these rivers, rise
+  the Yuna and the Artibonite. The Yuna drains the Vega Real, flows into
+  Samana Bay, and is navigable by light-draught vessels for some
+  distance from its mouth. The Artibonite flows through the valley of
+  its name into the Gulf of Gonaive. Of the smaller rivers the Ozama, on
+  which the city of Santo Domingo stands, is the most important. The
+  greatest lake is that of Enriquillo or Xaragua, at a height of 300 ft.
+  above sea-level. It is 27 m. long by 8 m. broad and very deep. Though
+  25 m. from the sea its waters are salt, and the Haitian negroes call
+  it Etang Sale. After heavy rains it occasionally forms a continuous
+  sheet of water with another lake called Azuey, or Etang Saumatre,
+  which is 16 m. long by 4 m. broad; on these occasions the united lake
+  has a total length of 60 m. and is larger than the Lake of Geneva.
+  Farther S. is the Icoten de Limon, 5 m. long by 2 m. broad, a
+  fresh-water lake with no visible outlet. Smaller lakes are Rincon and
+  Miragoane. There are no active volcanoes, but earthquakes are not
+  infrequent.
+
+  _Geology._--The geology of Haiti is still very imperfectly known, and
+  large tracts of the island have never been examined by a geologist. It
+  is possible that the schists that have been observed in some parts of
+  the island may be of Pre-cretaceous age, but the oldest rocks in which
+  fossils have yet been found belong to the Cretaceous System, and the
+  geological sequence is very similar to that of Jamaica. Excluding the
+  schists of doubtful age, the series begins with sandstones and
+  conglomerates, containing pebbles of syenite, granite, diorite, &c.;
+  and these are overlaid by marls, clays and limestones containing
+  _Hippurites_. Then follows a series of sandstones, clays and
+  limestones with occasional seams of lignite, evidently of
+  shallow-water origin. These are referred by R. T. Hill to the Eocene,
+  and they are succeeded by chalky beds which were laid down in a deeper
+  sea and which probably correspond with the Montpelier beds of Jamaica
+  (Oligocene). Finally, there are limestones and marls composed largely
+  of corals and molluscs, which are probably of very late Tertiary or
+  Post-tertiary age. Until, however, the island has been more thoroughly
+  examined, the correlation of the various Tertiary and Post-tertiary
+  deposits must remain doubtful. Some of the beds which Hill has placed
+  in the Eocene have been referred by earlier writers to the Miocene.
+  Tippenhauer describes extensive eruptions of basalt of Post-pliocene
+  age.
+
+  _Fauna and Flora._--The fauna is not extensive. The agouti is the
+  largest wild mammal. Birds are few, excepting water-fowl and pigeons.
+  Snakes abound, though few are venomous. Lizards are numerous, and
+  insects swarm in the low parts, with tarantulas, scorpions and
+  centipedes. Caymans are found in the lakes and rivers, and the waters
+  teem with fish and other sea food. Wild cattle, hogs and dogs,
+  descendants of those brought from Europe, roam at large on the plains
+  and in the forests. The wild hogs furnish much sport to the natives,
+  who hunt them with dogs trained for the purpose.
+
+  In richness and variety of vegetable products Haiti is not excelled by
+  any other country in the world. All tropical plants and trees grow in
+  perfection, and nearly all the vegetables and fruits of temperate
+  climates may be successfully cultivated in the highlands. Among
+  indigenous products are cotton, rice, maize, tobacco, cocoa, ginger,
+  native indigo (_indigo marron_ or _sauvage_), arrowroot, manioc or
+  cassava, pimento, banana, plantain, pine-apple, artichoke, yam and
+  sweet potato. Among the important plants and fruits are sugarcane,
+  coffee, indigo (called _indigo franc_, to distinguish it from the
+  native), melons, cabbage, lucerne, guinea grass and the bread-fruit,
+  mango, caimite, orange, almond, apple, grape, mulberry and fig. Most
+  of the imported fruits have degenerated from want of care, but the
+  mango, now spread over nearly the whole island, has become almost a
+  necessary article of food; the bread-fruit has likewise become common,
+  but is not so much esteemed. Haiti is also rich in woods, especially
+  in cabinet and dye woods; among the former are mahogany, manchineel,
+  satinwood, rosewood, cinnamon wood (_Canella alba_), yellow acoma
+  (_Sideroxylon mastichodendron_) and gri-gri; and among the latter are
+  Brazil wood, logwood, fustic and sassafras. On the mountains are
+  extensive forests of pine and a species of oak; and in various parts
+  occur the locust, ironwood, cypress or Bermuda cedar, palmetto and
+  many kinds of palms.
+
+  _Climate._--Owing to the great diversity of its relief Haiti presents
+  a wider range of climate than any other part of the Antilles. The
+  yearly rainfall is abundant, averaging about 120 in., but the wet and
+  dry seasons are clearly divided. At Port-au-Prince the rainy season
+  lasts from April to October, but varies in other parts of the island,
+  so that there is never a season when rain is general. The mountain
+  districts are constantly bathed in dense mists and heavy dews, while
+  other districts are almost rainless. Owing to its sheltered position
+  the heat at Port-au-Prince is greater than elsewhere. In summer the
+  temperature there ranges between 80 deg. and 95 deg. F. and in winter
+  between 70 deg. and 80 deg. F. Even in the highlands the mercury never
+  falls below 45 deg. F. Hurricanes are not so frequent as in the
+  Windward Isles, but violent gales often occur. The prevailing winds
+  are from the east.
+
+_The Republic of Haiti._--Haiti is divided into two parts, the negro
+republic of Haiti owning the western third of the island, while the
+remainder belongs to Santo Domingo (q.v.) or the Dominican Republic.
+Between these two governments there exists the strongest political
+antipathy.
+
+Although but a small state, with an area of only 10,204 sq. m., the
+republic of Haiti is, in many respects, one of the most interesting
+communities in the world, as it is the earliest and most successful
+example of a state peopled, and governed on a constitutional model, by
+negroes. At its head is a president assisted by two chambers, the
+members of which are elected and hold office under a constitution of
+1889. This constitution, thoroughly republican in form, is French in
+origin, as are also the laws, language, traditions and customs of Haiti.
+In practice, however, the government resolves itself into a military
+despotism, the power being concentrated in the hands of the president.
+The Haitians seem to possess everything that a progressive and civilized
+nation can desire, but corruption is spread through every portion and
+branch of the government. Justice is venal, and the police are brutal
+and inefficient. Since 1869 the Roman Catholic has been the state
+religion, but all classes of society seem to be permeated with a thinly
+disguised adherence to the horrid rites of _Voodoo_ (q.v.), although
+this has been strenuously denied. The country is divided into 5
+_departements_, 23 _arrondissements_ and 67 _communes_. Each
+_departement_ and _arrondissement_ is governed by a general in the army.
+The army numbers about 7000 men, and the navy consists of a few small
+vessels. Elementary education is free, and there are some 400 primary
+schools; secondary education is mainly in the hands of the church. The
+Sisters of Charity and the Christian Brothers have schools at
+Port-au-Prince, where there is also a lyceum, a medical and a law
+school. The children of the wealthier classes are usually sent to France
+for their education. The unit of money is the _gourde_, the nominal
+value of which is the same as the American dollar, but it is subject to
+great fluctuations. The revenue is almost entirely derived from customs,
+paid both on imports and exports. There being a lack of capital and
+enterprise, the excessive customs dues produce a very depressed
+condition of trade. Imports are consequently confined to bare
+necessaries, the cheapest sorts of dry and fancy goods, matches, flour,
+salt beef and pork, codfish, lard, butter and similar provisions. The
+exports are coffee, cocoa, logwood, cotton, gum, honey, tobacco and
+sugar. The island is one of the most fertile in the world, and if it had
+an enlightened and stable government, an energetic people, and a little
+capital, its agricultural possibilities would seem to be endless.
+Communications are bad; the roads constructed during the French
+occupation have degenerated into mere bridle tracks. There is a coast
+service of steamers, maintained since 1863, and 26 ports are regularly
+visited every ten days. Foreign communication is excellent, more foreign
+steamships visiting this island than any other in the West Indies. A
+railway from Port-au-Prince runs through the Plain of Cul de Sac for 28
+m. to Manneville on the Etang Saumatre, another runs from Cap Haitien to
+La Grande Riviere, 15 m. distant.
+
+The people are almost entirely pure-blooded negroes, the mulattoes, who
+form about 10% of the population, being a rapidly diminishing and
+much-hated class. The negroes are a kindly, hospitable people, but
+ignorant and lazy. They have a passion for dancing weird African dances
+to the accompaniment of the tom-tom. Marriage is neither frequent nor
+legally prescribed, since children of looser unions are regarded by the
+state as legitimate. In the interior polygamy is frequent. The people
+generally speak a curious but not unattractive _patois_ of French
+origin, known as Creole. French is the official language, and by a few
+of the educated natives it is written and spoken in its purity. On the
+whole it must be owned that, after a century of independence and
+self-government, the Haitian people have made no progress, if they have
+not actually shown signs of retrogression. The chief towns ate
+Port-au-Prince (pop. 75,000), Cap Haitien (29,000), Les Cayes (25,000),
+Gonaive (18,000), and Port de Paix (10,000). Jeremie was the birthplace
+of the elder Dumas. The ruins of the wonderful palace of Sans-Souci and
+of the fortress of La Ferriere, built by King Henri Christophe
+(1807-1825), can be seen near Millot, a town 9 m. inland from Cap
+Haitien. Plaisance (25,000), Gros Morne (22,000) and La Croix des
+Bouquets (20,000) are the largest towns in the interior. The entire
+population of the republic is about 1,500,000.
+
+_History._--The history of Haiti begins with its discovery by Columbus,
+who landed from Cuba at Mole St Nicholas on the 6th of December 1492.
+The natives called the country Haiti (mountainous country), and
+Quisquica (vast country). Columbus named it Espagnola (Little Spain),
+which was latinized into Hispaniola. At the time of its discovery, the
+island was inhabited by about 2,000,000 Indians, who are described by
+the Spaniards as feeble in intellect and physically defective. They
+were, however, soon exterminated, and their place was supplied (as early
+as 1512) by slaves imported from Africa, the descendants of whom now
+possess the land. Six years after its discovery Columbus had explored
+the interior of the island, founded the present capital, and had
+established flourishing settlements at Isabella, Santiago, La Vega,
+Porto Plata and Bonao. Mines had been opened up, and advances made in
+agriculture. Sugar was introduced in 1506, and in a few years became the
+staple product. About 1630, a mixed company of French and English,
+driven by the Spaniards from St Kitts, settled on the island of Tortuga,
+where they became formidable under the name of Buccaneers. They soon
+obtained a footing on the mainland of Haiti, and by the treaty of
+Ryswick, 1697, the part they occupied was ceded to France. This new
+colony, named Saint Dominique, subsequently attained a high degree of
+prosperity, and was in a flourishing state when the French Revolution
+broke out in 1789. The population was then composed of whites, free
+coloured people (mostly mulattoes) and negro slaves. The mulattoes
+demanded civil rights, up to that time enjoyed only by the whites; and
+in 1791 the National Convention conferred on them all the privileges of
+French citizens. The whites at once adopted the most violent measures,
+and petitioned the home government to reverse the decree, which was
+accordingly revoked. In August 1791, the plantation slaves broke out
+into insurrection, and the mulattoes threw in their lot with them. A
+period of turmoil followed, lasting for several years, during which both
+parties were responsible for acts of the most revolting cruelty.
+Commissioners were sent out from France with full powers to settle the
+dispute, but although in 1793 they proclaimed the abolition of slavery,
+they could effect nothing. To add further to the troubles of the colony,
+it was invaded by a British force, which, in spite of the climate and
+the opposition of the colonists, succeeded in maintaining itself until
+driven out in 1798 by Toussaint l'Ouverture. By treaty with Spain, in
+1795, France had acquired the title to the entire island.
+
+By 1801, Toussaint l'Ouverture, an accomplished negro of remarkable
+military genius, had succeeded in restoring order. He then published,
+subject to the approval of France, a form of constitutional government,
+under which he was to be governor for life. This step, however, roused
+the suspicions of Bonaparte, then first consul, who determined to reduce
+the colony and restore slavery. He sent out his brother-in-law, General
+Leclerc, with 25,000 troops; but the colonists offered a determined, and
+often ferocious, resistance. At length, wearied of the struggle, Leclerc
+proposed terms, and Toussaint, induced by the most solemn guarantees on
+the part of the French, laid down his arms. He was seized and sent to
+France, where he died in prison in 1803. The blacks, infuriated by this
+act of treachery, renewed the struggle, under Jean Jacques Dessalines
+(1758-1806), with a barbarity unequalled in previous contests. The
+French, further embarrassed by the appearance of a British fleet, were
+only too glad to evacuate the island in November 1803.
+
+The opening of the following year saw the declaration of independence,
+and the restoration of the aboriginal name of Haiti. Dessalines, made
+governor for life, inaugurated his rule with a bloodthirsty massacre of
+all the whites. In October 1804, he proclaimed himself emperor and was
+crowned with great pomp; but in 1806 his subjects, growing tired of his
+tyranny, assassinated him. His position was now contended for by several
+chiefs, one of whom, Henri Christophe (1767-1820), established himself
+in the north, while Alexandre Sabes Petion (1770-1818) took possession
+of the southern part. The Spaniards re-established themselves in the
+eastern part of the island, retaining the French name, modified to Santo
+Domingo. Civil war now raged between the adherents of Christophe and
+Petion, but in 1810 hostilities were suspended. Christophe declared
+himself king of Haiti under the title of Henry I.; but his cruelty
+caused an insurrection, and in 1820 he committed suicide. Petion was
+succeeded in 1818 by General Jean Pierre Boyer (1776-1850), who, after
+Christophe's death, made himself master of all the French part of the
+island. In 1821 the eastern end of the island proclaimed its
+independence of Spain, and Boyer, taking advantage of dissensions there,
+invaded it, and in 1822 the dominion of the whole island fell into his
+hands. Boyer held the presidency of the new government, which was called
+the republic of Haiti, until 1843, when he was driven from the island by
+a revolution. In 1844 the people at the eastern end of the island again
+asserted their independence. The republic of Santo Domingo was
+established, and from that time the two political divisions have been
+maintained. Meanwhile in Haiti revolution followed revolution, and
+president succeeded president, in rapid succession. Order, however, was
+established in 1849, when Soulouque, who had previously obtained the
+presidency, proclaimed himself emperor, under the title of Faustin I.
+After a reign of nine years he was deposed and exiled, the republic
+being restored under the mulatto president Fabre Geffrard. His firm and
+enlightened rule rendered him so unpopular that in 1867 he was forced to
+flee to Jamaica. He was succeeded by Sylvestre Salnave, who, after a
+presidency of two years, was shot. Nissage-Saget (1870), Dominique
+(1874), and Boisrond-Canal (1876) followed, each to be driven into exile
+by revolution. The next president, Salomon, maintained himself in office
+for ten years, but he too was driven from the country and died in exile.
+Civil war raged in 1888-1889 between Generals Legitime and Hippolyte,
+and the latter succeeded in obtaining the vacant presidency. He ruled
+with the most absolute authority till his death in 1896. General
+Tiresias Simon Sam followed and ruled till his flight to Paris in 1902.
+The usual civil war ensued, and after nine months of turmoil, order was
+restored by the election of Nord Alexis in December 1902.
+
+Alexis' administration was unsuccessful, and was marked by many
+disturbances, culminating in his expulsion. In 1904 there was an attack
+by native soldiery on the French and German representatives, and
+punishment was exacted by these powers. In December 1904 ex-president
+Sam, his wife and members of his ministry were sentenced to long terms
+of imprisonment for fraudulently issuing bonds. In December 1907 a
+conspiracy against the government was reported and the ringleaders were
+sentenced to death. But in January 1908 the revolution spread, and
+Gonaive and St Marc and other places were reported to be in the hands of
+the insurgents. Prompt measures were taken, the rising was checked, and
+Alexis announced the pardon of the revolutionaries. In March, however,
+this pacific policy was reversed by a new ministry; some suspects were
+summarily executed, and the attitude of the government was only modified
+when the powers sent war-ships to Port-au-Prince. In September the
+criminal court at the capital sentenced to death, by default, a large
+number of persons implicated in the risings earlier in the year, and in
+November revolution broke out again. General Antoine Simon raised his
+standard at Aux Cayes. Disaffection was rife among the government
+troops, who deserted to him in great numbers. On the 2nd of December
+Port-au-Prince was occupied without bloodshed by the revolutionaries,
+and Alexis took to flight, escaping violence with some difficulty, and
+finding refuge on a French ship. General Simon then assumed the
+presidency. At the end of April 1910 Alexis died in Jamaica, in
+circumstances of some obscurity; it had just been discovered that a plot
+was on foot to depose Simon, and further trouble was threatened.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--B. Edwards, _Hist. Survey of the Island of S. Domingo_
+  (London, 1801); Jordan, _Geschichte der Insel Haiti_ (Leipzig, 1846);
+  Linstant Pradin, _Recueil general des lois et actes du gouvernement
+  d'Haiti_ (Paris, 1851-1865); Monte y Tejada, Historia de Santo Domingo
+  (Havana, 1853); Saint Amand, _Hist. des revolutions d'Haiti_ (Paris,
+  1859); Sam. Hazard, _Santo Domingo, Past and Present_ (London, 1873),
+  with bibliography; Sir Spencer St John, _Haiti, or the Black Republic_
+  (London, 1889); L. Gentil Tippenhauer, _Die Insel Haiti_ (Leipzig,
+  1893); Marcelin, _Haiti, etudes economiques, sociales, et politiques_;
+  and _Haiti, ses guerres civiles, leurs causes_ (Paris, 1893); Hesketh
+  Pritchard, _Where Black Rules White_ (London, 1900). For geology, see
+  W. M. Gabb, "On the Topography and Geology of Santo Domingo," _Trans.
+  Amer. Phil. Soc._, Philadelphia, new series, vol. xv. (1881). pp.
+  49-259, with map; L. G. Tippenhauer, _Die Insel Haiti_ (Leipzig,
+  1893); see also several articles by L. G. Tippenhauer in _Peterm.
+  Mitt._ 1899 and 1901. A comparison with the Jamaican succession will
+  be found in R. T. Hill, "The Geology and Physical Geography of
+  Jamaica," _Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool._, Harvard, vol. xxxiv. (1899).
+
+
+
+
+HAJIPUR, a town of British India, in the Muzaffarpur district of Bengal,
+on the Gandak, just above its confluence with the Ganges opposite Patna.
+Pop. (1901), 21,398. Hajipur figures conspicuously in the history of the
+struggles between Akbar and his rebellious Afghan governors of Bengal,
+being twice besieged and captured by the imperial troops, in 1572 and
+1574. Within the limits of the old fort is a small stone mosque, very
+plain, but of peculiar architecture, and attributed to Haji Ilyas, its
+traditional founder (c. 1350). Its command of water traffic in three
+directions makes the town a place of considerable commercial importance.
+Hajipur has a station on the main line of the Bengal and North-western
+railway.
+
+
+
+
+HAJJ or HADJ, the Arabic word, meaning literally a "setting out," for
+the greater pilgrimage of Mahommedans to Mecca, which takes place from
+the 8th to the 10th of the twelfth month of the Mahommedan year; the
+lesser pilgrimage, called _umrah_ or _omra_, may be made to the mosque
+at Mecca at any time other than that of the hajj proper, and is also a
+meritorious act. The term _hajji_ or _hadji_ is given to those who have
+performed the greater pilgrimage. The word _hajj_ is sometimes loosely
+used of any Mahommedan pilgrimage to a sacred place or shrine, and is
+also applied to the pilgrimages of Christians of the East to the Holy
+Sepulchre at Jerusalem (see MECCA; MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION).
+
+
+
+
+HAJJI KHALIFA [in full Mustafa ibn 'Abdallah Katib Chelebi Hajji
+Khalifa] (ca. 1599-1658), Arabic and Turkish author, was born at
+Constantinople. He became secretary to the commissariat department of
+the Turkish army in Anatolia, was with the army in Bagdad in 1625, was
+present at the siege of Erzerum, and returned to Constantinople in 1628.
+In the following year he was again in Bagdad and Hamadan, and in 1633 at
+Aleppo, whence he made the pilgrimage to Mecca (hence his title Hajji).
+The following year he was in Erivan and then returned to Constantinople.
+Here he obtained a post in the head office of the commissariat
+department, which afforded him time for study. He seems to have attended
+the lectures of great teachers up to the time of his death, and made a
+practice of visiting bookshops and noting the titles and contents of all
+books he found there. His largest work is the _Bibliographical
+Encyclopaedia_ written in Arabic. In this work, after five chapters
+dealing with the sciences generally, the titles of Arabian, Persian and
+Turkish books written up to his own time are arranged in alphabetical
+order. With the titles are given, where possible, short notes on the
+author, his date, and sometimes the introductory words of his work. It
+was edited by G. Flugel with Latin translation and a useful appendix (7
+vols. Leipzig, 1835-1858). The text alone of this edition has been
+reproduced at Constantinople (1893).
+
+  Hajji Khalifa also wrote in Turkish: a chronological conspectus of
+  general history (translated into Italian by G. R. Carli, Venice,
+  1697); a history of the Turkish empire from 1594 to 1655
+  (Constantinople, 1870); a history of the naval wars of the Turks
+  (Constantinople, 1729; chapters 1-4 translated by J. Mitchell, London,
+  1831); a general geography published at Constantinople, 1732 (Latin
+  trans. by M. Norberg, London and Gotha, 1818; German trans. of part by
+  J. von Hammer, Vienna, 1812; French trans. of part by V. de St Martin
+  in his _Geography of Asia Minor_, vol. 1).
+
+  For his life see the preface to Flugel's edition; list of his works in
+  C. Brockelmann's _Gesch. d. arabischen Literatur_ (Berlin, 1902), vol.
+  ii., pp. 428-429.     (G. W. T.)
+
+
+
+
+HAKE, EDWARD (fl. 1579), English satirist, was educated under John
+Hopkins, the part-author of the metrical version of the Psalms. He
+resided in Gray's Inn and Barnard's Inn, London. In the address "To the
+Gentle Reader" prefixed to his _Newes out of Powles Churchyard ...
+Otherwise entitled Syr Nummus_ (2nd ed., 1579) he mentions the "first
+three yeeres which I spent in the Innes of Channcery, being now about a
+dosen of yeeres passed." In 1585 and 1586 he was mayor of New Windsor,
+and in 1588 he represented the borough in parliament. His last work was
+published in 1604. He was protected by the earl of Leicester, whose
+policy it was to support the Puritan party, and who no doubt found a
+valuable ally in so vigorous a satirist of error in clerical places as
+was Hake. _Newes out of Paules Churchyarde, A Trappe for Syr Monye_,
+first appeared in 1567, but no copy of this impression is known, and it
+was re-issued in 1579 with the title quoted above. The book takes the
+form of a dialogue between Bertulph and Paul, who meet in the aisles of
+the cathedral, and is divided into eight "satyrs," dealing with the
+corruption of the higher clergy and of judges, the greed of attorneys,
+the tricks of physicians and apothecaries, the sumptuary laws,
+extravagant living, Sunday sports, the abuse of St Paul's cathedral as a
+meeting-place for business and conversation, usury, &c. It is written in
+rhymed fourteen-syllable metre, which is often more comic than the
+author intended. It contains, amid much prefatory matter, a note to the
+"carping and scornefull Sicophant," in which he attacks his enemies with
+small courtesy and much alliteration. One is described as a "carping
+careless cankerd churle."
+
+  He also wrote a translation from Thomas a Kempis, _The Imitation, or
+  Following of Christ_ (1567, 1568); _A Touchstone for this Time
+  Present_ (1574), a scurrilous attack on the Roman Catholic Church,
+  followed by a treatise on education; _A Commemoration of the ...
+  Raigne of ... Elizabeth_ (1575), enlarged in 1578 to _A Joyfull
+  Continuance of the Commemoration, &c._; and of _Gold's Kingdom, and
+  this Unhelping Age_ (1604), a collection of pieces in prose and verse,
+  in which the author inveighs against the power of gold. A bibliography
+  of these and of Hake's other works was compiled by Mr Charles Edmonds
+  for his edition in 1872 of the _Newes_ (Isham Reprints, No. 2, 1872).
+
+
+
+
+HAKE, THOMAS GORDON (1800-1895), English poet, was born at Leeds, of an
+old Devonshire family, on the 10th of March 1809. His mother was a
+Gordon of the Huntly branch. He studied medicine at St George's hospital
+and at Edinburgh and Glasgow, but had given up practice for many years
+before his death, and had devoted himself to a literary life. In 1839 he
+published a prose epic _Vates_, republished in Ainsworth's magazine as
+_Valdarno_, which attracted the attention of D. G. Rossetti. In after
+years he became an intimate member of the circle of friends and
+followers gathered round Rossetti, who so far departed from his usual
+custom as to review Hake's poems in the _Academy_ and in the
+_Fortnightly Review_. In 1871 he published _Madeline_; 1872, _Parables
+and Tales_; 1883, _The Serpent Play_; 1890, _New Day Sonnets_; and in
+1892 his _Memoirs of Eighty Years_. Dr Hake's works had much subtlety
+and felicity of expression, and were warmly appreciated in a somewhat
+restricted literary circle. In his last published verse, the sonnets, he
+shows an advance in facility on the occasional harshness of his earlier
+work. He was given a Civil List literary pension in 1893, and died on
+the 11th of January 1895.
+
+
+
+
+HAKE (_Merluccius vulgaris_), a fish which differs from the cod in
+having only two dorsal fins, and one anal. It is very common on the
+coasts of Europe and eastern North America, but its flesh is much less
+esteemed than that of the true _Gadi_. Specimens 4 ft. in length are not
+scarce. There are local variations in the use of "hake" as a name; in
+America the "silver hake" (_Merluccius bilinearis_), sometimes called
+"whiting," and "Pacific hake" (_Merluccius productus_) are also
+food-fishes of inferior quality.
+
+
+
+
+HAKKAS ("Guests," or "Strangers"), a people of S.W. China, chiefly found
+in Kwang-Tung, Fu-Kien and Formosa. Their origin is doubtful, but there
+is some ground for believing that they may be a cross between the
+aboriginal Mongolic element of northern China and the Chinese proper.
+According to their tradition, they were in Shantung and northern China
+as early as the 3rd century B.C. In disposition, appearance and customs
+they differ from the true Chinese. They speak a distinct dialect. Their
+women, who are prettier than the pure Chinese, do not compress their
+feet, and move freely about in public. The Hakkas are a most industrious
+people and furnish at Canton nearly all the coolie labour employed by
+Europeans. Their intelligence is great, and many noted scholars have
+been of Hakka birth. Hung Sin-tsuan, the leader in the Taiping
+rebellion, was a Hakka. In Formosa they serve as intermediaries between
+the Chinese and European traders and the natives. From time immemorial
+they seem to have been persecuted by the Chinese, whom they regard as
+"foreigners," and with whom their means of communication is usually
+"pidgin English." The earliest persecution occurred under the "first
+universal emperor" of China, Shi-Hwang-ti (246-210 B.C.). From this time
+the Hakkas appear to have become wanderers. Sometimes for generations
+they were permitted to live unmolested, as under the Han dynasty, when
+some of them held high official posts. During the Tang dynasty (7th,
+8th, and 9th centuries) they settled in the mountains of Fu-kien and on
+the frontiers of Kwang-Tung. On the invasion of Kublai Khan, the Hakkas
+distinguished themselves by their bravery on the Chinese side. In the
+14th century further persecutions drove them into Kwang-Tung.
+
+  See "An Outline History of the Hakkas," _China Review_ (London,
+  1873-1874), vol. ii.; Pitou, "On the Origin and History of the
+  Hakkas," ib.; Dyer Ball, _Easy Lessons in the Hakka Dialect_ (1884),
+  _Things Chinese_ (London, 1893); Schaub, "Proverbs in Daily Use among
+  the Hakkas," in _China Review_ (London, 1894-1895), vol. xxi.; Rev. J.
+  Edkins, _China's Place in Philology_; Girard de Rialle, _Rev. d.
+  anthrop._ (Jan. and April, 1885); G. Taylor, "The Aborigines of
+  Formosa," _China Review_, xiv. p. 198 seq., also xvi. No. 3, "A Ramble
+  through Southern Formosa."
+
+
+
+
+HAKLUYT, RICHARD (c. 1553-1616), British geographer, was born of good
+family in or near London about 1553. The Hakluyts were of Welsh
+extraction, not Dutch as has been supposed. They appear to have settled
+in Herefordshire as early as the 13th century. The family seat was
+Eaton, 2 m. S.E. of Leominster. Hugo Hakelute was returned M.P. for that
+borough in 1304/5. Richard went to school at Westminster, where he was a
+queen's scholar; while there his future bent was determined by a visit
+to his cousin and namesake, Richard Hakluyt of the Middle Temple. His
+cousin's discourse, illustrated by "certain bookes of cosmographie, an
+universall mappe, and the Bible," made young Hakluyt resolve to
+"prosecute that knowledge and kind of literature." Entering Christ
+Church, Oxford, in 1570, "his exercises of duty first performed," he
+fell to his intended course of reading, and by degrees perused all the
+printed or written voyages and discoveries that he could find. He took
+his B.A. In 1573/4. It is probable that, shortly after taking his M.A.
+(1577), he began at Oxford the first public lectures in geography that
+"shewed both the old imperfectly composed and the new lately reformed
+mappes, globes, spheares, and other instruments of this art." That this
+was not in London is certain, as we know that the first lecture of the
+kind was delivered in the metropolis on the 4th of November 1588 by
+Thomas Hood.
+
+Hakluyt's first published work was his _Divers Voyages touching the
+Discoverie of America_ (London, 1582, 4to.). This brought him to the
+notice of Lord Howard of Effingham, and so to that of Sir Edward
+Stafford, Lord Howard's brother-in-law; accordingly at the age of
+thirty, being acquainted with "the chiefest captaines at sea, the
+greatest merchants, and the best mariners of our nation," he was
+selected as chaplain to accompany Stafford, now English ambassador at
+the French court, to Paris (1583). In accordance with the instructions
+of Secretary Walsingham, he occupied himself chiefly in collecting
+information of the Spanish and French movements, and "making diligent
+inquirie of such things as might yield any light unto our westerne
+discoverie in America." The first fruits of Hakluyt's labours in Paris
+are embodied in his important work entitled _A particuler discourse
+concerning Westerne discoveries written in the yere 1584, by Richarde
+Hackluyt of Oxforde, at the requeste and direction of the righte
+worshipfull Mr Walter Raghly before the comynge home of his twoo
+barkes_. This long-lost MS. was at last printed in 1877. Its object was
+to recommend the enterprise of planting the English race in the
+unsettled parts of North America. Hakluyt's other works consist mainly
+of translations and compilations, relieved by his dedications and
+prefaces, which last, with a few letters, are the only material we
+possess out of which a biography of him can be framed. Hakluyt revisited
+England in 1584, laid before Queen Elizabeth a copy of the _Discourse_
+"along with one in Latin upon Aristotle's _Politicks_," and obtained,
+two days before his return to Paris, the grant of the next vacant
+prebend at Bristol, to which he was admitted in 1586 and held with his
+other preferments till his death.
+
+While in Paris Hakluyt interested himself in the publication of the MS.
+journal of Laudonniere, the _Histoire notable de la Florida_, edited by
+Bassanier (Paris, 1586, 8vo.). This was translated by Hakluyt and
+published in London under the title of _A notable historie containing
+foure voyages made by certayne French captaynes into Florida_ (London,
+1587, 4to.). The same year _De orbe novo Petri Martyris Anglerii decades
+octo illustratae labore et industria Richardi Hackluyti_ saw the light
+at Paris. This work contains the exceedingly rare copperplate map
+dedicated to Hakluyt and signed F. G. (supposed to be Francis Gualle);
+it is the first on which the name of "Virginia" appears.
+
+In 1588 Hakluyt finally returned to England with Lady Stafford, after a
+residence in France of nearly five years. In 1589 he published the first
+edition of his chief work, _The Principall Navigations, Voiages and
+Discoveries of the English Nation_ (fol., London, 1 vol.). In the
+preface to this we have the announcement of the intended publication of
+the first terrestrial globe made in England by Molyneux. In 1598-1600
+appeared the final, reconstructed and greatly enlarged edition of _The
+Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques and Discoveries of the
+English Nation_ (fol., 3 vols.). Some few copies contain an exceedingly
+rare map, the first on the Mercator projection made in England according
+to the true principles laid down by Edward Wright. Hakluyt's great
+collection, though but little read, has been truly called the "prose
+epic of the modern English nation." It is an invaluable treasure of
+material for the history of geographical discovery and colonization,
+which has secured for its editor a lasting reputation. In 1601 Hakluyt
+edited a translation from the Portuguese of Antonio Galvano, _The
+Discoveries of the World_ (4to., London). In the same year his name
+occurs as an adviser to the East India Company, supplying them with
+maps, and informing them as to markets. Meantime in 1590 (April 20th) he
+had been instituted to the rectory of Withering-sett-cum-Brockford,
+Suffolk. In 1602, on the 4th of May, he was installed prebendary of
+Westminster, and in the following year he was elected archdeacon of
+Westminster. In the licence of his second marriage (30th of March 1604)
+he is also described as one of the chaplains of the Savoy, and his will
+contains a reference to chambers occupied by him there up to the time of
+his death; in another official document he is styled D.D. In 1605 he
+secured the prospective living of James Town, the intended capital of
+the intended colony of Virginia. This benefice he supplied, when the
+colony was at last established in 1607, by a curate, one Robert Hunt. In
+1606 he appears as one of the chief promoters of the petition to the
+king for patents to colonize Virginia. He was also a leading adventurer
+in the London or South Virginia Company. His last publication was a
+translation of Fernando de Soto's discoveries in Florida, entitled
+_Virginia richly valued by the description of Florida her next
+neighbour_ (London, 1609, 4to). This work was intended to encourage the
+young colony of Virginia; to Hakluyt, it has been said, "England is more
+indebted for its American possession than to any man of that age." We
+may notice that it was at Hakluyt's suggestion that Robert Parke
+translated Mendoza's _History of China_ (London, 1588-1589) and John
+Pory made his version of _Leo Africanus_ (_A Geographical History of
+Africa_, London, 1600). Hakluyt died in 1616 (November 23rd) and was
+buried in Westminster Abbey (November 26th); by an error in the abbey
+register his burial is recorded under the year 1626. Out of his various
+emoluments and preferments (of which the last was Gedney rectory,
+Lincolnshire, in 1612) he amassed a small fortune, which was squandered
+by a son. A number of his MSS., sufficient to form a fourth volume of
+his collections of 1598-1600, fell into the hands of Samuel Purchas, who
+inserted them in an abridged form in his _Pilgrimes_ (1625-1626, fol.).
+Others are preserved at Oxford (Bib. Bod. MS. Seld. B. 8). which consist
+chiefly of notes gathered from contemporary authors.
+
+  Besides the MSS. or editions noticed in the text (_Divers Voyages_
+  (1582); _Particuler Discourse_ (1584); Laudonniere's _Florida_ (1587);
+  Peter Martyr, _Decades_ (1587); _Principal Navigations_ (1589 and
+  1598-1600); Galvano's _Discoveries_ (1601); De Soto's Florida record,
+  the _Virginia richly valued_ (1609, &c.), we may notice the Hakluyt
+  Society's London edition of the _Divers Voyages_ in 1850, the edition
+  of the _Particuler Discourse_, by Charles Deane in the _Collections of
+  the Maine Historical Society_ (Cambridge, Mass., 1870, with an
+  introduction by Leonard Woods); also, among modern issues of the
+  _Principal Navigations_, those of 1809 (5 vols., with much additional
+  matter), and of 1903-1905 (Glasgow, 12 vols.). The new title-page
+  issued for the first volume of the final edition of the _Principal
+  Navigations_, in 1599, merely cancelled the former 1598 title with its
+  reference to the Cadiz expedition of 1596; but from this has arisen
+  the mistaken supposition that a new _edition_ was then (1599)
+  published. Hakluyt's Galvano was edited for the Hakluyt Society by
+  Admiral C. R. D. Bethune in 1862. This Society, which was founded in
+  1846 for printing rare and unpublished voyages and travels, includes
+  the Glasgow edition of the _Principal Navigations_ in its _extra
+  series_, as well as C. R. Beazley's edition of _Carpini_, _Rubruquis_,
+  and other medieval texts from Hakluyt (Cambridge, 1903, 1 vol.).
+  Reckoning in these and an issue of Purchas's _Pilgrimes_ by the
+  Glasgow publisher of the Hakluyt of 1903-1905, the society has now
+  published or "fathered" 150 vols. See also _Voyages of the Elizabethan
+  Seamen to America, being Select Narratives from the Principal
+  Navigations_, by E. J. Payne (Oxford, 1880; 1893; new edition by C. R.
+  Beazley, 1907).
+
+  For Hakluyt's life the dedications of the 1589 and 1598 editions of
+  the _Principal Navigations_ should be especially consulted; also
+  Winter Jones's introduction to the Kakluyt Society edition of the
+  _Divers Voyages_; Fuller's _Worthies of England_, "Herefordshire";
+  _Oxford Univ. Reg._ (Oxford Hist. Soc), ii., iii. 39; _Historical MSS.
+  Commission, 4th report, appendix_, p. 614, the last giving us the
+  Towneley MSS. referring to payments (prizes?) awarded to Hakluyt when
+  at Oxford, May 12th and June 4th, 1575.     (C. H. C; C. R. B.)
+
+
+
+
+HAKODATE, a town on the south of the island of Yezo, Japan, for many
+years regarded as the capital of the island until Sapporo was officially
+raised to that rank. Pop. (1903) 84,746. Its position, as has been
+frequently remarked, is not unlike that of Gibraltar, as the town is
+built along the north-western base of a rocky promontory (1157 ft. in
+height) which forms the eastern boundary of a spacious bay, and is
+united to the mainland by a narrow sandy isthmus. The summit of the
+rock, called the Peak, is crowned by a fort. Hakodate is one of the
+ports originally opened to foreign trade. The Bay of Hakodate, an inlet
+of Tsugaru Strait, is completely land-locked, easy of access and
+spacious, with deep water almost up to the shore, and good
+holding-ground. The Russians formerly used Hakodate as a winter port.
+The staple exports are beans, pulse and peas, marine products, sulphur,
+furs and timber; the staple imports, comestibles (especially salted
+fish), kerosene and oil-cake. The town is not situated so as to profit
+largely by the development of the resources of Yezo, and as a port of
+foreign trade its outlook is indifferent. Frequent steamers connect
+Hakodate and Yokohama and other ports, and there is daily communication
+with Aomori, 56 m. distant, whence there is rail-connexion with Tokyo.
+Hakodate was opened to American commerce in 1854. In the civil war of
+1868 the town was taken by the rebel fleet, but it was recovered by the
+mikado in 1869.
+
+
+
+
+HAL, a town of Brabant, Belgium, about 9 m. S.W. of Brussels, situated
+on the river Senne and the Charleroi canal. Pop. (1904) 13,541. The
+place is interesting chiefly on account of its fine church of Notre
+Dame, formerly dedicated to St Martin. This church, a good example of
+pure Gothic, was begun in 1341 and finished in 1409. Its principal
+ornament is the alabaster altar, by J. Mone, completed in 1533. The
+bronze font dates from 1446. Among the monuments is one in black marble
+to the dauphin Joachim, son of Louis XI., who died in 1460. In the
+treasury of the church are many costly objects presented by illustrious
+personages, among others by the emperor Charles V., King Henry VIII. of
+England, Charles the Bold of Burgundy, and several popes. The church is
+chiefly celebrated, however, for its miraculous image of the Virgin.
+Legend says that during a siege the bullets fired into the town were
+caught by her in the folds of her dress. Some of these are still shown
+in a chest that stands in a side chapel. In consequence of this belief a
+great pilgrimage, attended by many thousands from all parts of Belgium,
+is paid annually to this church. The hotel de ville dates from 1616 and
+has been restored with more than ordinary good taste.
+
+
+
+
+HALA, or HALLA (formerly known as Murtazabad), a town of British India
+in Hyderabad district, Sind. Pop. (1901) 4985. It has long been famous
+for its glazed pottery and tiles, made from a fine clay obtained from
+the Indus, mixed with powdered flints. The town has also a manufacture
+of susis or striped trouser-cloths.
+
+
+
+
+HALAESA, an ancient town on the north coast of Sicily, about 14 m. E. of
+Cephaloedium [Cefalu], to the east of the modern Castel di Tusa, founded
+in 403 B.C. by Archonides, tyrant of Herbita, whose name it sometimes
+bore: we find, e.g. _Halaisa Archonida_ on a coin of the time of
+Augustus (_Corp. inscrip. Lat._ x., Berlin, 1883, p. 768). It was the
+first town to surrender to the Romans in the First Punic War, and was
+granted freedom and immunity from tithe. It became a place of some
+importance in Roman days, especially as a port, and entirely outstripped
+its mother city. Halaesa is the only place in Sicily where an
+inscription dedicated to a Roman governor of the republican period
+(perhaps in 93 B.C.) has come to light. (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+HALAKHA, or HALACHA (literally "rule of conduct"), the rabbinical
+development of the Mosaic law; with the haggada it makes up the Talmud
+and Midrash (q.v.). As the haggada is the poetic, so the halakha is the
+legal element of the Talmud (q.v.), and arose out of the faction between
+the Sadducees, who disputed the traditions, and the Pharisees, who
+strove to prove their derivation from scripture. Among the chief
+attempts to codify the halakha were the _Great Rules (Halakhoth
+Gedoloth)_ of Simon Kayyara (9th century), based on the letters written
+by the Gaonim, the heads of the Babylonian schools, to Jewish inquirers
+in many lands, the work of Jacob Alfassi (1013-1103), the _Strong Hand
+of_ Maimonides (1180), and the _Table Prepared_ (_Shulhan Aruch_) of
+Joseph Qaro (1565), which from its practical scope and its clarity as a
+work of general reference became the universal handbook of Jewish life
+in many of its phases.     (I. A.)
+
+
+
+
+HALBERSTADT, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Saxony, 56
+m. by rail N.W. of Halle, and 29 S.W. of Magdeburg. It lies in a fertile
+country to the north of the Harz Mountains, on the Holzemme, at the
+junction of railways to Halle, Goslar and Thale. Pop. (1905) 45,534. The
+town has a medieval appearance, many old houses decorated with beautiful
+wood-carving still surviving. The Gothic cathedral (now Protestant),
+dating from the 13th and 14th centuries, is remarkable for the majestic
+impression made by the great height of the interior, with its slender
+columns and lofty, narrow aisles. The treasure, preserved in the former
+chapter-house, is rich in reliquaries, vestments and other objects of
+medieval church art. The beautiful spires, which had become unsafe, were
+rebuilt in 1890-1895. Among the other churches the only one of special
+interest is the Liebfrauenkirche (Church of Our Lady), a basilica, with
+four towers, in the later Romanesque style, dating from the 12th and
+13th centuries and restored in 1848, containing old mural frescoes and
+carved figures. Remarkable among the other old buildings are the
+town-hall, of the 14th century and restored in the 17th century, with a
+crypt, and the Petershof, formerly the episcopal palace, but now
+utilized as law courts and a prison. The principal educational
+establishment is the gymnasium, with a library of 40,000 volumes. Close
+to the cathedral lies the house of the poet Gleim (q.v.), since 1899 the
+property of the municipality and converted into a museum. It contains a
+collection of the portraits of the friends of the poet-scholar and some
+valuable manuscripts. The principal manufactures of the town are sugar,
+cigars, paper, gloves, chemical products, beer and machinery. About a
+mile and a half distant are the Spiegelsberge, from which a fine view of
+the surrounding country is obtained, and the Klusberge, with prehistoric
+cave-dwellings cut out in the sandstone rocks.
+
+  The history of Halberstadt begins with the transfer to it, by Bishop
+  Hildegrim I., in 820 of the see founded by Charlemagne at
+  Seligenstadt. At the end of the 10th century the bishops were granted
+  by the emperors the right to exercise temporal jurisdiction over their
+  see, which became one of the most considerable of the ecclesiastical
+  principalities of the Empire. As such it survived the introduction of
+  the Reformation in 1542; but in 1566, on the death of Sigismund of
+  Brandenburg (also archbishop of Madgeburg from 1552 to 1566), the last
+  Catholic bishop, the chapter from motives of economy elected the
+  infant Henry Julius of Brunswick-Luneburg. In 1589 he became duke of
+  Brunswick, and two years later he abolished the Catholic rites in
+  Halberstadt. The see was governed by lay bishops until 1648, when it
+  was formally converted by the treaty of Westphalia into a secular
+  principality for the elector of Brandenburg. By the treaty of Tilsit
+  in 1807 it was annexed to the kingdom of Westphalia, but came again to
+  Prussia on the downfall of Napoleon.
+
+  The town received a charter from Bishop Arnulf in 998. In 1113 it was
+  burnt by the emperor Henry V., and in 1179 by Henry the Lion. During
+  the Thirty Years' War it was occupied alternately by the Imperialists
+  and the Swedes, the latter of whom handed it over to Brandenburg.
+
+  See Lucanus, _Der Dom zu Halberstadt_ (1837), _Wegweiser durch
+  Halberstadt_ (2nd ed., 1866) and _Die Liebfrauenkirche zu Halberstadt_
+  (1872); Scheffer, _Inschriften und Legenden halberstadtischer Bauten_
+  (1864); Schmidt, _Urkundenbuch der Stadt Halberstadt_ (Halle, 1878);
+  and Zschiesche, _Halberstadt, sonst und jetzi_ (1882).
+
+
+
+
+HALBERT, HALBERD or HALBARD, a weapon consisting of an axe-blade
+balanced by a pick and having an elongated pike-head at the end of the
+staff, which was usually about 5 or 6 ft. in length. The utility of such
+a weapon in the wars of the later middle ages lay in this, that it gave
+the foot soldier the means of dealing with an armoured man on horseback.
+The pike could do no more than keep the horseman at a distance. This
+ensured security for the foot soldier but did not enable him to strike a
+mortal blow, for which firstly a long-handled and secondly a powerful
+weapon, capable of striking a heavy cleaving blow, was required. Several
+different forms of weapon responding to these requirements are described
+and illustrated below; it will be noticed that the thrusting pike is
+almost always combined with the cutting-bill hook or axe-head, so that
+the individual billman or halberdier should not be at a disadvantage if
+caught alone by a mounted opponent, or if his first descending blow
+missed its object. It will be noticed further that, concurrently with
+the disuse of complete armour and the development of firearms, the pike
+or thrusting element gradually displaces the axe or cleaving element in
+these weapons, till at last we arrive at the court halberts and
+partizans of the late 16th and early 17th centuries and the so-called
+"halbert" of the infantry officer and sergeant in the 18th, which can
+scarcely be classed even as partizans.
+
+Figs. 1-6 represent types of these long cutting, cut and thrust weapons
+of the middle ages, details being omitted for the sake of clearness. The
+most primitive is the _voulge_ (fig. 1), which is simply a heavy cleaver
+on a pole, with a point added. The next form, the _gisarme_ or
+_guisarme_ (fig. 2), appears in infinite variety but is always
+distinguished from voulges, &c. by the hook, which was used to pull down
+mounted men, and generally resembles the agricultural bill-hook of
+to-day. The _glaive_ (fig. 3 is late German) is a broad, heavy, slightly
+curved sword-blade on a stave; it is often combined with the hooked
+gisarme as a _glaive-gisarme_ (fig. 4, Burgundian, about 1480). A
+_gisarme-voulge_ is shown in fig. 5 (Swiss, 14th century).
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. 1-6.]
+
+The weapon best known to Englishmen is the _bill_, which was originally
+a sort of scythe-blade, sharp on the concave side (whereas the glaive
+has the cutting edge on the convex side), but in its best-known form it
+should be called a bill-gisarme (fig. 6). The _partizans_, _ranseurs_
+and _halberts_ proper developed naturally from the earlier types. The
+feature common to all, as has been said, is the combination of spear and
+axe. In the halberts the axe predominates, as the examples (fig. 10,
+Swiss, early 15th century; fig. 11, Swiss, middle 16th century; and fig.
+12, German court halbert of the same period as fig. 11) show. In the
+_partizan_ the pike is the more important, the axe-heads being reduced
+to little more than an ornamental feature. A south German specimen (fig.
+9, 1615) shows how this was compensated by the broadening of the
+spear-head, the edges of which in such weapons were sharpened. Fig. 8, a
+service weapon of simple form, merely has projections on either side,
+and from this developed the _ranseur_ (fig. 7), a partizan with a very
+long and narrow point, like the blade of a rapier, and with fork-like
+projections intended to act as "sword-breakers," instead of the
+atrophied axe-heads of the partizan proper.
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. 7-12.]
+
+The halbert played almost as conspicuous a part in the military history
+of Middle Europe during the 15th and early 16th centuries as the pike.
+But, even in a form distinguishable from the voulge and the glaive, it
+dates from the early part of the 13th century, and for many generations
+thereafter it was the special weapon of the Swiss. Fauchet, in his
+_Origines des dignitez_, printed in 1600, states that Louis XI. of
+France ordered certain new weapons of war called _hallebardes_ to be
+made at Angers and other places in 1475. The Swiss had a mixed armament
+of pikes and halberts at the battle of Morat in 1476. In the 15th and
+16th centuries the halberts became larger, and the blades were formed in
+many varieties of shape, often engraved, inlaid, or pierced in open
+work, and exquisitely finished as works of art. This weapon was in use
+in England from the reign of Henry VII. to the reign of George III.,
+when it was still carried (though in shape it had certainly lost its
+original characteristics, and had become half partizan and half pike) by
+sergeants in the guards and other infantry regiments. It is still
+retained as the symbol of authority borne before the magistrates on
+public occasions in some of the burghs of Scotland. The Lochaber axe may
+be called a species of halbert furnished with a hook on the end of the
+staff at the back of the blade. The godendag (Fr. _godendart_) is the
+Flemish name of the halbert in its original form.
+
+The derivation of the word is as follows. The O. Fr. _hallebarde_, of
+which the English "halberd," "halbert," is an adaptation, was itself
+adapted from the M.H.G. _helmbarde_, mod. _Hellebarde_; the second part
+is the O.H.G. _barta_ or _parta_, broad-axe, probably the same word as
+_Bart_, beard, and so called from its shape; the first part is either
+_helm_, handle, cf. "helm," tiller of a ship, the word meaning "hafted
+axe," or else _helm_, helmet, an axe for smiting the helmet. A common
+derivation was to take the word as representing a Ger. _halb-barde_,
+half-axe; the early German form shows this to be an erroneous guess.
+
+
+
+
+HALDANE, JAMES ALEXANDER (1768-1851), Scottish divine, the younger son
+of Captain James Haldane of Airthrey House, Stirlingshire, was born at
+Dundee on the 14th of July 1768. Educated first at Dundee and afterwards
+at the high school and university of Edinburgh, at the age of seventeen
+he joined the "Duke of Montrose" East Indiaman as a midshipman. After
+four voyages to India he was nominated to the command of the "Melville
+Castle" in the summer of 1793; but having during a long and unexpected
+detention of his ship begun a careful study of the Bible, and also come
+under the evangelical influence of David Bogue of Gosport, one of the
+founders of the London Missionary Society, he abruptly resolved to quit
+the naval profession for a religious life, and returned to Scotland
+before his ship had sailed. About the year 1796 he became acquainted
+with the celebrated evangelical divine, Charles Simeon of Cambridge, in
+whose society he made several tours through Scotland, endeavouring by
+tract-distribution and other means to awaken others to some of that
+interest in religious subjects which he himself so strongly felt. In May
+1797 he preached his first sermon, at Gilmerton near Edinburgh, with
+encouraging success. In the same year he established a non-sectarian
+organization for tract distribution and lay preaching called the
+"Society for the Propagation of the Gospel at Home." During the next few
+years he made repeated missionary journeys, preaching wherever he could
+obtain hearers, and generally in the open air. Not originally disloyal
+to the Church of Scotland, he was gradually driven by the hostility of
+the Assembly and the exigencies of his position into separation. In 1799
+he was ordained as pastor of a large Independent congregation in
+Edinburgh. This was the first congregational church known by that name
+in Scotland. In 1801 a permanent building replaced the circus in which
+the congregation had at first met. To this church he continued to
+minister gratuitously for more than fifty years. In 1808 he made public
+avowal of his conversion to Baptist views. As advancing years compelled
+him to withdraw from the more exhausting labours of itineracy and
+open-air preaching, he sought more and more to influence the discussion
+of current religious and theological questions by means of the press. He
+died on the 8th of February 1851.
+
+His son, DANIEL RUTHERFORD HALDANE (1824-1887), by his second wife, a
+daughter of Professor Daniel Rutherford, was a prominent Scottish
+physician, who became president of the Edinburgh College of Physicians.
+
+  Among J. A. Haldane's numerous contributions to current theological
+  discussions were: _The Duty of Christian Forbearance in Regard to
+  Points of Church Order_ (1811); _Strictures on a Publication upon
+  Primitive Christianity by Mr John Walker_ (1819); _Refutation of
+  Edward Irving's Heretical Doctrines respecting the Person and
+  Atonement of Jesus Christ_. His _Observations on Universal Pardon_,
+  &c., was a contribution to the controversy regarding the views of
+  Thomas Erskine of Linlathen and Campbell of Row; _Man's
+  Responsibility_ (1842) is a reply to Howard Hinton on the nature and
+  extent of the Atonement. He also published: _Journal of a Tour in the
+  North_; _Early Instruction Commended_ (1801); _Views of the Social
+  Worship of the First Churches_ (1805); _The Doctrine and Duty of
+  Self-Examination_ (1806); _The Doctrine of the Atonement_ (1845);
+  _Exposition of the Epistle to the Galatians_ (1848).
+
+
+
+
+HALDANE, RICHARD BURDON (1856-   ), British statesman and philosopher,
+was the third son of Robert Haldane of Cloanden, Perthshire, a writer to
+the signet, and nephew of J. S. Burdon-Sanderson. He was a grand-nephew
+of the Scottish divines J. A. and Robert Haldane. He was educated at
+Edinburgh Academy and the universities of Edinburgh and Gottingen, where
+he studied philosophy under Lotze. He took first-class honours in
+philosophy at Edinburgh, and was Gray scholar and Ferguson scholar in
+philosophy of the four Scottish Universities (1876). He was called to
+the bar in 1879, and so early as 1890 became a queen's counsel. In 1885
+he entered parliament as liberal member for Haddingtonshire, for which
+he was re-elected continuously up to and including 1910. He was included
+in 1905 in Sir H. Campbell-Bannerman's cabinet as secretary for war, and
+was the author of the important scheme for the reorganization of the
+British army, by which the militia and the volunteer forces were
+replaced by a single territorial force. Though always known as one of
+the ablest men of the Liberal party and conspicuous during the Boer War
+of 1899-1902 as a Liberal Imperialist, the choice of Mr Haldane for the
+task of thinking out a new army organization on business lines had
+struck many people as curious. Besides being a chancery lawyer, he was
+more particularly a philosopher, conspicuous for his knowledge of
+Hegelian metaphysics. But with German philosophy he had also the German
+sense of thoroughness and system, and his scheme, while it was much
+criticized, was recognized as the best that could be done with a
+voluntary army. Mr Haldane's chief literary publications were: _Life of
+Adam Smith_ (1887); _Education and Empire_ (1902); _The Pathway to
+Reality_ (1903). He also translated, jointly with J. Kemp,
+Schopenhauer's _Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung_ (_The World as Will
+and Idea_, 3 vols., 1883-1886).
+
+
+
+
+HALDANE, ROBERT (1764-1842), Scottish divine, elder brother of J. A.
+Haldane (q.v.), was born in London on the 28th of February 1764. After
+attending classes in the Dundee grammar school and in the high school
+and university of Edinburgh in 1780, he joined H.M.S. "Monarch," of
+which his uncle Lord Duncan was at that time in command, and in the
+following year was transferred to the "Foudroyant," on board of which,
+during the night engagement with the "Pegase," he greatly distinguished
+himself. Haldane was afterwards present at the relief of Gibraltar, but
+at the peace of 1783 he finally left the navy, and soon afterwards
+settled on his estate of Airthrey, near Stirling. He put himself under
+the tuition of David Bogue of Gosport and carried away deep impressions
+from his academy. The earlier phases of the French Revolution excited
+his deepest sympathy, a sympathy which induced him to avow his strong
+disapproval of the war with France. As his over-sanguine visions of a
+new order of things to be ushered in by political change disappeared, he
+began to direct his thoughts to religious subjects. Resolving to devote
+himself and his means wholly to the advancement of Christianity, his
+first proposal for that end, made in 1796, was to organize a vast
+mission to Bengal, of which he was to provide the entire expense; with
+this view the greater part of his estate was sold, but the East India
+Company refused to sanction the scheme, which therefore had to be
+abandoned. In December 1797 he joined his brother and some others in the
+formation of the "Society for the Propagation of the Gospel at Home," in
+building chapels or "tabernacles" for congregations, in supporting
+missionaries, and in maintaining institutions for the education of young
+men to carry on the work of evangelization. He is said to have spent
+more than L70,000 in the course of the following twelve years
+(1798-1810). He also initiated a plan for evangelizing Africa by
+bringing over native children to be trained as Christian teachers to
+their own countrymen. In 1816 he visited the continent, and first at
+Geneva and afterwards in Montauban (1817) he lectured and interviewed
+large numbers of theological students with remarkable effect; among them
+were Malan, Monod and Merle d'Aubigne. Returning to Scotland in 1819, he
+lived partly on his estate of Auchengray and partly in Edinburgh, and
+like his brother took an active part, chiefly through the press, in many
+of the religious controversies of the time. He died on the 12th of
+December 1842.
+
+  In 1816 he published a work on the _Evidences and Authority of Divine
+  Revelation_, and in 1819 the substance of his theological prelections
+  in a _Commentaire sur l'Epitre aux Romains_. Among his later writings,
+  besides numerous pamphlets on what was known as "the Apocrypha
+  controversy," are a treatise _On the Inspiration of Scripture_ (1828),
+  which has passed through many editions, and a later _Exposition of the
+  Epistle to the Romans_ (1835), which has been frequently reprinted,
+  and has been translated into French and German.
+
+  See _Memoirs of R. and J. A. Haldane_, by Alexander Haldane (1852).
+
+
+
+
+HALDEMAN, SAMUEL STEHMAN (1812-1880), American naturalist and
+philologist, was born on the 12th of August 1812 at Locust Grove, Pa. He
+was educated at Dickinson College, and in 1851 was appointed professor
+of the natural sciences in the university of Pennsylvania. In 1855 he
+went to Delaware College, where he filled the same position, but in 1869
+he returned to the university of Pennsylvania as professor of
+comparative philology and remained there till his death, which occurred
+at Chickies, Pa., on the 10th of September 1880. His writings include
+_Freshwater Univalve Mollusca of the United States_ (1840); _Zoological
+Contributions_ (1842-1843); _Analytic Orthography_ (1860); _Tours of a
+Chess Knight_ (1864); _Pennsylvania Dutch, a Dialect of South German
+with an Infusion of English_ (1872); _Outlines of Etymology_ (1877); and
+_Word-Building_ (1881).
+
+
+
+
+HALDIMAND, SIR FREDERICK (1718-1791), British general and administrator,
+was born at Yverdun, Neuchatel, Switzerland, on the 11th of August 1718,
+of Huguenot descent. After serving in the armies of Sardinia, Russia and
+Holland, he entered British service in 1754, and subsequently
+naturalized as an English citizen. During the Seven Years' War he served
+in America, was wounded at Ticonderoga (1758) and was present at the
+taking of Montreal (1760). After filling with credit several
+administrative positions in Canada, Florida and New York, in 1778 he
+succeeded Sir Guy Carleton (afterwards Lord Dorchester) as
+governor-general of Canada. His measures against French sympathizers
+with the Americans have incurred extravagant strictures from
+French-Canadian historians, but he really showed moderation as well as
+energy. In 1785 he returned to London. He died at his birthplace on the
+5th of June 1791.
+
+  His life has been well written by Jean McIlwraith in the "Makers of
+  Canada" series (Toronto, 1904). His Correspondence and Diary fill 262
+  volumes in the Canadian Archives, and are catalogued in the Annual
+  Reports (1884-1889).
+
+
+
+
+HALE, EDWARD EVERETT (1822-1909), American author, was born in Boston on
+the 3rd of April 1822, son of Nathan Hale (1784-1863), proprietor and
+editor of the Boston _Daily Advertiser_, nephew of Edward Everett, the
+orator and statesman, and grand-nephew of Nathan Hale, the martyr spy.
+He graduated from Harvard in 1839; was pastor of the church of the
+Unity, Worcester, Massachusetts, in 1846-1856, and of the South
+Congregational (Unitarian) church, Boston, in 1856-1899; and in 1903
+became chaplain of the United States Senate. He died at Roxbury
+(Boston), Massachusetts, on the 10th of June 1909. His forceful
+personality, organizing genius, and liberal practical theology, together
+with his deep interest in the anti-slavery movement (especially in
+Kansas), popular education (especially Chautauqua work), and the
+working-man's home, were active in raising the tone of American life for
+half a century. He was a constant and voluminous contributor to the
+newspapers and magazines. He was an assistant editor of the Boston
+_Daily Advertiser_, and edited the _Christian Examiner, Old and New_
+(which he assisted in founding in 1869; in 1875 it was merged in
+_Scribner's Magazine_), _Lend a Hand_ (founded by him in 1886 and merged
+in the _Charities Review_ in 1897), and the _Lend a Hand Record_; and he
+was the author or editor of more than sixty books--fiction, travel,
+sermons, biography and history.
+
+He first came into notice as a writer in 1859, when he contributed the
+short story "My Double and How He Undid Me" to the _Atlantic Monthly_.
+He soon published in the same periodical other stories, the best known
+of which was "The Man Without a Country" (1863), which did much to
+strengthen the Union cause in the North, and in which, as in some of his
+other non-romantic tales, he employed a minute realism which has led his
+readers to suppose the narrative a record of fact. The two stories
+mentioned, and such others as "The Rag-Man and the Rag-Woman" and "The
+Skeleton in the Closet," gave him a prominent position among the
+short-story writers of America. The story _Ten Times One is Ten_ (1870),
+with its hero Harry Wadsworth, and its motto, first enunciated in 1869
+in his Lowell Institute lectures, "Look up and not down, look forward
+and not back, look out and not in, and lend a hand," led to the
+formation among young people of "Lend-a-Hand Clubs," "Look-up Legions"
+and "Harry Wadsworth Clubs." Out of the romantic Waldensian story _In
+His Name_ (1873) there similarly grew several other organizations for
+religious work, such as "King's Daughters," and "King's Sons."
+
+  Among his other books are _Kansas and Nebraska_ (1854); _The Ingham
+  Papers_ (1869); _His Level Best, and Other Stories_ (1870); _Sybaris
+  and Other Homes_ (1871); _Philip Nolan's Friends_ (1876), his
+  best-known novel, and a sequel to _The Man Without a Country; The
+  Kingdom of God_ (1880); _Christmas at Narragansett_ (1885); _East and
+  West_, a novel (1892); _For Fifty Years_ (poems, 1893); _Ralph Waldo
+  Emerson_ (1899); _We, the People_ (1903); _Prayers Offered in the
+  Senate of the United States_ (1904), and _Tarry-at-Home Travels_
+  (1906). He edited Lingard's _History of England_ (1853), and
+  contributed to Winsor's _Memorial History of Boston_ (1880-1881), and
+  to his _Narrative and Critical History of America_ (1886-1889). With
+  his son, Edward Everett Hale, Jr., he published _Franklin in France_
+  (2 vols., 1887-1888), based largely on original research. The most
+  charming books of his later years were _A New England Boyhood_ (1893),
+  _James Russell Lowell and His Friends_ (1899), and _Memories of a
+  Hundred Years_ (1902).
+
+  A uniform and revised edition of his principal writings, in ten
+  volumes, appeared in 1899-1901.
+
+
+
+
+HALE, HORATIO (1817-1896), American ethnologist, was born in Newport,
+New Hampshire, on the 3rd of May 1817. He was the son of David Hale, a
+lawyer, and of Sarah Josepha Hale (1790-1879), a popular poet, who,
+besides editing _Godey's Lady's Magazine_ for many years and publishing
+some ephemeral books, is supposed to have written the verses "Mary had a
+little lamb," and to have been the first to suggest the national
+observance of Thanksgiving Day. The son graduated in 1837 at Harvard,
+and during 1838-1842 was philologist to the United States Exploring
+Expedition, which under Captain Charles Wilkes sailed around the world.
+Of the reports of that expedition Hale prepared the sixth volume,
+_Ethnography and Philology_ (1846), which is said to have "laid the
+foundations of the ethnography of Polynesia." He was admitted to the
+Chicago bar in 1855, and in the following year removed to Clinton,
+Ontario, Canada, where he practised his profession, and where on the
+28th of December 1896 he died. He made many valuable contributions to
+the science of ethnology, attracting attention particularly by his
+theory of the origin of the diversities of human languages and
+dialects--a theory suggested by his study of "child-languages," or the
+languages invented by little children. He also emphasized the importance
+of languages as tests of mental capacity and as "criteria for the
+classification of human groups." He was, moreover, the first to discover
+that the Tutelos of Virginia belonged to the Siouan family, and to
+identify the Cherokee as a member of the Iroquoian family of speech.
+Besides writing numerous magazine articles, he read a number of valuable
+papers before learned societies. These include: _Indian Migrations as
+Evidenced by Language_ (1882); _The Origin of Languages and the
+Antiquity of Speaking Man_ (1886); _The Development of Language_ (1888);
+and _Language as a Test of Mental Capacity: Being an Attempt to
+Demonstrate the True Basis of Anthropology_ (1891). He also edited for
+Brinton's "Library of Aboriginal Literature," the _Iroquois Book of
+Rites_ (1883).
+
+
+
+
+HALE, JOHN PARKER (1806-1873), American statesman, was born at
+Rochester, New Hampshire, on the 31st of March 1806. He graduated at
+Bowdoin College in 1827, was admitted to the New Hampshire bar in 1830,
+was a member of the state House of Representatives in 1832, and from
+1834 to 1841 was United States district attorney for New Hampshire. In
+1843-1845 he was a Democratic member of the national House of
+Representatives, and, though his earnest co-operation with John Quincy
+Adams in securing the repeal of the "gag rule" directed against the
+presentation to Congress of anti-slavery petitions estranged him from
+the leaders of his party, he was renominated without opposition. In
+January 1845, however, he refused in a public statement to obey a
+resolution (28th of December 1844) of the state legislature directing
+him and his New Hampshire associates in Congress to support the cause of
+the annexation of Texas, a Democratic measure which Hale regarded as
+being distinctively in the interest of slavery. The Democratic State
+convention was at once reassembled, Hale was denounced, and his
+nomination withdrawn. In the election which followed Hale ran
+independently, and, although the Democratic candidates were elected in
+the other three congressional districts of the state, his vote was large
+enough to prevent any choice (for which a majority was necessary) in his
+own. Hale then set out in the face of apparently hopeless odds to win
+over his state to the anti-slavery cause. The remarkable canvass which
+he conducted is known in the history of New Hampshire as the "Hale
+Storm of 1845." The election resulted in the choice of a legislature
+controlled by the Whigs and the independent Democrats, he himself being
+chosen as a member of the state House of Representatives, of which in
+1846 he was speaker. He is remembered, however, chiefly for his long
+service in the United States Senate, of which he was a member from 1847
+to 1853 and again from 1855 to 1865. At first he was the only
+out-and-out anti-slavery senator,--he alone prevented the vote of thanks
+to General Taylor and General Scott for their Mexican war victories from
+being made unanimous in the Senate (February 1848)--but in 1849 Salmon
+P. Chase and William H. Seward, and in 1851 Charles Sumner joined him,
+and the anti-slavery cause became for the first time a force to be
+reckoned with in that body. In October 1847 he had been nominated for
+president by the Liberty party, but he withdrew in favour of Martin Van
+Buren, the Free Soil candidate, in 1848. In 1851 he was senior counsel
+for the rescuers of the slave Shadrach in Boston. In 1852 he was the
+Free Soil candidate for the presidency, but received only 156,149 votes.
+In 1850 he secured the abolition of flogging in the U.S. navy, and
+through his efforts in 1862 the spirit ration in the navy was abolished.
+He was one of the organizers of the Republican party, and during the
+Civil War was an eloquent supporter of the Union and chairman of the
+Senate naval committee. From 1865 to 1869 he was United States minister
+to Spain. He died at Dover, New Hampshire, on the 19th of December 1873.
+A statue of Hale, presented by his son-in-law William Eaton Chandler (b.
+1835), U.S. senator from New Hampshire in 1887-1901, was erected in
+front of the Capitol in Concord, New Hampshire, in 1892.
+
+
+
+
+HALE, SIR MATTHEW (1609-1676), lord chief justice of England, was born
+on the 1st of November 1609 at Alderley in Gloucestershire, where his
+father, a retired barrister, had a small estate. His paternal
+grandfather was a rich clothier of Wotton-under-Edge; on his mother's
+side he was connected with the noble family of the Poyntzes of Acton.
+Left an orphan when five years old, he was placed by his guardian under
+the care of the Puritan vicar of Wotton-under-Edge, with whom he
+remained till he attained his sixteenth year, when he entered Magdalen
+Hall, Oxford. At Oxford, Hale studied for several terms with a view to
+holy orders, but suddenly there came a change. The diligent student, at
+first attracted by a company of strolling players, threw aside his
+studies, and plunged carelessly into gay society. He soon decided to
+change his profession; and resolved to trail a pike as a soldier under
+the prince of Orange in the Low Countries. Before going abroad, however,
+Hale found himself obliged to proceed to London in order to give
+instructions for his defence in a legal action which threatened to
+deprive him of his patrimony. His leading counsel was the celebrated
+Serjeant Glanville (1586-1661), who, perceiving in the acuteness and
+sagacity of his youthful client a peculiar fitness for the legal
+profession, succeeded, with much difficulty, in inducing him to renounce
+his military for a legal career, and on the 8th of November 1629 Hale
+became a member of the honourable society of Lincoln's Inn.
+
+He immediately resumed his habits of intense application. The rules
+which he laid down for himself, and which are still extant in his
+handwriting, prescribe sixteen hours a day of close application, and
+prove, not only the great mental power, but also the extraordinary
+physical strength he must have possessed, and for which indeed, during
+his residence at the university, he had been remarkable. During the
+period allotted to his preliminary studies, he read over and over again
+all the yearbooks, reports, and law treatises in print, and at the Tower
+of London and other antiquarian repositories examined and carefully
+studied the records from the foundation of the English monarchy down to
+his own time. But Hale did not confine himself to law. He dedicated no
+small portion of his time to the study of pure mathematics, to
+investigations in physics and chemistry, and even to anatomy and
+architecture; and there can be no doubt that this varied learning
+enhanced considerably the value of many of his judicial decisions.
+
+Hale was called to the bar in 1637, and almost at once found himself in
+full practice. Though neither a fluent speaker nor bold pleader, in a
+very few years he was at the head of his profession. He entered public
+life at perhaps the most critical period of English history. Two parties
+were contending in the state, and their obstinacy could not fail to
+produce a most direful collision. But amidst the confusion Hale steered
+a middle course, rising in reputation, and an object of solicitation
+from both parties. Taking Pomponius Atticus as his political model, he
+was persuaded that a man, a lawyer and a judge could best serve his
+country and benefit his countrymen by holding aloof from partisanship
+and its violent prejudices, which are so apt to distort and confuse the
+judgment. But he is best vindicated from the charges of selfishness and
+cowardice by the thoughts and meditations contained in his private
+diaries and papers, where the purity and honour of his motives are
+clearly seen. It has been said, but without certainty, that Hale was
+engaged as counsel for the earl of Strafford; he certainly acted for
+Archbishop Laud, Lord Maguire, Christopher Love, the duke of Hamilton
+and others. It is also said that he was ready to plead on the side of
+Charles I. had that monarch submitted to the court. The parliament
+having gained the ascendancy, Hale signed the Solemn League and
+Covenant, and was a member of the famous assembly of divines at
+Westminster in 1644; but although he would undoubtedly have preferred a
+Presbyterian form of church government, he had no serious objection to
+the system of modified Episcopacy, proposed by Usher. Consistently with
+his desire to remain neutral, Hale took the engagement to the
+Commonwealth as he had done to the king, and in 1653, already serjeant,
+he became a judge in the court of common pleas. Two years afterwards he
+sat in Cromwell's parliament as one of the members for Gloucestershire.
+After the death of the protector, however, he declined to act as a judge
+under Richard Cromwell, although he represented Oxford in Richard's
+parliament. At the Restoration in 1660 Hale was very graciously received
+by Charles II., and in the same year was appointed chief baron of the
+exchequer, and accepted, with extreme reluctance, the honour of
+knighthood. After holding the office of chief baron for eleven years he
+was raised to the higher dignity of lord chief justice, which he held
+till February 1676, when his failing health compelled him to resign. He
+retired to his native Alderley, where he died on the 25th of December of
+the same year. He was twice married and survived all his ten children
+save two.
+
+As a judge Sir Matthew Hale discharged his duties with resolute
+independence and careful diligence. His sincere piety made him the
+intimate friend of Isaac Barrow, Archbishop Tillotson, Bishop Wilkins
+and Bishop Stillingfleet, as well as of the Nonconformist leader,
+Richard Baxter. He is chargeable, however, with the condemnation and
+execution of two poor women tried before him for witchcraft in 1664, a
+kind of judicial murder then falling under disuse. He is also reproached
+with having hastened the execution of a soldier for whom he had reason
+to believe a pardon was preparing.
+
+  Of Hale's legal works the only two of importance are his _Historia
+  placitorum coronae, or History of the Pleas of the Crown_ (1736); and
+  the _History of the Common Law of England, with an Analysis of the
+  Law_, &c. (1713). Among his numerous religious writings the
+  _Contemplations, Moral and Divine_, occupy the first place. Others are
+  _The Primitive Origination of Man_ (1677); _Of the Nature of True
+  Religion_, &c. (1684); _A Brief Abstract of the Christian Religion_
+  (1688). One of his most popular works is the collection of _Letters of
+  Advice to his Children and Grandchildren_. He also wrote an _Essay
+  touching the Gravitation or Nongravitation of Fluid Bodies_ (1673);
+  _Difficiles Nugae, or Observations touching the Torricellian
+  Experiment_, &c. (1675); and a translation of the _Life of Pomponius
+  Atticus_, by Cornelius Nepos (1677). His efforts in poetry were
+  inauspicious. He left his valuable collection of MSS. and records to
+  the library of Lincoln's Inn. His life has been written by G. Burnet
+  (1682); by J. B. Williams (1835); by H. Roscoe, in his _Lives of
+  Eminent Lawyers_, in 1838; by Lord Campbell, in his _Lives of the
+  Chief Justices_, in 1849; and by E. Foss in his _Lives of the Judges_
+  (1848-1870).
+
+
+
+
+HALE, NATHAN (1756-1776). American hero of the War of Independence, was
+born at Coventry, Conn., and educated at Yale, then becoming a school
+teacher. He joined a Connecticut regiment after the breaking out of the
+war, and served in the siege of Boston, being commissioned a captain at
+the opening of 1776. When Heath's brigade departed for New York he went
+with them, and the tradition is that he was one of a small and daring
+band who captured an English provision sloop from under the very guns of
+a man-of-war. But on the 21st of September, having volunteered to enter
+the British lines to obtain information concerning the enemy, he was
+captured in his disguise of a Dutch school-teacher and on the 22nd was
+hanged. The penalty was in accordance with military law, but young
+Hale's act was a brave one, and he has always been glorified as a
+martyr. Tradition attributes to him the saying that he only regretted
+that he had but one life to lose for his country; and it is said that
+his request for a Bible and the services of a minister was refused by
+his captors. There is a fine statue of Hale by Macmonnies in New York.
+
+  See H. P. Johnston, _Nathan Hale_ (1901).
+
+
+
+
+HALE, WILLIAM GARDNER (1849-   ), American classical scholar, was born
+on the 9th of February 1849 in Savannah, Georgia. He graduated at
+Harvard University in 1870, and took a post-graduate course in
+philosophy there in 1874-1876; studied classical philology at Leipzig
+and Gottingen in 1876-1877; was tutor in Latin at Harvard from 1877 to
+1880, and professor of Latin in Cornell University from 1880 to 1892,
+when he became professor of Latin and head of the Latin department of
+the University of Chicago. From 1894 to 1899 he was chairman and in
+1895-1896 first director of the American School of Classical Studies at
+Rome. He is best known as an original teacher on questions of syntax. In
+The _Cum-Constructions: Their History and Functions_, which appeared in
+_Cornell University Studies in Classical Philology_ (1888-1889; and in
+German version by Neizert in 1891), he attacked Hoffmann's distinction
+between absolute and relative temporal clauses as published in
+_Lateinische Zeitpartikeln_ (1874); Hoffmann replied in 1891, and the
+best summary of the controversy is in Wetzel's _Der Streit zwischen
+Hoffmann und Hale_ (1892). Hale wrote also _The Sequence of Tenses in
+Latin_ (1887-1888), _The Anticipatory Subjunctive in Greek and Latin_
+(1894), and a _Latin Grammar_ (1903), to which the parts on sounds,
+inflection and word-formation were contributed by Carl Darling Buck.
+
+
+
+
+HALEBID, a village in Mysore state, southern India; pop. (1901), 1524.
+The name means "old capital," being the site of Dorasamudra, the capital
+of the Hoysala dynasty founded early in the 11th century. In 1310 and
+again in 1326 it was taken and plundered by the first Mahommedan invader
+of southern India. Two temples, still standing, though never completed
+and greatly ruined, are regarded as the finest examples of the
+elaborately carved Chalukyan style of architecture.
+
+
+
+
+HALES, or HAYLES, JOHN (d. 1571), English writer and politician, was a
+son of Thomas Hales of Hales Place, Halden, Kent. He wrote his _Highway
+to Nobility_ about 1543, and was the founder of a free school at
+Coventry for which he wrote _Introductiones ad grammaticam_. In
+political life Hales, who was member of parliament for Preston, was
+specially concerned with opposing the enclosure of land, being the most
+active of the commissioners appointed in 1548 to redress this evil; but
+he failed to carry several remedial measures through parliament. When
+the protector, the duke of Somerset, was deprived of his authority in
+1550, Hales left England and lived for some time at Strassburg and
+Frankfort, returning to his own country on the accession of Elizabeth.
+However he soon lost the royal favour by writing a pamphlet, _A
+Declaration of the Succession of the Crowne Imperiall of Inglande_,
+which declared that the recent marriage between Lady Catherine Grey and
+Edward Seymour, earl of Hertford, was legitimate, and asserted that,
+failing direct heirs to Elizabeth, the English crown should come to Lady
+Catherine as the descendant of Mary, daughter of Henry VII. The author
+was imprisoned, but was quickly released, and died on the 28th of
+December 1571. The _Discourse of the Common Weal_, described as "one of
+the most informing documents of the age," and written about 1549, has
+been attributed to Hales. This has been edited by E. Lamond (Cambridge,
+1893).
+
+Hales is often confused with another John Hales, who was clerk of the
+hanaper under Henry VIII. and his three immediate successors.
+
+
+
+
+HALES, JOHN (1584-1656), English scholar, frequently referred to as "the
+ever memorable," was born at Bath on the 19th of April 1584, and was
+educated at Corpus Christi College, Oxford. He was elected a fellow of
+Merton in 1605, and in 1612 he was appointed public lecturer on Greek.
+In 1613 he was made a fellow of Eton. Five years later he went to
+Holland, as chaplain to the English ambassador, Sir Dudley Carleton, who
+despatched him to Dort to report upon the proceedings of the synod then
+sitting. In 1619 he returned to Eton and spent his time among his books
+and in the company of literary men, among whom he was highly reputed for
+his common sense, his erudition and his genial charity. Andrew Marvell
+called him "one of the clearest heads and best-prepared breasts in
+Christendom." His eirenical tract entitled _Schism and Schismaticks_
+(1636) fell into the hands of Archbishop Laud, and Hales, hearing that
+he had disapproved of it, is said to have written to the prelate a
+vindication of his position. This led to a meeting, and in 1639 Hales
+was made one of Laud's chaplains and also a canon of Windsor. In 1642 he
+was deprived of his canonry by the parliamentary committee, and two
+years later was obliged to hide in Eton with the college documents and
+keys. In 1649 he refused to take the "Engagement" and was ejected from
+his fellowship. He then retired to Buckinghamshire, where he found a
+home with Mrs Salter, the sister of the bishop of Salisbury (Brian
+Duppa), and acted as tutor to her son. The issue of the order against
+harbouring malignants led him to return to Eton. Here, having sold his
+valuable library at great sacrifice, he lived in poverty until his death
+on the 19th of May 1656.
+
+  His collected works (3 vols.) were edited by Lord Hailes, and
+  published in 1765.
+
+
+
+
+HALES, STEPHEN (1677-1761), English physiologist, chemist and inventor,
+was born at Bekesbourne in Kent on the 7th or 17th of September 1677,
+the fifth (or sixth) son of Thomas Hales, whose father, Sir Robert
+Hales, was created a baronet by Charles II. in 1670. In June 1696 he was
+entered as a pensioner of Benet (now Corpus Christi) College, Cambridge,
+with the view of taking holy orders, and in February 1703 was admitted
+to a fellowship. He received the degree of master of arts in 1703 and of
+bachelor of divinity in 1711. One of his most intimate friends was
+William Stukeley (1687-1765) with whom he studied anatomy, chemistry,
+&c. In 1708-1709 Hales was presented to the perpetual curacy of
+Teddington in Middlesex, where he remained all his life, notwithstanding
+that he was subsequently appointed rector of Porlock in Somerset, and
+later of Faringdon in Hampshire. In 1717 he was elected fellow of the
+Royal Society, which awarded him the Copley medal in 1739. In 1732 he
+was named one of a committee for establishing a colony in Georgia, and
+the next year he received the degree of doctor of divinity from Oxford.
+He was appointed almoner to the princess-dowager of Wales in 1750. On
+the death of Sir Hans Sloane in 1753, Hales was chosen foreign associate
+of the French Academy of Sciences. He died at Teddington on the 4th of
+January 1761.
+
+Hales is best known for his _Statical Essays_. The first volume,
+_Vegetable Staticks_ (1727), contains an account of numerous experiments
+in plant-physiology--the loss of water in plants by evaporation, the
+rate of growth of shoots and leaves, variations in root-force at
+different times of the day, &c. Considering it very probable that plants
+draw "through their leaves some part of their nourishment from the air,"
+he undertook experiments to show in "how great a proportion air is
+wrought into the composition of animal, vegetable and mineral
+substances"; though this "analysis of the air" did not lead him to any
+very clear ideas about the composition of the atmosphere, in the course
+of his inquiries he collected gases over water in vessels separate from
+those in which they were generated, and thus used what was to all
+intents and purposes a "pneumatic trough." The second volume (1733) on
+_Haemostaticks_, containing experiments on the "force of the blood" in
+various animals, its rate of flow, the capacity of the different
+vessels, &c., entitles him to be regarded as one of the originators of
+experimental physiology. But he did not confine his attention to
+abstract inquiries. The quest of a solvent for calculus in the bladder
+and kidneys was pursued by him as by others at the period, and he
+devised a form of forceps which, on the testimony of John Ranby
+(1703-1773), sergeant-surgeon to George II., extracted stones with
+"great ease and readiness." His observations of the evil effect of
+vitiated air caused him to devise a "ventilator" (a modified
+organ-bellows) by which fresh air could be conveyed into gaols,
+hospitals, ships'-holds, &c.; this apparatus was successful in reducing
+the mortality in the Savoy prison, and it was introduced into France by
+the aid of H. L. Duhamel du Monceau. Among other things Hales invented a
+"sea-gauge" for sounding, and processes for distilling fresh from sea
+water, for preserving corn from weevils by fumigation with brimstone,
+and for salting animals whole by passing brine into their arteries. His
+_Admonition to the Drinkers of Gin, Brandy, &c._, published anonymously
+in 1734, has been several times reprinted.
+
+
+
+
+HALESOWEN, a market town in the Oldbury parliamentary division of
+Worcestershire, England, on a branch line of the Great Western and
+Midland railways, 6-1/2 m. W.S.W. of Birmingham. Pop. (1901), 4057. It
+lies in a pleasant country among the eastern foothills of the Lickey
+Hills. There are extensive iron and steel manufactures. The church of SS
+Mary and John the Baptist has rude Norman portions; and the poet William
+Shenstone, buried in 1763 in the churchyard, has a memorial in the
+church. His delight in landscape gardening is exemplified in the
+neighbouring estate of the Leasowes, which was his property. There is a
+grammar school founded in 1652, and in the neighbourhood is the
+Methodist foundation of Bourne College (1883). Close to the town, on the
+river Stour, which rises in the vicinity, are slight ruins of a
+Premonstratensian abbey of Early English date. Within the parish and 2
+m. N.W. of Halesowen is Cradley, with iron and steel works, fire-clay
+works and a large nail and chain industry.
+
+
+
+
+HALEVI, JUDAH BEN SAMUEL (c. 1085-c. 1140), the greatest Hebrew poet of
+the middle ages, was born in Toledo c. 1085, and died in Palestine after
+1140. In his youth he wrote Hebrew love poems of exquisite fancy, and
+several of his Wedding Odes are included in the liturgy of the
+Synagogue. The mystical connexion between marital affection and the love
+of God had, in the view of older exegesis, already expressed itself in
+the scriptural _Song of Songs_ and Judah Halevi used this book as his
+model. In this aspect of his work he found inspiration also in Arabic
+predecessors. The second period of his literary career was devoted to
+more serious pursuits. He wrote a philosophical dialogue in five books,
+called the _Cuzari_, which has been translated into English by
+Hirschfeld. This book bases itself on the historical fact that the
+Crimean Kingdom of the Khazars adopted Judaism, and the Hebrew
+poet-philosopher describes what he conceives to be the steps by which
+the Khazar king satisfied himself as to the claims of Judaism. Like many
+other medieval Jewish authors, Judah Halevi was a physician. His real
+fame depends on his liturgical hymns, which are the finest written in
+Hebrew since the Psalter, and are extensively used in the Septardic
+rite. A striking feature of his thought was his devotion to Jerusalem.
+To the love of the Holy City he devoted his noblest genius, and he wrote
+some memorable Odes to Zion, which have been commemorated by Heine, and
+doubly appreciated recently under the impulse of Zionism (q.v.). He
+started for Jerusalem, was in Damascus in 1140, and soon afterwards
+died. Legend has it that he was slain by an Arab horseman just as he
+arrived within sight of what Heine called his "Woebegone poor darling,
+Desolation's very image,--Jerusalem."
+
+  Excellent English renderings of some of Judah Halevi's poems may be
+  read in Mrs H. Lucas's _The Jewish Year_, and Mrs R. N. Solomon's
+  _Songs of Exile_.     (I. A.)
+
+
+
+
+HALEVY, JACQUES FRANCOIS FROMENTAL ELIE (1799-1862), French composer,
+was born on the 27th of May 1799, at Paris, of a Jewish family. He
+studied at the Paris Conservatoire under Berton and Cherubini, and in
+1819 gained the grand prix de Rome with his cantata _Herminie_. In
+accordance with the conditions of his scholarship he started for Rome,
+where he devoted himself to the study of Italian music, and wrote an
+opera and various minor works. In 1827 his opera _L'Artisan_ was
+performed at the Theatre Feydeau in Paris, apparently without much
+success. Other works of minor importance, and now forgotten, followed,
+amongst which _Manon Lescaut_, a ballet, produced in 1830, deserves
+mention. In 1834 the Opera-Comique produced _Ludovic_, the score of
+which had been begun by Herold and had been completed by Halevy. In 1835
+Halevy composed the tragic opera _La Juive_ and the comic opera
+_L'Eclair_, and on these works his fame is mainly founded. The famous
+air of Eleazar and the anathema of the cardinal in _La Juive_ soon
+became popular all over France. _L'Eclair_ is a curiosity of musical
+literature. It is written for two tenors and two soprani, without a
+chorus, and displays the composer's mastery over the most refined
+effects of instrumentation and vocalization in a favourable light. After
+these two works he wrote numerous operas of various genres, amongst
+which only _La Reine de Chypre_, a spectacular piece analyzed by Wagner
+in one of his Paris letters (1841), and _La Tempesta_, in three acts,
+written for Her Majesty's theatre, London (1850), need be mentioned. In
+addition to his productive work Halevy also rendered valuable services
+as a teacher. He was professor at the Conservatoire from 1827 till his
+death--some of the most successful amongst the younger composers in
+France, such as Gounod, Victor Masse and Georges Bizet, the author of
+_Carmen_, being amongst his pupils. He was _maestro al cembalo_ at the
+Theatre Italien from 1827 to 1829; then director of singing at the Opera
+House in Paris until 1845, and in 1836 he succeeded Reicha at the
+Institut de France. Halevy also tried his hand at literature. In 1857 he
+became permanent secretary to the Academie des Beaux Arts, and there
+exists an agreeable volume of _Souvenirs et portraits_ from his pen. He
+died at Nice, on the 17th of March 1862.
+
+
+
+
+HALEVY, LUDOVIC (1834-1908), French author, was born in Paris on the 1st
+of January 1834. His father, Leon Halevy (1802-1883), was a clever and
+versatile writer, who tried almost every branch of literature--prose and
+verse, vaudeville, drama, history--without, however, achieving decisive
+success in any. His uncle, J. F. Fromental E. Halevy (q.v.), was for
+many years associated with the opera; hence the double and early
+connexion of Ludovic Halevy with the Parisian stage. At the age of six
+he might have been seen playing in that _Foyer de la danse_ with which
+he was to make his readers so familiar, and, when a boy of twelve, he
+would often, of a Sunday night, on his way back to the College Louis le
+Grand, look in at the Odeon, where he had free admittance, and see the
+first act of the new play. At eighteen he joined the ranks of the French
+administration and occupied various posts, the last being that of
+secretaire-redacteur to the Corps Legislatif. In that capacity he
+enjoyed the special favour and friendship of the famous duke of Morny,
+then president of that assembly. In 1865 Ludovic Halevy's increasing
+popularity as an author enabled him to retire from the public service.
+Ten years earlier he had become acquainted with the musician Offenbach,
+who was about to start a small theatre of his own in the Champs Elysees,
+and he wrote a sort of prologue, _Entrez, messieurs, mesdames_, for the
+opening night. Other little productions followed, _Ba-ta-clan_ being the
+most noticeable among them. They were produced under the pseudonym of
+Jules Servieres. The name of Ludovic Halevy appeared for the first time
+on the bills on the 1st of January 1856. Soon afterwards the
+unprecedented run of _Orphee aux enfers_, a musical parody, written in
+collaboration with Hector Cremieux, made his name famous. In the spring
+of 1860 he was commissioned to write a play for the manager of the
+Varietes in conjunction with another vaudevillist, Lambert Thiboust. The
+latter having abruptly retired from the collaboration, Halevy was at a
+loss how to carry out the contract, when on the steps of the theatre he
+met Henri Meilhac (1831-1897), then comparatively a stranger to him. He
+proposed to Meilhac the task rejected by Lambert Thiboust, and the
+proposal was immediately accepted. Thus began a connexion which was to
+last over twenty years, and which proved most fruitful both for the
+reputation of the two authors and the prosperity of the minor Paris
+theatres. Their joint works may be divided into three classes: the
+_operettes_, the farces, the comedies. The _operettes_ afforded
+excellent opportunities to a gifted musician for the display of his
+peculiar humour. They were broad and lively libels against the society
+of the time, but savoured strongly of the vices and follies they were
+supposed to satirize. Amongst the most celebrated works of the joint
+authors were _La Belle Helene_ (1864), _Barbe Bleue_ (1866), _La Grande
+Duchesse de Gerolstein_ (1867), and _La Perichole_ (1868). After 1870
+the vogue of Parody rapidly declined. The decadence became still more
+apparent when Offenbach was no longer at hand to assist the two authors
+with his quaint musical irony, and when they had to deal with
+interpreters almost destitute of singing powers. They wrote farces of
+the old type, consisting of complicated intrigues, with which they
+cleverly interwove the representation of contemporary whims and social
+oddities. They generally failed when they attempted comedies of a more
+serious character and tried to introduce a higher sort of emotion. A
+solitary exception must be made in the case of _Frou-frou_ (1869),
+which, owing perhaps to the admirable talent of Aimee Desclee, remains
+their unique _succes de larmes_.
+
+Meilhac and Halevy will be found at their best in light sketches of
+Parisian life, _Les Sonnettes_, _Le Roi Candaule_, _Madame attend
+Monsieur_, _Toto chez Tata_. In that intimate association between the
+two men who had met so opportunely on the _perron des varietes_, it was
+often asked who was the leading partner. The question was not answered
+until the connexion was finally severed and they stood before the
+public, each to answer for his own work. It was then apparent that they
+had many gifts in common. Both had wit, humour, observation of
+character. Meilhac had a ready imagination, a rich and whimsical fancy;
+Halevy had taste, refinement and pathos of a certain kind. Not less
+clever than his brilliant comrade, he was more human. Of this he gave
+evidence in two delightful books, _Monsieur et Madame Cardinal_ (1873)
+and _Les Petites Cardinal_, in which the lowest orders of the Parisian
+middle class are faithfully described. The pompous, pedantic, venomous
+Monsieur Cardinal will long survive as the true image of sententious and
+self-glorifying immorality. M. Halevy's peculiar qualities are even more
+visible in the simple and striking scenes of the _Invasion_, published
+soon after the conclusion of the Franco-German War, in _Criquette_
+(1883) and _L'Abbe Constantin_ (1882), two novels, the latter of which
+went through innumerable editions. Zola had presented to the public an
+almost exclusive combination of bad men and women; in _L'Abbe
+Constantin_ all are kind and good, and the change was eagerly welcomed
+by the public. Some enthusiasts still maintain that the _Abbe_ will rank
+permanently in literature by the side of the equally chimerical _Vicar
+of Wakefield_. At any rate, it opened for M. Ludovic Halevy the doors of
+the French Academy, to which he was elected in 1884.
+
+Halevy remained an assiduous frequenter of the Academy, the
+Conservatoire, the Comedie Francaise, and the Society of Dramatic
+Authors, but, when he died in Paris on the 8th of May 1908, he had
+produced practically nothing new for many years. His last romance, _Kari
+Kari_, appeared in 1892.
+
+  The _Theatre_ of MM. Meilhac and Halevy was published in 8 vols.
+  (1900-1902).
+
+
+
+
+HALFPENNY, WILLIAM, English 18th-century architectural designer--he
+described himself as "architect and carpenter." He was also known as
+Michael Hoare; but whether his real name was William Halfpenny or
+Michael Hoare is uncertain. His books, of which he published a score,
+deal almost entirely with domestic architecture, and especially with
+country houses in those Gothic and Chinese fashions which were so
+greatly in vogue in the middle of the 18th century. His most important
+publications, from the point of view of their effect upon taste, were
+_New Designs for Chinese Temples_, in four parts (1750-1752); _Rural
+Architecture in the Gothic Taste_ (1752); _Chinese and Gothic
+Architecture Properly Ornamented_ (1752); and _Rural Architecture in the
+Chinese Taste_ (1750-1752). These four books were produced in
+collaboration with John Halfpenny, who is said to have been his son.
+_New Designs for Chinese Temples_ is a volume of some significance in
+the history of furniture, since, having been published some years before
+the books of Thomas Chippendale and Sir Thomas Chambers, it disproves
+the statement so often made that those designers introduced the Chinese
+taste into this country. Halfpenny states distinctly that "the Chinese
+manner" had been "already introduced here with success." The work of the
+Halfpennys was by no means all contemptible. It is sometimes distinctly
+graceful, but is marked by little originality.
+
+
+
+
+HALF-TIMBER WORK, an architectural term given to those buildings in
+which the framework is of timber with vertical studs and cross pieces
+filled in between with brickwork, rubble masonry or plaster work on oak
+laths; in the first two, brick nogging or nogging are the terms
+occasionally employed (see CARPENTRY). Sometimes the timber structure is
+raised on a stone or brick foundation, as at Ledbury town hall in
+Herefordshire, where the lower storey is open on all sides; but more
+often it is raised on a ground storey, either in brick or stone, and in
+order to give additional size to the upper rooms projects forward, being
+carried on the floor joists. Sometimes the masonry or brickwork rises
+through two or three storeys and the half-brick work is confined to the
+gables. There seems to be some difference of opinion as to whether the
+term applies to the mixture of solid walling with the timber structure
+or to the alternation of wood posts and the filling in, but the latter
+definition is that which is generally understood. The half-timber
+throughout England is of the most picturesque description, and the
+earliest examples date from towards the close of the 15th century. In
+the earliest example, Newgate House, York (c. 1450), the timber framing
+is raised over the ground floor. The finest specimen is perhaps that of
+Moreton Old Hall, Cheshire (1570), where there is only a stone
+foundation about 12 in. high, and the same applies to Bramall Hall, near
+Manchester, portions of which are very early. Among other examples are
+Speke Hall, Lancashire; Park Hall, Shropshire (1553-1558); Hall i' th'
+Wood, Lancashire (1591); St Peter's Hospital, Bristol (1607); the Ludlow
+Feather's Inn (1610); many of the streets at Chester and Shrewsbury; the
+Sparrowe's Home, Ipswich; and Staple Inn, Holborn, from which in recent
+years the plaster coat which was put on many years ago has been removed,
+displaying the ancient woodwork. A similar fate has overtaken a very
+large number of half-timber buildings to keep out the driving winds;
+thus in Lewes nearly all the half-timbered houses have had slates hung
+on the timbers, others tiles, the greater number having been covered
+with plaster or stucco. Although there are probably many more
+half-timber houses in England than on the continent of Europe, in the
+north of France and in Germany are examples in many of the principal
+towns, and in some cases in better preservation than in England. They
+are also enriched with carving of a purer and better type, especially in
+France; thus at Chartres, Angers, Rouen, Caen, Lisieux, Bayeux, St Lo
+and Beauvais, are many extremely fine examples of late Flamboyant and
+early Transitional examples. Again on the borders of the Rhine in all
+the small towns most of the houses are in half-timber work, the best
+examples being at Bacharach, Rhense and Boppart. Far more elaborate
+examples, however, are found in the vicinity of the Harz Mountains; the
+supply of timber from the forests there being very abundant; thus at
+Goslar, Wernigerode and Quedlingburg there is an endless variety, as
+also farther on at Gelnhausen and Hameln, the finest series of all being
+at Hildesheim. In Bavaria at Nuremberg, Rothenburg and Dinkelsbuhl,
+half-timber houses dating from the 16th century are still well
+preserved; and throughout Switzerland the houses constructed in timber
+and plaster are the most characteristic features of the country.
+
+
+
+
+HALFWAY COVENANT, an expedient adopted in the Congregational churches of
+New England between 1657 and 1662. Under its terms baptized persons of
+moral life and orthodox belief might receive the privilege of baptism
+for their children and other church benefits, without the full enrolment
+in membership which admitted them to the communion of the Lord's Supper.
+
+  See CONGREGATIONALISM: _American_.
+
+
+
+
+HALHED, NATHANIEL BRASSEY (1751-1830), English Orientalist and
+philologist, was born at Westminster on the 25th of May 1751. He was
+educated at Harrow, where he began his intimacy with Richard Brinsley
+Sheridan (see SHERIDAN FAMILY) continued after he entered Christ Church,
+Oxford, where, also, he made the acquaintance of Sir William Jones, the
+famous Orientalist, who induced him to study Arabic. Accepting a
+writership in the service of the East India Company, Halhed went out to
+India, and here, at the suggestion of Warren Hastings, by whose orders
+it had been compiled, translated the Gentoo code from a Persian version
+of the original Sanskrit. This translation was published in 1776 under
+the title _A Code of Gentoo Laws_. In 1778 he published a Bengali
+grammar, to print which he set up, at Hugli, the first press in India.
+It is claimed for him that he was the first writer to call attention to
+the philological connexion of Sanskrit with Persian, Arabic, Greek and
+Latin. In 1785 he returned to England, and from 1790-1795 was M.P. for
+Lymington, Hants. For some time he was a disciple of Richard Brothers
+(q.v.), and his unwise speech in parliament in defence of Brothers made
+it impossible for him to remain in the House, from which he resigned in
+1795. He subsequently obtained a home appointment under the East India
+Company. He died in London on the 18th of February 1830.
+
+  His collection of Oriental manuscripts was purchased by the British
+  Museum, and there is an unfinished translation by him of the
+  _Mahabharata_ in the library of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.
+
+
+
+
+HALIBURTON, THOMAS CHANDLER (1796-1865), British writer, long a judge of
+Nova Scotia, was born at Windsor, Nova Scotia, in 1796, and received his
+education there, at King's College. He was called to the bar in 1820,
+and became a member of the House of Assembly. He distinguished himself
+as a barrister, and in 1828 was promoted to the bench as a chief-justice
+of the common pleas. In 1829 he published _An Historical and Statistical
+Account of Nova Scotia_. But it is as a brilliant humourist and satirist
+that he is remembered, in connexion with his fictitious character "Sam
+Slick." In 1835 he contributed anonymously to a local paper a series of
+letters professedly depicting the peculiarities of the genuine Yankee.
+These sketches, which abounded in clever picturings of national and
+individual character, drawn with great satirical humour, were collected
+in 1837, and published under the title of _The Clockmaker, or Sayings
+and Doings of Samuel Slick of Slickville_. A second series followed in
+1838, and a third in 1840. _The Attache, or Sam Slick in England_
+(1843-1844), was the result of a visit there in 1841. His other works
+include: _The Old Judge, or Life in a Colony_ (1843); _The Letter Bag of
+the Great Western_ (1839); _Rule and Misrule of the English in America_
+(1851); _Traits of American Humour_ (1852); and _Nature and Human
+Nature_ (1855).
+
+Meanwhile he continued to secure popular esteem in his judicial
+capacity. In 1840 he was promoted to be a judge of the supreme court;
+but within two years he resigned his seat on the bench, removed to
+England, and in 1859 entered parliament as the representative of
+Launceston, in the Conservative interest. But the tenure of his seat for
+Launceston was brought to an end by the dissolution of the parliament in
+1865, and he did not again offer himself to the constituency. He died on
+the 27th of August of the same year, at Gordon House, Isleworth,
+Middlesex.
+
+  A memoir of Haliburton, by F. Blake Crofton, appeared in 1889.
+
+
+
+
+HALIBUT, or HOLIBUT (_Hippoglossus vulgaris_), the largest of all
+flat-fishes, growing to a length of 10 ft. or more, specimens of 5 ft.
+in length and of 100 [lb] in weight being frequently exposed for sale in
+the markets. Indeed, specimens under 2 ft. in length are very rarely
+caught, and singularly enough, no instance is known of a very young
+specimen having been obtained. Small ones are commonly called "chicken
+halibut." The halibut is much more frequent in the higher latitudes of
+the temperate zone than in its southern portion; it is a circumpolar
+species, being found on the northern coasts of America, Europe and Asia,
+extending in the Pacific southwards to California. On the British coasts
+it keeps at some distance from the shore, and is generally caught in
+from 50 to 150 fathoms. Its flesh is generally considered coarse, but it
+is white and firm, and when properly served is excellent for the table.
+The name is derived from "holy" (M.E. _haly_), and recalls its use for
+food on holy days.
+
+
+
+
+HALICARNASSUS (mod. _Budrum_), an ancient Greek city on the S.W. coast
+of Caria, Asia Minor, on a picturesque and advantageous site on the
+Ceramic Gulf or Gulf of Cos. It originally occupied only the small
+island of Zephyria close to the shore, now occupied by the great castle
+of St Peter, built by the Knights of Rhodes in 1404; but in course of
+time this island was united to the mainland and the city extended so as
+to incorporate Salmacis, an older town of the Leleges and Carians.
+
+About the foundation of Halicarnassus various traditions were current;
+but they agree in the main point as to its being a Dorian colony, and
+the figures on its coins, such as the head of Medusa, Athena and
+Poseidon, or the trident, support the statement that the mother cities
+were Troezen and Argos. The inhabitants appear to have accepted as their
+legendary founder Anthes, mentioned by Strabo, and were proud of the
+title of Antheadae. At an early period Halicarnassus was a member of the
+Doric Hexapolis, which included Cos, Cnidus, Lindus, Camirus and
+Ialysus; but one of the citizens, Agasicles, having taken home the prize
+tripod which he had won in the Triopian games instead of dedicating it
+according to custom to the Triopian Apollo, the city was cut off from
+the league. In the early 5th century Halicarnassus was under the sway of
+Artemisia, who made herself famous at the battle of Salamis. Of
+Pisindalis, her son and successor, little is known; but Lygdamis, who
+next attained to power, is notorious for having put to death the poet
+Panyasis and caused Herodotus, the greatest of Halicarnassians, to leave
+his native city (c. 457 B.C.). In the 5th century B.C. Halicarnassus and
+other Dorian cities of Asia were to some extent absorbed by the Delian
+League, but the peace of Antalcidas in 387 made them subservient to
+Persia; and it was under Mausolus, a Persian satrap who assumed
+independent authority, that Halicarnassus attained its highest
+prosperity. Struck by the natural strength and beauty of its position,
+Mausolus removed to Halicarnassus from Mylasa, increasing the population
+of the city by the inhabitants of six towns of the Leleges. He was
+succeeded by Artemisia, whose military ability was shown in the
+stratagem by which she captured the Rhodian vessels attacking her city,
+and whose magnificence and taste have been perpetuated by the
+"Mausoleum," the monument she erected to her husband's memory (see
+MAUSOLUS). One of her successors, Pixodarus, tried to ally himself with
+the rising power of Macedon, and is said to have gained the momentary
+consent of the young Alexander to wed his daughter. The marriage,
+however, was forbidden by Philip. Alexander, as soon as he had reduced
+Ionia, summoned Halicarnassus, where Memnon, the paramount satrap of
+Asia Minor, had taken refuge with the Persian fleet, to surrender; and
+on its refusal took the city after hard fighting and devastated it, but
+not being able to reduce the citadel, was forced to leave it blockaded.
+He handed the government of the city back to the family of Mausolus, as
+represented by Ada, sister of the latter. Not long afterwards we find
+the citizens receiving the present of a gymnasium from Ptolemy, and
+building in his honour a stoa or portico; but the city never recovered
+altogether from the disasters of the siege, and Cicero describes it as
+almost deserted. The site is now occupied in part by the town of Budrum;
+but the ancient walls can still be traced round nearly all their
+circuit, and the position of several of the temples, the theatre, and
+other public buildings can be fixed with certainty.
+
+From the ruins of the Mausoleum sufficient has been recovered by the
+excavations carried out in 1857 by C. T. Newton to enable a fairly
+complete restoration of its design to be made. The building consisted of
+five parts--a basement or podium, a pteron or enclosure of columns, a
+pyramid, a pedestal and a chariot group. The basement, covering an area
+of 114 ft. by 92, was built of blocks of greenstone and cased with
+marble. Round the base of it were probably disposed groups of statuary.
+The pteron consisted (according to Pliny) of thirty-six columns of the
+Ionic order, enclosing a square _cella_. Between the columns probably
+stood single statues. From the portions that have been recovered, it
+appears that the principal frieze of the pteron represented combats of
+Greeks and Amazons. In addition to these, there are also many life-size
+fragments of animals, horsemen, &c., belonging probably to pedimental
+sculptures, but formerly supposed to be parts of minor friezes. Above
+the pteron rose the pyramid, mounting by 24 steps to an apex or
+pedestal. On this apex stood the chariot with the figure of Mausolus
+himself and an attendant. The height of the statue of Mausolus in the
+British Museum is 9 ft. 9-1/2 in. without the plinth. The hair rising
+from the forehead falls in thick waves on each side of the face and
+descends nearly to the shoulder; the beard is short and close, the face
+square and massive, the eyes deep set under overhanging brows, the mouth
+well formed with settled calm about the lips. The drapery is grandly
+composed. All sorts of restorations of this famous monument have been
+proposed. The original one, made by Newton and Pullan, is obviously in
+error in many respects; and that of Oldfield, though to be preferred for
+its lightness (the Mausoleum was said anciently to be "suspended in
+mid-air"), does not satisfy the conditions postulated by the remains.
+The best on the whole is that of the veteran German architect, F. Adler,
+published in 1900; but fresh studies have since been made (see below).
+
+  See C T. Newton and R. P. Pullan, _History of Discoveries at
+  Halicarnassus_ (1862-1863); J. Fergusson, _The Mausoleum at
+  Halicarnassus_ restored (1862); E. Oldfield, "The Mausoleum," in
+  _Archaeologia_ (1895); F. Adler, _Mausoleum zu Halikarnass_ (1900); J.
+  P. Six in _Journ. Hell. Studies_ (1905); W. B. Dinsmoor, in _Amer.
+  Journ. of Arch._ (1908); J. J. Stevenson, _A Restoration of the
+  Mausoleum of Halicarnassus_ (1909); J. B. K. Preedy, "The Chariot
+  Group of the Mausoleum," in _Journ. Hell. Stud._, 1910.     (D. G. H.)
+
+
+
+
+HALICZ, a town of Austria, in Galicia, 70 m. by rail S.S.E. of Lemberg.
+Pop. (1900), 4809. It is situated at the confluence of the Luckow with
+the Dniester and its principal resources are the recovery of salt from
+the neighbouring brine wells, soap-making and the trade in timber. In
+the neighbourhood are the ruins of the old castle, the seat of the ruler
+of the former kingdom from which Galicia derived its Polish name.
+Halicz, which is mentioned in annals as early as 1113, was from 1141 to
+1255 the residence of the princes of that name, one of the
+principalities into which western Russia was then divided. The town was
+then much larger, as is shown by excavations in the neighbourhood made
+during the 19th century, and probably met its doom during the Mongol
+invasion of 1240. In 1349 it was incorporated in the kingdom of Poland.
+
+
+
+
+HALIFAX, CHARLES MONTAGUE, EARL OF (1661-1715), English statesman and
+poet, fourth son of the Hon. George Montague, fifth son of the first
+earl of Manchester, was born at Horton, Northamptonshire, on the 16th of
+April 1661. In his fourteenth year he was sent to Westminster school,
+where he was chosen king's scholar in 1677, and distinguished himself in
+the composition of extempore epigrams made according to custom upon
+theses appointed for king's scholars at the time of election. In 1679 he
+entered Trinity College, Cambridge, where he acquired a solid knowledge
+of the classics and surpassed all his contemporaries at the university
+in logic and ethics. Latterly, however, he preferred to the abstractions
+of Descartes the practical philosophy of Sir Isaac Newton; and he was
+one of the small band of students who assisted Newton in forming the
+Philosophical Society of Cambridge. But it was his facility in
+verse-writing, and neither his scholarship nor his practical ability,
+that first opened up to him the way to fortune. His clever but absurdly
+panegyrical poem on the death of Charles II. secured for him the notice
+of the earl of Dorset, who invited him to town and introduced him to the
+principal wits of the time; and in 1687 his joint authorship with Prior
+of the _Hind and Panther transversed to the Story of the Country Mouse
+and the City Mouse_, a parody of Dryden's political poem, not only
+increased his literary reputation but directly helped him to political
+influence.
+
+In 1689, through the patronage of the earl of Dorset, he entered
+parliament as member for Maldon, and sat in the convention which
+resolved that William and Mary should be declared king and queen of
+England. About this time he married the countess-dowager of Manchester,
+and it would appear, according to Johnson, that it was still his
+intention to take orders; but after the coronation he purchased a
+clerkship to the council. On being introduced by Earl Dorset to King
+William, after the publication of his poetical _Epistle occasioned by
+his Majesty's Victory in Ireland_, he was ordered to receive an
+immediate pension of L500 per annum, until an opportunity should present
+itself of "making a man of him." In 1691 he was chosen chairman of the
+committee of the House of Commons appointed to confer with a committee
+of the Lords in regard to the bill for regulating trials in cases of
+high treason; and he displayed in these conferences such tact and
+debating power that he was made one of the commissioners of the treasury
+and called to the privy council. But his success as a politician was
+less due to his oratorical gifts than to his skill in finance, and in
+this respect he soon began to manifest such brilliant talents as
+completely eclipsed the painstaking abilities of Godolphin. Indeed it
+may be affirmed that no other statesman has initiated schemes which have
+left a more permanent mark on the financial history of England. Although
+perhaps it was inevitable that England should sooner or later adopt the
+continental custom of lightening the annual taxation in times of war by
+contracting a national debt, the actual introduction of the expedient
+was due to Montague, who on the 15th of December 1692 proposed to raise
+a million of money by way of loan. Previous to this the Scotsman William
+Paterson (q.v.) had submitted to the government his plan of a national
+bank, and when in the spring of 1694 the prolonged contest with France
+had rendered another large loan absolutely necessary, Montague
+introduced a bill for the incorporation of the Bank of England. The bill
+after some opposition passed the House of Lords in May, and immediately
+after the prorogation of parliament Montague was rewarded by the
+chancellorship of the exchequer. In 1695 he was triumphantly returned
+for the borough of Westminster to the new parliament, and succeeded in
+passing his celebrated measure to remedy the depreciation which had
+taken place in the currency on account of dishonest manipulations. To
+provide for the expense of recoinage, Montague, instead of reviving the
+old tax of hearth money, introduced the window tax, and the difficulties
+caused by the temporary absence of a metallic currency were avoided by
+the issue for the first time of exchequer bills. His other expedients
+for meeting the emergencies of the financial crisis were equally
+successful, and the rapid restoration of public credit secured him a
+commanding influence both in the House of Commons and at the board of
+the treasury; but although Godolphin resigned office in October 1696,
+the king hesitated for some time between Montague and Sir Stephen Fox as
+his successor, and it was not till 1697 that the former was appointed
+first lord. In 1697 he was accused by Charles Duncombe, and in 1698 by a
+Col. Granville, of fraud, but both charges broke down, and Duncombe was
+shown to have been guilty of extreme dishonesty himself. In 1698 and
+1699 he acted as one of the council of regency during the king's absence
+from England. With the accumulation of his political successes his
+vanity and arrogance became, however, so offensive that latterly they
+utterly lost him the influence he had acquired by his administrative
+ability and his masterly eloquence; and when his power began to be on
+the wane he set the seal to his political overthrow by conferring the
+lucrative sinecure office of auditor of the exchequer on his brother in
+trust for himself should he be compelled to retire from power. This
+action earned him the offensive nickname of "Filcher," and for some time
+afterwards, in attempting to lead the House of Commons, he had to submit
+to constant mortifications, often verging on personal insults. After the
+return of the king in 1699 he resigned his offices in the government and
+succeeded his brother in the auditorship.
+
+On the accession of the Tories to power he was removed in 1701 to the
+House of Lords by the title of Lord Halifax. In the same year he was
+impeached for malpractices along with Lord Somers and the earls of
+Portland and Oxford, but all the charges were dismissed by the Lords;
+and in 1703 a second attempt to impeach him was still more unsuccessful.
+He continued out of office during the reign of Queen Anne, but in 1706
+he was named one of the commissioners to negotiate the union with
+Scotland; and after the passing of the Act of Settlement in favour of
+the house of Hanover, he was appointed ambassador to the elector's court
+to convey the insignia of order of the garter to George I. On the death
+of Anne (1714) he was appointed one of the council of regency until the
+arrival of the king from Hanover; and after the coronation he received
+the office of first lord of the treasury in the new ministry, being at
+the same time created earl of Halifax and Viscount Sunbury. He died on
+the 19th of May 1715 and left no issue. He was buried in the vault of
+the Albemarle family in Westminster Abbey. His nephew George (d. 1739)
+succeeded to the barony, and was created Viscount Sunbury and earl of
+Halifax in 1715.
+
+Montague's association with Prior in the travesty of Dryden's _Hind and
+Panther_ has no doubt largely aided in preserving his literary
+reputation; but he is perhaps indebted for it chiefly to his subsequent
+influential position and to the fulsome flattery of the men of letters
+who enjoyed his friendship, and who, in return for his liberal donations
+and the splendid banqueting which they occasionally enjoyed at his villa
+on the Thames, "fed him," as Pope says, "all day long with dedications."
+Swift says he gave them nothing but "good words, and good dinners."
+That, however, his beneficence to needy talent, if sometimes
+attributable to an itching ear for adulation, was at others prompted by
+a sincere appreciation of intellectual merit, is sufficiently attested
+by the manner in which he procured from Godolphin a commissionership for
+Addison, and also by his life-long intimacy with Newton, for whom he
+obtained the mastership of the mint. The small fragments of poetry which
+he left behind him, and which were almost solely the composition of his
+early years, display a certain facility and vigour of diction, but their
+thought and fancy are never more than commonplace, and not unfrequently
+in striving to be eloquent and impressive he is only grotesquely and
+extravagantly absurd. In administrative talent he was the superior of
+all his contemporaries, and his only rival in parliamentary eloquence
+was Somers; but the skill with which he managed measures was superior to
+his tact in dealing with men, and the effect of his brilliant financial
+successes on his reputation was gradually almost nullified by the
+affected arrogance of his manner and by the eccentricities of his
+sensitive vanity. So eager latterly was his thirst for fame and power
+that perhaps Marlborough did not exaggerate when he said that "he had no
+other principle but his ambition, so that he would put all in
+distraction rather than not gain his point."
+
+  Among the numerous notices of Halifax by contemporaries may be
+  mentioned the eulogistic reference which concludes Addison's account
+  of the "greatest of English poets"; the dedications by Steel to the
+  second volume of the _Spectator_ and to the fourth of the _Tatler_;
+  Pope's laudatory mention of him in the epilogue to his _Satires_ and
+  in the preface to the _Iliad_, and his portrait of him as "Full-blown
+  Bufo" in the _Epistle to Arbuthnot_. Various allusions to him are to
+  be found in Swift's works and in Marlborough's _Letters_. See also
+  Burnet's _History of his Own Times; The Parliamentary History_;
+  Howell's _State Trials_; Johnson's _Lives of the Poets_; and
+  Macaulay's _History of England_. His _Miscellaneous Works_ were
+  published at London in 1704; his _Life and Miscellaneous Works_ in
+  1715; and his _Poetical Works_, to which also his "Life" is attached,
+  in 1716. His poems were reprinted in the 9th volume of Johnson's
+  _English Poets_.
+
+
+
+
+HALIFAX, GEORGE MONTAGU DUNK, 2ND EARL OF (1716-1771), son of George
+Montagu, 1st earl of Halifax (of the second creation), was born on the
+5th or 6th of October 1716, becoming earl of Halifax on his father's
+death in 1739. Educated at Eton and at Trinity College, Cambridge, he
+was married in 1741 to Anne Richards (d. 1753), a lady who had inherited
+a great fortune from Sir Thomas Dunk, whose name was taken by Halifax.
+After having been an official in the household of Frederick, prince of
+Wales, the earl was made master of the buckhounds, and in 1748 he became
+president of the Board of Trade. While filling this position he helped
+to found Halifax, the capital of Nova Scotia, which was named after him,
+and in several ways he rendered good service to trade, especially with
+North America. About this time he sought to become a secretary of state,
+but in vain, although he was allowed to enter the cabinet in 1757. In
+March 1761 Halifax was appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland, and during
+part of the time which he held this office he was also first lord of the
+admiralty. He became secretary of state for the northern department
+under the earl of Bute in October 1762, retaining this post under George
+Grenville and being one of the three ministers to whom George III.
+entrusted the direction of affairs. He signed the general warrant under
+which Wilkes was arrested in 1763, for which action he was mulcted in
+damages by the courts of law in 1769, and he was mainly responsible for
+the exclusion of the name of the king's mother, Augusta, princess of
+Wales, from the Regency Bill of 1765. With his colleagues the earl left
+office in July 1765, returning to the cabinet as lord privy seal under
+his nephew, Lord North, in January 1770. He had just been transferred to
+his former position of secretary of state when he died on the 8th of
+June 1771. Halifax, who was lord-lieutenant of Northamptonshire and a
+lieutenant-general in the army, showed some disinterestedness in money
+matters, but was very extravagant. He left no children, and his titles
+became extinct on his death. Horace Walpole speaks slightingly of the
+earl, and says he and his mistress, Mary Anne Faulkner, "had sold every
+employment in his gift."
+
+  See the _Memoirs_ of his secretary, Richard Cumberland (1807).
+
+
+
+
+HALIFAX, GEORGE SAVILE, 1ST MARQUESS OF (1633-1695), English statesman
+and writer, great-grandson of Sir George Savile of Lupset and Thornhill
+in Yorkshire (created baronet in 1611), was the eldest son of Sir
+William Savile, 3rd baronet, who distinguished himself in the civil war
+in the royalist cause and who died in 1644, and of Anne, eldest daughter
+of Lord Keeper Coventry. He was thus nephew of Sir William Coventry, who
+is said to have influenced his political opinions, and of Lord
+Shaftesbury, afterwards his most bitter opponent, and great-nephew of
+the earl of Strafford; by his marriage with the Lady Dorothy Spencer, he
+was brother-in-law to Lord Sunderland. He entered public life with all
+the advantages of lineage, political connexions, great wealth and
+estates, and uncommon abilities. He was elected member of the Convention
+parliament for Pontefract in 1660, and this was his only appearance in
+the Lower House. A peerage was sought for him by the duke of York in
+1665, but was successfully opposed by Clarendon, on the ground of his
+"ill-reputation amongst men of piety and religion," the real motives of
+the chancellor's hostile attitude being probably Savile's connexion with
+Buckingham and Coventry. The honours were, however, only deferred for a
+short time and were obtained after the fall of Clarendon on the 31st of
+December 1667,[1] when Savile was created Baron Savile of Eland and
+Viscount Halifax.
+
+He supported zealously the anti-French policy formulated in the Triple
+Alliance of January 1668. He was at this time in favour at court, was
+created a privy councillor in 1672, and, while ignorant of the
+disgraceful secret clauses in the treaty of Dover, was chosen envoy to
+negotiate terms of peace with Louis XIV. and the Dutch at Utrecht. His
+mission was still further deprived of importance by Arlington and
+Buckingham, who were in the king's counsels, and who anticipated his
+arrival and took the negotiations out of his hands; and though he signed
+the compact, he had no share in the harsh terms imposed upon the Dutch,
+and henceforth became a bitter opponent of the policy of subservience to
+French interests and of the Roman Catholic claims.
+
+He took an active part in passing through parliament the great Test Act
+of 1673[2] and forfeited in consequence his friendship with James. In
+1674 he brought forward a motion for disarming "popish recusants," and
+supported one by Lord Carlisle for restricting the marriages in the
+royal family to Protestants; but he opposed the bill introduced by Lord
+Danby (see LEEDS, 1ST DUKE OF) in 1675, which imposed a test oath on
+officials and members of parliament, speaking "with that quickness,
+learning and elegance that are inseparable from all his discourses," and
+ridiculing the multiplication of oaths, since "no man would ever sleep
+with open doors ... should all the town be sworn not to rob." He was now
+on bad terms with Danby, and a witty sally at that minister's expense
+caused his dismissal from the council in January 1676. In 1678 he took
+an active part in the investigation of the "Popish Plot," to which he
+appears to have given excessive credence, but opposed the bill which was
+passed on the 30th of October 1678, to exclude Roman Catholics from the
+House of Lords.
+
+In 1679, as a consequence of the fall of Danby, he became a member of
+the newly constituted privy council. With Charles, who had at first
+"kicked at his appointment," he quickly became a favourite, his lively
+and "libertine" (i.e. free or sceptical) conversation being named by
+Bishop Burnet as his chief attraction for the king. His dislike of the
+duke of York and of the Romanist tendencies of the court did not induce
+him to support the rash attempt of Lord Shaftesbury to substitute the
+illegitimate duke of Monmouth for James in the succession. He feared
+Shaftesbury's ascendancy in the national councils and foresaw nothing
+but civil war and confusion as a result of his scheme. He declared
+against the exclusion of James, was made an earl in 1679, and was one of
+the "Triumvirate" which now directed public affairs. He assisted in
+passing into law the Habeas Corpus Bill. According to Sir W. Temple he
+showed great severity in putting into force the laws against the Roman
+Catholics, but this statement is considered a misrepresentation.[3] In
+1680 he voted against the execution of Lord Stafford.
+
+Meanwhile (1679) his whole policy had been successfully directed towards
+uniting all parties with the object of frustrating Shaftesbury's plans.
+Communications were opened with the prince of Orange, and the illness of
+the king was made the occasion for summoning James from Brussels.
+Monmouth was compelled to retire to Holland, and Shaftesbury was
+dismissed. On the other hand, while Halifax was so far successful, James
+was given an opportunity of establishing a new influence at the court.
+It was with great difficulty that his retirement to Scotland was at last
+effected; the ministers lost the confidence and support of the "country
+party," and Halifax, fatigued and ill, at the close of this year,
+retired to Rufford Abbey, the country home of the Saviles since the
+destruction of Thornhill Hall in 1648, and for some time took little
+part in affairs. He returned in September 1680 on the occasion of the
+introduction of the Exclusion Bill in the Lords. The debate which
+followed, one of the most famous in the whole annals of parliament,
+became a duel of oratory between Halifax and his uncle Shaftesbury, the
+finest two speakers of the day, watched by the Lords, the Commons at the
+bar, and the king, who was present. It lasted seven hours. Halifax spoke
+sixteen times, and at last, regardless of the menaces of the more
+violent supporters of the bill, who closed round him, vanquished his
+opponent. The rejection of the bill by a majority of 33 was attributed
+by all parties entirely to the eloquence of Halifax. His conduct
+transformed the allegiance to him of the Whigs into bitter hostility,
+the Commons immediately petitioning the king to remove him from his
+councils for ever, while any favour which he might have regained with
+James was forfeited by his subsequent approval of the regency scheme.
+
+He retired to Rufford again in January 1681, but was present at the
+Oxford parliament, and in May returned suddenly to public life and held
+for a year the chief control of affairs. The arrest of Shaftesbury on
+the 2nd of July was attributed to his influence, but in general, during
+the period of Tory reaction, he seems to have urged a policy of
+conciliation and moderation upon the king. He opposed James's return
+from Scotland and, about this time (Sept.), made a characteristic but
+futile attempt to persuade the duke to attend the services of the
+Church of England and thus to end all difficulties. He renewed relations
+with the prince of Orange, who in July paid a visit to England to seek
+support against the French designs upon Luxemburg. The influence of
+Halifax procured for the Dutch a formal assurance from Charles of his
+support; but the king informed the French ambassador that he had no
+intention of fulfilling his engagements, and made another secret treaty
+with Louis. Halifax opposed in 1682 James's vindictive prosecution of
+the earl of Argyll, arousing further hostility in the duke, while the
+same year he was challenged to a duel by Monmouth, who attributed to him
+his disgrace.
+
+His short tenure of power ended with the return of James in May.
+Outwardly he still retained the king's favour and was advanced to a
+marquisate (Aug. 17) and to the office of lord privy seal (Oct. 25).
+Being still a member of the administration he must share responsibility
+for the attack now made upon the municipal franchises, a violation of
+the whole system of representative government, especially as the new
+charters passed his office. In January 1684 he was one of the
+commissioners "who supervise all things concerning the city and have
+turned out those persons who are whiggishly inclined" (N. Luttrell's
+_Diary_, i. 295). He made honourable but vain endeavours to save
+Algernon Sidney and Lord Russell. "My Lord Halifax," declared Tillotson
+in his evidence before the later inquiry, "showed a very compassionate
+concern for my Lord Russell and all the readiness to serve them that
+could be wished."[4] The Rye-House Plot, in which it was sought to
+implicate them, was a disastrous blow to his policy, and in order to
+counteract its consequences he entered into somewhat perilous
+negotiations with Monmouth, and endeavoured to effect his reconciliation
+with the king. On the 12th of February 1684, he procured the release of
+his old antagonist, Lord Danby. Shortly afterwards his influence at the
+court revived. Charles was no longer in receipt of his French pension
+and was beginning to tire of James and Rochester. The latter, instead of
+becoming lord treasurer, was, according to the epigram of Halifax which
+has become proverbial, "kicked upstairs," to the office of lord
+president of the council. Halifax now worked to establish intimate
+relations between Charles and the prince of Orange and opposed the
+abrogation of the recusancy laws. In a debate in the cabinet of November
+1684, on the question of the grant of a fresh constitution to the New
+England colonies, he urged with great warmth "that there could be no
+doubt whatever but that the same laws which are in force in England
+should also be established in a country inhabited by Englishmen and that
+an absolute government is neither so happy nor so safe as that which is
+tempered by laws and which sets bounds to the authority of the prince,"
+and declared that he could not "live under a king who should have it in
+his power to take, whenever he thought proper, the money he has in his
+pocket." The opinions thus expressed were opposed by all the other
+ministers and highly censured by Louis XIV., James and Judge Jeffreys.
+
+At the accession of James he was immediately deprived of all power and
+relegated to the presidency of the council. He showed no compliance,
+like other Lords, with James's Roman Catholic preferences. He was
+opposed to the parliamentary grant to the king of a revenue for life; he
+promoted the treaty of alliance with the Dutch in August 1685; he
+expostulated with the king on the subject of the illegal commissions in
+the army given to Roman Catholics; and finally, on his firm refusal to
+support the repeal of the Test and Habeas Corpus Acts, he was dismissed,
+and his name was struck out of the list of the privy council (Oct.
+1685). He corresponded with the prince of Orange, conferred with
+Dykveldt, the latter's envoy, but held aloof from plans which aimed at
+the prince's personal interference in English affairs. In 1687 he
+published the famous _Letter to a Dissenter_, in which he warns the
+Nonconformists against being beguiled by the "Indulgence" into joining
+the court party, sets in a clear light the fatal results of such a step,
+and reminds them that under their next sovereign their grievances would
+in all probability be satisfied by the law. The tract, which has
+received general and unqualified admiration, must be classed amongst the
+few known writings which have actually and immediately altered the
+course of history. Copies to the number of 20,000 were circulated
+through the kingdom, and a great party was convinced of the wisdom of
+remaining faithful to the national traditions and liberties. He took the
+popular side on the occasion of the trial of the bishops in June 1688,
+visited them in the Tower, and led the cheers with which the verdict of
+"not guilty" was received in court; but the same month he refrained from
+signing the invitation to William, and publicly repudiated any share in
+the prince's plans. On the contrary he attended the court and refused
+any credence to the report that the prince born to James was
+supposititious. After the landing of William he was present at the
+council called by James on the 27th of November. He urged the king to
+grant large concessions, but his speech, in contrast to the harsh and
+overbearing attitude of the Hydes, was "the most tender and obliging ...
+that ever was heard." He accepted the mission with Nottingham and
+Godolphin to treat with William at Hungerford, and succeeded in
+obtaining moderate terms from the prince. The negotiations, however,
+were abortive, for James had from the first resolved on flight. In the
+crisis which ensued, when the country was left without a government,
+Halifax took the lead. He presided over the council of Lords which
+assembled and took immediate measures to maintain public order. On the
+return of James to London on the 16th of November, after his capture at
+Faversham, Halifax repaired to William's camp and henceforth attached
+himself unremittingly to his cause. On the 17th he carried with Lords
+Delamere and Shrewsbury a message from William to the king advising his
+departure from London, and, after the king's second flight, directed the
+proceedings of the executive. On the meeting of the convention on the
+22nd of January 1689, he was formally elected speaker of the House of
+Lords. He voted against the motion for a regency (Jan. 20), which was
+only defeated by two votes. The moderate and comprehensive character of
+the settlement at the revolution plainly shows his guiding hand, and it
+was finally through his persuasion that the Lords yielded to the Commons
+and agreed to the compromise whereby William and Mary were declared
+joint sovereigns. On the 13th of February in the Banqueting House at
+Whitehall, he tendered the crown to them in the name of the nation, and
+conducted the proclamation of their accession in the city.
+
+At the opening of the new reign he had considerable influence, was made
+lord privy seal, while Danby his rival was obliged to content himself
+with the presidency of the council, and controlled the appointments to
+the new cabinet which were made on a "trimming" or comprehensive basis.
+His views on religious toleration were as wide as those of the new king.
+He championed the claims of the Nonconformists as against the high or
+rigid Church party, and he was bitterly disappointed at the miscarriage
+of the Comprehension Bill. He thoroughly approved also at first of
+William's foreign policy; but, having excited the hostility of both the
+Whig and Tory parties, he now became exposed to a series of attacks in
+parliament which finally drove him from power. He was severely censured,
+as it seems quite unjustly, for the disorder in Ireland, and an attempt
+was made to impeach him for his conduct with regard to the sentences on
+the Whig leaders. The inquiry resulted in his favour; but
+notwithstanding, and in spite of the king's continued support, he
+determined to retire. He had already resigned the speakership of the
+House of Lords, and he now (Feb. 8, 1690) quitted his place in the
+cabinet. He still nominally retained his seat in the privy council, but
+in parliament he became a bitter critic of the administration; and the
+rivalry of Halifax (the Black Marquess) with Danby, now marquess of
+Carmarthen (the White Marquess) threw the former at this time into
+determined opposition. He disapproved of William's total absorption in
+European politics, and his open partiality for his countrymen. In
+January 1691 Halifax had an interview with Henry Bulkeley, the Jacobite
+agent, and is said to have promised "to do everything that lay in his
+power to serve the king." This was probably merely a measure of
+precaution, for he had no serious Jacobite leanings. He entered bail for
+Lord Marlborough, accused wrongfully of complicity in a Jacobite plot in
+May 1692, and in June, during the absence of the king from England, his
+name was struck off the privy council.
+
+He spoke in favour of the Triennial Bill (Jan. 12, 1693) which passed
+the legislature but was vetoed by William, suggested a proviso in the
+Licensing Act, which restricted its operation to anonymous works,
+approved the Place Bill (1694), but opposed, probably on account of the
+large sums he had engaged in the traffic of annuities, the establishment
+of the bank of England in 1694. Early in 1695 he delivered a strong
+attack on the administration in the House of Lords, and, after a short
+illness arising from a neglected complaint, he died on the 5th of April
+at the age of sixty-one. He was buried in Henry VII.'s chapel in
+Westminster Abbey.
+
+The influence of Halifax, both as orator and as writer, on the public
+opinion of his day was probably unrivalled. His intellectual powers, his
+high character, his urbanity, vivacity and satirical humour made a great
+impression on his contemporaries, and many of his witty sayings have
+been recorded. But the superiority of his statesmanship could not be
+appreciated till later times. Maintaining throughout his career a
+complete detachment from party, he never acted permanently or
+continuously with either of the two great factions, and exasperated both
+in turn by deserting their cause at the moment when their hopes seemed
+on the point of realization. To them he appeared weak, inconstant,
+untrustworthy. They could not see what to us now is plain and clear,
+that Halifax was as consistent in his principles as the most rabid Whig
+or Tory. But the principle which chiefly influenced his political
+action, that of compromise, differed essentially from those of both
+parties, and his attitude with regard to the Whigs or Tories was thus by
+necessity continually changing. Measures, too, which in certain
+circumstances appeared to him advisable, when the political scene had
+changed became unwise or dangerous. Thus the regency scheme, which
+Halifax had supported while Charles still reigned, was opposed by him
+with perfect consistency at the revolution. He readily accepted for
+himself the character of a "trimmer," desiring, he said, to keep the
+boat steady, while others attempted to weigh it down perilously on one
+side or the other; and he concluded his tract with these assertions:
+"that our climate is a Trimmer between that part of the world where men
+are roasted and the other where they are frozen; that our Church is a
+Trimmer between the frenzy of fanatic visions and the lethargic
+ignorance of Popish dreams; that our laws are Trimmers between the
+excesses of unbounded power and the extravagance of liberty not enough
+restrained; that true virtue hath ever been thought a Trimmer, and to
+have its dwelling in the middle between two extremes; that even God
+Almighty Himself is divided between His two great attributes, His Mercy
+and His Justice. In such company, our Trimmer is not ashamed of his
+name...."[5]
+
+His powerful mind enabled him to regard the various political problems
+of his time from a height and from a point of view similar to that from
+which distance from the events enables us to consider them at the
+present day; and the superiority of his vision appears sufficiently from
+the fact that his opinions and judgments on the political questions of
+his time are those which for the most part have ultimately triumphed and
+found general acceptance. His attitude of mind was curiously modern.[6]
+Reading, writing and arithmetic, he thinks, should be taught to all and
+at the expense of the state. His opinions again on the constitutional
+relations of the colonies to the mother country, already cited, were
+completely opposed to those of his own period. For that view of his
+character which while allowing him the merit of a brilliant political
+theorist denies him the qualities of a man of action and of a practical
+politician, there is no solid basis. The truth is that while his
+political ideas are founded upon great moral or philosophical
+generalizations, often vividly recalling and sometimes anticipating the
+broad conceptions of Burke, they are at the same time imbued with
+precisely those practical qualities which have ever been characteristic
+of English statesmenship, and were always capable of application to
+actual conditions. He was no star-gazing philosopher, with thoughts
+superior to the contemplation of mundane affairs. He had no taste for
+abstract political dogma. He seems to venture no further than to think
+that "men should live in some competent state of freedom," and that the
+limited monarchical and aristocratic government was the best adapted for
+his country. "Circumstances," he writes in the _Rough Draft of a New
+Model at Sea_, "must come in and are to be made a part of the matter of
+which we are to judge; positive decisions are always dangerous, more
+especially in politics." Nor was he the mere literary student buried in
+books and in contemplative ease. He had none of the "indecisiveness
+which commonly renders literary men of no use in the world" (Sir John
+Dalrymple). The incidents of his career show that there was no
+backwardness or hesitation in acting when occasion required. The
+constant tendency of his mind towards antithesis and the balancing of
+opinions did not lead to paralysis in time of action. He did not shrink
+from responsibility, nor show on any occasion lack of courage. At
+various times of crisis he proved himself a great leader. He returned to
+public life to defeat the Exclusion Bill. At the revolution it was
+Halifax who seized the reins of government, flung away by James, and
+maintained public security. His subsequent failure in collaborating with
+William is, it is true, disappointing. But the cause was one that has
+not perhaps received sufficient attention. Party government had come to
+the birth during the struggles over the Exclusion Bill, and there had
+been unconsciously introduced into politics a novel element of which the
+nature and importance were not understood or suspected. Halifax had
+consistently ignored and neglected party; and it now had its revenge.
+Detested by the Whigs and by the Tories alike, and defended by neither,
+the favour alone of the king and his own transcendent abilities proved
+insufficient to withstand the constant and violent attacks made upon him
+in parliament, and he yielded to the superior force. He seems indeed
+himself to have been at last convinced of the necessity in English
+political life of party government, for though in his Cautions to
+electors he warns them against men "tied to a party," yet in his last
+words he declares "If there are two parties a man ought to adhere to
+that which he disliked least though in the whole he doth not approve it;
+for whilst he doth not list himself in one or the other party, he is
+looked upon as such a straggler that he is fallen upon by both.... Happy
+those that are convinced so as to be of the general opinions"
+(_Political Thoughts and Reflections of Parties_).
+
+The private character of Lord Halifax was in harmony with the greatness
+of his public career. He was by no means the "voluptuary" described by
+Macaulay. He was on the contrary free from self-indulgence; his manner
+of life was decent and frugal, and his dress proverbially simple. He was
+an affectionate father and husband. "His heart," says Burnet (i.
+492-493, ed. 1833), "was much set on raising his family"--his last
+concern even while on his deathbed was the remarriage of his son Lord
+Eland to perpetuate his name; and this is probably the cause of his
+acceptance of so many titles for which he himself affected a
+philosophical indifference. He was estimable in his social relations and
+habits. He showed throughout his career an honourable independence, and
+was never seen to worship the rising sun. In a period when even great
+men stooped to accept bribes, Halifax was known to be incorruptible; at
+a time when animosities were especially bitter, he was too great a man
+to harbour resentments. "Not only from policy," says Reresby (_Mem._ p.
+231), "(which teaches that we ought to let no man be our enemy when we
+can help it), but from his disposition I never saw any man more ready to
+forgive than himself." Few were insensible to his personal charm and
+gaiety. He excelled especially in quick repartee, in "exquisite
+nonsense," and in spontaneous humour. When quite a young man, just
+entering upon political life he is described by Evelyn as "a witty
+gentleman, if not a little too prompt and daring." The latter
+characteristic was not moderated by time but remained through life. He
+was incapable of controlling his spirit of raillery, from jests on
+Siamese missionaries to sarcasms at the expense of the heir to the
+throne and ridicule of hereditary monarchy, and his brilliant paradoxes,
+his pungent and often profane epigrams were received by graver persons
+as his real opinions and as evidences of atheism. This latter charge he
+repudiated, assuring Burnet that he was "a Christian in submission," but
+that he could not digest iron like an ostrich nor swallow all that the
+divines sought to impose upon the world.
+
+The speeches of Halifax have not been preserved, and his political
+writings on this account have all the greater value. _The Character of a
+Trimmer_ (1684 or 1685), the authorship of which, long doubtful, is now
+established,[7] was his most ambitious production, written seemingly as
+advice to the king and as a manifesto of his own opinions. In it he
+discusses the political problems of the time and their solution on broad
+principles. He supports the Test Act and, while opposing the Indulgence,
+is not hostile to the repeal of the penal laws against the Roman
+Catholics by parliament. Turning to foreign affairs he contemplates with
+consternation the growing power of France and the humiliation of
+England, exclaiming indignantly at the sight of the "Roses blasted and
+discoloured while lilies triumph and grow insolent upon the comparison."
+The whole is a masterly and comprehensive summary of the actual
+political situation and its exigencies; while, when he treats such
+themes as liberty, or discusses the balance to be maintained between
+freedom and government in the constitution, he rises to the political
+idealism of Bolingbroke and Burke. _The Character of King Charles II._
+(printed 1750), to be compared with his earlier sketch of the king in
+the _Character of a Trimmer_, is perhaps from the literary point of view
+the most admirable of his writings. The famous _Letter to a Dissenter_
+(1687) was thought by Sir James Mackintosh to be unrivalled as a
+political pamphlet. _The Lady's New Year's Gift: or Advice to a
+Daughter_, refers to his daughter Elizabeth, afterwards wife of the 3rd
+and mother of the celebrated 4th earl of Chesterfield (1688). In _The
+Anatomy of an Equivalent_ (1688) he treats with keen wit and power of
+analysis the proposal to grant a "perpetual edict" in favour of the
+Established Church in return for the repeal of the test and penal laws.
+_Maxims of State_ appeared about 1692. _The Rough Draft of a New Model
+at Sea_ (c. 1694), though apparently only a fragment, is one of the most
+interesting and characteristic of his writings. It opens with the
+question: "'What shall we do to be saved in this world?' There is no
+other answer but this, 'Look to your moat.' The first article of an
+Englishman's political creed must be that he believeth in the sea." He
+discusses the naval establishment, not from the naval point of view
+alone, but from the general aspect of the constitution of which it is a
+detail, and is thus led on to consider the nature of the constitution
+itself, and to show that it is not an artificial structure but a growth
+and product of the natural character. We may also mention _Some
+Cautions_ to the electors of the parliament (1694), and _Political,
+Moral and Miscellaneous Thoughts and Reflections_ (n.d.), a collection
+of aphorisms in the style of the maxims of La Rochefoucauld, inferior in
+style--but greatly excelling the French author in breadth of view and in
+moderation. (For other writings attributed to Halifax, see Foxcroft,
+_Life of Sir G. Savile_, ii. 529 sqq.).
+
+Halifax was twice married, first in 1656 to the Lady Dorothy
+Spencer--daughter of the 1st earl of Sunderland and of Dorothy Sidney,
+"Sacharissa"--who died in 1670, leaving a family; and secondly, in 1672,
+to Gertrude, daughter of William Pierrepont of Thoresby, who survived
+him, and by whom he had one daughter, Elizabeth, Lady Chesterfield, who
+seems to have inherited a considerable portion of her father's
+intellectual abilities. On the death of his son William, 2nd marquess of
+Halifax, in August 1700 without male issue, the peerage became extinct,
+and the baronetcy passed to the Saviles of Lupset, the whole male line
+of the Savile family ending in the person of Sir George Savile, 8th
+baronet, in 1784. Henry Savile, British envoy at Versailles, who died
+unmarried in 1687, was a younger brother of the first marquess. Halifax
+has been generally supposed to have been the father of the illegitimate
+Henry Carey, the poet, but this is doubtful.
+
+  See _Life and Letters of Sir George Savile, 1st Marquis of Halifax_ (2
+  vols., 1898), by Miss H. C. Foxcroft, who has collected and made
+  excellent use of all the material available at that date, including
+  hitherto unexplored Savile MSS., at Devonshire House, in the Spencer
+  Archives, in the Longleat and other collections, and who has edited
+  the works of Halifax and printed a memorandum of conversations with
+  King William of 1688-1690, left in MS. by Halifax. Macaulay, in his
+  _History of England_, misjudged Halifax on some points, but
+  nevertheless understood and did justice to the greatness of his
+  statesmanship, and pronounced on him a well-merited and eloquent
+  eulogy (iv. 545). Contemporary characters of Halifax which must be
+  accepted with caution are Burnet's in the _History of His Own Times_
+  (ed. 1833, vol. i. pp. 491-493, and iv. 268), that by the author of
+  "Savilianal," identified as William Mompesson, and "Sacellum
+  Apollinare," a panegyric in verse by Elkanah Settle (1695).
+       (P. C. Y.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Cal. State Papers, Dom._ (Nov. 1667-Sep. 1668). p. 106.
+
+  [2] _Lords' Journals_, 12, p. 567; _Savile Correspondence_, ed. by W.
+    D. Cooper, p. 136; "Character of a Trimmer," in _Life of Sir G.
+    Savile_, by H. C. Foxcroft, ii. 316.
+
+  [3] Foxcroft i. 160, where Hallam is quoted to this effect.
+
+  [4] _Hist. MSS. Comm. House of Lords MSS._ 1689-1690, p. 287.
+
+  [5] _Character of a Trimmer_, conclusion.
+
+  [6] Saviliana quoted by Foxcroft i. 115.
+
+  [7] Foxcroft, ii. 273 et seq., and _Hist. MSS. Comm. MSS._ of F. W.
+    Leyborne-Popham, p. 264.
+
+
+
+
+HALIFAX, a city and port of entry, capital of the province of Nova
+Scotia, Canada. It is situated in 44 deg. 59' N. and 63 deg. 35' W., on
+the south-east coast of the province, on a fortified hill, 225 ft. in
+height, which slopes down to the waters of Chebucto Bay, now known as
+Halifax Harbour. The harbour, which is open all the year, is about 6 m.
+long by 1 m. in width, and has excellent anchorage in all parts; to the
+north a narrow passage connects it with Bedford Basin, 6 m. in length by
+4 m., and deep enough for the largest men-of-war. At the harbour mouth
+lies McNab's Island, thus forming two entrances; the eastern passage is
+only employed by small vessels, though in 1862 the Confederate cruiser,
+"Tallahassee," slipped through by night, and escaped the northern
+vessels which were watching off the western entrance. The population in
+1901 was 40,832.
+
+The town was originally built of wood, plastered or stuccoed, but though
+the wooden houses largely remain, the public buildings are of stone.
+Inferior in natural strength to Quebec alone, the city and its
+approaches have been fortified till it has become the strongest position
+in Canada, and one of the strongest in the British Empire. Till 1906 it
+was garrisoned by British troops, but in that year, with Esquimalt, on
+the Pacific coast, it was taken over by the Canadian government, an
+operation necessitating a large increase in the Canadian permanent
+military force. At the same time, the royal dockyard, containing a
+dry-dock 610 ft. in length, and the residences in connexion, were also
+taken over for the use of the department of marine and fisheries. Till
+1905 Halifax was the summer station of the British North American
+squadron. In that year, in consequence of a redistribution of the fleet,
+the permanent North American squadron was withdrawn; but Halifax is
+still visited periodically by powerful squadrons of cruisers.
+
+Though, owing to the growth of Sydney and other outports, it no longer
+monopolizes the foreign trade of the province, Halifax is still a
+thriving town, and has the largest export trade of the Dominion in fish
+and fish products, the export of fish alone, in 1904, amounting to over
+three-fifths that of the entire Dominion. Lumber (chiefly spruce deals)
+and agricultural products (especially apples) are also exported in large
+quantities. The chief imports are manufactures from Great Britain and
+the United States, and sugar, molasses, rum and fruit from the West
+Indies. Its industrial establishments include foundries, sugar
+refineries, manufactures of furniture and other articles of wood, a
+skate factory and rope and cordage works, the produce of which are all
+exported. It is the Atlantic terminus of the Intercolonial, Canadian
+Pacific and several provincial railways, and the chief winter port of
+Canada, numerous steamship lines connecting it with Great Britain,
+Europe, the West Indies and the United States. The public gardens,
+covering 14 acres, and Point Pleasant Park, left to a great extent in
+its natural state, are extremely beautiful. Behind the city is an arm of
+the sea (known as the North-West Arm), 5 m. in length and 1 m. in
+breadth, with high, well-wooded shores, and covered in summer with
+canoes and sailing craft. The educational institutions include a
+ladies' college, several convents, a Presbyterian theological college
+and Dalhousie University, with faculties of arts, law, medicine and
+science. Established by charter in 1818 by the earl of Dalhousie, then
+lieutenant governor, and reorganized in 1863, it has since become much
+the most important seat of learning in the maritime provinces. Other
+prominent buildings are Government House, the provincial parliament and
+library, and the Roman Catholic cathedral. St Paul's church (Anglican)
+dates from 1750, and though not striking architecturally, is interesting
+from the memorial tablets and the graves of celebrated Nova Scotians
+which it contains. The city is the seat of the Anglican bishop of Nova
+Scotia and Prince Edward Island, and of the Roman Catholic bishop of
+Halifax.
+
+Founded in 1749 by the Hon. Edward Cornwallis as a rival to the French
+town of Louisburg in Cape Breton, it was named after the 2nd earl of
+Halifax, president of the board of trade and plantations. In the
+following year it superseded Annapolis as capital of the province. Its
+privateers played a prominent part in the war of 1812-15 with the United
+States, and during the American Civil War it was a favourite base of
+operations for Confederate blockade-runners. The federation of the North
+American provinces in 1867 lessened its relative importance, but its
+merchants have gradually adapted themselves to the altered conditions.
+
+
+
+
+HALIFAX, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough in the West
+Riding of Yorkshire, England, 194 m. N.N.W. from London and 7 m. S.W.
+from Bradford, on the Great Northern and the Lancashire & Yorkshire
+railways. Pop. (1891), 97,714; (1901) 104,936. It lies in a bare hilly
+district on and above the small river Hebble near its junction with the
+Calder. Its appearance is in the main modern, though a few picturesque
+old houses remain. The North Bridge, a fine iron structure, spans the
+valley, giving connexion between the opposite higher parts of the town.
+The principal public building is the town hall, completed in 1863 after
+the designs of Sir Charles Barry; it is a handsome Palladian building
+with a tower. Of churches the most noteworthy is that of St John the
+Baptist, the parish church, a Perpendicular building with lofty western
+tower. Two earlier churches are traceable on this side, the first
+perhaps pre-Norman, the second of the Early English period. The old
+woodwork is fine, part being Perpendicular, but the greater portion
+dates from 1621. All Souls' church was built in 1859 from the designs of
+Sir Gilbert Scott, of whose work it is a good example, at the expense of
+Mr Edward Akroyd. The style is early Decorated, and a rich ornamentation
+is carried out in Italian marble, serpentine and alabaster. A graceful
+tower and spire 236 ft. high rise at the north-west angle. The Square
+chapel, erected by the Congregationalists in 1857, is a striking
+cruciform building with a tower and elaborate crocketed spire. Both the
+central library and museum and the Akroyd museum and art gallery occupy
+buildings which were formerly residences, the one of Sir Francis
+Crossley (1817-1872) and the other of Mr Edward Akroyd. Among charitable
+institutions the principal is the handsome royal infirmary, a
+Renaissance building. The Heath grammar school was founded in 1585 under
+royal charter for instruction in classical languages. It possesses close
+scholarships at Oxford and Cambridge universities. The Waterhouse
+charity school occupies a handsome set of buildings forming three sides
+of a quadrangle, erected in 1855. The Crossley almshouses were erected
+and endowed by Sir Francis and Mr Joseph Crossley, who also endowed the
+Crossley orphan home and school. Technical schools are maintained by the
+corporation. Among other public buildings may be noted the Piece-Hall,
+erected in 1799 for the lodgment and sale of piece goods, now used as a
+market, a great quadrangular structure occupying more than two acres;
+the bonding warehouse, court-house, and mechanics' institute. There are
+six parks, of which the People's Park of 12-1/2 acres, presented by Sir
+Francis Crossley in 1858, is laid out in ornate style from designs by
+Sir Joseph Paxton.
+
+Halifax ranks with Leeds, Bradford and Huddersfield as a seat of the
+woollen and worsted manufacture. The manufacture of carpets is a large
+industry, one establishment employing some 5000 hands. The worsted,
+woollen and cotton industries, and the iron, steel and machinery
+manufactures are very extensive. There are collieries and freestone
+quarries in the neighbourhood.
+
+The parliamentary borough returns two members. The county borough was
+created in 1888. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 15 aldermen and
+45 councillors. Area, 13,967 acres.
+
+At the time of the Conquest Halifax formed part of the extensive manor
+of Wakefield, which belonged to the king, but in the 13th century was in
+the hands of John, earl Warrenne (c. 1245-1305). The prosperity of the
+town began with the introduction of the cloth trade in the 15th century,
+when there are said to have been only thirteen houses, which before the
+end of the 16th century had increased to 520. Camden, about the end of
+the 17th century, wrote that "the people are very industrious, so that
+though the soil about it be barren and improfitable, not fit to live on,
+they have so flourished ... by the clothing trade that they are very
+rich and have gained a reputation for it above their neighbours." The
+trade is said to have been increased by the arrival of certain merchants
+driven from the Netherlands by the persecution of the duke of Alva.
+Among the curious customs of Halifax was the Gibbet Law, which was
+probably established by a prescriptive right to protect the wool trade,
+and gave the inhabitants the power of executing any one taken within
+their liberty, who, when tried by a jury of sixteen of the
+frith-burgesses, was found guilty of the theft of any goods of the value
+of more than 13d. The executions took place on market days on a hill
+outside the town, the gibbet somewhat resembling a guillotine. The first
+execution recorded under this law took place in 1541, and the right was
+exercised in Halifax longer than in any other town, the last execution
+taking place in 1650. In 1635 the king granted the inhabitants of
+Halifax licence to found a workhouse in a large house given to them for
+that purpose by Nathaniel Waterhouse, and incorporated them under the
+name of the master and governors. Nathaniel Waterhouse was appointed the
+first master, his successors being elected every year by the twelve
+governors from among themselves. Halifax was a borough by prescription,
+its privileges growing up with the increased prosperity brought by the
+cloth trade, but it was not incorporated until 1848. Since the Reform
+Act of 1832 the burgesses have returned two members to parliament. In
+1607 David Waterhouse, lord of the manor of Halifax, obtained a grant of
+two markets there every week on Friday and Saturday and two fairs every
+year, each lasting three days, one beginning on the 24th of June, the
+other on the 11th of November. Later these fairs and markets were
+confirmed with the addition of an extra market on Thursday to Sir
+William Ayloffe, baronet, who had succeeded David Waterhouse as lord of
+the manor. The market rights were sold to the Markets Company in 1810
+and purchased from them by the corporation in 1853.
+
+During the Civil War Halifax was garrisoned by parliament, and a field
+near it is still called the Bloody Field on account of an engagement
+which took place there between the forces of parliament and the
+Royalists.
+
+  See _Victoria County History_, "Yorkshire"; T. Wright, _The
+  Antiquities of the Town of Halifax_ (Leeds, 1738); John Watson, _The
+  History and Antiquities of the Parish of Halifax_ (London, 1775); John
+  Crabtree, _A Concise History of the Parish and Vicarage of Halifax_
+  (Halifax and London, 1836).
+
+
+
+
+HALISAH (Hebrew, [Hebrew: halitza] "untying"), the ceremony by which a
+Jewish widow releases her brother-in-law from the obligation to marry
+her in accordance with Deuteronomy xxv. 5-10, and obtains her own
+freedom to remarry. By the law of Moses it became obligatory upon the
+brother of a man dying childless to take his widow as wife. If he
+refused, "then shall his brother's wife come unto him in the presence of
+the elders and loose his shoe from off his foot, and spit in his face,
+and shall answer and say, So shall it be done unto that man that will
+not build up his brother's house." By Rabbinical law the ceremony was
+later made more complex. The parties appear before a court of three
+elders with two assessors. The place is usually the synagogue house, or
+that of the Rabbi, sometimes that of the widow. After inquiry as to the
+relationship of the parties and their status (for if either be a minor
+or deformed, halisah cannot take place), the shoe is produced. It is
+usually the property of the community and made entirely of leather from
+the skin of a "clean" animal. It is of two pieces, the upper part and
+the sole, sewn together with leathern threads. It has three small straps
+in front, and two white straps to bind it on the leg. After it is
+strapped on, the man must walk four cubits in the presence of the court.
+The widow then loosens and removes the shoe, throwing it some distance,
+and spits on the ground, repeating thrice the Biblical formula "So shall
+it be done," &c. Halisah, which is still common among orthodox Jews,
+must not take place on the Sabbath, a holiday, or the eve of either, or
+in the evening. To prevent brothers-in-law from extorting money from a
+widow as a price for releasing her from perpetual widowhood, Jewish law
+obliges all brothers at the time of a marriage to sign a document
+pledging themselves to submit to halisah without payment. (Compare
+LEVIRATE).
+
+
+
+
+HALKETT, HUGH, FREIHERR VON (1783-1863), British soldier and general of
+infantry in the Hanoverian service, was the second son of Major-General
+F. G. Halkett, who had served many years in the army, and whose
+ancestors had for several generations distinguished themselves in
+foreign services. With the "Scotch Brigade" which his father had been
+largely instrumental in raising, Hugh Halkett served in India from 1798
+to 1801. In 1803 his elder brother Colin was appointed to command a
+battalion of the newly formed King's German Legion, and in this he
+became senior captain and then major. Under his brother's command he
+served with Cathcart's expeditions to Hanover, Rugen and Copenhagen,
+where his bold initiative on outpost duty won commendation. He was in
+the Peninsula in 1808-1809, and at Walcheren. At Albuera, Salamanca,
+&c., he commanded the 2nd Light Infantry Battalion, K.G.L., in
+succession to his brother, and at Venta del Pozo in the Burgos retreat
+he greatly distinguished himself. In 1813 he left the Peninsula and was
+subsequently employed in the organization of the new Hanoverian army. He
+led a brigade of these troops in Count Wallmoden's army, and bore a
+marked part in the battle of Gohrde and the action of Schestedt, where
+he took with his own hand a Danish standard. In the Waterloo campaign he
+commanded two brigades of Hanoverian militia which were sent to the
+front with the regulars, and during the fight with the Old Guard
+captured General Cambronne. After the fall of Napoleon he elected to
+stay in the Hanoverian service, though he retained his half-pay
+lieutenant-colonelcy in the English army. He rose to be general and
+inspector-general of infantry. In his old age he led the Xth Federal
+Army Corps in the Danish War of 1848, and defeated the Danes at Oversee.
+He had the G.C.H., the C.B. and many foreign orders, including the
+Prussian order of the Black Eagle and _pour le Merite_ and the Russian
+St Anne.
+
+  See Knesebeck, _Leben des Freiherrn Hugh von Halkett_ (Stuttgart,
+  1865).
+
+His brother, SIR COLIN HALKETT (1774-1856), British soldier, began his
+military career in the Dutch Guards and served in various "companies"
+for three years, leaving as a captain in 1795. From 1800 to the peace of
+Amiens he served with the Dutch troops in English pay in Guernsey. In
+August 1803 Halkett was one of the first officers assigned to the
+service of raising the King's German Legion, and he became major, and
+later lieutenant-colonel, commanding the 2nd Light Infantry Battalion.
+His battalion was employed in the various expeditions mentioned above,
+from Hanover to Walcheren, and in 1811 Colin Halkett succeeded Charles
+Alten in the command of the Light Brigade, K.G.L., which he held
+throughout the Peninsula War from Albuera to Toulouse. In 1815
+Major-General Sir Colin Halkett commanded the 5th British Brigade of
+Alten's division, and at Waterloo he received four wounds. Unlike his
+brother, he remained in the British service, in which he rose to
+general. At the time of his death he was governor of Chelsea hospital.
+He had honorary general's rank in the Hanoverian service, the G.C.B. and
+G.C.H., as well as numerous foreign orders.
+
+  For information about both the Halketts, see Beamish, _History of the
+  King's German Legion_ (1832).
+
+
+
+
+HALL, BASIL (1788-1844), British naval officer, traveller and
+miscellaneous writer, was born at Edinburgh on the 31st of December
+1788. His father was Sir James Hall of Dunglass, the geologist. Basil
+Hall was educated at the High School, Edinburgh, and in 1802 entered the
+navy, where he rose to the rank of post-captain in 1817, after seeing
+active service in several fields. By observing the ethnological as well
+as the physical peculiarities of the countries he visited, he collected
+the materials for a very large number of scientific papers. In 1816 he
+commanded the sloop "Lyra," which accompanied Lord Amherst's embassy to
+China; and he described his cruise in _An Account of a Voyage of
+Discovery to the West Coast of Corea and the Great Loo-choo Island in
+the Japan Sea_ (London, 1818). In 1820 he held a command on the Pacific
+coast of America, and in 1824 published two volumes of _Extracts from a
+Journal written on the Coasts of Chili, Peru and Mexico in the Years
+1820-21-22_. Retiring on half-pay in 1824, Hall in 1825 married
+Margaret, daughter of Sir John Hunter, and in her company travelled
+(1827-1828) through the United States. In 1829 he published his _Travels
+in North America in the Years 1827 and 1828_, which was assailed by the
+American press for its views of American society. _Schloss Hainfeld, or
+a Winter in Lower Styria_ (1836), is partly a romance, partly a
+description of a visit paid by the author to the castle of the countess
+Purgstall. _Spain and the Seat of War in Spain_ appeared in 1837. _The
+Fragments of Voyages and Travels_ (9 vols.) were issued in three
+detachments between 1831 and 1840. Captain Hall was a fellow of the
+Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh, and of the Royal Astronomical,
+Royal Geographical and Geological Societies. His last work, a collection
+of sketches and tales under the name of _Patchwork_ (1841), had not been
+long published before its author became insane, and he died in Haslar
+hospital, Portsmouth, on the 11th of September 1844.
+
+
+
+
+HALL, CARL CHRISTIAN (1812-1888), Danish statesman, son of the highly
+respected artisan and train-band colonel Mads Hall, was born at
+Christianshavn on the 25th of February 1812. After a distinguished
+career at school and college, he adopted the law as his profession, and
+in 1837 married the highly gifted but eccentric Augusta Marie, daughter
+of the philologist Peter Oluf Brondsted. A natural conservatism
+indisposed Hall at first to take any part in the popular movement of
+1848, to which almost all his friends had already adhered; but the
+moment he was convinced of the inevitability of popular government, he
+resolutely and sympathetically followed in the new paths. Sent to the
+_Rigsforsamling_ of 1848 as member for the first district of Copenhagen,
+a constituency he continued to represent in the _Folketing_ till 1881,
+he immediately took his place in the front rank of Danish politicians.
+From the first he displayed rare ability as a debater, his inspiring and
+yet amiable personality attracted hosts of admirers, while his
+extraordinary tact and temper disarmed opposition and enabled him to
+mediate between extremes without ever sacrificing principles.
+
+Hall was not altogether satisfied with the fundamental law of June; but
+he considered it expedient to make the best use possible of the existing
+constitution and to unite the best conservative elements of the nation
+in its defence. The aloofness and sulkiness of the aristocrats and
+landed proprietors he deeply deplored. Failing to rally them to the good
+cause he determined anyhow to organize the great cultivated middle class
+into a political party. Hence the "June Union," whose programme was
+progress and reform in the spirit of the constitution, and at the same
+time opposition to the one-sided democratism and party-tyranny of the
+_Bondevenner_ or peasant party. The "Union" exercised an essential
+influence on the elections of 1852, and was, in fact, the beginning of
+the national Liberal party, which found its natural leader in Hall.
+During the years 1852-1854 the burning question of the day was the
+connexion between the various parts of the monarchy. Hall was
+"eiderdansk" by conviction. He saw in the closest possible union
+between the kingdom and a Schleswig freed from all risk of German
+interference the essential condition for Denmark's independence; but he
+did not think that Denmark was strong enough to carry such a policy
+through unsupported, and he was therefore inclined to promote it by
+diplomatic means and international combinations, and strongly opposed to
+the Conventions of 1851-1852 (See DENMARK: _History_), though he was
+among the first, subsequently, to accept them as an established fact and
+the future basis for Denmark's policy.
+
+Hall first took office in the Bang administration (12th of December
+1854) as minister of public worship. In May 1857 he became president of
+the council after Andrae, Bang's successor, had retired, and in July
+1858 he exchanged the ministry of public worship for the ministry of
+foreign affairs, while still retaining the premiership.
+
+Hall's programme, "den Konstitutionelle Helstat," i.e. a single state
+with a common constitution, was difficult enough in a monarchy which
+included two nationalities, one of which, to a great extent, belonged to
+a foreign and hostile jurisdiction. But as this political monstrosity
+had already been guaranteed by the Conventions of 1851-1852, Hall could
+not rid himself of it, and the attempt to establish this "Helstat" was
+made accordingly by the Constitution of the 13th of November 1863. The
+failure of the attempt and its disastrous consequences for Denmark are
+described elsewhere. Here it need only be said that Hall himself soon
+became aware of the impossibility of the "Helstat," and his whole policy
+aimed at making its absurdity patent to Europe, and substituting for it
+a constitutional Denmark to the Eider which would be in a position to
+come to terms with an independent Holstein. That this was the best thing
+possible for Denmark is absolutely indisputable, and "the diplomatic
+Seven Years' War" which Hall in the meantime conducted with all the
+powers interested in the question is the most striking proof of his
+superior statesmanship. Hall knew that in the last resort the question
+must be decided not by the pen but by the sword. But he relied,
+ultimately, on the protection of the powers which had guaranteed the
+integrity of Denmark by the treaty of London, and if words have any
+meaning at all he had the right to expect at the very least the armed
+support of Great Britain.[1] But the great German powers and the force
+of circumstances proved too strong for him. On the accession of the new
+king, Christian IX., Hall resigned rather than repeal the November
+Constitution, which gave Denmark something to negotiate upon in case of
+need. But he made matters as easy as he could for his successors in the
+Monrad administration, and the ultimate catastrophe need not have been
+as serious as it was had his advice, frankly given, been intelligently
+followed.
+
+After 1864 Hall bore more than his fair share of the odium and
+condemnation which weighed so heavily upon the national Liberal party,
+making no attempt to repudiate responsibility and refraining altogether
+from attacking patently unscrupulous opponents. But his personal
+popularity suffered not the slightest diminution, while his clear,
+almost intuitive, outlook and his unconquerable faith in the future of
+his country made him, during those difficult years, a factor of
+incalculable importance in the public life of Denmark. In 1870 he joined
+the Holstein-Holsteinborg ministry as minister of public worship, and in
+that capacity passed many useful educational reforms, but on the fall of
+the administration, in 1873, he retired altogether from public life. In
+the summer of 1879 Hall was struck down by apoplexy, and for the
+remaining nine years of his life he was practically bedridden. He died
+on the 14th of August 1888. In politics Hall was a practical, sagacious
+"opportunist," in the best sense of that much abused word, with an eye
+rather for things than for persons. Moreover, he had no very pronounced
+political ambition, and was an utter stranger to that longing for power,
+which drives so many men of talent to adopt extreme expedients. His
+urbanity and perfect equilibrium at the very outset incited sympathy,
+while his wit and humour made him the centre of every circle within
+which he moved.
+
+  See Vilhelm Christian Sigurd Topsoe, _Polit. Portraetstudier_
+  (Copenhagen, 1878); Scholler Parelius Vilhelm Birkedal, _Personlige
+  Oplevelser_ (Copenhagen, 1890-1891).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] On this head see the 3rd marquess of Salisbury's _Political
+    Essays_, reprinted from the _Quarterly Review_.
+
+
+
+
+HALL, CHARLES FRANCIS (1821-1871), American Arctic explorer, was born at
+Rochester, New Hampshire. After following the trade of blacksmith he
+became a journalist in Cincinnati; but his enthusiasm for Arctic
+exploration led him in 1859 to volunteer to the American Geographical
+Society to "go in search for the bones of Franklin." With the proceeds
+of a public subscription he was equipped for his expedition and sailed
+in May 1860 on board a whaling vessel. The whaler being ice-bound, Hall
+took up his abode in the regions to the north of Hudson Bay, where he
+found relics of Frobisher's 16th-century voyages, and living with the
+Eskimo for two years he acquired a considerable knowledge of their
+habits and language. He published an account of these experiences under
+the title of _Arctic Researches, and Life among the Esquimaux_ (1864).
+Determined, however, to learn more about the fate of the Franklin
+expedition he returned to the same regions in 1864, and passing five
+years among the Eskimo was successful in obtaining a number of Franklin
+relics, as well as information pointing to the exact fate of 76 of the
+crew, whilst also performing some geographical work of interest. In 1871
+he was given command of the North Polar expedition fitted out by the
+United States Government in the "Polaris." Making a remarkably rapid
+passage up Smith Sound at the head of Baffin Bay, which was found to be
+ice-free, the "Polaris" reached on the 30th of August the lat. of 82
+deg. 11', at that time, and until the English expedition of 1876 the
+highest northern latitude attained by vessel. The expedition went into
+winter quarters in a sheltered cove on the Greenland coast. On the 24th
+of October, Hall on his return from a successful sledge expedition to
+the north was suddenly seized by an illness of which he died on the 8th
+of November. Capt. S. O. Buddington (1823-1888) assumed command, and
+although the "Polaris" was subsequently lost after breaking out of the
+ice, with only part of the crew aboard, the whole were ultimately
+rescued, and the scientific results of the expedition proved to be of
+considerable importance.
+
+
+
+
+HALL, CHRISTOPHER NEWMAN (1816-1902), English Nonconformist divine, was
+born at Maidstone on the 22nd of May 1816. His father was John Vine
+Hall, proprietor and printer of the _Maidstone Journal_, and the author
+of a popular evangelical work called _The Sinner's Friend_. Christopher
+was educated at University College, London, and took the London B.A.
+degree. His theological training was gained at Highbury College, whence
+he was called in 1842 to his first pastorate at the Albion
+Congregational Church, Hull. During the twelve years of his ministry
+there the membership was greatly increased, and a branch chapel and
+school were opened. At Hull Newman Hall first began his active work in
+temperance reform, and in defence of his position wrote _The Scriptural
+Claims of Teetotalism_. In 1854 he accepted a call to Surrey chapel,
+London, founded in 1783 by the Rev. Rowland Hill. A considerable sum had
+been bequeathed by Hill for the perpetuation of his work on the
+expiration of the lease; but, owing to some legal flaw in the will, the
+money was not available, and Newman Hall undertook to raise the
+necessary funds for a new church. By weekly offertories and donations
+the money for the beautiful building called Christ Church at the
+junction of the Kennington and Westminster Bridge Roads was collected,
+and within four years of opening (1876) the total cost (L63,000) was
+cleared. In 1892 Newman Hall resigned his charge and devoted himself to
+general evangelical work. Most of his writings are small booklets or
+tracts of a distinctly evangelical character. The best known of these is
+_Come to Jesus_, of which over four million copies have been circulated
+in forty different languages. Newman Hall visited the United States
+during the Civil War, and did much to promote a friendly understanding
+between England and America. A Liberal in politics, and a keen admirer
+of John Bright, few preachers of any denomination have exercised so
+far-reaching an influence as the "Dissenters' Bishop," as he came to be
+termed. He died on the 18th of February 1902.
+
+  See his _Autobiography_ (1898); obituary notice in _The Congregational
+  Year Book_ for 1903.
+
+
+
+
+HALL, EDWARD (c. 1498-1547), English chronicler and lawyer, was born
+about the end of the 15th century, being a son of John Hall of Northall,
+Shropshire. Educated at Eton and King's College, Cambridge, he became a
+barrister and afterwards filled the offices of common sergeant of the
+city of London and judge of the sheriff's court. He was also member of
+parliament for Bridgnorth. Hall's great work, _The Union of the Noble
+and Illustre Famelies of Lancastre and York_, commonly called _Hall's
+Chronicle_, was first published in 1542. Another edition was issued by
+Richard Grafton in 1548, the year after Hall's death, and another in
+1550; these include a continuation from 1532 compiled by Grafton from
+the author's notes. In 1809 an edition was published under the
+supervision of Sir Henry Ellis, and in 1904 the part dealing with the
+reign of Henry VIII. was edited by C. Whibley. The _Chronicle_ begins
+with the accession of Henry IV. to the English throne in 1399; it
+follows the strife between the houses of Lancaster and York, and with
+Grafton's continuation carries the story down to the death of Henry
+VIII. in 1547. Hall presents the policy of this king in a very
+favourable light and shows his own sympathy with the Protestants. For
+all kinds of ceremonial he has all a lawyer's respect, and his pages are
+often adorned and encumbered with the pageantry and material garniture
+of the story. The value of the _Chronicle_ in its early stages is not
+great, but this increases when dealing with the reign of Henry VII. and
+is very considerable for the reign of Henry VIII. Moreover, the work is
+not only valuable, it is attractive. To the historian it furnishes what
+is evidently the testimony of an eye-witness on several matters of
+importance which are neglected by other narrators; and to the student of
+literature it has the exceptional interest of being one of the prime
+sources of Shakespeare's historical plays.
+
+  See J. Gairdner, _Early Chroniclers of Europe; England_ (1879).
+
+
+
+
+HALL, FITZEDWARD (1825-1901), American Orientalist, was born in Troy,
+New York, on the 21st of March 1825. He graduated with the degree of
+civil engineer from the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute at Troy in
+1842, and entered Harvard in the class of 1846; just before his class
+graduated he left college and went to India in search of a runaway
+brother. In January 1850 he was appointed tutor, and in 1853 professor
+of Sanskrit and English, in the government college at Benares; and in
+1855 was made inspector of public instruction in Ajmere-Merwara and in
+1856 in the Central Provinces. He settled in England in 1862 and
+received the appointment to the chair of Sanskrit, Hindustani and Indian
+jurisprudence in King's College, London, and to the librarianship of the
+India Office. He died at Marlesford, Suffolk, on the 1st of February
+1901. Hall was the first American to edit a Sanskrit text, the
+_Vishnupurana_; his library of a thousand Oriental MSS. he gave to
+Harvard University.
+
+  His works include: in Sanskrit, _Atmabodha_ (1852),
+  _Sankhyapravachana_ (1856), _Saryasiddhanta_ (1859), _Vasavadattu_
+  (1859), _Sankhyasara_ (1862) and _Dasarupa_ (1865); in Hindi,
+  Ballantynes' _Hindi Grammar_ (1868) and a _Reader_ (1870); on English
+  philology, _Recent Exemplifications of False Philology_ (1872),
+  attacking Richard Grant White, _Modern English_ (1873), "On English
+  Adjectives in -able, with Special Reference to Reliable" (_Am. Jour.
+  Philology_, 1877), _Doctor Indoctus_ (1880).
+
+
+
+
+HALL, ISAAC HOLLISTER (1837-1896), American Orientalist, was born in
+Norwalk, Connecticut, on the 12th of December 1837. He graduated at
+Hamilton College in 1859, was a tutor there in 1859-1863, graduated at
+the Columbia Law School in 1865, practised law in New York City until
+1875, and in 1875-1877 taught in the Syrian Protestant College at
+Beirut, where he discovered a valuable Syriac manuscript of the
+Philoxenian version of a large part of the New Testament, which he
+published in part in facsimile in 1884. He worked with General di
+Cesnola in classifying the famous Cypriote collection in the
+Metropolitan Museum of New York City, and was a curator of that museum
+from 1885 until his death in Mount Vernon, New York, on the 2nd of July
+1896. He was an eminent authority on Oriental inscriptions. Following
+the scanty clues given by George Smith and Samuel Birch, and working on
+the data furnished by the di Cesnola collection, he succeeded about 1874
+in deciphering an entire Cypriote inscription, and in establishing the
+Hellenic character of the dialect and the syllabic nature of the script.
+
+  His work in Cypriote epigraphy is described in his articles in
+  _Scribner's Magazine_, vol. 20 (June, 1880), pp. 205-211 and in the
+  _Journal of the American Oriental Society_, vol. 10, No. 2 (1880), pp.
+  201-218. He published in facsimile the Antilegomena epistles (1886),
+  which he deciphered from the W. F. Williams manuscript, and edited _A
+  Critical Bibliography of the Greek New Testament as Published in
+  America_ (1884).
+
+
+
+
+HALL, SIR JAMES (1761-1832), Scottish geologist and physicist, eldest
+son of Sir John Hall, Bart., was born at Dunglass on the 17th of January
+1761; and became distinguished as the first to establish experimental
+research as an aid to geological investigation. He was intimately
+acquainted with James Hutton and John Playfair, and having studied rocks
+in various parts of Europe he was eventually led to accept and to
+demonstrate the truth of Hutton's views with regard to intrusive rocks.
+He commenced a series of experiments to illustrate the fusion of rocks,
+their vitreous and crystalline characters, and the influence of molten
+rocks in altering adjacent strata. He thus assisted in proving that
+granitic veins had been injected into overlying deposits after their
+consolidation. He studied the volcanic rocks in Italy and recognized
+that the old lava flows and the numerous dikes in Scotland must have had
+a similar origin. He made further experiments to illustrate the
+contortions of rocks. The results were brought before the Royal Society
+of Edinburgh. He died at Edinburgh on the 23rd of June 1832. He
+represented in parliament (1807-1812) the old borough of Michael in
+Cornwall; he also wrote an Essay on the _Origin, History and Principles
+of Gothic Architecture_ (1813).
+
+His eldest son, John Hall (1787-1860), who succeeded him, was a Fellow
+of the Royal Society; the second son, Captain Basil Hall (q.v.), was the
+distinguished traveller; the third son, James Hall (1800-1854), was a
+painter, art-patron, and a friend of Sir David Wilkie.
+
+
+
+
+HALL, JAMES (1793-1868), American judge and man of letters, was born at
+Philadelphia on the 19th of August 1793. After for some time prosecuting
+the study of law, he in 1812 joined the army, and in the war with Great
+Britain distinguished himself in engagements at Lundy's Lane, Niagara
+and Fort Erie. On the conclusion of the war he accompanied an expedition
+against Algiers, but in 1818 he resigned his commission, and continued
+the study of law at Pittsburg. In 1820 he removed to Shawneetown,
+Illinois, where he commenced practice at the bar and also edited the
+_Illinois Gazette_. Soon after he was appointed public prosecutor of the
+circuit, and in 1824 state circuit judge. In 1827 he became state
+treasurer, and held that office till 1831, but he continued at the same
+time his legal practice and also edited the _Illinois Intelligencer_.
+Subsequently he became editor of the _Western Souvenir_, an annual
+publication, and of the _Illinois Monthly Magazine_, afterwards the
+_Western Monthly Magazine_. He died near Cincinnati on the 5th of July
+1868.
+
+  The following are his principal works:--_Letters from the West_,
+  originally contributed to the _Portfolio_, and collected and published
+  in London in 1828; _Legends of the West_ (1832); _The Soldier's Bride
+  and other Tales_ (1832); _The Harpe's Head, a Legend of Kentucky_
+  (1833); _Sketches of the West_ (2 vols., 1835); _Tales of the Border_
+  (1835); _Notes on the Western States_ (1838); _History of the Indian
+  Tribes_, in conjunction with T. L. M'Keeney (3 vols., 1838-1844); _The
+  Wilderness and the War-Path_ (1845); _Romance of Western History_
+  (1857).
+
+
+
+
+HALL, JAMES (1811-1898). American geologist and palaeontologist, was
+born at Hingham, Massachusetts, on the 12th of September 1811. In early
+life he became attached to the study of natural history, and he
+completed his education at the polytechnic institute at Troy in New
+York, where he graduated in 1832, and afterwards became professor of
+chemistry and natural science, and subsequently of geology. In 1836 he
+was appointed one of the geologists on the Geological Survey of the
+state of New York, and he was before long charged with the
+palaeontological work. Eventually he became state geologist and director
+of the museum of natural history at Albany. His published papers date
+from 1836, and include numerous reports on the geology and palaeontology
+of various portions of the United States and Canada. He dealt likewise
+with physical geology, and in 1859 discussed the connexion between the
+accumulation of sedimentary deposits and the elevation of
+mountain-chains. His chief work was the description of the invertebrate
+fossils of New York--in which he dealt with the graptolites,
+brachiopods, mollusca, trilobites, echini and crinoids of the Palaeozoic
+formations. The results were published in a series of quarto volumes
+entitled _Palaeontology of New York_ (1847-1894), in which he was
+assisted in course of time by R. P. Whitfield and J. M. Clarke. He
+published also reports on the geology of Oregon and California (1845),
+Utah (1852), Iowa (1859) and Wisconsin (1862). He received the Wollaston
+medal from the Geological Society of London in 1858. He was a man of
+great energy and untiring industry, and in 1897, when in his
+eighty-sixth year, he journeyed to St Petersburg to take part in the
+International Geological Congress, and then joined the excursion to the
+Ural mountains. He died at Albany on the 7th of August 1898.
+
+  See _Life and Work of James Hall_, by H. C. Hovey, _Amer. Geol._
+  xxiii., 1899, p. 137 (portraits).
+
+
+
+
+HALL, JOSEPH (1574-1656), English bishop and satirist, was born at
+Bristow park, near Ashby de la Zouch, Leicestershire, on the 1st of July
+1574. His father, John Hall, was agent in the town for Henry, earl of
+Huntingdon, and his mother, Winifred Bambridge, was a pious lady, whom
+her son compared to St Monica. Joseph Hall received his early education
+at the local school, and was sent (1589) to Emmanuel College, Cambridge.
+Hall was chosen for two years in succession to read the public lecture
+on rhetoric in the schools, and in 1595 became fellow of his college.
+During his residence at Cambridge he wrote his _Virgidemiarum_ (1597),
+satires written after Latin models. The claim he put forward in the
+prologue to be the earliest English satirist:--
+
+  "I first adventure, follow me who list
+   And be the second English satirist"--
+
+gave bitter offence to John Marston, who attacks him in the satires
+published in 1598. The archbishop of Canterbury gave an order (1599)
+that Hall's satires should be burnt with works of John Marston, Marlowe,
+Sir John Davies and others on the ground of licentiousness, but shortly
+afterwards Hall's book, certainly unjustly condemned, was ordered to be
+"staied at the press," which may be interpreted as reprieved (see _Notes
+and Queries_, 3rd series, xii. 436). Having taken holy orders, Hall was
+offered the mastership of Blundell's school, Tiverton, but he refused it
+in favour of the living of Halsted, Essex, to which he was presented
+(1601) by Sir Robert Drury. In his parish he had an opponent in a Mr
+Lilly, whom he describes as "a witty and bold atheist." In 1603 he
+married; and in 1605 he accompanied Sir Edmund Bacon to Spa, with the
+special aim, he says, of acquainting himself with the state and practice
+of the Romish Church. At Brussels he disputed at the Jesuit College on
+the authentic character of modern miracles, and his inquiring and
+argumentative disposition more than once threatened to produce serious
+results, so that his patron at length requested him to abstain from
+further discussion. His devotional writings had attracted the notice of
+Henry, prince of Wales, who made him one of his chaplains (1608). In
+1612 Lord Denny, afterwards earl of Norwich, gave him the curacy of
+Waltham-Holy-Cross, Essex, and in the same year he received the degree
+of D.D. Later he received the prebend of Willenhall in the collegiate
+church of Wolverhampton, and in 1616 he accompanied James Hay, Lord
+Doncaster, afterwards earl of Carlisle, to France, where he was sent to
+congratulate Louis XIII. on his marriage, but Hall was compelled by
+illness to return. In his absence the king nominated him dean of
+Worcester, and in 1617 he accompanied James to Scotland, where he
+defended the five points of ceremonial which the king desired to impose
+upon the Scots. In the next year he was one of the English deputies at
+the synod of Dort. In 1624 he refused the see of Gloucester, but in 1627
+became bishop of Exeter.
+
+He took an active part in the Arminian and Calvinist controversy in the
+English church. He did his best in his _Via media, The Way of Peace_, to
+persuade the two parties to accept a compromise. In spite of his
+Calvinistic opinions he maintained that to acknowledge the errors which
+had arisen in the Catholic Church did not necessarily imply disbelief in
+her catholicity, and that the Church of England having repudiated these
+errors should not deny the claims of the Roman Catholic Church on that
+account. This view commended itself to Charles I. and his episcopal
+advisers, but at the same time Archbishop Laud sent spies into Hall's
+diocese to report on the Calvinistic tendencies of the bishop and his
+lenience to the Puritan and low-church clergy. Hall says he was thrice
+down on his knees to the King to answer Laud's accusations and at length
+threatened to "cast up his rochet" rather than submit to them. He was,
+however, amenable to criticism, and his defence of the English Church,
+entitled _Episcopacy by Divine Right_ (1640), was twice revised at
+Laud's dictation. This was followed by _An Humble Remonstrance to the
+High Court of Parliament_ (1640 and 1641), an eloquent and forceful
+defence of his order, which produced a retort from the syndicate of
+Puritan divines, who wrote under the name of "Smectymnuus," and was
+followed by a long controversy to which Milton contributed five
+pamphlets, virulently attacking Hall and his early satires.
+
+In 1641 Hall was translated to the see of Norwich, and in the same year
+sat on the Lords' Committee on religion. On the 30th of December he was,
+with other bishops, brought before the bar of the House of Lords to
+answer a charge of high treason of which the Commons had voted them
+guilty. They were finally convicted of an offence against the Statute of
+Praemunire, and condemned to forfeit their estates, receiving a small
+maintenance from the parliament. They were immured in the Tower from New
+Year to Whitsuntide, when they were released on finding bail for L5000
+each. On his release Hall proceeded to his new diocese at Norwich, the
+revenues of which he seems for a time to have received, but in 1643,
+when the property of the "malignants" was sequestrated, Hall was
+mentioned by name. Mrs Hall had difficulty in securing a fifth of the
+maintenance (L400) assigned to the bishop by the parliament; they were
+eventually ejected from the palace, and the cathedral was dismantled.
+Hall retired to the village of Higham, near Norwich, where he spent the
+time preaching and writing until "he was first forbidden by man, and at
+last disabled by God." He bore his many troubles and the additional
+burden of much bodily suffering with sweetness and patience, dying on
+the 8th of September 1656. Thomas Fuller says: "He was commonly called
+our English Seneca, for the purenesse, plainnesse, and fulnesse of his
+style. Not unhappy at _Controversies_, more happy at _Comments_, very
+good in his _Characters_, better in his _Sermons_, best of all in his
+_Meditations_."
+
+  Bishop Hall's polemical writings, although vigorous and effective,
+  were chiefly of ephemeral interest, but many of his devotional
+  writings have been often reprinted. It is by his early work as the
+  censor of morals and the unsparing critic of contemporary literary
+  extravagance and affectations that he is best known. _Virgidemiarum._
+  _Sixe Bookes. First three Bookes. Of Toothlesse Satyrs._ (1)
+  _Poeticall_, (2) _Academicall_, (3) _Morall_ (1597) was followed by an
+  amended edition in 1598, and in the same year by _Virgidemiarum_. _The
+  three last bookes. Of byting Satyres_ (reprinted 1599). His claim to
+  be reckoned the earliest English satirist, even in the formal sense,
+  cannot be justified. Thomas Lodge, in his _Fig for Momus_ (1593), had
+  written four satires in the manner of Horace, and John Marston and
+  John Donne both wrote satires about the same time, although the
+  publication was in both cases later than that of _Virgidemiae_. But if
+  he was not the earliest, Hall was certainly one of the best. He writes
+  in the heroic couplet, which he manoeuvres with great ease and
+  smoothness. In the first book of his satires (_Poeticall_) he attacks
+  the writers whose verses were devoted to licentious subjects, the
+  bombast of _Tamburlaine_ and tragedies built on similar lines, the
+  laments of the ghosts of the _Mirror for Magistrates_, the metrical
+  eccentricities of Gabriel Harvey and Richard Stanyhurst, the
+  extravagances of the sonneteers, and the sacred poets (Southwell is
+  aimed at in "Now good St Peter weeps pure Helicon, And both the Mary's
+  make a music moan"). In Book II. Satire 6 occurs the well-known
+  description of the trencher-chaplain, who is tutor and hanger-on in a
+  country manor. Among his other satirical portraits is that of the
+  famished gallant, the guest of "Duke Humfray."[1] Book VI. consists of
+  one long satire on the various vices and follies dealt with in the
+  earlier books. If his prose is sometimes antithetical and obscure, his
+  verse is remarkably free from the quips and conceits which mar so much
+  contemporary poetry.
+
+  He also wrote _The King's Prophecie; or Weeping Joy_ (1603), a
+  gratulatory poem on the accession of James I.; _Epistles_, both the
+  first and second volumes of which appeared in 1608 and a third in
+  1611; _Characters of Virtues and Vices_ (1608), versified by Nahum
+  Tate (1691); _Solomons Divine Arts ..._ (1609); and, probably _Mundus
+  alter et idem sive Terra Australis antehac semper incognita ...
+  lustrata_ (1605? and 1607), by "Mercurius Britannicus," translated
+  into English by John Healy (1608) as _The Discovery of a New World or
+  A Description of the South Indies ... by an English Mercury_. _Mundus
+  alter_ is an excuse for a satirical description of London, with some
+  criticism of the Romish church, its manners and customs, and is said
+  to have furnished Swift with hints for _Gulliver's Travels_. It was
+  not ascribed to him by name until 1674, when Thomas Hyde, the
+  librarian of the Bodleian, identified "Mercurius Britannicus" with
+  Joseph Hall. For the question of the authorship of this pamphlet, and
+  the arguments that may be advanced in favour of the suggestion that it
+  was written by Alberico Gentili, see E. A. Petherick, _Mundus alter et
+  idem_, reprinted from the _Gentleman's Magazine_ (July 1896). His
+  controversial writings, not already mentioned, include:--_A Common
+  Apology ... against the Brownists_ (1610), in answer to John
+  Robinson's _Censorious Epistle_; _The Olde Religion: A treatise,
+  wherein is laid downe the true state of the difference betwixt the
+  Reformed and the Romane Church; and the blame of this schisme is cast
+  upon the true Authors ..._ (1628); _Columba Noae olivam adferens ..._,
+  a sermon preached at St Paul's in 1623; _Episcopacie by Divine Right_
+  (1640); _A Short Answer to the Vindication of Smectymnuus_ (1641); _A
+  Modest Confutation of ... (Milton's) Animadversions_ (1642).
+
+  His devotional works include:--_Holy Observations Lib. I. Some few of
+  David's Psalmes Metaphrased_ (1607 and 1609); three centuries of
+  _Meditations and Vowes, Divine and Morall_ (1606, 1607, 1609), edited
+  by Charles Sayle (1901); _The Arte of Divine Meditation_ (1607);
+  _Heaven upon Earth, or of True Peace and Tranquillitie of Mind_
+  (1606), reprinted with some of his letters in John Wesley's _Christian
+  Library_, vol. iv. (1819); _Occasional Meditations ..._ (1630), edited
+  by his son Robert Hall; _Henochisme; or a Treatise showing how to walk
+  with God_ (1639), translated from Bishop Hall's Latin by Moses Wall;
+  _The Devout Soul; or Rules of Heavenly Devotion_ (1644), often since
+  reprinted; _The Balm of Gilead ..._ (1646, 1752); _Christ Mysticall;
+  or the blessed union of Christ and his Members_ (1647), of which
+  General Gordon was a student (reprinted from Gordon's copy, 1893);
+  _Susurrium cum Deo_ (1659); _The Great Mysterie of Godliness_ (1650);
+  _Resolutions and Decisions of Divers Practicall cases of Conscience_
+  (1649, 1650, 1654).
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The chief authority for Hall's biography is to be found
+  in his autobiographical tracts: _Observations of some Specialities of
+  Divine Providence in the Life of Joseph Hall, Bishop of Norwich,
+  Written with his own hand_; and his _Hard Measure_, a reprint of which
+  may be consulted in Dr Christopher Wordsworth's _Ecclesiastical
+  Biography_. The best criticism of his satires is to be found in Thomas
+  Warton's _History of English Poetry_, vol. iv. pp. 363-409 (ed.
+  Hazlitt, 1871), where a comparison is instituted between Marston and
+  Hall. In 1615 Hall published _A Recollection of such treatises as have
+  been ... published ..._ (1615, 1617, 1621); in 1625 appeared his Works
+  (reprinted 1627, 1628, 1634, 1662). The first complete _Works_
+  appeared in 1808, edited by the Rev. Josiah Pratt. Other editions are
+  by Peter Hall (1837) and by Philip Wynter (1863). See also _Bishop
+  Hall, his Life and Times_ (1826), by Rev. John Jones; _Life of Joseph
+  Hall_, by Rev. George Lewis (1886); A. B. Grosart, _The Complete Poems
+  of Joseph Hall ... with introductions, &c._ (1879); _Satires, &c._
+  (_Early English Poets_, ed. S. W. Singer, 1824). Many of Hall's works
+  were translated into French, and some into Dutch, and there have been
+  numerous selections from his devotional works.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The tomb of Sir John Beauchamp (d. 1358) in old St Paul's was
+    commonly known, in error, as that of Duke Humphrey of Gloucester. "To
+    dine with Duke Humphrey" was to go hungry among the debtors and
+    beggars who frequented "Duke Humphrey's Walk" in the cathedral.
+
+
+
+
+HALL, MARSHALL (1790-1857). English physiologist, was born on the 18th
+of February 1790, at Basford, near Nottingham, where his father, Robert
+Hall, was a cotton manufacturer. Having attended the Rev. J. Blanchard's
+academy at Nottingham, he entered a chemist's shop at Newark, and in
+1809 began to study medicine at Edinburgh University. In 1811 he was
+elected senior president of the Royal Medical Society; the following
+year he took the M.D. degree, and was immediately appointed resident
+house physician to the Royal Infirmary, Edinburgh. This appointment he
+resigned after two years, when he visited Paris and its medical schools,
+and, on a walking tour, those also of Berlin and Gottingen. In 1817,
+when he settled at Nottingham, he published his _Diagnosis_, and in 1818
+he wrote the _Mimoses_, a work on the affections denominated bilious,
+nervous, &c. The next year he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society
+of Edinburgh, and in 1825 he became physician to the Nottingham general
+hospital. In 1826 he removed to London, and in the following year he
+published his _Commentaries_ on the more important diseases of females.
+In 1830 he issued his _Observations on Blood-letting, founded on
+researches on the morbid and curative effects of loss of blood_, which
+were acknowledged by the medical profession to be of vast practical
+value, and in 1831 his _Experimental Essay on the Circulation of the
+Blood in the Capillary Vessels_, in which he showed that the
+blood-channels intermediate between arteries and veins serve the office
+of bringing the fluid blood into contact with the material tissues of
+the system. In the following year he read before the Royal Society a
+paper "On the inverse ratio which subsists between Respiration and
+Irritability in the Animal Kingdom." His most important work in
+physiology was concerned with the theory of reflex action, embodied in a
+paper "On the reflex Function of the Medulla Oblongata and the Medulla
+Spinalis" (1832), which was supplemented in 1837 by another "On the True
+Spinal Marrow, and the Excito-motor System of Nerves." The "reflex
+function" excited great attention on the continent of Europe, though in
+England some of his papers were refused publication by the Royal
+Society. Hall thus became the authority on the multiform deranged states
+of health referable to an abnormal condition of the nervous system, and
+he gained a large practice. His "ready method" for resuscitation in
+drowning and other forms of suspended respiration has been the means of
+saving innumerable lives. He died at Brighton of a throat affection,
+aggravated by lecturing, on the 11th of August 1857.
+
+  A list of his works and details of his "ready method," &c., are given
+  in his _Memoirs_ by his widow (London, 1861).
+
+
+
+
+HALL, ROBERT (1764-1831), English Baptist divine, was born on the 2nd of
+May 1764, at Arnesby near Leicester, where his father, Robert Hall
+(1728-1791), a man whose cast of mind in some respects resembled closely
+that of the son, was pastor of a Baptist congregation. Robert was the
+youngest of a family of fourteen. While still at the dame's school his
+passion for books absorbed the greater part of his time, and in the
+summer it was his custom after school hours to retire to the churchyard
+with a volume, which he continued to peruse there till nightfall, making
+out the meaning of the more difficult words with the help of a pocket
+dictionary. From his sixth to his eleventh year he attended the school
+of Mr Simmons at Wigston, a village four miles from Arnesby. There his
+precocity assumed the exceptional form of an intense interest in
+metaphysics, partly perhaps on account of the restricted character of
+his father's library; and before he was nine years of age he had read
+and re-read Jonathan Edwards's _Treatise on the Will_ and Butler's
+_Analogy_. This incessant study at such an early period of life seems,
+however, to have had an injurious influence on his health. After he left
+Mr Simmons's school his appearance was so sickly as to awaken fears of
+the presence of phthisis. In order, therefore, to obtain the benefit of
+a change of air, he stayed for some time in the house of a gentleman
+near Kettering, who with an impropriety which Hall himself afterwards
+referred to as "egregious," prevailed upon the boy of eleven to give
+occasional addresses at prayer meetings. As his health seemed rapidly to
+recover, he was sent to a school at Northampton conducted by the Rev.
+John Ryland, where he remained a year and a half, and "made great
+progress in Latin and Greek." On leaving school he for some time studied
+divinity under the direction of his father, and in October 1778 he
+entered the Bristol academy for the preparation of students for the
+Baptist ministry. Here the self-possession which had enabled him in his
+twelfth year to address unfalteringly various audiences of grown-up
+people seems to have strangely forsaken him; for when, in accordance
+with the arrangements of the academy, his turn came to deliver an
+address in the vestry of Broadmead chapel, he broke down on two
+separate occasions and was unable to finish his discourse. On the 13th
+of August 1780 he was set apart to the ministry, but he still continued
+his studies at the academy; and in 1781, in accordance with the
+provisions of an exhibition which he held, he entered King's College,
+Aberdeen, where he took the degree of master of arts in March 1785. At
+the university he was without a rival of his own standing in any of the
+classes, distinguishing himself alike in classics, philosophy and
+mathematics. He there formed the acquaintance of Mackintosh (afterwards
+Sir James), who, though a year his junior in age, was a year his senior
+as a student. While they remained at Aberdeen the two were inseparable,
+reading together the best Greek authors, especially Plato, and
+discussing, either during their walks by the sea-shore and the banks of
+the Don or in their rooms until early morning, the most perplexed
+questions in philosophy and religion.
+
+During the vacation between his last two sessions at Aberdeen, Hall
+acted as assistant pastor to Dr Evans at Broadmead chapel, Bristol, and
+three months after leaving the university he was appointed classical
+tutor in the Bristol academy, an office which he held for more than five
+years. Even at this period his extraordinary eloquence had excited an
+interest beyond the bounds of the denomination to which he belonged, and
+when he preached the chapel was generally crowded to excess, the
+audience including many persons of intellectual tastes. Suspicions in
+regard to his orthodoxy having in 1789 led to a misunderstanding with
+his colleague and a part of the congregation, he in July 1790 accepted
+an invitation to make trial of a congregation at Cambridge, of which he
+became pastor in July of the following year. From a statement of his
+opinions contained in a letter to the congregation which he left, it
+would appear that, while a firm believer in the proper divinity of
+Christ, he had at this time disowned the cardinal principles of
+Calvinism--the federal headship of Adam, and the doctrine of absolute
+election and reprobation; and that he was so far a materialist as to
+"hold that man's thinking powers and faculties are the result of a
+certain organization of matter, and that after death he ceases to be
+conscious till the resurrection." It was during his Cambridge ministry,
+which extended over a period of fifteen years, that his oratory was most
+brilliant and most immediately powerful. At Cambridge the intellectual
+character of a large part of the audience supplied a stimulus which was
+wanting at Leicester and Bristol.
+
+His first published compositions had a political origin. In 1791
+appeared _Christianity consistent with the Love of Freedom_, in which he
+defended the political conduct of dissenters against the attacks of the
+Rev. John Clayton, minister of Weighhouse, and gave eloquent expression
+to his hopes of great political and social ameliorations as destined to
+result nearly or remotely from the subversion of old ideas and
+institutions in the maelstrom of the French Revolution. In 1793 he
+expounded his political sentiments in a powerful and more extended
+pamphlet entitled an _Apology for the Freedom of the Press_. On account,
+however, of certain asperities into which the warmth of his feelings had
+betrayed him, and his conviction that he had treated his subject in too
+superficial a manner, he refused to permit the publication of the
+pamphlet beyond the third edition, until the references of political
+opponents and the circulation of copies without his sanction induced him
+in 1821 to prepare a new edition, from which he omitted the attack on
+Bishop Horsley, and to which he prefixed an advertisement stating that
+his political opinions had undergone no substantial change. His other
+publications while at Cambridge were three sermons--_On Modern
+Infidelity_ (1801), _Reflections on War_ (1802), and _Sentiments proper
+to the present Crisis_ (1803). He began, however, to suffer from mental
+derangement in November 1804. He recovered so speedily that he was able
+to resume his duties in April 1805, but a recurrence of the malady
+rendered it advisable for him on his second recovery to resign his
+pastoral office in March 1806.
+
+On leaving Cambridge he paid a visit to his relatives in Leicestershire,
+and then for some time resided at Enderby, preaching occasionally in
+some of the neighbouring villages. Latterly he ministered to a small
+congregation in Harvey Lane, Leicester, from whom at the close of 1806
+he accepted a call to be their stated pastor. In the autumn of 1807 he
+changed his residence from Enderby to Leicester, and in 1808 he married
+the servant of a brother minister. His proposal of marriage had been
+made after an almost momentary acquaintance, and, according to the
+traditionary account, in very abrupt and peculiar terms; but, judging
+from his subsequent domestic life, his choice did sufficient credit to
+his penetration and sagacity. His writings at Leicester embraced various
+tracts printed for private circulation; a number of contributions to the
+_Eclectic Review_, among which may be mentioned his articles on
+"Foster's Essays" and on "Zeal without Innovation"; several sermons,
+including those _On the Advantages of Knowledge to the Lower Classes_
+(1810), _On the Death of the Princess Charlotte_ (1817), and _On the
+Death of Dr Ryland_ (1825); and his pamphlet on _Terms of Communion_, in
+which he advocated intercommunion with all those who acknowledged the
+"essentials" of Christianity. In 1819 he published an edition in one
+volume of his sermons formerly printed. On the death of Dr Ryland, Hall
+was invited to return to the pastorate of Broadmead chapel, Bristol, and
+as the peace of the congregation at Leicester had been to some degree
+disturbed by a controversy regarding several cases of discipline, he
+resolved to accept the invitation, and removed there in April 1826. The
+malady of renal calculus had for many years rendered his life an almost
+continual martyrdom, and henceforth increasing infirmities and
+sufferings afflicted him. Gradually the inability to take proper
+exercise, by inducing a plethoric habit of body and impeding the
+circulation, led to a diseased condition of the heart, which resulted in
+his death on the 21st of February 1831. He is remembered as a great
+pulpit orator, of a somewhat laboured, rhetorical style in his written
+works, but of undeniable vigour in his spoken sermons.
+
+  See _Works of Robert Hall, A.M., with a Brief Memoir of his Life, by
+  Olinthus Gregory, LL.D., and Observations on his Character as Preacher
+  by John Foster_, originally published in 6 vols. (London, 1832);
+  _Reminiscences of the Rev. Robert Hall, A.M._, by John Greene,
+  (London, 1832); _Biographical Recollections of the Rev. Robert Hall_,
+  by J. W. Morris (1848); _Fifty Sermons of Robert Hall from Notes taken
+  at the time of their Delivery_, by the Rev. Thomas Grinfield, M.A.
+  (1843); _Reminiscences of College Life in Bristol during the Ministry
+  of the Rev. Robert Hall, A.M._, by Frederick Trestrail (1879).
+
+
+
+
+HALL, SAMUEL CARTER (1800-1889), English journalist, was born at
+Waterford on the 9th of May 1800, the son of an army officer. In 1821 he
+went to London, and in 1823 became a parliamentary reporter. From 1826
+to 1837 he was editor of a great number and variety of public prints,
+and in 1839 he founded and edited _The Art Journal_. His exposure of the
+trade in bogus "Old Masters" earned for this publication a considerable
+reputation. Hall resigned the editorship in 1880, and was granted a
+Civil List pension "for his long and valuable services to literature and
+art." He died in London on the 16th of March 1889. His wife, Anna Maria
+Fielding (1800-1881), became well known as Mrs S. C. Hall, for her
+numerous novels, sketches of Irish life, and plays. Two of the last,
+_The Groves of Blarney_ and _The French Refugee_, were produced in
+London with success. She also wrote a number of children's books, and
+was practically interested in various London charities, several of which
+she helped to found.
+
+
+
+
+HALL, WILLIAM EDWARD (1835-1894), English writer on international law,
+was the only child of William Hall, M.D., a descendant of a junior
+branch of the Halls of Dunglass, and of Charlotte, daughter of William
+Cotton, F.S.A. He was born on the 22nd of August 1835, at Leatherhead,
+Surrey, but passed his childhood abroad, Dr Hall having acted as
+physician to the king of Hanover, and subsequently to the British
+legation at Naples. Hence, perhaps, the son's taste in after life for
+art and modern languages. He was educated privately till, at the early
+age of seventeen, he matriculated at Oxford, where in 1856 he took his
+degree with a first class in the then recently instituted school of law
+and history, gaining, three years afterwards, the chancellor's prize for
+an essay upon "the effect upon Spain of the discovery of the precious
+metals in America." In 1861 he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn,
+but devoted his time less to any serious attempt to obtain practice than
+to the study of Italian art, and to travelling over a great part of
+Europe, always bringing home admirable water-colour drawings of
+buildings and scenery. He was an early and enthusiastic member of the
+Alpine Club, making several first ascents, notably that of the Lyskamm.
+He was always much interested in military matters, and was under fire,
+on the Danish side, in the war of 1864. In 1867 he published a pamphlet
+entitled "A Plan for the Reorganization of the Army," and, many years
+afterwards, he saw as much as he was permitted to see of the expedition
+sent for the rescue of Gordon. He would undoubtedly have made his mark
+in the army, but in later life his ideal, which he realized, with much
+success, first at Llanfihangel in Monmouthshire, and then at Coker Court
+in Somersetshire, was, as has been said, "the English country gentleman,
+with cosmopolitan experiences, encyclopaedic knowledge, and artistic
+feeling." His travels took him to Lapland, Egypt, South America and
+India. He had done good work for several government offices, in 1871 as
+inspector of returns under the Elementary Education Act, in 1877 by
+reports to the Board of Trade upon Oyster Fisheries, in France as well
+as in England; and all the time was amassing materials for ambitious
+undertakings upon the history of civilization, and of the colonies. His
+title to lasting remembrance rests, however, upon his labours in the
+realm of international law, recognized by his election as _associe_ in
+1875, and as _membre_ in 1882, of the _Institut de Droit International_.
+In 1874 he published a thin 8vo upon the _Rights and Duties of
+Neutrals_, and followed it up in 1880 by his _magnum opus_, the
+_Treatise on International Law_, unquestionably the best book upon the
+subject in the English language. It is well planned, free from the
+rhetorical vagueness which has been the besetting vice of older books of
+a similar character, full of information, and everywhere bearing traces
+of the sound judgment and statesmanlike views of its author. In 1894
+Hall published a useful monograph upon a little-explored topic, "the
+Foreign Jurisdictions of the British Crown," but on the 30th of November
+of the same year, while apparently in the fullest enjoyment of bodily as
+well as mental vigour, he suddenly died. He married, in 1866, Imogen,
+daughter of Mr (afterwards Mr Justice) Grove, who died in 1886; and in
+1891, Alice, daughter of Colonel Hill of Court Hill, Shropshire, but
+left no issue.
+
+  See T. E. Holland in _Law Quarterly Review_, vol. xi. p. 113; and in
+  _Studies in International Law_, p. 302.     (T. E. H.)
+
+
+
+
+HALL, or BAD-HALL, a market-place and spa of Austria, in Upper Austria,
+25 m. S. of Linz by rail. Pop. (1900) 984. It is renowned for its saline
+springs, strongly impregnated with iodine and bromine, which are
+considered very efficacious in scrofulous affections and venereal skin
+diseases. Although the springs are known since the 8th century, Hall
+attained its actual importance only since 1855, when the springs became
+the property of the government. The number of visitors in 1901 was 4300.
+
+
+
+
+HALL (generally known as SCHWABISCH-HALL, to distinguish it from the
+small town of Hall in Tirol and Bad-Hall, a health resort in Upper
+Austria), a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wurttemberg, situated in
+a deep valley on both sides of the Kocher, and on the railway from
+Heilbronn to Krailsheim, 35 m. N.E. of Stuttgart. Pop. (1905) 9400. It
+possesses four Evangelical churches (of which the Michaeliskirche dates
+from the 15th century and has fine medieval carving), a Roman Catholic
+church, a handsome town hall and classical and modern schools. A short
+distance south from the town is the royal castle of Komburg, formerly a
+Benedictine abbey and now used as a garrison for invalid soldiers, with
+a church dating from the 12th century. The town is chiefly known for its
+production of salt, which is converted into brine and piped from
+Wilhelmsgluck mine, 5 m. distant. Connected with the salt-works there is
+a salt-bath and whey-diet establishment. The industries of the town also
+include cotton-spinning, iron founding, tanning, and the manufacture of
+soap, starch, brushes, machines, carriages and metal ware.
+
+Hall was early of importance on account of its salt-mines, which were
+held as a fief of the Empire by the so-called Salzgrafen (Salt-graves),
+of whom the earliest known, the counts of Westheim, had their seat in
+the castle of Hall. Later the town belonged to the Knights Templars. It
+was made a free imperial city in 1276 by Rudolph of Habsburg. In 1802 it
+came into the possession of Wurttemberg.
+
+
+
+
+HALL (O. E. _heall_, a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. _Halle_), a term
+which has two significations in England and is applied sometimes to the
+manor house, the residence of the lord of the manor, which implied a
+territorial possession, but more often to the entrance hall of a
+mansion. In the latter case it was the one large room in the feudal
+castle up to the middle of the 15th century, when it served as audience
+chamber, dining-room, and dormitory. The hall was generally a
+parallelogram on plan, with a raised dais at the farther end, a large
+bow window on one side, and in one or two cases on both sides. At the
+entrance end was a passage, which was separated from the hall by a
+partition screen often elaborately decorated, and over which was
+provided a minstrels' gallery; on the opposite side of the passage were
+the hatches communicating with the serveries. This arrangement is still
+found in some of the colleges at Oxford and Cambridge, such as those of
+New College, Christchurch, Wadham and Magdalen, Oxford, and in Trinity
+College, Cambridge. In private mansions, however, the kitchen and
+offices have been removed to a greater distance, and the great hall is
+only used for banquets. Among the more remarkable examples are the halls
+of Audley End; Hatfield; Brougham Castle; Hardwick; Knole Stanway in
+Gloucestershire; Wollaton, where it is situated in the centre of the
+mansion and lighted by clerestory windows; Burton Agnes in Yorkshire;
+Canons Ashley, Northamptonshire; Westwood Park, Worcestershire;
+Fountains, Yorkshire; Sydenham House, Devonshire; Cobham, Kent;
+Montacute, Somersetshire; Bolsover Castle, Derbyshire (vaulted and with
+two columns in the centre of the hall to carry the vault); Longford
+Castle, Wiltshire; Barlborough, Derbyshire; Rushton Hall,
+Northamptonshire, with a bow window at each end of the dais and a third
+bow window at the other end; Knole, Kent; and at Mayfield, Sussex (with
+stone arches across to carry the roof), now converted into a Roman
+Catholic chapel. Many of these halls have hammer-beam roofs, the most
+remarkable of which is found in the Middle Temple Hall, London, where
+both the tie and collar beams have hammer-beams. Of other halls,
+Westminster is the largest, being 238 ft. long; followed by the
+Banqueting Hall, Whitehall, 110 ft.; Wolsey's Hall, Hampton Court, 106
+ft.; the Egyptian Hall at the Mansion House; the hall at Lambeth, now
+the library; Crosby Hall; Gray's Inn Hall; the Guildhall; Charterhouse;
+and the following halls of the London City Companies--Clothworkers,
+Brewers, Goldsmiths, Fishmongers. The term hall is also given to the
+following English mansions:--Haddon, Hardwick, Apethorpe, Aston,
+Blickling, Brereton, Burton Agnes, Cobham, Dingley, Rushton, Kirby,
+Litford and Wollaton; and it was the name of some of the earlier
+colleges at Oxford and Cambridge, most of which have now been absorbed
+in other colleges, so that there remain only St Edmund's Hall, Oxford,
+and Trinity Hall, Cambridge.
+
+
+
+
+HALLAM, HENRY (1777-1859), English historian, was the only son of John
+Hallam, canon of Windsor and dean of Bristol, and was born on the 9th of
+July 1777. He was educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, where he
+graduated in 1799. Called to the bar, he practised for some years on the
+Oxford circuit; but his tastes were literary, and when, on the death of
+his father in 1812, he inherited a small estate in Lincolnshire, he gave
+himself up wholly to the studies of his life. He had early become
+connected with the brilliant band of authors and politicians who then
+led the Whig party, a connexion to which he owed his appointment to the
+well-paid and easy post of commissioner of stamps; but in practical
+politics, for which he was by nature unsuited, he took no active share.
+But he was an active supporter of many popular movements--particularly
+of that which ended in the abolition of the slave trade; and he was
+throughout his entire life sincerely and profoundly attached to the
+political principles of the Whigs, both in their popular and in their
+aristocratic aspect.
+
+Hallam's earliest literary work was undertaken in connexion with the
+great organ of the Whig party, the _Edinburgh Review_, where his review
+of Scott's _Dryden_ attracted much notice. His first great work, _The
+View of the State of Europe during the Middle Ages_, was produced in
+1818, and was followed nine years later by the _Constitutional History
+of England_. In 1838-1839 appeared the _Introduction to the Literature
+of Europe in the 15th, 16th and 17th Centuries_. These are the three
+works on which the fame of Hallam rests. They at once took a place in
+English literature which has never been seriously challenged. A volume
+of supplemental notes to his _Middle Ages_ was published in 1848. These
+facts and dates represent nearly all the events of Hallam's career. The
+strongest personal interest in his life was the affliction which befell
+him in the loss of his children, one after another. His eldest son,
+Arthur Henry Hallam,--the "A.H.H." of Tennyson's _In Memoriam_, and by
+the testimony of his contemporaries a man of the most brilliant
+promise,--died in 1833 at the age of twenty-two. Seventeen years later,
+his second son, Henry Fitzmaurice Hallam, was cut off like his brother
+at the very threshold of what might have been a great career. The
+premature death and high talents of these young men, and the association
+of one of them with the most popular poem of the age, have made Hallam's
+family afflictions better known than any other incidents of his life. He
+survived wife, daughter and sons by many years. In 1834 Hallam published
+_The Remains in Prose and Verse of Arthur Henry Hallam, with a Sketch of
+his Life_. In 1852 a selection of _Literary Essays and Characters_ from
+the _Literature of Europe_ was published. Hallam was a fellow of the
+Royal Society, and a trustee of the British Museum, and enjoyed many
+other appropriate distinctions. In 1830 he received the gold medal for
+history, founded by George IV. He died on the 21st of January 1859.
+
+The _Middle Ages_ is described by Hallam himself as a series of
+historical dissertations, a comprehensive survey of the chief
+circumstances that can interest a philosophical inquirer during the
+period from the 5th to the 15th century. The work consists of nine long
+chapters, each of which is a complete treatise in itself. The history of
+France, of Italy, of Spain, of Germany, and of the Greek and Saracenic
+empires, sketched in rapid and general terms, is the subject of five
+separate chapters. Others deal with the great institutional features of
+medieval society--the development of the feudal system, of the
+ecclesiastical system, and of the free political system of England. The
+last chapter sketches the general state of society, the growth of
+commerce, manners, and literature in the middle ages. The book may be
+regarded as a general view of early modern history, preparatory to the
+more detailed treatment of special lines of inquiry carried out in his
+subsequent works, although Hallam's original intention was to continue
+the work on the scale on which it had been begun.
+
+The _Constitutional History of England_ takes up the subject at the
+point at which it had been dropped in the _View of the Middle Ages_,
+viz. the accession of Henry VII.,[1] and carries it down to the
+accession of George III. Hallam stopped here for a characteristic
+reason, which it is impossible not to respect and to regret. He was
+unwilling to excite the prejudices of modern politics which seemed to
+him to run back through the whole period of the reign of George III. As
+a matter of fact they ran back much farther, as Hallam soon found. The
+sensitive impartiality which withheld him from touching perhaps the most
+interesting period in the history of the constitution did not save him
+from the charge of partisanship. The _Quarterly Review_ for 1828
+contains an article on the _Constitutional History_, written by Southey,
+full of railing and reproach. The work, he says, is the "production of a
+decided partisan," who "rakes in the ashes of long-forgotten and a
+thousand times buried slanders, for the means of heaping obloquy on all
+who supported the established institutions of the country." No
+accusation made by a critic ever fell so wide of the mark. Absolute
+justice is the standard which Hallam set himself and maintained. His
+view of constitutional history was that it should contain only so much
+of the political and general history of the time as bears directly on
+specific changes in the organization of the state, including therein
+judicial as well as ecclesiastical institutions. But while abstaining
+from irrelevant historical discussions, Hallam dealt with statesmen and
+policies with the calm and fearless impartiality of a judge. It was his
+cool treatment of such sanctified names as Charles, Cranmer and Laud
+that provoked the indignation of Southey and the _Quarterly_, who forgot
+that the same impartial measure was extended to statesmen on the other
+side. If Hallam can ever be said to have deviated from perfect fairness,
+it was in the tacit assumption that the 19th-century theory of the
+constitution was the right theory in previous centuries, and that those
+who departed from it on one side or the other were in the wrong. He did
+unconsciously antedate the constitution, and it is clear from incidental
+allusions in his last work that he did not regard with favour the
+democratic changes which he thought to be impending. Hallam, like
+Macaulay, ultimately referred all political questions to the standard of
+Whig constitutionalism. But though his work is thus, like that of many
+historians, coloured by his opinions, this was not the outcome of a
+conscious purpose, and he was scrupulously conscientious in collecting
+and weighing his materials. In this he was helped by his legal training,
+and it was doubtless this fact which made the _Constitutional History_
+one of the text-books of English politics, to which men of all parties
+appealed, and which, in spite of all the work of later writers, still
+leaves it a standard authority.
+
+Like the _Constitutional History_, the _Introduction to the Literature of
+Europe_ continues one of the branches of inquiry which had been opened in
+the _View of the Middle Ages_. In the first chapter of the _Literature_,
+which is to a great extent supplementary to the last chapter of the
+_Middle Ages_, Hallam sketches the state of literature in Europe down to
+the end of the 14th century: the extinction of ancient learning which
+followed the fall of the Roman empire and the rise of Christianity; the
+preservation of the Latin language in the services of the church; and the
+slow revival of letters, which began to show itself soon after the 7th
+century--"the _nadir_ of the human mind"--had been passed. For the first
+century and a half of his special period he is mainly occupied with a
+review of classical learning, and he adopts the plan of taking short
+decennial periods and noticing the most remarkable works which they
+produced. The rapid growth of literature in the 16th century compels him
+to resort to a classification of subjects. Thus in the period 1520-1550 we
+have separate chapters on ancient literature, theology, speculative
+philosophy and jurisprudence, the literature of taste, and scientific and
+miscellaneous literature; and the subdivisions of subjects is carried
+further of course in the later periods. Thus poetry, the drama and polite
+literature form the subjects of separate chapters. One inconvenient result
+of this arrangement is that the same author is scattered over many
+chapters, according as his works fall within this category or that period
+of time. Names like Shakespeare, Grotius, Bacon, Hobbes appear in half a
+dozen different places. The individuality of great authors is thus
+dissipated except when it has been preserved by an occasional sacrifice of
+the arrangement--and this defect, if it is to be esteemed a defect, is
+increased by the very sparing references to personal history and character
+with which Hallam was obliged to content himself. His plan excluded
+biographical history, nor is the work, he tells us, to be regarded as one
+of reference. It is rigidly an account of the books which would make a
+complete library of the period,[2] arranged according to the date of their
+publication and the nature of their subjects. The history of institutions
+like universities and academies, and that of great popular movements like
+the Reformation, are of course noticed in their immediate connexion with
+literary results; but Hallam had little taste for the spacious
+generalization which such subjects suggest. The great qualities displayed
+in this work have been universally acknowledged--conscientiousness,
+accuracy, judgment and enormous reading. Not the least striking testimony
+to Hallam's powers is his mastery over so many diverse forms of
+intellectual activity. In science and theology, mathematics and poetry,
+metaphysics and law, he is a competent and always a fair if not a profound
+critic. The bent of his own mind is manifest in his treatment of pure
+literature and of political speculation--which seems to be inspired with
+stronger personal interest and a higher sense of power than other parts of
+his work display. Not less worthy of notice in a literary history is the
+good sense by which both his learning and his tastes have been held in
+control. Probably no writer ever possessed a juster view of the relative
+importance of men and things. The labour devoted to an investigation is
+with Hallam no excuse for dwelling on the result, unless that is in itself
+important. He turns away contemptuously from the mere curiosities of
+literature, and is never tempted to make a display of trivial erudition.
+Nor do we find that his interest in special studies leads him to assign
+them a disproportionate place in his general view of the literature of a
+period.
+
+Hallam is generally described as a "philosophical historian." The
+description is justified not so much by any philosophical quality in his
+method as by the nature of his subject and his own temper. Hallam is a
+philosopher to this extent that both in political and in literary
+history he fixed his attention on results rather than on persons. His
+conception of history embraced the whole movement of society. Beside
+that conception the issue of battles and the fate of kings fall into
+comparative insignificance. "We can trace the pedigree of princes," he
+reflects, "fill up the catalogue of towns besieged and provinces
+desolated, describe even the whole pageantry of coronations and
+festivals, but we cannot recover the genuine history of mankind." But,
+on the other hand, there is no trace in Hallam of anything like a
+philosophy of history or society. Wise and generally melancholy
+reflections on human nature and political society are not infrequent in
+his writings, and they arise naturally and incidentally out of the
+subject he is discussing. His object is the attainment of truth in
+matters of fact. Sweeping theories of the movement of society, and broad
+characterizations of particular periods of history seem to have no
+attraction for him. The view of mankind on which such generalizations
+are usually based, taking little account of individual character, was
+highly distasteful to him. Thus he objects to the use of statistics
+because they favour that tendency to regard all men as mentally and
+morally equal which is so unhappily strong in modern times. At the same
+time Hallam by no means assumes the tone of the mere scholar. He is even
+solicitous to show that his point of view is that of the cultivated
+gentleman and not of the specialist of any order. Thus he tells us that
+Montaigne is the first French author whom an English gentleman is
+ashamed not to have read. In fact, allusions to the necessary studies of
+a gentleman meet us constantly, reminding us of the unlikely erudition
+of the schoolboy in Macaulay. Hallam's prejudices, so far as he had any,
+belong to the same character. His criticism is apt to assume a tone of
+moral censure when he has to deal with certain extremes of human
+thought--scepticism in philosophy, atheism in religion and democracy in
+politics.
+
+Hallam's style is singularly uniform throughout all his writings. It is
+sincere and straightforward, and obviously innocent of any motive beyond
+that of clearly expressing the writer's meaning. In the _Literature of
+Europe_ there are many passages of great imaginative beauty.     (E. R.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Lord Brougham, overlooking the constitutional chapter in the
+    _Middle Ages_, censured Hallam for making an arbitrary beginning at
+    this point, and proposed to write a more complete history himself.
+
+  [2] Technical subjects like painting or English law have been
+    excluded by Hallam, and history and theology only partially treated.
+
+
+
+
+HALLAM, ROBERT (d. 1417), bishop of Salisbury and English representative
+at the council of Constance, was educated at Oxford, and was chancellor
+of the university from 1403 to 1405. In the latter year the pope
+nominated him to be archbishop of York, but the king objected. However,
+in 1407 he was consecrated by Gregory XII. at Siena as bishop of
+Salisbury. At the council of Pisa in 1409 he was one of the English
+representatives. On the 6th of June 1411 Pope John XXIII. made Hallam a
+cardinal, but there was some irregularity, and his title was not
+recognized. At the council of Constance (q.v.), which met in November
+1414, Hallam was the chief English envoy. There he at once took a
+prominent position, as an advocate of the cause of Church reform, and of
+the superiority of the council to the pope. In the discussions which led
+up to the deposition of John XXIII. on the 29th of May 1415 he had a
+leading share. With the trials of John Hus and Jerome of Prague he had
+less concern. The emperor Sigismund, through whose influence the council
+had been assembled, was absent during the whole of 1416 on a diplomatic
+mission in France and England; but when he returned to Constance in
+January 1417, as the open ally of the English king, Hallam as Henry's
+trusted representative obtained increased importance. Hallam contrived
+skilfully to emphasize English prestige by delivering the address of
+welcome to Sigismund on his formal reception. Afterwards, under his
+master's direction, he gave the emperor vigorous support in the
+endeavour to secure a reform of the Church, before the council proceeded
+to the election of a new pope. This matter was still undecided when
+Hallam died suddenly, on the 4th of September 1417. After his death the
+direction of the English nation fell into less skilful hands, with the
+result that the cardinals were able to secure the immediate election of
+a new pope (Martin V., elected on the 11th of November). It has been
+supposed that the abandonment of the reformers by the English was due
+entirely to Hallam's death; but it is more likely that Henry V.,
+foreseeing the possible need for a change of front, had given Hallam
+discretionary powers which the bishop's successors used with too little
+judgment. Hallam himself, who had the confidence of Sigismund and was
+generally respected for his straightforward independence, might have
+achieved a better result. Hallam was buried in the cathedral at
+Constance, where his tomb near the high altar is marked by a brass of
+English workmanship.
+
+  For the acts of the council of Constance see H. von der Hardt's
+  _Concilium Constantiense_, and H. Finke's _Acta concilii
+  Constanciensis_. For a modern account see Mandell Creighton's _History
+  of the Papacy_ (6 vols., London, 1897).     (C. L. K.)
+
+
+
+
+HALLE, SIR CHARLES (originally KARL HALLE) (1819-1895), English pianist
+and conductor, German by nationality, was born at Hagen, in Westphalia,
+on the 11th of April 1819. He studied under Rink at Darmstadt in 1835,
+and as early as 1836 went to Paris, where for twelve years he lived in
+constant intercourse with Cherubini, Chopin, Liszt and other musicians,
+and enjoyed the friendship of such great literary figures as Alfred de
+Musset and George Sand. He had started a set of chamber concerts with
+Alard and Franchomme with great success, and had completed one series of
+them when the revolution of 1848 drove him from Paris, and he settled,
+with his wife and two children, in London. His pianoforte recitals,
+given at first from 1850 in his own house, and from 1861 in St James's
+Hall, were an important feature of London musical life, and it was due
+in great measure to them that a knowledge of Beethoven's pianoforte
+sonatas became general in English society. At the Musical Union founded
+by John Ella, and at the Popular Concerts from their beginning, Halle
+was a frequent performer, and from 1853 was director of the Gentlemen's
+Concerts in Manchester, where, in 1857, he started a series of concerts
+of his own, raising the orchestra to a pitch of perfection quite unknown
+at that time in England. In 1888 he married Madame Norman Neruda (b.
+1839), the violinist, widow of Ludwig Norman, and daughter of Josef
+Neruda, members of whose family had long been famous for musical talent.
+In the same year he was knighted; and in 1890 and 1891 he toured with
+his wife in Australia and elsewhere. He died at Manchester on the 25th
+of October 1895. Halle exercised an important influence in the musical
+education of England; if his pianoforte-playing, by which he was mainly
+known to the public in London, seemed remarkable rather for precision
+than for depth, for crystal clearness rather than for warmth, and for
+perfect realization of the written text rather than for strong
+individuality, it was at least of immense value as giving the
+composer's idea with the utmost fidelity. Those who were privileged to
+hear him play in private, like those who could appreciate the power,
+beauty and imaginative warmth of his conducting, would have given a very
+different verdict; and they were not wrong in judging Halle to be a man
+of the widest and keenest artistic sympathies, with an extraordinary
+gift of insight into music of every school, as well as a strong sense of
+humour. He fought a long and arduous battle for the best music, and
+never forgot the dignity of his art. In spite of the fact that his
+technique was that of his youth, of the period before Liszt, the ease
+and certainty he attained in the most modern music was not the less
+wonderful because he concealed the mechanical means so completely.
+
+Lady Halle, who from 1864 onwards had been one of the leading solo
+violinists of the time, was constantly associated with her husband on
+the concert stage till his death; and in 1896 a public subscription was
+organized in her behalf, under royal patronage. She continued to appear
+occasionally in public, notably as late as 1907, when she played at the
+Joachim memorial concert. In 1901 she was given by Queen Alexandra the
+title of "violinist to the queen." A fine classical player and artist,
+frequently associated with Joachim, Lady Halle was the first of the
+women violinists who could stand comparison with men.
+
+
+
+
+HALLE (known as HALLE-AN-DER-SAALE, to distinguish it from the small
+town of Halle in Westphalia), a town of Germany, in the Prussian
+province of Saxony, situated in a sandy plain on the right bank of the
+Saale, which here divides into several arms, 21 m. N.W. from Leipzig by
+the railway to Magdeburg. Pop. (1875), 60,503; (1885) 81,982; (1895)
+116,304; (1905) 160,031. Owing to its situation at the junction of six
+important lines of railway, bringing it into direct communication with
+Berlin, Breslau, Leipzig, Frankfort-on-Main, the Harz country and
+Hanover, it has greatly developed in size and in commercial and
+industrial importance. It consists of the old, or inner, town surrounded
+by promenades, which occupy the site of the former fortifications, and
+beyond these of two small towns, Glaucha in the south and Neumarkt in
+the north, and five rapidly increasing suburbs. The inner town is
+irregularly built and presents a somewhat unattractive appearance, but
+it has been much improved and modernized by the laying out of new
+streets.
+
+The centre of the town proper is occupied by the imposing market square,
+on which stand the fine medieval town hall (restored in 1883) and the
+handsome Gothic Marienkirche, dating mainly from the 16th century, with
+two towers connected by a bridge. In the middle of the square are a
+clock-tower (_Der rote Turm_) 276 ft. in height, and a bronze statue of
+Handel, the composer, a native of Halle. West of the market-square lies
+the Halle, or the Tal, where the brine springs (see below) issue. Among
+the eleven churches, nine Protestant and two Roman Catholic, may also be
+mentioned the St Moritzkirche, dating from the 12th century, with fine
+wood carvings and sculptures, and the cathedral (belonging since 1689 to
+the Reformed or Calvinistic church), built in the 16th century and
+containing an altar-piece representing Duke Augustus of Saxony and his
+family. Of secular buildings the most noticeable are the ruins of the
+castle of Moritzburg, formerly a citadel and the residence of the
+archbishops of Magdeburg, destroyed by fire in the Thirty Years' War,
+with the exception of the left wing now used for military purposes, the
+university buildings, the theatre and the new railway station. The
+famous university was founded by the elector Frederick III. of
+Brandenburg (afterwards king of Prussia), in 1694, on behalf of the
+jurist, Christian Thomasius (1655-1728), whom many students followed to
+Halle, when he was expelled from Leipzig through the enmity of his
+fellow professors. It was closed by Napoleon in 1806 and again in 1813,
+but in 1815 was re-established and augmented by the removal to it of the
+university of Wittenberg, with which it thus became united. It has
+faculties of theology, law, medicine and philosophy. From the first it
+has been recognized as one of the principal seats of Protestant
+theology, originally of the pietistic and latterly of the rationalistic
+and critical school. In connexion with the university there are a
+botanical garden, a theological seminary, anatomical, pathological and
+physical institutes, hospitals, an agricultural institute--one of the
+foremost institutions of the kind in Germany--a meteorological
+institute, an observatory and a library of 180,000 printed volumes and
+800 manuscripts. Among other educational establishments must be
+mentioned the Francke'sche Stiftungen, founded in 1691 by August Hermann
+Francke (1663-1727), a bronze statue of whom by Rauch was erected in
+1829 in the inner court of the building. They embrace an orphanage, a
+laboratory where medicines are prepared and distributed, a Bible press
+from which Bibles are issued at a cheap rate, and eight schools of
+various grades, attended in all by over 3000 pupils. The other principal
+institutions are the city gymnasium, the provincial lunatic asylum, the
+prison, the town hospital and infirmary, and the deaf and dumb
+institute. The salt-springs of Halle have been known from a very early
+period. Some rise within the town and others on an island in the Saale;
+and together their annual yield of salt is about 8500 tons.
+
+The workmen employed at the salt-works are of a peculiar race and are
+known as the _Halloren_. They have been usually regarded as descendants
+of the original Wendish inhabitants, or as Celtic immigrants, with an
+admixture of Frankish elements. They wear a distinct dress, the ordinary
+costume of about 1700, observe several ancient customs, and enjoy
+certain exemptions and privileges derived from those of the ancient
+_Pfannerschaft_ (community of the salt-panners).
+
+Among the other industries of Halle are sugar refining, machine
+building, the manufacture of spirits, malt, chocolate, cocoa,
+confectionery, cement, paper, chicory, lubricating and illuminating oil,
+wagon grease, carriages and playing cards, printing, dyeing and coal
+mining (soft brown coal). The trade, which is supervised by a chamber of
+commerce, is very considerable, the principal exports being machinery,
+raw sugar and petroleum. Halle is also noted as the seat of several
+important publishing firms. The Bibelanstalt (Bible institution) of von
+Castein is the central authority for the revision of Luther's Bible, of
+which it sells annually from 60,000 to 70,000 copies.
+
+  Halle is first mentioned as a fortress erected on the Saale in 806 by
+  Charles, son of Charlemagne, during his expedition against the Sorbs.
+  The place was, however, known long before, and owes its origin as well
+  as its name to the salt springs (_Halis_). In 968 Halle, with the
+  valuable salt works, was given by the emperor Otto I. to the newly
+  founded archdiocese of Magdeburg, and in 981 Otto II. gave it a
+  charter as a town. The interests of the archbishop were watched over
+  by a _Vogt (advocatus)_ and a burgrave, and from the first there were
+  separate jurisdictions for the Halloren and the German settlers in the
+  town, the former being under that of the _Salzgraf_ (comes salis), the
+  latter of a _Schultheiss_ or bailiff, both subordinate to the
+  burgrave. The conflict of interests and jurisdictions led to the usual
+  internecine strife during the middle ages. The panners (_Pfanner_) of
+  the Tal, feudatories or officials, became a close hereditary
+  aristocracy in perpetual rivalry with the gilds in the town; and both
+  resisted the pretensions of the archbishops. At the beginning of the
+  12th century Halle had attained considerable importance, and in the
+  13th and 14th centuries as a member of the Hanseatic League it carried
+  on successful wars with the archbishops of Magdeburg; and in 1435 it
+  resisted an army of 30,000 men under the elector of Saxony. Its
+  liberty perished, however, as a result of the internal feud between
+  the democratic gilds and the patrician panners. On the 20th of
+  September 1478 a demagogue and cobbler named Jakob Weissak, a member
+  of the town council, with his confederates opened the gates to the
+  soldiers of the archbishop. The townsmen were subdued, and to hold
+  them in check the archbishop, Ernest of Saxony, built the castle of
+  Moritzburg. Notwithstanding the efforts of the archbishops of Mainz
+  and Magdeburg, the Reformation found an entrance into the city in
+  1522; and in 1541 a Lutheran superintendent was appointed. After the
+  peace of Westphalia in 1648 the city came into the possession of the
+  house of Brandenburg. In 1806 it was stormed and taken by the French,
+  after which, at the peace of Tilsit, it was united to the new kingdom
+  of Westphalia. After the battle between the Prussians and French, in
+  May 1813, it was taken by the Prussians. The rise of Leipzig was for a
+  long time hurtful to the prosperity of Halle, and its present rapid
+  increase in population and trade is principally due to its position as
+  the centre of a network of railways.
+
+  See Dreyhaupt, _Ausfuhrliche Beschreibung des Saalkreises_ (Halle, 2
+  vols., 1755; 3rd edition, 1842-1844); Hoffbauer, _Geschichte der
+  Universitat zu Halle_ (1806); _Halle in Vorzeit und Gegenwart_ (1851);
+  Knauth, _Kurze Geschichte und Beschreibung der Stadt Halle_ (3rd ed.,
+  1861); vom Hagen, _Die Stadt Halle_ (1866-1867); Hertzberg,
+  _Geschichte der Vereinigung der Universitaten von Wittenberg und
+  Halle_ (1867); Voss, _Zur Geschichte der Autonomie der Stadt Halle_
+  (1874); Schrader, _Geschichte der Friedrichs-Universitat zu Halle_
+  (Berlin, 1894); Karl Hegel, _Stadte und Gilden der germanischen
+  Volker_ (Leipzig, 1891), ii. 444-449.
+
+
+
+
+HALLECK, FITZ-GREENE (1790-1867), American poet, was born at Guilford,
+Connecticut, on the 8th of July 1790. By his mother he was descended
+from John Eliot, the "Apostle to the Indians." At an early age he became
+clerk in a store at Guilford, and in 1811 he entered a banking-house in
+New York. Having made the acquaintance of Joseph Rodman Drake, in 1819
+he assisted him under the signature of "Croaker junior" in contributing
+to the New York _Evening Post_ the humorous series of "Croaker Papers."
+In 1821 he published his longest poem, _Fanny_, a satire on local
+politics and fashions in the measure of Byron's _Don Juan_. He visited
+Europe in 1822-1823, and after his return published anonymously in 1827
+_Alnwick Castle, with other Poems_. From 1832 to 1841 he was
+confidential agent of John Jacob Astor, who named him one of the
+trustees of the Astor library. In 1864 he published in the _New York
+Ledger_ a poem of 300 lines entitled "Young America." He died at
+Guilford, on the 19th of November 1867. The poems of Halleck are written
+with great care and finish, and manifest the possession of a fine sense
+of harmony and of genial and elevated sentiments.
+
+  His _Life and Letters_, by James Grant Wilson, appeared in 1869. His
+  _Poetical Writings_, together with extracts from those of Joseph
+  Rodman Drake, were edited by Wilson in the same year.
+
+
+
+
+HALLECK, HENRY WAGER (1815-1872), American general and jurist, was born
+at Westernville, Oneida county, N.Y., in 1815, entered the West Point
+military academy at the age of twenty, and on graduating in 1839 was
+appointed to the engineers, becoming at the same time assistant
+professor of engineering at the academy. In the following year he was
+made an assistant to the Board of Engineers at Washington, from 1841 to
+1846 he was employed on the defence works at New York, and in 1845 he
+was sent by the government to visit the principal military
+establishments of Europe. After his return, Halleck delivered a course
+of lectures on the science of war, published in 1846 under the title
+_Elements of Military Art and Science_. A later edition of this work was
+widely used as a text-book by volunteer officers during the Civil War.
+On the outbreak of the Mexican War in 1846, he served with the
+expedition to California and the Pacific coast, in which he
+distinguished himself not only as an engineer, but by his skill in civil
+administration and by his good conduct before the enemy. He served for
+several years in California as a staff officer, and as secretary of
+state under the military government, and in 1849 he helped to frame the
+state constitution of California, on its being admitted into the Union.
+In 1852 he was appointed inspector and engineer of lighthouses, and in
+1853 was employed in the fortification of the Pacific coast. In 1854
+Captain Halleck resigned his commission and took up the practice of law
+with great success. He was also director of a quicksilver mine, and in
+1855 he became president of the Pacific & Atlantic railway. On the
+outbreak of the Civil War he returned to the army as a major-general,
+and in November 1861 he was charged with the supreme command in the
+western theatre of war. There can be no question that his administrative
+skill was mainly instrumental in bringing order out of chaos in the
+hurried formation of large volunteer armies in 1861, but the strategical
+and tactical successes of the following spring were due rather to the
+skill and activity of his subordinate generals Grant, Buell and Pope,
+than to the plans of the supreme commander, and when he assumed command
+of the united forces of these three generals before Corinth, the
+methodical slowness of his advance aroused much criticism. In July,
+however, he was called to Washington as general-in-chief of the armies.
+At headquarters his administrative powers were conspicuous, but he
+proved to be utterly wanting in any large grasp of the military problem;
+the successive reverses of Generals McClellan, Pope, Burnside and Hooker
+in Virginia were not infrequently traceable to the defects of the
+general-in-chief. No co-ordination of the military efforts of the Union
+was seriously undertaken by Halleck, and eventually in March 1864 Grant
+was appointed to replace him, Major-General Halleck becoming chief of
+staff at Washington. This post he occupied with credit until the end of
+the war. In April 1865 he held the command of the military division of
+the James and in August of the same year of the military division of the
+Pacific, which he retained till June 1869, when he was transferred to
+that of the South, a position he held till his death at Louisville, Ky.,
+on the 9th of January 1872. Halleck's position as a soldier is easily
+defined by bis uniform success as an administrative official, his
+equally uniform want of success as an officer at the head of large
+armies in the field, and the popularity of his theoretical writings on
+war. His influence, for good or evil, on the course of the greatest war
+of modern times was greater than that of any soldier on either side save
+Grant and Lee, and whilst his interference with the dispositions of the
+commanders in the field was often disastrous, his services in organizing
+and instructing the Union forces were always of the highest value, and
+in this respect he was indispensable.
+
+  Besides _Military Art and Science_, Halleck wrote _Bitumen, its
+  Varieties, Properties and Uses_ (1841); _The Mining Laws of Spain and
+  Mexico_ (1859); _International Law_ (1861; new edition, 1908); and
+  _Treatise on International Law and the Laws of War, prepared for the
+  use of Schools and Colleges_, abridged from the larger work. He
+  translated Jomini's _Vie politique et militaire de Napoleon_ (1864)
+  and de Fooz _On the Law of Mines_ (1860). The works on international
+  law mentioned above entitle General Halleck to be considered as one of
+  the great jurists of the 19th century.
+
+
+
+
+HALLEFLINTA (a Swedish word meaning rock-flint), a white, grey, yellow,
+greenish or pink, fine-grained rock consisting of an intimate mixture of
+quartz and felspar. Many examples are banded or striated; others contain
+porphyritic crystals of quartz which resemble those of the felsites and
+porphyries. Mica, iron oxides, apatite, zircon, epidote and hornblende
+may also be present in small amount. The more micaceous varieties form
+transitions to granulite and gneiss. Halleflinta under the microscope is
+very finely crystalline, or even cryptocrystalline, resembling the
+felsitic matrix of many acid rocks. It is essentially metamorphic and
+occurs with gneisses, schists and granulites, especially in the
+Scandinavian peninsula, where it is regarded as being very
+characteristic of certain horizons. Of its original nature there is some
+doubt, but its chemical composition and the occasional presence of
+porphyritic crystals indicate that it has affinities to the fine-grained
+acid intrusive rocks. In this group there may also have been placed
+metamorphosed acid tuffs and a certain number of adinoles (shales,
+contact altered by intrusions of diabase). The assemblage is not a
+perfectly homogeneous one but includes both igneous and sedimentary
+rocks, but the former preponderate. Rocks very similar to the typical
+Swedish halleflintas occur in Tirol, in Galicia and eastern Bohemia.
+
+
+
+
+HALLEL (Heb. [Hebrew: hallel] a Mishnic derivative from [Hebrew: hillel]
+hillel, "to praise"), a term in synagogal liturgy for (a) Psalms
+cxiii.-cxviii., often called "the Egyptian Hallel" because of its
+recitation during the paschal meal on the night of the Passover, (b)
+Psalm cxxxvi. "the Great Hallel." C. A. Briggs[1] points out that the
+term "Hallelujah" (Praise ye Yah) is found at the close of Pss. civ.,
+cv., cxv., cxvi., cxvii., at the beginning of Pss. cxi., cxii. and at
+both ends of Pss. cvi., cxiii., cxxxv., cxlvi. to cl. The Septuagint
+also gives it at the beginning of Pss. cv., cvii., cxiv., cxvi. to
+cxix., cxxxvi. There are thus four groups of Hallel psalms:--civ.-cvii.
+(a tetralogy on creation, the patriarchal age, the Exodus, and the
+Restoration); cxi.-cxvii. which includes most of the "Egyptian Hallel";
+cxxxv.-cxxxvi.; cxlvi.-cl. All of these Hallels (except cxlvii. and
+cxlix. which are Maccabean) belong to the Greek period, forming a
+collection of sixteen psalms composed for public use by the choirs,
+especially at the great feasts. Their distribution into four groups was
+the work of the final editor of the psalter. Later liturgical use
+regarded Pss. cxviii. and even cxix. as Hallels, as well as Pss. cxx. to
+cxxxiv.
+
+It will be observed that the extent of the official Hallel varied from
+time to time. It would appear that in the time of Gamaliel (_Pesahim_
+x. 5) the custom of its recitation at the paschal meal was still of
+recent innovation. While the school of Shammai advised only Ps. cxiii.,
+the school of Hillel favoured Pss. cxiii. and cxiv.[2] The further
+extension so as to include Pss. cxv. to cxviii. probably dates from the
+first half of the 2nd century A.D., and these four psalms were recited
+after the pouring out of the fourth cup, the two earlier ones being
+taken at the beginning of the meal. From the 3rd century the use of the
+Hallel was extended to other occasions, and was gradually incorporated
+into the liturgy of eighteen festal days.
+
+The "Great Hallel" (Ps. cxxxvi. and its later extension to cxx.-cxxxvi.)
+always served the wider purpose of a more general thanksgiving.
+According to Rabbi Johanan it derived its name from the allusion in v.
+25 to the Holy One who sits in heaven and thence distributes food to all
+bis creatures.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _International Critical Commentary_, "Psalms," Intro. lxxviii.
+
+  [2] The reference to a hymn at the institution of the Eucharist
+    (Matt. xxvi. 30, Mark xiv. 26) must be interpreted in the light of
+    this inceptive stage of the Hallel.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 12, Slice 7, by Various
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