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diff --git a/38401-8.txt b/38401-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..87e8e60 --- /dev/null +++ b/38401-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,17144 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 12, Slice 7, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 12, Slice 7 + "Gyantse" to "Hallel" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: December 24, 2011 [EBook #38401] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 12 SLICE 7 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol, [oo] for infinity, and [alpha], + [beta], etc. for greek letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE GYROSCOPE AND GYROSTAT: "... in such a manner that a point + on the pendulum at a distance ..." ''pendulum'' amended from + ''pedulum''. + + ARTICLE GYROSCOPE AND GYROSTAT: "Interpreted geometrically on the + deformable hyperboloid, flattened in the plane of the focal ellipse + ..." ''hyperboloid'' amended from ''hyperboloia''. + + ARTICLE HAEMOSPORIDIA: "... this does not represent reserve + material, but is an excreted by-product derived from the + haemoglobin." ''by-product'' amended from ''bye-product''. + + ARTICLE HALIFAX, GEORGE MONTAGU DUNK: "About this time he sought to + become a secretary of state, but in vain, although he was allowed + to enter the cabinet in 1757." ''become'' amended from ''became''. + + ARTICLE HÄLLEFLINTA: "Rocks very similar to the typical Swedish + hälleflintas occur in Tirol, in Galicia and eastern Bohemia." + ''similar'' amended from ''similiar?''. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME XII, SLICE VII + + Gyantse to Hallel + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + GYANTSE HAHNEMANN, SAMUEL CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH + GYGES HAHN-HAHN, IDA + GYLIPPUS HAI + GYLLEMBOURG-EHRENSVÄRD, CHRISTINE HAIBAK + GYLLENSTJERNA, JOHAN HAIDA + GYMKHANA HAIDINGER, WILHELM KARL + GYMNASTICS AND GYMNASIUM HAIDUK + GYMNOSOPHISTS HAIFA + GYMNOSPERMS HAIK + GYMNOSTOMACEAE HAIL + GYMPIE HAILES, DAVID DALRYMPLE + GYNAECEUM HAILSHAM + GYNAECOLOGY HAINAN + GYÖNGYÖSI, ISTVÁN HAINAU + GYÖR HAINAUT + GYP HAINBURG + GYPSUM HAINICHEN + GYROSCOPE AND GYROSTAT HAI-PHONG + GYTHIUM HAIR + GYULA-FEHÉRVÁR HAIR-TAIL + H HAITI + HAAG, CARL HAJIPUR + HAAKON HAJJ + HAARLEM HAJJI KHALIFA + HAARLEM LAKE HAKE, EDWARD + HAASE, FRIEDRICH HAKE, THOMAS GORDON + HAASE, FRIEDRICH GOTTLOB HAKE + HAAST, SIR JOHANN JULIUS VON HAKKAS + HABABS HAKLUYT, RICHARD + HABAKKUK HAKODATE + HABDALA HAL + HABEAS CORPUS HALA + HABERDASHER HALAESA + HABINGTON, WILLIAM HALAKHA + HABIT HALBERSTADT + HABITAT HALBERT + HABSBURG HALDANE, JAMES ALEXANDER + HACHETTE, JEAN NICOLAS PIERRE HALDANE, RICHARD BURDON + HACHETTE, JEANNE HALDANE, ROBERT + HACHETTE, LOUIS FRANÇOIS HALDEMAN, SAMUEL STEHMAN + HACHURE HALDIMAND, SIR FREDERICK + HACIENDA HALE, EDWARD EVERETT + HACKBERRY HALE, HORATIO + HACKENSACK HALE, JOHN PARKER + HACKET, JOHN HALE, SIR MATTHEW + HACKETT, HORATIO BALCH HALE, NATHAN + HACKETT, JAMES HENRY HALE, WILLIAM GARDNER + HACKLÄNDER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM VON HALEBID + HACKNEY (borough of London) HALES, JOHN (d. 1571) + HACKNEY (riding-horse) HALES, JOHN (1584-1656) + HADAD HALES, STEPHEN + HADDINGTON, EARL OF HALESOWEN + HADDINGTON HALEVI, JUDAH BEN SAMUEL + HADDINGTONSHIRE HALÉVY, JACQUES FRANÇOIS ÉLIE + HADDOCK HALÉVY, LUDOVIC + HADDON HALL HALFPENNY, WILLIAM + HADEN, SIR FRANCIS SEYMOUR HALF-TIMBER WORK + HADENDOA HALFWAY COVENANT + HADERSLEBEN HALHED, NATHANIEL BRASSEY + HADING, JANE HALIBURTON, THOMAS CHANDLER + HADLEIGH HALIBUT + HADLEY, ARTHUR TWINING HALICARNASSUS + HADLEY, JAMES HALICZ + HADLEY HALIFAX, CHARLES MONTAGUE + HADRAMUT HALIFAX, GEORGE MONTAGU DUNK + HADRIA HALIFAX, GEORGE SAVILE + HADRIAN HALIFAX (Canada) + HADRIAN'S WALL HALIFAX (Yorkshire, England) + HADRUMETUM HALISAH + HAECKEL, ERNST HEINRICH HALKETT, HUGH + HAEMATITE HALL, BASIL + HAEMATOCELE HALL, CARL CHRISTIAN + HAEMOPHILIA HALL, CHARLES FRANCIS + HAEMORRHAGE HALL, CHRISTOPHER NEWMAN + HAEMORRHOIDS HALL, EDWARD + HAEMOSPORIDIA HALL, FITZEDWARD + HAETZER, LUDWIG HALL, ISAAC HOLLISTER + HAFIZ HALL, SIR JAMES + HAG HALL, JAMES (American judge) + HAGEDORN, FRIEDRICH VON HALL, JAMES (American geologist) + HAGEN, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH VON DER HALL, JOSEPH + HAGEN HALL, MARSHALL + HAGENAU HALL, ROBERT + HAGENBACH, KARL RUDOLF HALL, SAMUEL CARTER + HAGENBECK, CARL HALL, WILLIAM EDWARD + HAGERSTOWN HALL (spa of Austria) + HAG-FISH HALL (town of Germany) + HAGGADA HALL (of a mansion) + HAGGAI HALLAM, HENRY + HAGGARD, HENRY RIDER HALLAM, ROBERT + HAGGIS HALLÉ, SIR CHARLES + HAGIOLOGY HALLE + HAGIOSCOPE HALLECK, FITZ-GREENE + HAGONOY HALLECK, HENRY WAGER + HAGUE, THE HÄLLEFLINTA + HAHN, AUGUST HALLEL + + + + +GYANTSE, one of the large towns of Tibet. It lies S.E. of Shigatse, 130 +m. from the Indian frontier and 145 m. from Lhasa. Its central position +at the junction of the roads from India and Bhutan with those from +Ladakh and Central Asia leading to Lhasa makes it a considerable +distributing trade centre. Its market is the third largest in Tibet, +coming after Lhasa and Shigatse, and is especially celebrated for its +woollen cloth and carpet manufactures. Here caravans come from Ladakh, +Nepal and upper Tibet, bringing gold, borax, salt, wool, musk and furs, +to exchange for tea, tobacco, sugar, cotton goods, broadcloth and +hardware. The town is compactly built of stone houses, with wooden +balconies facing the main street, whence narrow lanes strike off into +uninviting slums, and contains a fort and monastery. In the British +expedition of 1904 Gyantse formed the first objective of the advance, +and the force was besieged here in the mission post of Changlo for some +time. The Tibetans made a night attack on the post, and were beaten off +with some difficulty, but subsequently the British attacked and stormed +the fort or jong. Under the treaty of 1904 a British trade agent is +stationed at Gyantse. + + + + +GYGES, founder of the third or Mermnad dynasty of Lydian kings, he +reigned 687-652 B.C. according to H. Geizer, 690-657 B.C. according to +H. Winckler. The chronology of the Lydian kings given by Herodotus has +been shown by the Assyrian inscriptions to be about twenty years in +excess. Gyges was the son of Dascylus, who, when recalled from +banishment in Cappadocia by the Lydian king Sadyattes--called Candaules +"the Dog-strangler" (a title of the Lydian Hermes) by the Greeks--sent +his son back to Lydia instead of himself. Gyges soon became a favourite +of Sadyattes and was despatched by him to fetch Tudo, the daughter of +Arnossus of Mysia, whom the Lydian king wished to make his queen. On the +way Gyges fell in love with Tudo, who complained to Sadyattes of his +conduct. Forewarned that the king intended to punish him with death, +Gyges assassinated Sadyattes in the night and seized the throne with the +help of Arselis of Mylasa, the captain of the Carian bodyguard, whom he +had won over to his cause. Civil war ensued, which was finally ended by +an appeal to the oracle of Delphi and the confirmation of the right of +Gyges to the crown by the Delphian god. Further to secure his title he +married Tudo. Many legends were told among the Greeks about his rise to +power. That found in Herodotus, which may be traced to the poet +Archilochus of Paros, described how "Candaules" insisted upon showing +Gyges his wife when unrobed, which so enraged her that she gave Gyges +the choice of murdering her husband and making himself king, or of being +put to death himself. Plato made Gyges a shepherd, who discovered a +magic ring by means of which he murdered his master and won the +affection of his wife (Hdt. i. 8-14; Plato, _Rep._ 359; Justin i. 7; +Cicero, _De off._ iii. 9). Once established on the throne Gyges devoted +himself to consolidating his kingdom and making it a military power. The +Troad was conquered, Colophon captured from the Greeks, Smyrna besieged +and alliances entered into with Ephesus and Miletus. The Cimmerii, who +had ravaged Asia Minor, were beaten back, and an embassy was sent to +Assur-bani-pal at Nineveh (about 650 B.C.) in the hope of obtaining his +help against the barbarians. The Assyrians, however, were otherwise +engaged, and Gyges turned to Egypt, sending his faithful Carian troops +along with Ionian mercenaries to assist Psammetichus in shaking off the +Assyrian yoke (660 B.C.). A few years later he fell in battle against +the Cimmerii under Dugdamme (called Lygdamis by Strabo i. 3. 21), who +took the lower town of Sardis. Gyges was succeeded by his son Ardys. + + See Nicolaus Damascenus, quoting from the Lydian historian Xanthus, in + C. Müller, _Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum_, iii.; R. Schubert, + _Geschichte der Könige von Lydien_ (1884); M. G. Radet, _La Lydie et + le monde grec au temps de Mermnades_ (1892-1893): H. Gelzer, "Das + Zeitalter des Gyges" (_Rhein. Mus._, 1875); H. Winckler, + _Altorientalische Forschungen_, i. (1893); Macan's edition of + Herodotus. (A. H. S.) + + + + +GYLIPPUS, a Spartan general of the 5th century B.C.; he was the son of +Cleandridas, who had been expelled from Sparta for accepting Athenian +bribes (446 B.C.) and had settled at Thurii. His mother was probably a +helot, for Gylippus is said to have been, like Lysander and +Callicratidas, a _mothax_ (see HELOT). When Alcibiades urged the +Spartans to send a general to lead the Syracusan resistance against the +Athenian expedition, Gylippus was appointed, and his arrival was +undoubtedly the turning point of the struggle (414-413). Though at first +his long hair, his threadbare cloak and his staff furnished the subject +of many a jest, and his harsh and overbearing manner caused grave +discontent, yet the rapidity and decisiveness of his movements, won the +sympathy and respect of the Syracusans. Diodorus (xiii. 28-32), +probably following Timaeus, represents him as inducing the Syracusans +to pass sentence of death on the captive Athenian generals, but we need +have no hesitation in accepting the statement of Philistus (Plutarch, +_Nicias_, 28), a Syracusan who himself took part in the defence, and +Thucydides (vii. 86), that he tried, though without success, to save +their lives, wishing to take them to Sparta as a signal proof of his +success. Gylippus fell, as his father had done, through avarice; +entrusted by Lysander with an immense sum which he was to deliver to the +ephors at Sparta, he could not resist the temptation to enrich himself +and, on the discovery of his guilt, went into exile. + + Thucydides vi. 93. 104, vii.; Plutarch, _Nicias_, 19, 21, 27, 28, + _Lysander_, 16, 17; Diodorus xiii. 7, 8, 28-32; Polyaenus i. 39. 42. + See SYRACUSE (for the siege operations), commentaries on Thucydides + and the Greek histories. + + + + +GYLLEMBOURG-EHRENSVÄRD, THOMASINE CHRISTINE, Baroness (1773-1856), +Danish author, was born on the 9th of November 1773, at Copenhagen. Her +maiden name was Buntzen. Her great beauty early attracted notice, and +before she was seventeen she married the famous writer Peter Andreas +Heiberg. To him she bore in the following year a son, afterwards +illustrious as the poet and critic Johan Ludvig Heiberg. In 1800 her +husband was exiled, and she obtained a divorce, marrying in December +1801 the Swedish Baron K. F. Ehrensvärd, himself a political fugitive. +Her second husband, who presently adopted the name of Gyllembourg, died +in 1815. In 1822 she followed her son to Kiel, where he was appointed +professor, and in 1825 she returned with him to Copenhagen. In 1827 she +first appeared as an author by publishing her romance of _The Polonius +Family_ in her son's newspaper _Flyvende Post_. In 1828 the same journal +contained _The Magic Ring_, which was immediately followed by _En +Hverdags historie (An Everyday Story)_. The success of this anonymous +work was so great that the author adopted until the end of her career +the name of "The Author of _An Everyday Story_." In 1833-1834 she +published three volumes of _Old and New Novels_. _New Stories_ followed +in 1835 and 1836. In 1839 appeared two novels, _Montanus the Younger_ +and _Ricida_; in 1840, _One in All_; in 1841, _Near and Far_; in 1843, +_A Correspondence_; in 1844, _The Cross Ways_; in 1845, _Two +Generations_. From 1849 to 1851 the Baroness Ehrensvärd-Gyllembourg was +engaged in bringing out a library edition of her collected works in +twelve volumes. On the 2nd of July 1856 she died in her son's house at +Copenhagen. Not until then did the secret of her authorship transpire; +for throughout her life she had preserved the closest reticence on the +subject even with her nearest friends. The style of Madame +Ehrensvärd-Gyllembourg is clear and sparkling; for English readers no +closer analogy can be found than between her and Mrs Gaskell, and +_Cranford_ might well have been written by the witty Danish authoress. + + See J. L. Heiberg, _Peter Andreas Heiberg og Thomasine Gyllembourg_ + (Copenhagen, 1882), and L. Kornelius-Hybel, _Nogle Bemaerkninger om P. + A. Heiberg og Fru Gyllembourg_ (Copenhagen, 1883). + + + + +GYLLENSTJERNA, JOHAN, COUNT (1635-1680), Swedish statesman, completed +his studies at Upsala and then visited most of the European states and +laid the foundations of that deep insight into international politics +which afterwards distinguished him. On his return home he met King +Charles X. in the Danish islands and was in close attendance upon him +till the monarch's death in 1660. He began his political career at the +diet which assembled in the autumn of the same year. An aristocrat by +birth and inclination, he was nevertheless a true patriot and demanded +the greatest sacrifices from his own order in the national interests. He +was therefore one of those who laboured most zealously for the recovery +of the crown lands. In the Upper House he was the spokesman of the +gentry against the magnates, whose inordinate privileges he would have +curtailed or abolished. His adversaries vainly endeavoured to gain him +by favour, for as court-marshal and senator he was still more hostile to +the dominant patricians who followed the adventurous policy of Magnus de +la Gardie. Thus he opposed the French alliance which de la Gardie +carried through in 1672, and consistently advocated economy in domestic +and neutrality in foreign affairs. On the outbreak of the war in 1675 he +was the most loyal and energetic supporter of the young Charles XI., +and finally his indispensable counsellor. Indeed, it may be said, that +the political principles which he instilled into the youthful monarch +were faithfully followed by Charles during the whole of his reign. In +1679 Gyllenstjerna was appointed the Swedish plenipotentiary at the +peace congress of Lund. The alliance which he then concluded with +Denmark bound the two northern realms together in a common foreign +policy, and he sought besides to facilitate their harmonious +co-operation by every means in his power. In 1680, after bringing home +Charles XI.'s Danish bride from Copenhagen, he was appointed +governor-general of Scania (Skåne), but expired a few weeks later. + + See M. Höjer, _Öfversigt af Sveriges yttre politik under åren + 1676-1680_ (Upsala, 1875). (R. N. B.) + + + + +GYMKHANA, a display of miscellaneous sports, originally at the military +stations of India. The word would seem to be a colloquial remodelling of +the Hindustani _gend-khana_, ball-house or racquet-court, by +substituting for _gend_ the first syllable of the English word +"gymnastics." The definition given in Yule's _Glossary_ is as follows: +"A place of public resort at a station, where the needful facilities for +athletics and games ... are provided." The name of the place was +afterwards applied to the games themselves, and the word is now used +almost exclusively in this sense. According to Yule the first use of it +that can be traced was, on the authority of Major John Trotter, at Rurki +in the year 1861, when a gymkhana was instituted there. Gymkhana sports +were invented to relieve the monotony of Indian station life, and both +officers and men from the ranks took part in them. The first meetings +consisted of promiscuous horse and pony races at catch weights. To these +were soon added a second variety, originally called the _pagol_ (funny +races), the one generally known outside India, which consisted of +miscellaneous races and competitions of all kinds, some serious and some +amusing, on horseback, on foot and on bicycles. Among these may be +mentioned the usual military sports; such as tent-pegging, lemon-cutting +and obstacle racing; rickshaw racing; tilting at the ring sack, pillion, +hurdle, egg-and-spoon, blindfold, threading-the-needle and many other +kinds of races depending upon the inventive powers of the committees in +charge. + + + + +GYMNASTICS AND GYMNASIUM, terms signifying respectively a system of +physical exercises practised either for recreation or for the purpose of +promoting the health and development of the body, and the building where +such exercises are carried on. The gymnasium of the Greeks was +originally the school where competitors in the public games received +their training, and was so named from the circumstance that these +competitors exercised naked ([Greek: gymnos]). The gymnasium was a +public institution as distinguished from the palaestra, which was a +private school where boys were trained in physical exercises, though the +term palaestra is also often used for the part of a gymnasium specially +devoted to wrestling and boxing. The athletic contests for which the +gymnasium supplied the means of training and practice formed part of the +social life of the Greeks from the earliest times. They were held in +honour of heroes and gods; sometimes forming part of a periodic +festival, sometimes of the funeral rites of a deceased chief. In course +of time the Greeks grew more attached to such sports; their free active +life, spent to a great extent in the open air, fostered the liking +almost into a passion. The victor in any athletic contest, though he +gained no money prize, was rewarded with the honour and respect of his +fellow citizens; and a victory in the great religious festivals was +counted an honour for the whole state. In these circumstances the +training of competitors for the greater contests became a matter of +public concern; and accordingly special buildings were provided by the +state, and their management entrusted to public officials. The +regulation of the gymnasium at Athens is attributed by Pausanias (i. 39. +3) to Theseus. Solon made several laws on the subject; but according to +Galen it was reduced to a system in the time of Cleisthenes. Ten +_gymnasiarchs_, one from each tribe, were appointed annually. These +performed in rotation the duties of their office, which were to maintain +and pay the persons who were training for public contests, to conduct +the games at the great Athenian festivals, to exercise general +supervision over the morals of the youths, and to adorn and keep up the +gymnasium. This office was one of the ordinary [Greek: leitourgiai] +(public services), and great expense was entailed on the holders. Under +them were ten _sophronistae_, whose duty was to watch the conduct of the +youths at all times, and especially to be present at all their games. +The practical teaching and selecting of the suitable exercises for each +youth were in the hands of the _paedotribae_ and _gymnastae_, the latter +of whom also superintended the effect on the constitution of the pupils, +and prescribed for them when they were unwell. The _aleiptae_ oiled and +rubbed dust on the bodies of the youths, acted as surgeons, and +administered the drugs prescribed. According to Galen there was also a +teacher of the various games of ball. The gymnasia built to suit these +various purposes were large buildings, which contained not merely places +for each kind of exercise, but also a stadium, baths, covered porticos +for practice in bad weather, and outer porticos where the philosophers +and men of letters read public lectures and held disputations. + +The gymnasium of the Greeks did not long remain an institution +exclusively devoted to athletic exercises. It soon began to be applied +to other uses even more important. The development arose naturally +through the recognition by the Greeks of the important place in +education occupied by physical culture, and of the relation between +exercise and health. The gymnasium accordingly became connected with +education on the one hand and with medicine on the other. Due training +of the body and maintenance of the health and strength of children were +the chief part of earlier Greek education. Except the time devoted to +letters and music, the education of boys was conducted in the gymnasia, +where provision was made, as already mentioned, for their moral as well +as their physical training. As they grew older, conversation and social +intercourse took the place of the more systematic discipline. +Philosophers and sophists assembled to talk and to lecture in the +gymnasia, which thus became places of general resort for the purpose of +all less systematic intellectual pursuits, as well as for physical +exercises. In Athens there were three great public gymnasia--Academy, +Lyceum and Cynosarges--each of which was consecrated to a special deity +with whose statue it was adorned; and each was rendered famous by +association with a celebrated school of philosophy. Plato's teaching in +the Academy has given immortality to that gymnasium; Aristotle conferred +lustre on the Lyceum; and the Cynosarges was the resort of the Cynics. +Plato when treating of education devotes much consideration to +gymnastics (see especially _Rep._ iii. and various parts of _Laws_); and +according to Plato it was the sophist Prodicus who first pointed out the +connexion between gymnastics and health. Having found such exercises +beneficial to his own weak health, he formulated a method which was +adopted generally, and which was improved by Hippocrates. Galen lays the +greatest stress on the proper use of gymnastics, and throughout ancient +medical writers we find that special exercises are prescribed as the +cure for special diseases. + +The Greek institution of the gymnasium never became popular with the +Romans, who regarded the training of boys in gymnastics with contempt as +conducive to idleness and immorality, and of little use from a military +point of view; though at Sparta gymnastic training had been chiefly +valued as encouraging warlike tastes and promoting the bodily strength +needed for the use of weapons and the endurance of hardship. Among the +Romans of the republic, the games in the Campus Martius, the duties of +camp life, and the enforced marches and other hardships of actual +warfare, served to take the place of the gymnastic exercises required by +the Greeks. The first public gymnasium at Rome was built by Nero and +another by Commodus. In the middle ages, though jousts and feats of +horsemanship and field sports of various kinds were popular, the more +systematic training of the body which the Greeks had associated with the +gymnasium fell into neglect; while the therapeutic value of special +exercises as understood by Hippocrates and Galen appears to have been +lost sight of. Rousseau, in his _Émile_, was the first in modern times +to call attention to the injurious consequences of such indifference, +and he insisted on the importance of physical culture as an essential +part of education. It was probably due in some measure to his influence +that F. L. Jahn and his followers in Germany, encouraged by the Prussian +minister Stein, established the _Turnplätze_, or gymnastic schools, +which played an important part during the War of Liberation, and in the +political agitations which followed the establishment of the German +confederation by the Congress of Vienna. The educational reformers +Pestalozzi and Froebel emphasized the need for systematic physical +training in any complete scheme of education. + +The later development of the classical gymnasium (when it had become the +school of Intellectual culture rather than of exclusively physical +exercise), and not the original idea, has been perpetuated in the modern +use of the word in Germany, where the name "gymnasium" is given to the +highest grade of secondary school, and the association of the word with +athleticism has been entirely abandoned. On the other hand, in England, +France and elsewhere in Europe, as well as in America, the history of +the word has been precisely the reverse; the connexion of the gymnasium +with philosophy and mental culture has been dropped, and it indicates a +building exclusively intended for the practice of physical exercises. +But whereas the Greeks received training in the gymnasium for contests +which are now designated as _athletic sports_ (q.v.), gymnastics in the +modern sense is a term restricted to such exercises as are usually +practised indoors, with or without the aid of mechanical appliances, as +distinguished from sports or games practised in the open air. + +It was not until near the end of the 19th century that gymnastics were +recognized in England as anything more than a recreation; their value as +a specifically therapeutic agent, or as an article in the curriculum of +elementary schools, was not realized. More recently, however, +educationists have urged with increasing insistence the need for +systematic physical training, and their views received greater attention +when evidence of deterioration in the physique of the people began to +accumulate. During the first decade of the 20th century more than one +commission reported to parliament in England in favour of more +systematic and general physical training being encouraged or even made +compulsory by public authority. Voluntary associations were formed for +encouraging such training and providing facilities for it. Gymnastics +had already for several years been an essential part of the training of +army recruits with exceedingly beneficial results, and gymnasia had been +established at Aldershot and other military centres. Physical exercises, +although not compulsory, obtained a permanent place in the code for +elementary schools in Great Britain; and much care has been taken to +provide a syllabus of exercises adapted for the improvement of the +physique of the children. These exercises are partly gymnastic and +partly of the nature of drill; they do not in most cases require the use +of appliances, and are on that account known as "free movements," which +numbers of children go through together, accompanied whenever possible +by music. On the other hand at the larger public schools and +universities there are elaborate gymnasia equipped with a great variety +of apparatus, the skilful use of which demands assiduous practice; and +this is encouraged by annual contests between teams of gymnasts +representing rival institutions. + + + Gymnastic apparatus. + +The appliances vary to some extent in different gymnasia, some of the +more complicated requiring a greater amount of space and involving a +larger cost than is often practicable. But where these considerations +are negligible, substantial uniformity is to be found in the equipment +of gymnasia not designed for specifically medical purposes. The +simplest, and in many respects the most generally useful, of all +gymnastic apparatus is the dumb-bell. It was in use in England as early +as the time of Elizabeth, and it has the advantage that it admits of +being exactly proportioned to the individual strength of each learner, +and can be adjusted in weight as his strength increases. The exercises +that may be performed with the dumb-bell, combined with a few simple +drill-like movements, give employment to all parts of the body and to +both sides equally. Dumb-bell exercises, therefore, when arranged +judiciously and with knowledge, are admirably suited for developing the +physique, and are extensively employed in schools both for boys and +girls. The bar-bell is merely a two-handed dumb-bell, and its use is +similar in principle. The Indian club is also in use in most gymnasia; +but the risk of overstraining the body by its unskilful handling makes +it less generally popular than the dumb-bell. All these appliances may +be, and often are, used either in ordinary schoolrooms or elsewhere +outside the gymnasium. The usual fixed sorts of apparatus, the presence +of which (or of some of them) in a building may be said to constitute it +a gymnasium, are the following: a leaping-rope; a leaping-pole; a +vaulting-horse; a horizontal bar, so mounted between two upright posts +that its height from the ground may be adjusted as desired; parallel +bars, used for exercises to develop the muscles of the trunk and arms; +the trapeze consisting of a horizontal bar suspended by ropes at a +height of 4 to 5 ft. from the ground; the bridge ladder; the plank; the +inclined plane; the mast; swinging rings; the prepared wall; the +horizontal beam. + +Before the end of the 19th century the therapeutic value of gymnastics +was fully realized by the medical profession; and a number of medical or +surgical gymnasia came into existence, provided with specially devised +apparatus for the treatment of different physical defects or weaknesses. +The exercises practised in them are arranged upon scientific principles +based on anatomical and physiological knowledge; and these principles +have spread thence to influence largely the practice of gymnastics in +schools and in the army. A French medical writer enumerates seven +distinct groups of maladies, each including a number of different +complaints, for which gymnastic exercises are a recognized form of +treatment; and there are many malformations of the human body, formerly +believed to be incurable, which are capable of being greatly remedied if +not entirely corrected by regular gymnastic exercises practised under +medical direction. + +The value of gymnastics both for curing defects, and still more for +promoting health and the development of normal physique, is recognized +even more clearly on the continent of Europe than in Great Britain. In +Germany the government not only controls the practice of gymnastics but +makes it compulsory for every child and adult to undergo a prescribed +amount of such physical training. In France also, physical training by +gymnastics is under state control; in Sweden, Denmark, Switzerland, +Italy, Russia, systems more or less distinct enjoy a wide popularity; +and in Finland gymnastics are practised on lines that exhibit national +peculiarities. The Finns introduce an exceptional degree of variety into +their exercises as well as into the appliances devised to assist them; +women are scarcely less expert than men in the performance of them; and +the enthusiasm with which the system is supported produces the most +beneficial results in the physique of the people. International +gymnastic contests have become a feature of the revived Olympic Games +(see ATHLETIC SPORTS), and in those held at Athens in 1906 a team of +Danish ladies took part in the competition and proved by their skilful +performance that gymnastics may be practised with as much success by +women as by men. + + The chief work on the ancient gymnastics is Krause, _Gymnastik und + Agonistik der Hellenen_ (1841); of more recent works mention may be + made of Jäger, _Gymnastik der Hellenen_ (1881); L. Grasberger, + _Erziehung und Unterricht im klassischen Altertum_ (1881); J. P. + Mahaffy, _Old Greek Education_ (1883); A. S. Wilkins, _National + Education in Greece_ (1873); E. Paz, _Histoire de la gymnastique_ + (1886); Wickenhagen, _Antike und moderne Gymnastik_ (1891); + Becker-Göll, _Charicles_ ii.; Brugsma, _Gymnasiorum apud Graecos + descriptio_ (1855); Petersen, _Das Gymnasium der Griechen_ (1858). See + also N. Laisné, _Gymnastique pratique_ (Paris, 1879); Collineau, _La + Gymnastique_ (Paris, 1884); _L'Hygiène à l'école_ (Paris, 1889); P. de + Coubertin, _La Gymnastique utilitaire_ (Paris, 1905); H. Nissen, + _Rational Home Gymnastics_ (Boston, 1903). (R. J. M.) + + + + +GYMNOSOPHISTS (Lat. _gymnosophistae_, from Gr. [Greek: gymnos, +sophistês], "naked philosophers"), the name given by the Greeks to +certain ancient Hindu philosophers who pursued asceticism to the point +of regarding food and clothing as detrimental to purity of thought. From +the fact that they often lived as hermits in forests, the Greeks also +called them _Hylobioi_ (cf. the _Vana-prasthas_ in Sanskrit writings). +Diogenes Laërtius (ix. 61 and 63) refers to them, and asserts that +Pyrrho of Elis, the founder of pure scepticism, came under their +influence, and on his return to Elis imitated their habits of life, to +what extent does not appear. Strabo (xv. 711, 714) divides them into +Brahmans and Sarmans (or Shamans). See JAINS. + + + + +GYMNOSPERMS, in Botany. The Gymnosperms, with the Angiosperms, +constitute the existing groups of seed-bearing plants or Phanerogams: +the importance of the seed as a distinguishing feature in the plant +kingdom may be emphasized by the use of the designation Spermophyta for +these two groups, in contrast to the Pteridophyta and Bryophyta in which +true seeds are unknown. Recent discoveries have, however, established +the fact that there existed in the Palaeozoic era fern-like plants which +produced true seeds of a highly specialized type; this group, for which +Oliver and Scott proposed the term Pteridospermae in 1904, must also be +included in the Spermophyta. Another instance of the production of seeds +in an extinct plant which further reduces the importance of this +character as a distinguishing feature is afforded by the Palaeozoic +genus _Lepidocarpon_ described by Scott in 1901; this lycopodiaceous +type possessed an integumented megaspore, to which the designation seed +may be legitimately applied (see PALAEOBOTANY: _Palaeozoic_). + +As the name Gymnosperm (Gr. [Greek: gymnos], naked, [Greek: sperma], +seed) implies, one characteristic of this group is the absence of an +ovary or closed chamber containing the ovules. It was the English +botanist Robert Brown who first recognized this important distinguishing +feature in conifers and cycads in 1825; he established the gymnospermy +of these seed-bearing classes as distinct from the angiospermy of the +monocotyledons and dicotyledons. As Sachs says in his history of botany, +"no more important discovery was ever made in the domain of comparative +morphology and systematic botany." As Coulter and Chamberlain express +it, "the habitats of the Gymnosperms to-day indicate that they either +are not at home in the more genial conditions affected by Angiosperms, +or have not been able to maintain themselves in competition with this +group of plants." + +These naked-seeded plants are of special interest on account of their +great antiquity, which far exceeds that of the Angiosperms, and as +comprising different types which carry us back to the Palaeozoic era and +to the forests of the coal period. The best known and by far the largest +division of the Gymnosperms is that of the cone-bearing trees (pines, +firs, cedars, larches, &c.), which play a prominent part in the +vegetation of the present day, especially in the higher latitudes of the +northern hemisphere; certain members of this class are of considerable +antiquity, but the conifers as a whole are still vigorous and show but +little sign of decadence. The division known as the Cycadophyta is +represented by a few living genera of limited geographical range and by +a large number of extinct types which in the Mesozoic era (see +PALAEOBOTANY: _Mesozoic_) played a conspicuous part in the vegetation of +the world. Among existing Cycadophyta we find surviving types which, in +their present isolation, their close resemblance to fossil forms, and in +certain morphological features, constitute links with the past that not +only connect the present with former periods in the earth's history, but +serve as sign-posts pointing the way back along one of the many lines +which evolution has followed. + +It is needless to discuss at length the origin of the Gymnosperms. The +two views which find most favour in regard to the Coniferales and +Cycadophyta are: (1) that both have been derived from remote filicinean +ancestors; (2) that the cycads are the descendants of a fern-like stock, +while conifers have been evolved from lycopodiaceous ancestors. The line +of descent of recent cycads is comparatively clear in so far as they +have undoubted affinity with Palaeozoic plants which combined cycadean +and filicinean features; but opinion is much more divided as to the +nature of the phylum from which the conifers are derived. The +Cordaitales (see PALAEOBOTANY: _Palaeozoic_) are represented by extinct +forms only, which occupied a prominent position in the Palaeozoic +period; these plants exhibit certain features in common with the living +Araucarias, and others which invite a comparison with the maidenhair +tree (_Ginkgo biloba_), the solitary survivor of another class of +Gymnosperms, the Ginkgoales (see PALAEOBOTANY: _Mesozoic_). The Gnetales +are a class apart, including three living genera, of which we know next +to nothing as regards their past history or line of descent. Although +there are several morphological features in the three genera of Gnetales +which might seem to bring them into line with the Angiosperms, it is +usual to regard these resemblances as parallel developments along +distinct lines rather than to interpret them as evidence of direct +relationship. + + _Gymnospermae._--Trees or shrubs; leaves vary considerably in size and + form. Flowers unisexual, except in a few cases (Gnetales) without a + perianth. Monoecious or dioecious. Ovules naked, rarely without + carpellary leaves, usually borne on carpophylls, which assume various + forms. The single megaspore enclosed in the nucellus is filled with + tissue (prothallus) before fertilization, and contains two or more + archegonia, consisting usually of a large egg-cell and a small neck, + rarely of an egg-cell only and no neck (_Gnetum_ and _Welwitschia_). + Microspore spherical or oval, with or without a bladder-like extension + of the exine, containing a prothallus of two or more cells, one of + which produces two non-motile or motile male cells. Cotyledons two or + several. Secondary xylem and phloem produced by a single cambium, or + by successive cambial zones; no true vessels (except in the Gnetales) + in the wood, and no companion-cells in the phloem. + + I. _Pteridospermae_ (see PALAEOBOTANY, PALAEOZOIC). + II. _Cycadophyta_. + A. Cycadales (recent and extinct). + B. Bennettitales (see Palaeobotany: _Mesozoic_). + III. _Cordaitales_ (see PALAEOBOTANY: _Palaeozoic_). + IV. _Ginkgoales_ (recent and extinct). + V. _Coniferales_. + A. Taxaceae. + B. Pinaceae. + + There is no doubt that the result of recent research and of work now + in progress will be to modify considerably the grouping of the + conifers. The family _Araucarieae_, represented by _Araucaria_ and + _Agathis_, should perhaps be separated as a special class and a + rearrangement of other genera more in accord with a natural system of + classification will soon be possible; but for the present its twofold + subdivision may be retained. + + VI. _Gnetales_. + A. Ephedroideae. + B. Gnetoideae. + C. Welwitschioideae (Tumboideae). + + CYCADOPHYTA.--A. _Cycadales._--Stems tuberous or columnar, not + infrequently branched, rarely epiphytic (Peruvian species of _Zamia_); + fronds pinnate, bi-pinnate in the Australian genus _Bowenia_. + Dioecious; flowers in the form of cones, except the female flowers of + _Cycas_, which consist of a rosette of leaf-like carpels at the apex + of the stem. Seeds albuminous, with one integument; the single embryo, + usually bearing two partially fused cotyledons, is attached to a long + tangled suspensor. Stems and roots increase in diameter by secondary + thickening, the secondary wood being produced by one cambium or + developed from successive cambium-rings. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Stem of _Cycas_. F, foliage-leaf bases; S, + scale-leaf bases.] + + The cycads constitute a homogeneous group of a few living members + confined to tropical and sub-tropical regions. As a fairly typical and + well-known example of the Cycadaceae, a species of the genus _Cycas_ + (e.g. _C. circinalis_, _C. revoluta_, &c.) is briefly described. The + stout columnar stem may reach a height of 20 metres, and a diameter of + half a metre; it remains either unbranched or divides near the summit + into several short and thick branches, each branch terminating in a + crown of long pinnate leaves. The surface of the stem is covered with + rhomboidal areas, which represent the persistent bases of foliage- and + scale-leaves. In some species of _Cycas_ there is a well-defined + alternation of transverse zones on the stem, consisting of larger + areas representing foliage-leaf bases, and similar but smaller areas + formed by the bases of scale-leaves (F and S, fig. 1). The + scale-leaves clothing the terminal bud are linear-lanceolate in form, + and of a brown or yellow colour; they are pushed aside as the + stem-axis elongates and becomes shrivelled, finally falling off, + leaving projecting bases which are eventually cut off at a still lower + level. Similarly, the dead fronds fall off, leaving a ragged petiole, + which is afterwards separated from the stem by an absciss-layer a + short distance above the base. In some species of _Cycas_ the + leaf-bases do not persist as a permanent covering to the stem, but the + surface is covered with a wrinkled bark, as in _Cycas siamensis_, + which has a stem of unusual form (fig. 2). Small tuberous shoots, + comparable on a large scale with the bulbils of _Lycopodium Selago_, + are occasionally produced in the axils of some of the persistent + leaf-bases; these are characteristic of sickly plants, and serve as a + means of vegetative reproduction. In the genus _Cycas_ the female + flower is peculiar among cycads in consisting of a terminal crown of + separate leaf-like carpels several inches in length; the apical + portion of each carpellary leaf may be broadly triangular in form, and + deeply dissected on the margins into narrow woolly appendages like + rudimentary pinnae. From the lower part of a carpel are produced + several laterally placed ovules, which become bright red or orange on + ripening; the bright fleshy seeds, which in some species are as large + as a goose's egg, and the tawny spreading carpels produce a pleasing + combination of colour in the midst of the long dark-green fronds, + which curve gracefully upwards and outwards from the summit of the + columnar stem. In _Cycas_ the stem apex, after producing a cluster of + carpellary leaves, continues to elongate and produces more bud-scales, + which are afterwards pushed aside as a fresh crown of fronds is + developed. The young leaves of _Cycas_ consist of a straight rachis + bearing numerous linear pinnae, traversed by a single midrib; the + pinnae are circinately coiled like the leaf of a fern (fig. 3). The + male flower of _Cycas_ conforms to the type of structure + characteristic of the cycads, and consists of a long cone of numerous + sporophylls bearing many oval pollen-sacs on their lower faces. The + type described serves as a convenient representative of its class. + There are eight other living genera, which may be classified as + follows:-- + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.--_Cycas siamensis._] + + _Classification._--A. _Cycadeae._--Characterized by (a) the + alternation of scale- and foliage-leaves (fig. 1) on the branched or + unbranched stem; (b) the growth of the main stem through the female + flower; (c) the presence of a prominent single vein in the linear + pinnae; (d) the structure of the female flower, which is peculiar in + not having the form of a cone, but consists of numerous independent + carpels, each of which bears two or more lateral ovules. Represented + by a single genus, _Cycas_. (Tropical Asia, Australia, &c.). + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.--_Cycas._ Young Frond.] + + B. _Zamieae._--The stem does not grow through the female flower; both + male and female flowers are in the form of cones. (a) + _Stangerieae._--Characterized by the fern-like venation of the pinnae, + which have a prominent midrib, giving off at a wide angle simple or + forked and occasionally anastomosing lateral veins. A single genus, + _Stangeria_, confined to South Africa, (b) _Euzamieae._--The pinnae + are traversed by several parallel veins. _Bowenia_, an Australian + cycad, is peculiar in having bi-pinnate fronds (fig. 5). The various + genera are distinguished from one another by the shape and manner of + attachment of the pinnae, the form of the carpellary scales, and to + some extent by anatomical characters. _Encephalartos_ (South and + Tropical Africa).--Large cones; the carpellary scales terminate in a + peltate distal expansion. _Macrozamia_ (Australia).--Similar to + _Encephalartos_ except in the presence of a spinous projection from + the swollen distal end of the carpels. _Zamia_ (South America, + Florida, &c.).--Stem short and often divided into several columnar + branches. Each carpel terminates in a peltate head. _Ceratozamia_ + (Mexico).--Similar in habit to _Macrozamia_, but distinguished by the + presence of two horn-like spinous processes on the apex of the + carpels. _Microcycas_ (Cuba).--Like _Zamia_, except that the ends of + the stamens are flat, while the apices of the carpels are peltate. + _Dioon_ (Mexico) (fig. 4).--Characterized by the woolly scale-leaves + and carpels; the latter terminate in a thick laminar expansion of + triangular form, bearing two placental cushions, on which the ovules + are situated. _Bowenia_ (Australia).--Bi-pinnate fronds; stem short + and tuberous (fig. 5). + + [Illustration: From a photograph of a plant in Peradeniya Gardens, + Ceylon, by Professor R. H. Yapp. + + FIG. 4.--_Dioon edule._] + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.--_Bowenia spectabilis_: frond.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.--_Macrozamia heteromera_. A, part of frond; B, + single pinna.] + + + Stem and leaf. + + The stems of cycads are often described as unbranched; it is true that + in comparison with conifers, in which the numerous branches, springing + from the main stem, give a characteristic form to the tree, the + tuberous or columnar stem of the Cycadaceae constitutes a striking + distinguishing feature. Branching, however, occurs not infrequently: + in _Cycas_ the tall stem often produces several candelabra-like arms; + in _Zamia_ the main axis may break up near the base into several + cylindrical branches; in species of _Dioon_ (fig. 4) lateral branches + are occasionally produced. The South African _Encephalartos_ + frequently produces several branches. Probably the oldest example of + this genus in cultivation is in the Botanic Garden of Amsterdam, its + age is considered by Professor de Vries to be about two thousand + years: although an accurate determination of age is impossible, there + is no doubt that many cycads grow very slowly and are remarkable for + longevity. The thick armour of petiole-bases enveloping the stem is a + characteristic Cycadean feature; in _Cycas_ the alternation of + scale-leaves and fronds is more clearly shown than in other cycads; in + _Encephalartos_, _Dioon_, &c., the persistent scale-leaf bases are + almost equal in size to those of the foliage-leaves, and there is no + regular alternation of zones such as characterizes some species of + _Cycas_. Another type of stem is illustrated by _Stangeria_ and + _Zamia_, also by a few forms of _Cycas_ (fig. 2), in which the fronds + fall off completely, leaving a comparatively smooth stem. The _Cyas_ + type of frond, except as regards the presence of a midrib in each + pinna, characterizes the cycads generally, except _Bowenia_ and + _Stangeria_. In the monotypic genus _Bowenia_ the large fronds, borne + singly on the short and thick stem, are bi-pinnate (fig. 5); the + segments, which are broadly ovate or rhomboidal, have several forked + spreading veins, and resemble the large pinnules of some species of + _Adiantum_. In _Stangeria_, also a genus represented by one species + (_S. paradoxa_ of South Africa), the long and comparatively broad + pinnae, with an entire or irregularly incised margin, are very + fern-like, a circumstance which led Kunze to describe the plant in + 1835 as a species of the fern _Lomaria_. In rare cases the pinnae of + cycads are lobed or branched: in _Dioon spinulosum_ (Central America) + the margin of the segments bears numerous spinous processes; in some + species of _Encephalartos_, e.g. _E. horridus_, the lamina is deeply + lobed; and in a species of the Australian genus _Macrozamia_, _M. + heteromera_, the narrow pinnae are dichotomously branched almost to + the base (fig. 6), and resemble the frond of some species of the fern + _Schizaea_, or the fossil genus _Baiera_ (Ginkgoales). An interesting + species of _Cycas_, _C. Micholitzii_, has recently been described by + Sir William Thiselton-Dyer from Annam, where it was collected by one + of Messrs Sanders & Son's collectors, in which the pinnae instead of + being of the usual simple type are dichotomously branched as in + _Macrozamia heteromera_. In _Ceratozamia_ the broad petiole-base is + characterized by the presence of two lateral spinous processes, + suggesting stipular appendages, comparable, on a reduced scale, with + the large stipules of the Marattiaceae among Ferns. The vernation + varies in different genera; in _Cycas_ the rachis is straight and the + pinnae circinately coiled (fig. 3); in _Encephalartos_, _Dioon_, &c., + both rachis and segments are straight; in _Zamia_ the rachis is bent + or slightly coiled, bearing straight pinnae. The young leaves arise on + the stem-apex as conical protuberances with winged borders on which + the pinnae appear as rounded humps, usually in basipetal order; the + scale-leaves in their young condition resemble fronds, but the lamina + remains undeveloped. A feature of interest in connexion with the + phylogeny of cycads is the presence of long hairs clothing the + scale-leaves, and forming a cap on the summit of the stem-apex or + attached to the bases of petioles; on some fossil cycadean plants + these outgrowths have the form of scales, and are identical in + structure with the ramenta (paleae) of the majority of ferns. + + + Flower. + + The male flowers of cycads are constructed on a uniform plan, and in + all cases consist of an axis bearing crowded, spirally disposed + sporophylls. These are often wedge-shaped and angular; in some cases + they consist of a short, thick stalk, terminating in a peltate + expansion, or prolonged upwards in the form of a triangular lamina. + The sporangia (pollen-sacs), which occur on the under-side of the + stamens, are often arranged in more or less definite groups or sori, + interspersed with hairs (paraphyses); dehiscence takes place along a + line marked out by the occurrence of smaller and thinner-walled cells + bounded by larger and thicker-walled elements, which form a fairly + prominent cap-like "annulus" near the apex of the sporangium, not + unlike the annulus characteristic of the Schizaeaceae among ferns. The + sporangial wall, consisting of several layers of cells, encloses a + cavity containing numerous oval spores (pollen-grains). In structure a + cycadean sporangium recalls those of certain ferns (Marattiaceae, + Osmundaceae and Schizaeaceae), but in the development of the spores + there are certain peculiarities not met with among the Vascular + Cryptogams. With the exception of _Cycas_, the female flowers are also + in the form of cones, bearing numerous carpellary scales. In _Cycas + revoluta_ and _C. circinalis_ each leaf-like carpel may produce + several laterally attached ovules, but in _C. Normanbyana_ the carpel + is shorter and the ovules are reduced to two; this latter type brings + us nearer to the carpels of _Dioon_, in which the flower has the form + of a cone, and the distal end of the carpels is longer and more + leaf-like than in the other genera of the _Zamieae_, which are + characterized by shorter carpels with thick peltate heads bearing two + ovules on the morphologically lower surface. The cones of cycads + attain in some cases (e.g. _Encephalartos_) a considerable size, + reaching a length of more than a foot. Cases have been recorded (by + Thiselton-Dyer in _Encephalartos_ and by Wieland in _Zamia_) in which + the short carpellary cone-scales exhibit a foliaceous form. It is + interesting that no monstrous cycadean cone has been described in + which ovuliferous and staminate appendages are borne on the same axis: + in the Bennettitales (see PALAEOBOTANY: _Mesozoic_) flowers were + produced bearing on the same axis both androecium and gynoecium. + + + Microspores and megaspores. + + The pollen-grains when mature consist of three cells, two small and + one large cell; the latter grows into the pollen-tube, as in the + Coniferales, and from one of the small cells two large ciliated + spermatozoids are eventually produced. A remarkable exception to this + rule has recently been recorded by Caldwell, who found that in + _Microcycas Calocoma_ the body-cells may be eight or even ten in + number and the sperm-cells twice as numerous. One of the most + important discoveries made during the latter part of the 19th century + was that by Ikeno, a Japanese botanist, who first demonstrated the + existence of motile male cells in the genus _Cycas_. Similar + spermatozoids were observed in some species of _Zamia_ by H. J. + Webber, and more recent work enables us to assume that all cycads + produce ciliated male gametes. Before following the growth of the + pollen-grain after pollination, we will briefly describe the structure + of a cycadean ovule. An ovule consists of a conical nucellus + surrounded by a single integument. At an early stage of development a + large cell makes its appearance in the central region of the nucellus; + this increases in size and eventually forms three cells; the lowest of + these grows vigorously and constitutes the megaspore (embryo-sac), + which ultimately absorbs the greater part of the nucellus. The + megaspore-nucleus divides repeatedly, and cells are produced from the + peripheral region inwards, which eventually fill the spore-cavity with + a homogeneous tissue (prothallus); some of the superficial cells at + the micropylar end of the megaspore increase in size and divide by a + tangential wall into two, an upper cell which gives rise to the short + two-celled neck of the archegonium, and a lower cell which develops + into a large egg-cell. Each megaspore may contain 2 to 6 archegonia. + During the growth of the ovum nourishment is supplied from the + contents of the cells immediately surrounding the egg-cell, as in the + development of the ovum of _Pinus_ and other conifers. Meanwhile the + tissue in the apical region of the nucellus has been undergoing + disorganization, which results in the formation of a pollen-chamber + (fig. 7, C) immediately above the megaspore. Pollination in cycads has + always been described as anemophilous, but according to recent + observations by Pearson on South African species it seems probable + that, at least in some cases, the pollen is conveyed to the ovules by + animal agency. The pollen-grains find their way between the + carpophylls, which at the time of pollination are slightly apart owing + to the elongation of the internodes of the flower-axis, and pass into + the pollen-chamber; the large cell of the pollen-grain grows out into + a tube (Pt), which penetrates the nucellar tissue and often branches + repeatedly; the pollen-grain itself, with the prothallus-cells, + projects freely into the pollen-chamber (fig. 7). The nucleus of the + outermost (second) small cell (fig. 7, G) divides, and one of the + daughter-nuclei passes out of the cell, and may enter the lowest + (first) small cell. The outermost cell, by the division of the + remaining nucleus, produces two large spermatozoids (fig. 8, a, a). In + _Microcycas_ 16 sperm-cells are produced. In the course of division + two bodies appear in the cytoplasm, and behave as centrosomes during + the karyokinesis; they gradually become threadlike and coil round each + daughter nucleus. This thread gives rise to a spiral ciliated band + lying in a depression on the body of each spermatozoid; the large + spermatozoids eventually escape from the pollen-tube, and are able to + perform ciliary movements in the watery liquid which occurs between + the thin papery remnant of nucellar tissue and the archegonial necks. + Before fertilization a neck-canal cell is formed by the division of + the ovum-nucleus. After the body of a spermatozoid has coalesced with + the egg-nucleus the latter divides repeatedly and forms a mass of + tissue which grows more vigorously in the lower part of the fertilized + ovum, and extends upwards towards the apex of the ovum as a peripheral + layer of parenchyma surrounding a central space. By further growth + this tissue gives rise to a proembryo, which consists, at the + micropylar end, of a sac; the tissue at the chalazal end grows into a + long and tangled suspensor, terminating in a mass of cells, which is + eventually differentiated into a radicle, plumule and two cotyledons. + In the ripe seed the integument assumes the form of a fleshy envelope, + succeeded internally by a hard woody shell, internal to which is a + thin papery membrane--the apical portion of the nucellus--which is + easily dissected out as a conical cap covering the apex of the + endosperm. A thorough examination of cycadean seeds has recently been + made by Miss Stopes, more particularly with a view to a comparison of + their vascular supply with that in Palaeozoic gymnospermous seeds + (_Flora_, 1904). The first leaves borne on the seedling axis are often + scale-like, and these are followed by two or more larger laminae, + which foreshadow the pinnae of the adult frond. + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.--_Zamia._ Part of Ovule in longitudinal + section. (After Webber.) + + P, Prothallus. + A, Archegonia. + N, Nucellus. + C, Pollen-chamber. + Pt, Pollen-tube. + Pg, Pollen-grain. + G, Generative cell (second cell of pollen-tube).] + + [Illustration: FIG. 8.--_Zamia._ Proximal end of Pollen-tube, a, a, + Spermatozoids from G of fig. 7; Pg, pollen-grain; c, proximal cell + (first cell). (After Webber.)] + + + Anatomy. + + Roots. + + The anatomical structure of the vegetative organs of recent cycads is + of special interest as affording important evidence of relationship + with extinct types, and with other groups of recent plants. + Brongniart, who was the first to investigate in detail the anatomy of + a cycadean stem, recognized an agreement, as regards the secondary + wood, with Dicotyledons and Gymnosperms, rather than with + Monocotyledons. He drew attention also to certain structural + similarities between _Cycas_ and _Ginkgo_. The main anatomical + features of a cycad stem may be summarized as follows: the centre is + occupied by a large parenchymatous pith traversed by numerous + secretory canals, and in some genera by cauline vascular bundles (e.g. + _Encephalartos_ and _Macrozamia_). In addition to these cauline + strands (confined to the stem and not connected with the leaves), + collateral bundles are often met with in the pith, which form the + vascular supply of terminal flowers borne at intervals on the apex of + the stem. These latter bundles may be seen in sections of old stems to + pursue a more or less horizontal course, passing outwards through the + main woody cylinder. This lateral course is due to the more vigorous + growth of the axillary branch formed near the base of each flower, + which is a terminal structure, and, except in the female flower of + _Cycas_, puts a limit to the apical growth of the stem. The vigorous + lateral branch therefore continues the line of the main axis. The pith + is encircled by a cylinder of secondary wood, consisting of single or + multiple radial rows of tracheids separated by broad medullary rays + composed of large parenchymatous cells; the tracheids bear numerous + bordered pits on the radial walls. The large medullary rays give to + the wood a characteristic parenchymatous or lax appearance, which is + in marked contrast to the more compact wood of a conifer. The + protoxylem-elements are situated at the extreme inner edge of the + secondary wood, and may occur as small groups of narrow, + spirally-pitted elements scattered among the parenchyma which abuts on + the main mass of wood. Short and reticulately-pitted tracheal cells, + similar to tracheids, often occur in the circummedullary region of + cycadean stems. In an old stem of _Cycas_, _Encephalartos_ or + _Macrozamia_ the secondary wood consists of several rather unevenly + concentric zones, while in some other genera it forms a continuous + mass as in conifers and normal dicotyledons. These concentric rings of + secondary xylem and phloem (fig. 9) afford a characteristic cycadean + feature. After the cambium has been active for some time producing + secondary xylem and phloem, the latter consisting of sieve-tubes, + phloem-parenchyma and frequently thick-walled fibres, a second cambium + is developed in the pericycle; this produces a second vascular zone, + which is in turn followed by a third cambium, and so on, until several + hollow cylinders are developed. It has been recently shown that + several cambium-zones may remain in a state of activity, so that the + formation of a new cambium does not necessarily mark a cessation of + growth in the more internal meristematic rings. It occasionally + happens that groups of xylem and phloem are developed internally to + some of the vascular rings; these are characterized by an inverse + orientation of the tissues, the xylem being centrifugal and the phloem + centripetal in its development. The broad cortical region, which + contains many secretory canals, is traversed by numerous vascular + bundles (fig. 9, c) some of which pursue a more or less vertical + course, and by frequent anastomoses with one another form a loose + reticulum of vascular strands; others are leaf-traces on their way + from the stele of the stem to the leaves. Most of these cortical + bundles are collateral in structure, but in some the xylem and phloem + are concentrically arranged; the secondary origin of these bundles + from procambium-strands was described by Mettenius in his classical + paper of 1860. During the increase in thickness of a cycadean stem + successive layers of cork-tissue are formed by phellogens in the + persistent bases of leaves (fig. 9, pd), which increase in size to + adapt themselves to the growth of the vascular zones. The leaf-traces + of cycads are remarkable both on account of their course and their + anatomy. In a transverse section of a stem (fig. 9) one sees some + vascular bundles following a horizontal or slightly oblique course in + the cortex, stretching for a longer or shorter distance in a direction + concentric with the woody cylinder. From each leaf-base two main + bundles spread right and left through the cortex of the stem (fig. 9, + lt), and as they curve gradually towards the vascular ring they + present the appearance of two rather flat ogee curves, usually spoken + of as the leaf-trace girdles (fig. 9, lt). The distal ends of these + girdles give off several branches, which traverse the petiole and + rachis as numerous collateral bundles. The complicated girdle-like + course is characteristic of the leaf-traces of most recent cycads, but + in some cases, e.g. in _Zamia floridana_, the traces are described by + Wieland in his recent monograph on American fossil cycads (_Carnegie + Institution Publications_, 1906) as possessing a more direct course + similar to that in Mesozoic genera. A leaf-trace, as it passes through + the cortex, has a collateral structure, the protoxylem being situated + at the inner edge of the xylem; when it reaches the leaf-base the + position of the spiral tracheids is gradually altered, and the endarch + arrangement (protoxylem internal) gives place to a mesarch structure + (protoxylem more or less central and not on the edge of the xylem + strand). In a bundle examined in the basal portion of a leaf the bulk + of the xylem is found to be centrifugal in position, but internally to + the protoxylem there is a group of centripetal tracheids; higher up in + the petiole the xylem is mainly centripetal, the centrifugal wood + being represented by a small arc of tracheids external to the + protoxylem and separated from it by a few parenchymatous elements. + Finally, in the pinnae of the frond the centrifugal xylem may + disappear, the protoxylem being now exarch in position and abutting on + the phloem. Similarly in the sporophylls of some cycads the bundles + are endarch near the base and mesarch near the distal end of the + stamen or carpel. The vascular system of cycadean seedlings presents + some features worthy of note; centripetal xylem occurs in the + cotyledonary bundles associated with transfusion-tracheids. The + bundles from the cotyledons pursue a direct course to the stele of the + main axis, and do not assume the girdle-form characteristic of the + adult plant. This is of interest from the point of view of the + comparison of recent cycads with extinct species (_Bennettites_), in + which the leaf-traces follow a much more direct course than in modern + cycads. The mesarch structure of the leaf-bundles is met with in a + less pronounced form in the flower peduncles of some cycads. This fact + is of importance as showing that the type of vascular structure, which + characterized the stems of many Palaeozoic genera, has not entirely + disappeared from the stems of modern cycads; but the mesarch bundle is + now confined to the leaves and peduncles. The roots of some cycads + resemble the stems in producing several cambium-rings; they possess 2 + to 8 protoxylem-groups, and are characterized by a broad pericyclic + zone. A common phenomenon in cycads is the production of roots which + grow upwards (apogeotropic), and appear as coralline branched + structures above the level of the ground; some of the cortical cells + of these roots are hypertrophied, and contain numerous filaments of + blue-green Algae (Nostocaceae), which live as endoparasites in the + cell-cavities. + + [Illustration: FIG. 9.--_Macrozamia._ Diagrammatic transverse section + of part of Stem. (After Worsdell.) + + pd, Periderm in leaf-bases. + lt, Leaf-traces in cortex. + ph, Phloem. + x, Xylem. + m, Medullary bundles. + c, Cortical bundles.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 10.--_Ginkgo biloba._ Leaves.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 11.--_Ginkgo adiantoides._ Fossil (Eocene) leaf + from the Island of Mull.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 12.--_Ginkgo biloba._ A, Male flower; B, C, single + stamens; D, female flower.] + + GINKGOALES.--This class-designation has been recently proposed to give + emphasis to the isolated position of the genus _Ginkgo_ (_Salisburia_) + among the Gymnosperms. _Ginkgo biloba_, the maidenhair tree, has + usually been placed by botanists in the Taxeae in the neighbourhood of + the yew (_Taxus_), but the proposal by Eichler in 1852 to institute a + special family, the _Salisburieae_, indicated a recognition of the + existence of special characteristics which distinguish the genus from + other members of the Coniferae. The discovery by the Japanese botanist + Hirase of the development of ciliated spermatozoids in the pollen-tube + of _Ginkgo_, in place of the non-motile male cells of typical + conifers, served as a cogent argument in favour of separating the + genus from the Coniferales and placing it in a class of its own. In + 1712 Kaempfer published a drawing of a Japanese tree, which he + described under the name _Ginkgo_; this term was adopted in 1771 by + Linnaeus, who spoke of Kaempfer's plant as _Ginkgo biloba_. In 1797 + Smith proposed to use the name _Salisburia adiantifolia_ in preference + to the "uncouth" genus _Ginkgo_ and "incorrect" specific term + _biloba_. Both names are still in common use. On account of the + resemblance of the leaves to those of some species of _Adiantum_, the + appellation maidenhair tree has long been given to _Ginkgo biloba_. + _Ginkgo_ is of special interest on account of its isolated position + among existing plants, its restricted geographical distribution, and + its great antiquity (see PALAEOBOTANY: _Mesozoic_). This solitary + survivor of an ancient stock is almost extinct, but a few old and + presumably wild trees are recorded by travellers in parts of China. + _Ginkgo_ is common as a sacred tree in the gardens of temples in the + Far East, and often cultivated in North America and Europe. _Ginkgo + biloba_, which may reach a height of over 30 metres, forms a tree of + pyramidal shape with a smooth grey bark. The leaves (figs. 10 and 11) + have a long, slender petiole terminating in a fan-shaped lamina, which + may be entire, divided by a median incision into two wedge-shaped + lobes, or subdivided into several narrow segments. The venation is + like that of many ferns, e.g. _Adiantum_; the lowest vein in each half + of the lamina follows a course parallel to the edge, and gives off + numerous branches, which fork repeatedly as they spread in a palmate + manner towards the leaf margin. The foliage-leaves occur either + scattered on long shoots of unlimited growth, or at the apex of short + shoots (spurs), which may eventually elongate into long shoots. + + [Illustration: FIG. 13.--_Ginkgo._ Apex of Ovule, and Pollen-grain. + (After Hirase.) + + p, Pollen-tube (proximal end). + c, Pollen-chamber. + e, Upward prolongation of megaspore. + a, Archegonia. + Pg, Pollen-grain. + Ex, Exine.] + + + Flowers. + + The flowers are dioecious. The male flowers (fig. 12), borne in the + axil of scale-leaves, consist of a stalked central axis bearing + loosely disposed stamens; each stamen consists of a slender filament + terminating in a small apical scale, which bears usually two, but not + infrequently three or four pollen-sacs (fig. 12, C). The axis of the + flower is a shoot bearing leaves in the form of stamens. A mature + pollen-grain contains a prothallus of 3 to 5 cells (Fig. 13, Pg); the + exine extends over two-thirds of the circumference, leaving a thin + portion of the wall, which on collapsing produces a longitudinal + groove similar to the median depression on the pollen-grain of a + cycad. The ordinary type of female flower has the form of a long, + naked peduncle bearing a single ovule on either side of the apex (fig. + 12), the base of each being enclosed by a small, collar-like rim, the + nature of which has been variously interpreted. A young ovule consists + of a conical nucellus surrounded by a single integument terminating as + a two-lipped micropyle. A large pollen-chamber occupies the apex of + the nucellus; immediately below this, two or more archegonia (fig. 13, + a) are developed in the upper region of the megaspore, each consisting + of a large egg-cell surmounted by two neck-cells and a canal-cell + which is cut off shortly before fertilization. After the entrance of + the pollen-grain the pollen-chamber becomes roofed over by a blunt + protuberance of nucellar tissue. The megaspore (embryo-sac) continues + to grow after pollination until the greater part of the nucellus is + gradually destroyed; it also gives rise to a vertical outgrowth, which + projects from the apex of the megaspore as a short, thick column (fig. + 13, e) supporting the remains of the nucellar tissue which forms the + roof of the pollen-chamber (fig. 13, c). Surrounding the pitted wall + of the ovum there is a definite layer of large cells, no doubt + representing a tapetum, which, as in cycads and conifers, plays an + important part in nourishing the growing egg-cell. The endosperm + detached from a large _Ginkgo_ ovule after fertilization bears a close + resemblance to that of a cycad; the apex is occupied by a depression, + on the floor of which two small holes mark the position of the + archegonia, and the outgrowth from the megaspore apex projects from + the centre as a short peg. After pollination the pollen-tube grows + into the nucellar tissue, as in cycads, and the pollen-grain itself + (fig. 13, Pg) hangs down into the pollen-chamber; two large spirally + ciliated spermatozoids are produced, their manner of development + agreeing very closely with that of the corresponding cells in _Cycas_ + and _Zamia_. After fertilization the ovum-nucleus divides and + cell-formation proceeds rapidly, especially in the lower part of the + ovum, in which the cotyledon and axis of the embryo are + differentiated; the long, tangled suspensor of the cycadean embryo is + not found in _Ginkgo_. It is often stated that fertilization occurs + after the ovules have fallen, but it has been demonstrated by Hirase + that this occurs while the ovules are still attached to the tree. The + ripe seed, which grows as large as a rather small plum, is enclosed by + a thick, fleshy envelope covering a hard woody shell with two or + rarely three longitudinal keels. A papery remnant of nucellus lines + the inner face of the woody shell, and, as in cycadean seeds, the + apical portion is readily separated as a cap covering the summit of + the endosperm. + + + Anatomy. + + The morphology of the female flowers has been variously interpreted by + botanists; the peduncle bearing the ovules has been described as + homologous with the petiole of a foliage-leaf and as a + shoot-structure, the collar-like envelope at the base of the ovules + being referred to as a second integument or arillus, or as the + representative of a carpel. The evidence afforded by normal and + abnormal flowers appears to be in favour of the following + interpretation: The peduncle is a shoot bearing two or more carpels. + Each ovule is enclosed at the base by an envelope or collar homologous + with the lamina of a leaf; the fleshy and hard coats of the nucellus + constitute a single integument. The stalk of an ovule, considerably + reduced in normal flowers and much larger in some abnormal flowers, is + homologous with a leaf-stalk, with which it agrees in the structure + and number of vascular bundles. The facts on which this description is + based are derived partly from anatomical evidence, and in part from an + account given by a Japanese botanist, Fujii, of several abnormal + female flowers; in some cases the collar at the base of an ovule, + often described as an arillus, is found to pass gradually into the + lamina of a leaf bearing marginal ovules (fig. 14, B). The occurrence + of more than two ovules on one peduncle is by no means rare; a + particularly striking example is described by Fujii, in which an + unusually thick peduncle bearing several stalked ovules terminates in + a scaly bud (fig. 14, A, b). The frequent occurrence of more than two + pollen-sacs and the equally common occurrence of additional ovules + have been regarded by some authors as evidence in favour of the view + that ancestral types normally possessed a greater number of these + organs than are usually found in the recent species. This view + receives support from fossil evidence. Close to the apex of a shoot + the vascular bundles of a leaf make their appearance as double + strands, and the leaf-traces in the upper part of a shoot have the + form of distinct bundles, which in the older part of the shoot form a + continuous ring. Each double leaf-trace passes through four internodes + before becoming a part of the stele; the double nature of the trace is + a characteristic feature. Secretory sacs occur abundantly in the + leaf-lamina, where they appear as short lines between the veins; they + are abundant also in the cortex and pith of the shoot, in the fleshy + integument of the ovule, and elsewhere. The secondary wood of the + shoot and root conforms in the main to the coniferous type; in the + short shoots the greater breadth of the medullary rays in the more + internal part of the xylem recalls the cycadean type. The secondary + phloem contains numerous thick-walled fibres, parenchymatous cells, + and large sieve-tubes with plates on the radial walls; swollen + parenchymatous cells containing crystals are commonly met with in the + cortex, pith and medullary-ray tissues. The wood consists of + tracheids, with circular bordered pits on their radial walls, and in + the late summer wood pits are unusually abundant on the tangential + walls. A point of anatomical interest is the occurrence in the + vascular bundles of the cotyledons, scale-leaves, and elsewhere of a + few centripetally developed tracheids, which give to the xylem-strands + a mesarch structure such as characterizes the foliar bundles of + cycads. The root is diarch in structure, but additional + protoxylem-strands may be present at the base of the main root; the + pericycle consists of several layers of cells. + + [Illustration: FIG. 14.--_Ginkgo._ Abnormal female Flowers. A, + Peduncle; b, scaly bud; B, leaf bearing marginal ovule. (After + Fujii.)] + + + Geological history. + + This is not the place to discuss in detail the past history of + _Ginkgo_ (see PALAEOBOTANY: _Mesozoic_). Among Palaeozoic genera there + are some which bear a close resemblance to the recent type in the form + of the leaves; and petrified Palaeozoic seeds, almost identical with + those of the maidenhair tree, have been described from French and + English localities. During the Triassic and Jurassic periods the genus + _Baiera_--no doubt a representative of the Ginkgoales--was widely + spread throughout Europe and in other regions; _Ginkgo_ itself occurs + abundantly in Mesozoic and Tertiary rocks, and was a common plant in + the Arctic regions as elsewhere during the Jurassic and Lower + Cretaceous periods. Some unusually perfect _Ginkgo_ leaves have been + found in the Eocene leaf-beds between the lava-flows exposed in the + cliffs of Mull (fig. 11). From an evolutionary point of view, it is of + interest to note the occurrence of filicinean and cycadean characters + in the maidenhair tree. The leaves at once invite a comparison with + ferns; the numerous long hairs which form a delicate woolly covering + on young leaves recall the hairs of certain ferns, but agree more + closely with the long filamentous hairs of recent cycads. The + spermatozoids constitute the most striking link with both cycads and + ferns. The structure of the seed, the presence of two neck-cells in + the archegonia, the late development of the embryo, the + partially-fused cotyledons and certain anatomical characters, are + features common to _Ginkgo_ and the cycads. The maidenhair tree is one + of the most interesting survivals from the past; it represents a type + which, in the Palaeozoic era, may have been merged into the extinct + class Cordaitales. Through the succeeding ages the Ginkgoales were + represented by numerous forms, which gradually became more restricted + in their distribution and fewer in number during the Cretaceous and + Tertiary periods, terminating at the present day in one solitary + survivor. + + CONIFERALES.--Trees and shrubs characterized by a copious branching of + the stem and frequently by a regular pyramidal form. Leaves simple, + small, linear or short and scale-like, usually persisting for more + than one year. Flowers monoecious or dioecious, unisexual, without a + perianth, often in the form of cones, but never terminal on the main + stem. + + + External features. + + The plants usually included in the Coniferae constitute a less + homogeneous class than the Cycadaceae. Some authors use the term + Coniferae in a restricted sense as including those genera which have + the female flowers in the form of cones, the other genera, + characterized by flowers of a different type, being placed in the + Taxaceae, and often spoken of as Taxads. In order to avoid confusion + in the use of the term Coniferae, we may adopt as a class-designation + the name Coniferales, including both the Coniferae--using the term in + a restricted sense--and the Taxaceae. The most striking characteristic + of the majority of the Coniferales is the regular manner of the + monopodial branching and the pyramidal shape. _Araucaria imbricata_, + the Monkey-puzzle tree, _A. excelsa_, the Norfolk Island pine, many + pines and firs, cedars and other genera illustrate the pyramidal form. + The mammoth redwood tree of California, _Sequoia (Wellingtonia) + gigantea_, which represents the tallest Gymnosperm, is a good example + of the regular tapering main stem and narrow pyramidal form. The + cypresses afford instances of tall and narrow trees similar in habit + to Lombardy poplars. The common cypress (_Cupressus sempervirens_), as + found wild in the mountains of Crete and Cyprus, is characterized by + long and spreading branches, which give it a cedar-like habit. A + pendulous or weeping habit is assumed by some conifers, e.g. _Picea + excelsa_ var. _virgata_ represents a form in which the main branches + attain a considerable horizontal extension, and trail themselves like + snakes along the ground. Certain species of _Pinus_, the yews + (_Taxus_) and some other genera grow as bushes, which in place of a + main mast-like stem possess several repeatedly-branched leading + shoots. The unfavourable conditions in Arctic regions have produced a + dwarf form, in which the main shoots grow close to the ground. + Artificially induced dwarfed plants of _Pinus_, _Cupressus_, + _Sciadopitys_ (umbrella pine) and other genera are commonly cultivated + by the Japanese. The dying off of older branches and the vigorous + growth of shoots nearer the apex of the stem produce a form of tree + illustrated by the stone pine of the Mediterranean region (_Pinus + Pinea_), which Turner has rendered familiar in his "Childe Harold's + Pilgrimage" and other pictures of Italian scenery. Conifers are not + infrequently seen in which a lateral branch has bent sharply upwards + to take the place of the injured main trunk. An upward tendency of all + the main lateral branches, known as fastigiation, is common in some + species, producing well-marked varieties, e.g. _Cephalotaxus + pedunculata_ var. _fastigiata_; this fastigiate habit may arise as a + sport on a tree with spreading branches. Another departure from the + normal is that in which the juvenile or seedling form of shoot + persists in the adult tree; the numerous coniferous plants known as + species of _Retinospora_ are examples of this. The name _Retinospora_, + therefore, does not stand for a true genus, but denotes persistent + young forms of _Juniperus_, _Thuja_, _Cupressus_, &c., in which the + small scaly leaves of ordinary species are replaced by the slender, + needle-like leaves, which stand out more or less at right angles from + the branches. The flat branchlets of _Cupressus_, _Thuja_ (arbor + vitae), _Thujopsis dolabrata_ (Japanese arbor vitae) are + characteristic of certain types of conifers; in some cases the + horizontal extension of the branches induces a dorsiventral structure. + A characteristic feature of the genus _Agathis (Dammara)_ the Kauri + pine of New Zealand, is the deciduous habit of the branches; these + become detached from the main trunk leaving a well-defined + absciss-surface, which appears as a depressed circular scar on the + stem. A new genus of conifers, _Taiwania_, has recently been described + from the island of Formosa; it is said to agree in habit with the + Japanese _Cryptomeria_, but the cones appear to have a structure which + distinguishes them from those of any other genus. + + + Leaves. + + With a few exceptions conifers are evergreen, and retain the leaves + for several years (10 years in _Araucaria imbricata_, 8 to 10 in + _Picea excelsa_, 5 in _Taxus baccata_; in _Pinus_ the needles usually + fall in October of their third year). The larch (_Larix_) sheds its + leaves in the autumn, in the Chinese larch (_Pseudolarix Kaempferi_) + the leaves turn a bright yellow colour before falling. In the swamp + cypress (_Taxodium distichum_) the tree assumes a rich brown colour in + the autumn, and sheds its leaves together with the branchlets which + bear them; deciduous branches occur also in some other species, e.g. + _Sequoia sempervirens_ (redwood), _Thuja occidentalis_, &c. The leaves + of conifers are characterized by their small size, e.g. the + needle-form represented by _Pinus_, _Cedrus_, _Larix_, &c., the linear + flat or angular leaves, appressed to the branches, of _Thuja_, + _Cupressus_, _Libocedrus_, &c. The flat and comparatively broad leaves + of _Araucaria imbricata_, _A. Bidwillii_, and some species of the + southern genus _Podocarpus_ are traversed by several parallel veins, + as are also the still larger leaves of _Agathis_, which may reach a + length of several inches. In addition to the foliage-leaves several + genera also possess scale-leaves of various kinds, represented by + bud-scales in _Pinus_, _Picea_, &c., which frequently persist for a + time at the base of a young shoot which has pushed its way through the + yielding cap of protecting scales, while in some conifers the + bud-scales adhere together, and after being torn near the base are + carried up by the growing axis as a thin brown cap. The cypresses, + araucarias and some other genera have no true bud-scales; in some + species, e.g. _Araucaria Bidwillii_, the occurrence of small + foliage-leaves, which have functioned as bud-scales, at intervals on + the shoots affords a measure of seasonal growth. The occurrence of + long and short shoots is a characteristic feature of many conifers. In + _Pinus_ the needles occur in pairs, or in clusters of 3 or 5 at the + apex of a small and inconspicuous short shoot of limited growth + (spur), which is enclosed at its base by a few scale-leaves, and borne + on a branch of unlimited growth in the axil of a scale-leaf. In the + Californian _Pinus monophylla_ each spur bears usually one needle, but + two are not uncommon; it would seem that rudiments of two needles are + always produced, but, as a rule, only one develops into a needle. In + _Sciadopitys_ similar spurs occur, each bearing a single needle, + which in its grooved surface and in the possession of a double + vascular bundle bears traces of an origin from two needle-leaves. A + peculiarity of these leaves is the inverse orientation of the vascular + tissue; each of the two veins has its phloem next the upper and the + xylem towards the lower surface of the leaf; this unusual position of + the xylem and phloem may be explained by regarding the needle of + _Sciadopitys_ as being composed of a pair of leaves borne on a short + axillary shoot and fused by their margins (fig. 15, A). Long and short + shoots occur also in _Cedrus_ and _Larix_, but in these genera the + spurs are longer and stouter, and are not shed with the leaves; this + kind of short shoot, by accelerated apical growth, often passes into + the condition of a long shoot on which the leaves are scattered and + separated by comparatively long internodes, instead of being crowded + into tufts such as are borne on the ends of the spurs. In the genus + _Phyllocladus_ (New Zealand, &c.) there are no green foliage-leaves, + but in their place flattened branches (phylloclades) borne in the + axils of small scale-leaves. The cotyledons are often two in number, + but sometimes (e.g. _Pinus_) as many as fifteen; these leaves are + usually succeeded by foliage-leaves in the form of delicate spreading + needles, and these primordial leaves are followed, sooner or later, by + the adult type of leaf, except in Retinosporas, which retain the + juvenile foliage. In addition to the first foliage-leaves and the + adult type of leaf, there are often produced leaves which are + intermediate both in shape and structure between the seedling and + adult foliage. Dimorphism or heterophylly is fairly common. One of the + best known examples is the Chinese juniper (_Juniperus chinensis_), in + which branches with spinous leaves, longer and more spreading than the + ordinary adult leaf, are often found associated with the normal type + of branch. In some cases, e.g. _Sequoia sempervirens_, the fertile + branches bear leaves which are less spreading than those on the + vegetative shoots. Certain species of the southern hemisphere genus + _Dacrydium_ afford particularly striking instances of heterophylly, + e.g. _D. Kirkii_ of New Zealand, in which some branches bear small and + appressed leaves, while in others the leaves are much longer and more + spreading. A well-known fossil conifer from Triassic strata--_Voltzia + heterophylla_--also illustrates a marked dissimilarity in the leaves + of the same shoot. The variation in leaf-form and the tendency of + leaves to arrange themselves in various ways on different branches of + the same plant are features which it is important to bear in mind in + the identification of fossil conifers. In this connexion we may note + the striking resemblance between some of the New Zealand Alpine + Veronicas, e.g. _Veronica Hectori_, _V. cupressoides_, &c. (also + _Polycladus cupressinus_, a Composite), and some of the cypresses and + other conifers with small appressed leaves. The long linear leaves of + some species of _Podocarpus_, in which the lamina is traversed by a + single vein, recall the pinnae of Cycas; the branches of some + Dacrydiums and other forms closely resemble those of lycopods; these + superficial resemblances, both between different genera of conifers + and between conifers and other plants, coupled with the usual + occurrence of fossil coniferous twigs without cones attached to them, + render the determination of extinct types a very unsatisfactory and + frequently an impossible task. + + + Flowers. + + A typical male flower consists of a central axis bearing numerous + spirally-arranged sporophylls (stamens), each of which consists of a + slender stalk (filament) terminating distally in a more or less + prominent knob or triangular scale, and bearing two or more + pollen-sacs (microsporangia) on its lower surface. The pollen-grains + of some genera (e.g. _Pinus_) are furnished with bladder-like + extensions of the outer wall, which serve as aids to wind-dispersal. + The stamens of _Araucaria_ and _Agathis_ are peculiar in bearing + several long, and narrow free pollen-sacs; these may be compared with + the sporangiophores of the horsetails (_Equisetum_); in _Taxus_ (yew) + the filament is attached to the centre of a large circular distal + expansion, which bears several pollen-sacs on its under surface. In + the conifers proper the female reproductive organs have the form of + cones, which may be styled flowers or inflorescences according to + different interpretations of their morphology. In the Taxaceae the + flowers have a simpler structure. The female flowers of the + _Abietineae_ may be taken as representing a common type. A pine cone + reaches maturity in two years; a single year suffices for the full + development in _Larix_ and several other genera. The axis of the cone + bears numerous spirally disposed flat scales (cone-scales), each of + which, if examined in a young cone, is found to be double, and to + consist of a lower and an upper portion. The latter is a thin flat + scale bearing a median ridge or keel (e.g. _Abies_), on each side of + which is situated an inverted ovule, consisting of a nucellus + surrounded by a single integument. As the cone grows in size and + becomes woody the lower half of the cone-scale, which we may call the + carpellary scale, may remain small, and is so far outgrown by the + upper half (seminiferous scale) that it is hardly recognizable in the + mature cone. In many species of _Abies_ (e.g. _Abies pectinata_, &c.) + the ripe cone differs from those of _Pinus_, _Picea_ and _Cedrus_ in + the large size of the carpellary scales, which project as conspicuous + thin appendages beyond the distal margins of the broader and more + woody seminiferous scales; the long carpellary scale is a prominent + feature also in the cone of the Douglas pine (_Pseudotsuga + Douglasii_). The female flowers (cones) vary considerably in size; the + largest are the more or less spherical cones of _Araucaria_--a single + cone of _A. imbricata_ may produce as many as 300 seeds, one seed to + each fertile cone-scale--and the long pendent cones, 1 to 2 ft. in + length, of the sugar pine of California (_Pinus Lambertiana_) and + other species. Smaller cones, less than an inch long, occur in the + larch, _Athrotaxis_ (Tasmania), _Fitzroya_ (Patagonia and Tasmania), + &c. In the _Taxodieae_ and _Araucarieae_ the cones are similar in + appearance to those of the _Abietineae_, but they differ in the fact + that the scales appear to be single, even in the young condition; each + cone-scale in a genus of the _Taxodiinae_ (_Sequoia_, &c.) bears + several seeds, while in the _Araucariinae_ (_Araucaria_ and _Agathis_) + each scale has one seed. The _Cupressineae_ have cones composed of a + few scales arranged in alternate whorls; each scale bears two or more + seeds, and shows no external sign of being composed of two distinct + portions. In the junipers the scales become fleshy as the seeds ripen, + and the individual scales fuse together in the form of a berry. The + female flowers of the Taxaceae assume another form; in _Microcachrys_ + (Tasmania) the reproductive structures are spirally disposed, and form + small globular cones made up of red fleshy scales, to each of which is + attached a single ovule enclosed by an integument and partially + invested by an arillus; in _Dacrydium_ the carpellary leaves are very + similar to the foliage leaves--each bears one ovule with two + integuments, the outer of which constitutes an arillus. Finally in the + yew, as a type of the family Taxeae, the ovules occur singly at the + apex of a lateral branch, enclosed when ripe by a conspicuous red or + yellow fleshy arillus, which serves as an attraction to animals, and + thus aids in the dispersal of the seeds. + + + Morphology of female flower. + + It is important to draw attention to some structural features + exhibited by certain cone-scales, in which there is no external sign + indicative of the presence of a carpellary and a seminiferous scale. + In _Araucaria Cookii_ and some allied species each scale has a small + pointed projection from its upper face near the distal end; the scales + of _Cunninghamia_ (China) are characterized by a somewhat ragged + membranous projection extending across the upper face between the + seeds and the distal end of the scale; in the scales of _Athrotaxis_ + (Tasmania) a prominent rounded ridge occupies a corresponding + position. These projections and ridges may be homologous with the + seminiferous scale of the pines, firs, cedars, &c. The simplest + interpretation of the cone of the _Abietineae_ is that which regards + it as a flower consisting of an axis bearing several open carpels, + which in the adult cone may be large and prominent or very small, the + scale bearing the ovules being regarded as a placental outgrowth from + the flat and open carpel. In _Araucaria_ the cone-scale is regarded as + consisting of a flat carpel, of which the placenta has not grown out + into the scale-like structure. The seminiferous scale of _Pinus_, &c., + is also spoken of sometimes as a ligular outgrowth from the carpellary + leaf. Robert Brown was the first to give a clear description of the + morphology of the Abietineous cone in which carpels bear naked ovules; + he recognized gymnospermy as an important distinguishing feature in + conifers as well as in cycads. Another view is to regard the cone as + an inflorescence, each carpellary scale being a bract bearing in its + axil a shoot the axis of which has not been developed; the + seminiferous scale is believed to represent either a single leaf or a + fused pair of leaves belonging to the partially suppressed axillary + shoot. In 1869 van Tieghem laid stress on anatomical evidence as a key + to the morphology of the cone-scales; he drew attention to the fact + that the collateral vascular bundles of the seminiferous scale are + inversely orientated as compared with those of the carpellary scale; + in the latter the xylem of each bundle is next the upper surface, + while in the seminiferous scale the phloem occupies that position. The + conclusion drawn from this was that the seminiferous scale (fig. 15, + B, Sc) is the first and only leaf of an axillary shoot (b) borne on + that side of the shoot, the axis of which is suppressed, opposite the + subtending bract (fig. 15, A, B, C, Br). Another view is to apply to + the seminiferous scale an explanation similar to that suggested by von + Mohl in the case of the double needle of _Sciadopitys_, and to + consider the seed-bearing scale as being made up of a pair of leaves + (fig. 15, A, a, a) of an axillary shoot (b) fused into one by their + posterior margins (fig. 15, A). The latter view receives support from + abnormal cones in which carpellary scales subtend axillary shoots, of + which the first two leaves (fig. 15, C, l¹, l¹) are often harder and + browner than the others; forms have been described transitional + between axillary shoots, in which the leaves are separate, and others + in which two of the leaves are more or less completely fused. In a + young cone the seminiferous scale appears as a hump of tissue at the + base or in the axil of the carpellary scale, but Celakovský, a strong + supporter of the axillary-bud theory, attaches little or no importance + to this kind of evidence, regarding the present manner of development + as being merely an example of a short cut adopted in the course of + evolution, and replacing the original production of a branch in the + axil of each carpellary scale. Eichler, one of the chief supporters of + the simpler view, does not recognize in the inverse orientation of the + vascular bundles an argument in support of the axillary-bud theory, + but points out that the seminiferous scale, being an outgrowth from + the surface of the carpellary scale, would, like outgrowths from an + ordinary leaf, naturally have its bundles inversely orientated. In + such cone-scales as show little or no external indication of being + double in origin, e.g. _Araucaria_ (fig. 15, D) Sequoia, &c., there + are always two sets of bundles; the upper set, having the phloem + uppermost, as in the seminiferous scale of _Abies_ or _Pinus_, are + regarded as belonging to the outgrowth from the carpellary scale and + specially developed to supply the ovules. Monstrous cones are fairly + common; these in some instances lend support to the axillary-bud + theory, and it has been said that this theory owes its existence to + evidence furnished by abnormal cones. It is difficult to estimate the + value of abnormalities as evidence bearing on morphological + interpretation; the chief danger lies perhaps in attaching undue + weight to them, but there is also a risk of minimizing their + importance. Monstrosities at least demonstrate possible lines of + development, but when the abnormal forms of growth in various + directions are fairly evenly balanced, trustworthy deductions become + difficult. The occurrence of buds in the axils of carpellary scales + may, however, simply mean that buds, which are usually undeveloped in + the axils of sporophylls, occasionally afford evidence of their + existence. Some monstrous cones lend no support to the axillary-bud + theory. In _Larix_ the axis of the cone often continues its growth; + similarly in _Cephalotaxus_ the cones are often proliferous. (In rare + cases the proliferated portion produces male flowers in the + leaf-axils.) In _Larix_ the carpellary scale may become leafy, and the + seminiferous scale may disappear. Androgynous cones may be produced, + as in the cone of _Pinus rigida_ (fig. 16), in which the lower part + bears stamens and the upper portion carpellary and seminiferous + scales. An interesting case has been figured by Masters, in which + scales of a cone of _Cupressus Lawsoniana_ bear ovules on the upper + surface and stamens on the lower face. One argument that has been + adduced in support of the axillary bud theory is derived from the + Palaeozoic type _Cordaites_, in which each ovule occurs on an axis + borne in the axil of a bract. The whole question is still unsolved, + and perhaps insoluble. It may be that the interpretation of the female + cone of the _Abietineae_ as an inflorescence, which finds favour with + many botanists, cannot be applied to the cones of _Agathis_ and + _Araucaria_. Without expressing any decided opinion as to the + morphology of the double cone-scale of the _Abietineae_, preference + may be felt in favour of regarding the cone-scale of the _Araucarieae_ + as a simple carpellary leaf bearing a single ovule. A discussion of + this question may be found in a paper on the _Araucarieae_ by Seward + and Ford, published in the Transactions of the Royal Society of London + (1906). _Cordaites_ is an extinct type which in certain respects + resembles _Ginkgo_, cycads and the _Araucarieae_, but its agreement + with true conifers is probably too remote to justify our attributing + much weight to the bearing of the morphology of its female flowers on + the interpretation of that of the Coniferae. The greater simplicity of + the Eichler theory may prejudice us in its favour; but, on the other + hand, the arguments advanced in favour of the axillary-bud theories + are perhaps not sufficiently cogent to lead us to accept an + explanation based chiefly on the uncertain evidence of monstrosities. + + [Illustration: (C and D after Worsdell.) + + FIG. 15.--Diagrammatic treatment of: + + A, Double needle of _Sciadopitys_ (a, a, leaves; b, shoot; Br, + bract). + + B, seminiferous scale as leaf of axillary shoot (b, shoot; Sc, + seminiferous scale; Br, bract). + + C, seminiferous scale as fused pair of leaves (l¹, l², 1³, first, + second and third leaves; b, shoot; Br, bract), + + D, cone-scale of _Araucaria_ (n, nucellus; i, integument; x, + xylem).] + + [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Abnormal Cone of _Pinus rigida_. (After + Masters.)] + + + Micro-spores and megaspores. + + A pollen-grain when first formed from its mother-cell consists of a + single cell; in this condition it may be carried to the nucellus of + the ovule (e.g. _Taxus_, _Cupressus_, &c.), or more usually (_Pinus_, + _Larix_, &c.) it reaches maturity before the dehiscence of the + microsporangium. The nucleus of the microspore divides and gives rise + to a small cell within the large cell, a second small cell is then + produced; this is the structure of the ripe pollen-grain in some + conifers (_Taxus_, &c.). The large cell grows out as a pollen-tube; + the second of the two small cells (body-cell) wanders into the tube, + followed by the nucleus of the first small cell (stalk-cell). In + _Taxus_ the body-cell eventually divides into two, in which the + products of division are of unequal size, the larger constituting the + male generative cell, which fuses with the nucleus of the egg-cell. In + _Juniperus_ the products of division of the body-cell are equal, and + both function as male generative cells. In the _Abietineae_ + cell-formation in the pollen-grain is carried farther. Three small + cells occur inside the cavity of the microspore; two of them collapse + and the third divides into two, forming a stalk-cell and a larger + body-cell. The latter ultimately divides in the apex of the + pollen-tube into two non-motile generative cells. Evidence has lately + been adduced of the existence of numerous nuclei in the pollen-tubes + of the _Araucarieae_, and it seems probable that in this as in several + other respects this family is distinguished from other members of the + Coniferales. The precise method of fertilization in the Scots Pine was + followed by V. H. Blackman, who also succeeded in showing that the + nuclei of the sporophyte generation contain twice as many chromosomes + as the nuclei of the gametophyte. Other observers have in recent years + demonstrated a similar relation in other genera between the number of + chromosomes in the nuclei of the two generations. The ovule is usually + surrounded by one integument, which projects beyond the tip of the + nucellus as a wide-open lobed funnel, which at the time of pollination + folds inwards, and so assists in bringing the pollen-grains on to the + nucellus. In some conifers (e.g. _Taxus_, _Cephalotaxus_, _Dacrydium_, + &c.) the ordinary integument is partially enclosed by an arillus or + second integument. It is held by some botanists (Celakovský) that the + seminiferous scale of the _Abietineae_ is homologous with the arillus + or second integument of the Taxaceae, but this view is too strained to + gain general acceptance. In _Araucaria_ and _Saxegothaea_ the nucellus + itself projects beyond the open micropyle and receives the + pollen-grains direct. During the growth of the cell which forms the + megaspore the greater part of the nucellus is absorbed, except the + apical portion, which persists as a cone above the megaspore; the + partial disorganization of some of the cells in the centre of the + nucellar cone forms an irregular cavity, which may be compared with + the larger pollen-chamber of _Ginkgo_ and the cycads. In each ovule + one megaspore comes to maturity, but, exceptionally, two may be + present (e.g. _Pinus sylvestris_). It has been shown by Lawson that in + _Sequoia sempervirens_ (_Annals of Botany_, 1904) and by other workers + in the genera that several megaspores may attain a fairly large size + in one prothallus. The megaspore becomes filled with tissue + (prothallus), and from some of the superficial cells archegonia are + produced, usually three to five in number, but in rare cases ten to + twenty or even sixty may be present. In the genus _Sequoia_ there may + be as many as sixty archegonia (Arnoldi and Lawson) in one megaspore; + these occur either separately or in some parts of the prothallus they + may form groups as in the _Cupressineae_; they are scattered through + the prothallus instead of being confined to the apical region as in + the majority of conifers. Similarly in the _Araucarieae_ and in + _Widdringtonia_ the archegonia are numerous and scattered and often + sunk in the prothallus tissue. In _Libocedrus decurrens_ + (Cupressineae) Lawson describes the archegonia as varying in number + from 6 to 24 (_Annals of Botany_ xxi., 1907). An archegonium consists + of a large oval egg-cell surmounted by a short neck composed of one or + more tiers of cells, six to eight cells in each tier. Before + fertilization the nucleus of the egg-cell divides and cuts off a + ventral canal-cell; this cell may represent a second egg-cell. The + egg-cells of the archegonia may be in lateral contact (e.g. + _Cupressineae_) or separated from one another by a few cells of the + prothallus, each ovum being immediately surrounded by a layer of cells + distinguished by their granular contents and large nuclei. During the + development of the egg-cell, food material is transferred from these + cells through the pitted wall of the ovum. The tissue at the apex of + the megaspore grows slightly above the level of the archegonia, so + that the latter come to lie in a shallow depression. In the process of + fertilization the two male generative nuclei, accompanied by the + pollen-tube nucleus and that of the stalk-cell, pass through an open + pit at the apex of the pollen-tube into the protoplasm of the ovum. + After fertilization the nucleus of the egg divides, the first stages + of karyokinesis being apparent even before complete fusion of the male + and female nuclei has occurred. The result of this is the production + of four nuclei, which eventually take up a position at the bottom of + the ovum and become separated from one another by vertical cell-walls; + these nuclei divide again, and finally three tiers of cells are + produced, four in each tier. In the _Abietineae_ the cells of the + middle tier elongate and push the lowest tier deeper into the + endosperm; the cells of the bottom tier may remain in lateral contact + and produce together one embryo, or they may separate (_Pinus_, + _Juniperus_, &c.) and form four potential embryos. The ripe albuminous + seed contains a single embryo with two or more cotyledons. The seeds + of many conifers are provided with large thin wings, consisting in + some genera (e.g. _Pinus_) of the upper cell-layers of the + seminiferous scale, which have become detached and, in some cases, + adhere loosely to the seed as a thin membrane; the loose attachment + may be of use to the seeds when they are blown against the branches of + trees, in enabling them to fall away from the wing and drop to the + ground. The seeds of some genera depend on animals for dispersal, the + carpellary scale (_Microcachrys_) or the outer integument being + brightly coloured and attractive. In some _Abietineae_ (e.g. _Pinus_ + and _Picea_)--in which the cone-scales persist for some time after the + seeds are ripe--the cones hang down and so facilitate the fall of the + seeds; in _Cedrus_, _Araucaria_ and _Abies_ the scales become detached + and fall with the seeds, leaving the bare vertical axis of the cone on + the tree. In all cases, except some species of _Araucaria_ (sect. + _Colymbea_) the germination is epigean. The seedling plants of some + Conifers (e.g. _Araucaria imbricata_) are characterized by a + carrot-shaped hypocotyl, which doubtless serves as a food-reservoir. + + + Anatomy. + + The roots of many conifers possess a narrow band of primary + xylem-tracheids with a group of narrow spiral protoxylem-elements at + each end (diarch). A striking feature in the roots of several genera, + excluding the _Abietineae_, is the occurrence of thick and somewhat + irregular bands of thickening on the cell-walls of the cortical layer + next to the endodermis. These bands, which may serve to strengthen the + central cylinder, have been compared with the netting surrounding the + delicate wall of an inflated balloon. It is not always easy to + distinguish a root from a stem; in some cases (e.g. _Sequoia_) the + primary tetrarch structure is easily identified in the centre of an + old root, but in other cases the primary elements are very difficult + to recognize. The sudden termination of the secondary tracheids + against the pith-cells may afford evidence of root-structure as + distinct from stem-structure, in which the radial rows of secondary + tracheids pass into the irregularly-arranged primary elements next the + pith. The annual rings in a root are often less clearly marked than in + the stem, and the xylem-elements are frequently larger and thinner. + The primary vascular bundles in a young conifer stem are collateral, + and, like those of a Dicotyledon, they are arranged in a circle round + a central pith and enclosed by a common endodermis. It is in the + nature of the secondary xylem that the Coniferales are most readily + distinguished from the Dicotyledons and Cycadaceae; the wood is + homogeneous in structure, consisting almost entirely of tracheids with + circular or polygonal bordered pits on the radial walls, more + particularly in the late summer wood. In many genera xylem-parenchyma + is present, but never in great abundance. A few Dicotyledons, e.g. + _Drimys_ (Magnoliaceae) closely resemble conifers in the homogeneous + character of the wood, but in most cases the presence of large spring + vessels, wood-fibres and abundant parenchyma affords an obvious + distinguishing feature. + + The abundance of petrified coniferous wood in rocks of various ages + has led many botanists to investigate the structure of modern genera + with a view to determining how far anatomical characters may be used + as evidence of generic distinctions. There are a few well-marked types + of wood which serve as convenient standards of comparison, but these + cannot be used except in a few cases to distinguish individual genera. + The genus _Pinus_ serves as an illustration of wood of a distinct type + characterized by the absence of xylem-parenchyma, except such as is + associated with the numerous resin-canals that occur abundantly in the + wood, cortex and medullary rays; the medullary rays are composed of + parenchyma and of horizontal tracheids with irregular ingrowths from + their walls. In a radial section of a pine stem each ray is seen to + consist in the median part of a few rows of parenchymatous cells with + large oval simple pits in their walls, accompanied above and below by + horizontal tracheids with bordered pits. The pits in the radial walls + of the ordinary xylem-tracheids occur in a single row or in a double + row, of which the pits are not in contact, and those of the two rows + are placed on the same level. The medullary rays usually consist of a + single tier of cells, but in the _Pinus_ type of wood broader + medullary rays also occur and are traversed by horizontal + resin-canals. In the wood of _Cypressus_, _Cedrus_, _Abies_ and + several other genera, parenchymatous cells occur in association with + the xylem-tracheids and take the place of the resin-canals of other + types. In the Araucarian type of wood (_Araucaria_ and _Agathis_) the + bordered pits, which occur in two or three rows on the radial walls of + the tracheids, are in mutual contact and polygonal in shape, the pits + of the different rows are alternate and not on the same level; in this + type of wood the annual rings are often much less distinct than in + _Cupressus_, _Pinus_ and other genera. In _Taxus_, _Torreya_ + (California and the Far East) and _Cephalotaxus_ the absence of + resin-canals and the presence of spiral thickening-bands on the + tracheids constitute well-marked characteristics. An examination of + the wood of branches, stems and roots of the same species or + individual usually reveals a fairly wide variation in some of the + characters, such as the abundance and size of the medullary rays, the + size and arrangement of pits, the presence of + wood-parenchyma--characters to which undue importance has often been + attached in systematic anatomical work. The phloem consists of + sieve-tubes, with pitted areas on the lateral as well as on the + inclined terminal walls, phloem-parenchyma and, in some genera, + fibres. In the _Abietineae_ the phloem consists of parenchyma and + sieve-tubes only, but in most other forms tangential rows of fibres + occur in regular alternation with the parenchyma and sieve-tubes. The + characteristic companion-cells of Angiosperms are represented by + phloem-parenchyma cells with albuminous contents; other parenchymatous + elements of the bast contain starch or crystals of calcium oxalate. + When tracheids occur in the medullary rays of the xylem these are + replaced in the phloem-region by irregular parenchymatous cells known + as albuminous cells. Resin-canals, which occur abundantly in the + xylem, phloem or cortex, are not found in the wood of the yew. + _Cephalotaxus (Taxeae)_ is also peculiar in having resin-canals in the + pith (cf. _Ginkgo_). One form of _Cephalotaxus_ is characterized by + the presence of short tracheids in the pith, in shape like ordinary + parenchyma, but in the possession of bordered pits and lignified walls + agreeing with ordinary xylem-tracheids; it is probable that these + short tracheids serve as reservoirs for storing rather than for + conducting water. The vascular bundle entering the stem from a leaf + with a single vein passes by a more or less direct course into the + central cylinder of the stem, and does not assume the girdle-like + form characteristic of the cycadean leaf-trace. In species of which + the leaves have more than one vein (e.g. _Araucaria imbricata_, &c.) + the leaf-trace leaves the stele of the stem as a single bundle which + splits up into several strands in its course through the cortex. In + the wood of some conifers, e.g. _Araucaria_, the leaf-traces persist + for a considerable time, perhaps indefinitely, and may be seen in + tangential sections of the wood of old stems. The leaf-trace in the + Coniferales is simple in its course through the stem, differing in + this respect from the double leaf-trace of _Ginkgo_. A detailed + account of the anatomical characters of conifers has been published by + Professor D. P. Penhallow of Montreal and Dr. Gothan of Berlin which + will be found useful for diagnostic purposes. The characters of leaves + most useful for diagnostic purposes are the position of the stomata, + the presence and arrangement of resin-canals, the structure of the + mesophyll and vascular bundles. The presence of hypodermal fibres is + another feature worthy of note, but the occurrence of these elements + is too closely connected with external conditions to be of much + systematic value. A pine needle grown in continuous light differs from + one grown under ordinary conditions in the absence of hypodermal + fibres, in the absence of the characteristic infoldings of the + mesophyll cell-walls, in the smaller size of the resin-canals, &c. The + endodermis in _Pinus_, _Picea_ and many other genera is usually a + well-defined layer of cells enclosing the vascular bundles, and + separated from them by a tissue consisting in part of ordinary + parenchyma and to some extent of isodiametric tracheids; but this + tissue, usually spoken of as the pericycle, is in direct continuity + with other stem-tissues as well as the pericycle. The occurrence of + short tracheids in close proximity to the veins is a characteristic of + coniferous leaves; these elements assume two distinct forms--(1) the + short isodiametric tracheids (transfusion-tracheids) closely + associated with the veins; (2) longer tracheids extending across the + mesophyll at right angles to the veins, and no doubt functioning as + representatives of lateral veins. It has been suggested that + transfusion-tracheids represent, in part at least, the centripetal + xylem, which forms a distinctive feature of cycadean leaf-bundles; + these short tracheids form conspicuous groups laterally attached to + the veins in _Cunninghamia_, abundantly represented in a similar + position in the leaves of _Sequoia_, and scattered through the + so-called pericycle in _Pinus_, _Picea_, &c. It is of interest to note + the occurrence of precisely similar elements in the mesophyll of + _Lepidodendron_ leaves. An anatomical peculiarity in the veins of + _Pinus_ and several other genera is the continuity of the medullary + rays, which extend as continuous plates from one end of the leaf to + the other. The mesophyll of _Pinus_ and _Cedrus_ is characterized by + its homogeneous character and by the presence of infoldings of the + cell-walls. In many leaves, e.g. _Abies_, _Tsuga_, _Larix_, &c., the + mesophyll is heterogeneous, consisting of palisade and spongy + parenchyma. In the leaves of _Araucaria imbricata_, in which + palisade-tissue occurs in both the upper and lower part of the + mesophyll, the resin-canals are placed between the veins; in some + species of _Podocarpus_ (sect. _Nageia_) a canal occurs below each + vein; in _Tsuga_, _Torreya_, _Cephalotaxus_, _Sequoia_, &c., a single + canal occurs below the midrib; in _Larix_, _Abies_, &c., two canals + run through the leaf parallel to the margins. The stomata are + frequently arranged in rows, their position being marked by two white + bands of wax on the leaf-surface. + + + Distribution. + + The chief home of the Coniferales is in the northern hemisphere, where + certain species occasionally extend into the Arctic circle and + penetrate beyond the northern limit of dicotyledonous trees. Wide + areas are often exclusively occupied by conifers, which give the + landscape a sombre aspect, suggesting a comparison with the forest + vegetation of the Coal period. South of the tree-limit a belt of + conifers stretches across north Europe, Siberia and Canada. In + northern Europe this belt is characterized by such species as _Picea + excelsa_ (spruce), which extends south to the mountains of the + Mediterranean region; _Pinus sylvestris_ (Scottish fir), reaching from + the far north to western Spain, Persia and Asia Minor; _Juniperus + communis_, &c. In north Siberia _Pinus Cembra_ (Cembra or Arolla Pine) + has a wide range; also _Abies sibirica_ (Siberian silver fir), _Larix + sibirica_ and _Juniperus Sabina_ (savin). In the North American area + _Picea alba_, _P. nigra_, _Larix americana_, _Abies balsamea_ (balsam + fir), _Tsuga canadensis_ (hemlock spruce), _Pinus Strobus_ (Weymouth + pine), _Thuja occidentalis_ (white cedar), _Taxus canadensis_ are + characteristic species. In the Mediterranean region occur _Cupressus + sempervirens_, _Pinus Pinea_ (stone pine), species of juniper, _Cedrus + atlantica_, _C. Libani_, _Callitris quadrivalvis_, _Pinus montana_, + &c. Several conifers of economic importance are abundant on the + Atlantic side of North America--_Juniperus virginiana_ (red cedar, + used in the manufacture of lead pencils, and extending as far south as + Florida), _Taxodium distichum_ (swamp cypress), _Pinus rigida_ (pitch + pine), _P. mitis_ (yellow pine), _P. taeda_, _P. palustris_, &c. On + the west side of the American continent conifers play a still more + striking rôle; among them are _Chamaecyparis nutkaensis_, _Picea + sitchensis_, _Libocedrus decurrens_, _Pseudotsuga Douglasii_ (Douglas + fir), _Sequoia sempervirens_, _S. gigantea_ (the only two surviving + species of this generic type are now confined to a few localities in + California, but were formerly widely spread in Europe and elsewhere), + _Pinus Coulteri_, _P. Lambertiana_, &c. Farther south, a few + representatives of such genera as _Abies_, _Cupressus_, _Pinus_ and + juniper are found in the Mexican Highlands, tropical America and the + West Indies. In the far East conifers are richly represented; among + them occur _Pinus densiflora_, _Cryptomeria japonica_, _Cephalotaxus_, + species of _Abies_, _Larix_, _Thujopsis_, _Sciadopitys verticillata_, + _Pseudolarix Kaempferi_, &c. In the Himalaya occur _Cedrus deodara_, + _Taxus_, species of _Cupressus_, _Pinus excelsa_, _Abies Webbiana_, + &c. The continent of Africa is singularly poor in conifers. _Cedrus + atlantica_, a variety of _Abies Pinsapo_, _Juniperus thurifera_, + _Callitris quadrivalvis_, occur in the north-west region, which may be + regarded as the southern limit of the Mediterranean region. The + greater part of Africa north of the equator is without any + representatives of the conifers; _Juniperus procera_ flourishes in + Somaliland and on the mountains of Abyssinia; a species of + _Podocarpus_ occurs on the Cameroon mountains, and _P. milanjiana_ is + widely distributed in east tropical Africa. _Widdringtonia Whytei_, a + species closely allied to _W. juniperoides_ of the Cedarberg mountains + of Cape Colony, is recorded from Nyassaland and from N.E. Rhodesia; + while a third species, _W. cupressoides_, occurs in Cape Colony. + _Podocarpus elongata_ and _P. Thunbergii_ (yellow wood) form the + principal timber trees in the belt of forest which stretches from the + coast mountains of Cape Colony to the north-east of the Transvaal. + _Libocedrus tetragona_, _Fitzroya patagonica_, _Araucaria + brasiliensis_, _A. imbricata_, _Saxegothaea_ and others are met with + in the Andes and other regions in South America. _Athrotaxis_ and + _Microcachrys_ are characteristic Australian types. _Phyllocladus_ + occurs also in New Zealand, and species of _Dacrydium_, _Araucaria_, + _Agathis_ and _Podocarpus_ are represented in Australia, New Zealand + and the Malay regions. + + GNETALES.--These are trees or shrubs with simple leaves. The flowers + are dioecious, rarely monoecious, provided with one or two perianths. + The wood is characterized by the presence of vessels in addition to + tracheids. There are no resin-canals. The three existing genera, + usually spoken of as members of the Gnetales, differ from one another + more than is consistent with their inclusion in a single family; we + may therefore better express their diverse characters by regarding + them as types of three separate families--(1) _Ephedroideae_, genus + _Ephedra_; (2) _Welwitschioideae_, genus _Welwitschia_; (3) + _Gnetoideae_, genus _Gnetum_. Our knowledge of the Gnetales leaves + much to be desired, but such facts as we possess would seem to + indicate that this group is of special importance as foreshadowing, + more than any other Gymnosperms, the Angiospermous type. In the more + heterogeneous structure of the wood and in the possession of true + vessels the Gnetales agree closely with the higher flowering plants. + It is of interest to note that the leaves of _Gnetum_, while typically + Dicotyledonous in appearance, possess a Gymnospermous character in the + continuous and plate-like medullary rays of their vascular bundles. + The presence of a perianth is a feature suggestive of an approach to + the floral structure of Angiosperms; the prolongation of the + integument furnishes the flowers with a substitute for a stigma and + style. The genus _Ephedra_, with its prothallus and archegonia, which + are similar to those of other Gymnosperms, may be safely regarded as + the most primitive of the Gnetales. In _Welwitschia_ also the + megaspore is filled with prothallus-tissue, but single egg-cells take + the place of archegonia. In certain species of _Gnetum_ described by + Karsten the megaspore contains a peripheral layer of protoplasm, in + which scattered nuclei represent the female reproductive cells; in + _Gnetum Gnemon_ a similar state of things exists in the upper half of + the megaspore, while the lower half agrees with the megaspore of + _Welwitschia_ in being full of prothallus-tissue, which serves merely + as a reservoir of food. Lotsy has described the occurrence of special + cells at the apex of the prothallus of _Gnetum Gnemon_, which he + regards as imperfect archegonia (fig. 17, C, a); he suggests they may + represent vestigial structures pointing back to some ancestral form + beyond the limits of the present group. The Gnetales probably had a + separate origin from the other Gymnosperms; they carry us nearer to + the Angiosperms, but we have as yet no satisfactory evidence that they + represent a stage in the direct line of Angiospermic evolution. It is + not improbable that the three genera of this ancient phylum survive as + types of a blindly-ending branch of the Gymnosperms; but be that as it + may, it is in the Gnetales more than in any other Gymnosperms that we + find features which help us to obtain a dim prospect of the lines + along which the Angiosperms may have been evolved. + + _Ephedra._--This genus is the only member of the Gnetales represented + in Europe. Its species, which are characteristic of warm temperate + latitudes, are usually much-branched shrubs. The finer branches are + green, and bear a close resemblance to the stems of Equisetum and to + the slender twigs of _Casuarina_; the surface of the long internodes + is marked by fine longitudinal ribs, and at the nodes are borne pairs + of inconspicuous scale-leaves. The flowers are small, and borne on + axillary shoots. A single male flower consists of an axis enclosed at + the base by an inconspicuous perianth formed of two concrescent leaves + and terminating in two, or as many as eight, shortly stalked or + sessile anthers. The female flower is enveloped in a closely fitting + sac-like investment, which must be regarded as a perianth; within this + is an orthotropous ovule surrounded by a single integument prolonged + upwards as a beak-like micropyle. The flower may be described as a bud + bearing a pair of leaves which become fused and constitute a perianth, + the apex of the shoot forming an ovule. In function the perianth may + be compared with a unilocular ovary containing a single ovule; the + projecting integument, which at the time of pollination secretes a + drop of liquid, serves the same purpose as the style and stigma of an + angiosperm. The megaspore is filled with tissue as in typical + Gymnosperms, and from some of the superficial cells 3 to 5 archegonia + are developed, characterized by long multicellular necks. The + archegonia are separated from one another, as in _Pinus_, by some of + the prothallus-tissue, and the cells next the egg-cells (tapetal + layer) contribute food-material to their development. After + fertilization, some of the uppermost bracts below each flower become + red and fleshy; the perianth develops into a woody shell, while the + integument remains membranous. In some species of _Ephedra_, e.g. _E. + altissima_, the fertilized eggs grow into tubular proembryos, from the + tip of each of which embryos begin to be developed, but one only comes + to maturity. In _Ephedra helvetica_, as described by Jaccard, no + proembryo or suspensor is formed; but the most vigorous fertilized + egg, after undergoing several divisions, becomes attached to a tissue, + termed the columella, which serves the purpose of a primary suspensor; + the columella appears to be formed by the lignification of certain + cells in the central region of the embryo-sac. At a later stage some + of the cells in the upper (micropylar) end of the embryo divide and + undergo considerable elongation, serving the purpose of a secondary + suspensor. The secondary wood of _Ephedra_ consists of tracheids, + vessels and parenchyma; the vessels are characterized by their wide + lumen and by the large simple or slightly-bordered pits on their + oblique end-walls. + + [Illustration: FIG. 17.--_Gnetum Gnemon._ (After Lotsy.) + + A, Female Flower. a, Imperfect Archegonia. + n, Nucellus. e, Partially developed Megaspore. + pc, Pollen-chamber. F, Fertile half. + i, Integument. S, Sterile half. + p´, Inner Perianth. pt, Pollen-tube. + p´´, Outer Perianth. z, Zygote. + B, C, Megaspore. z´, Prothallus. + a, Imperfect Archegonia. + e, Partially developed Megaspore. + F, Fertile half. + S, Sterile half. + pt, Pollen-tube. + z, Zygote. + z´, Prothallus.] + + _Gnetum._--This genus is represented by several species, most of which + are climbing plants, both in tropical America and in warm regions of + the Old World. The leaves, which are borne in pairs at the tumid + nodes, are oval in form and have a Dicotyledonous type of venation. + The male and female inflorescences have the form of simple or + paniculate spikes. The spike of an inflorescence bears whorls of + flowers at each node in the axils of concrescent bracts accompanied by + numerous sterile hairs (paraphyses); in a male inflorescence numerous + flowers occur at each node, while in a female inflorescence the number + of flowers at each node is much smaller. A male flower consists of a + single angular perianth, through the open apex of which the + flower-axis projects as a slender column terminating in two anthers. + The female flowers, which are more complex in structure, are of two + types, complete and incomplete; the latter occur in association with + male flowers in a male inflorescence. A complete female flower + consists of a nucellus (fig. 17, A, n), surrounded by a single + integument (fig. 17, A, i), prolonged upwards as a narrow tube and + succeeded by an inner and an outer perianth (fig. 17, A, p´ and p´´). + The whole flower may be looked upon as an adventitious bud bearing two + pairs of leaves; each pair becomes concrescent and forms a perianth, + the apex of the shoot being converted into an orthotropous ovule. The + incomplete female flowers are characterized by the almost complete + suppression of the inner perianth. Several embryo-sacs (megaspores) + are present in the nucellus of a young ovule, but one only attains + full size, the smaller and partially developed megaspores (fig. 17, B + and C, e) being usually found in close association with the surviving + and fully-grown megaspore. In _Gnetum Gnemon_, as described by Lotsy, + a mature embryo-sac contains in the upper part a large central vacuole + and a peripheral layer of protoplasm, including several nuclei, which + take the place of the archegonia of _Ephedra_; the lower part of the + embryo-sac, separated from the upper by a constriction, is full of + parenchyma. The upper part of the megaspore may be spoken of as the + fertile half (fig. 17, B and C, F) and the lower part, which serves + only as food-reservoir for the growing embryo, may be termed the + sterile half (fig. 17, B and C, S). (Coulter, _Bot. Gazette_, xlvi., + 1908, regards this tissue as belonging to the nucellus.) At the time + of pollination the long tubular integument secretes a drop of fluid + at its apex, which holds the pollen-grains, brought by the wind, or + possibly to some extent by insect agency, and by evaporation these are + drawn on to the top of the nucellus, where partial disorganization of + the cells has given rise to an irregular pollen-chamber (fig. 17, A, + pc). The pollen-tube, containing two generative and one vegetative + nucleus, pierces the wall of the megaspore and then becomes swollen + (fig. 17, B and C, pt); finally the two generative nuclei pass out of + the tube and fuse with two of the nuclei in the fertile half of the + megaspore. As the result of fertilization, the fertilized nuclei of + the megaspore become surrounded by a cell-wall, and constitute + zygotes, which may attach themselves either to the wall of the + megaspore or to the end of a pollen-tube (fig. 17, C, z and z'); they + then grow into long tubes or proembryos, which make their way towards + the prothallus (C, z'), and eventually embryos are formed from the + ends of the proembryo tubes. One embryo only comes to maturity. The + embryo of _Gnetum_ forms an out-growth from the hypocotyl, which + serves as a feeder and draws nourishment from the prothallus. The + fleshy outer portion of the seed is formed from the outer perianth, + the woody shell being derived from the inner perianth. The climbing + species of _Gnetum_ are characterized by the production of several + concentric cylinders of secondary wood and bast, the additional + cambium-rings being products of the pericycle, as in _Cycas_ and + _Macrozamia_. The structure of the wood agrees in the main with that + of _Ephedra_. + + _Welwitschia (Tumboa)._--This is by far the most remarkable member of + the Gnetales, both as regards habit and the form of its flowers. In a + supplement to the systematic work of Engler and Prantl the well-known + name _Welwitschia_, instituted by Hooker in 1864 in honour of + Welwitsch, the discoverer of the plant, is superseded by that of + _Tumboa_, originally suggested by Welwitsch. The genus is confined to + certain localities in Damaraland and adjoining territory on the west + coast of tropical South Africa. A well-grown plant projects less than + a foot above the surface of the ground; the stem, which may have a + circumference of more than 12 ft., terminates in a depressed crown + resembling a circular table with a median groove across the centre and + prominent broad ridges concentric with the margin. The thick tuberous + stem becomes rapidly narrower, and passes gradually downwards into a + tap-root. A pair of small strap-shaped leaves succeed the two + cotyledons of the seedling, and persist as the only leaves during the + life of the plant; they retain the power of growth in their basal + portion, which is sunk in a narrow groove near the edge of the crown, + and the tough lamina, 6 ft. in length, becomes split into narrow + strap-shaped or thong-like strips which trail on the ground. Numerous + circular pits occur on the concentric ridges of the depressed and + wrinkled crown, marking the position of former inflorescences borne in + the leaf-axil at different stages in the growth of the plant. An + inflorescence has the form of a dichotomously-branched cyme bearing + small erect cones; those containing the female flowers attain the size + of a fir-cone, and are scarlet in colour. Each cone consists of an + axis, on which numerous broad and thin bracts are arranged in regular + rows; in the axil of each bract occurs a single flower; a male flower + is enclosed by two opposite pairs of leaves, forming a perianth + surrounding a central sterile ovule encircled by a ring of stamens + united below, but free distally as short filaments, each of which + terminates in a trilocular anther. The integument of the sterile ovule + is prolonged above the nucellus as a spirally-twisted tube expanded at + its apex into a flat stigma-like organ. A complete and functional + female flower consists of a single ovule with two integuments, the + inner of which is prolonged into a narrow tubular micropyle, like that + in the flower of _Gnetum_. The megaspore of _Welwitschia_ is filled + with a prothallus-tissue before fertilization, and some of the + prothallus-cells function as egg-cells; these grow upwards as long + tubes into the apical region of the nucellus, where they come into + contact with the pollen-tubes. After the egg-cells have been + fertilized by the non-motile male cells they grow into tubular + proembryos, producing terminal embryos. The stem is traversed by + numerous collateral bundles, which have a limited growth, and are + constantly replaced by new bundles developed from strands of secondary + meristem. One of the best-known anatomical characteristics of the + genus is the occurrence of numerous spindle-shaped or branched fibres + with enormously-thickened walls studded with crystals of calcium + oxalate. Additional information has been published by Professor + Pearson of Cape Town based on material collected in Damaraland in 1904 + and 1906-1907. In 1906 he gave an account of the early stages of + development of the male and female organs and, among other interesting + statements in regard to the general biology of _Welwitschia_, he + expressed the opinion that, as Hooker suspected, the ovules are + pollinated by insect-agency. In a later paper Pearson considerably + extended our knowledge of the reproduction and gametophyte of this + genus. + + AUTHORITIES.--General: Bentham and Hooker, _Genera Plantarum_ (London, + 1862-1883); Engler and Prantl, _Die natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien_ + (Leipzig, 1889 and 1897); Strasburger, _Die Coniferen und Gnetaceen_ + (Jena, 1872); _Die Angiospermen und die Gymnospermen_ (Jena, 1879); + _Histologische Beiträge_, iv. (Jena, 1892); Coulter and Chamberlain, + _Morphology of Spermatophytes_ (New York, 1901); Rendle, _The + Classification of Flowering Plants_, vol. i. (Cambridge, 1904); "The + Origin of Gymnosperms" (A discussion at the Linnean Society; _New + Phytologist_, vol. v., 1906). Cycadales: Mettenius, "Beiträge zur + Anatomie der Cycadeen," _Abh. k. sächs_. _Ges. Wiss._ (1860); Treub, + "Recherches sur les Cycadées," _Ann. Bot. Jard. Buitenzorg_, ii. + (1884); Solms-Laubach, "Die Sprossfolge der Stangeria, &c.," _Bot. + Zeit._ xlviii. (1896); Worsdell, "Anatomy of Macrozamia," _Ann. Bot._ + x. (1896) (also papers by the same author, _Ann. Bot._, 1898, _Trans. + Linn. Soc._ v., 1900); Scott, "The Anatomical Characters presented by + the Peduncle of Cycadaceae," Ann. Bot. xi. (1897); Lang, "Studies in + the Development and Morphology of Cycadean Sporangia, No. I.," Ann. + Bot. xi. (1897); No. II., _Ann. Bot._ xiv. (1900); Webber, + "Development of the Antherozoids of Zamia," Bot. Gaz. (1897); Ikeno, + "Untersuchungen über die Entwickelung, &c., bei Cycas revoluta," + _Journ. Coll. Sci. Japan_, xii. (1898); Wieland, "American Fossil + Cycads," Carnegie Institution Publication (1906); Stopes, "Beiträge + zur Kenntnis der Fortpflanzungsorgane der Cycadeen," _Flora_ (1904); + Caldwell, "Microcycas Calocoma," _Bot. Gaz._ xliv., 1907 (also papers + on this and other Cycads in the _Bot. Gaz._, 1907-1909); Matte, + _Recherches sur l'appareil libéro-ligneux des Cycadacées_ (Caen, + 1904). Ginkgoales: Hirase, "Études sur la fécondation, &c., de Ginkgo + biloba," _Journ. Coll. Sci. Japan_, xii. (1898); Seward and Gowan, + "Ginkgo biloba," _Ann. Bot._ xiv. (1900) (with bibliography); Ikeno, + "Contribution à l'étude de la fécondation chez le Ginkgo biloba," + _Ann. Sci. Nat._ xiii. (1901); Sprecher, _Le Ginkgo biloba_ (Geneva, + 1907). Coniferales: "Report of the Conifer Conference" (1891) _Journ. + R. Hort. Soc._ xiv. (1892); Beissner, _Handbuch der Nadelholzkunde_ + (Berlin, 1891); Masters, "Comparative Morphology of the Coniferae," + _Journ. Linn. Soc._ xxvii. (1891); ibid. (1896), &c.; Penhallow, "The + Generic Characters of the North American Taxaceae and Coniferae," + _Proc. and Trans. R. Soc. Canada_, ii. (1896); Blackman, + "Fertilization in Pinus sylvestris," _Phil. Trans._ (1898) (with + bibliography); Worsdell, "Structure of the Female Flowers in + Conifers," _Ann. Bot._ xiv. (1900) (with bibliography); ibid. (1899); + Veitch, _Manual of the Coniferae_ (London, 1900); Penhallow, "Anatomy + of North American Coniferales," _American Naturalist_ (1904); Engler + and Pilger, _Das Pflanzenreich, Taxaceae_ (1903); Seward and Ford, + "The Araucarieae, recent and extinct," _Phil. Trans. R. Soc._ (1906) + (with bibliography); Lawson, "Sequoia sempervirens," _Annals of + Botany_ (1904); Robertson, "Torreya Californica," _New Phytologist_ + (1904); Coker, "Gametophyte and Embryo of Taxodium," _Bot. Gazette_ + (1903); E. C. Jeffrey, "The Comparative Anatomy and Phylogeny of the + Coniferales, part i. The Genus Sequoia," _Mem. Boston Nat. Hist. Soc._ + v. No. 10 (1903); Gothan, "Zur Anatomie lebender und fossiler + Gymnospermen-Hölzer," _K. Preuss. Geol. Landes._ (Berlin, 1905) (for + more recent papers, see _Ann. Bot., New Phytologist_, and _Bot. + Gazette_, 1906-1909). Gnetales: Hooker, "On Welwitschia mirabilis." + _Trans. Linn. Soc._ xxiv. (1864); Bower, "Germination, &., in Gnetum," + _Journ. Mic. Sci._ xxii. (1882); ibid. (1881); Jaccard, "Recherches + embryologiques sur _l'Ephedra helvetica_," _Diss. Inaug. Lausanne_ + (1894); Karsten, "Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Gattung Gnetum," + _Cohn's Beiträge_, vi. (1893); Lotsy, "Contributions to the + Life-History of the genus Gnetum," _Ann. Bot. Jard. Buitenzorg_, xvi. + (1899); Land, "Ephedra trifurca," _Bot. Gazette_ (1904); Pearson, + "Some observations on Welwitschia mirabilis," _Phil. Trans. R. Soc._ + (1906); Pearson, "Further Observations on Welwitschia," _Phil. Trans. + R. Soc._ vol. 200 (1909). (A. C. Se.) + + + + +GYMNOSTOMACEAE, an order of Ciliate Infusoria (q.v.), characterized by a +closed mouth, which only opens to swallow food actively, and body cilia +forming a general or partial investment (rarely represented by a girdle +of membranellae), but not differentiated in different regions. With the +Aspirotrochaceae (q.v.) it formed the Holotricha of Stein. + + + + +GYMPIE, a mining town of March county, Queensland, Australia, 107 m. N. +of Brisbane, and 61 m. S. of Maryborough by rail. Pop. (1901) 11,959. +Numerous gold mines are worked in the district, which also abounds in +copper, silver, antimony, cinnabar, bismuth and nickel. Extensive +undeveloped coal-beds lie 40 m. N. at Miva. Gympie became a municipality +in 1880. + + + + +GYNAECEUM (Gr. [Greek: gynaikeion], from [Greek: gynê], woman), that +part in a Greek house which was specially reserved for the women, in +contradistinction to the "andron," the men's quarters; in the larger +houses there was an open court with peristyles round, and as a rule all +the rooms were on the same level; in smaller houses the servants were +placed in an upper storey, and this seems to have been the case to a +certain extent in the Homeric house of the Odyssey. "Gynaeconitis" is +the term given by Procopius to the space reserved for women in the +Eastern Church, and this separation of the sexes was maintained in the +early Christian churches where there were separate entrances and +accommodation for the men and women, the latter being placed in the +triforium gallery, or, in its absence, either on one side of the church, +the men being on the other, or occasionally in the aisles, the nave +being occupied by the men. + + + + +GYNAECOLOGY (from Gr. [Greek: gynê, gynaikos], a woman, and [Greek: +logos], discourse), the name given to that branch of medicine which +concerns the pathology and treatment of affections peculiar to the +female sex. + +Gynaecology may be said to be one of the most ancient branches of +medicine. The papyrus of Ebers, which is one of the oldest known works +on medicine and dates from 1550 B.C., contains references to diseases of +women, and it is recorded that specialism in this branch was known +amongst Egyptian medical practitioners. The Vedas contain a list of +therapeutic agents used in the treatment of gynaecological diseases. The +treatises on gynaecology formerly attributed to Hippocrates (460 B.C.) +are now said to be spurious, but the wording of the famous oath shows +that he was at least familiar with the use of gynaecological +instruments. Diocles Carystius, of the Alexandrian school (4th century +B.C.), practised this branch, and Praxagoras of Cos, who lived shortly +after, opened the abdomen by laparotomy. While the Alexandrine school +represented Greek medicine, Greeks began to practise in Rome, and in the +first years of the Christian era gynaecologists were much in demand +(Häser). A speculum for gynaecological purposes has been found in the +ruins of Pompeii, and votive offerings of anatomical parts found in the +temples show that various gynaecological malformations were known to the +ancients. Writers who have treated of this branch are Celsus (50 +B.C.-A.D. 7) and Soranus of Ephesus (A.D. 98-138), who refers in his +works to the fact that the Roman midwives frequently called to their aid +practitioners who made a special study of diseases of women. These +midwives attended the simpler gynaecological ailments. This was no +innovation, as in Athens, as mentioned by Hyginus, we find one Agnodice, +a midwife, disguising herself in man's attire so that she might attend +lectures on medicine and diseases of women. After instruction she +practised as a gynaecologist. This being contrary to Athenian law she +was prosecuted, but was saved by the wives of some of the chief men +testifying on her behalf. Besides Agnodice we have Sotira, who wrote a +work on menstruation which is preserved in the library at Florence, +while Aspasia is mentioned by Aetius as the author of several chapters +of his work. It is evident that during the Roman period much of the +gynaecological work was in the hands of women. Martial alludes to the +"_feminae medicae_" in his epigram on Leda. These women must not be +confounded with the midwives who on monuments are always described as +"obstetrices." Galen devotes the sixth chapter of his work _De locis +affectis_ to gynaecological ailments. During the Byzantine period may be +mentioned the work of Oribasius (A.D. 325) and Moschion (2nd century +A.D.) who wrote a book in Latin for the use of matrons and midwives +ignorant of Greek. + +In modern times James Parsons (1705-1770) published his _Elenchus +gynaicopathologicus et obstetricarius_, and in 1755 Charles Perry +published his _Mechanical account and explication of the hysterical +passion and of all other nervous disorders incident to the sex, with an +appendix on cancers_. In the early part of the 19th century fresh +interest in diseases of women awakened. Joseph Récamier (1774-1852) by +his writings and teachings advocated the use of the speculum and sound. +This was followed in 1840 by the writings of Simpson in England and +Huguier in France. In 1845 John Hughes Bennett published his great work +on inflammation of the uterus, and in 1850 Tilt published his book on +ovarian inflammation. The credit of being the first to perform the +operation of ovariotomy is now credited to McDowell of Kentucky in 1809, +and to Robert Lawson Tait (1845-1899) in 1883 the first operation for +ruptured ectopic gestation. + + _Menstruation._--Normal menstruation comprises the escape of from 4 to + 6 oz. of blood together with mucus from the uterus at intervals of + twenty-eight days (more or less). The flow begins at the age of + puberty, the average age of which in England is between fourteen and + sixteen years. It ceases between forty-five and fifty years of age, + and this is called the menopause or climacteric period, commonly + spoken of as "the change of life." Both the age of puberty and that of + the menopause may supervene earlier or later according to local + conditions. At both times the menstrual flow may be replaced by + haemorrhage from distant organs (epistaxis, haematemesis, + haemoptysis); this is called _vicarious menstruation_. Menstruation is + usually but not necessarily coincident with ovulation. The usual + disorders of menstruation are: (1) _amenorrhoea_ (absence of flow), + (2) _dysmenorrhoea_ (painful flow), (3) _menorrhagia_ (excessive + flow), (4) _metrorrhagia_ (excessive and irregular flow). Amenorrhoea + may arise from physiological causes, such as pregnancy, lactation, the + menopause; constitutional causes, such as phthisis, anaemia and + chlorosis, febrile disorders, some chronic intoxications, such as + morphinomania, and some forms of cerebral disease; local causes, which + include malformations or absence of one or more of the genital parts, + such as absence of ovaries, uterus or vagina, atresia of vagina, + imperforate cervix, disease of the ovaries, or sometimes imperforate + hymen. The treatment of amenorrhoea must be directed towards the + cause. In anaemia and phthisis menstruation often returns after + improvement in the general condition, with good food and good sanitary + conditions, an outdoor life and the administration of iron or other + tonics. In local conditions of imperforate hymen, imperforate cervix + or ovarian disease, surgical interference is necessary. Amenorrhoea is + permanent when due to absence of the genital parts. The causes of + dysmenorrhoea are classified as follows: (1) ovarian, due to disease + of the ovaries or Fallopian tubes; (2) obstructive, due to some + obstacle to the flow, as stenosis, flexions and malpositions of the + uterus, or malformations; (3) congestive, due to subinvolution, + chronic inflammation of the uterus or its lining membrane, fibroid + growths and polypi of the uterus, cardiac or hepatic disease; (4) + neuralgic; (5) membranous. The foremost place in the treatment of + dysmenorrhoea must be given to aperients and purgatives administered a + day or two before the period is expected. By this means congestion is + reduced. Hot baths are useful, and various drugs such as hyoscyanus, + cannabis indica, phenalgin, ammonol or phenacetin have been + prescribed. Medicinal treatment is, however, only palliative, and + flexions and malpositions of the uterus must be corrected, stenosis + treated by dilatation, fibroid growths if present removed, and + endometritis when present treated by local applications or curetting + according to its severity. Menorrhagia signifies excessive bleeding at + the menstrual periods. Constitutional causes are purpura, haemophilia, + excessive food and alcoholic drinks and warm climates; while local + causes are congestion and displacements of the uterus, endometritis, + subinvolution, retention of the products of conception, new growths in + the uterus such as mucous and fibroid polypi, malignant growths, + tubo-ovarian inflammation and some ovarian tumours. Metrorrhagia is a + discharge of blood from the uterus, independent of menstruation. It + always arises from disease of the uterus or its appendages. Local + causes are polypi, retention of the products of conception, extra + uterine gestation, haemorrhages in connexion with pregnancy, and new + growths in the uterus. In the treatment of both menorrhagia and + metrorrhagia the local condition must be carefully ascertained. When + pregnancy has been excluded, and constitutional causes treated, + efforts should be made to relieve congestion. Uterine haemostatics, as + ergot, ergotin, tincture of hydrastis or hamamelis, are of use, + together with rest in bed. Fibroid polypi and other new growths must + be removed. Irregular bleeding in women over forty years of age is + frequently a sign of early malignant disease, and should on no account + be neglected. + + _Diseases of the External Genital Organs._--The vulva comprises + several organs and structures grouped together for convenience of + description (see REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM). The affections to which these + structures are liable may be classified as follows: (1) Injuries to + the vulva, either accidental or occurring during parturition; these + are generally rupture of the perinaeum. (2) _Vulvitis._ Simple + Vulvitis is due to want of cleanliness, or irritating discharges, and + in children may result from threadworms. The symptoms are heat, + itching and throbbing, and the parts are red and swollen. The + treatment consists of rest, thorough cleanliness and fomentations. + Infective vulvitis is nearly always due to gonorrhoea. The symptoms + are the same as in simple vulvitis, with the addition of mucopurulent + yellow discharge and scalding pain on micturition; if neglected, + extension of the disease may result. The treatment consists of rest in + bed, warm medicated baths several times a day or fomentations of + boracic acid. The parts must be kept thoroughly clean and discharges + swabbed away. Diphtheritic vulvitis occasionally occurs, and + erysipelas of the vulva may follow wounds, but since the use of + antiseptics is rarely seen. (3) Vascular disturbances may occur in the + vulva, including varix, haematoma, oedema and gangrene; the treatment + is the same as for the same disease in other parts. (4) The vulva is + likely to be affected by a number of cutaneous affections, the most + important being erythema, eczema, herpes, lichen, tubercle, + elephantiasis, vulvitis pruriginosa, syphilis and kraurosis. These + affections present the same characters as in other parts of the body. + _Kraurosis vulvae_, first described by Lawson Tait in 1875, is an + atrophic change accompanied by pain and a yellowish discharge; the + cause is unknown. Pruritis vulvae is due to parasites, or to + irritating discharges, as leucorrhoea, and is frequent in diabetic + subjects. The hymen may be occasionally imperforate and require + incision. Cysts and painful carunculae may occur on the clitoris. Any + part of the vulva may be the seat of new growths, simple or malignant. + + _Diseases of the Vagina._--(1) Malformations. The vagina may be absent + in whole or in part or may present a septum. Stenosis of the vagina + may be a barrier to menstruation. (2) Displacements of the vagina; (a) + cystocele, which is a hernia of the bladder into the vagina; (b) + rectocele, a hernia of the rectum into the vagina. The cause of these + conditions is relaxation of the tissues due to parturition. The + palliative treatment consists in keeping up the parts by the insertion + of a pessary; when this fails operative interference is called for. + (3) Fistulae may form between the vagina and bladder or vagina and + rectum; they are generally caused by injuries during parturition or + the late stages of carcinoma. Persistent fistulae require operative + treatment. The vagina normally secretes a thin opalescent acid fluid + derived from the lymph serum and the shedding of squamous epithelium. + This fluid normally contains the vagina bacillus. In pathological + conditions of the vagina this secretion undergoes changes. For + practical purposes three varieties of _vaginitis_ may be described: + (a) simple catarrhal vaginitis is due to the same causes as simple + vulvitis, and occasionally in children is important from a + medico-legal aspect when it is complicated by vulvitis. The symptoms + are heat and discomfort with copious mucopurulent discharge. The only + treatment required is rest, with vaginal douches of warm unirritating + lotions such as boracic acid or subacetate of lead. (b) Gonorrhoeal + vaginitis is most common in adults. The patient complains of pain and + burning, pain on passing water and discharge which is generally green + or yellow. The results of untreated gonorrhoeal vaginitis are serious + and far-reaching. The disease may spread up the genital passages, + causing endometritis, salpingitis and septic peritonitis, or may + extend into the bladder, causing cystitis. Strict rest should be + enjoined, douches of carbolic acid (1 in 40) or of perchloride of + mercury (1 in 2000) should be ordered morning and evening, the vagina + being packed with tampons of iodoform gauze. Saline purgatives and + alkaline diuretics should be given, (c) Chronic vaginitis (leucorrhoea + or "the whites") may follow acute conditions and persist indefinitely. + The vagina is rarely the seat of tumours, but cysts are common. + + _Diseases of the Uterus._--The uterus undergoes important changes + during life, chiefly at puberty and at the menopause. At puberty it + assumes the pear shape characteristic of the mature uterus. At the + menopause it shares in the general atrophy of the reproductive organs. + It is subject to various disorders and misplacements. (a) + _Displacements of the Uterus._--The normal position of the uterus, + when the bladder is empty, is that of anteversion. We have therefore + to consider the following conditions as pathological: anteflexion, + retroflexion, retroversion, inversion, prolapse and procidentia. + Slight anteflexion or bending forwards is normal; when exaggerated it + gives rise to dysmenorrhoea, sterility and reflex nervous phenomena. + This condition is usually congenital and is often associated with + under-development of the uterus, from which the sterility results. The + treatment is by dilatation of the canal or by a plastic operation. + Retroflexion is a bending over of the uterus backwards, and occurs as + a complication of retroversion (or displacement backwards). The causes + are (1) any cause tending to make the fundus or upper part of the + uterus extra heavy, such as tumours or congestion, (2) loss of tone of + the uterine walls, (3) adhesions formed after cellulitis, (4) violent + muscular efforts, (5) weakening of the uterine supports from + parturition. The symptoms are dysmenorrhoea, pain on defaecation and + constipation from the pressure of the fundus on the rectum; the + patient is often sterile. The treatment is the replacing of the uterus + in position, where it can be kept by the insertion of a pessary; + failing this, operative treatment may be required. Retroversion when + pathological is rarer than retroflexion. It may be the result of + injury or is associated with pregnancy or a fibroid. The symptoms are + those of retroflexion with feeling of pain and weight in the pelvis + and desire to micturate followed by retention of urine due to the + pressure of the cervix against the base of the bladder. The uterus + must be skilfully replaced in position; when pessaries fail to keep it + there the operation of hysteropexy gives excellent results. + + Inversion occurs when the uterus is turned inside out. It is only + possible when the cavity is dilated, either after pregnancy or by a + polypus. The greater number of cases follow delivery and are acute. + Chronic inversions are generally due to the weight of a polypus. The + symptoms are menorrhagia, metrorrhagia and bladder troubles; on + examination a tumour-like mass occupies the vagina. Reduction of the + condition is often difficult, particularly when the condition has + lasted for a long time. The tumour which has caused the inversion must + be excised. Prolapse and procidentia are different degrees of the same + variety of displacement. When the uterus lies in the vagina it is + spoken of as prolapse, when it protrudes through the vulva it is + procidentia. The causes are directly due to increased intra-abdominal + pressure, increased weight of the uterus by fibroids, violent + straining, chronic cough and weakening of the supporting structures of + the pelvic floor, such as laceration of the vagina and perinaeum. + Traction on the uterus from below (as a cervical tumour) may be a + cause; advanced age, laborious occupations and frequent pregnancies + are indirect causes. The symptoms are a "bearing down" feeling, pain + and fatigue in walking, trouble with micturition and defaecation. The + condition is generally obvious on examination. As a rule the uterus is + easy to replace in position. A rubber ring pessary will often serve to + keep it there. If the perinaeum is very much torn it may be necessary + to repair it. Various operations for retaining the uterus in position + are described. (b) _Enlargements of the Uterus_ (hypertrophy or + hyperplasia). This condition may sometimes involve the uterus as a + whole or may be most marked in the body or in the cervix. It follows + chronic congestion or inflammatory prolapse, or any condition + interfering with the circulation. The symptoms comprise local + discomfort and sometimes dysmenorrhoea, leucorrhoea or menorrhagia. + When the elongation occurs in the cervical portion the only possible + treatment is amputation of the cervix. Atrophy of the uterus is normal + after the menopause. It may follow the removal of the tubes and + ovaries. Some constitutional diseases produce the same result, as + tuberculosis, chlorosis, chronic morphinism and certain diseases of + the central nervous system. + + (c) _Injuries and Diseases resultant from Pregnancy._--The most + frequent of these injuries is laceration of the cervix uteri, which is + frequent in precipitate labour. Once the cervix is torn the raw + surfaces become covered by granulations and later by cicatricial + tissue, but as a rule they do not unite. The torn lips may become + unhealthy, and the congestion and oedema spread to the body of the + uterus. A lacerated cervix does not usually give rise to symptoms; + these depend on the accompanying endometritis, and include + leucorrhoea, aching and a feeling of weight. Lacerations are to be + felt digitally. As lacerations predispose to abortion the operation of + trachelorraphy or repair of the cervix is indicated. Perforation of + the uterus may occur from the use of the sound in diseased conditions + of the uterine walls. Superinvolution means premature atrophy + following parturition. Subinvolution is a condition in which the + uterus fails to return to its normal size and remains enlarged. + Retention of the products of conception may cause irregular + haemorrhages and may lead to a diagnosis of tumour. The uterus should + be carefully explored. + + (d) _Inflammations Acute and Chronic._--The mucous membrane lining the + cervical canal and body of the uterus is called the endometrium. Acute + inflammation or endometritis may attack it. The chief causes are + sepsis following labour or abortion, extension of a gonorrhoeal + vaginitis, or gangrene or infection of a uterine myoma. The puerperal + endometritis following labour is an avoidable disease due to lack of + scrupulous aseptic precautions. + + Gonorrhoeal endometritis is an acute form associated with copious + purulent discharge and well-marked constitutional disturbance. The + temperature ranges from 99° to 105° F., associated with pelvic pain, + and rigors are not uncommon. The tendency is to recovery with more or + less protracted convalescence. The most serious complications are + extension of the disease and later sterility. Rest in bed and + intrauterine irrigation, followed by the introduction of iodoform + pencils into the uterine cavity, should be resorted to, while pain is + relieved by hot fomentations and sitz baths. Chronic endometritis may + be the sequela of the acute form, or may be septic in origin, or the + result of chronic congestion, acute retroflection or subinvolution + following delivery or abortion. The varieties are glandular, + interstitial, haemorrhagic and senile. The symptoms are disturbance of + the menstrual function, headache, pain and pelvic discomfort, and more + or less profuse thick leucorrhoeal discharge. The treatment consists + in attention to the general health, with suitable laxatives and local + injections, and in obstinate cases curettage is the most effectual + measure. The disease is frequently associated with adenomatous disease + of the cervix, formerly called erosion. In this disease there is a new + formation of glandular elements, which enlarge and multiply, forming a + soft velvety areola dotted with pink spots. This was formerly + erroneously termed ulceration. The cause is unknown. It occurs in + virgins as well as in mothers, but it often accompanies lacerations of + the cervix. The symptoms are indefinite pain and leucorrhoea. The + condition is visible on inspection with a speculum. The treatment is + swabbing with iodized phenol or curettage. The body of the uterus may + also be the seat of adenomatous disease. Tuberculosis may attack the + uterus; this usually forms part of a general tuberculosis. + + (e) _New Growths in the Uterus._--The uterus is the most common seat + of new growths. From the researches of von Gurlt, compiled from the + Vienna Hospital _Reports_, embracing 15,880 cases of tumour, females + exceed males in the proportion of seven to three, and of this large + majority uterine growths account for 25%. When we consider its + periodic monthly engorgements and the alternate hypertrophy and + involution it undergoes in connexion with pregnancy, we can anticipate + the special proneness of the uterus to new growths. Tumours of the + uterus are divided into benign and malignant. The benign tumours known + as fibroids or myomata are very common. They are stated by Bayle to + occur in 20% of women over 35 years of age, but happily in a great + number of cases they are small and give rise to no symptoms. They are + definitely associated with the period of sexual activity and occur + more frequently in married women than in single, in the proportion of + two to one (Winckel). It is doubtful if they ever originate after the + menopause. Indeed if uncomplicated by changes in them they share in + the general atrophy of the sexual organs which then takes place. They + are divided according to their position in the tissues into + intramural, subserous and submucous (the last when it has a pedicle + forms a polypus), or as to the part of the uterus in which they + develop into fibroids of the cervix and fibroids of the body. + Intramural and submucous fibroids give rise to haemorrhage. The menses + may be so increased that the patient is scarcely ever free from + haemorrhage. The pressure of the growth may cause dysmenorrhoea, or + pressure on the bladder and rectum may cause dysuria, retention or + rectal tenesmus. The uterus may be displaced by the weight of the + tumour. Secondary changes take place in fibroids, such as mucous + degeneration, fatty metamorphosis, calcification, septic infection + (sloughing fibroid) and malignant (sarcomatous) degeneration. + + The modes in which fibroids imperil life are haemorrhage (the + commonest of all), septic infection, which is one of the most + dangerous, impaction when it fits the true pelvis so tightly that the + tumour cannot rise, twisting of the pedicle by rotation, leading to + sloughing and intestinal and urinary obstruction. When fibroids are + complicated by pregnancy, impaction and consequent abortion may take + place, or a cervical myoma may offer a mechanical obstacle to delivery + or lead to serious post partem haemorrhage. In the treatment of + fibroids various drugs (ergot, hamamelis, hydrastis canadensis) may be + tried to control the haemorrhage, and repose and the injection of hot + water (120° F.) are sometimes successful, together with electrical + treatment. Surgical measures are needed, however, in severe recurrent + haemorrhage, intestinal obstruction, sloughing and the co-existence of + pregnancy. An endeavour must be made if possible to enucleate the + fibroid, or hysterectomy (removal of the uterus) may be required. The + operation of removal of the ovaries to precipitate the menopause has + fallen into disuse. + + (f) _Malignant Disease of the Uterus._--The varieties of malignant + disease met with in the uterus are sarcoma, carcinoma and + chorion-epithelioma malignum. Sarcomata may occur in the body and in + the neck. They occur at an earlier age than carcinomata. Marked + enlargement and haemorrhage are the symptoms. The differential + diagnosis is microscopic. Extirpation of the uterus is the only chance + of prolonging life. The age at which women are most subject to + carcinoma (cancer) of the uterus is towards the decline of sexual + life. Of 3385 collected cases of cancer of the uterus 1169 occurred + between 40 and 50, and 856 between 50 and 60. In contradistinction to + fibroid tumours it frequently arises after the menopause. It may be + divided into cancer of the body and cancer of the neck (cervix). + Cancer of the neck of the uterus is almost exclusively confined to + women who have been pregnant (Bland-Sutton). Predisposing causes may + be injuries during delivery. The symptoms which induce women to seek + medical aid are haemorrhage, foetid discharge, and later pain and + cachexia. An unfortunate belief amongst the public that the menopause + is associated with irregular bleeding and offensive discharges has + prevented many women from seeking medical advice until too late. It + cannot be too widely understood that cancer of the cervix is in its + early stages a purely local disease, and if removed in this stage + usually results in cure. So important is the recognition of this fact + in the saving of human life that at the meeting of the British Medical + Association in April 1909 the council issued for publication a special + appeal to medical practitioners, midwives and nurses, and directed it + to be published in British and colonial medical and nursing journals. + It will be useful to quote here a part of the appeal directed to + midwives and nurses: "Cancer may occur at any age and in a woman who + looks quite well, and who may have no pain, no wasting, no foul + discharge and no profuse bleeding. To wait for pain, wasting, foul + discharge or profuse bleeding is to throw away the chance of + successful treatment. The early symptoms of cancer of the womb + are:--(1) bleeding which occurs after the change of life, (2) bleeding + after sexual intercourse or after a vaginal douche, (3) bleeding, + slight or abundant, even in young women, if occurring between the + usual monthly periods, and especially when accompanied by a + bad-smelling or watery blood-tinged discharge, (4) thin watery + discharge occurring at any age." On examination the cervix presents + certain characteristic signs, though these may be modified according + to the variety of cancer present. Hard nodules or definite loss of + substance, extreme friability and bleeding after slight manipulation, + are suspicious. Epithelial cancer of the cervix may assume a + proliferating ulcerative type, forming the well-known "cauliflower" + excrescence. The treatment of cancer of the cervix is free removal at + the earliest possible moment. Cancer of the body of the uterus is rare + before the 45th year. It is most frequent at or subsequent to the + menopause. The majority of the patients are nulliparae (Bland-Sutton). + The signs are fitful haemorrhages after the menopause, followed by + profuse and offensive discharges. The uterus on examination often + feels enlarged. The diagnosis being made, hysterectomy (removal of the + uterus) is the only treatment. Cancer of the body of the uterus may + complicate fibroids. Chorion-epithelioma malignum (deciduoma) was + first described in 1889 by Sänger and Pfeiffer. It is a malignant + disease presenting microscopic characters resembling decidual tissue. + It occurs in connexion with recent pregnancy, and particularly with + the variety of abortion termed hydatid mole. In many cases it destroys + life with a rapidity unequalled by any other kind of growth. It + quickly ulcerates and infiltrates the uterine tissues, forming + metastatic growths in the lung and vagina. Clinically it is recognized + by the occurrence after pregnancy of violent haemorrhages, progressive + cachexia and fever with rigors. Recent suggestions have been made as + to chorion-epithelioma being the result of pathological changes in the + lutein tissue of the ovary. The growth is usually primary in the + uterus, but may be so in the Fallopian tubes and in the vagina. A few + cases have been recorded unconnected with pregnancy. The virulence of + chorion-epithelioma varies, but in the present state of our knowledge + immediate removal of the primary growth along with the affected organ + is the only treatment. + + _Diseases of the Fallopian Tubes._--The Fallopian tubes or oviducts + are liable to inflammatory affections, tuberculosis, sarcomata, + cancer, chorion-epithelioma and tubal pregnancy. Salpingitis + (inflammation of the oviducts) is nearly always secondary to septic + infection of the genital tract. The chief causes are septic + endometritis following labour or abortion, gangrene of a myoma, + gonorrhoea, tuberculosis and cancer of the uterus; it sometimes + follows the specific fevers. When the pus escapes from the tubes into + the coelom it sets up pelvic peritonitis. When the inflammation is + adjacent to the ostium it leads to the matting together of the tubal + fimbriae and glues them to an adjacent organ. This seals the ostium. + The occluded tube may now have an accumulation of pus in it + (pyosalpinx). When in consequence of the sealing of the ostium the + tube becomes distended with serous fluid it is termed hydrosalpinx. + Haematosalpinx is a term applied to the non-gravid tube distended with + blood; later the tubes may become sclerosed. Acute septic salpingitis + is ushered in by a rigor, the temperature rising to 103°, 104° F., + with severe pain and constitutional disturbance. The symptoms may + become merged in those of general peritonitis. In chronic disease + there is a history of puerperal trouble followed by sterility, with + excessive and painful menstruation. Acute salpingitis requires + absolute rest, opium suppositories and hot fomentations. With urgent + symptoms removal of the inflamed adnexa must be resorted to. Chronic + salpingitis often renders a woman an invalid. Permanent relief can + only be afforded by surgical intervention. Tuberculous salpingitis is + usually secondary to other tuberculous infections. The Fallopian tubes + may be the seat of malignant disease. This is rarely primary. By far + the most important of the conditions of the Fallopian tubes is tubal + pregnancy (or ectopic gestation). It is now known that fertilization + of the human ovum by the spermatozoon may take place even when the + ovum is in its follicle in the ovary, for oosperms have been found in + the ovary and Fallopian tubes as well as in the uterus. Belief in + ovarian pregnancy is of old standing, and had been regarded as + possible but unproved, no case of an early embryo in its membranes in + the sac of an ovary being forthcoming, until the remarkable case + published by Dr Catherine van Tussenboek of Amsterdam in 1899 + (Bland-Sutton). Tubal pregnancy is most frequent in the left tube; it + sometimes complicates uterine pregnancy; rarely both tubes are + pregnant. When the oosperm lodges in the ampulla or isthmus it is + called tubal gestation; when it is retained in the portion traversing + the uterine wall it is called tubo-uterine gestation. Wherever the + fertilized ovum remains and implants its villi the tube becomes turgid + and swollen, and the abdominal ostium gradually closes. The ovum in + this situation is liable to apoplexy, forming tubal mole. When the + abdominal ostium remains pervious the ovum may escape into the + coelomic cavity (tubal abortion); death from shock and haemorrhage + into the abdominal cavity may result. When neither of these + occurrences has taken place the ovum continues to grow inside the + tube, the rupture of the distended tube usually taking place between + the sixth and the tenth week. The rupture of the tube may be + intraperitoneal or extraperitoneal. The danger is death from + haemorrhage occurring during the rupture, or adhesions may form, the + retained blood forming a haematocele. The ovum may be destroyed or may + continue to develop. In rare cases rupture may not occur, the tube + bulging into the peritoneal cavity; and the foetus may break through + the membranes and lie free among the intestines, where it may die, + becoming encysted or calcified. The tubal placenta possesses foetal + structures, the true decidua forming in the uterus. The signs + suggestive of tubal pregnancy before rupture are missed periods, + pelvic pains and the presence of an enlarged tube. When rupture takes + place it is attended in both varieties with sudden and severe pain and + more or less marked collapse, and a tumour may or may not be felt + according to the situation of the rupture. There is a general "feeling + of something having given way." If diagnosed before rupture, the sac + must be removed by abdominal section. In intraperitoneal rupture + immediate operation affords the only chance of saving life. In + extraperitoneal rupture the foetus may occasionally remain alive until + full term and be rescued by abdominal section, if the condition is + recognized, or a false labour may take place, accompanied by death of + the foetus. + + _Diseases of the Ovaries and Parovarium._--The ovaries undergo + striking changes at puberty, and again at the menopause, after which + there is a gradual shrinkage. One or both may be absent or malformed, + or they are subject to displacements, being either undescended, + contained in a hernia or prolapsed. Either of these conditions, if a + source of pain, may necessitate their removal. The ovary is also + subject to haemorrhage or apoplexy. Acute inflammations (oöphorites) + are constantly associated with salpingitis or other septic conditions + of the genital tract or with an attack of mumps. The relation of + oöphoritis to mumps is at present unknown. Acute oöphoritis may + culminate in abscess but more usually adhesions are formed. The + surgical treatment is that of pyosalpinx. Chronic inflammation may + follow acute or be consequent on pelvic cellulitis. Its constant + features are more or less pain followed by sterility. The ovary may be + the seat of tuberculosis, which is generally secondary to other + lesions. Suppuration and abscess of the ovary also occur. + Perioöphoritis, or chronic inflammation in the neighbourhood, may also + involve the gland. The cause of cirrhosis of the ovaries is unknown, + though it may be associated with cirrhotic liver. The change is met + with in women between 20 and 40 years of age, the ovaries being in a + shrunken, hard, wrinkled condition. Under ovarian neuralgia are + grouped indefinite painful symptoms occurring frequently in neurotic + and alcoholic subjects, and often worse during menstruation. The + treatment, whether local or operative, is usually unsatisfactory. The + ovary is frequently the seat of tumours, dermoids and cysts. Cysts may + be simple, unilocular or multilocular, and may attain an enormous + size. The largest on record was removed by Dr Elizabeth Reifsnyder of + Shanghai, and contained 100 litres of fluid, and the patient + recovered. The operation is termed ovariotomy. Dermoid cysts + containing skin, bones, teeth and hair, are of frequent growth in the + ovary, and have attained the weight of from 20 to 40 kilogrammes. In + one case a girl weighed 27 kilogrammes and her tumour 44 kilogrammes + (Keen). Papillomatous cysts also occur in the ovary. Parovarian and + Gärtnerian cysts are found, and adenomata form 20% of all ovarian + cysts. Occasionally the tunic of peritoneum surrounding the ovary + becomes distended with serous fluid. This is termed ovarian hydrocele. + Ovarian fibroids occur, and malignant disease (sarcoma and carcinoma) + is fairly frequent, sarcoma being the most usual ovarian tumour + occurring before puberty. Carcinoma of the ovary is rarely primary, + but it is a common situation for secondary cancer to that of the + breast, gall-bladder or gastro-intestinal tract. The treatment of all + rapidly-growing tumours of the ovary is removal. + + _Diseases of the Pelvic Peritoneum and Connective Tissue._--Women are + excessively liable to peritoneal infections. (1) Septic infection + often follows acute salpingitis and may give rise to pelvic + peritonitis (perimetritis), which may be adhesive, serous or purulent. + It may follow the rupture of ovarian or dermoid cysts, rupture of the + uterus, extra uterine pregnancy or extension from pyosalpinx. The + symptoms are severe pain, fever, 103° F. and higher, marked + constitutional disturbances, vomiting, restlessness, even delirium. + The abdomen is fixed and tympanitic. Its results are the formation of + adhesions causing abnormal positions of the organs, or chronic + peritonitis may follow. The treatment is rest in bed, opium, hot + stupes to the abdomen and quinine. (2) Epithelial infections take + place in the peritoneum in connexion with other malignant growths. (3) + Hydroperitoneum, a collection of free fluid in the abdominal cavity, + may be due to tumours of the abdominal viscera or to tuberculosis of + the peritoneum. (4) Pelvic cellulitis (parametritis) signifies the + inflammation of the connective tissue between the folds of the broad + ligament (mesometrium). The general causes are septic changes + following abortion, delivery at term (especially instrumental + delivery), following operations on the uterus or salpingitis. The + symptoms are chill followed by severe intrapelvic pain and tension, + fever 100° to 102° F. There may be nausea and vomiting, diarrhoea, + rectal tenseness and dysuria. If consequent on parturition the lochia + cease or become offensive. On examination there is tenderness and + swelling in one flank and the uterus becomes fixed and immovable in + the exudate as if embedded in plaster of Paris. The illness may go to + resolution if treated by rest, opium, hot stupes or icebags and + glycerine tampons, or may go on to suppuration forming pelvic abscess, + which signifies a collection of pus between the layers of the broad + ligament. The pus in a pelvic abscess may point and escape through the + walls of the vagina, rectum or bladder. It occasionally points in the + groin. If the pus can be localized an incision should be made and the + abscess drained. The tumours which arise in the broad ligament are + haematocele, solid tumours (as myomata, lipomata and sarcomata), and + echinnococcus colonies (hydatids). + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Albutt, Playfair and Eden, _System of Gynaecology_ + (1906); McNaughton Jones, _Manual of Diseases of Women_ (1904); + Bland-Sutton and Giles, _Diseases of Women_ (1906); C. Lockyer, + "Lutein Cysts in association with Chorio-Epithelioma," _Journal of + Obstetrics and Gynaecology_ (January, 1905); W. Stewart McKay, + _History of Ancient Gynaecology_; Hart and Barbour, _Diseases of + Women_; Howard Kelly, _Operative Gynaecology_. (H. L. H.) + + + + +GYÖNGYÖSI, ISTVÁN [STEPHEN] (1620-1704), Hungarian poet, was born of +poor but noble parents in 1620. His abilities early attracted the notice +of Count Ferencz Wesselényi, who in 1640 appointed him to a post of +confidence in Fülek castle. Here he remained till 1653, when he married +and became an assessor of the judicial board. In 1681 he was elected as +a representative of his county at the diet held at Soprony (Oedenburg). +From 1686 to 1693, and again from 1700 to his death in 1704, he was +deputy lord-lieutenant of the county of Gömör. Of his literary works the +most famous is the epic poem _Murányi Venus_ (Caschau, 1664), in honour +of his benefactor's wife Maria Szécsi, the heroine of Murány. Among his +later productions the best known are _Rózsa-Koszorú_, or Rose-Wreath +(1690), _Kemény-János_ (1693), _Cupidó_ (1695), _Palinodia_ (1695) and +_Chariklia_ (1700). + + The earliest edition of his collected poetical works is by Dugonics + (Pressburg and Pest, 1796); the best modern selection is that of + Toldy, entitled _Gyöngyösi István válogatott poétai munkái_ (Select + poetical works of Stephen Gyöngyösi, 2 vols., 1864-1865). + + + + +GYÖR (Ger. _Raab_), a town of Hungary, capital of a county of the same +name, 88 m. W. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 27,758. It is situated +at the confluence of the Raab with the Danube, and is composed of the +inner town and three suburbs. Györ is a well-built town, and is the seat +of a Roman Catholic bishop. Amongst its principal buildings are the +cathedral, dating from the 12th century, and rebuilt in 1639-1654; the +bishop's palace; the town hall; the Roman Catholic seminary for priests +and several churches. There are manufactures of cloth, machinery and +tobacco, and an active trade in grain and horses. Twenty miles by rail +W. S. W. of the town is situated Csorna, a village with a +Premonstratensian abbey, whose archives contain numerous valuable +historical documents. + +Györ is one of the oldest towns in Hungary and occupies the site of the +Roman _Arabona_. It was already a place of some importance in the 10th +century, and its bishopric was created in the 11th century. It was a +strongly fortified town which resisted successfully the attacks of the +Turks, into whose hands it fell by treachery in 1594, but they retained +possession of it only for four years. Montecucculi made Györ a +first-class fortress, and it remained so until 1783, when it was +abandoned. At the beginning of the 19th century, the fortifications were +re-erected, but were easily taken by the French in 1809, and were again +stormed by the Austrians on the 28th of June 1849. + +About 11 m. S.E. of Györ on a spur of the Bakony Forest lies the famous +Benedictine abbey of Pannonhalma (Ger. _St Martinsberg_; Lat. _Mons +Sancti Martini_), one of the oldest and wealthiest abbeys of Hungary. It +was founded by King St Stephen, and the original deed from 1001 is +preserved in the archives of the abbey. The present building is a block +of palaces, containing a beautiful church, some of its parts dating from +the 12th century, and lies on a hill 1200 ft. high. The church has a +tower 130 ft. high. In the convent there are a seminary for priests, a +normal school, a gymnasium and a library of 120,000 vols. The chief +abbot has the rank of a bishop, and is a member of the Upper House of +the Hungarian parliament, while in spiritual matters he is subordinate +immediately to the Roman curia. + + + + +GYP, the pen name of SIBYLLE GABRIELLE MARIE ANTOINETTE RIQUETI DE +MIRABEAU, Comtesse de Martel de Janville (1850- ) French writer, who +was born at the château of Koetsal in the Morbihan. Her father, who was +the grandson of the vicomte de Mirabeau and great-nephew of the orator, +served in the Papal Zouaves, and died during the campaign of 1860. Her +mother, the comtesse de Mirabeau, in addition to some graver +compositions, contributed to the _Figaro_ and the _Vie parisienne_, +under various pseudonyms, papers in the manner successfully developed by +her daughter. Under the pseudonym of "Gyp" Madame de Martel, who was +married in 1869, sent to the _Vie parisienne_, and later to the _Revue +des deux mondes_, a large number of social sketches and dialogues, +afterwards reprinted in volumes. Her later work includes stories of a +more formal sort, essentially differing but little from the shorter +studies. The following list includes some of the best known of Madame de +Martel's publications, nearly seventy in number: _Petit Bob_ (1882); +_Autour du mariage_ (1883); _Ce que femme veut_ (1883); _Le Monde à +côté_ (1884), _Sans voiles_ (1885); _Autour du divorce_ (1886); _Dans le +train_ (1886); _Mademoiselle Loulou_ (1888); _Bob au salon_ (1888-1889); +_L'Education d'un prince_ (1890); _Passionette_ (1891); _Ohé! la grande +vie_ (1891); _Une Élection à Tigre-sur-mer_ (1890), an account of +"Gyp's" experiences in support of a Boulangist candidate; _Mariage +civil_ (1892); _Ces bons docteurs_ (1892); _Du haut en bas_ (1893); +_Mariage de chiffon_ (1894); _Leurs âmes_ (1895); _Le Coeur d'Ariane_ +(1895); _Le Bonheur de Ginette_ (1896); _Totote_ (1897); _Lune de miel_ +(1898); _Israël_ (1898); _L'Entrevue_ (1899); _Le Pays des champs_ +(1900); _Trop de chic_ (1900); _Le Friquet_ (1901); _La Fée_ (1902); _Un +Mariage chic_ (1903); _Un Ménage dernier cri_ (1903); _Maman_ (1904); +_Le Coeur de Pierrette_ (1905). From the first "Gyp," writing of a +society to which she belonged, displayed all the qualities which have +given her a distinct, if not pre-eminent, position among writers of her +class. Those qualities included an intense faculty of observation, much +skill in innuendo, a mordant wit combined with some breadth of humour, +and a singular power of animating ordinary dialogues without destroying +the appearance of reality. Her Parisian types of the spoiled child, of +the precocious schoolgirl, of the young bride, and of various masculine +figures in the gay world, have become almost classical, and may probably +survive as faithful pictures of luxurious manners in the 19th century. +Some later productions, inspired by a violent anti-Semitic and +Nationalist bias, deserve little consideration. An earlier attempt to +dramatize _Autour du mariage_ was a failure, not owing to the audacities +which it shares with most of its author's works, but from lack of +cohesion and incident. More successful was _Mademoiselle Ève_ (1895), +but indeed "Gyp's" successes are all achieved without a trace of +dramatic faculty. In 1901 Madame de Martel furnished a sensational +incident in the Nationalist campaign during the municipal elections in +Paris. She was said to have been the victim of a kidnapping outrage or +piece of horseplay provoked by her political attitude, but though a most +circumstantial account of the outrages committed on her and of her +adventurous escape was published, the affair was never clearly explained +or verified. + + + + +GYPSUM, a common mineral consisting of hydrous calcium sulphate, named +from the Gr. [Greek: gypsos], a word used by Theophrastus to denote not +only the raw mineral but also the product of its calcination, which was +employed in ancient times, as it still is, as a plaster. When +crystallized, gypsum is often called selenite, the [Greek: selênitês] of +Dioscorides, so named from [Greek: selênê], "the moon," probably in +allusion to the soft moon-like reflection of light from some of its +faces, or, according to a legend, because it is found at night when the +moon is on the increase. The granular, marble-like gypsum is termed +alabaster (q.v.). + +Gypsum crystallizes in the monoclinic system, the habit of the crystals +being usually either prismatic or tabular; in the latter case the broad +planes are parallel to the faces of the clinopinacoid. The crystals may +become lenticular by curvature of certain faces. In the characteristic +type represented in fig. 1, f represents the prism, l the hemi-pyramid +and P the clinopinacoid. Twins are common, as in fig. 2, forming in some +cases arrow-headed and swallow-tailed crystals. Cleavage is perfect +parallel to the clinopinacoid, yielding thin plates, often +diamond-shaped, with pearly lustre; these flakes are usually flexible, +but may be brittle, as in the gypsum of Montmartre. Two other cleavages +are recognized, but they are imperfect. Crystals of gypsum, when +occurring in clay, may enclose much muddy matter; in other cases a large +proportion of sand may be mechanically entangled in the crystals without +serious disturbance of form; whilst certain crystals occasionally +enclose cavities with liquid and an air-bubble. Gypsum not infrequently +becomes fibrous. This variety occurs in veins, often running through +gypseous marls, with the fibres disposed at right angles to the +direction of the vein. Such gypsum when cut and polished has a pearly +opalescence, or satiny sheen, whence it is called satin-spar (q.v.). + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +Gypsum is so soft as to be scratched even by the finger-nail (H = 1.5 to +2). Its specific gravity is about 2.3. The mineral is slightly soluble +in water, one part of gypsum being soluble, according to G. K. Cameron, +in 372 parts of pure water at 26° C. Waters percolating through gypseous +strata, like the Keuper marls, dissolve the calcium sulphate and thus +become permanently hard or "selenitic." Such water has special value for +brewing pale ale, and the water used by the Burton breweries is of this +character; hence the artificial dissolving of gypsum in water for +brewing purposes is known as "burtonization." Deposits of gypsum are +formed in boilers using selenitic water. + +Pure gypsum is colourless or white, but it is often tinted, especially +in the alabaster variety, grey, yellow or pink. Gypsum crystallizes with +two molecules of water, equal to about 21% by weight, and consequently +has the formula CaSO4.2H2O. By exposure to strong heat all the water may +be expelled, and the substance then has the composition of anhydrite +(q.v.). When the calcination, however, is conducted at such a +temperature that only about 75% of the water is lost, it yields a white +pulverulent substance, known as "plaster of Paris," which may readily be +caused to recombine with water, forming a hard cement. The gypsum +quarries of Montmartre, in the north of Paris, were worked in Tertiary +strata, rich in fossils. Gypsum is largely quarried in England for +conversion into plaster of Paris, whence it is sometimes known as +"plaster stone," and since much is sent to the Staffordshire potteries +for making moulds it is also termed "potter's stone." The chief workings +are in the Keuper marls near Newark in Nottinghamshire, Fauld in +Staffordshire and Chellaston in Derbyshire. It is also worked in Permian +beds in Cumberland and Westmorland, and in Purbeck strata near Battle in +Sussex. + +Gypsum frequently occurs in association with rock-salt, having been +deposited in shallow basins of salt water. Much of the calcium in +sea-water exists as sulphate; and on evaporation of a drop of sea-water +under the microscope this sulphate is deposited as acicular crystals of +gypsum. In salt-lagoons the deposition of the gypsum is probably +effected in most cases by means of micro-organisms. Waters containing +sulphuretted hydrogen, on exposure to the air in the presence of +limestone, may yield gypsum by the formation of sulphuric acid and its +interaction with the calcium carbonate. In volcanic districts gypsum is +produced by the action of sulphuric acid, resulting from the oxidation +of sulphurous vapours, on lime-bearing minerals, like labradorite and +augite, in the volcanic rocks: hence gypsum is common around solfataras. +Again, by the oxidation of iron-pyrites and the action of the resulting +sulphuric acid on limestone or on shells, gypsum may be formed; whence +its origin in most clays. Gypsum is also formed in some cases by the +hydration of anhydrite, the change being accompanied by an increase of +volume to the extent of about 60%. Conversely gypsum may, under certain +conditions, be dehydrated or reduced to anhydrite. + +Some of the largest known crystals of selenite have been found in +southern Utah, where they occur in huge geodes, or crystal-lined +cavities, in deposits from the old salt-lakes. Fine crystals, sometimes +curiously bent, occur in the Permian rocks of Friedrichroda, near Gotha, +where there is a grotto called the Marienglashöhle, close to +Rheinhardsbrunn. Many of the best localities for selenite are in the New +Red Sandstone formation (Trias and Permian), notably the salt-mines of +Hall and Hallein, near Salzburg, and of Bex in Switzerland. Excellent +crystals, usually of a brownish colour arranged in groups, are often +found in the brine-chambers and the launders used in salt-works. +Selenite also occurs in fine crystals in the sulphur-bearing marls of +Girgenti and other Sicilian localities; whilst in Britain very bold +crystals are yielded by the Kimeridge clay of Shotover Hill near Oxford. +Twisted crystals and rosettes of gypsum found in the Mammoth Cave, +Kentucky, have been called "oulopholites" ([Greek: oulos], "woolly"; +[Greek: phôleos], "cave"). + +In addition to the use of gypsum in cement-making, the mineral finds +application as an agricultural agent in dressing land, and it has also +been used in the manufacture of porcelain and glass. Formerly it was +employed, in the form of thin cleavage-plates, for glazing windows, and +seems to have been, with mica, called _lapis specularis_. It is still +known in Germany as _Marienglas_ and _Fraueneis_. Delicate +cleavage-plates of gypsum are used in microscopic petrography for the +determination of certain optical constants in the rock-forming minerals. + (F. W. R.*) + + + + +GYROSCOPE AND GYROSTAT. These are scientific models or instruments +designed to illustrate experimentally the dynamics of a rotating body +such as the spinning-top, hoop and bicycle, and also the precession of +the equinox and the rotation of the earth. + +The gyroscope (Gr. [Greek: gyros], ring, [Greek: skopein], to see) may +be distinguished from the gyrostat ([Greek: gyros], and [Greek: +statikos], stationary) as an instrument in which the rotating wheel or +disk is mounted in gimbals so that the principal axis of rotation +always passes through a fixed point (fig. 1). It can be made to imitate +the motion of a spinning-top of which the point is placed in a smooth +agate cup as in Maxwell's dynamical top (figs. 2, 3). (_Collected +Works_, i. 248.) A bicycle wheel, with a prolongation of the axle placed +in a cup, can also be made to serve (fig. 4). + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +The gyrostat is an instrument designed by Lord Kelvin (_Natural +Philosophy_, § 345) to illustrate the more complicated state of motion +of a spinning body when free to wander about on a horizontal plane, like +a top spun on the pavement, or a hoop or bicycle on the road. It +consists essentially of a massive fly-wheel concealed in a metal casing, +and its behaviour on a table, or with various modes of suspension or +support, described in Thomson and Tait, _Natural Philosophy_, serves to +illustrate the curious reversal of the ordinary laws of statical +equilibrium due to the _gyrostatic domination_ of the interior invisible +fly-wheel, when rotated rapidly (fig. 5). + +The toy shown in figs. 6 and 7, which can be bought for a shilling, is +acting as a gyroscope in fig. 6 and a gyrostat in fig. 7. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.] + +The gyroscope, as represented in figs. 2 and 3 by Maxwell's dynamical +top, is provided with screws by which the centre of gravity can be +brought into coincidence with the point of support. It can then be used +to illustrate Poinsot's theory of the motion of a body under no force, +the gyroscope being made kinetically unsymmetrical by a setting of the +screws. The discussion of this movement is required for Jacobi's +theorems on the allied motion of a top and of a body under no force +(Poinsot, _Théorie nouvelle de la rotation des corps_, Paris, 1857; +Jacobi, _Werke_, ii. Note B, p. 476). + +To imitate the movement of the top the centre of gravity is displaced +from the point of support so as to give a preponderance. When the motion +takes place in the neighbourhood of the downward vertical, the bicycle +wheel can be made to serve again mounted as in fig. 8 by a stalk in the +prolongation of the axle, suspended from a universal joint at O; it can +then be spun by hand and projected in any manner. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.] + +The first practical application of the gyroscopic principle was invented +and carried out (1744) by Serson, with a spinning top with a polished +upper plane surface for giving an artificial horizon at sea, undisturbed +by the motion of the ship, when the real horizon was obscured. The +instrument has been perfected by Admiral Georges Ernest Fleuriais (fig. +9), and is interesting theoretically as showing the correction required +practically for the rotation of the earth. Gilbert's barogyroscope is +devised for the same purpose of showing the earth's rotation; a +description of it, and of the latest form employed by Föppl, is given in +the _Ency. d. math. Wiss._, 1904, with bibliographical references in the +article "Mechanics of Physical Apparatus." The rotation of the fly-wheel +is maintained here by an electric motor, as devised by G. M. Hopkins, +and described in the _Scientific American_, 1878. To demonstrate the +rotation of the earth by the constancy in direction of the axis of a +gyroscope is a suggestion that has often been made; by E. Sang in 1836, +and others. The experiment was first carried out with success by +Foucault in 1851, by a simple pendulum swung in the dome of the +Pantheon, Paris, and it has been repeated frequently (_Mémoires sur le +pendule_, 1889). + +A gyroscopic fly-wheel will preserve its original direction in space +only when left absolutely free in all directions, as required in the +experiments above. If employed in steering, as of a torpedo, the +gyroscope must act through the intermediary of a light relay; but if +direct-acting, the reaction will cause precession of the axis, and the +original direction is lost. + +The gyrostatic principle, in which one degree of freedom is suppressed +in the axis, is useful for imparting steadiness and stability in a +moving body; it is employed by Schlick to mitigate the rolling of a ship +and to maintain the upright position of Brennan's monorail car. + +Lastly, as an application of gyroscopic theory, a stretched chain of +fly-wheels in rotation was employed by Kelvin as a mechanical model of +the rotary polarization of light in an electromagnetic field; the +apparatus may be constructed of bicycle wheels connected by short links, +and suspended vertically. + + + _Theory of the Symmetrical Top._ + + 1. The physical constants of a given symmetrical top, expressed in + C.G.S. units, which are employed in the subsequent formulae, are + denoted by M, h, C and A. M is the weight in grammes (g) as given by + the number of gramme weights which equilibrate the top when weighed in + a balance; h is the distance OG in centimetres (cm.) between G the + centre of gravity and O the point of support, and Mh may be called the + preponderance in g.-cm.; Mh and M can be measured by a spring balance + holding up in a horizontal position the axis OC in fig. 8 suspended at + O. Then gMh (dyne-cm. or ergs) is the moment of gravity about O when + the axis OG is horizontal, gMh sin [theta] being the moment when the + axis OG makes an angle [theta] with the vertical, and g = 981 (cm./s²) + on the average; C is the moment of inertia of the top about OG, and A + about any axis through O at right angles to OG, both measured in + g-cm.². + + To measure A experimentally, swing the top freely about O in small + plane oscillation, and determine the length, l cm., of the equivalent + simple pendulum; then + + (1) l = A/Mh, A = Mhl. + + Next make the top, or this simple pendulum, perform small conical + revolutions, nearly coincident with the downward vertical position of + equilibrium, and measure n, the mean angular velocity of the conical + pendulum in radians / second; and T its period in seconds; then + + (2) 4[pi]²/T² = n² = g/l = gMh/A; + + and f = n/2[pi] is the number of revolutions per second, called the + _frequency_, T = 2[pi]/n is the period of a revolution, in seconds. + + + Steady motion of the top. + + 2. In the popular explanation of the steady movement of the top at a + constant inclination to the vertical, depending on the composition of + angular velocity, such as given in Perry's _Spinning Tops_, or + Worthington's _Dynamics of Rotation_, it is asserted that the moment + of gravity is always generating an angular velocity about an axis OB + perpendicular to the vertical plane COC´ through the axis of the top + OC´; and this angular velocity, compounded with the resultant angular + velocity about an axis OI, nearly coincident with OC´, causes the axes + OI and OC´ to keep taking up a new position by moving at right angles + to the plane COC´, at a constant precessional angular velocity, say µ + rad./sec., round the vertical OC (fig. 4). + + If, however, the axis OC´ is prevented from taking up this + precessional velocity, the top at once falls down; thence all the + ingenious attempts--for instance, in the swinging cabin of the + Bessemer ship--to utilise the gyroscope as a mechanical directive + agency have always resulted in failure (_Engineer_, October 1874), + unless restricted to actuate a light relay, which guides the + mechanism, as in steering a torpedo. + + An experimental verification can be carried out with the gyroscope in + fig. 1; so long as the vertical spindle is free to rotate in its + socket, the rapidly rotating wheel will resist the impulse of tapping + on the gimbal by moving to one side; but when the pinch screw prevents + the rotation of the vertical spindle in the massive pedestal, this + resistance to the tapping at once disappears, provided the friction of + the table prevents the movement of the pedestal; and if the wheel has + any preponderance, it falls down. + + Familiar instances of the same principles are observable in the + movement of a hoop, or in the steering of a bicycle; it is essential + that the handle of the bicycle should be free to rotate to secure the + stability of the movement. + + The bicycle wheel, employed as a spinning top, in fig. 4, can also be + held by the stalk, and will thus, when rotated rapidly, convey a + distinct muscular impression of resistance to change of direction, if + brandished. + + + Elementary demonstration of the condition of steady motion. + + 3. A demonstration, depending on the elementary principles of + dynamics, of the exact conditions required for the axis OC´ of a + spinning top to spin steadily at a constant inclination [theta] to the + vertical OC, is given here before proceeding to the more complicated + question of the general motion, when [theta], the inclination of the + axis, is varying by nutation. + + It is a fundamental principle in dynamics that if OH is a vector + representing to scale the angular momentum of a system, and if Oh is + the vector representing the axis of the impressed couple or torque, + then OH will vary so that the velocity of H is represented to scale by + the impressed couple Oh, and if the top is moving freely about O, Oh + is at right angles to the vertical plane COC´, and + + (1) Oh = gMh sin [theta]. + + In the case of the steady motion of the top, the vector OH lies in the + vertical plane COC´, in OK suppose (fig. 4), and has a component OC = + G about the vertical and a component OC´ = G´, suppose, about the axis + OC; and G´ = CR, if R denotes the angular velocity of the top with + which it is spun about OC´. + + If µ denotes the constant precessional angular velocity of the + vertical plane COC´ the components of angular velocity and momentum + about OA are µ sin [theta] and Aµ sin [theta], OA being perpendicular + to OC´ in the plane COC´; so that the vector OK has the components + + (2) OC´ = G´, and C´K = Aµ sin[theta], + + and the horizontal component + + (3) CK = OC´ sin[theta] - C´K cos[theta] + = G´ sin[theta] - Aµ sin[theta] cos[theta]. + + The velocity of K being equal to the impressed couple Oh, + + (4) gMh sin[theta] = µ·CK = sin [theta] (G´µ - Aµ² cos [theta]), + + and dropping the factor sin[theta], + + (5) Aµ² cos[theta] - G´µ + gMh = 0, or Aµ² cos[theta] - CRµ + An² = 0, + + the condition for steady motion. + + Solving this as a quadratic in µ, the roots µ1, µ2 are given by + _ _ + G´ | 4A²n² | + (6) µ1, µ2 = -- sec [theta] |1 ± [root] (1 - ----- cos [theta]) |; + 2A |_ G´² _| + + and the minimum value of G´ = CR for real values of µ is given by + + G´² CR + (7) ----- = cos [theta], -- = 2[root](cos [theta]); + 4A²n² An + + for a smaller value of R the top cannot spin steadily at the + inclination [theta] to the upward vertical. + + Interpreted geometrically in fig. 4 + + (8) µ = gMh sin [theta]/CK = An²/KN, and µ = C´K/A sin [theta] = KM/A, + + (9) KM·KN = A²n², + + so that K lies on a hyperbola with OC, OC´ as asymptotes. + + + Constrained motion of the gyroscope. + + 4. Suppose the top or gyroscope, instead of moving freely about the + point O, is held in a ring or frame which is compelled to rotate about + the vertical axis OC with constant angular velocity µ; then if N + denotes the couple of reaction of the frame keeping the top from + falling, acting in the plane COC', equation (4) § 3 becomes modified + into + + (1) gMh sin [theta] - N = µ·CK = sin [theta] G´µ - Aµ² cos [theta], + + (2) N = sin [theta] (Aµ² cos [theta] - G´µ + gMh) + = A sin[theta] cos [theta] (µ - µ1)(µ - µ2); + + and hence, as µ increases through µ2 and µ1, the sign of N can be + determined, positive or negative, according as the tendency of the + axis is to fall or rise. + + When G´ = CR is large, µ2 is large, and + + (3) µ1 [~=] gMh/G´ = An²/CR, + + the same for all inclinations, and this is the precession observed in + the spinning top and centrifugal machine of fig. 10 This is true + accurately when the axis OC' is horizontal, and then it agrees with + the result of the popular explanation of § 2. + + [Illustration: FIG. 10.] + + If the axis of the top OC´ is pointing upward, the precession is in + the same direction as the rotation, and an increase of µ from µ1 makes + N negative, and the top rises; conversely a decrease of the procession + µ causes the axis to fall (Perry, _Spinning Tops_, p. 48). + + If the axis points downward, as in the centrifugal machine with upper + support, the precession is in the opposite direction to the rotation, + and to make the axis approach the vertical position the precession + must be reduced. + + + Centrifugal machine. + + This is effected automatically in the Weston centrifugal machine (fig. + 10) used for the separation of water and molasses, by the friction of + the indiarubber cushions above the support; or else the spindle is + produced downwards below the drum a short distance, and turns in a + hole in a weight resting on the bottom of the case, which weight is + dragged round until the spindle is upright; this second arrangement is + more effective when a liquid is treated in the drum, and wave action + is set up (_The Centrifugal Machine_, C. A. Matthey). + + Similar considerations apply to the stability of the whirling bowl in + a cream-separating machine. + + We can write equation (1) + + (4) N = An² sin [theta] - µ·CK = (A^n² - KM·KN) sin [theta]/A, + + so that N is negative or positive, and the axis tends to rise or fall + according as K moves to the inside or outside of the hyperbola of free + motion. Thus a tap on the axis tending to hurry the precession is + equivalent to an impulse couple giving an increase to C´K, and will + make K move to the interior of the hyperbola and cause the axis to + rise; the steering of a bicycle may be explained in this way; but K1 + will move to the exterior of the hyperbola, and so the axis will fall + in this second more violent motion. + + Friction on the point of the top may be supposed to act like a tap in + the direction opposite to the precession; and so the axis of a top + spun violently rises at first and up to the vertical position, but + falls away again as the motion dies out. Friction considered as acting + in retarding the rotation may be compared to an impulse couple tending + to reduce OC´, and so make K and K1 both move to the exterior of the + hyperbola, and the axis falls in both cases. The axis may rise or fall + according to the direction of the frictional couple, depending on the + shape of the point; an analytical treatment of the varying motion is + very intractable; a memoir by E. G. Gallop may be consulted in the + _Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc._, 1903. + + The earth behaves in precession like a large spinning top, of which + the axis describes a circle round the pole of the ecliptic of mean + angular radius [theta], about 23½°, in a period of 26,000 years, so + that R/µ = 26000 × 365; and the mean couple producing precession is + + (5) CRµ sin [theta] = CR² sin 23½°/(26000 × 365), + + one 12 millionth part of ½CR², the rotation energy of the earth. + + 5. If the preponderance is absent, by making the C·G coincide with O, + and if Aµ is insensible compared with G´, + + (1) N = -G´µ sin [theta], + + the formula which suffices to explain most gyroscopic action. + + + Gyroscopic action of railway wheels. + + Thus a carriage running round a curve experiences, in consequence of + the rotation of the wheels, an increase of pressure Z on the outer + track, and a diminution Z on the inner, giving a couple, if a is the + gauge, + + (2) Za = G´µ, + + tending to help the centrifugal force to upset the train; and if c is + the radius of the curve, b of the wheels, C their moment of inertia, + and v the velocity of the train, + + (3) µ = v/c, G´ = Cv/b, + + (4) Z = Cv²/abc (dynes), + + so that Z is the fraction C/Mab of the centrifugal force Mv²/c, or + the fraction C/Mh of its transference of weight, with h the height of + the centre of gravity of the carriage above the road. A Brennan + carriage on a monorail would lean over to the inside of the curve at + an angle [alpha], given by + + (6) tan [alpha] = G´µ/gMh = G´v/gMhc. + + The gyroscopic action of a dynamo, turbine, and other rotating + machinery on a steamer, paddle or screw, due to its rolling and + pitching, can be evaluated in a similar elementary manner + (Worthington, _Dynamics of Rotation_), and Schlick's gyroscopic + apparatus is intended to mitigate the oscillation. + + 6. If the axis OC in fig. 4 is inclined at an angle [alpha] to the + vertical, the equation (2) § 4 becomes + + (1) N = sin [theta] (Aµ² cos [theta] - G´µ) + gMh sin ([alpha] - + [theta]). + + Suppose, for instance, that OC is parallel to the earth's axis, and + that the frame is fixed in the meridian; then [alpha] is the + co-latitude, and µ is the angular velocity of the earth, the square of + which may be neglected; so that, putting N = 0, [alpha] - [theta] = E, + + (2) gMh sin E - G´µ sin ([alpha] - E) = 0, + + G´µ sin [alpha] G´µ + (3) tan E = --------------------- [~=] --- sin [alpha]. + gMh + G´µ cos [alpha] gMh + + + The barogyroscope. + + This is the theory of Gilbert's barogyroscope, described in Appell's + _Mécanique rationnelle_, ii. 387: it consists essentially of a rapidly + rotated fly-wheel, mounted on knife-edges by an axis perpendicular to + its axis of rotation and pointing east and west; spun with + considerable angular momentum G´, and provided with a slight + preponderance Mh, it should tilt to an angle E with the vertical, and + thus demonstrate experimentally the rotation of the earth. + + + Foucault's gyroscope. + + In Foucault's gyroscope (_Comptes rendus_, 1852; Perry, p. 105) the + preponderance is made zero, and the axis points to the pole, when free + to move in the meridian. + + Generally, if constrained to move in any other plane, the axis seeks + the position nearest to the polar axis, like a dipping needle with + respect to the magnetic pole. (_A gyrostatic working model of the + magnetic compass_, by Sir W. Thomson. British Association Report, + Montreal, 1884. A. S. Chessin, St Louis Academy of Science, January + 1902.) + + + Gyroscopic horizon. + + A spinning top with a polished upper plane surface will provide an + artificial horizon at sea, when the real horizon is obscured. The + first instrument of this kind was constructed by Serson, and is + described in the _Gentleman's Magazine_, vol. xxiv., 1754; also by + Segner in his _Specimen theoriae turbinum_ (Halae, 1755). The inventor + was sent to sea by the Admiralty to test his instrument, but he was + lost in the wreck of the "Victory," 1744. A copy of the Serson top, + from the royal collection, is now in the Museum of King's College, + London. Troughton's Nautical Top (1819) is intended for the same + purpose. + + The instrument is in favour with French navigators, perfected by + Admiral Fleuriais (fig. 9); but it must be noticed that the horizon + given by the top is inclined to the true horizon at the angle E given + by equation (3) above; and if µ1 is the precessional angular velocity + as given by (3) § 4, and T = 2[pi]/µ, its period in seconds, + + µ T cos lat T cos lat + (4) tan E = -- cos lat = ---------, or E = ---------, + µ1 86400 8[pi] + + if E is expressed in minutes, taking µ = 2[pi]/86400; thus making the + true latitude E nautical miles to the south of that given by the top + (_Revue maritime_, 1890; _Comptes rendus_, 1896). + + This can be seen by elementary consideration of the theory above, for + the velocity of the vector OC´ of the top due to the rotation of the + earth is + + (5) µ·OC´ cos lat = gMh sin E = µ1·OC´ sin E, + + µ T cos lat + sin E = -- cos lat, E = ---------, + µ1 8[pi] + + in which 8[pi] can be replaced by 25, in practice; so that the + Fleuriais gyroscopic horizon is an illustration of the influence of + the rotation of the earth and of the need for its allowance. + + [Illustration: FIG. 11.] + + + Euler's coordinate angles. + + 7. In the ordinary treatment of the general theory of the gyroscope, + the motion is referred to two sets of rectangular axes; the one Ox, + Oy, Oz fixed in space, with Oz vertically upward and the other OX, OY, + OZ fixed in the rotating wheel with OZ in the axis of figure OC. + + The relative position of the two sets of axes is given by means of + Euler's unsymmetrical angles [theta], [phi], [psi], such that the + successive turning of the axes Ox, Oy, Oz through the angles (i.) + [psi] about Oz, (ii.) [theta] about OE, (iii.) [phi] about OZ, brings + them into coincidence with OX, OY, OZ, as shown in fig. 11, + representing the _concave_ side of a spherical surface. + + The component angular velocities about OD, OE, OZ are + + (1) [.[psi]] sin [theta], .[theta], .[phi] + .[psi] cos [theta]; + + so that, denoting the components about OX, OY, OZ by P, Q, R, + + (2) P = .[theta] cos [phi] + .[psi] sin [theta] sin [phi], + Q = -.[theta] sin [phi] + .[psi] sin [theta] cos [phi], + R = .[phi] + .[psi] cos [theta]. + + Consider, for instance, the motion of a fly-wheel of preponderance Mh, + and equatoreal moment of inertia A, of which the axis OC is held in a + light ring ZCX at a constant angle [gamma] with OZ, while OZ is held + by another ring zZ, which constrains it to move round the vertical Oz + at a constant inclination [theta] with constant angular velocity µ, so + that + + (3) .[theta] = 0, .[psi] = µ; + + (4) P = µ sin [theta] sin [phi], + Q = µ sin [theta] cos [phi], + R = .[phi] + µ cos [theta]. + + With CXF a quadrant, the components of angular velocity and momentum + about OF, OY, are + + (5) P cos [gamma] - R sin [gamma], Q, and A(P cos [gamma] + - R sin [gamma]), AQ, + + so that, denoting the components of angular momentum of the fly-wheel + about OC, OX, OY, OZ by K or G´, h1, h2, h3, + + (6) h1 = A(P cos [gamma] - R sin [gamma]) cos [gamma] + K sin [gamma], + + (7) h2 = AQ, + + (8) h3 = -A(P cos [gamma] - R sin [gamma]) sin [gamma] + + K cos [gamma]; + + and the dynamical equation + + dh3 + (9) --- - h1Q + h2P = N, + dt + + with K constant, and with preponderance downward + + (10) N = gMh cos zY sin [gamma] + = gMh sin [gamma] sin [theta] cos [phi], + + reduces to + + d²[phi] + (11) A ------- sin [gamma] + dt² + + + Aµ² sin [gamma] sin² [theta] sin [phi] cos [phi] + + Aµ² cos [gamma] sin [theta] cos [theta] cos [phi] + - (Kµ + gMh) sin [theta] cos [phi] = 0. + + The position of relative equilibrium is given by + + (12) cos [phi] = 0, and sin [phi] + + Kµ + gMh - Aµ² cos [gamma] cos [theta] + = --------------------------------------. + Aµ² sin [gamma] sin [theta] + + For small values of µ the equation becomes + + d²[phi] + (13) A ------- sin [gamma] - (Kµ + gMh) sin [theta] cos [phi] = 0, + dt² + + so that [phi] = ½[pi] gives the position of stable equilibrium, and + the period of a small oscillation is 2[pi] [root]{A sin [gamma]/(Kµ + + gMh) sin [theta]}. + + In the general case, denoting the periods of vibration about [phi] = + ½[pi], -½[pi], and the sidelong position of equilibrium by 2[pi]/(n1, + n2, or n3), we shall find + + sin [theta] + (14) n1² = ------------- {gMh + Kµ - Aµ² cos ([gamma] - [theta])}, + A sin [gamma] + + sin [theta] + (15) n2² = ------------- {-gMh - Kµ + Aµ² cos ([gamma] + [theta])}, + A sin [gamma] + + (16) n3 = n1 n2/µ sin [theta]. + + The first integral of (11) gives + + /d[phi]\² + (17) ½A ( ------ ) sin [gamma] + \ dt / + + + ½Aµ² sin [gamma] sin² [theta] sin² [phi] + - Aµ² cos [gamma] sin [theta] cos [theta] sin [phi] + + (Kµ + gMh) sin [theta] sin [phi] - H = 0, + + and putting tan (¼[pi] + ½[phi]) = z, this reduces to + + dz + (18) -- = n [root]Z + dt + + where Z is a quadratic in z², so that z is a Jacobian elliptic + function of t, and we have + + (19) tan (¼[pi] + ½[phi]) = C(tn, dn, nc, or cn)nt, + + according as the ring ZC performs complete revolutions, or oscillates + about a sidelong position of equilibrium, or oscillates about the + stable position of equilibrium [phi] = ±½[pi]. + + Suppose Oz is parallel to the earth's axis, and µ is the diurnal + rotation, the square of which may be neglected, then if Gilbert's + barogyroscope of § 6 has the knife-edges turned in azimuth to make an + angle ß with E. and W., so that OZ lies in the horizon at an angle + E.ß.N., we must put [gamma] = ½[pi], cos [theta] = sin [alpha] sin ß; + and putting [phi] = ½[pi] - [delta] + E, where [delta] denotes the + angle between Zz and the vertical plane Z[zeta] through the zenith + [zeta], + + (20) sin [theta] cos [delta] = cos [alpha], sin [theta] sin [delta] + = sin [alpha] cos ß; + + so that equations (9) and (10) for relative equilibrium reduce to + + (21) gMh sin E = KQ = Kµ sin [theta] cos [phi] + = Kµ sin [theta] sin ([delta] - E), + + and will change (3) § 6 into + + Kµ sin [alpha] cos ß + (22) tan E = --------------------, + gMh + Kµ cos [alpha] + + a multiplication of (3) § 6 by cos ß (Gilbert, _Comptes rendus_, + 1882). + + Changing the sign of K or h and E and denoting the revolutions/second + of the gyroscope wheel by F, then in the preceding notation, T + denoting the period of vibration as a simple pendulum, + + Kµ sin [alpha] cos ß F sin [alpha] cos ß + (23) tan E = -------------------- = ---------------------------, + gMh - Kµ cos [alpha] 86400 A/T²C - F cos [alpha] + + so that the gyroscope would reverse if it were possible to make F cos + [alpha] > 86400 A/T²C (Föppl, _Münch. Ber_, 1904). + + A gyroscopic pendulum is made by the addition to it of a fly-wheel, + balanced and mounted, as in Gilbert's barogyroscope, in a ring movable + about an axis fixed in the pendulum, in the vertical plane of motion. + + As the pendulum falls away to an angle [theta] with the upward + vertical, and the axis of the fly-wheel makes an angle [phi] with the + vertical plane of motion, the three components of angular momentum are + + (24) h1 = K cos [phi], h2 = A .[theta] + K sin [phi], h3 = A .[phi], + + where h3 is the component about the axis of the ring and K of the + fly-wheel about its axis; and if L, M´, N denote the components of the + couple of reaction of the ring, L may be ignored, while N is zero, + with P = 0, Q = [.[theta]], R = 0, so that + + (25) M´ = h2 = A :[theta] + K .[phi] cos [phi], + + (26) 0 = h3 - h1 .[theta] = A :[phi] - K .[theta] cos [phi]. + + For the motion of the pendulum, including the fly-wheel, + + (27) MK² :[theta] = gMH sin [theta] - M´ + = gMH sin [theta] - A :[theta] - K .[phi] cos [phi]. + + If [theta] and [phi] remain small, + + (28) A :[phi] = K .[theta], A .[phi] = K([theta] - [alpha]), + + (29) (MK² + A) :[theta] + (K²/A) ([theta] - [alpha]) - gMH[theta] = 0; + + so that the upright position will be stable if K² > gMHA, or the + rotation energy of the wheel greater than ½A/C times the energy + acquired by the pendulum in falling between the vertical and + horizontal position; and the vibration will synchronize with a simple + pendulum of length + + (30) (MK² + A)/[(K²/gA) - MH]. + + This gyroscopic pendulum may be supposed to represent a ship among + waves, or a carriage on a monorail, and so affords an explanation of + the gyroscopic action essential in the apparatus of Schlick and + Brennan. + + + General motion of the top. + + 8. Careful scrutiny shows that the steady motion of a top is not + steady absolutely; it reveals a small nutation superposed, so that a + complete investigation requires a return to the equations of unsteady + motion, and for the small oscillation to consider them in a + penultimate form. + + In the general motion of the top the vector OH of resultant angular + momentum is no longer compelled to lie in the vertical plane COC´ + (fig. 4), but since the axis Oh of the gravity couple is always + horizontal, H will describe a curve in a fixed horizontal plane + through C. The vector OC´ of angular momentum about the axis will be + constant in length, but vary in direction; and OK will be the + component angular momentum in the vertical plane COC´, if the planes + through C and C´ perpendicular to the lines OC and OC´ intersect in + the line KH; and if KH is the component angular momentum perpendicular + to the plane COC´, the resultant angular momentum OH has the three + components OC´, C´K, KH, represented in Euler's angles by + + (1) KH = A d[theta]/dt, C´K = A sin [theta] d[psi]/dt, OC´ = G´. + + Drawing KM vertical and KN parallel to OC´, then + + (2) KM = A d[psi]/dt, KN = CR - A cos [theta] d[psi]/dt + = (C - A)R + A d[phi]/dt + + so that in the spherical top, with C = A, KN = A d[phi]/dt. + + The velocity of H is in the direction KH perpendicular to the plane + COC´, and equal to gMh sin [theta] or An² sin [theta], so that if a + point in the axis OC´ at a distance An² from O is projected on the + horizontal plane through C in the point P on CK, the curve described + by P, turned forwards through a right angle, will be the hodograph of + H; this is expressed by + + (3) An² sin [theta] e^{([psi] + ½[pi])i} + = iAn² sin [theta] e^{[psi]i} = d/dt ([rho]e^{[pi]i}) + + where [rho]e[varpi]i is the vector CH; and so the curve described by P + and the motion of the axis of the top is derived from the curve + described by H by a differentiation. + + Resolving the velocity of H in the direction CH, + + (4) d·CH/dt = An² sin [theta] sin KCH = An² sin [theta] KH/CH, + + (5) d·½CH²/dt = A²n²sin [theta] d[theta]/dt. + + and integrating + + (6) ½CH² = A²n²(E - cos [theta]), + + (7) ½OH² = A²n²(F - cos [theta]), + + (8) ½C´H² = A²n²(D - cos [theta]), + + where D, E, F are constants, connected by + + (9) F = E + G²/2A²n² = D + G´²/2A²n². + + Then + + (10) KH² = OH² - OK², + + (11) OK² sin² [theta] = CC´² = G² - 2GG´ cos [theta] + G´², + + (12) A² sin² [theta] (d[theta]/dt)² + = 2A²n²(F - cos [theta]) sin² [theta] - G² + 2GG´ cos [theta] - G´²; + + and putting cos [theta] = z, + + (13) (dz/dt)² = 2n²(F - z) (1 - z²) - (G² - 2GG´z + G´²)/A² + = 2n²(E - z)(1-z²) - (G´ - Gz)²/A² + = 2n²(D - z)(1-z²) - (G - G´z)²/A² + = 2n² Z suppose. + + Denoting the roots of Z = 0 by z1, z2, z3, we shall have them arranged + in the order + + (14) z1 > 1 > z2 > z > z3 > -1. + + (15) (dz/dt)² = 2n²(z1 - z)(z2 - z)(z - z3). + + _z + / / + (16) nt = | dz/ \/(2Z), + _/z3 + + + an elliptic integral of the first kind, which with + + /z1 - z3 z2 - z3 + (17) m = n \ / -------, [kappa]² = -------, + \/ 2 z1 - z2 + + can be expressed, when normalized by the factor [root](z1 - z3)/2, by + the inverse elliptic function in the form + + _z + / [root](z1 - z3)dz + (18) mt = | --------------------------------- + _/z3 [root][4(z1 - z)(z2 - z)(z - z3)] + + / z - z3 /z2 - z /z1 - z + = sn^(-1)\ / ------- = cn^(-1)\ / ------- = dn^(-1)\ / -------. + \/ z2 - z3 \/ z2 - z3 \/ z1 - z3 + + (19) z - z3 = (z2 - z3)sn²mt, z2 - z = (z2 - z3)cn²mt, + z1 - z = (z1 - z3)dn²mt. + + (20) z = z2sn²mt + z3cn²mt. + + Interpreted dynamically, the axis of the top keeps time with the beats + of a simple pendulum of length + + (21) L = l/½(z1 - z3), + + suspended from a point at a height ½(z1 + z3)l above 0, in such a + manner that a point on the pendulum at a distance + + (22) ½(z1 - z3)l = l²/L + + from the point of suspension moves so as to be always at the same + level as the centre of oscillation of the top. + + The polar co-ordinates of H are denoted by [rho], [varpi] in the + horizontal plane through C; and, resolving the velocity of H + perpendicular to CH, + + (23) [rho] d[~omega]/dt = An² sin [theta] cos KCH. + + (24) [rho]² d[~omega]/dt = An² sin [theta] CK + + = An² (G´ - G cos [theta]) + _ _ + / G´ - Gz dt / (G´ - Gz)/2An dz + (25) [~omega] = ½ | ------- -- = | ------------- ----------, + _/ E - z A _/z3 E - z [root](2Z) + + an elliptic integral, of the third kind, with pole at z = E; and then + + (26) [~omega] - [psi] = KCH = tan^(-1) KH/CH + + A sin [theta] d[theta]/dt [root](2Z) + = tan^(-1) ------------------------- = tan^(-1) ------------, + G´ - G cos [theta] (G´ - Gz)/An + + which determines [psi]. + + Otherwise, from the geometry of fig. 4, + + (27) C´K sin [theta] = OC - OC´ cos [theta], + + (28) A sin² [theta] d[psi]/dt = G - G´ cos [theta], + _ _ _ + / G - G´z dt / G - G´ dt / G + G´ dt + (29) [psi] = | ------- -- = ½ | ------ -- + ½ | ------ --, + _/ 1 - z² A _/ 1 - z A _/ 1 + z A + + the sum of two elliptic integrals of the third kind, with pole at z = + ±1; and the relation in (25) (26) shows the addition of these two + integrals into a single integral, with pole at z = E. + + The motion of a sphere, rolling and spinning in the interior of a + spherical bowl, or on the top of a sphere, is found to be of the same + character as the motion of the axis of a spinning top about a fixed + point. + + The curve described by H can be identified as a Poinsot herpolhode, + that is, the curve traced out by rolling a quadric surface with centre + fixed at O on the horizontal plane through C; and Darboux has shown + also that a deformable hyperboloid made of the generating lines, with + O and H at opposite ends of a diameter and one generator fixed in OC, + can be moved so as to describe the curve H; the tangent plane of the + hyperboloid at H being normal to the curve of H; and then the other + generator through O will coincide in the movement with OC´, the axis + of the top; thus the Poinsot herpolhode curve H is also the trace made + by rolling a line of curvature on an ellipsoid confocal to the + hyperboloid of one sheet, on the plane through C. + + Kirchhoff's _Kinetic Analogue_ asserts also that the curve of H is the + projection of a tortuous elastica, and that the spherical curve of C´ + is a hodograph of the elastica described with constant velocity. + + Writing the equation of the focal ellipse of the Darboux hyperboloid + through H, enlarged to double scale so that O is the centre, + + (30) x²/[alpha]² + y²/ß² + z²/O = 1, + + with [alpha]² + [lambda], ß² + [lambda], [lambda] denoting the squares + of the semiaxes of a confocal ellipsoid, and [lambda] changed into µ + and [nu] for a confocal hyperboloid of one sheet and of two sheets. + + (31) [lambda] > O > µ > -ß² > [nu] > -[alpha]², + + then in the deformation of the hyperboloid, [lambda] and [nu] remain + constant at H; and utilizing the theorems of solid geometry on + confocal quadrics, the magnitudes may be chosen so that + + (32) [alpha]² + [lambda] + ß² + µ + [nu] = OH² = ½k²(F - z) + = [rho]² + OC². + + (33) [alpha]² + µ = ½k²(z1 - z) = [rho]² - [rho]1², + + (34) ß² + µ = ½k²(z2 - z) = [rho]² - [rho]2², + + (35) µ = ½k²(z3 - z) = [rho]² - [rho]3², + + (36) [rho]1² < 0 < [rho]2² < [rho]² < [rho]3², + + (37) F = z1 + z2 + z3, + + (38) [lambda] - 2µ + [nu] = k²z, [lambda] - [nu] = k², + + [lambda] - µ 1 + z µ - [nu] 1 - z + (39) --------------- = -----, --------------- = ----- + [lambda] - [nu] 2 [lambda] - [nu] 2 + + with z = cos [theta], [theta] denoting the angle between the + generating lines through H; and with OC = [delta], OC´ = [delta]´, the + length k has been chosen so that in the preceding equations + + (40) [delta]/k = G/2An, [delta]´/k = G´/2An; + + and [delta], [delta]´, k may replace G, G´, 2An; then + + 2Z 1 /d[theta]\² 4KH² + (41) ------ = -- ( -------- ) = ----, + 1 - z² n² \ dt / k² + + while from (33-39) + + 2Z 4([alpha]² + µ)(ß² + µ)µ + (42) ------ = --------------------------, + 1 - z² k²(µ - [lambda])(µ - [nu]) + + which verifies that KH is the perpendicular from O on the tangent + plane of the hyperboloid at H, and so proves Darboux's theorem. + + Planes through O perpendicular to the generating lines cut off a + constant length HQ = [delta], HQ´ = [delta]´, so the line of curvature + described by H in the deformation of the hyperboloid, the intersection + of the fixed confocal ellipsoid [lambda] and hyperboloid of two sheets + [nu], rolls on a horizontal plane through C and at the same time on a + plane through C´ perpendicular to OC´. + + Produce the generating line HQ to meet the principal planes of the + confocal system in V, T, P; these will also be fixed points on the + generator; and putting + + (43) (HV, HT, HP,)/HQ = D/(A, B, C,), + + then + + (44) Ax² + By² + Cz² = D[delta]² + + is a quadric surface with the squares of the semiaxes given by HV·HQ, + HT·HQ, HP·HQ, and with HQ the normal line at H, and so touching the + horizontal plane through C; and the direction cosines of the normal + being + + (45) x/HV, y/HT, z/HP, + + (46) A²x² + B²y² + C²z² = D²[delta]², + + the line of curvature, called the polhode curve by Poinsot, being the + intersection of the quadric surface (44) with the ellipsoid (46). + + There is a second surface associated with (44), which rolls on the + plane through C´, corresponding to the other generating line HQ´ + through H, so that the same line of curvature rolls on two planes at a + constant distance from O, [delta] and [delta]´; and the motion of the + top is made up of the combination. This completes the statement of + Jacobi's theorem (_Werke_, ii. 480) that the motion of a top can be + resolved into two movements of a body under no force. + + Conversely, starting with Poinsot's polhode and herpolhode given in + (44) (46), the normal plane is drawn at H, cutting the principal axes + of the rolling quadric in X, Y, Z; and then + + (47) [alpha]² + µ = x·OX, ß² + µ = y·OY, µ = z·OZ, + + this determines the deformable hyperboloid of which one generator + through H is a normal to the plane through C; and the other generator + is inclined at an angle [theta], the inclination of the axis of the + top, while the normal plane or the parallel plane through O revolves + with angular velocity d[psi]/dt. + + The curvature is useful in drawing a curve of H; the diameter of + curvature D is given by + + dp² ½k²sin³ [theta] ½D ¼k² + (48) D = --- = -----------------------------, -- = -----. + dp [delta] - [delta]´ cos[theta] p KM·KN + + The curvature is zero and H passes through a point of inflexion when + C´ comes into the horizontal plane through C; [psi] will then be + stationary and the curve described by C´ will be looped. + + In a state of steady motion, z oscillates between two limits z2 and z3 + which are close together; so putting z2 = z3 the coefficient of z in Z + is + + GG´ (OM cos[theta] + ON)(OM + ON cos [theta]) + (49) 2Z1z3 + z²3 = -1 + ---- = -1 + -----------------------------------------, + A²n² OM·ON + + OM² + ON² OM² + ON² + (50) 2z1z3 = --------- cos [theta], z1 = ---------, + OM·ON 2OM·ON + + OM² - 2OM·ON cos [theta] + ON² MN² + (51) 2(z1 - z3) = ------------------------------ = -----. + OM·ON OM·ON + + With z2 = z3, [kappa] = [omicron], K = ½[pi]; and the number of beats + per second of the axis is + + m n /z1 - z3 MN n + (52) ---- = ---- \ / ------- = ------------- -----, + [pi] [pi] \/ 2 [root](OM·ON) 2[pi] + + beating time with a pendulum of length + + l 4OM·ON + (53) L = ---------- = ------ l. + ½(z1 - z3) MN² + + The wheel making R/2[pi] revolutions per second, + + beats/second MN n C MN + (54) ------------------ = ------------- -- = -- . ---, + revolutions/second [root](OM·ON) R A OC´ + + from (8) (9) § 3; and the apsidal angle is + + ½[pi] Aµ n ON 2[root](OM·ON) ON + (55) µ ----- = --·--·½[pi] = ------------- · -------------- · ½[pi] = -- [pi], + m An m [root](OM·ON) MN MN + + and the height of the equivalent conical pendulum [lambda] is given by + + [lambda] g n² OM KC OL + (56) -------- = --- = -- = -- = --- = ---, + l lµ² µ² ON KC´ OC´ + + if OR drawn at right angles to OK cuts KC´ in R, and RL is drawn + horizontal to cut the vertical CO in L; thus if OC² represents l to + scale, then OL will represent [lambda]. + + 9. The gyroscope motion in fig. 4 comes to a stop when the rim of the + wheel touches the ground; and to realize the motion when the axis is + inclined at a greater angle with the upward vertical, the stalk is + pivoted in fig. 8 in a lug screwed to the axle of a bicycle hub, + fastened vertically in a bracket bolted to a beam. The wheel can now + be spun by hand, and projected in any manner so as to produce a + desired gyroscopic motion, undulating, looped, or with cusps if the + stalk of the wheel is dropped from rest. + + As the principal part of the motion takes place now in the + neighbourhood of the lowest position, it is convenient to measure the + angle [theta] from the downward vertical, and to change the sign of z + and G. + + Equation (18) § 8 must be changed to + + _z3 + /z3 - z1 / [root](z3 - z1)dz + (1) mt = nt / ------- = | -----------------, + \/ 2 _/z [root](4Z) + + + (2) Z = (z - F)(1 - z²) - (G²- 2GG´z + G´²) / 2A²n² + = (z - D)(1 - z²) - (G - G´z)² / 2A²n² + = (z - E)(1 - z²) - (G´- Gz)² / 2A²n² + = (z3 - z)(z - z2)(z - z1), + + (3) 1 > z3 > z > z2 > -1, D, E > z1, + + (4) z1 + z2 + z3 = F = D - G´² / 2A²n² = E - G²/2A²n², + + and expressed by the inverse elliptic function + + /z3 - z /z - z2 /z - z1 + (5) mt = sn^(-1) / ------- = cn^(-1) / ------- = dn^(-1) / -------, + \/ z3 - z2 \/ z3 - z2 \/ z3 - z1 + + (6) z = z2sn²mt + z3cn²mt, [kappa]² = (z3 - z2)/(z3 - z1), + + Equation (25) and (29) § 8 is changed to + _ _ + / G´- Gz dt / G´-GE dt Gt + (7) [~omega] = ½ | ------- -- = ½ | ----- -- - --, + _/ z - E A _/ z-E A 2A + _ _ _ + / G´z - G dt / G´ + G dt / G´ - G dt + (8) [psi] = | ------- -- = ½ | ------ -- - ½ | ------ --, + _/ 1 - z² A _/ 1 - z A _/ 1 + z A + + while [psi] and [varpi] change places in (26). + + The Jacobian elliptic parameter of the third elliptic integral in (7) + can be given by [nu], where + + _z3 / _z3 _z2 + / [root](z3 - z1) / / + (9) [nu] = | --------------- dz = | + | = K + (1 - f)Ki´, + _/E [root](4Z) _/z2 _/E + + where f is a real fraction, + + _E + / [root](z3 - z1) + (10) (1 - f)K´ = | --------------- dz, + _/z1 [root](-4Z) + + _E / + / [root](z3 - z1) + (11) fK´ = | --------------- dz, + _/z1 [root](-4Z) + + / E - z1 / z2 - E / z3 - E + = sn^(-1) / ------- = cn^(-1) / ------- = dn^(-1) / -------, + \/ z2 - z1 \/ z2 - z1 \/ z3 - z1 + + with respect to the comodulus [kappa]´. + + Then, with z = E, and + + (12) 2Z{E} = -{(G´- GE)/An}², + + if II denotes the apsidal angle of [~omega], and T the time of a single + beat of the axle, up or down, + + _z3 + GT / [root](-2Z_E) dz + (13) II + -- = | ------------- ----------, + 2A _/z2 z - E [root](2Z) + + = ½[pi]f + KznfK´, + + in accordance with the theory of the complete elliptic integral of the + third kind. + + Interpreted geometrically on the deformable hyperboloid, flattened in + the plane of the focal ellipse, if OQ is the perpendicular from the + centre on the tangent HP, AOQ = amfK´, and the eccentric angle of P, + measured from the minor axis, is am(1 - f)K´, the eccentricity of the + focal ellipse being the comodulus [kappa]´. + + A point L is taken in QP such that + + (14) QL/OA = znfK´, + + (15) QV, QT, QP = OA(zs, zc, zd)fK´; + + and with + + (16) mT = K, m/n = [root](z3 - z1)/2 = OA/k, + + GT G k QH + (17) -- = --- · -- K = -- K, + 2A 2An OA OA + + QL + QH HL + (18) II = ½[pi]f + ------- K = ½[pi]f + -- K. + OA OA + + By choosing for f a simple rational fraction, such as ½, 1/3, ¼, 1/5, + ... an algebraical case of motion can be constructed (_Annals of + Mathematics_, 1904). + + Thus with G´ - GE = 0, we have E = z1 or z2, never z3; f = 0 or 1; + and P is at A or B on the focal ellipse; and then + + (19) [~omega] = -pt, p = G/2A, + + n[root](2Z) + (20) [psi] + pt = tan^(-1) -----------, + 2p(z - E) + + (21) sin [theta] exp ([psi] + pt)i + = i[root][(-z2 - z3)(z - z1)] + [root][(z3 - z)(z - z2)], + + 1 + z2z3 /-z2 - z3 G p G´ + z1 = --------, / -------- = --- = -- = -----, or + z2 + z3 \/ 2 2An n 2Anz1 + + (22) sin [theta] exp ([psi] + pt)i = + i[root][(-z1 - z3)(z - z2)] + [root][(z3 - z)(z - z1)], + + 1 + z1z3 /-z1 - z3 G p G´ + z2 = --------, / -------- = --- = -- = -----. + z1 + z3 \/ 2 2An n 2Anz2 + + Thus z2 = 0 in (22) makes G´ = 0; so that if the stalk is held out + horizontally and projected with angular velocity 2p about the vertical + axis OC without giving any spin to the wheel, the resulting motion of + the stalk is like that of a spherical pendulum, and given by + + / /2p² \ + (23) sin [theta] exp ([psi] + pt)i = i / ( --- cos [theta] ) + \/ \ n² / + + / / p² \ + + / ( sin² [theta] - 2 -- cos [theta] ), + \/ \ n² / + + = i sin [alpha] [root](sec [alpha] cos [theta]) + + [root][(sec [alpha] + cos [theta])(cos [alpha] - cos [theta])], + + if the axis falls in the lowest position to an angle [alpha] with the + downward vertical. + + With z3 = 0 in (21) and z2 = -cos ß, and changing to the upward + vertical measurement, the motion is given by + + (24) sin [theta] e^([psi]i) + = e^(int) [root]½ cos ß[[root](1 - cos ß cos [theta]) + + i[root](cos ß cos [theta] - cos² [theta])], + + and the axis rises from the horizontal position to a series of cusps; + and the mean precessional motion is the same as in steady motion with + the same rotation and the axis horizontal. + + The special case of f = ½ may be stated here; it is found that + + p /(1 + x)([kappa] - x) /(1 - x)([kappa] + x) + (25) -- exp ([~omega] - pt)i = / -------------------- + i / --------------------, + a \/ 2 \/ 2 + + (26) [rho]² = a² ([kappa] - x²), + + (27) ½[lambda]² sin [theta] exp ([psi] - pt)i + + /(1 - x)([kappa] + x) + = (L - 1 + [kappa] - x) / -------------------- + \/ 2 + + /(1 + x)([kappa] - x) + + i(L - 1 + [kappa] + x) / -------------------- + \/ 2 + + (28) L = ½(1 - [kappa]) + [lambda]p/n, + + so that p = 0 and the motion is made algebraical by taking L = ½(1 - + [kappa]). + + The stereoscopic diagram of fig. 12 drawn by T. I. Dewar shows these + curves for [kappa] = 15/17, 3/5, and 1/3 (cusps). + + 10. So far the motion of the axis OC' of the top has alone been + considered; for the specification of any point of the body, Euler's + third angle [phi] must be introduced, representing the angular + displacement of the wheel with respect to the stalk. This is given by + + d[phi] d[psi] + (1) ------ + cos [theta] ------ = R, + dt dt + + d([phi] + [psi]) / C \ G´ + G + (2) ---------------- = ( 1 - -- ) R + ------------------, + dt \ A / A(1 + cos [theta]) + + d([phi] - [psi]) / C \ G´ - G + ---------------- = ( 1 - -- ) R + ------------------. + dt \ A / A(1 - cos [theta]) + + It will simplify the formulas by cancelling a secular term if we make + C = A, and the top is then called a _spherical top_; OH becomes the + axis of instantaneous angular velocity, as well as of resultant + angular momentum. + + When this secular term is restored in the general case, the axis OI of + angular velocity is obtained by producing Q´H to I, making + + HI A - C HI A - C + (3) --- = -----, --- = -----, + Q´H C Q´I A + + and then the four vector components OC´, C´K, KH, HI give a resultant + vector OI, representing the angular velocity [omega], such that + + (4) OI/Q´I = [omega]/R. + + [Illustration: FIG. 12.] + + The point I is then fixed on the generating line Q´H of the deformable + hyperboloid, and the other generator through I will cut the fixed + generator OC of the opposite system in a fixed point O´, such that IO´ + is of constant length, and may be joined up by a link, which + constrains I to move on a sphere. + + In the spherical top then, + _ _ + / G´ + G dt / G´ - G dt + (5) ½([phi] + [psi])= | ------ --, ½([phi] - [psi]) = | ------ -- + _/ 1 + z 2A _/ 1 - z 2A + + depending on the two elliptic integrals of the third kind, with pole + at z = ±1; and measuring [theta] from the downward vertical, their + elliptic parameters are:-- + + _[oo] + / [root](z3 - z1)dz + (6) v1 = | ----------------- = f1K´i, + _/1 [root](4Z) + + _-1 + / [root](z3 - z1)dz + (7) v2 = | ----------------- = K + (1 - f2)K´i + _/[oo] [root](4Z) + + _[oo] + / [root](z3 - z1)dz + (8) f1K´ = | ----------------- + _/1 [root](-4Z) + + /z3 - z1 /1 - z3 /1 - z2 + = sn^(-1) / ------- = cn^(-1) / ------ = dn^(-1) / --------, + \/ 1 - z1 \/ 1 - z1 \/ 1 - z1 + + _-1 + / [root](z3 - z1)dz + (9) (1 - f2)K´ = | ----------------- + _/z1 [root](-4Z) + + /-1 - z1 /1 + z2 + = sn^(-1) / ------- = cn^(-1) / ------- + \/ z2 - z1 \/ z2 - z1 + + /1 + z3 + = dn^{-1} / ------- + \/ z3 - z1 + + Then if v´ = K + (1 - f´)K´i is the parameter corresponding to z = D, + we find + + (10) f = f2 - f1, f´ = f2 + f1, + + (11) v = v1 + v2, v´ = v1 - v2. + + The most symmetrical treatment of the motion of any point fixed in the + top will be found in Klein and Sommerfeld, Theorie des Kreisels, to + which the reader is referred for details; four new functions, [alpha], + ß, [gamma], [delta], are introduced, defined in terms of Euler's + angles, [theta], [psi], [phi], by + + (12) [alpha] = cos ½[theta] exp ½([phi] + [psi]i), + + (13) ß = i sin ½[theta] exp ½(-[phi] + [psi])i, + + (14) [gamma] = i sin ½[theta] exp ½([phi] - [psi])i, + + (15) [delta] = cos ½[theta] exp ½(-[phi] - [psi])i. + + Next Klein takes two functions or co-ordinates [lambda] and [Lambda], + defined by + + x + yi r + z + (16) [lambda] = ------ = ------, + r - z x - yi + + and [Lambda] the same function of X, Y, Z, so that [lambda], [Lambda] + play the part of stereographic representations of the same point (x, + y, z) or (X, Y, Z) on a sphere of radius r, with respect to poles in + which the sphere is intersected by Oz and OZ. + + These new functions are shown to be connected by the bilinear relation + + [alpha][Lambda] + ß + (17) [lambda] = --------------------------, + [gamma][Lambda] + [delta]' + + [alpha][delta] - ß[gamma] = 1, + + in accordance with the annexed scheme of transformation of + co-ordinates-- + + | [Xi] | [Eta] | [Zeta] + -------+----------------+-----------+-------------------------- + [xi] | [alpha]² | ß² | 2[alpha]ß + -------+----------------+-----------+-------------------------- + [eta] | [gamma]² | [delta]² | 2[gamma][delta] + -------+----------------+-----------+-------------------------- + [zeta] | [alpha][gamma] | ß[delta] | [alpha][delta] + ß[gamma] + + where + + (18) [xi] = x + yi, [eta] = -x + yi, [zeta] = -z, + [Xi] = X + Yi, [Eta] = -X + Yi, [Zeta] = -Z; + + and thus the motion in space of any point fixed in the body defined by + [Lambda] is determined completely by means of [alpha], ß, [gamma], + [delta]; and in the case of the symmetrical top these functions are + elliptic transcendants, to which Klein has given the name of + _multiplicative elliptic functions_; and + + (19) [alpha][delta] = cos² ½[theta], ß[gamma] = -sin² ½[theta], + [alpha][delta] - ß[gamma] = 1, [alpha][delta] + ß[gamma] + = cos [theta], + [root](-4[alpha]ß[gamma][delta]) = sin [theta]; + + while, for the motion of a point on the axis, putting [Lambda] = 0, or + [infinity], + + (20) [lambda] = ß/[delta] = i tan ½[theta]e^{[psi]i}, or + [lambda] = [alpha]/[gamma] = -i cot ½[theta]e^{[psi]i}, + + and + + (21) [alpha]ß = ½i sin [theta]e^([psi]i), + [alpha][gamma] = ½i sin [theta]e^([psi]i), + + giving orthogonal projections on the planes GKH, CHK; and + + dß d[alpha] [rho] + (22) [alpha] -- - --------ß = n ---- e^([~omega]i), + dt dt k + + the vectorial equation in the plane GKH of the herpolhode of H for a + spherical top. + + When f1 and f2 in (9) are rational fractions, these multiplicative + elliptic functions can be replaced by algebraical functions, qualified + by factors which are exponential functions of the time t; a series of + quasi-algebraical cases of motion can thus be constructed, which + become purely algebraical when the exponential factors are cancelled + by a suitable arrangement of the constants. + + Thus, for example, with f = 0, f´ = 1, f1 = ½, f2 = ½, as in (24) § 9, + where P and P´ are at A and B on the focal ellipse, we have for the + spherical top + + (23) (1 + cos [theta]) exp ([phi] + [psi] - qt)i + = [root](sec ß - cos [theta]) [root](cos ß - cos [theta]) + + i([root]sec ß + [root] cos ß)[root]cos [theta], + + (24) (1 - cos [theta]) exp ([phi] - [psi] - q´t)i + = [root](sec ß - cos [theta])[root](cos ß - cos [theta]) + + i([root]sec ß - [root]cos ß) [root]cos [theta], + + (25) q, q´ = n[root](2 sec ß) ± n[root](2 cos ß); + + and thence [alpha], ß, [gamma], [delta] can be inferred. + + The physical constants of a given symmetrical top have been denoted in + § 1 by M, h, A, C, and l, n, T; to specify a given state of general + motion we have G, G´ or CR, D, E, or F, which may be called the + dynamical constants; or [kappa], v, w, v1, v2, or f, f´, f1, f2, the + analytical constants; or the geometrical constants, such as [alpha], + ß, [delta], [delta]´, k of a given articulated hyperboloid. + + There is thus a triply infinite series of a state of motion; the + choice of a typical state can be made geometrically on the + hyperboloid, flattened in the plane of the local ellipse, of which + [kappa] is the ratio of the semiaxes [alpha] and ß, and am(1 - f) K´ + is the eccentric angle from the minor axis of the point of contact P + of the generator HQ, so that two analytical constants are settled + thereby; and the point H may be taken arbitrarily on the tangent line + PQ, and HQ´ is then the other tangent of the focal ellipse; in which + case [theta]3 and [theta]2 are the angles between the tangents HQ, + HQ´, and between the focal distances HS, HS´, and k² will be HS·HS´, + while HQ, HQ´ are [delta], [delta]´. As H is moved along the tangent + line HQ, a series of states of motion can be determined, and drawn + with accuracy. + + 11. Equation (5) § 3 with slight modification will serve with the same + notation for the steady rolling motion at a constant inclination + [alpha] to the vertical of a body of revolution, such as a disk, hoop, + wheel, cask, wine-glass, plate, dish, bowl, spinning top, gyrostat, or + bicycle, on a horizontal plane, or a surface of revolution, as a coin + in a conical lamp-shade. + + [Illustration: FIG. 13.] + + The point O is now the intersection of the axis GC´ with the vertical + through the centre B of the horizontal circle described by the centre + of gravity, and through the centre M of the horizontal circle + described by P, the point of contact (fig. 13). Collected into a + particle at G, the body swings round the vertical OB as a conical + pendulum, of height AB or GL equal to g/µ² = [lambda], and GA would be + the direction of the thread, of tension gM(GA/GL) dynes. The reaction + with the plane at P will be an equal parallel force; and its moment + round G will provide the couple which causes the velocity of the + vector of angular momentum appropriate to the steady motion; and this + moment will be gM·Gm dyne-cm. or ergs, if the reaction at P cuts GB in + m. + + Draw GR perpendicular to GK to meet the horizontal AL in R, and draw + RQC´K perpendicular to the axis Gz, and KC perpendicular to LG. + + The velocity of the vector GK of angular momentum is µ times the + horizontal component, and + + (1) horizontal component / Aµ sin [alpha] = KC/KC´, + + so that + + (2) gM·Gm = Aµ² sin [alpha](KC/KC´), + + A KC´ g + (3) -- = --- -------------- Gm = GQ·Gm. + M KC µ² sin [alpha] + + The instantaneous axis of rotation of the case of a gyrostat would be + OP; drawing GI parallel to OP, and KK´ parallel to OG, making tan + K´GC´ = (A/C) tan IGC'1; then if GK represents the resultant angular + momentum, K´K will represent the part of it due to the rotation of the + fly-wheel. Thus in the figure for the body rolling as a solid, with + the fly-wheel clamped, the points m and Q move to the other side of G. + The gyrostat may be supposed swung round the vertical at the end of a + thread PA´ fastened at A´ where Pm produced cuts the vertical AB, and + again at the point where it crosses the axis GO. The discussion of the + small oscillation superposed on the state of steady motion requisite + for stability is given in the next paragraph. + + + General motion of a gyrostat rolling on a plane. + + 12. In the theoretical discussion of the general motion of a gyrostat + rolling on a horizontal plane the safe and shortest plan apparently is + to write down the most general equations of motion, and afterwards to + introduce any special condition. + + Drawing through G the centre of gravity any three rectangular axes Gx, + Gy, Gz, the notation employed is + + u, v, w, the components of linear velocity of G; + p, q, r, the components of angular velocity about the axes, + h1, h2, h3, the components of angular momentum; + [theta]1, [theta]2, [theta]3, the components of angular velocity of + the coordinate axes; + x, y, z, the co-ordinates of the point of contact with the + horizontal plane; + X, Y, Z, the components of the reaction of the plane; + [alpha], ß, [gamma], the direction cosines of the downward vertical. + + The geometrical equations, expressing that the point of contact is at + rest on the plane, are + + (1) u - ry + qz = 0, + + (2) v - pz + rx = 0, + + (3) w - qx + py = 0. + + The dynamical equations are + + (4) du/dt - [theta]3v + [theta]2w = g[alpha] + X/M, + + (5) dv/dt - [theta]1w + [theta]2u = gß + Y/M, + + (6) dw/dt - [theta]2u + [theta]1v = g[gamma] + Z/M, + + and + + (7) dh1/dt - [theta]3h2 + [theta]2h3 = yZ - zY, + + (8) dh2/dt - [theta]1h3 + [theta]3h1 = zX - xZ, + + (9) dh3/dt - [theta]2h1 + [theta]1h2 = xY - yX. + + In the special case of the gyrostat where the surface is of revolution + round Gz, and the body is kinetically symmetrical about Gz, we take Gy + horizontal and Gzx through the point of contact so that y = 0; and + denoting the angle between Gz and the downward vertical by [theta] + (fig. 13) + + (10) [alpha] = sin[theta], ß = 0, [gamma] = cos[theta]. + + The components of angular momentum are + + (11) h1 = Ap, h2 = Aq, h3 = Cr + K, + + where A, C denote the moment of inertia about Gx, Gz, and K is the + angular momentum of a fly-wheel fixed in the interior with its axis + parallel to Gz; K is taken as constant during the motion. + + The axis Gz being fixed in the body, + + (12) [theta]1 = p, [theta]2 = q = -d[theta]/dt, + [theta]3 = p cot [theta]. + + With y = 0, (1), (2), (3) reduce to + + (13) u = -qz, v = pz - rx, w = qx; + + and, denoting the radius of curvature of the meridian curve of the + rolling surface by [rho], + + dx d[theta] + (14) -- = [rho] cos[theta] -------- = -q [rho] cos[theta], + dt dt + + dz d[theta] + -- = -[rho] sin[theta] -------- = q [rho] sin[theta]; + dt dt + + so that + + du dq + (15) -- = - -- z - q²[rho] sin[theta], + dt dt + + dv dp dr + (16) -- = -- z - -- x + pq[rho] sin[theta] + qr[rho] sin[theta], + dt dt dt + + dw dq + (17) -- = -- x - q²[rho] cos[theta]. + dt dt + + The dynamical equations (4)...(9) can now be reduced to + + X dq + (18) -- = - -- z - p²z cot[theta] + q²(x - [rho] sin[theta]) + M dt + + + prx cot[theta] - g sin[theta], + + Y dp dr + (19) -- = -- z - -- x - pq(x + z cot[theta] - [rho] sin[theta]) + M dt dt + + + qrp cos[theta], + + Z dq + (20) -- = -- x + q²(z - [rho] cos[theta]) + p²z - prx - g cos[theta], + M dt + + dp + (21) -zY = A -- - Apq cot[theta] + qh3, + dt + + dq + (22) -zX - xZ = A -- + Ap² cot [theta] - ph3, + dt + + dh3 dr d + (23) xY = --- = C -- = -Cq --------. + dt dt d[theta] + + Eliminating Y between (19) and (23), + + /C \ dr dp + (24) (-- + x²) -- - xz -- + pqx(x + z cot[theta] - [rho] sin[theta]) + \M / dt dt + + - qrx[rho] cos[theta] = 0, + + /C \ dr dp + (A) (-- + x²) -------- - xz -------- - px(x + z cot[theta] + \M / d[theta] d[theta] + + - [rho] sin[theta]) + rx[rho] cos[theta] = 0. + + Eliminating Y between (19) and (21) + + /A \ dp dr A h3 + (25) (-- + z²) -- - xz -- -- -pq cot[theta] + q -- + \M / dt dt M M + + - pqz(x + z cot[theta] - [rho] sin[theta]) + qrz[rho] cos[theta] = 0, + + dr /A \ dp A h3 + (B) -xz -------- + (-- + z²) -------- + -- p cot[theta] - -- + d[theta] \M / d[theta] M M + + + pz(x + z cot[theta] - [rho] sin[theta]) + rz[rho] cos[theta] = 0. + + In the special case of a gyrostat rolling on the sharp edge of a + circle passing through G, z = 0, [rho] = 0, (A) and (B) reduce to + + / C \ dr / 1 1 \ dh3 + (26) p = ( --- + 1 ) -------- = ( --- + -- ) --------, + \Mx² / d[theta] \Mx² C / d[theta] + + dp h3 d·p sin[theta] h3sin [theta] + (27) -------- + p cot[theta] = --, -------------- = -------------; + d[theta] A d[theta] A + + d²h3 dh3 CMx² + (28) --------- + -------- cot[theta] = ----------, + d[theta]² d[theta] A(Mx² + C) + + a differential equation of a hypergeometric series, of the form of + Legendre's zonal harmonic of fractional order n, given by + + (29) n(n + 1) = CMx²/A(Mx² + C). + + For a sharp point, x = 0, [rho] = 0, and the previous equations are + obtained of a spinning top. + + The elimination of X and Z between (18) (20) (22), expressed + symbolically as + + (30) (22) - z(18) + x(20) = 0, + + gives + + /A \ dq h3 /A \ + (C) ( -- + x² + z² ) -- - p -- + ( -- + z² ) p² cot [theta] + p²xz + \M / dt M \M / + + + q²[rho](x cos[theta] - z sin[theta]) - prx(x + z cot[theta]) + - g(x cos[theta] - z sin[theta]) = 0, + + and this combined with (A) and (B) will lead to an equation the + integral of which is the equation of energy. + + 13. The equations (A) (B) (C) are intractable in this general form; + but the restricted case may be considered when the axis moves in + steady motion at a constant inclination [alpha] to the vertical; and + the stability is secured if a small nutation of the axis can be + superposed. + + It is convenient to put p = [Omega] sin [theta], so that [Omega] is + the angular velocity of the plane Gzx about the vertical; (A) (B) (C) + become + + /C \ dr d[Omega] + (A*) ( -- + x²) -------- - xz sin[theta] -------- + \M / d[theta] d[theta] + + - [Omega]x(x sin[theta] - 2z cos[theta] + - [rho] sin²[theta]) + rx[rho] cos[theta] = 0, + + dr /A \ d[Omega] h3 /A \ + (B*) -xz -------- + ( -- + z²) sin[theta] -------- - -- + 2[Omega]( -- + z²) cos [theta] + d[theta] \M / d[theta] M \M / + + + [Omega]z sin[theta](x - [rho] sin[theta]) - rz[rho] cos[theta] = 0, + + /A \ dq h3 + (C*) ( -- + x² + z²) -- + q²p(x cos[theta] - z sin[theta]) - [Omega] -- sin [theta] + \M / dt M + + /A \ + + [Omega]² ( -- + z²) sin [theta] cos [theta] + [Omega]²xz sin²[theta] + \M / + + - [Omega]rx(x sin [theta] + z cos [theta]) - g(x cos [theta] - z sin [theta]) = 0. + + The steady motion and nutation superposed may be expressed by + + (1) [theta] = [alpha] + L, sin [theta] = sin[alpha] + L cos[alpha], + cos[theta] = cos[alpha] - L sin [alpha], + [Omega] = µ + N, r = R + Q, + + where L, N, Q are small terms, involving a factor e^(nti), to express + the periodic nature of the nutation; and then if a, c denote the mean + value of x, z, at the point of contact + + (2) x = a + L[rho] cos[alpha], z = c - L[rho] sin[alpha], + + (3) x sin [theta] + z cos [theta] = a sin [alpha] + c cos [alpha] + + L(a cos [alpha] - c sin [alpha]), + + (4) x cos [theta] - z sin [theta] = a cos [alpha] - c sin [alpha] + - L(a sin [alpha] + c cos [alpha] - [rho]). + + Substituting these values in (C*) with dq/dt = -d²[theta]/dt² = n²L, + and ignoring products of the small terms, such as L², LN, ... + + /A \ /CR + K CQ\ + (C**) ( -- + a² + c²) Ln² - (µ + N)( ------ + -- )(sin[alpha] + L cos[alpha]) + \M / \ M M / + + /A \ + + (µ² + 2µN)( -- + c² - 2L[rho]c sin[alpha]) (sin [alpha] cos[alpha] + L cos[alpha]) + \M / + + + (µ² + 2µN) [ac - L[rho](a sin [alpha] - c sin[alpha])] (sin² [alpha] + L sin 2[alpha]) + - (µ + N)(R + Q)(a + L[rho]cos[alpha])[a sin [alpha] + c cos[alpha] + + L(a cos[alpha] - c sin [alpha])] - g(a cos[alpha] - c sin[alpha]) + + gL(a sin[alpha] + c cos[alpha] - [rho]) = 0, + + which is equivalent to + + CR + K /A \ + (5) -µ ------ sin[alpha] + µ² ( -- + c²) sin [alpha] cos [alpha] + M \M / + + + µ² ac sin²[alpha] - µRa(a sin[alpha] + c cos[alpha]) + - g(a cos[alpha] - c sin[alpha]) = 0, + + the condition of steady motion; and + + (6) DL + EQ + FN = 0, + + where + + /A \ CK + K + (7) D = ( -- + a² + c²) n² - µ ------ cos[alpha] + \M / M + + - 2µ²[rho]c sin²[alpha] cos[alpha] + + /A \ + + µ² ( -- + c²) cos [alpha] - µ²[rho](a sin [alpha] + \M / + + - c cos[alpha]) sin²[alpha] + µ²ac sin 2[alpha] + - µR[rho] cos [alpha](a sin [alpha] + c cos[alpha]) + - µRa(a cos [alpha] - c sin[alpha]) + + g(a sin[alpha] + c cos[alpha] - [rho]), + + C + (8) E = -µ -- sin [alpha] - µa(a sin [alpha] + c cos [alpha]), + M + + CR + K /A \ + (9) F = - ------ sin [alpha] + 2µ ( -- + c²) sin [alpha] cos [alpha] + M \M / + + + 2µac sin² [alpha] - Ra(a sin [alpha] + c cos [alpha]). + + With the same approximation (A*) and (B*) are equivalent to + + /C \ Q N + (A**) ( -- + a²) -- - ac sin [alpha]-- + \M / L L + + - µa(a sin [alpha] + 2c cos [alpha] - [rho] sin² [alpha]) + + Ra[rho] cos [alpha] = 0, + + Q /A \ N CR + K /A \ + (B**) -ac -- + ( -- + c²) sin [alpha]-- - ------ + 2µ ( -- + c²) cos [alpha] + L \M / L M \M / + + + µc sin [alpha](a - [rho] sin [alpha]) + - Rc[rho] cos [alpha] = 0. + + The elimination of L, Q, N will lead to an equation for the + determination of n², and n² must be positive for the motion to be + stable. + + If b is the radius of the horizontal circle described by G in steady + motion round the centre B, + + (10) b = v/µ = (cP - aR)/µ = c sin [alpha] - aR/µ, + + and drawing GL vertically upward of length [lambda] = g/µ², the height + of the equivalent conical pendulum, the steady motion condition may be + written + + (11) (CR + K)µ sin[alpha] - µ² sin[alpha] cos[alpha] + = -gM(a cos[alpha] - c sin[alpha]) + + M(µ²c sin[alpha] - µRa) (a sin[alpha] + c cos[alpha]) + = gM[b[lambda]^(-1) (a sin [alpha] + c cos [alpha]) + - a cos [alpha] + c sin [alpha]] + = gM·PT, + + LG produced cuts the plane in T. + + Interpreted dynamically, the left-hand side of this equation + represents the velocity of the vector of angular momentum about G, so + that the right-hand side represents the moment of the applied force + about G, in this case the reaction of the plane, which is parallel to + GA, and equal to gM·GA/GL; and so the angle AGL must be less than the + angle of friction, or slipping will take place. + + Spinning upright, with [alpha] = 0, a = 0, we find F = 0, Q = 0, and + + CR + K /A \ + (12) - ------ + 2µ( -- + c²) - Rcp = 0, + M \M / + + /A \ CR + K /A \ + (13) ( -- + c²) n² = µ ------ - µ²( -- + c²) + µR[rho]c - g(c - [rho]), + \M / M \M / + + /A \² /CK + R \² /A \ + (14) ( -- + c²) n² = ¼( ------ + Rc[rho] ) - g( -- + c²) (c - [rho]), + \M / \ M / \M / + + Thus for a top spinning upright on a rounded point, with K = 0, the + stability requires that + + (15) R > 2k´ [root]{g(c - [rho])}/(k² + c[rho]), + + where k, k´ are the radii of gyration about the axis Gz, and a + perpendicular axis at a distance c from G; this reduces to the + preceding case of § 3 (7) when [rho] = 0. + + Generally, with [alpha] = 0, but a ± 0, the condition (A) and (B) + becomes + + /C \ Q + (16) ( - + a²) -- = 2µac - Ra[rho], + \M / L + + Q CR + K /A \ + -ac -- = ------ + Rc[rho] - 2µ( -- + a²), + L M \M / + + so that, eliminating Q/L, + _ _ + | /A \ /C \ | /C \ /CR + K\ C + (17) 2 | ( -- + c²)( -- + a²) - a²c²| µ = ( -- + a²)( ------ ) + -- Rc[rho], + |_ \M / \M / _| \M / \ M / M + + the condition when a coin or platter is rolling nearly flat on the + table. + + Rolling along in a straight path, with [alpha] = ½[pi], c = 0, µ = 0, + E = 0; and + + (18) N/L = (CR + K)/A, + + /A \ + (19) D = ( -- + a²) n² + g(a - [rho]), + \M / + + CR + K + F = - ------ - Ra², + M + + /A \ + ( -- + a²) n² + g(a - [rho]) + N D \M / + (20) -- = - -- = ----------------------------, + L F /C \ K + ( -- + a²) R + - + \M / M + _ _ + /A \ (CR + K) | /C \ K | + (21) ( -- + a²) n² = -------- | ( -- + a²) R + -- | - g(a - [rho]). + \M / A |_ \M / M _| + + Thus with K = 0, and rolling with velocity V = Ra, stability + requires + + V² a - [rho] A a - [rho] + (22) -- > ---------------- > ½ -- ---------, + 2g C / C \ C C + 2 -- ( --- + 1 ) --- + 1 + A \Ma² / Ma² + + or the body must have acquired velocity greater than attained by + rolling down a plane through a vertical height 1/2(a - [rho])A/C. + + On a sharp edge, with [rho] = 0, a thin uniform disk or a thin ring + requires + + (23) V²/2g > a/6 or a/8. + + The gyrostat can hold itself upright on the plane without advance when + R = 0, provided + + (24) K²/AM - g(a - [rho]) is positive. + + For the stability of the monorail carriage of § 5 (6), ignoring the + rotary inertia of the wheels by putting C = 0, and replacing K by G´ + the theory above would require + + G´ / G´\ + (25) -- ( aV + -- ) > gh. + A \ A / + + For further theory and experiments consult Routh, _Advanced Rigid + Dynamics_, chap. v., and Thomson and Tait, _Natural Philosophy_, § + 345; also Bourlet, _Traité des bicycles_ (analysed in Appell, + _Mécanique rationnelle_, ii. 297, and Carvallo, _Journal de l'école + polytechnique_, 1900); Whipple, _Quarterly Journal of Mathematics_, + vol. xxx., for mathematical theories of the bicycle, and other bodies. + + + Gyrostatic chain. + + 14. Lord Kelvin has studied theoretically and experimentally the + vibration of a chain of stretched gyrostats (_Proc. London Math. + Soc._, 1875; J. Perry, _Spinning Tops_, for a diagram). Suppose each + gyrostat to be equivalent dynamically to a fly-wheel of axial length + 2a, and that each connecting link is a light cord or steel wire of + length 2l, stretched to a tension T. + + Denote by x, y the components of the slight displacement from the + central straight line of the centre of a fly-wheel; and let p, q, 1 + denote the direction cosines of the axis of a fly-wheel, and r, s, 1 + the direction cosines of a link, distinguishing the different bodies + by a suffix. + + Then with the previous notation and to the order of approximation + required, + + (1) [theta]1 = -dq/dt, [theta]2 = dp/dt, + + (2) h1 = A[theta]1, h2 = A[theta]2, h3 = K, + + to be employed in the dynamical equations + + (3) dh1/dt - [theta]3 h2 + [theta]2 h3 = L, ... + + in which [theta]3 h1 and [theta]3 h2 can be omitted. + + For the kth fly-wheel + + (4) -A :q_k + K .p_k = Ta(q_k - s_k) + Ta[q_k - s_(k+1)], + + (5) A :p_k + K .q_k = -Ta(p_k - r_k) - Ta[p_k - r_(k+1)]; + + and for the motion of translation + + (6) M :x_k = T[r_(k+1) - r_k], M :y_k = T[s(k+1) - s_k]; + + while the geometrical relations are + + (7) x_(k+1) - x_k = a [p_(k+1) + p_k] + 2lr_(k+1), + + (8) y_(k+1) - y_k = a [q_(k+1) + q_k] + 2ls_(k+1). + + Putting + + (9) x + yi = w, p + qi = [~omega], r + si = [sigma], + + these three pairs of equations may be replaced by the three equations + + (10) A :[~omega]_k - K .[~omega]_ki + 2Ta[~omega]_k + - Ta([sigma]_(k+1) + [sigma]_k) = 0, + + (11) M :[~omega]_k - T([sigma]_(k+1) - [sigma]_k) = 0, + + (12) w_(k+1) - w_k - a([~omega]_(k+1) + + [~omega]_k - 2l[sigma]_(k+1) = 0. + + For a vibration of circular polarization assume a solution + + (13) w_k, [~omega]_k, [sigma]_k = (L, P, Q) exp (nt + kc)i, + + so that c/n is the time-lag between the vibration of one fly-wheel and + the next; and the wave velocity is + + (14) U = 2(a + l)n/c. + + Then + + (15) P(-An² + Kn + 2Ta) - QTa[e^(ci) + 1] = 0, + + (16) -LMn² - QT[e^(ci) - 1] = 0, + + (17) L[e^(ci) - 1] -Pa[e^(ci) + 1] - 2Qle^(ci) = 0, + + leading, on elimination of L, P, Q, to + + (2 Ta + Kn - An²) (1 - Mn²l/T) - Mn² + (18) cos c = ------------------------------------, + 2Ta + Kn - An² + Mna² + + M n² 2Ta(a + l) + KNl - An²l + (19) 2 sin² ½c = -- --------------------------. + T 2Ta + Kn - An² + Mn²a² + + With K = 0, A = 0, this reduces to Lagrange's condition in the + vibration of a string of beads. + + Putting + + (20) [rho] = M/2(a + l), the mass per unit length of the chain, + + (21) [kappa] = K/2(a + l), the gyrostatic angular momentum per unit + length, + + (22) [alpha] = A/2(a + l), the transverse moment of inertia per unit + length, + + (23) 1/2c = (a + l)n/U, + + equation (19) can be written + + (24) {sin (a + l)n/U}² + + [rho] Ta + [kappa]nl - [alpha]n²l + = (a + l)²n² ----- ----------------------------------------------------------, + T Ta + [kappa]n(a + l) - [alpha]n²(a + l) + [rho]n²a²(a + l) + + / (a + l)n \² + (25) ( --------------- ) + \ sin (a + l)n/U / + + T T + ([kappa]n - [alpha]n²) (1 + l/a) + [rho]n²a(a + l) + = ----- . ------------------------------------------------------. + [rho] T + ([kappa]n - an²)l/a + + In a continuous chain of such gyrostatic links, with a and l + infinitesimal, + + T / [kappa]n - [alpha]n² \ + (26) U² = ----- ( 1 + ------------------------------ ) + [rho] \ T + ([kappa]n - [alpha]n² l/a) / + + for the vibration of helical nature like circular polarization. + + Changing the sign of n for circular polarization in the opposite + direction + + T / [kappa]n + [alpha]n² \ + (27) U´² = ----- ( 1 - ------------------------------ ). + [rho] \ T - ([kappa]n + [alpha]n² l/a) / + + In this way a mechanical model is obtained of the action of a + magnetized medium on polarized light, [kappa] representing the + equivalent of the magnetic field, while [alpha] may be ignored as + insensible (J. Larmor, _Proc. Lond. Math. Soc._, 1890; _Aether and + Matter_, Appendix E). + + We notice that U² in (26) can be positive, and the gyrostatic chain + stable, even when T is negative, and the chain is supporting a thrust, + provided [kappa]n is large enough, and the thrust does not exceed + + (28) ([kappa]n - an²)(1 + l/a); + + while U'² in (27) will not be positive and the straight chain will be + unstable unless the tension exceeds + + (29) ([kappa]n + [alpha]n²)(1 + l/a). + + 15. _Gyrostat suspended by a Thread._--In the discussion of the small + vibration of a single gyrostat fly-wheel about the vertical position + when suspended by a single thread of length 2l = b, the suffix k can + be omitted in the preceding equations of § 14, and we can write + + (1) A :[~omega] - K .[~omega]i + Ta[~omega] - Ta[sigma] = 0, + + (2) M :w + T[sigma] = 0, with T = gM, + + (3) w - a[~omega] - b[sigma] = 0. + + Assuming a periodic solution of these equations + + (4) w, [~omega], [sigma], = (L, P, Q) exp nti, + + and eliminating L, P, Q, we obtain + + (5) (-An² + Kn + gMa)(g - n²b) - gMn²a² = 0, + + and the frequency of a vibration in double beats per second is + n/2[pi], where n is a root of this quartic equation. + + For upright spinning on a smooth horizontal plane, take b = [oo] and + change the sign of a, then + + (6) An² - Kn + gMa = 0, + + so that the stability requires + + (7) K² > 4gAMa. + + Here A denotes the moment of inertia about a diametral axis through + the centre of gravity; when the point of the fly-wheel is held in a + small smooth cup, b = 0, and the condition becomes + + (8) (A + Ma²)n² - Kn + gMa = 0, + + requiring for stability, as before in § 3, + + (9) K² > 4g(A + M²)Ma. + + For upright spinning inside a spherical surface of radius b, the sign + of a must be changed to obtain the condition at the lowest point, as + in the gyroscopic horizon of Fleuriais. + + For a gyrostat spinning upright on the summit of a sphere of radius b, + the signs of a and b must be changed in (5), or else the sign of g, + which amounts to the same thing. + + Denoting the components of horizontal displacement of the point of the + fly-wheel by [xi], [eta], then + + (10) br = [xi], bs = [eta], b[sigma] = [xi] + [eta]i = [lambda] + (suppose), + + (11) [omega] = [alpha][~omega] + [lambda]. + + If the point is forced to take the motion ([xi], [eta], [zeta]) by + components of force X, Y, Z, the equations of motion become + + (12) -A :q + K .p = Ya - Zaq, + + (13) A :p + K .q = -Xa + Zap, + + (14) M :w = X + Yi, M( :[zeta] - g) = Z; + + so that + + (15) A :[~omega] - K .[~omega]i + gMa[~omega] + Ma :w + = Ma[~omega] :[zeta], + + or + + (16) (A + Ma²) :[~omega] - K .[~omega]i + gMa[~omega] + Ma[lambda] = + Ma[~omega] :[zeta]. + + Thus if the point of the gyrostat is made to take the periodic motion + given by [lambda] = R exp nti, [zeta] = 0, the forced vibration of the + axis is given by [~omega] = P exp nti, where + + (17) P{-(A + Ma²)n² + Kn + gMa} - RMn²a = 0; + + and so the effect may be investigated on the Fleuriais gyroscopic + horizon of the motion of the ship. + + Suppose the motion [lambda] is due to the suspension of the gyrostat + from a point on the axis of a second gyrostat suspended from a fixed + point. + + Distinguishing the second gyrostat by a suffix, then [lambda] = + b[~omega]1, if b denotes the distance between the points of suspension + of the two gyrostats; and the motion of the second gyrostat influenced + by the reaction of the first, is given by + + (18) (A1 + M1h1²) :[~omega]1 - K1 .[~omega]1 i + = -g(M1h1 + Mb)[~omega]1 - b(X + Yi) + = -g(M1h1 + Mb)[~omega]1 - Mb(a :[~omega] + :[lambda]); + + so that, in the small vibration, + + R / \ + (19) -- ( -(A1 + M1h1²)n² + K1n + g(M1h1 + Mb) ) = Mn²b(aP + R), + b \ / + + (20) R { -(A1 + M1h1² + Mb²)n² + K1n + g(M1h1 + Mb)} - PMn²ab² = 0. + + Eliminating the ratio of P to R, we obtain + + (21) { -(A + Ma²)n² + Kn + gMa} + × {-(A1 + M1h1² + Mb²)n² + K1n + g (M1h1 + Mb)} - M²n^4a²b² = 0, + + a quartic for n, giving the frequency n/2[pi] of a fundamental + vibration. + + Change the sign of g for the case of the gyrostats spinning upright, + one on the top of the other, and so realize the gyrostat on the top of + a gyrostat described by Maxwell. + + In the gyrostatic chain of § 14, the tension T may change to a limited + pressure, and U² may still be positive, and the motion stable; and so + a motion is realized of a number of spinning tops, superposed in a + column. + + 16. _The Flexure Joint._--In Lord Kelvin's experiment the gyrostats + are joined up by equal light rods and short lengths of elastic wire + with rigid attachment to the rod and case of a gyrostat, so as to keep + the system still, and free from entanglement and twisting due to pivot + friction of the fly-wheels. + + When this gyrostatic chain is made to revolve with angular velocity n + in relative equilibrium as a plane polygon passing through Oz the axis + of rotation, each gyrostatic case moves as if its axis produced was + attached to Oz by a flexure joint. The instantaneous axis of resultant + angular velocity bisects the angle [pi] - [theta], if the axis of the + case makes an angle [theta] with Oz, and, the components of angular + velocity being n about Oz, and -n about the axis, the resultant + angular velocity is 2n cos½([pi] - [theta]) = 2n sin½[theta]; and the + components of this angular velocity are + + (1) -2n sin ½[theta] sin ½[theta] = -n(1-cos[theta]), along the axis, + and + + (2) -2n sin ½[theta] cos ½[theta] = -n sin [theta], perpendicular to + the axis of the case. The flexure joint behaves like a pair of equal + bevel wheels engaging. + + The component angular momentum in the direction Ox is therefore + + (3) L = -An sin [theta] cos [theta] - Cn (1 - cos [theta]) sin [theta] + + K sin [theta], + + and Ln is therefore the couple acting on the gyrostat. + + If [alpha] denotes the angle which a connecting link makes with Oz, + and T denotes the constant component of the tension of a link parallel + to Oz, the couple acting is + + (4) Ta cos [theta]_k(tan [alpha]_(k+1) + tan [alpha]_k) + - 2T[alpha]sin[theta]_k, + + which is to be equated to Ln, so that + + (5) -An² sin [theta]_k cos [theta]_k + - Cn(1 - cos [theta]_k) sin [theta]_k + + Kn sin [theta]_k + - T[alpha] cos [theta]_k(tan [alpha]_(k+1) + tan [alpha]_k) + + 2T[alpha] sin [theta]_k = 0. + + In addition + + (6) Mn²[chi]_k + T(tan [alpha]_(k+1) - tan [alpha]_k) = 0, + + with the geometrical relation + + (7) [chi]_(k+1) - [chi]_k - [alpha](sin [theta]_(k+1) + sin [theta]_k) + - 2l sin{k + 1} = 0. + + When the polygon is nearly coincident with Oz, these equations can be + replaced by + + (8) (-An² + Kn + 2Ta)[theta]_k - Ta([alpha]_(k+1) + [alpha]_k) = 0, + + (9) Mn²x_k + T([alpha]_(k+1) - [alpha]_k) = 0, + + (10) x_(k+1) - x_k - a([theta]_(k+1) + [theta]_k) - 2la_k = 0, + + and the rest of the solution proceeds as before in § 14, putting + + (11) x_k, [theta]_k, [alpha]_k = (L, P, Q) exp cki. + + A half wave length of the curve of gyrostats is covered when ck = + [pi], so that [pi]/c is the number of gyrostats in a half wave, which + is therefore of wave length 2[pi](a + l)/c. + + A plane polarized wave is given when exp cki is replaced by exp (nt + + ck)i, and a wave circularly polarized when w, [~omega], [sigma] of § + 14 replace this x, [theta], [alpha]. + + _Gyroscopic Pendulum._--The elastic flexure joint is useful for + supporting a rod, carrying a fly-wheel, like a gyroscopic pendulum. + + Expressed by Euler's angles, [theta], [phi], [psi], the kinetic energy + is + + (12) T = ½A( .[theta]² + sin² [theta] .[psi]²) + + ½C´(1 - cos [theta])² .[psi]² + + ½C( .[phi] + .[psi] cos [theta])², + + where A refers to rod and gyroscope about the transverse axis at the + point of support, C´ refers to rod about its axis of length, and C + refers to the revolving fly-wheel. + + The elimination of .[psi] between the equation of conservation of + angular momentum about the vertical, viz. + + (13) A sin² [theta] .[psi] - C´(1 - cos [theta]) cos [theta] .[psi] + + C( .[phi] + .[psi] cos [theta]) cos [theta] = G, a constant, and the + equation of energy, viz. + + (14) T - gMh cos [theta] = H, a constant, with [theta] measured from + the downward vertical, and + + (15) .[phi] + .[psi] cos [theta] = R, a constant, will lead to an + equation for d[theta]/dt, or dz/dt, in terms of cos [theta] or z, the + integral of which is of hyperelliptic character, except when A = C´. + + In the suspension of fig. 8, the motion given by .[phi] is suppressed + in the stalk, and for the fly-wheel .[phi] gives the rubbing angular + velocity of the wheel on the stalk; the equations are now + + (16) T = ½A( .[theta]² + sin² [theta] .[psi]²) + + ½C´ cos² [theta] .[psi]² + ½CR² = H + gMh cos [theta], + + (17) A sin² [theta][.[psi]] + C´ cos² [theta] .[psi] + CR cos [theta] + = G, + + and the motion is again of hyperelliptic character, except when A = + C´, or C´ = 0. To realize a motion given completely by the elliptic + function, the suspension of the stalk must be made by a smooth ball + and socket, or else a Hooke universal joint. + + Finally, there is the case of the general motion of a top with a + spherical rounded point on a smooth plane, in which the centre of + gravity may be supposed to rise and fall in a vertical line. Here + + (18) T = ½(A + Mh² sin² [theta]) .[theta]² + ½A sin² [theta] .[psi]² + + ½CR² = H - gMh cos [theta], + + with [theta] measured from the upward vertical, and + + (19) A sin² [theta] .[psi] + CR cos [theta] = G, + + where A now refers to a transverse axis through the centre of gravity. + The elimination of [.[psi]] leads to an equation for z, = cos [theta], + of the form + + /dz\² g Z g (z1 - z)(z2 - z)(z3 - z) + (20) ( -- ) = 2 -- -------------- = 2 -- ------------------------, + \dt/ h 1 - z² + A/Mh² h (z4 - z)(z - z5) + + with the arrangement + + (21) z1, z4 > / > z2 > z > z3 > - / > z5; + + so that the motion is hyperelliptic. + + AUTHORITIES.--In addition to the references in the text the following + will be found useful:--_Ast. Notices_, vol. i.; _Comptes rendus_, + Sept. 1852; Paper by Professor Magnus translated in Taylor's _Foreign + Scientific Memoirs_, n.s., pt. 3, p. 210; _Ast. Notices_, xiii. + 221-248; _Theory of Foucault's Gyroscope Experiments_, by the Rev. + Baden Powell, F.R.S.; _Ast. Notices_, vol. xv.; articles by Major J. + G. Barnard in _Silliman's Journal_, 2nd ser., vols. xxiv. and xxv.; E. + Hunt on "Rotatory Motion," _Proc. Phil. Soc. Glasgow_, vol. iv.; J. + Clerk Maxwell, "On a Dynamical Top," _Trans. R.S.E._ vol. xxi.; _Phil. + Mag._ 4th ser. vols. 7, 13, 14; _Proc. Royal Irish Academy_, vol. + viii.; Sir William Thomson on "Gyrostat," _Nature_, xv. 297; G. T. + Walker, "The Motion of a Celt," _Quar. Jour. Math._, 1896; G. T. + Walker, _Math. Ency._ iv. 1, xi. 1; Gallop, _Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc._ + xii. 82, pt. 2, 1903, "Rise of a Top"; Price's _Infinitesimal + Calculus_, vol. iv.; Worms, _The Earth and its Mechanism_; Routh, + _Rigid Dynamics_; A. G. Webster, _Dynamics_ (1904); H. Crabtree, + _Spinning Tops and Gyroscopic Motion_ (1909). For a complete list of + the mathematical works on the subject of the Gyroscope and Gyrostat + from the outset, Professor Cayley's Report to the British Association + (1862) on the _Progress of Dynamics_ should be consulted. Modern + authors will be found cited in Klein and Sommerfeld, _Theorie des + Kreisels_ (1897), and in the _Encyclopädie der mathematischen + Wissenschaften_. (G. G.) + + + + +GYTHIUM, the harbour and arsenal of Sparta, from which it was some 30 m. +distant. The town lay at the N.W. extremity of the Laconian Gulf, in a +small but fertile plain at the mouth of the Gythius. Its reputed +founders were Heracles and Apollo, who frequently appear on its coins: +the former of these names may point to the influence of Phoenician +traders, who, we know, visited the Laconian shores at a very early +period. In classical times it was a community of _perioeci_, politically +dependent on Sparta, though doubtless with a municipal life of its own. +In 455 B.C., during the first Peloponnesian War, it was burned by the +Athenian admiral Tolmides. In 370 B.C. Epaminondas besieged it +unsuccessfully for three days. Its fortifications were strengthened by +the tyrant Nabis, but in 195 B.C. it was invested and taken by Titus and +Lucius Quintius Flamininus, and, though recovered by Nabis two or three +years later, was recaptured immediately after his murder (192 B.C.) by +Philopoemen and Aulus Atilius and remained in the Achaean League until +its dissolution in 146 B.C. Subsequently it formed the most important of +the Eleutherolaconian towns, a group of twenty-four, later eighteen, +communities leagued together to maintain their autonomy against Sparta +and declared free by Augustus. The highest officer of the confederacy +was the general ([Greek: stratêgos]), who was assisted by a treasurer +([Greek: tamias]), while the chief magistrates of the several +communities bore the title of ephors ([Greek: ephoroi]). + +Pausanias (iii. 21 f.) has left us a description of the town as it +existed in the reign of Marcus Aurelius, the agora, the Acropolis, the +island of Cranae (Marathonisi) where Paris celebrated his nuptials with +Helen, the Migonium or precinct of Aphrodite Migonitis (occupied by the +modern town of Marathonisi or Gythium), and the hill Larysium (Koumaro) +rising above it. The numerous remains extant, of which the theatre and +the buildings partially submerged by the sea are the most noteworthy, +all belong to the Roman period. + +The modern town is a busy and flourishing port with a good harbour +protected by Cranae, now connected by a mole with the mainland: it is +the capital of the prefecture ([Greek: nomos]) of [Greek: Lakônikê] with +a population in 1907 of 61,522. + + See G. Weber, _De Gytheo et Lacedaemoniorum rebus navalibus_ + (Heidelberg, 1833); W. M. Leake, _Travels in the Morea_, i. 244 foll.; + E. Curtius, _Peloponnesos_, ii. 267 foll. Inscriptions: Le + Bas-Foucart, _Voyage archéologique_, ii. Nos. 238-248 f.; + Collitz-Bechtel, _Sammlung d. griech. Dialekt-Inschriften_, iii. Nos. + 4562-4573; _British School Annual_, x. 179 foll. Excavations: [Greek: + A. Skias, Praktika tês Arch. Hetaireias], 1891, 69 foll. (M. N. T.) + + + + +GYULA-FEHÉRVÁR (Ger. _Karlsburg_), a town of Hungary, in Transylvania, +in the county of Alsó-Feliér, 73 m. S. of Kolozsvár by rail. Pop. (1900) +11,507. It is situated on the right bank of the Maros, on the outskirts +of the Transylvanian Erzgebirge or Ore Mountains, and consists of the +upper town, or citadel, and the lower town. Gyula-Fehérvár is the seat +of a Roman Catholic bishop, and has a fine Roman Catholic cathedral, +built in the 11th century in Romanesque style, and rebuilt in 1443 by +John Hunyady in Gothic style. It contains among other tombs that of John +Hunyady. Near the cathedral is the episcopal palace, and in the same +part of the town is the Batthyaneum, founded by Bishop Count Batthyány +in 1794. It contains a valuable library with many incunabula and old +manuscripts, amongst which is one of the _Nibelungenlied_, an +astronomical observatory, a collection of antiquities, and a mineral +collection. Gyula-Fehérvár carries on an active trade in cereals, wine +and cattle. + +Gyula-Fehérvár occupies the site of the Roman colony _Apulum_. Many +Roman relics found here, and in the vicinity, are preserved in the +museum of the town. The bishopric was founded in the 11th century by +King Ladislaus I. (1078-1095). In the 16th century, when Transylvania +separated from Hungary, the town became the residence of the +Transylvanian princes. From this period dates the castle, and also the +buildings of the university, founded by Gabriel Bethlen, and now used as +barracks. After the reversion of Transylvania in 1713 to the Habsburg +monarchy the actual strong fortress was built in 1716-1735 by the +emperor Charles VI., whence the German name of the town. + + + + +H The eighth symbol in the Phoenician alphabet, as in its descendants, +has altered less in the course of ages than most alphabetic symbols. +From the beginning of Phoenician records it has consisted of two +uprights connected by transverse bars, at first either two or three in +number. The uprights are rarely perpendicular and the cross bars are not +so precisely arranged as they are in early Greek and Latin inscriptions. +In these the symbol takes the form of two rectangles [symbol] out of +which the ordinary H develops by the omission of the cross bars at top +and bottom. It is very exceptional for this letter to have more than +three cross bars, though as many as five are occasionally found in N.W. +Greece. Within the same inscription the appearance of the letter often +varies considerably as regards the space between and the length of the +uprights. When only one bar is found it regularly crosses the uprights +about the middle. In a few cases the rectangle is closed at top and +bottom but has no middle cross bar [symbol]. The Phoenician name for the +letter was Heth (Het). According to Semitic scholars it had two values, +(1) a glottal spirant, a very strong _h_, (2) an unvoiced velar spirant +like the German _ch_ in _ach_. The Greeks borrowed it with the value of +the ordinary aspirate and with the name [Greek: êta]. Very early in +their history, however, most of the Greeks of Asia Minor lost the +aspirate altogether, and having then no further use for the symbol with +this value they adopted it to represent the long _e_-sound, which was +not originally distinguished by a different symbol from the short sound +(see E). With this value its name has always been [Greek: êta] in Greek. +The alphabet of the Asiatic Greeks was gradually adopted elsewhere. In +official documents at Athens H represented the rough breathing or +aspirate ' till 403 B.C.; henceforth it was used for [eta]. The Western +Greeks, however, from whom the Romans obtained their alphabet, retained +their aspirate longer than those of Asia Minor, and hence the symbol +came to the Romans with the value not of a long vowel but of the +aspirate, which it still preserves. The Greek aspirate was itself the +first or left-hand half of this letter |-, while the smooth breathing ' +was the right-hand portion -|. At Tarentum |- is found for H in +inscriptions. The Roman aspirate was, however, a very slight sound which +in some words where it was etymologically correct disappeared at an +early date. Thus the cognate words of kindred languages show that the +Lat. _anser_ "goose" ought to begin with _h_, but nowhere is it so +found. In none of the Romance languages is there any trace of initial or +medial _h_, which shows that vulgar Latin had ceased to have the +aspirate by 240 B.C. The Roman grammarians were guided to its presence +by the Sabine forms where _f_ occurred; as the Sabines said _fasena_ +(sand), it was recognised that the Roman form ought to be _harena_, and +so for _haedus_ (goat), _hordeum_ (barley), &c. Between vowels _h_ was +lost very early, for _ne-hemo_ (no man) is throughout the literature +_nemo_, _bi-himus_ (two winters old) _bimus_. In the Ciceronian age +greater attention was paid to reproducing the Greek aspirates in +borrowed words, and this led to absurd mistakes in Latin words, mistakes +which were satirized by Catullus in his epigram (84) upon Arrius, who +said _chommoda_ for _commoda_ and _hinsidias_ for _insidias_. In Umbrian +_h_ was often lost, and also used without etymological value to mark +length, as in _comohota_ (= Lat. _commota_), a practice to which there +are some doubtful parallels in Latin. + +In English the history of _h_ is very similar to that in Latin. While +the parts above the glottis are in position to produce a vowel, an +aspirate is produced without vibration of the vocal chords, sometimes, +like the pronunciation of Arrius, with considerable effort as a reaction +against the tendency to "drop the h's." Though _h_ survives in Scotland, +Ireland and America as well as in the speech of cultivated persons, the +sound in most of the vulgar dialects is entirely lost. Where it is not +ordinarily lost, it disappears in unaccented syllables, as "_Give it +'im_" and the like. Where it is lost, conscious attempts to restore it +on the part of uneducated speakers lead to absurd misplacements of _h_ +and to its restoration in Romance words when it never was pronounced, as +_humble_ (now recognized as standard English), _humour_ and even +_honour_. (P. Gi.) + + + + +HAAG, CARL (1820- ), a naturalized British painter, court painter to +the duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, was born in Bavaria, and was trained +in the academies at Nuremburg and Munich. He practised first as an +illustrator and as a painter, in oil, of portraits and architectural +subjects; but after he settled in England, in 1847, he devoted himself +to water colours, and was elected associate of the Royal Society of +Painters in Water Colours in 1850 and member in 1853. He travelled much, +especially in the East, and made a considerable reputation by his firmly +drawn and carefully elaborated paintings of Eastern subjects. Towards +the end of his professional career Carl Haag quitted England and +returned to Germany. + + See _A History of the "Old Water-Colour" Society, now the Royal + Society of Painters in Water Colours_, by John Lewis Roget (2 vols., + London, 1891). + + + + +HAAKON (Old Norse _Hákon_), the name of several kings of Norway, of whom +the most important are the following:-- + +HAAKON I., surnamed "the Good" (d. 961), was the youngest son of Harald +Haarfager. He was fostered by King Aethelstan of England, who brought +him up in the Christian religion, and on the news of his father's death +in 933 provided him with ships and men for an expedition against his +half-brother Erik, who had been proclaimed king. On his arrival in +Norway Haakon gained the support of the landowners by promising to give +up the rights of taxation claimed by his father over inherited real +property. Erik fled, and was killed a few years later in England. His +sons allied themselves with the Danes, but were invariably defeated by +Haakon, who was successful in everything he undertook except in his +attempt to introduce Christianity, which aroused an opposition he did +not feel strong enough to face. He was killed at the battle of Fitje in +961, after a final victory over Erik's sons. So entirely did even his +immediate circle ignore his religion that a court skald composed a poem +on his death representing his welcome by the heathen gods into Valhalla. + +HAAKON IV., surnamed "the Old" (1204-1263), was declared to be the son +of Haakon III., who died shortly before the former's birth in 1204. A +year later the child was placed under the protection of King Inge, after +whose death in 1217 he was chosen king; though until 1223 the church +refused to recognize him, on the ground of illegitimacy, and the Pope's +dispensation for his coronation was not gained until much later. In the +earlier part of his reign much of the royal power was in the hands of +Earl Skule, who intrigued against the king until 1239, when he proceeded +to open hostility and was put to death. From this time onward Haakon's +reign was marked by more peace and prosperity than Norway had known for +many years, until in 1263 a dispute with the Scottish king concerning +the Hebrides, a Norwegian possession, induced Haakon to undertake an +expedition to the west of Scotland. A division of his army seems to have +repulsed a large Scottish force at Largs (though the later Scottish +accounts claim this battle as a victory), and, having won back the +Norwegian possessions in Scotland, Haakon was wintering in the Orkneys, +when he was taken ill and died on the 15th of December 1263. A great +part of his fleet had been scattered and destroyed by storms. The most +important event in his reign was the voluntary submission of the +Icelandic commonwealth. Worn out by internal strife fostered by Haakon's +emissaries, the Icelandic chiefs acknowledged the Norwegian king as +overlord in 1262. Their example was followed by the colony of Greenland. + +HAAKON VII. (1872- ), the second son of Frederick VIII., king of +Denmark, was born on the 3rd of August 1872, and was usually known as +Prince Charles of Denmark. When in 1905 Norway decided to separate +herself from Sweden the Norwegians offered their crown to Charles, who +accepted it and took the name of Haakon VII., being crowned at Trondhjem +in June 1906. The king married Maud, youngest daughter of Edward VII., +king of Great Britain, their son, Prince Olav, being born in 1903. + + + + +HAARLEM, a town of Holland in the province of North Holland, on the +Spaarne, having a junction station 11 m. by rail W. of Amsterdam. It is +connected by electric and steam tramways with Zandvoort, Leiden, +Amsterdam and Alkmaar. Pop. (1900) 65,189. Haarlem is the seat of the +governor of the province of North Holland, and of a Roman Catholic and a +Jansenist bishopric. In appearance it is a typical Dutch town, with +numerous narrow canals and quaintly gabled houses. Of the ancient city +gates the Spaarnewouder or Amsterdam gate alone remains. Gardens and +promenades have taken the place of the old ramparts, and on the south +the city is bounded by the Frederiks and the Flora parks, between which +runs the fine avenue called the Dreef, leading to the Haarlemmer Hout or +wood. In the Frederiks Park is a pump-room supplied with a powerful +chalybeate water from a spring, the Wilhelminabron, in the Haarlemmer +Polder not far distant, and in connexion with this there is an +orthopaedic institution adjoining. In the great market place in the +centre of the city are gathered together the larger number of the most +interesting buildings, including the quaint old Fleshers' Hall, built by +Lieven de Key in 1603, and now containing the archives; the town hall; +the old Stadsdoelen, where the burgesses met in arms; the Groote Kerk, +or Great Church; and the statue erected in 1856 to Laurenz Janszoon +Koster, the printer. The Great Church, dedicated to St Bavo, with a +lofty tower (255 ft.), is one of the most famous in Holland, and dates +from the end of the 15th and the beginning of the 16th centuries. Its +great length (460 ft.) and the height and steepness of its vaulted +cedar-wood roof (1538) are very impressive. The choir-stalls and screen +(1510) are finely carved, and of further interest are the ancient pulpit +sounding-board (1432), some old stained glass, and the small models of +ships, copies dating from 1638 of yet earlier models originally +presented by the Dutch-Swedish Trading Company. The church organ was +long considered the largest and finest in existence. It was constructed +by Christian Müller in 1738, and has 4 keyboards, 64 registers and 5000 +pipes, the largest of which is 15 in. in diameter and 32 ft. long. Among +the monuments in the church are those of the poet Willem Bilderdyk (d. +1831) and the engineer Frederik Willem Conrad (d. 1808), who designed +the sea-sluices at Katwyk. In the belfry are the _damiaatjes_, small +bells presented to the town, according to tradition, by William I., +count of Holland (d. 1222), the crusader. The town hall was originally a +palace of the counts of Holland, begun in the 12th century, and some old +13th-century beams still remain; but the building was remodelled in the +beginning of the 17th century. It contains a collection of antiquities +(including some beautiful goblets) and a picture gallery which, though +small, is celebrated for its fine collection of paintings by Frans Hals. +The town library contains several _incunabula_ and an interesting +collection of early Dutch literature. At the head of the scientific +institutions of Haarlem may be placed the Dutch Society of Sciences +(_Hollandsche Maatschappij van Wetenschappen_), founded in 1752, which +possesses valuable collections in botany, natural history and geology. +Teyler's Stichting (i.e. foundation), enlarged in modern times, was +instituted by the will of Pieter Teyler van der Hulst (d. 1778), a +wealthy merchant, for the study of theology, natural science and art, +and has lecture-theatres, a large library, and a museum containing a +physical and a geological cabinet, as well as a collection of paintings, +including many modern pictures, and a valuable collection of drawings +and engravings by old masters. The Dutch Society for the Promotion of +Industry (_Nederlaandsche Maatschappij ter Bevordering van Nijverheid_), +founded in 1777, has its seat in the Pavilion Welgelegen, a villa on the +south side of the Frederiks Park, built by the Amsterdam banker John +Hope in 1778, and afterwards acquired by Louis Bonaparte, king of +Holland. The colonial museum and the museum of industrial art were +established in this villa by the society in 1871 and 1877 respectively. +Besides these there are a museum of ecclesiastical antiquities, chiefly +relating to the bishopric of Haarlem; the old weigh-house (1598) and the +orphanage for girls (1608), originally an almshouse for old men, both +built by the architect Lieven de Key of Ghent. + +The staple industries of Haarlem have been greatly modified in the +course of time. Cloth weaving and brewing, which once flourished +exceedingly, declined in the beginning of the 16th century. A century +later, silk, lace and damask weaving were introduced by French refugees, +and became very important industries. But about the close of the 18th +century this remarkable prosperity had also come to an end, and it was +not till after the Belgian revolution of 1830-1831 that Haarlem began to +develop the manufactures in which it is now chiefly engaged. Cotton +manufacture, dyeing, printing, bleaching, brewing, type-founding, and +the manufacture of tram and railway carriages are among the more +important of its industries. One of the printing establishments has the +reputation of being the oldest in the Netherlands, and publishes the +oldest Dutch paper, _De Opragte Haarlemmer Courant_. Market-gardening, +especially horticulture, is extensively practised in the vicinity, so +that Haarlem is the seat of a large trade in Dutch bulbs, especially +hyacinths, tulips, fritillaries, spiraeas and japonicas. + +Haarlem, which was a prosperous place in the middle of the 12th century, +received its first town charter from William II., count of Holland and +king of the Romans, in 1245. It played a considerable part in the wars +of Holland with the Frisians. In 1492 it was captured by the insurgent +peasants of North Holland, was re-taken by the duke of Saxony, the +imperial stadholder, and deprived of its privileges. In 1572 Haarlem +joined the revolt of the Netherlands against Spain, but on the 13th of +July 1573, after a seven months' siege, was forced to surrender to +Alva's son Frederick, who exacted terrible vengeance. In 1577 it was +again captured by William of Orange and permanently incorporated in the +United Netherlands. + + See Karl Hegel, _Städte und Gilden_ (Leipzig, 1891); Allan, + _Geschiedenis en beschrijving van Haarlem_ (Haarlem, 1871-1888). + + + + +HAARLEM LAKE (Dutch _Harlemmer Meer_), a commune of the province of +North Holland, constituted by the law of the 16th of July 1855. It has +an area of about 46,000 acres, and its population increased from 7237 in +1860 to 16,621 in 1900. As its name indicates, the commune was formerly +a lake, which is said to have been a relic of a northern arm of the +Rhine which passed through the district in the time of the Romans. In +1531 the Haarlemmer Meer had an area of 6430 acres, and in its vicinity +were three smaller sheets of water--the Leidsche Meer or Leiden Lake, +the Spiering Meer, and the Oude Meer or Old Lake, with a united area of +about 7600 acres. The four lakes were formed into one by successive +inundations, whole villages disappearing in the process, and by 1647 the +new Haarlem Lake had an area of about 37,000 acres, which a century +later had increased to over 42,000 acres. As early as 1643 Jan +Adriaanszoon Leeghwater proposed to endike and drain the lake; and +similar schemes, among which those of Nikolaas Samuel Cruquius in 1742 +and of Baron van Lijnden van Hemmen in 1820 are worthy of special +mention, were brought forward from time to time. But it was not till a +furious hurricane in November 1836 drove the waters as far as the gates +of Amsterdam, and another on Christmas Day sent them in the opposite +direction to submerge the streets of Leiden, that the mind of the nation +was seriously turned to the matter. In August 1837 the king appointed a +royal commission of inquiry; the scheme proposed by the commission +received the sanction of the Second Chamber in March 1839, and in the +following May the work was begun. A canal was first dug round the lake +for the reception of the water and the accommodation of the great +traffic which had previously been carried on. This canal was 38 m. in +length, 123-146 ft. wide, and 8 ft. deep, and the earth which was taken +out of it was used to build a dike from 30 to 54 yds. broad containing +the lake. The area enclosed by the canal was rather more than 70 sq. m., +and the average depth of the lake 13 ft. 1½ in., and as the water had no +natural outfall it was calculated that probably 1000 million tons would +have to be raised by mechanical means. This amount was 200 million tons +in excess of that actually discharged. Pumping by steam-engines began in +1848, and the lake was dry by the 1st of July 1852. At the first sale of +the highest lands along the banks on the 16th of August 1853, about £28 +per acre was paid; but the average price afterwards was less. The whole +area of 42,096 acres recovered from the waters brought in 9,400,000 +florins, or about £780,000, exactly covering the cost of the enterprise; +so that the actual cost to the nation was only the amount of the +interest on the capital, or about £368,000. The soil is of various +kinds, loam, clay, sand and peat; most of it is sufficiently fertile, +though in the lower portions there are barren patches where the scanty +vegetation is covered with an ochreous deposit. Mineral springs occur +containing a very high percentage (3.245 grams per litre) of common +salt; and in 1893 a company was formed for working them. Corn, seeds, +cattle, butter and cheese are the principal produce. The roads which +traverse the commune are bordered by pleasant-looking farm-houses built +after the various styles of Holland, Friesland or Brabant. Hoofddorp, +Venneperdorp or Nieuw Vennep, Abbenes and the vicinities of the +pumping-stations are the spots where the population has clustered most +thickly. The first church was built in 1855; in 1877 there were seven. +In 1854 the city of Leiden laid claim to the possession of the new +territory, but the courts decided in favour of the nation. + + + + +HAASE, FRIEDRICH (1827- ), German actor, was born on the 1st of +November 1827, in Berlin, the son of a valet to King Frederick William +IV., who became his godfather. He was educated for the stage under +Ludwig Tieck and made his first appearance in 1846 in Weimar, afterwards +acting at Prague (1849-1851) and Karlsruhe (1852-1855). From 1860 to +1866 he played in St Petersburg, then was manager of the court theatre +in Coburg, and in 1869 (and again in 1882-1883) visited the United +States. He was manager of the Stadt Theater in Leipzig from 1870 to +1876, when he removed to Berlin, where he devoted his energies to the +foundation and management of the Deutsches Theater. He finally retired +from the stage in 1898. Haase's aristocratic appearance and elegant +manner fitted him specially to play high comedy parts. His chief rôles +were those of Rocheferrier in the _Partie Piquet_; Richelieu; Savigny in +_Der feiner Diplomat_, and der Fürst in _Der geheime Agent_. He is the +author of _Ungeschminkte Briefe and Was ich erlebte 1846-1898_ (Berlin, +1898). + + See Simon, _Friedrich Haase_ (Berlin, 1898). + + + + +HAASE, FRIEDRICH GOTTLOB (1808-1867), German classical scholar, was born +at Magdeburg on the 4th of January 1808. Having studied at Halle, +Greifswald and Berlin, he obtained in 1834 an appointment at +Schulpforta, from which he was suspended and sentenced to six years' +imprisonment for identifying himself with the _Burschenschaften_ +(students' associations). Having been released after serving one year of +his sentence, he visited Paris, and on his return in 1840 he was +appointed professor at Breslau, where he remained till his death on the +16th of August 1867. He was undoubtedly one of the most successful +teachers of his day in Germany, and exercised great influence upon all +his pupils. + + He edited several classic authors: Xenophon ([Greek: Lakedaimoniôn + politeia], 1833); Thucydides (1840); Velleius Paterculus (1858); + Seneca the philosopher (2nd ed., 1872, not yet superseded); and + Tacitus (1855), the introduction to which is a masterpiece of + Latinity. His _Vorlesungen über lateinische Sprachwissenschaft_ was + published after his death by F. A. Eckstein and H. Peter (1874-1880). + See C Bursian, _Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in Deutschland_ + (1883); G. Fickert, _Friderici Haasii memoria_ (1868), with a list of + works; T. Oelsner in _Rübezahl (Schlesische Provinzialblätter)_, vii. + Heft 3 (Breslau, 1868). + + + + +HAAST, SIR JOHANN FRANZ JULIUS VON (1824-1887), German and British +geologist, was born at Bonn on the 1st of May 1824. He received his +early education partly in that town and partly in Cologne, and then +entered the university at Bonn, where he made a special study of geology +and mineralogy. In 1858 he started for New Zealand to report on the +suitability of the colony for German emigrants. He then became +acquainted with Dr von Hochstetter, and rendered assistance to him in +the preliminary geological survey which von Hochstetter had undertaken. +Afterwards Dr Haast accepted offers from the governments of Nelson and +Canterbury to investigate the geology of those districts, and the +results of his detailed labours greatly enriched our knowledge with +regard to the rocky structure, the glacial phenomena and the economic +products. He discovered gold and coal in Nelson, and he carried on +important researches with reference to the occurrence of _Dinornis_ and +other extinct wingless birds (Moas). His _Geology of the Provinces of +Canterbury and Westland, N.Z._, was published in 1879. He was the +founder of the Canterbury museum at Christchurch, of which he became +director, and which he endeavoured to render the finest collection in +the southern hemisphere. He was surveyor-general of Canterbury from 1861 +to 1871, and professor of geology at Canterbury College. He was elected +F.R.S. in 1867; and he was knighted for his services at the time of the +colonial exhibition in London in 1887. He died at Wellington, N.Z., on +the 15th of August 1887. + + + + +HABABS (AZ-HIBBEHS), a nomadic pastoral people of Hamitic stock, living +in the coast region north-west of Massawa. Physically they are Beja, by +language and traditions Abyssinians. They were Christians until the 19th +century, but are now Mahommedans. Their sole wealth consists in cattle. + + + + +HABAKKUK, the name borne by the eighth book of the Old Testament "Minor +Prophets." It occurs twice in the book itself (i. 1, iii. 1) in titles, +but nowhere else in the Old Testament. The meaning of the name is +uncertain. If Hebrew, it might be derived from the root [Hebrew: habak] +(to embrace) as an intensive term of affection. It has also been +connected more plausibly with an Assyrian plant name, _[h)]ambakuku_ +(Delitzsch, _Assyrisches Handwörterbuch_, p. 281). The Septuagint has +[Greek: Ambakoum]. Of the person designated, no more is known than may +be inferred from the writing which bears his name. Various legends are +connected with him, of which the best known is given in the Apocryphal +story of "Bel and the Dragon" (v. 33-39); but none of these has any +historic value.[1] + +The book itself falls into three obvious parts, viz. (1) a dialogue +between the prophet and God (i. 2-ii. 4); (2) a series of five woes +pronounced on wickedness (ii. 5-ii. 20); (3) a poem describing the +triumphant manifestation of God (iii.). There is considerable difficulty +in regard to the interpretation of (1), on which that of (2) will turn; +while (3) forms an independent section, to be considered separately. + +In the dialogue, the prophet cries to God against continued violence and +injustice, though it is not clear whether this is done _within_ or _to_ +Israel (i. 2-4). The divine answer declares that God raises up the +Chaldaeans, whose formidable resources are invincible (i. 5-11). The +prophet thereupon calls God's attention to the tyranny which He +apparently allows to triumph, and declares his purpose to wait till an +answer is given to his complaint (i. 12-ii. 2). God answers by demanding +patience, and by declaring that the righteous shall live by his +faithfulness (ii. 3-4). + +The interpretation of this dialogue which first suggests itself is that +the prophet is referring to wickedness _within_ the nation, which is to +be punished by the Chaldaeans as a divine instrument; in the process, +the tyranny of the instrument itself calls for punishment, which the +prophet is bidden to await in patient fidelity. On this view of the +dialogue, the subsequent woes will be pronounced against the Chaldaeans, +and the date assigned to the prophecy will be about 600 B.C., i.e. soon +after the battle of Carchemish (605 B.C.), when the Chaldaean victory +over Egypt inaugurated a period of Chaldaean supremacy which lasted till +the Chaldaeans themselves were overthrown by Cyrus in 538 B.C. Grave +objections, however, confront this interpretation, as is admitted even +by such recent defenders of it as Davidson and Driver. Is it likely that +a prophet would begin a complaint against Chaldaean tyranny (admittedly +central in the prophecy) by complaining of that wickedness of his +fellow-countrymen which seems partly to justify it? Are not the terms of +reference in i. 2 f. and 1. 12 f. too similar for the supposition that +two distinct, even contradictory, complaints are being made (cf. +"wicked" and "righteous" in i. 4 and i. 13, interchanged in regard to +Israel, on above theory)? And if i. 5-11 is a genuine _prophecy_ of the +raising up of the Chaldaeans, whence comes that long experience of their +rule required to explain the _detailed_ denunciation of their tyranny? +To meet the last objection, Davidson supposes i. 5-11 to be really a +reference to the past, prophetic in form only, and brings down the whole +section to a later period of Chaldaean rule, "hardly, one would think, +before the deportation of the people under Jehoiachin in 597" (p. 49). +Driver prefers to bisect the dialogue by supposing i. 2-11 to be written +at an earlier period than i. 12 f. (p. 57). The other objections, +however, remain, and have provoked a variety of theories from Old +Testament scholars, of which three call for special notice. (1) The +first of these, represented by Giesebrecht,[2] Nowack and Wellhausen, +refers i. 2-4 to Chaldaean oppression of Israel, the same subject being +continued in i. 12 f. Obviously, the reference to the Chaldaeans as a +divine instrument could not then stand in its present place, and it is +accordingly regarded as a misplaced earlier prophecy. This is the +minimum of critical procedure required to do justice to the facts. (2) +Budde, followed by Cornill, also regards i. 2-4 as referring to the +oppression of Israel by a foreign tyrant, whom, however, he holds to be +Assyria. He also removes i. 5-11 from its present place, but makes it +part of the divine answer, following ii. 4. On this view, the Chaldaeans +are the divine instrument for punishing the tyranny of the Assyrians, to +whom the following woes will therefore refer. The date would fall +between Josiah's reformation (621) and his death (609). This is a +plausible and even attractive theory; its weakness seems to lie in the +absence of any positive evidence in the prophecy itself, as is +illustrated by the fact that even G. A. Smith, who follows it, suggests +"Egypt from 608-605" as an alternative to Assyria (p. 124). (3) Marti +(1904) abandons the attempt to explain the prophecy as a unity, and +analyses it into three elements, viz. (a) The original prophecy by +Habakkuk, consisting of i. 5-10, 14 f., belonging to the year 605, and +representing the emergent power of the Chaldaeans as a divine scourge of +the faithless people; (b) Woes against the Chaldaeans, presupposing not +only tyrannous rule over many peoples, but the beginning of their +decline and fall, and therefore of date about 540 B.C. (ii. 5-19); (c) A +psalm of post-exilic origin, whose fragments, i. 2-4, 12 a, 13, ii. 1-4, +have been incorporated into the present text from the margins on which +they were written, its subject being the suffering of the righteous. +Each of these three theories[3] encounters difficulties of detail; none +can be said to have secured a dominant position. The great variety of +views amongst competent critics is significant of the difficulty of the +problem, which can hardly be regarded as yet solved; this divergence of +opinion perhaps points to the impossibility of maintaining the unity of +chs. i. and ii., and throws the balance of probability towards some such +analysis as that of Marti, which is therefore accepted in the present +article. + +In regard to the poem which forms the third and closing chapter of the +present book of Habakkuk, there is much more general agreement. Its most +striking characteristic lies in the superscription ("A prayer of +Habakkuk the prophet, set to Shigionoth"), the subscription ("For the +chief musician, on my stringed instruments"), and the insertion of the +musical term "Selah" in three places (v. 3, 9, 13). These liturgical +notes make extremely probable the supposition that the poem has been +taken from some collection like that of our present book of Psalms, +probably on the ground of the authorship asserted by the superscription +there attached to it. It cannot, however, be said that the poem itself +supports this assertion, which carries no more intrinsic weight than +the Davidic titles of the Psalms. The poem begins with a prayer that God +will renew the historic manifestation of the exodus, which inaugurated +the national history and faith; a thunderstorm moving up from the south +is then described, in which God is revealed (3-7); it is asked whether +this manifestation, whose course is further described, is against nature +only (8-11); the answer is given that it is for the salvation of Israel +against its wicked foes (12-15); the poet describes the effect in terror +upon himself (16) and declares his confidence in God, even in utter +agricultural adversity (17-19). As Wellhausen says (p. 171): "The poet +appears to believe that in the very act of describing enthusiastically +the ancient deed of deliverance, he brings home to us the new; we are +left sometimes in doubt whether he speaks of the past to suggest the new +by analogy, or whether he is concerned directly with the future, and +simply paints it with the colours of the past." In any case, there is +nothing in this fine poem to connect it with the conception of the +Chaldaeans as a divine instrument. It is the nation that speaks through +the poet (cf. v. 14), but at what period of its post-exilic history we +have no means of inferring. + +Our estimate of the theological teaching of this book will naturally be +influenced by the particular critical theory which is adopted. The +reduction of the book to four originally independent sections requires +that the point of each be stated separately. When this is done, it will, +however, be found that there is a broad unity of subject, and of natural +development in its treatment, such as to some extent justifies the +instinct or the judgment of those who were instrumental in effecting the +combination of the separate parts. (1) The poem (iii.), though possibly +latest in date,[4] claims first consideration, because it avowedly moves +in the circle of primitive ideas, and supplicates a divine intervention, +a direct and immediate manifestation of the transcendent God. He is +conceived as controlling or overcoming the forces of nature; and though +an earlier mythology has supplied some of the ideas, yet, as with the +opening chapters of Genesis, they are transfigured by the moral purpose +which animates them, the purpose to subdue all things that could +frustrate the destiny of God's anointed (v. 13). The closing verses +strike that deep note of absolute dependence on God, which is the glory +of the religion of the Old Testament and its chief contribution to the +spirit of the Gospels. (2) The prophecy of the Chaldaeans as the +instruments of the divine purpose involves a different, yet related, +conception of the divine providence. The philosophy of history, by which +Hebrew prophets could read a deep moral significance into national +disaster and turn the flank of resistless attack, became one of the most +important elements in the nation's faith. If the world-powers were hard +as flint in their dealings with Israel, the people of God were steeled +to such moral endurance that each clash of their successive onsets +kindled some new flame of devotion. Through the Chaldaeans God worked a +work which required centuries of life and literature to disclose its +fulness (i. 5). (3) When we turn from this view of the Chaldaeans to the +denunciation of their tyranny in "taunt songs" (ii. 5-20), we have +simply a practical application of the doctrine of divine government. God +being what He is, at once moral and all-powerful, the immoral life is +doomed to overthrow, whether the immorality consist in grasping +rapacity, proud self-aggrandizement, cruel exaction, exulting triumph or +senseless idolatry. (4) Yet, because the doom so often tarries, there +arises the problem of the suffering of the innocent and the upright. How +can God look down with tolerance that seems favour on so much that +conflicts with His declared will and character? This is the great +problem of Israel, finding its supreme expression for all time in the +book of Job (q.v.). In that book the solution of the problem of innocent +suffering lies hidden from the sufferer, even to the end, for he is not +admitted with the reader to the secret of the prologue; it is the +practical solution of faithfulness resting on faith which is offered to +us. So here, with the principle of ii. 4, "the righteous shall live by +his faithfulness." The different application of these words in the New +Testament to "faith" is well known (Rom. i. 17; Gal. iii. 11; Heb. x. +38) though the difference is apt to be exaggerated by those who forget +how much of the element of [Hebrew: emuna]: lies in Paul's conception of +[Greek: pistis]. In G. A. Smith's words, "as Paul's adaptation, 'the +just shall live by faith,' has become the motto of evangelical +Christianity, so we may say that Habakkuk's original of it has been the +motto and the fame of Judaism: 'the righteous shall live by his +faithfulness.'" + + The Hebrew text of this impressive and varied book is unfortunately + corrupt in many places; even so cautious a critic as Driver accepts or + favourably notices eighteen textual emendations in the three chapters, + and suspects the text in at least seven other cases. For the + interpretation of the book in detail, the English reader will find + Driver's commentary (1906) the most useful. + + References to earlier literature will be found in the following + noteworthy studies of recent date: Davidson, "Nahum, Habakkuk and + Zephaniah," in _Cambridge Bible_ (1896); Nowack, _Die kleinen + Propheten_ (Hdkr.) (1897); Wellhausen, _Die kleinen Propheten_^3 + (1898); G. A. Smith, "The Book of the Twelve Prophets," in _The + Expositor's Bible_, vol. ii. (1898); Driver, article "Habakkuk" in + Hastings' _Dictionary of the Bible_, vol. ii. pp. 269-272 (1900); + Budde, article "Habakkuk" in _Ency. Biblica_, vol. ii., c. 1921-1928 + (1901); Stevenson, "The Interpretation of Habakkuk," in _The + Expositor_ (1902), pp. 388-401; Peake, _The Problem of Suffering in + the Old Testament_ (1904), pp. 4-11 and app. A, "Recent Criticism of + Habakkuk"; Marti, _Dodekapropheton_ (K. H. C.) (1904); Driver, "Minor + Prophets," vol. ii., in _Century Bible_ (1906); Duhm, _Das Buch + Habakkuk_ (Text, Übersetzung und Efklärung), 1906 (regards the book as + a unity belonging to the time of Alexander the Great). Max L. Margolis + discusses the anonymous Greek version of Habakkuk iii. in a volume of + _Old Test. and Semitic Studies: in Memory of William Rainey Harper_ + (Chicago, 1908). (H. W. R.*) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] These legends are collected in Hastings, D. B. vol. ii. p. 272. + He is the watchman of Is. xxi. 6 (cf. Hab. ii. 1); the son of the + Shunammite (2 Kings iv. 16); and is miraculously lifted by his hair + to carry his own dinner to Daniel in the lions' den (_supra_). + + [2] Followed by Peake in _The Problem of Suffering_, pp. 4 f., 151 + f., to whose appendix (A) reference may be made for further details + of recent criticism. + + [3] For the less probable theories of Rothstein, Lauterburg, Happel + and Peiser (amongst others), cf. Marti's _Commentary_, pp. 328 f. and + 332. Stevenson (_The Expositor_, 1902) states clearly the + difficulties for those who regard ch. i. as a unity. He sees two + independent sections, 2-4 + 12-13, and 5-11 + 14-17. + + [4] Earlier, however, than Ps. lxxvii. 17-20, which is drawn from it. + + + + +HABDALA (lit. "separation"), a Hebrew term chiefly appropriated to +ceremonies at the conclusion of Sabbath and festivals, marking the +separation between times sacred and secular. On the Saturday night the +ceremony consists of three items: (a) benediction over a cup of wine +(common to many other Jewish functions); (b) benediction over a lighted +taper, of which possibly the origin is utilitarian, as no light might be +kindled on the Sabbath day, but the rite may be symbolical; and (c) +benediction over a box of sweet-smelling spices. The origin of the +latter has been traced to the bowl of burning spice which in Talmudic +times was introduced after each meal. But here too symbolic ideas must +be taken into account. Both the light and the spices would readily fit +into the conception of the Sabbath "Over-soul" of the mystics. (I. A.) + + + + +HABEAS CORPUS, in English law, a writ issued out of the High Court of +Justice commanding the person to whom it is directed to bring the body +of a person in his custody before that or some other court for a +specified purpose. + +There are various forms of the writ, of which the most famous is that +known as _habeas corpus ad subjiciendum_, the well-established remedy +for violation of personal liberty. From the earliest records of the +English law no free man could be detained in custody except on a +criminal charge or conviction or for a civil debt. That right is +expressed in the Great Charter in the words: "_Nullus liber homo +capiatur vel imprisonetur aut dissaisietur aut utlagetur, aut exuletur +aut aliquo modo destruatur nec super eum ibimus nec super eum mittemus, +nisi per legale judicium parium suorum, vel per legem terrae._"[1] The +writ is a remedial mandatory writ of right existing by the common law, +i.e. it is one of the extraordinary remedies--such as _mandamus_, +_certiorari_ and prohibitions, which the superior courts may grant. +While "of right," it is not "of course," and is granted only on +application to the High Court or a judge thereof, supported by a sworn +statement of facts setting up at least a probable case of illegal +confinement. It is addressed to the person in whose custody another is +detained, and commands him to bring his prisoner before the court +immediately after the receipt of the writ, together with the day and +cause of his being taken and detained, to undergo and receive (_ad +subjiciendum et recipiendum_) whatsoever the court awarding the writ +"may consider of concerning him in that behalf." + +It is often stated that the writ is founded on the article of the Great +Charter already quoted; but there are extant instances of the issue of +writs of _habeas corpus_ before the charter. Other writs having somewhat +similar effect were in use at an early date, e.g. the writ _de odio et +atiâ_, used as early as the 12th century to prevent imprisonment on +vexatious appeals of felony, and the writ of mainprise (_de +manucaptione_), long obsolete if not abolished in England but which it +was attempted to use in India so late as 1870. In the ease of +imprisonment on accusation of crime the writ issued from the court of +king's bench (or from the chancery), and on its return the court judged +of the legality of the imprisonment, and discharged the prisoner or +admitted him to bail or remanded him to his former custody according to +the result of the examination. + +By the time of Charles I. the writ was fully established as the +appropriate process for checking illegal imprisonment by inferior courts +or by public officials. But it acquired its full and present +constitutional importance by legislation. + +In Darnel's case (1627) the judges held that the command of the king was +a sufficient answer to a writ of _habeas corpus_. The House of Commons +thereupon passed resolutions to the contrary, and after a conference +with the House of Lords the measure known as the Petition of Right was +passed (1627, 3 Car. I. c. i.) which, inter alia, recited (s. 5) that, +contrary to the Great Charter and the good laws and statutes of the +realm, divers of the king's subjects had of late been imprisoned without +any cause shown, and when they were brought up on _habeas corpus ad +subjiciendum_, and no cause was shown other than the special command of +the king signified by the privy council, were nevertheless remanded to +prison, and enacted "that no freeman in any such manner as is before +mentioned be imprisoned or detained." The Petition of Right was +disregarded in Selden's case (1629), when it was successfully returned +to a _habeas corpus_ that Selden and others were committed by the king's +special command "for notable contempts against the king and his +government and for stirring up sedition against him."[2] This led to +legislation in 1640 by which, after abolishing the Star Chamber, the +right to a _habeas corpus_ was given to test the legality of commitments +by command or warrant of the king or the privy council.[3] + +The reign of Charles II. was marked by further progress towards securing +the freedom of the subject from wrongful imprisonment. Lord Clarendon +was impeached, _inter alia_, for causing many persons to be imprisoned +against law and to be conveyed in custody to places outside England. In +1668 a writ of _habeas corpus_ was issued to test the legality of an +imprisonment in Jersey. Though the authority of the courts had been +strengthened by the Petition of Right and the act of 1640, it was still +rendered insufficient by reason of the insecurity of judicial tenure, +the fact that only the chancellor (a political as well as a legal +officer) and the court of king's bench had undoubted right to issue the +writ, and the inability or hesitation of the competent judges to issue +the writ except during the legal term, which did not cover more than +half the year. A series of bills was passed through the Commons between +1668 and 1675, only to be rejected by the other House. In Jenkes's case +(1676) Lord Chancellor Nottingham refused to issue the writ in vacation +in a case in which a man had been committed by the king in council for a +speech at Guildhall, and could get neither bail nor trial. In 1679, but +rather in consequence of Lord Clarendon's arbitrary proceedings[4] than +of Jenkes's case, a fresh bill was introduced which passed both Houses +(it is said the upper House by the counting of one stout peer as ten) +and became the famous Habeas Corpus Act of 1679 (31 Car. II. c. 2). The +passing of the act was largely due to the experience and energy of Lord +Shaftesbury, after whom it was for some time called. The act, while a +most important landmark in the constitutional history of England, in no +sense creates any right to personal freedom, but is essentially a +procedure act for improving the legal mechanism by means of which that +acknowledged right may be enforced.[5] It declares no principles and +defines no rights, but is for practical purposes worth a hundred +articles guaranteeing constitutional liberty.[6] + +In the manner characteristic of English legislation the act is limited +to the particular grievances immediately in view and is limited to +imprisonment for criminal or supposed criminal matters, leaving +untouched imprisonment on civil process or by private persons. It +recites that great delays have been used by sheriffs and gaolers in +making returns of writs of _habeas corpus_ directed to them; and for the +prevention thereof, and the more speedy relief of all persons imprisoned +for criminal or supposed criminal matters, it enacts in substance as +follows: (1) When a writ of _habeas corpus_ is directed to a sheriff or +other person in charge of a prisoner, he must within 3, 10 or 20 days, +according to the distance of the place of commitment, bring the body of +his prisoner to the court, with the true cause of his detainer or +imprisonment--unless the commitment was for treason or felony plainly +expressed in the warrant of commitment. (2) If any person be committed +for any crime--unless for treason or felony plainly expressed in the +warrant--it shall be lawful for such person or persons (other than +persons convicted or in execution by legal process) _in time of +vacation_, to appeal to the lord chancellor as a judge, who shall issue +a _habeas corpus_ returnable immediately, and on the return thereof +shall discharge the prisoner on giving security for his appearance +before the proper court--unless the party so committed is detained upon +a legal process or under a justice's warrant for a non-bailable offence. +Persons neglecting for two terms to pray for a _habeas corpus_ shall +have none in vacation. (3) Persons set at large on _habeas corpus_ shall +not be recommitted for the same offence unless by the legal order and +process of the court having cognizance of the case. (4) A person +committed to prison for treason or felony shall, if he requires it, in +the first week of the next term or the first day of the next session of +oyer and terminer, be indicted in that term or session or else admitted +to bail, unless it appears on affidavit that the witnesses for the crown +are not ready; and if he is not indicted and tried in the second term or +session after commitment, or if after trial he is acquitted, he shall be +discharged from imprisonment. (5) No inhabitant of England (except +persons contracting, or, after conviction for felony, electing to be +transported) shall be sent prisoner to Scotland, Ireland, Jersey, &c., +or any place beyond the seas. Stringent penalties are provided for +offences against the act. A judge delaying _habeas corpus_ forfeits £500 +to the party aggrieved. Illegal imprisonment beyond seas renders the +offender liable in an action by the injured party to treble costs and +damages to the extent of not less than £500, besides subjecting him to +the penalties of _praemunire_ and to other disabilities. "The great rank +of those who were likely to offend against this part of the statute +was," says Hallam, "the cause of this unusual severity." Indeed as early +as 1591 the judges had complained of the difficulty of enforcing the +writ in the case of imprisonment at the instance of magnates of the +realm. The effect of the act was to impose upon the judges under severe +sanction the duty of protecting personal liberty in the case of criminal +charges and of securing speedy trial upon such charges when legally +framed; and the improvement of their tenure of office at the revolution, +coupled with the veto put by the Bill of Rights on excessive bail, gave +the judicature the independence and authority necessary to enable them +to keep the executive within the law and to restrain administrative +development of the scope or penalties of the criminal law; and this +power of the judiciary to control the executive, coupled with the +limitations on the right to set up "act of state" as an excuse for +infringing individual liberty is the special characteristic of English +constitutional law. + +It is to be observed that neither at common law nor under the act of +1679 was the writ the appropriate remedy in the case of a person +convicted either on indictment or summarily. It properly applied to +persons detained before or without trial or sentence; and for convicted +persons the proper remedy was by writs of error or _certiorari_ to +which a writ of _habeas corpus_ might be used as ancillary. + +As regards persons imprisoned for debt or on civil process the writ was +available at common law to test the legality of the detention: but the +practice in these cases is unaffected by the act of 1679, and is of no +present interest, since imprisonment on civil process is almost +abolished. As regards persons in private custody, e.g. persons not _sui +juris_ detained by those not entitled to their guardianship or lunatics, +or persons kidnapped, _habeas corpus ad subjiciendum_ seems not to have +been the ordinary common law remedy. The appropriate writ for such cases +was that known as _de homine replegiando_. The use of this writ in most +if not all criminal cases was forbidden in 1553; but it was used in the +17th century in a case of kidnapping (Designy's case, 1682), and against +Lord Grey for abducting his wife's sister (1682), and in the earl of +Banbury's case to recover his wife (1704). The latest recorded instance +of its use is Trebilcock's case (1736), in which a ward sought to free +himself from the custody of his guardian. + +Since that date the _habeas corpus ad subjiciendum_ has been used in +cases of illegal detention in private custody. In 1758 questions arose +as to its application to persons in naval or military custody, including +pressed men, which led to the introduction of a bill in parliament and +to the consultation by the House of Lords of the judges (see Wilmot's +_Opinions_, p. 77). In the same year the writ was used to release the +wife of Earl Ferrers from his custody and maltreatment, and was +unsuccessfully applied for by John Wilkes to get back his wife, who was +separated from him by mutual agreement. But perhaps the most interesting +instances of that period are the case of the negro Somerset (1771), who +was released from a claim to hold him as a slave in England: and that of +the Hottentot Venus (1810), where an alien woman on exhibition in +England was brought before the court by Zachary Macaulay in order to +ascertain whether she was detained against her will. + +The experience of the 18th century disclosed defects in the procedure +for obtaining liberty in cases not covered by the act of 1679. But it +was not till 1816 that further legislation was passed for more +effectually securing the liberty of the subject. The act of 1816 (56 +Geo. III. c. 100), does not touch cases covered by the act of 1679. It +enacts (1) that a writ of _habeas corpus_ shall be issued in vacation +time in favour of a person restrained of his liberty otherwise than for +some criminal or supposed criminal matter (except persons imprisoned for +debt or by civil process); (2) that though the return to the writ be +good and sufficient in law, the judge shall examine into the truth of +the facts set forth in such return, and if they appear doubtful the +prisoner shall be bailed; (3) that the writ shall run to any port, +harbour, road, creek or bay on the coast of England, although not within +the body of any county. The last clause was intended to meet doubts on +the applicability of _habeas corpus_ in cases of illegal detention on +board ship, which had been raised owing to a case of detention on a +foreign ship in an English port. + +It will appear from the foregoing statement that the issue and +enforcement of the writ rests on the common law as strengthened by the +acts of 1627, 1640, 1679 and 1816, and subject also to the regulations +as to procedure contained in the _Crown Office Rules_, 1906. The effect +of the statutes is to keep the courts always open for the issue of the +writ. It is available to put an end to all forms of illegal detention in +public or private custody. In the case of the Canadian prisoners (1839) +it was used to obtain the release of persons sentenced in Canada for +participating in the rebellion of 1837, who were being conveyed +throughout England in custody on their way to imprisonment in another +part of the empire, and it is matter of frequent experience for the +courts to review the legality of commitments under the Extradition Acts +and the Fugitive Offenders Act 1881, of fugitives from the justice of a +foreign state or parts of the king's dominions outside the British +Islands. + +In times of public danger it has occasionally been thought necessary to +"suspend" the Habeas Corpus Act 1679 by special and temporary +legislation. This was done in 1794 (by an act annually renewed until +1801) and again in 1817, as to persons arrested and detained by his +majesty for conspiring against his person and government. The same +course was adopted in Ireland in 1866 during a Fenian rising. It has +been the practice to make such acts annual and to follow their +expiration by an act of indemnity. In cases where martial law exists the +use of the writ is _ex hypothesi_ suspended during conditions amounting +to a state of war within the realm or the British possession affected +(e.g. the Cape Colony and Natal during the South African War), and it +would seem that the acts of courts martial during the period are not the +subject of review by the ordinary courts. The so-called "suspension of +the Habeas Corpus Act" bears a certain similarity to what is called in +Europe "suspending the constitutional guarantees" or "proclaiming a +state of siege," but "is not in reality more than suspension of one +particular remedy for the protection of personal freedom." + + There are various other forms of the writ according to the purpose for + which it is granted. Thus _habeas corpus ad respondendum_ is used to + bring up a prisoner confined by the process of an inferior court in + order to charge him in another proceeding (civil or criminal) in the + superior court or some other court. As regards civil proceedings, this + form of the writ is now rarely used, owing to the abolition of arrest + on mesne process and the restriction of imprisonment for debt, or in + execution of a civil judgment. The right to issue the writ depends on + the common law, supplemented by an act of 1802. It is occasionally + used for the purpose of bringing a person in custody for debt or on a + criminal charge before a criminal court to be charged in respect of a + criminal proceeding: but the same result may be obtained by means of + an order of a secretary of state, made under s. 11 of the Prison Act + 1898, or by the written order of a court of criminal jurisdiction + before which he is required to take his trial on indictment (Criminal + Law Amendment Act 30 & 31 Vict. c. 35, s. 10.) + + Other forms are _ad satisfaciendum_; _ad faciendum et recipiendum_, to + remove into a superior court proceedings under which the defendant is + in custody: _ad testificandum_, where a prisoner is required as a + witness, issued under an act of 1804 (s. 11), which is in practice + replaced by orders under s. 11 of the Prison Act 1898 (_supra_) or the + order of a judge under s. 9 of the Criminal Procedure Act 1853: and + _ad deliberandum et recipias_, to authorize the transfer from one + custody to another for purposes of trial, which is in practice + superseded by the provisions of the Prison Acts 1865, 1871 and 1898, + and the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1867 (_supra_). + + The above forms are now of little or no importance; but the procedure + for obtaining them and the forms of writ are included in the _Crown + Office Rules_ 1906. + + _Ireland._--The common law of Ireland as to the writs of _habeas + corpus_ is the same as that in England. The writ has in past times + been issued from the English court of king's bench into Ireland; but + does not now so issue. The acts of 1803 and 1816 already mentioned + apply to Ireland. The Petition of Right is not in terms applicable to + Ireland. The Habeas Corpus Act 1679 does not apply to Ireland; but its + equivalent is supplied by an act of 1781-1782 of the Irish parliament + (21 & 22 Geo. III. c. 11). Sec. 16 contains a provision empowering the + chief governor and privy council of Ireland by a proclamation under + the great seal of Ireland to suspend the act during such time only as + there shall be an actual invasion or rebellion in Ireland; and it is + enacted that during the currency of the proclamation no judge or + justices shall bail or try any person charged with being concerned in + the rebellion or invasion without an order from the lord lieutenant or + lord deputy and senior of the privy council. In Ireland by an act of + 1881 the Irish executive was given an absolute power of arbitrary and + preventive arrest on suspicion of treason or of an act tending to + interfere with the maintenance of law and order: but the warrant of + arrest was made conclusive. This act continued by annual renewals + until 1906, when it expired. + + _Scotland._--The writ of _habeas corpus_ is unknown to Scots law, nor + will it issue from English courts into Scotland. Under a Scots act of + 1701 (c. 6) provision is made for preventing wrongous imprisonment and + against undue delay in trials. It was applied to treason felony in + 1848. The right to speedy trial is now regulated by s. 43 of the + Criminal Procedure Scotland Act 1887. These enactments are as to + Scotland equivalent to the English Act of 1679. Under the Court of + Exchequer Scotland Act 1856 (19 & 20 V. c. 56) provision is made for + bringing before the court of session persons and proceedings before + inferior courts and public officers--which is analogous to the powers + to issue _habeas corpus_ in such cases out of the English court of + exchequer (now the revenue side of the king's bench division). + + _British Possessions._--The act of 1679 expressly applies to Wales, + Berwick-on-Tweed, Jersey and Guernsey, and the act of 1816 also + extends to the Isle of Man. The court of king's bench has also issued + the writ to the king's foreign dominions beyond seas, e.g. to St + Helena, and so late as 1861 to Canada (Anderson's case 1861, 30 + L.J.Q.B. 129). In consequence of the last decision it was provided by + the Habeas Corpus Act 1862 that no writ of _habeas corpus_ should + issue out of England by authority of any court or judge "into any + colony or foreign dominion of the crown where the crown has a lawfully + established court of justice having authority to grant or issue the + writ and to ensure its due execution in the 'colony' or dominion" (25 + & 26 V. c. 20). The expression "foreign dominion" is meant to apply to + places outside the British Islands, and does not include the Isle of + Man or the Channel Islands (see _re Brown_ [1864], 33 L.J.Q.B. 193). + + In Australasia and Canada and in most if not all the British + possessions whose law is based on the common law, the power to issue + and enforce the writ is possessed and is freely exercised by colonial + courts, under the charters or statutes creating and regulating the + courts. The writ is freely resorted to in Canada, and in 1905, 1906, + two appeals came to the privy council from the dominion, one with + reference to an extradition case, the other with respect to the right + to expel aliens. + + Under the Roman-Dutch law as applied in British Guiana the writ was + unknown and no similar process existed (2nd report of West Indian law + commissioners). But by the Supreme Court Ordinance of 1893 that court + possesses (_inter alia_) all the authorities, powers and functions + belonging to or incident to a superior court of record in England, + which appears to include the power to issue the writ of _habeas + corpus_. Under the Roman-Dutch law as applied to South Africa free + persons appear to have a right to release under a writ _de libero + homine exhibendo_, which closely resembles the writ of _habeas + corpus_, and the procedure described as "manifestation" used in the + kingdom of Aragon (Hallam, _Middle Ages_, vol. ii., c. iv.). The writ + of _habeas corpus_ has not been formally adopted or the Habeas Corpus + Acts formally extended to South Africa; but in the Cape Colony, under + the charter of justice and colonial legislation, the supreme court on + petition grants a remedy equivalent to that obtained in England by + writ of _habeas corpus_; and the remedy is sometimes so described + (_Koke_ v. _Balie_, 1879, 9 Buchanan, 45, 64, arising out of a rising + in Griqualand). During and after the South African War of 1899-1902 + many attempts were made by this procedure to challenge or review the + sentences of courts martial; see _re Fourie_ (1900). 18 _Cape Rep._ 8. + + The laws of Ceylon being derived from the Roman-Dutch law, the writ of + _habeas corpus_ is not indigenous: but, under s. 49 of the Supreme + Court Ordinance 1889, the court or a judge has power to grant and + issue "mandates in the nature of writs of _habeas corpus_." The + chartered high courts in India have power to issue and enforce the + writ of _habeas corpus_. The earliest record of its use was in 1775, + when it was directed to Warren Hastings. It has been used to test the + question whether Roman Catholic religious orders could enter India, + and in 1870 an attempt was made thereby to challenge the validity of a + warrant in the nature of a _lettre de cachet_ issued by the viceroy + (Ind. L. Rep. 6 Bengal, 392, 456, 498), and it has also been applied + to settle controversies between Hindus and missionaries as to the + custody of a young convert (_R._ v. _Vaughan_, 1870, 5 Bengal, 418), + and between a Mahommedan husband and his mother-in-law as to the + custody of a girl-wife (_Khatija Bibi_, 1870, 5 Bengal, 557). + +_United States._--Before the Declaration of Independence some of the +North American colonies had adopted the act of 1679; and the federal and +the other state legislatures of the United States have founded their +procedure on that act. The common law as to the writ of _habeas corpus_ +has been inherited from England, and has been generally made to apply to +commitments and detentions of all kinds. Difficult questions, unknown to +English law, have arisen from the peculiar features of the American +state-system. Thus the constitution provides that "the privilege of the +writ of _habeas corpus_ shall not be suspended unless when, in cases of +rebellion or invasion, the public safety may require it"; and it has +been the subject of much dispute whether the power of suspension under +this provision is vested in the president or the congress. The weight of +opinion seems to lean to the latter alternative. Again, conflicts have +arisen between the courts of individual states and the courts of the +union. It seems that a state court has no right to issue a _habeas +corpus_ for the discharge of a person held under the authority of the +federal government. On the other hand, the courts of the union issue the +writ only in those cases in which the power is expressly conferred on +them by the constitution. + + AUTHORITIES.--Paterson, _Liberty of the Subject_ (1877); Short and + Mellor, _Crown Practice_ (1890); American: Church on _Habeas Corpus_ + (2nd ed. 1893). (W. F. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See Hallam, _Const. Hist._ vol. i., c. vii. (12th ed.) p. 384. + + [2] Hallam, _Const. Hist._ vol. ii., c. viii. (12th ed.) p. 2. + + [3] _Ibid._ c. ix. (12th ed.) p. 98. + + [4] _Ibid._ vol. iii., c. xiii. (12th ed.) p. 12. + + [5] Dicey, _Law of the Constitution_ (6th ed.), p. 217. + + [6] Dicey, Law of the Constitution (6th ed.), p. 195. + + + + +HABERDASHER, a name for a tradesman who sells by retail small articles +used in the making or wearing of dress, such as sewing cottons or silks, +tapes, buttons, pins and needles and the like. The sale of such articles +is not generally carried on alone, and a "haberdashery counter" usually +forms a department of drapers' shops. The word, found in Chaucer, and +even earlier (1311), is of obscure origin; the suggestion that it is +connected with an Icelandic _haprtask_, "haversack," is, according to +the _New English Dictionary_, impossible. _Haperlas_ occurs in an early +Anglo-French customs list, which includes articles such as were sold by +haberdashers, but this word may itself have been a misspelling of +"haberdash." The obscurity of origin has left room for many conjectures +such as that of Minsheu that "haberdasher" was perhaps merely a +corruption of the German _Habt ihr das?_ "Have you that?" or _Habe das, +Herr_, "Have that, sir," used descriptively for a general dealer in +miscellaneous wares. The Haberdashers' Company is one of the greater +Livery Companies of the City of London. Originally a branch of the +mercers, the fraternity took over the selling of "small wares," which +included not only articles similar to those sold as "haberdashery" now, +but such things as gloves, daggers, glass, pens, lanterns, mousetraps +and the like. They were thus on this side connected with the Milliners. +On the other hand there was early a fusion with the old gild of the +"Hurers," or cap makers, and the hatters, and by the reign of Henry VII. +the amalgamation was complete. There were long recognized two branches +of the haberdashers, the haberdashers of "small wares," and the +haberdashers of hats (see further LIVERY COMPANIES). The haberdashers +are named, side by side with the _capellarii_, in the White Book (_Liber +Albus_) of the city of London (see _Munimenta Gildhallae Londiniensis_, +ed. H. T. Riley, Rolls Series, 12, 1859-1862), and a haberdasher forms +one of the company of pilgrims in the _Canterbury Tales_ (Prologue, +361). + + + + +HABINGTON, WILLIAM (1605-1654), English poet, was born at Hendlip Hall, +Worcestershire, on the 4th of November 1605. He belonged to a well-known +Catholic family. His father, Thomas Habington (1560-1647), an antiquary +and historical scholar, had been implicated in the plots on behalf of +Mary queen of Scots; his uncle, Edward Habington, was hanged in 1586 on +the charge of conspiring against Elizabeth in connexion with Anthony +Babington; while to his mother, Mary Habington, was attributed the +revelation of the Gunpowder Plot. The poet was sent to the college at St +Omer, but, pressure being brought to bear on him to induce him to become +a Jesuit, he removed to Paris. He married about 1632 Lucy, second +daughter of Sir William Herbert, first Baron Powys. This lady he had +addressed in the volume of lyrical poems arranged in two parts and +entitled _Castara_, published anonymously in 1634. In 1635 appeared a +second edition enlarged by three prose characters, fourteen new lyrics +and eight touching elegies on his friend and kinsman, George Talbot. The +third edition (1640) contains a third part consisting of a prose +character of "A Holy Man" and twenty-two devotional poems. Habington's +lyrics are full of the far-fetched "conceits" which were fashionable at +court, but his verse is quite free from the prevailing looseness of +morals. Indeed his reiterated praises of Castara's virtue grow +wearisome. He is at his best in his reflective poems on the uncertainty +of human life and kindred topics. He also wrote a _Historie of Edward +the Fourth_ (1640), based on notes provided by his father; a +tragi-comedy, _The Queene of Arragon_ (1640), published without his +consent by his kinsman, the earl of Pembroke, and revived at the +Restoration; and six essays on events in modern history, _Observations +upon History_ (1641). Anthony à Wood insinuated that during the +Commonwealth the poet "did run with the times, and was not unknown to +Oliver the usurper." He died on the 30th of November 1654. + + The works of Habington have not been collected. _The Queene of + Arragon_ was reprinted in Dodsley's "Old Plays," vol. ix. (1825); + _Castara_ was edited by Charles Elton (1812), and by E. Arber with a + compact and comprehensive introduction (1870) for his "English + Reprints." + + + + +HABIT (through the French from Lat. _habitus_, from _habere_, to have, +hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many +of the English senses the French use _habitude_, not _habit_), condition +of body or mind, especially one that has become permanent or settled by +custom or persistent repetition, hence custom, usage. In botany and +zoology the term is used both in the above sense of instinctive action +of animals and tendencies of plants, and also of the manner of growth +or external appearance of a plant or animal. From the use of the word +for external appearances comes its use for fashion in dress, and hence +as a term for a lady's riding dress and for the particular form of +garment adopted by the members of a religious order, like "cowl" applied +as the mark of a monk or nun. + + + + +HABITAT (a French word derived from _habiter_, Lat. _habitare_, to +dwell), in botany and zoology, the term for the locality in which a +particular species of plants or animals thrives. + + + + +HABSBURG, or HAPSBURG, the name of the famous family from which have +sprung the dukes and archdukes of Austria from 1282, kings of Hungary +and Bohemia from 1526, and emperors of Austria from 1804. They were also +Roman emperors and German kings from 1438 to 1806, and kings of Spain +from 1516 to 1700, while the minor dignities held by them at different +times are too numerous to mention. + +The name Habsburg, a variant of an older form, Habichtsburg (hawk's +castle), was taken from the castle of Habsburg, which was situated on +the river Aar not far from its junction with the Rhine. The castle was +built about 1020 by Werner, bishop of Strassburg, and his brother, +Radbot, the founder of the abbey of Muri. These men were grandsons of a +certain Guntram, who, according to some authorities, is identical with a +Count Guntram who flourished during the reign of the emperor Otto the +Great, and whose ancestry can be traced back to the time of the +Merovingian kings. This conjecture, however, is extremely problematical. +Among Radbot's sons was one Werner, and Werner and his son Otto were +called counts of Habsburg, Otto being probably made landgrave of upper +Alsace late in the 11th or early in the 12th century. At all events +Otto's son Werner (d. 1167), and the latter's son Albert (d. 1199), held +this dignity, and both landgraves increased the area of the Habsburg +lands. Albert became count of Zürich and protector of the monastery of +Säckingen, and obtained lands in the cantons of Unterwalden and Lucerne; +his son Rudolph, having assisted Frederick of Hohenstaufen, afterwards +the emperor Frederick II., against the emperor Otto IV., received the +county of Aargau. Both counts largely increased their possessions in the +districts now known as Switzerland and Alsace, and Rudolph held an +influential place among the Swabian nobility. After his death in 1232 +his two sons, Albert and Rudolph, divided his lands and founded the +lines of Habsburg-Habsburg and Habsburg-Laufenburg. Rudolph's +descendants, counts of Habsburg-Laufenburg, were soon divided into two +branches, one of which became extinct in 1408 and the other seven years +later. Before this date, however, Laufenburg and some other districts +had been sold to the senior branch of the family, who thus managed to +retain the greater part of the Habsburg lands. + +Rudolph's brother Albert (d. 1239), landgrave of Alsace, married Hedwig +of Kyburg (d. 1260), and from this union there was born in 1218 Rudolph, +the founder of the greatness of the house of Habsburg, and the first of +the family to ascend the German throne. Through his mother he inherited +a large part of the lands of the extinct family of Zähringen; he added +in other ways to his possessions, and was chosen German king in +September 1273. Acting vigorously in his new office, he defeated and +killed his most formidable adversary, Ottakar II., king of Bohemia, in +1278, and in December 1282 he invested his sons, Albert and Rudolph, +with the duchies of Austria and Styria, which with other lands had been +taken from Ottakar. This was an event of supreme moment in the history +of the Habsburgs, and was the first and most important stage in the +process of transferring the centre of their authority from western to +eastern Europe, from the Rhine to the Danube. On Rudolph's death in July +1291 the German crown passed for a time away from the Habsburgs, but in +July 1298 it was secured by his son, Albert, whose reign, however, was +short and uneventful. But before 1308, the year of Albert's death, the +long and troubled connexion of the Habsburgs with Bohemia had already +begun. In 1306 Wenceslas III., the last Bohemian king of the +P[vr]myslide dynasty, was murdered. Seizing the opportunity and +declaring that the vacant kingdom was an imperial fief, King Albert +bestowed it upon his eldest son, Rudolph, and married this prince to +Elizabeth, widow of Wenceslas II. and stepmother of Wenceslas III. But +Rudolph died in 1307, and his father's attempt to keep the country in +his own hands was ended by his murder in 1308. + +Albert's successor as German king was Henry of Luxemburg (the emperor +Henry VII.), and this election may be said to initiate the long rivalry +between the houses of Habsburg and Luxemburg. But the immediate enemy of +the Habsburgs was not a Luxemburg but a Wittelsbach. Without making any +definite partition, Albert's five remaining sons spent their time in +governing their lands until 1314, when one of them, Frederick called the +Fair, forsook this comparatively uneventful occupation and was chosen by +a minority of the electors German king in succession to Henry VII. At +the same time the Wittelsbach duke of Bavaria, Louis, known to history +as the emperor Louis the Bavarian, was also chosen. War was inevitable, +and the battle of Mühldorf, fought in September 1322, sealed the fate of +Frederick. Louis was victorious: his rival went into an honourable +captivity, and the rising Habsburg sun underwent a temporary eclipse. + +For more than a century after Frederick's death in 1330 the Habsburgs +were exiles from the German throne. But they were not inactive. In 1335 +his two surviving brothers, Albert and Otto, inherited Carinthia and +part of Carniola by right of their mother, Elizabeth; in 1363 Albert's +son Rudolph received Tirol; and during the same century part of Istria, +Trieste and other districts were acquired. All King Albert's six sons +had died without leaving male issue save Otto, whose family became +extinct in 1344, and Albert, the ancestor of all the later Habsburgs. Of +Albert's four sons two also left no male heirs, but the remaining two, +Albert III. and Leopold III., were responsible for a division of the +family which is of some importance. By virtue of a partition made upon +their brother Rudolph's death in 1365 Albert and his descendants ruled +over Austria, while Leopold and his sons took Styria, Carinthia and +Tirol, Alsace remaining undivided as heretofore. + +Towards the middle of the 15th century the German throne had been +occupied for nearly a hundred years by members of the Luxemburg family. +The reigning emperor Sigismund, who was also king of Hungary and +Bohemia, was without sons, and his daughter Elizabeth was the wife of +Albert of Habsburg, the grandson and heir of Duke Albert III., who had +died in 1395. Sigismund died in December 1437, leaving his two kingdoms +to his son-in-law, who was crowned king of Hungary in January 1438 and +king of Bohemia in the following June. Albert was also chosen and +crowned German king in succession to Sigismund, thus beginning the long +and uninterrupted connexion of his family with the imperial throne, a +connexion which lasted until the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in +1806. He did not, however, enjoy his new dignities for long, as he died +in October 1439 while engaged in a struggle with the Turks. Albert left +no sons, but soon after his death one was born to him, called Ladislaus, +who became duke of Austria and king of Hungary and Bohemia. Under the +guardianship of his kinsman, the emperor Frederick III., the young +prince's reign was a troubled one, and when he died unmarried in 1457 +his branch of the family became extinct, and Hungary and Bohemia passed +away from the Habsburgs, who managed, however, to retain Austria. + +Leopold III., duke of Carinthia and Styria, who was killed in 1386 at +the battle of Sempach, had four sons, of whom two only, Frederick and +Ernest, left male issue. Frederick and his only son, Sigismund, confined +their attention mainly to Tirol and Alsace, leaving the larger destinies +of the family in the hands of Ernest of Carinthia and Styria (d. 1424) +and his sons, Frederick and Albert and after the death of King Ladislaus +in 1457 these two princes and their cousin Sigismund were the only +representatives of the Habsburgs. In February 1440 Frederick of Styria +was chosen German king in succession to his kinsman Albert. He was a +weak and incompetent ruler, but a stronger and abler man might have +shrunk from the task of administering his heterogeneous and unruly +realm. Although very important in the history of the house of Habsburg, +Frederick's long reign was a period of misfortune, and the motto which +he assumed, A.E.I.O.U. (_Austriae est imperare orbi universo_), seemed +at the time a particularly foolish boast. He acted as guardian both to +Ladislaus of Hungary, Bohemia and Austria, and to Sigismund of Tirol, +and in all these countries his difficulties were increased by the +hostility of his brother Albert. Having disgusted the Tirolese he gave +up the guardianship of their prince in 1446, while in Hungary and +Bohemia he did absolutely nothing to establish the authority of his +ward; in 1452 the Austrians besieged him in Vienna Neustadt and +compelled him to surrender the person of Ladislaus, thus ending even his +nominal authority. When the young king died in 1457 the Habsburgs lost +Hungary and Bohemia, but they retained Austria, which, after some +disputing, Frederick and Albert divided between themselves, the former +taking lower and the latter upper Austria. This arrangement was of short +duration. In 1461 Albert made war upon his brother and forced him to +resign lower Austria, which, however, he recovered after Albert's death +in December 1463. Still more unfortunate was the German king in +Switzerland. For many years the Swiss had chafed under the rule of the +Habsburgs; during the reign of Rudolph I. they had shown signs of +resentment as the kingly power increased; and the struggle which had +been carried on for nearly two centuries had been almost uniformly in +their favour. It was marked by the victory of Morgarten over Duke +Leopold I. in 1315, and by that of Sempach over Leopold III. in 1386, by +the conquest of Aargau at the instigation of the emperor Sigismund early +in the 15th century, and by the final struggle for freedom against +Frederick III. and Sigismund of Tirol. Taking advantage of some +dissensions among the Swiss, the king saw an opportunity to recover his +lost lands, and in 1443 war broke out. But his allies, the men of +Zürich, were defeated, and when in August 1444 some French mercenaries, +who had advanced to his aid, suffered the same fate at St Jakob, he was +compelled to give up the struggle. A few years later Sigismund became +involved in a war with the same formidable foemen; he too was worsted, +and the "Perpetual Peace" of 1474 ended the rule of the Habsburgs in +Switzerland. This humiliation was the second great step in the process +of removing the Habsburgs from western to eastern Europe. In 1453, just +after his coronation as emperor at Rome, Frederick legalized the use of +the title archduke, which had been claimed spasmodically by the +Habsburgs since 1361. This title is now peculiar to the house of +Habsburg. + +The reverses suffered by the Habsburgs during the reign of Frederick +III. were many and serious, but an improvement was at hand. The emperor +died in August 1493, and was followed on the imperial throne by his son +Maximilian I., perhaps the most versatile and interesting member of the +family. Before his father's death Maximilian had been chosen German +king, or king of the Romans, and had begun to repair the fortunes of his +house. He had married Mary, daughter and heiress of Charles the Bold, +duke of Burgundy; he had driven the Hungarians from Vienna and the +Austrian archduchies, which Frederick had, perforce, allowed them to +occupy; and he had received Tirol on the abdication of Sigismund in +1490. True it is that upon Mary's death in 1482 part of her inheritance, +the rich and prosperous Netherlands, held that her husband's authority +was at an end, while another part, the two Burgundies and Artois, had +been seized by the king of France; nevertheless, after a protracted +struggle the German king secured almost the whole of Charles the Bold's +lands for his son, the archduke Philip, the duchy of Burgundy alone +remaining in the power of France after the conclusion of the peace of +Senlis in 1493. Maximilian completed his work by adding a piece of +Bavaria, Görz and then Gradiska to the Habsburg lands. + +After Sigismund's death in 1496 Maximilian and Philip were the only +living male members of the family. Philip married Joanna, daughter of +Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, and died in 1506 leaving two sons, +Charles and Ferdinand. Charles succeeded his father in the Netherlands; +he followed one grandfather, Ferdinand, as king of Spain in 1516, and +when the other, Maximilian, died in 1519 he became the emperor Charles +V., and succeeded to all the hereditary lands of the Habsburgs. But +provision had to be made for Ferdinand, and in 1521 this prince was +given the Austrian archduchies, Austria, Styria, Carinthia and Carniola; +in the same year he married Anne, daughter of Wladislaus, king of +Hungary and Bohemia, and when his childless brother-in-law, King Louis, +was killed at the battle of Mohacs in August 1526 he claimed the two +kingdoms, both by right of his wife and by treaty. After a little +trouble Bohemia passed under his rule, but Hungary was more +recalcitrant. A long war took place between Ferdinand and John Zapolya, +who was also crowned king of Hungary, but in 1538 a treaty was made and +the country was divided, the Habsburg prince receiving the western and +smaller portion. However, he was soon confronted with a more formidable +foe, and he spent a large part of his subsequent life in defending his +lands from the attacks of the Turks. + +The Habsburgs had now reached the summit of their power. The prestige +which belonged to Charles as head of the Holy Roman Empire was backed by +the wealth and commerce of the Netherlands and of Spain, and by the +riches of the Spanish colonies in America. In Italy he ruled over +Sardinia, Naples and Sicily, which had passed to him with Spain, and the +duchy of Milan, which he had annexed in 1535; to the Netherlands he had +added Friesland, the bishopric of Utrecht, Gröningen and Gelderland, and +he still possessed Franche-Comté and the fragments of the Habsburg lands +in Alsace and the neighbourhood. Add to this Ferdinand's inheritance, +the Austrian archduchies and Tirol, Bohemia with her dependent +provinces, and a strip of Hungary, and the two brothers had under their +sway a part of Europe the extent of which was great, but the wealth and +importance of which were immeasurably greater. Able to scorn the rivalry +of the other princely houses of Germany, the Habsburgs saw in the kings +of the house of Valois the only foemen worthy of their regard. + +When Charles V. abdicated he was succeeded as emperor, not by his son +Philip, but by his brother Ferdinand. Philip became king of Spain, +ruling also the Netherlands, Franche-Comté, Naples, Sicily, Milan and +Sardinia, and the family was definitely divided into the Spanish and +Austrian branches. For Spain and the Spanish Habsburgs the 17th century +was a period of loss and decay, the seeds of which were sown during the +reign of Philip II. The northern provinces of the Netherlands were lost +practically in 1609 and definitely by the treaty of Westphalia in 1648; +Roussillon and Artois were annexed to France by the treaty of the +Pyrenees in 1659, while Franche-Comté and a number of towns in the +Spanish Netherlands suffered a similar fate by the treaty of Nijmwegen +in 1678. Finally Charles II., the last Habsburg king of Spain, died +childless in November 1700, and his lands were the prize of the War of +the Spanish Succession. The Austrian Habsburgs fought long and valiantly +for the kingdom of their kinsman, but Louis XIV. was too strong for +them, and by the peace of Rastatt Spain passed from the Habsburgs to the +Bourbons. However, the Austrian branch of the family received in 1714 +the Italian possessions of Charles II., except Sicily, which was given +to the duke of Savoy, and also the southern Netherlands, which are thus +often referred to as the Austrian Netherlands; and retained the duchy of +Mantua, which it had seized in 1708. + +Ferdinand I., the founder of the line of the Austrian Habsburgs, +arranged a division of his lands among his three sons before his death +in 1564. The eldest, Maximilian II., received Austria, Bohemia and +Hungary, and succeeded his father as emperor; he married Maria, a +daughter of Charles V., and though he had a large family his male line +became extinct in 1619. The younger sons were Ferdinand, ruler of Tirol, +and Charles, archduke of Styria. The emperor Maximilian II. left five +sons, two of whom, Rudolph and Matthias, succeeded in turn to the +imperial throne, but, as all the brothers were without male issue, the +family was early in the 17th century threatened with a serious crisis. +Rudolph died in 1612, the reigning emperor Matthias was old and ill, and +the question of the succession to the Empire, to the kingdoms of +Hungary and Bohemia, and to the hereditary lands of the Habsburgs became +acute. Turning to the collateral branches of the family, the sons of the +archduke Ferdinand were debarred from the succession owing to their +father's morganatic marriage with Philippine Welser, and the only hope +of the house was in the sons of Charles of Styria. To prevent the +Habsburg monarchy from falling to pieces the emperor's two surviving +brothers renounced their rights, and it was decided that Ferdinand, a +son of Charles of Styria, should succeed his cousin Matthias. The +difficulties which impeded the completion of this scheme were gradually +overcome, and the result was that when Matthias died in 1619 the whole +of the lands of the Austrian Habsburgs was united under the rule of the +emperor Ferdinand II. Tirol, indeed, a few years later was separated +from the rest of the monarchy and given to the emperor's brother, the +archduke Leopold, but this separation was ended when Leopold's son died +in 1665. + +The arbitrary measures which followed Ferdinand's acquisition of the +Bohemian crown contributed to the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War, but +in a short time the Bohemians were subdued, and in 1627, following a +precedent set in 1547, the emperor declared the throne hereditary in the +house of Habsburg. The treaty of Westphalia which ended this war took +comparatively little from the Habsburgs, though they ceded Alsace to +France; but the Empire was greatly weakened, and its ruler was more than +ever compelled to make his hereditary lands in the east of Europe the +base of his authority, finding that he derived more strength from his +position as archduke of Austria than from that of emperor. Ferdinand +III. succeeded his father Ferdinand II., and during the long reign of +the former's son, Leopold I., the Austrian, like the Spanish, Habsburgs +were on the defensive against the aggressive policy of Louis XIV., and +in addition they had to withstand the assaults of the Turks. In two ways +they sought to strengthen their position. The unity of the Austrian +lands was strictly maintained, and several marriages kept up a close and +friendly connexion with Spain. A series of victories over the sultan +during the later part of the 17th century rolled back the tide of the +Turkish advance, and the peace of Karlowitz made in 1699 gave nearly the +whole of Hungary to the Habsburgs. Against France Austria was less +successful, and a number of humiliations culminated in 1714 in the +failure to secure Spain, to which reference has already been made. + +The hostility of Austria and France, or rather of Habsburg and Bourbon, +outlived the War of the Spanish Succession. In 1717 Spain conquered +Sardinia, which was soon exchanged by Austria for Sicily; other +struggles and other groupings of the European powers followed, and in +1735, by the treaty of Vienna, Austria gave up Naples and Sicily and +received the duchies of Parma and Piacenza. These surrenders were +doubtless inevitable, but they shook the position of the house of +Habsburg in Italy. However, a domestic crisis was approaching which +threw Italian affairs into the shade. Charles VI., who had succeeded his +brother, Joseph I., as emperor in 1711, was without sons, and his prime +object in life was to secure the succession of his elder daughter, Maria +Theresa, to the whole of his lands and dignities. But in 1713, four +years before the birth of Maria Theresa, he had first issued the famous +_Pragmatic Sanction_, which declared that the Habsburg monarchy was +indivisible and that in default of male heirs a female could succeed to +it. Then after the death of his only son and the birth of Maria Theresa +the emperor bent all his energies to securing the acceptance of the +Pragmatic Sanction. Promulgated anew in 1724, it was formally accepted +by the estates of the different Habsburg lands; in 1731 it was +guaranteed by the imperial diet. By subordinating every other interest +to this, Charles at length procured the assent of the various powers of +Europe to the proposed arrangement; he married the young princess to +Francis Stephen, duke of Lorraine, afterwards grand-duke of Tuscany, and +when he died on the 20th of October 1740 he appeared to have realized +his great ambition. With the emperor's death the house of Habsburg, +strictly speaking, became extinct, its place being taken by the house of +Habsburg-Lorraine, which sprang from the union of Maria Theresa and +Francis Stephen; and it is interesting to note that the present +Habsburgs are only descended in the female line from Rudolph I. and +Maximilian I. + + +GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE HOUSE OF HABSBURG-LORRAINE. + + Maria Theresa (1717-1780) = Francis I., emperor (1708-1765). + | + +-------------------+-----------+----------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | | | | + Joseph II., emperor Leopold II., emperor Maximilian, elector of Cologne | + (1741-1790). (1747-1792). (1756-1801). | + | + +--------------------+--------------------+--------------+-------------+-------------+------------+--------------+-------------+--------------+ | + | | | | | | | | | | | + Francis II., emperor Ferdinand III., Charles Leopold Joseph Antony John Rainer Louis Rudolph | + (1768-1835). grand-duke of Tuscany (1771-1847). (1772-1795). (1776-1847). (1780-1835). (1782-1859). (1783-1853). (1784-1864). (1788-1831). | + | (1769-1824). | | | | + | (see below.) | | +-------------+------------+-+------------+-----------+ | + | | | | | | | | | + +----+-----------------+ | Joseph Leopold Ernest Sigismund Rainer Henry | + | | | (1833-1905). (1823-1898). (1824-1899). (1826-1891). (b. 1827). (1828-1891). | + Ferdinand I. Francis Charles | | | + emperor of Austria (1802-1878). | | | + (1793-1875). | +-------------------+ Joseph Augustus +-----------------+ + | | (b. 1872). | + +------------------+---+---------------+--------------+ | | | + | | | | | +--+--------------+ | + Francis Joseph, Maximilian, Charles Louis Louis Victor | | | | + emperor of Austria emperor of Mexico (1833-1896). (b. 1842). | Joseph Francis Ladislaus Ferdinand, duke of Modena + (b. 1830). (1832-1867). | | (b. 1895). (b. 1901). (1754-1806). + | | | | + Rudolph +-----------------+------+--------+ +--+----------------+---------------+ +---------------+-----------+ + (1858-1889). | | | | | | | | | + Francis Ferdinand Otto Ferdinand Albert, Charles Ferdinand William Francis IV. Maximilian Ferdinand + (b. 1863). (1865-1906). Charles Louis duke of Teschen (1818-1874). (1827-1894). duke of Modena Joseph (1781-1850). + | (b. 1868). (1817-1895). | (1779-1846). (1782-1863). + | | | + +----------+-----------+ | | + | | | | + Charles Francis Joseph Maximilian Eugene +------------------+-+-----------+ +--+-----------+ + (b. 1887). (b. 1895). | | | | | + Frederick Charles Stephen Eugene Francis V., Ferdinand + duke of Teschen (b. 1860). (b. 1863). duke of Modena (1821-1849). + (b. 1856). | (1819-1875). + | | + | +-----+---------+------------+ + | | | | + Albert Charles Albert Leo Charles William + (b. 1897). (b. 1888). (b. 1893). (b. 1895). + + + TUSCANY. + + Ferdinand III., grand-duke of Tuscany + (1769-1824). + | + Leopold II., grand-duke of Tuscany + (1797-1870). + | + +------------------------+--------------------+----------+--------------------+ + | | | | + Ferdinand IV. Louis Salvator Charles Salvator John Nepomuck Salvator + grand-duke of Tuscany (b. 1847). (1839-1892). (1852-1891). + (b. 1835). | + | +--------+-------------+----------------+ + +--------------------+---+--------------+-----------------+ | | | + | | | | Leopold Salvator Francis Salvator Albert Salvator + Leopold Ferdinand Joseph Ferdinand Peter Ferdinand Henry Ferdinand (b. 1863). (b. 1866). (1871-1896). + (b. 1872). (b. 1874). (b. 1878). | | + | | +----------+-+--------+-----------+ + +-------+----+ | | | | | + | | | Francis Charles Hubert Theodore Clement + Godfrey George | Salvator Salvator Salvator Salvator + (b. 1902). (b. 1905). | (b. 1893). (b. 1894). (b. 1899). (b. 1904). + | + +--------------+-----------+--------------+ + | | | | + Rainer Charles Leopold Antony Francis Joseph + (b. 1895). (b. 1897). (b. 1901). (b. 1905). + +Immediately after the death of Charles the Pragmatic Sanction was +forgotten. A crowd of claimants called for various parts of the Habsburg +lands; Frederick the Great, talking less but acting more, invaded and +conquered Silesia, and it seemed likely that the dissolution of the +Habsburg monarchy would at no long interval follow the extinction of the +Habsburg race. A Wittelsbach prince, Charles Albert, elector of Bavaria, +the emperor Charles VII., and not Francis Stephen, was chosen emperor in +January 1742, and by the treaty of Breslau, made later in the same year, +nearly all Silesia was formally surrendered to Prussia. But the worst +was now over, and when in 1748 the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, which +practically confirmed the treaty of Breslau, had cleared away the dust +of war, Maria Theresa and her consort were found to occupy a strong +position in Europe. In the first place, in September 1745, Francis had +been chosen emperor; then the imperial pair ruled Hungary and Bohemia, +although the latter kingdom was shorn of Silesia; in spite of French +conquests the Austrian Netherlands remained in their hands; and in Italy +Francis had added Tuscany to his wife's heritage, although Parma and +Piacenza had been surrendered to Spain and part of Milan to the king of +Sardinia. The diplomatic _volte-face_ and the futile attempts of Maria +Theresa to recover Silesia which followed this treaty belong to the +general history of Europe. + +The emperor Francis I. died in 1765 and was succeeded by his son Joseph +II., an ambitious and able prince, whose aim was to restore the +Habsburgs and the Empire to their former great positions in Europe, and +whose pride did not prevent him from learning from Frederick the Great, +the despoiler of his house. His projects, however, including one of +uniting Bavaria with Austria, which was especially cherished, failed +completely, and when he died in February 1790 he left his lands in a +state of turbulence which reflected the general condition of Europe. The +Netherlands had risen against the Austrians, and in January 1790 had +declared themselves independent; Hungary, angered by Joseph's despotic +measures, was in revolt, and the other parts of the monarchy were hardly +more contented. But the 18th century saw a few successes for the +Habsburgs. In 1718 a successful war with Turkey was ended by the peace +of Passarowitz, which advanced the Austrian boundary very considerably +to the east, and although by the treaty of Belgrade, signed twenty-one +years later, a large part of this territory was surrendered, yet a +residuum, the banate of Temesvar, was permanently incorporated with +Hungary. The struggle over the succession to Bavaria, which was +concluded in 1779 by the treaty of Teschen, was responsible for adding +Innviertel, or the quarter of the Inn, to Austria; the first partition +of Poland brought eastern Galicia and Lodomeria, and in 1777 the sultan +ceded Bukovina. Joseph II. was followed by his brother, Leopold II., who +restored the Austrian authority in the Netherlands, and the latter by +his son Francis II., who resigned the crown of the Holy Roman Empire in +August 1806, having two years before taken the title of emperor of +Austria as Francis I. + +Before the abdication of the emperor Francis in 1806 Austria had met and +suffered from the fury of revolutionary France, but the cessions of +territory made by her at the treaties of Campo Formio (1797), of +Lunéville (1801) and of Pressburg (1805) were of no enduring importance. +This, however, cannot be said for the treaties of Paris and of Vienna, +which in 1814 and 1815 arranged the map of Europe upon the conclusion of +the Napoleonic wars. These were highly favourable to the Habsburgs. In +eastern and central Europe Austria regained her former position, the +lands ceded to Bavaria and also eastern Galicia, which had been in the +hands of Russia since 1809, being restored; she gave up the Austrian +Netherlands, soon to be known as Belgium, to the new kingdom of the +Netherlands, and acquiesced in the arrangement which had taken from her +the Breisgau and the remnant of the Habsburg lands upon the Rhine. In +return for these losses Austria became the dominant power In Italy. A +mass of northern Italy, including her former possessions in Milan and +the neighbourhood, and also the lands recently forming the republic of +Venice, was made into the kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia, and this owned +the emperor of Austria as king. Across the Adriatic Dalmatia was added +to the Habsburg monarchy, the population of which, it has been +estimated, was increased at this time by over four millions. + +The illiberal and oppressive character of the Austrian rule in Italy +made it very unpopular; it was hardly less so in Hungary and Bohemia, +and the advent of the year 1848 found the subject kingdoms eager to +throw off the Habsburg yoke. The whole monarchy was quickly in a state +of revolution, in the midst of which the emperor Ferdinand, who had +succeeded his father Francis in 1835, abdicated, and his place was taken +by his young nephew Francis Joseph. The position of the Habsburg +monarchy now seemed desperate. But it was strong in its immemorial +tradition, which was enough to make the efforts of the Frankfort +parliament to establish German unity under Prussian hegemony abortive; +it was strong also in the general loyalty to the throne of the imperial +army; and its counsels were directed by statesmen who knew well how to +exploit in the interests of the central power the national rivalries +within the monarchy. With the crushing of the Hungarian revolt by the +emperor Nicholas I. of Russia in 1849 the monarchy was freed from the +most formidable of its internal troubles; in 1850 the convention of +Olmütz restored its influence in Germany. + +Though the _status quo_ was thus outwardly re-established, the +revolutions of 1848 had really unchained forces which made its +maintenance impossible. In Germany Prussia was steadily preparing for +the inevitable struggle with Austria for the mastery; in France Napoleon +III. was preparing to pose as the champion of the oppressed +nationalities which had once more settled down sullenly under the +Habsburg yoke. The alliance of the French emperor and the king of +Sardinia, and the Italian war of 1859 ended in the loss of Lombardy to +the Habsburgs. Seven years later the crushing defeat of Königgrätz not +only ended their long rule in Italy, based on the tradition of the +medieval empire, by leading to the cession of Venetia to the new Italian +kingdom, but led to their final exclusion from the German confederation, +soon to become, under the headship of Prussia, the German empire. + +By the loss of the predominance in Germany conceded to it by the +treaties of Vienna, and by the shifting of its "centre of gravity" +eastward, the Habsburg monarchy, however, perhaps gained more than it +lost. One necessary result, indeed, was the composition (_Ausgleich_) +with Hungary in 1867, by which the latter became an independent state +(Francis Joseph being crowned king at Pest in June 1867) bound to the +rest of the monarchy only by the machinery necessary for the carrying +out of a common policy in matters of common interest. This at least +restored the loyalty of the Hungarians to the Habsburg dynasty; it is +too soon yet to say that it secured permanently the essential unity of +the Habsburg monarchy. By the system of the Dual Monarchy the rest of +the Austrian emperor's dominions (Cis-Leithan) were consolidated under a +single central government, the history of which has been mainly that of +the rival races within the empire struggling for political predominance. +Since the development of the constitution has been consistently in a +democratic direction and the Slavs are in a great majority, the tendency +has been for the German element--strong in its social status and +tradition of predominance--to be swamped by what it regards as an +inferior race; and a considerable number of Austrian "Germans" have +learned to look not to their Habsburg rulers, but to the power of the +German empire for political salvation. The tendency eastwards of the +monarchy was increased when in 1878 the congress of Berlin placed Bosnia +and Herzegovina under Austrian rule. Old ambitions were now revived at +the expense of the Ottoman empire, the goal of which was the port of +Salonica; and not the least menacing aspect of the question of the near +East has been that the rivalry of Italy and the Habsburg monarchy has +been transferred to the Balkan peninsula. Yet, in spite of internal +dissensions arising out of questions fundamentally insoluble, and in +spite of the constant threat of external complications that may lead to +war, the Habsburg monarchy as the result of the changes in the 19th and +20th centuries is seemingly stronger than ever. The shadow of universal +claims to empire and sonorous but empty titles have vanished, but so +have the manifold rivalries and entanglements which accompanied the +Habsburg rule in Italy and the Netherlands and Habsburg preponderance in +Germany. The monarchy is stronger because its sphere is more defined; +because as preserving the _pax Romana_ among the jostling races of +eastern Europe, it is more than ever recognized as an essential element +in the maintenance of European peace, and is recognized as necessary and +beneficial even by the ambitious and restless nationalities that chafe +under its rule. + +A few words must be said about the cadet branches of the Habsburg +family. When, in 1765, Francis I. died and Joseph II. became emperor, +the grand-duchy of Tuscany passed by special arrangement not to Joseph, +but to his younger brother Leopold. Then in 1791, after Leopold had +succeeded Joseph as emperor, he handed over the grand-duchy to his +second son, Ferdinand (1769-1824). In 1801 this prince was deposed by +Napoleon and Tuscany was seized by France. Restored to the Habsburgs in +the person of Ferdinand in 1814, it remained under his rule, and then +under that of his son Leopold (1797-1870), until the rising of 1859, +when the Austrians were driven out and the grand-duchy was added to the +kingdom of Sardinia. A similar fate attended the duchy of Modena, which +had passed to the Habsburgs through the marriage of its heiress Mary +Beatrice of Este (d. 1829) with the archduke Ferdinand (1754-1806), +brother of the emperor Leopold II. From 1814 to 1846 this duchy was +governed by Ferdinand's son, Duke Francis IV., and from 1846 to 1859 by +his grandson, Francis V. This family became extinct on the death of +Francis V. in 1875. + +In addition to his successor Francis II., and to Ferdinand, grand-duke +of Tuscany, the emperor Leopold II. had eight sons, five of whom, +including the archduke John (1782-1859), who saw a good deal of service +during the Napoleonic Wars and was chosen regent (_Reichsverweser_) of +Germany in 1848, have now no living male descendants. Thus the existing +branches of the family are descended from Leopold's five other sons. The +descendants of Leopold, the dispossessed grand-duke of Tuscany, were in +1909 represented by his son, Ferdinand (b. 1835), who still claimed the +title of grand-duke of Tuscany, and his son and grandsons; by the +numerous descendants of the archduke Charles Salvator (1830-1892); and +by the archduke Louis Salvator (b. 1847), a great traveller and a +voluminous writer. The grand-duke's fourth son was the archduke John +Nepomuck Salvator, who, after serving in the Austrian army, resigned all +his rights and titles and under the name of Johann Orth took command of +a sailing vessel. He is supposed to have been drowned off the coast of +South America in 1891, but reports of his continued existence were +circulated from time to time after that date. Of the emperor Leopold's +other sons the archduke Charles, perhaps the most distinguished soldier +of the family, left four sons, including Albert, duke of Teschen +(1817-1895), who inherited some of his father's military ability. +Charles's family was in 1909 represented by his grandsons, the sons of +the archduke Charles Ferdinand (1818-1874). The archduke Joseph +(1776-1847), palatine of Hungary, was represented by a grandson, Joseph +Augustus (b. 1872), and the archduke Rainer (1783-1853), viceroy of +Lombardy-Venetia, by a son Rainer (b. 1827), and by several grandsons. + +The eldest and reigning branch of the family was in 1909 represented by +the emperor Francis Joseph, whose father was the archduke Francis +Charles (1802-1878), and whose grandfather was the emperor Francis II. +Francis Joseph's only son Rudolph died in 1889; consequently the heir to +the Habsburg monarchy was the emperor's nephew Francis Ferdinand (b. +1863), the eldest of the three sons of his brother Charles Louis +(1833-1896). In 1875 Francis Ferdinand inherited the wealth of the Este +family and took the title of archduke of Austria-Este; in 1900 he +contracted a morganatic marriage with Sophia, countess of Chotek, +renouncing for his sons the succession to the monarchy. Thus after +Francis Ferdinand this would pass to the sons of his brother, the +archduke Otto (1865-1906). One of the emperor's three brothers was +Maximilian, emperor of Mexico from 1863 to 1867. + +With the exception of Charles V. the Habsburgs have produced no +statesmen of great ability, while several members of the family have +displayed marked traces of insanity. Nevertheless they secured, and for +over 350 years they kept, the first place among the potentates of +Europe; a dignity in origin and theory elective becoming in practice +hereditary in their house. This position they owe to some extent to the +tenacity with which they have clung to the various lands and dignities +which have passed into their possession, but they owe it much more to a +series of fortunate marriages and opportune deaths. The union of +Maximilian and Mary of Burgundy, of Philip the Handsome and Joanna of +Spain, of Ferdinand and Anna of Hungary and Bohemia; the death of +Ottakar of Bohemia, of John, the only son of Ferdinand and Isabella of +Spain, of Louis of Hungary and Bohemia--these are the corner-stones upon +which the Habsburg monarchy has been built. + + For the origin and early history of the Habsburgs see G. de Roo, + _Annales rerum ab Austriacis Habsburgicae gentis principibus a + Rudolpho I. usque ad Carolum V. gestarum_ (Innsbruck, 1592, fol.); M. + Herrgott, _Genealogia diplomatica augustae gentis Habsburgicae_ + (Vienna, 1737-1738); E. M. Fürst von Lichnowsky, _Geschichte des + Hauses Habsburg_ (Vienna, 1836-1844); A. Schulte, _Geschichte der + Habsburger in den ersten drei Jahrhunderten_ (Innsbruck, 1887); T. von + Liebenau, _Die Anfänge des Hauses Habsburg_ (Vienna, 1883); W. Merz, + _Die Habsburg_ (Aarau, 1896); W. Gisi, _Der Ursprung der Häuser + Zähringen und Habsburg_ (1888); and F. Weihrich, _Stammtafel zur + Geschichte des Hauses Habsburg_ (Vienna, 1893). For the history of the + Habsburg monarchy see Langl, _Die Habsburg und die denkwürdigen + Stätten ihrer Umgebung_ (Vienna, 1895); and E. A. Freeman, _Historical + Geography of Europe_ (1881). Two English books on the subject are J. + Gilbart-Smith, _The Cradle of the Hapsburgs_ (1907); and A. R. and E. + Colquhoun, _The Whirlpool of Europe, Austria-Hungary and the + Hapsburgs_ (1906). (A. W. H.*) + + + + +HACHETTE, JEAN NICOLAS PIERRE (1769-1834), French mathematician, was +born at Mézières, where his father was a bookseller, on the 6th of May +1769. For his early education he proceeded first to the college of +Charleville, and afterwards to that of Reims. In 1788 he returned to +Mézières, where he was attached to the school of engineering as +draughtsman to the professors of physics and chemistry. In 1793 he +became professor of hydrography at Collioure and Port-Vendre. While +there he sent several papers, in which some questions of navigation were +treated geometrically, to Gaspard Monge, at that time minister of +marine, through whose influence he obtained an appointment in Paris. +Towards the close of 1794, when the École Polytechnique was established, +he was appointed along with Monge over the department of descriptive +geometry. There he instructed some of the ablest Frenchmen of the day, +among them S. D. Poisson, F. Arago and A. Fresnel. Accompanying Guyton +de Morveau in his expedition, earlier in the year, he was present at the +battle of Fleurus, and entered Brussels with the French army. In 1816, +on the accession of Louis XVIII., he was expelled from his chair by +government. He retained, however, till his death the office of professor +in the faculty of sciences in the École Normale, to which he had been +appointed in 1810. The necessary royal assent was in 1823 refused to the +election of Hachette to the Académie des Sciences, and it was not till +1831, after the Revolution, that he obtained that honour. He died at +Paris on the 16th of January 1834. Hachette was held in high esteem for +his private worth, as well as for his scientific attainments and great +public services. His labours were chiefly in the field of descriptive +geometry, with its application to the arts and mechanical engineering. +It was left to him to develop the geometry of Monge, and to him also is +due in great measure the rapid advancement which France made soon after +the establishment of the École Polytechnique in the construction of +machinery. + + Hachette's principal works are his _Deux Supplements à la Géométrie + descriptive de Monge_ (1811 and 1818); _Éléments de géométrie à trois + dimensions_ (1817); _Collection des épures de géométrie_, &c. (1795 + and 1817); _Applications de géométrie descriptive_ (1817); _Traité de + géométrie descriptive_, &c. (1822); _Traité élémentaire des machines_ + (1811); _Correspondance sur l'École Polytechnique_ (1804-1815). He + also contributed many valuable papers to the leading scientific + journals of his time. + + For a list of Hachette's writings see the _Catalogue of Scientific + Papers of the Royal Society of London_; also F. Arago, _Oeuvres_ + (1855); and Silvestre, _Notice sur J. N. P. Hachette_ (Bruxelles, + 1836). + + + + +HACHETTE, JEANNE, French heroine. Jeanne Lainé, or Fourquet, called +Jeanne Hachette, was born about 1454. We have no precise information +about her family or origin. She is known solely for her act of heroism +which on the 27th of June 1472 saved Beauvais when it was on the point +of being taken by the troops of Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy. The +town was defended by only 300 men-at-arms, commanded by Louis de +Balagny. The Burgundians were making an assault, and one of their number +had actually planted a flag upon the battlements, when Jeanne, axe in +hand, flung herself upon him, hurled him into the moat, tore down the +flag, and revived the drooping courage of the garrison. In gratitude for +this heroic deed, Louis XI. instituted a procession in Beauvais called +the Procession of the Assault, and married Jeanne to her chosen lover +Colin Pilon, loading them with favours. + + See Georges Vallat, _Jeanne Hachette_ (Abbeville, 1898). + + + + +HACHETTE, LOUIS CHRISTOPHE FRANÇOIS (1800-1864), French publisher, was +born at Rethel in the Ardennes on the 5th of May 1800. After studying +three years at a normal school with the view of becoming a teacher, he +was in 1822 on political grounds expelled from the seminary. He then +studied law, but in 1826 he established in Paris a publishing business +for the issue of works adapted to improve the system of school +instruction, or to promote the general culture of the community. He +published manuals in various departments of knowledge, dictionaries of +modern and ancient languages, educational journals, and French, Latin +and Greek classics annotated with great care by the most eminent +authorities. Subsequently to 1850 he, in conjunction with other +partners, published a cheap railway library, scientific and +miscellaneous libraries, an illustrated library for the young, libraries +of ancient literature, of modern foreign literature, and of modern +foreign romance, a series of guide-books and a series of dictionaries of +universal reference. In 1855 he also founded _Le Journal pour tous_, a +publication with a circulation of 150,000 weekly. Hachette also +manifested great interest in the formation of mutual friendly societies +among the working classes, in the establishment of benevolent +institutions, and in other questions relating to the amelioration of the +poor, on which subjects he wrote various pamphlets; and he lent the +weight of his influence towards a just settlement of the question of +international literary copyright. He died on the 31st of July 1864. + + + + +HACHURE (French for "hatching"), the term for the conventional lines +used in hill or mountain shading upon a map (q.v.) to indicate the slope +of the surface, the depth of shading being greatest where the slope is +steepest. The method is less accurate than that of contour lines, but +gives an indication of the trend and extent of a range or mountain +system, especially upon small-scale maps. + + + + +HACIENDA (O. Span, _facienda_, from the Latin, meaning "things to be +done"), a Spanish term for a landed estate. It is commonly applied in +Spanish America to a country estate, on which stock-raising, +manufacturing or mining may be carried on, usually with a dwelling-house +for the owner's residence upon it. It is thus used loosely for a country +house. + + + + +HACKBERRY, a name given to the fruit of _Celtis occidentalis_, belonging +to the natural botanical order _Ulmaceae_, to which also belongs the elm +(_Ulmus_). It is also known under the name of "sugar-berry," +"beaver-wood" and "nettle-tree." The hackberry tree is of middle size, +attaining from 60 to 80 ft. in height (though sometimes reaching 130 +ft.), and with the aspect of an elm. The leaves are ovate in shape, with +a very long taper point, rounded and usually very oblique at the base, +usually glabrous above and soft-pubescent beneath. The soft filmy +flowers appear early in the spring before the expansion of the leaves. +The fruit is oblong, about half to three-quarters of an inch long, of a +reddish or yellowish colour when young, turning to a dark purple in +autumn. This tree is distributed through the deep shady forests +bordering river banks from Canada (where it is very rare) to the +southern states. The fruit has a sweetish and slightly astringent taste, +and is largely eaten in the United States. The seeds contain an oil like +that of almonds. The bark is tough and fibrous like hemp, and the wood +is heavy, soft, fragile and coarse-grained, and is used for making +fences and furniture. The root has been used as a dye for linens. + + + + +HACKENSACK, a town and the county-seat of Bergen county, New Jersey, +U.S.A., on the Hackensack river, 13 m. N. of Jersey City. Pop. (1890), +6004; (1900), 9443, of whom 2009 were foreign-born and 515 were negroes; +(1905) 11,098; (1910) 14,050. It is served by the New York, Susquehanna +& Western, and the New Jersey & New York railways, both being controlled +by the Erie Company; and indirectly by the West Shore (at Bogota, ½ m. +S.E.). Electric lines connect Hackensack with Newark, Passaic and +Paterson, and with New York ferries. The town extends from the low bank +of the river W. to the top of a ridge, about 40 ft. higher up, from +which there are good views to the S. and E. Hackensack is principally a +residential town, though there are a number of manufacturing +establishments in and near it. Silk and silk goods and wall-paper are +the principal manufactures. In 1905 the value of the town's factory +product was $1,488,358, an increase of 90.3% since 1900. There are an +historic mansion-house and an interesting old Dutch church, both erected +during the 18th century; and a monument marks the grave of General Enoch +Poor (1736-1780), an officer in the War of Independence, who was born at +Andover, Mass., entered the Continental Army from New Hampshire, and +took part in the campaign against Burgoyne, in the battle of Monmouth +and in General Sullivan's expedition against the Iroquois. Hackensack +was settled by the Dutch about 1640, and was named after the Hackensack +Indians, a division of the Unami Delawares, who lived in the valleys of +the Hackensack and Passaic rivers, and whose best-known chief was +Oritany, a friend of the whites. Hackensack is coextensive with the +township of New Barbadoes, first incorporated with considerably larger +territory in 1693. + + + + +HACKET, JOHN (1592-1670), bishop of Lichfield and Coventry, was born in +London and educated at Westminster and Trinity College, Cambridge. On +taking his degree he was elected a fellow of his college, and soon +afterwards wrote the comedy of _Loiola_ (London, 1648), which was twice +performed before James I. He was ordained in 1618, and through the +influence of John Williams (1582-1650) became rector in 1621 of Stoke +Hammond, Bucks, and Kirkby Underwood, Lincolnshire. In 1623 he was +chaplain to James, and in 1624 Williams presented him to the livings of +St Andrew's, Holborn, and Cheam, Surrey. When the so-called +"root-and-branch bill" was before parliament in 1641, Hacket was +selected to plead in the House of Commons for the continuance of +cathedral establishments. In 1645 his living of St Andrew's was +sequestered, but he was allowed to retain the rectory of Cheam. On the +accession of Charles II. his fortunes improved; he frequently preached +before the king, and in 1661 was consecrated bishop of Lichfield and +Coventry. His best-known book is the excellent biography of his patron, +Archbishop Williams, entitled _Scrinia reserata: a Memorial offered to +the great Deservings of John Williams, D.D._ (London, 1693). + + + + +HACKETT, HORATIO BALCH (1808-1875), American biblical scholar, was born +in Salisbury, Massachusetts, on the 27th of December 1808. He was +educated at Phillips-Andover Academy, at Amherst College, where he +graduated as valedictorian in 1830, and at Andover Theological Seminary, +where he graduated in 1834. He was adjunct professor of Latin and Greek +Languages and Literature at Brown University in 1835-1838 and professor +of Hebrew Literature there in 1838-1839, was ordained to the Baptist +ministry in 1839--he had become a Baptist at Andover as the result of +preparing a paper on baptism in the New Testament and the Fathers--and +in 1839-1868 he was professor of Biblical literature and interpretation +in Newton Theological Institution where his most important work was the +introduction of the modern German methods of Biblical criticism, which +he had learned from Moses Stuart at Andover and with which he made +himself more familiar in Germany (especially under Tholuck at Halle) in +1841. He travelled in Egypt and Palestine in 1852, and in 1858-1859 in +Greece, becoming proficient in modern Greek. From 1870 until his death +in Rochester, New York, on the 2nd of November 1875, he was professor of +Biblical literature and New Testament exegesis in the Rochester +Theological Seminary. He was a great teacher but a greater critical and +exegetical scholar. + + He wrote _Christian Memorials of the War_ (1864); an English version + of Winer's _Grammar of the Chaldee Language_ (1844); _Exercises in + Hebrew Grammar_ (1847); and various articles on the Semitic language + and literature in periodicals; but his best-known work was in general + commentary on the Bible and translation, and in the special text study + of the New Testament. Under these two headings fall: _Illustrations of + Scripture; suggested by a Tour through the Holy Land_ (1855); the + American revision, with Ezra Abbot, of Smith's _Dictionary of the + Bible_, to the British edition of which he had contributed about + thirty articles; _Commentary on the Original Text of the Acts of the + Apostles_ (1852; 2nd edition, 1858), for many years the best English + commentary; _Notes on the Greek Text of the Epistle of Paul to + Philemon_, and a _Revised Version_ of Philemon, both published in + 1860; the English versions, in Schaff's edition of Lange's + _Commentaries_, of Van Oosterzee's _Philemon_ and Braune's + _Philippians_; and for the American Bible Union Version of the Bible + he translated the books of Ruth and Judges, and aided T. J. Conant in + editorial revision; and he was one of the American translators for the + English Bible revision. + + See _Memorials of Horatio Batch Hackett_ (Rochester, N.Y., 1876), + edited by G. H. Whittemore. + + + + +HACKETT, JAMES HENRY (1800-1871), American actor, was born in New York. +After an unsuccessful entry into business, in 1826 he went on the stage, +where he soon established a reputation as a player of eccentric +character parts. As Falstaff he was no less successful in England than +in America. At various times he went into management, and he was the +author of _Notes and Comments on Shakespeare_ (1863). + +His son, JAMES KETELTAS HACKETT (1869- ), born at Wolfe Island, +Ontario, and educated at the College of the City of New York, also +became an actor. He came into prominence at the Lyceum in Daniel +Frohman's company, and afterwards had considerable success in romantic +parts. As a manager he stood outside the American syndicate of theatres, +and organized several companies to play throughout the United States. In +1897 he married Mary Mannering, the Anglo-American actress. + + + + +HACKLÄNDER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM VON (1816-1877), German novelist and +dramatist, was born at Burtscheid near Aix-la-Chapelle on the 1st of +November 1816. Having served an apprenticeship in a commercial house, he +entered the Prussian artillery, but, disappointed at not finding +advancement, returned to business. A soldier's life had a fascination +for him, and he made his début as an author with _Bilder aus dem +Soldatenleben im Frieden_ (1841). After a journey to the east, he was +appointed secretary to the crown prince of Württemberg, whom he +accompanied on his travels. _Wachtstubenabenteuer_, a continuation of +his first work, appeared in 1845, and it was followed by _Bilder aus dem +Soldatenleben im Kriege_ (1849-1850). As a result of a tour in Spain in +1854, appeared _Ein Winter in Spanien_ (1855). In 1857 he founded, in +conjunction with Edmund von Zoller, the illustrated weekly, _Über Land +und Meer_. In 1859 Hackländer was appointed director of royal parks and +public gardens at Stuttgart, and in this post did much towards the +embellishment of the city. In 1859 he was attached to the headquarters +staff of the Austrian army during the Italian war; in 1861 he was raised +to an hereditary knighthood in Austria; in 1864 he retired into private +life, and died on the 6th of July 1877. Hackländer's literary talent is +confined within narrow limits. There is much in his works of lively, +adventurous and even romantic description, but the character-drawing is +feeble and superficial. + + Hackländer was a voluminous writer; the most complete edition of his + works is the third, published at Stuttgart in 1876, in 60 volumes. + There is also a good selection in 20 volumes (1881). Among his novels, + _Namenlose Geschichten_ (1851); _Eugen Stillfried_ (1852); _Krieg und + Frieden_ (1859), and the comedies _Der geheime Agent_ (1850) and + _Magnetische Kuren_ (1851) may be specially mentioned. His + autobiography appeared in 1878 under the title, _Der Roman meines + Lebens_ (2 vols.). See H. Morning, _Erinnerungen an F. W. Hackländer_ + (1878). + + + + +HACKNEY, a north-eastern metropolitan borough of London, England, +bounded W. by Stoke Newington and Islington, and S. by Shoreditch, +Bethnal Green and Poplar, and extending N. and E. to the boundary of the +county of London. Pop. (1901), 219,272. It is a poor and populous +district, in which the main thoroughfares are Kingsland Road, continued +N. as Stoke Newington Road and Stamford Hill; Mare Street, continued +N.W. as Clapton Road to join Stamford Hill; and Lea Bridge Road running +N.E. towards Walthamstow and Low Leyton. The borough includes the +districts of Clapton in the north, Homerton in the east, and Dalston and +part of Kingsland in the west. On the east lies the open flat valley of +the Lea, which flows in several branches, and is bordered, immediately +outside the confines of the borough, by the extensive reservoirs of the +East London water-works. In these low lands lie the Hackney Marshes (338 +acres; among several so-called marshes in the Lea valley), and the +borough also contains part of Victoria Park and a number of open spaces +collectively called the Hackney Commons, including Mill Fields, Hackney +Downs, London Fields, &c. The total area of open spaces exceeds 500 +acres. The tower of the ancient parish church of St Augustine, with the +chapel of the Rowe family, still stands, and is the only historic +building of importance. Among institutions are the German hospital, +Dalston, Metropolitan hospital, Kingsland Road, and Eastern Fever +hospital, Homerton; and the Hackney polytechnic institute, with which is +incorporated the Sir John Cass institute. Cass (1666-1718), a merchant +of the city of London, also a member of parliament and sheriff, +bequeathed £1000 for the foundation of a free school; in 1732 the +bequest was increased in accordance with an unfinished codicil to his +will; and the income provided from it is now about £6000, some 250 boys +and girls being educated. The parliamentary borough of Hackney comprises +north, central and south divisions, each returning one member; and the +northern division includes the metropolitan borough of Stoke Newington. +The metropolitan borough of Hackney includes part of the Hornsey +parliamentary division of Middlesex. The borough council consists of a +mayor, 10 aldermen and 60 councillors. Area, 3288.9 acres. + +In the 13th century the name appears as _Hackenaye_ or _Hacquenye_, but +no certain derivation is advanced. Roman and other remains have been +found in Hackney Marshes. In 1290 the bishop of London was lord of the +manor, which was so held until 1550, when it was granted to Thomas, Lord +Wentworth. In 1697 it came into the hands of the Tyssen family. +Extensive property in the parish also belonged to the priory of the +Knights Hospitallers of St John of Jerusalem at Clerkenwell. From the +16th to the early 19th century there were many fine residences in +Hackney. The neighbourhood of Hackney had at one time an evil reputation +as the haunt of highwaymen. + + + + +HACKNEY (from Fr. _haquenée_, Lat. _equus_, an ambling horse or mare, +especially for ladies to ride; the English "hack" is simply an +abbreviation), originally a riding-horse. At the present day, however, +the hackney (as opposed to a thoroughbred) is bred for driving as well +as riding (see HORSE: _Breeds_). From the hiring-out of hackneys, the +word came to be associated with employment for hire (so "a hack," as a +general term for "drudge"), especially in combination, e.g. +hackney-chair, hackney-coach, hackney-boat. The hackney-coach, a coach +with four wheels and two horses, was a form of hired public conveyance +(see CARRIAGE). + + + + +HADAD, the name of a Syrian deity, is met with in the Old Testament as +the name of several human persons; it also occurs in compound forms like +Benhadad and Hadadezer. The divinity primarily denoted by it is the +storm-god who was known also as Ramman, Bir and Dadda. The Syrian kings +of Damascus seem to have habitually assumed the title of Benhadad, or +son of Hadad (three of this name are mentioned in Scripture), just as a +series of Egyptian monarchs are known to have been accustomed to call +themselves sons of Amon-Ra. The word Hadadrimmon, for which the inferior +reading Hadarrimmon is found in some MSS. in the phrase "the mourning of +(or at) Hadadrimmon" (Zech. xii. 11), has been a subject of much +discussion. According to Jerome and all the older Christian +interpreters, the mourning for something that occurred at a place called +Hadadrimmon (Maximianopolis) in the valley of Megiddo is meant, the +event alluded to being generally held to be the death of Josiah (or, as +in the Targum, the death of Ahab at the hands of Hadadrimmon); but more +recently the opinion has been gaining ground that Hadadrimmon is merely +another name for Adonis (q.v.) or Tammuz, the allusion being to the +mournings by which the Adonis festivals were usually accompanied (Hitzig +on Zech. xii. 11, Isa. xvii. 8; Movers, _Phönizier_, i. 196). T. K. +Cheyne (_Encycl. Bibl._ s.v.) points out that the Septuagint reads +simply Rimmon, and argues that this may be a corruption of Migdon +(Megiddo), in itself a corruption of Tammuz-Adon. He would render the +verse, "In that day there shall be a great mourning in Jerusalem, as the +mourning of the women who weep for Tammuz-Adon" (_Adon_ means lord). + + + + +HADDINGTON, EARL OF, a Scottish title bestowed in 1627 upon Thomas +Hamilton, earl of Melrose (1563-1637). Thomas, who was a member of the +great family of Hamilton, being a son of Thomas Hamilton of Priestfield, +was a lawyer who became a lord of session as Lord Drumcairn in 1592. He +was on very friendly terms with James VI., his legal talents being +useful to the king, and he was one of the eight men who, called the +Octavians, were appointed to manage the finances of Scotland in 1596. +Having also become king's advocate in 1596, Hamilton was entrusted with +a large share in the government of his country when James went to London +in 1603; in 1612 he was appointed secretary of state for Scotland, and +in 1613 he was created Lord Binning and Byres. In 1616 he became lord +president of the court of session, and three years later was created +earl of Melrose, a title which he exchanged in 1627 for that of earl of +Haddington. After the death of James I. the earl resigned his offices of +president of the court of session and secretary of state, but he served +Charles I. as lord privy seal. He died on the 29th of May 1637. +Haddington, who was both scholarly and wealthy, left a large and +valuable collection of papers, which is now in the Advocates' library at +Edinburgh. James referred familiarly to his friend as _Tam o' the +Cowgate_, his Edinburgh residence being in this street. + +The earl's eldest son THOMAS, the 2nd earl (1600-1640), was a covenanter +and a soldier, being killed by an explosion at Dunglass castle on the +30th of August 1640. His sons, THOMAS (d. 1645) and JOHN (d. 1669), +became respectively the 3rd and 4th earls of Haddington, and John's +grandson THOMAS (1679-1735) succeeded his father CHARLES (c. 1650-1685), +as 6th earl in 1685, although he was not the eldest but the second son. +This curious circumstance arose from the fact that when Charles married +Margaret (d. 1700), the heiress of the earldom of Rothes, it was agreed +that the two earldoms should be left separate; thus the eldest son John +became earl of Rothes while Thomas became earl of Haddington. Thomas was +a supporter of George I. during the rising of 1715, and was a +representative peer for Scotland from 1716 to 1734. He died on the 28th +of November 1735. + +The 6th earl was a writer, but in this direction his elder son, CHARLES, +Lord Binning (1697-1732), is perhaps more celebrated. After fighting by +his father's side at Sheriffmuir in 1715 and serving as member of +parliament for St Germans, Binning died at Naples on the 27th of +December 1732. His eldest son, THOMAS (c. 1720-1794), became the 7th +earl in 1735, and the latter's grandson THOMAS (1780-1858) became the +9th earl in 1828. The 9th earl had been a member of parliament from 1802 +to 1827, when he was made a peer of the United Kingdom as Baron Melros +of Tyninghame, a title which became extinct upon his death. In 1834 he +became lord-lieutenant of Ireland under Sir Robert Peel, leaving office +in the following year, and in Peel's second administration (1841-1846) +he served as first lord of the admiralty and then as lord privy seal. +When he died without sons on the 1st of December 1858 the earldom +passed to his kinsman, GEORGE BAILLIE (1802-1870), a descendant of the +6th earl. This nobleman took the name of Baillie-Hamilton, and his son +GEORGE (b. 1827) became 11th earl of Haddington in 1870. + + See _State Papers of Thomas, Earl of Melrose_, published by the + Abbotsford Club in 1837, and Sir W. Fraser, _Memorials of the Earls of + Haddington_ (1889). + + + + +HADDINGTON, a royal, municipal and police burgh, and county town of +Haddingtonshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901), 3993. It is situated on the +Tyne, 18 m. E. of Edinburgh by the North British railway, being the +terminus of a branch line from Longniddry Junction. Five bridges cross +the river, on the right bank of which lies the old and somewhat decayed +suburb of Nungate, interesting as having contained the Giffordgate, +where John Knox was born, and where also are the ruins of the +pre-Reformation chapel of St Martin. The principal building in the town +is St Mary's church, a cruciform Decorated edifice in red sandstone, +probably dating from the 13th century. It is 210 ft. long, and is +surmounted by a square tower 90 ft. high. The nave, restored in 1892, is +used as the parish church, but the choir and transepts are roofless, +though otherwise kept in repair. In a vault is a fine monument in +alabaster, consisting of the recumbent figures of John, Lord Maitland of +Thirlestane (1545-1595), chancellor of Scotland, and his wife. The +laudatory sonnet composed by James VI. is inscribed on the tomb. In the +same vault John, duke of Lauderdale (1616-1682), is buried. In the choir +is the tombstone which Carlyle erected over the grave of his wife, Jane +Baillie Welsh (1801-1866), a native of the town. Other public edifices +include the county buildings in the Tudor style, in front of which +stands the monument to George, 8th marquess of Tweeddale (1787-1876), +who was such an expert and enthusiastic coachman that he once drove the +mail from London to Haddington without taking rest; the corn exchange, +next to that of Edinburgh the largest in Scotland; the town house, with +a spire 150 ft. high, in front of which is a monument to John Home, the +author of _Douglas_; the district asylum to the north of the burgh; the +western district hospital; the Tenterfield home for children; the free +library and the Knox Memorial Institute. This last-named building was +erected in 1879 to replace the old and famous grammar school, where John +Knox, William Dunbar, John Major and possibly George Buchanan and Sir +David Lindsay were educated. John Brown (1722-1787), a once celebrated +dissenting divine, author of the _Self-Interpreting Bible_, ministered +in the burgh for 36 years and is buried there; his son John the +theologian (1754-1832), and his grandson Samuel (1817-1856), the +chemist, noted for his inquiries into the atomic theory, were natives. +Samuel Smiles (1812-1904), author of _Character, Self-Help_ and other +works, was also born there, and Edward Irving was for years mathematical +master in the grammar school. In Hardgate Street is "Bothwell Castle," +the town house of the earl of Bothwell, where Mary Queen of Scots rested +on her way to Dunbar. The ancient market cross has been restored. The +leading industries are the making of agricultural implements, +manufactures of woollens and sacking, brewing, tanning and +coach-building, besides corn mills and engineering works. + +The burgh is the retail centre for a large district, and its grain +markets, once the largest in Scotland, are still of considerable +importance. Haddington was created a royal burgh by David I. It also +received charters from Robert Bruce, Robert II. and James VI. In 1139 it +was given as a dowry to Ada, daughter of William de Warenne, earl of +Surrey, on her marriage to Prince Henry, the only son of David I. It was +occasionally the residence of royalty, and Alexander II. was born there +in 1198. Lying in the direct road of the English invaders, the town was +often ravaged. It was burned by King John in 1216 and by Henry III. in +1244. Fortified in 1548 by Lord Grey of Wilton, the English commander, +it was besieged next year by the Scots and French, who forced the +garrison to withdraw. So much slaughter had gone on during that period +of storm and stress that it was long impossible to excavate in any +direction without coming on human remains. The town has suffered much +periodically from floods. One of the most memorable of these occurred on +the 4th of October 1775, when the Tyne rose 8 ft. 9 in. above its bed +and inundated a great part of the burgh. An inscription in the centre of +the town records the event and marks the point to which the water rose. + + There are many interesting places within a few miles of Haddington. + Five miles E. is Whittingehame House, and 5 m. N.E. is the thriving + village of East Linton (pop. 919). About 2½ m. N. lies Athelstaneford + (locally, Elshinford), so named from the victory of Hungus, king of + the Picts, in the 8th century over the Northumbrian Athelstane. On a + hill near Drem, 3½ m. N. by W., are traces of a Romano-British + settlement, and the remains of the priest's house of the Knights + Templars, to whom the barony once belonged. On the coast is the pretty + village of Aberlady on a fine bay, and in the neighbourhood are some + of the finest golf links in Scotland, such as Luffness, Gullane, + Archerfield and Muirfield. On Gosford Bay is Gosford House, an + 18th-century mansion, the seat of the earl of Wemyss. At Gladsmuir, 3½ + m. W. of Haddington, alleged by some to have been the birthplace of + George Heriot. Principal Robertson was minister and wrote most of his + _History of Scotland_. Of the old seat of the Douglases at Longniddry + few traces remain, and in the chapel, now in ruins, at the eastern end + of the village, John Knox is said to have preached occasionally. At + Gifford, 4 m. to the S., John Witherspoon (1722-1794), president of + the College of New Jersey (Princeton), and Charles Nisbet (1736-1804), + president of Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pennsylvania, were born. A + little to the south of Gifford are Yester House, a seat of the + marquess of Tweeddale, finely situated in a park of old trees, and the + ruins of Yester Castle. The cavern locally known as Hobgoblin Hall is + described in _Marmion_, and is associated with all kinds of + manifestations of the black art. Lennoxlove, 1½ m. to the S., a seat + of Lord Blantyre, was originally called Lethington, and for a few + centuries was associated with the Maitlands. Amisfield, adjoining + Haddington on the N.E., is another seat of the earl of Wemyss. + + + + +HADDINGTONSHIRE, or _East Lothian_, a south-eastern county of Scotland, +bounded N. by the Firth of Forth, N.E. by the North Sea, E., S.E. and S. +by Berwickshire, and S.W. and W. by Edinburghshire. It covers an area of +171,011 acres, or 267 sq. m. Its sea-coast measures 41 m. The Bass Rock +and Fidra Isle belong to the shire, and there are numerous rocks and +reefs off the shore, especially between Dunbar and Gullane Bay. Broadly +speaking, the northern half of the shire slopes gently to the coast, and +the southern half is hilly. Several of the peaks of the Lammermuirs +exceed 1500 ft., and the more level tract is broken by Traprain Law +(724) in the parish of Prestonkirk, North Berwick Law (612), and +Garleton Hill (590) to the north of the county town. The only important +river is the Tyne, which rises to the south-east of Borthwick in +Mid-Lothian, and, taking a generally north-easterly direction, reaches +the sea just beyond the park of Tynninghame House, after a course of 28 +m., for the first 7 m. of which it belongs to its parent shire. It is +noted for a very fine variety of trout, and salmon are sometimes taken +below the linn at East Linton. The Whiteadder rises in the parish of +Whittingehame, but, flowing towards the south-east, leaves the shire and +at last joins the Tweed near Berwick. There are no natural lakes, but in +the parish of Stenton is found Pressmennan Loch, an artificial sheet of +water of somewhat serpentine shape, about 2 m. in length, with a width +of some 400 yds., which was constructed in 1819 by damming up the ravine +in which it lies. The banks are wooded and picturesque, and the water +abounds with trout. + + _Geology._--The higher ground in the south, including the Lammermuir + Hills, is formed by shales, greywackes and grits of Ordovician and + Silurian age; a narrow belt of the former lying on the north-western + side of the latter, the strike being S.W. to N.E. The granitic mass of + Priestlaw and other felsitic rocks have been intruded into these + strata. The lower Old Red Sandstone has not been observed in this + county, but the younger sandstones and conglomerates fill up ancient + depressions in the Silurian and Ordovician, such as that running + northward from Oldhamstocks towards Dunbar and the valley of + Lauderdale. A faulted-in tract of the same formation, about 1 m. in + breadth, runs westward from Dunbar to near Gifford. Carboniferous + rocks form the remainder of the county. The Calciferous Sandstone + series, shales, thin limestones and sandstones, is exposed on the + south-eastern coast; but between Gifford and North Berwick and from + Aberlady to Dunbar it is represented by a great thickness of volcanic + rocks consisting of tuffs and coarse breccias in the lower beds, and + of porphyritic and andesitic lavas above. These rocks are well exposed + on the coast, in the Garleton Hills and Traprain Law; the latter and + North Berwick Law are volcanic necks or vents. The Carboniferous + Limestone series which succeeds the Calciferous Sandstone consists of + a middle group of sandstones, shales, coals and ironstones, with a + limestone group above and below. The coal-field is synclinal in + structure, Port Seton being about the centre; it contains ten seams of + coal, and the area covered by it is some 30 sq. m. Glacial boulder + clay lies over much of the lower ground, and ridges of gravel and sand + flank the hills and form extensive sheets. Traces of old raised + sea-beaches are found at several points along the coast. At North + Berwick, Tynninghame and elsewhere there are stretches of blown sand. + Limestone is worked at many places, and hematite was formerly obtained + from the Garleton Hills. + +_Climate and Agriculture._--Though the county is exposed to the full +sweep of the east wind during March, April and May, the climate is on +the whole mild and equable. The rainfall is far below the average of +Great Britain, the mean for the year being 25 in., highest in midsummer +and lowest in spring. The average temperature for the year is 47°.5 F., +for January 38° and for July 59°. Throughout nearly the whole of the +19th century East Lothian agriculture was held to be the best in +Scotland, not so much in consequence of the natural fertility of the +soil as because of the enterprise of the cultivators, several of whom, +like George Hope of Fenton Barns (1811-1876), brought scientific farming +almost to perfection. Mechanical appliances were adopted with +exceptional alacrity, and indeed some that afterwards came into general +use were first employed in Haddington. Drill sowing of turnips dates +from 1734. The threshing machine was introduced by Andrew Meikle +(1719-1811) in 1787, the steam plough in 1862, and the reaping machine +soon after its invention, while tile draining was first extensively used +in the county. East Lothian is famous for the richness of its grain and +green crops, the size of its holdings (average 200 acres) and the good +housing of its labourers. The soils vary. Much of the Lammermuirs is +necessarily unproductive, though the lower slopes are cultivated, a +considerable tract of the land being very good. In the centre of the +shire occurs a belt of tenacious yellow clay on a tilly subsoil which is +not adapted for agriculture. Along the coast the soil is sandy, but +farther inland it is composed of rich loam and is very fertile. The land +about Dunbar is the most productive, yielding a potato--the "Dunbar +red"--which is highly esteemed in the markets. Of the grain crops oats +and barley are the principal, and their acreage is almost a constant, +but wheat, after a prolonged decline, has experienced a revival. Turnips +and potatoes are cultivated extensively, and with marked success, and +constitute nearly all the green crops raised. Although pasture-land is +below the average, live-stock are reared profitably. About one-sixteenth +of the total area is under wood. + +_Other Industries._--Fisheries are conducted from Dunbar, North Berwick, +Port Seton and Prestonpans, the catch consisting chiefly of cod, +haddock, whiting and shellfish. Fireclay as well as limestone is worked, +and there are some stone quarries, but the manufactures are mainly +agricultural implements, pottery, woollens, artificial manures, +feeding-stuffs and salt, besides brewing. Coal of a very fair quality is +extensively worked at Tranent, Ormiston, Macmerry and near Prestonpans, +the coal-field having an area of about 30 sq. m. Limestone is found +throughout the greater part of the shire. A vein of hematite of a +peculiarly fine character was discovered in 1866 at Garleton Hill, and +wrought for some years. Ironstone has been mined at Macmerry. + +The North British Company possess the sole running powers in the county, +through which is laid their main line to Berwick and the south. Branches +are sent off at Drem to North Berwick, at Longniddry to Haddington and +also to Gullane, at Smeaton (in Mid-Lothian) to Macmerry, and at +Ormiston to Gifford. + +_Population and Government._--The population was 37,377 in 1891, and +38,665 in 1901, when 459 persons spoke Gaelic and English, and 7 spoke +Gaelic only. The chief towns are Dunbar (pop. in 1901, 3581), Haddington +(3993), North Berwick (2899), Prestonpans (2614) and Tranent (2584). The +county, which returns one member to Parliament, forms part of the +sheriffdom of the Lothians and Peebles, and there is a resident +sheriff-substitute at Haddington, who sits also at Dunbar, Tranent and +North Berwick. The shire is under school-board jurisdiction, and besides +high schools at Haddington and North Berwick, some of the elementary +schools earn grants for higher education. The county council spends a +proportion of the "residue" grant in supporting short courses of +instruction in technical subjects (chiefly agriculture), in experiments +in the feeding of cattle and the growing of crops, and in defraying the +travelling expenses of technical students. + +_History._--Of the Celts, who were probably the earliest inhabitants, +traces are found in a few place names and circular camps (in the +parishes of Garvald and Whittinghame) and hill forts (in the parish of +Bolton). After the Roman occupation, of which few traces remain, the +district formed part of the Saxon kingdom of Northumbria until 1018, +when it was joined to Scotland by Malcolm II. It was comparatively +prosperous till the wars of Bruce and Baliol, but from that period down +to the union of the kingdoms it suffered from its nearness to the Border +and from civil strife. The last battles fought in the county were those +of Dunbar (1650) and Prestonpans (1745). + + See J. Miller, _History of Haddington_ (1844); D. Croal, _Sketches of + East Lothian_ (Haddington, 1873); John Martine, _Reminiscences of the + County of Haddington_ (Haddington, 1890, 1894); Dr Wallace James, + _Writs and Charters of Haddington_ (Haddington, 1898). + + + + +HADDOCK (_Gadus aeglefinus_), a fish which differs from the cod in +having the mental barbel very short, the first anal fin with 22 to 25 +rays, instead of 17 to 20, and the lateral line dark instead of whitish; +it has a large blackish spot above each pectoral fin--associated in +legend with the marks of St Peter's finger and thumb, the haddock being +supposed to be the fish from whose mouth he took the tribute-money. It +attains to a weight of 15 [lb] and is one of the most valuable food +fishes of Europe, both fresh and smoked, the "finnan haddie" of Scotland +being famous. It is common round the British and Irish coasts, and +generally distributed along the shores of the North Sea, extending +across the Atlantic to the coast of North America. + + + + +HADDON HALL, one of the most famous ancient mansions in England. It lies +on the left bank of the river Wye, 2 m. S.E. of Bakewell in Derbyshire. +It is not now used as a residence, but the fabric is maintained in +order. The building is of stone and oblong in form, and encloses two +quadrangles separated by the great banqueting-hall and adjoining +chambers. The greater part is of two storeys, and surmounted by +battlements. To the south and south-east lie terraced gardens, and the +south front of the eastern quadrangle is occupied by the splendid +ball-room or long gallery. At the south-west corner of the mansion is +the chapel; at the north-east the Peveril tower. The periods of building +represented are as follows. Norman work appears in the chapel (which +also served as a church for the neighbouring villagers), also in certain +fundamental parts of the fabric, notably the Peveril tower. There are +Early English and later additions to the chapel; the banqueting-hall, +with the great kitchen adjacent to it, and part of the Peveril tower are +of the 14th century. The eastern range of rooms, including the +state-room, are of the 15th century; the western and north-western parts +were built shortly after 1500. The ball-room is of early 17th-century +construction, and the terraces and gardens were laid out at this time. A +large number of interesting contemporary fittings are preserved, +especially in the banqueting-hall and kitchen; and many of the rooms are +adorned with tapestries of the 16th and 17th centuries, some of which +came from the famous works at Mortlake in Surrey. + +A Roman altar was found and is preserved here, but no trace of Roman +inhabitants has been discovered. Haddon was a manor which before the +Conquest and at the time of the Domesday Survey belonged to the king, +but was granted by William the Conqueror to William Peverel, whose son, +another William Peverel, forfeited it for treason on the accession of +Henry II. Before that time, however, the manor of Haddon had been +granted to the family of Avenell, who continued to hold it until one +William Avenell died without male issue and his property was divided +between his two daughters and heirs, one of whom married Richard Vernon, +whose successors acquired the other half of the manor in the reign of +Edward III. Sir George Vernon, who died in 1561, was known as the "King +of the Peak" on account of his hospitality. His daughter Dorothy married +John Manners, second son of the earl of Rutland, who is said to have +lived for some time in the woods round Haddon Hall, disguised as a +gamekeeper, until he persuaded Dorothy to elope with him. On Sir +George's death without male issue Haddon passed to John Manners and +Dorothy, who lived in the Hall. Their grandson John Manners succeeded to +the title of earl of Rutland in 1641, and the duke of Rutland is still +lord of the manor. + + See _Victoria County History, Derbyshire_; S. Rayner, _History and + Antiquities of Haddon Hall_ (1836-1837); Haddon Hall, _History and + Antiquities of Haddon Hall_ (1867); G. le Blanc Smith, _Haddon, the + Manor, the Hall, its Lords and Traditions_ (London, 1906). + + + + +HADEN, SIR FRANCIS SEYMOUR (1818-1910), English surgeon and etcher, was +born in London on the 16th of September 1818, his father, Charles Thomas +Haden, being a well-known doctor and amateur of music. He was educated +at University College school and University College, London, and also +studied at the Sorbonne, Paris, where he took his degree in 1840. He was +admitted as a member of the College of Surgeons in London in 1842. +Besides his many-sided activities in the scientific world, during a busy +and distinguished career as a surgeon, he followed the art of original +etching with such vigour that he became not only the foremost British +exponent of that art but was the principal cause of its revival in +England. By his strenuous efforts and perseverance, aided by the +secretarial ability of Sir W. R. Drake, he founded the Royal Society of +Painter-Etchers and Engravers. As president he ruled the destinies of +that society with a strong hand from its first beginnings in 1880. In +1843-1844, with his friends Duval, Le Cannes and Col. Guibout, he had +travelled in Italy and made his first sketches from nature. Haden +attended no art school and had no art teachers, but in 1845, 1846, 1847 +and 1848 he studied portfolios of prints belonging to an old second-hand +dealer named Love, who had a shop in Bunhill Row, the old Quaker quarter +of London. These portfolios he would carry home, and arranging the +prints in chronological order, he studied the works of the great +original engravers, Dürer, Lucas van Leyden and Rembrandt. These +studies, besides influencing his original work, led to his important +monograph on the etched work of Rembrandt. By lecture and book, and with +the aid of the memorable exhibition at the Burlington Fine Arts Club in +1877, he endeavoured to give a just idea of Rembrandt's work, separating +the true from the false, and giving altogether a nobler idea of the +master's mind by taking away from the list of his works many dull and +unseemly plates that had long been included in the lists. His reasons +are founded upon the results of a study of the master's works in +chronological order, and are clearly expressed in his monograph, _The +Etched Work of Rembrandt critically reconsidered_, privately printed in +1877, and in _The Etched Work of Rembrandt True and False_ (1895). +Notwithstanding all this study of the old masters of his art, Haden's +own plates are perhaps more individual than any artist's, and are +particularly noticeable for a fine original treatment of landscape +subjects, free and open in line, clear and well divided in mass, and +full of a noble and dignified style of his own. Even when working from a +picture his personality dominates the plate, as for example in the large +plate he etched after J. M. W. Turner's "Calais Pier," which is a +classical example of what interpretative work can do in black and white. +Of his original plates, more than 250 in number, one of the most notable +was the large "Breaking up of the Agamemnon." An early plate, rare and +most beautiful, is "Thames Fisherman." "Mytton Hall" is broad in +treatment, and a fine rendering of a shady avenue of yew trees leading +to an old manor-house in sunlight. "Sub Tegmine" was etched in Greenwich +Park in 1859; and "Early Morning--Richmond," full of the poetry and +freshness of the hour, was done, the artist has said, actually at +sunrise. One of the rarest and most beautiful of his plates is "A +By-Road in Tipperary"; "Combe Bottom" is another; and "Shere Mill Pond" +(both the small study and the larger plate), "Sunset in Ireland," +"Penton Hook," "Grim Spain" and "Evening Fishing, Longparish," are also +notable examples of his genius. A catalogue of his works was begun by +Sir William Drake and completed by Mr N. Harrington (1880). During later +years Haden began to practise the sister art of mezzotint engraving, +with a measure of the same success that he had already achieved in pure +etching and in dry-point. Some of his mezzotints are: "An Early Riser," +a stag seen through the morning mists, "Grayling Fishing" and "A Salmon +Pool on the Spey." He also produced some remarkable drawings of trees +and park-like country in charcoal. + +Other books by Haden not already mentioned are--_Études à l'eau forte_ +(Paris, 1865); _About Etching_ (London, 1878-1879); _The Art of the +Painter-Etcher_ (London, 1890); _The Relative Claims of Etching and +Engraving to rank as Fine Arts and to be represented in the Royal +Academy_ (London, 1883); _Address to Students of Winchester School of +Art_ (Winchester, 1888); _Cremation: a Pamphlet_ (London, 1875); and +_The Disposal of the Dead, a Plea for Legislation_ (London, 1888). As +the last two indicate, he was an ardent champion of a system of "earth +to earth" burial. + +Among numerous distinctions he received the Grand Prix, Paris, in 1889 +and 1900, and was made a member of the Institut de France, Académie des +Beaux-Arts and Société des Artistes Français. He was knighted in 1894, +and died on the 1st of June 1910. He married in 1847 a sister of the +artist J. A. M. Whistler; and his elder son, Francis Seymour Haden (b. +1850), had a distinguished career as a member of the government in Natal +from 1881 to 1893, being made a C.M.G. in 1890. (C. H.*) + + + + +HADENDOA (from Beja _Hada_, chief, and _endowa_, people), a nomad tribe +of Africans of "Hamitic" origin. They inhabit that part of the eastern +Sudan extending from the Abyssinian frontier northward nearly to Suakin. +They belong to the Beja people, of which, with the Bisharin and the +Ababda, they are the modern representatives. They are a pastoral people, +ruled by a hereditary chief who is directly responsible to the +(Anglo-Egyptian) Sudan government. Although the official capital of the +Hadendoa country is Miktinab, the town of Fillik on an affluent of the +Atbara is really their headquarters. A third of the total population is +settled in the Suakin country. Osman Digna, one of the best-known chiefs +during the Madhia, was a Hadendoa, and the tribe contributed some of the +fiercest of the dervish warriors in the wars of 1883-98. So determined +were they in their opposition to the Anglo-Egyptian forces that the name +Hadendoa grew to be nearly synonymous with "rebel." But this was the +result of Egyptian misgovernment rather than religious enthusiasm; for +the Hadendoa are true Beja, and Mahommedans only in name. Their +elaborate hairdressing gained them the name of "Fuzzy-wuzzies" among the +British troops. They earned an unenviable reputation during the wars by +their hideous mutilations of the dead on the battlefields. After the +reconquest of the Egyptian Sudan (1896-98) the Hadendoa accepted the new +order without demur. + + See _Anglo-Egyptian Sudan_, edited by Count Gleichen (London, 1905); + Sir F. R. Wingate, _Mahdism and the Egyptian Sudan_ (London, 1891); G. + Sergi, _Africa: Anthropology of the Hamitic Race_ (1897); A. H. Keane, + _Ethnology of the Egyptian Sudan_ (1884). + + + + +HADERSLEBEN (Dan. _Haderslev_), a town of Germany, in the Prussian +province of Schleswig-Holstein, 31 m. N. from Flensburg. Pop. (1905) +9289. It lies in a pleasant valley on the Hadersleben fjord, which is +about 9 m. in length, and communicates with the Little Belt, and at the +junction of the main line of railway from Woyens with three vicinal +lines. The principal buildings are the beautiful church of St Mary, +dating from the 13th century, the theological seminary established in +1870, the gymnasium and the hospital. The industries include +iron-founding, tanning, and the manufacture of machines, tobacco and +gloves. The harbour is only accessible to small vessels. + +Hadersleben is first mentioned in 1228, and received municipal rights +from Duke Waldemar II. in 1292. It suffered considerably during the wars +between Schleswig and Holstein in the 15th century. In November 1864 it +passed with Schleswig to Prussia. Two Danish kings, Frederick II. and +Frederick III., were born at Hadersleben. + + See A. Sach, _Der Ursprung der Stadt Hadersleben_ (Hadersleben, 1892). + + + + +HADING, JANE (1859- ), French actress, whose real name was Jeanne +Alfrédine Tréfouret, was born on the 25th of November 1859 at +Marseilles, where her father was an actor at the Gymnase. She was +trained at the local Conservatoire and was engaged in 1873 for the +theatre at Algiers, and afterwards for the Khedivial theatre at Cairo, +where she played, in turn, coquette, soubrette and _ingénue_ parts. +Expectations had been raised by her voice, and when she returned to +Marseilles she sang in operetta, besides acting in _Ruy Blas_. Her Paris +début was in _La Chaste Suzanne_ at the Palais Royal, and she was again +heard in operetta at the Renaissance. In 1883 she had a great success at +the Gymnase in _Le Maître de forges_. In 1884 she married Victor Koning +(1842-1894), the manager of that theatre, but divorced him in 1887. In +1888 she toured America with Coquelin, and on her return helped to give +success to Lavedan's _Prince d'Aurec_, at the Vaudeville. Her reputation +as one of the leading actresses of the day was now established not only +in France but in America and England. Her later répertoire included _Le +Demi-monde_, Capus's _La Châtelaine_, Maurice Donnay's _Retour de +Jérusalem_, _La Princesse Georges_ by Dumas fils, and Émile Bergerat's +_Plus que reine_. + + + + +HADLEIGH, a market town in the Sudbury parliamentary division of +Suffolk, England; 70 m. N.E. from London, the terminus of a branch of +the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of Urban district (1901), 3245. It lies +pleasantly in a well-wooded country on the small river Brett, a +tributary of the Stour. The church of St Mary is of good Perpendicular +work, with Early English tower and Decorated spire. The Rectory Tower, a +turreted gate-house of brick, dates from c. 1495. The gild-hall is a +Tudor building, and there are other examples of this period. There are a +town-hall and corn exchange, and an industry in the manufacture of +matting and in malting. Hadleigh was one of the towns in which the +woollen industry was started by Flemings, and survived until the 18th +century. Among the rectors of Hadleigh several notable names appear, +such as Rowland Taylor, the martyr, who was burned at the stake outside +the town in 1555, and Hugh James Rose, during whose tenancy of the +rectory an initiatory meeting of the leaders of the Oxford Movement took +place here in 1833. + +Hadleigh, called by the Saxons Heapde-leag, appears in Domesday Book as +Hetlega. About 885 Æthelflæd, lady of the Mercians, with the consent of +Æthelred her husband, gave Hadleigh to Christ Church, Canterbury. The +dean and chapter of Canterbury have held possession of it ever since the +Dissolution. In the 17th century Hadleigh was famous for the manufacture +of cloth, and in 1618 was sufficiently important to receive +incorporation. It was constituted a free borough under the title of the +mayor, aldermen and burgesses of Hadleigh. In 1635, in a list of the +corporate towns of Suffolk to be assessed for ship money, Hadleigh is +named as third in importance. In 1636, owing to a serious visitation of +the plague, 200 families were thrown out of work, and in 1687 so much +had its importance declined that it was deprived of its charter. An +unsuccessful attempt to recover it was made in 1701. There is evidence +of the existence of a market here as early as the 13th century. James +I., in his charter of incorporation, granted fairs on Monday and Tuesday +in Whitsun week, and confirmed an ancient fair at Michaelmas and a +market on Monday. + + + + +HADLEY, ARTHUR TWINING (1856- ), American political economist and +educationist, president of Yale University, was born in New Haven, +Connecticut, on the 23rd of April 1856. He was the son of James Hadley, +the philologist, from whom, as from his mother--whose brother, Alexander +Catlin Twining (1801-1884), was an astronomer and authority on +constitutional law--he inherited unusual mathematical ability. He +graduated at Yale in 1876 as valedictorian, having taken prizes in +English, classics and astronomy; studied political science at Yale +(1876-1877) and at Berlin (1878-1879); was a tutor at Yale in 1879-1883, +instructor in political science in 1883-1886, professor of political +science in 1886-1891, professor of political economy in 1891-1899, and +dean of the Graduate School in 1892-1895; and in 1899 became president +of Yale University--the first layman to hold that office. He was +commissioner of the Connecticut bureau of labour statistics in +1885-1887. As an economist he first became widely known through his +investigation of the railway question and his study of railway rates, +which antedated the popular excitement as to rebates. His _Railroad +Transportation, its History and Laws_ (1885) became a standard work, and +appeared in Russian (1886) and French (1887); he testified as an expert +on transportation before the Senate committee which drew up the +Interstate Commerce Law; and wrote on railways and transportation for +the Ninth and Tenth Editions (of which he was one of the editors) of the +_Encyclopaedia Britannica_, for Lalor's _Cyclopaedia of Political +Science, Political Economy, and Political History of the United Stales_ +(3 vols., 1881-1884), for _The American Railway_ (1888), and for _The +Railroad Gazette_ in 1884-1891, and for other periodicals. His idea of +the broad scope of economic science, especially of the place of ethics +in relation to political economy and business, is expressed in his +writings and public addresses. In 1907-1908 he was Theodore Roosevelt +professor of American History and Institutions in the university of +Berlin. + + Among his other publications are: _Economics: an Account of the + Relations between Private Property and Public Welfare_ (1896); _The + Education of the American Citizen_ (1901); _The Relations between + Freedom and Responsibility in the Evolution of Democratic Government_ + (1903, in Yale Lectures on the Responsibilities of Citizenship); + _Baccalaureate Addresses_ (1907); and _Standards of Public Morality_ + (1907), being the Kennedy Lectures for 1906. + + + + +HADLEY, JAMES (1821-1872), American scholar, was born on the 30th of +March 1821 in Fairfield, Herkimer county, New York, where his father was +professor of chemistry in Fairfield Medical College. At the age of nine +an accident lamed him for life. He graduated from Yale in 1842, having +entered the Junior class in 1840; studied in the Theological Department +of Yale, and in 1844-1845 was a tutor in Middlebury College. He was +tutor at Yale in 1845-1848, assistant professor of Greek in 1848-1851, +and professor of Greek, succeeding President Woolsey, from 1851 until +his death in Hew Haven on the 14th of November 1872. As an undergraduate +he showed himself an able mathematician, but the influence of Edward +Elbridge Salisbury, under whom Hadley and W. D. Whitney studied Sanskrit +together, turned his attention toward the study of language. He knew +Greek, Latin, Sanskrit, Hebrew, Arabic, Armenian, several Celtic +languages and the languages of modern Europe; but he published little, +and his scholarship found scant outlet in the college class-room. His +most original written work was an essay on Greek accent, published in a +German version in Curtius's _Studien zur griechischen und lateinischen +Grammatik_. Hadley's _Greek Grammar_ (1860; revised by Frederic de +Forest Allen, 1884) was based on Curtius's _Schulgrammatik_ (1852, 1855, +1857, 1859), and long held its place in American schools. Hadley was a +member of the American Committee for the revision of the New Testament, +was president of the American Oriental Society (1871-1872), and +contributed to Webster's dictionary an essay on the _History of the +English Language_. In 1873 were published his _Introduction to Roman +Law_ (edited by T. D. Woolsey) and his _Essays, Philological and +Critical_ (edited by W. D. Whitney). + + See the memorial by Noah Porter in _The New Englander_, vol. xxxii. + (Jan. 1873), pp. 35-55; and the sketch by his son, A. T. Hadley, in + _Biographical Memoirs_ of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. v. + (1905), pp. 247-254. + + + + +HADLEY, a township of Hampshire county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., on the +Connecticut river, about 20 m. N. of Springfield, served by the Boston & +Maine railway. Pop. (1900), 1789; (1905, state census), 1895; (1910) +1999. Area, about 20 sq. m. The principal villages are Hadley (or Hadley +Center) and North Hadley. The level country along the river is well +adapted to tobacco culture, and the villages are engaged in the +manufacture of tobacco and brooms. Hadley was settled in 1659 by members +of the churches in Hartford and Wethersfield, Connecticut, who were +styled "Strict Congregationalists" and withdrew from these Connecticut +congregations because of ecclesiastical and doctrinal laxity there. At +first the town was called Norwottuck, but within a year or two it was +named after Hadleigh in England, and was incorporated under this name in +1661. Hopkins Academy (1815) developed from Hopkins school, founded here +in 1664. The English regicides Edward Whalley and his son-in-law William +Goffe found a refuge at Hadley from 1664 apparently until their deaths, +and there is a tradition that Goffe or Whalley in 1675 led the people in +repelling an Indian attack. From 1675 to 1713 Hadley, being in almost +constant danger of attack from the Indians, was protected by a palisade +enclosure and by stockades around the meeting-house. From Hadley, +Hatfield was set apart in 1670, South Hadley in 1753, and Amherst in +1759. + + See Alice M. Walker, _Historic Hadley_ (New York, 1906); and Sylvester + Judd, _History of Hadley_ (Northampton, 1863; new ed., 1905). + + + + +HADRAMUT, a district on the south coast of Arabia, bounded W. by Yemen, +E. by Oman and N. by the Dahna desert. The modern Arabs restrict the +name to the coast between Balhaf and Sihut, and the valley of the Wadi +Hadramut in the interior; in its wider and commonly accepted +signification it includes also the Mahra and Gara coasts extending +eastwards to Mirbat; thus defined, its limits are between 14° and 18° N. +and 47° 30´ to 55° E., with a total length of 550 m. and a breadth of +150 m. + + The coastal plain is narrow, rarely exceeding 10 m. in width, and in + places the hills extend to the seashore. The principal ports are + Mukalla and Shihr, both considerable towns, and Kusair and Raida, + small fishing villages; inland there are a few villages near the foot + of the hills, with a limited area of cultivation irrigated by springs + or wells in the hill torrent beds. Behind the littoral plain a range + of mountains, or rather a high plateau, falling steeply to the south + and more gently to the north, extends continuously from the Yemen + highlands on the west to the mouth of the Hadramut valley, from which + a similar range extends with hardly a break to the border of Oman. Its + crest-line is generally some 30 m. from the coast, and its average + height between 4000 and 5000 ft. A number of wadis or ravines cutting + deeply into the plateau run northward to the main Wadi Hadramut, a + broad valley lying nearly east and west, with a total length from its + extreme western heads on the Yemen highlands to its mouth near Sihut + of over 500 m. Beyond the valley and steadily encroaching on it lies + the great desert extending for 300 m. to the borders of Nejd. The most + westerly village in the main valley is Shabwa, in ancient days the + capital, but now almost buried by the advancing desert. Lower down the + first large villages are Henan and Ajlania, near which the wadis 'Amd, + Duwan and el 'Ain unite, forming the W. Kasr. In the W. Duwan and its + branches are the villages of Haura, el Hajren, Kaidun and al Khureba. + Below Haura for some 60 m. there is a succession of villages with + fields, gardens and date groves; several tributaries join on either + side, among which the W. bin Ali and W. Adim from the south contain + numerous villages. The principal towns are Shibam, al Ghurfa, Saiyun, + Tariba, el Ghuraf, Tarim, formerly the chief place, 'Ainat and el + Kasm. Below the last-named place there is little cultivation Or + settled population. The shrines of Kabr Salih and Kabr Hud are looked + on as specially sacred, and are visited by numbers of pilgrims. The + former, which is in the Wadi Ser about 20 m. N.W. of Shibam, was + explored by Theodore Bent in 1894; the tomb itself is of no interest, + but in the neighbourhood there are extensive ruins with Himyaritic + inscriptions on the stones. Kabr Hud is in the main valley some + distance east of Kasm; not far from it is Bir Borhut, a natural + grotto, where fumes of burning sulphur issue from a number of volcanic + vents; al-Masudi mentions it in the 10th century as an active volcano. + Except after heavy rain, there is no running water in the Hadramut + valley, the cultivation therefore depends on artificial irrigation + from wells. The principal crops are wheat, millet, indigo, dates and + tobacco; this latter, known as Hamumi tobacco, is of excellent + quality. + +Hadramut has preserved its name from the earliest times; it occurs in +Genesis as Hazarmaveth and Hadoram, sons of Joktan; and the old Greek +geographers mention Adramytta and Chadramotites in their accounts of the +frankincense country. The numerous ruins discovered in the W. Duwan and +Adim, as well as in the main valley, are evidences of its former +prosperity and civilization. + +The people, known as Hadrami (plural Hadarim), belong generally to the +south Arabian stock, claiming descent from Ya'rab bin Kahtan. There is, +however, a large number of Seyyids or descendants of the Prophet, and +of townsmen of northern origin, besides a considerable class of African +or mixed descent. Van den Berg estimates the total population of +Hadramut (excluding the Mahra and Gara) at 150,000, of which he locates +50,000 in the valley between Shibam and Tarim, 25,000 in the W. Duwan +and its tributaries, and 25,000 in Mukalla, Shihr and the coast +villages, leaving 50,000 for the non-agricultural population scattered +over the rest of the country, probably an excessive estimate. + +The Seyyids, descendants of [H.]osain, grandson of Mahomet, form a +numerous and highly respected aristocracy. They are divided into +families, the chiefs of which are known as Munsibs, who are looked on as +the religious leaders of the people, and are even in some cases +venerated as saints. Among the leading families are the Sheikh Abu Bakr +of Ainat, the el-Aidrus of Shihr and the Sakkaf of Saiyun. They do not +bear arms, nor occupy themselves in trade or manual labour or even +agriculture; though owning a large proportion of the land, they employ +slaves or hired labourers to cultivate it. As compared with the other +classes, they are well educated, and are strict in their observance of +religious duties, and owing to the respect due to their descent, they +exercise a strong influence both in temporal and spiritual affairs. + +The tribesmen, as in Arabia generally, are the predominant class in the +population; all the adults carry arms; some of the tribes have settled +towns and villages, others lead a nomadic life, keeping, however, within +the territory which is recognized as belonging to the tribe. They are +divided into sections or families, each headed by a chief or abu (lit. +father), while the head of the tribe is called the mukaddam or sultan; +the authority of the chief depends largely on his personality: he is the +leader in peace and in war, but the tribesmen are not his subjects; he +can only rule with their support. The most powerful tribe at present in +Hadramut is the Kaiti, a branch of the Yafa tribe whose settlements lie +farther west. Originally invited by the Seyyids to protect the settled +districts from the attacks of marauding tribes, they have established +themselves as practically the rulers of the country, and now possess the +coast district with the towns of Shihr and Mukalla, as well as Haura, +Hajren and Shibam in the interior. The head of the family has +accumulated great wealth, and risen to the highest position in the +service of the nizam of Hyderabad in India, as Jamadar, or commander of +an Arab levy composed of his tribesmen, numbers of whom go abroad to +seek their fortune. The Kathiri tribe was formerly the most powerful; +they occupy the towns of Saiyun, Tarim and el-Ghuraf in the richest part +of the main Hadramut valley. The chiefs of both the Kaiti and Kathiri +are in political relations with the British government, through the +resident at Aden (q.v.). The 'Amudi in the W. Duwan, and the Nahdi, +Awamir and Tamimi in the main valley, are the principal tribes +possessing permanent villages; the Saiban, Hamumi and Manahil occupy the +mountains between the main valley and coast. + +The townsmen are the free inhabitants of the towns and villages as +distinguished from the Seyyids and the tribesmen: they do not carry +arms, but are the working members of the community, merchants, +artificers, cultivators and servants, and are entirely dependent on the +tribes and chiefs under whose protection they live. The servile class +contains a large African element, brought over formerly when the slave +trade flourished on this coast; as in all Mahommedan countries they are +well treated, and often rise to positions of trust. + +As already mentioned, a large number of Arabs from Hadramut go abroad; +the Kaiti tribesmen take service in India in the irregular troops of +Hyderabad; emigration on a large scale has also gone on, to the Dutch +colonies in Java and Sumatra, since the beginning of the 19th century. +According to the census of 1885, quoted by Van den Berg in his _Report_ +published by the government of the Dutch East Indies in 1886, the number +of Arabs in those colonies actually born in Arabia was 2500, while those +born in the colonies exceeded 20,000; nearly all of the former are from +the towns in the Hadramut valley between Shibam and Tarim. Mukalla and +Shihr have a considerable trade with the Red Sea and Persian Gulf +ports, as well as with the ports of Aden, Dhafar and Muscat; a large +share of this is in the hands of Parsee and other British Indian traders +who have established themselves in the Hadramut ports. The principal +imports are wheat, rice, sugar, piece goods and hardware. The exports +are small; the chief items are honey, tobacco and sharks' fins. In the +towns in the interior the principal industries are weaving and dyeing. + + The Mahra country adjoins the Hadramut proper, and extends along the + coast from Sihut eastwards to the east of Kamar Bay, where the Gara + coast begins and stretches to Mirbat. The sultan of the Mahra, to whom + Sokotra also belongs, lives at Kishin, a poor village consisting of a + few scattered houses about 30 m. west of Ras Fartak. Sihut is a + similar village 20 m. farther west. The mountains rise to a height of + 4000 ft. within a short distance of the coast, covered in places with + trees, among which are the myrrh- and frankincense-bearing shrubs. + These gums, for which the coast was celebrated in ancient days, are + still produced; the best quality is obtained in the Gara country, on + the northern slope of the mountains. Dhafar and the mountains behind + it were visited and surveyed by Mr Bent's party in 1894. There are + several thriving villages on the coast, of which el-Hafa is the + principal port of export for frankincense; 9000 cwt. is exported + annually to Bombay. + + Ruins of Sabaean buildings were found by J. T. Bent in the + neighbourhood of Dhafar, and a remarkable cove or small harbour was + discovered at Khor Rori, which he identified with the ancient port of + Moscha. + + AUTHORITIES.--L. Van den Berg, _Le Hadramut et les colonies arabes_ + (Batavia, 1885); L. Hirsch, _Reise in Südarabien_ (Leiden, 1897); J. + T. Bent, _Southern Arabia_ (London, 1895); A. von Wrede, _Reise in + Hadhramut_ (Brunswick, 1870); H. J. Carter, _Trans. Bombay As. Soc._ + (1845), 47-51; _Journal R.G.S._ (1837). (R. A. W.) + + + + +HADRIA [mod. _Atri_ (q.v.)], perhaps the original terminal point of the +Via Caecilia, Italy. It belonged to the Praetutii. It became a colony of +Rome in 290 B.C. and remained faithful to Rome. The coins which it +issued (probably during the Punic Wars), are remarkable. The crypt of +the cathedral of the modern town was originally a large Roman cistern; +another forms the foundation of the ducal palace; and in the eastern +portion of the town there is a complicated system of underground +passages for collecting and storing water. + + See _Notizie degli scavi_ (1902), 3. (T. As.) + + + + +HADRIAN (PUBLIUS AELIUS HADRIANUS), Roman emperor A.D. 117-138, was born +on the 24th of January A.D. 76, at Italica in Hispania Baetica +(according to others, at Rome), where his ancestors, originally from +Hadria in Picenum, had been settled since the time of the Scipios. On +his father's death in 85 or 86 he was placed under the guardianship of +two fellow-countrymen, his kinsman Ulpius Trajanus (afterwards the +emperor Trajan), and Caelius Attianus (afterwards prefect of the +praetorian guard). He spent the next five years at Rome, but at the age +of fifteen he returned to his native place and entered upon a military +career. He was soon, however, recalled to Rome by Trajan, and appointed +to the offices of _decemvir stlitibus judicandis_, _praefectus feriarum +Latinarum_, and _sevir turmae equitum Romanorum_. About 95 he was +military tribune in lower Moesia. In 97 he was sent to upper Germany to +convey the congratulations of the army to Trajan on his adoption by +Nerva; and, in January of the following year, he hastened to announce +the death of Nerva to Trajan at Cologne. Trajan, who had been set +against Hadrian by reports of his extravagance, soon took him into +favour again, chiefly owing to the goodwill of the empress Plotina, who +brought about the marriage of Hadrian with (Vibia) Sabina, Trajan's +great-niece. In 101 Hadrian was quaestor, in 105 tribune of the people, +in 106 praetor. He served with distinction in both Dacian campaigns: in +the second Trajan presented him with a valuable ring which he himself +had received from Nerva, a token of regard which seemed to designate +Hadrian as his successor. In 107 Hadrian was _legatus praetorius_ of +lower Pannonia, in 108 _consul suffectus_, in 112 _archon_ at Athens, +_legatus_ in the Parthian campaign (113-117), in 117 _consul designatus_ +for the following year, in 119 consul for the third and last time only +for four months. When Trajan, owing to a severe illness, decided to +return home from the East, he left Hadrian in command of the army and +governor of Syria. On the 9th of August 117, Hadrian, at Antioch, was +informed of his adoption by Trajan, and, on the 11th, of the death of +the latter at Selinus in Cilicia. According to Dio Cassius (lxix. 1) the +adoption was entirely fictitious, the work of Plotina and Attianus, by +whom Trajan's death was concealed for a few days in order to facilitate +the elevation of Hadrian. Whichever may have been the truth, his +succession was confirmed by the army and the senate. He hastened to +propitiate the former by a donative of twice the usual amount, and +excused his hasty acceptance of the throne to the senate by alleging the +impatient zeal of the soldiers and the necessity of an imperator for the +welfare of the state. + +Hadrian's first important act was to abandon as untenable the conquests +of Trajan beyond the Euphrates (Assyria, Mesopotamia and Armenia), a +recurrence to the traditional policy of Augustus. The provinces were +unsettled, the barbarians on the borders restless and menacing, and +Hadrian wisely judged that the old limits of Augustus afforded the most +defensible frontier. Mesopotamia and Assyria were given back to the +Parthians, and the Armenians were allowed a king of their own. From +Antioch Hadrian set out for Dacia to punish the Roxolani, who, incensed +by a reduction of the tribute hitherto paid them, had invaded the +Danubian provinces. An arrangement was patched up, and while Hadrian was +still in Dacia he received news of a conspiracy against his life. Four +citizens of consular rank were accused of being concerned in it, and +were put to death by order of the senate before he could interfere. +Hurrying back to Rome, Hadrian endeavoured to remove the unfavourable +impression produced by the whole affair and to gain the goodwill of +senate and people. He threw the responsibility for the executions upon +the prefect of the praetorian guard, and swore that he would never +punish a senator without the assent of the entire body, to which he +expressed the utmost deference and consideration. Large sums of money +and games and shows were provided for the people, and, in addition, all +the arrears of taxation for the last fifteen years (about £10,000,000) +were cancelled and the bonds burnt in the Forum of Trajan. Trajan's +scheme for the "alimentation" of poor children was carried out upon a +larger scale under the superintendence of a special official called +_praefectus alimentorum_. + +The record of Hadrian's journeys[1] through all parts of the empire +forms the chief authority for the events of his life down to his final +settlement in the capital during his last years. They can only be +briefly touched upon here. His first great journey probably lasted from +121 to 126. After traversing Gaul he visited the Germanic provinces on +the Rhine, and crossed over to Britain (spring, 122), where he built the +great rampart from the Tyne to the Solway, which bears his name (see +BRITAIN: _Roman_). He returned through Gaul into Spain, and then +proceeded to Mauretania, where he suppressed an insurrection. A war with +the Parthians was averted by a personal interview with their king (123). +From the Parthian frontier he travelled through Asia Minor and the +islands of the Aegean to Athens (autumn, 125), where he introduced +various political and commercial changes, was initiated at the +Eleusinia, and presided at the celebration of the greater Dionysia. +After visiting Central Greece and Peloponnesus, he returned by way of +Sicily to Rome (end of 126). The next year was spent at Rome, and, after +a visit to Africa, he set out on his second great journey (September +128). He travelled by way of Athens, where he completed and dedicated +the buildings (see ATHENS) begun during his first visit, chief of which +was the Olympieum or temple of Olympian Zeus, on which occasion Hadrian +himself assumed the name of Olympius. In the spring of 129 he visited +Asia Minor and Syria, where he invited the kings and princes of the East +to a meeting (probably at Samosata). Having passed the winter at +Antioch, he set out for the south (spring, 130). He ordered Jerusalem to +be rebuilt (see JERUSALEM) under the name of Aelia Capitolina, and made +his way through Arabia to Egypt, where he restored the tomb of Pompey +at Pelusium with great magnificence. After a short stay at Alexandria he +took an excursion up the Nile, during which he lost his favourite +Antinous. On the 21st of November 130, Hadrian (or at any rate his wife +Sabina) heard the music which issued at sunrise from the statue of +Memnon at Thebes (see MEMNON). From Egypt Hadrian returned through Syria +to Europe (his movements are obscure), but was obliged to hurry back to +Palestine (spring, 133) to give his personal attention (this is denied +by some historians) to the revolt of the Jews, which had broken out +(autumn, 131, or spring, 132) after he had left Syria. The founding of a +Roman colony on the site of Jerusalem (Dio Cass. lxix. 12) and the +prohibition of circumcision (Spartianus, _Hadrianus_, 14) are said to +have been the causes of the war, but authorities differ considerably as +to this and as to the measures which followed the revolt (see art. JEWS; +also E. Schürer, _Hist. of the Jewish People_, Eng. tr., div. 1, vol. +ii. p. 288; and S. Krauss in _Jewish Encyc. s.v._ "Hadrian"), which +lasted till 135. Leaving the conduct of affairs in the hands of his most +capable general, Julius Severus, in the spring of 134 Hadrian returned +to Rome. The remaining years of his life were spent partly in the +capital, partly in his villa at Tibur. His health now began to fail, and +it became necessary for him to choose a successor, as he had no children +of his own. Against the advice of his relatives and friends he adopted +L. Ceionius Commodus under the name of L. Aelius Caesar, who was in a +feeble state of health and died on the 1st of January 138, before he had +an opportunity of proving his capabilities. Hadrian then adopted Arrius +Antoninus (see ANTONINUS PIUS) on condition that he should adopt M. +Annius Verus (afterwards the emperor Marcus Aurelius) and the son of L. +Aelius Caesar, L. Ceionius Commodus (afterwards the emperor Commodus). +Hadrian died at Baiae on the 10th of July 138. + +He was without doubt one of the most capable emperors who ever occupied +the throne, and devoted his great and varied talents to the interests of +the state. One of his chief objects was the abolition of distinctions +between the provinces and the mother country, finally carried out by +Caracalla, while at the same time he did not neglect reforms that were +urgently called for in Italy. Provincial governors were kept under +strict supervision; extortion was practically unheard of; the _jus +Latii_ was bestowed upon several communities; special officials were +instituted for the control of the finances; and the emperor's interest +in provincial affairs was shown by bis personal assumption of various +municipal offices. New towns were founded and old ones restored; new +streets were laid out, and aqueducts, temples and magnificent buildings +constructed. In Italy itself the administration of justice and the +finances required special attention. Four _legati juridici_ (or simply +_juridici_) of consular rank were appointed for Italy, who took over +certain important judicial functions formerly exercised by local +magistrates (cases of _fideicommissa_, the nomination of guardians). The +judicial council (_consiliarii Augusti_, later called _consistorium_), +composed of persons of the highest rank (especially jurists), became a +permanent body of advisers, although merely consultative. Roman law owes +much to Hadrian, who instructed Salvius Julianus to draw up an _edictum +perpetuum_, to a great extent the basis of Justinian's _Corpus juris_ +(see M. Schanz, _Geschichte der römischen Literatur_, iii. p. 167). In +the administration of finance, in addition to the remission of arrears +already mentioned, a revision of claims was ordered to be made every +fifteen years, thereby anticipating the "indictions" (see CALENDAR; +CHRONOLOGY). Direct collection of taxes by imperial procurators was +substituted for the system of farming, and a special official +(_advocatus fisci_) was instituted to look after the interests of the +imperial treasury. The gift of "coronary gold" (_aurum coronarium_), +presented to the emperor on certain occasions, was entirely remitted in +the case of Italy, and partly in the case of the provinces. The +administration of the postal service throughout the empire was taken +over by the state, and municipal officials were relieved from the burden +of maintaining the imperial posts. Humane regulations as to the +treatment of slaves were strictly enforced; the master was forbidden to +put his slave to death, but was obliged to bring him before a court of +justice; if he ill-treated him it was a penal offence. The sale of +slaves (male and female) for immoral and gladiatorial purposes was +forbidden; the custom of putting all the household to death when their +master was murdered was modified. The public baths were kept under +strict supervision; the toga was ordered to be worn in public by +senators and equites on solemn occasions; extravagant banquets were +prohibited; rules were made to prevent the congestion of traffic in the +streets. In military matters Hadrian was a strict disciplinarian, but +his generosity and readiness to share their hardships endeared him to +the soldiers. He effected a material and moral improvement in the +conditions of service and mode of life, but in other respects he does +not appear to have introduced any important military reforms. During his +reign an advance was made in the direction of creating an organized body +of servants at the disposal of the emperor by the appointment of equites +to important administrative posts, without their having performed the +_militiae equestres_ (see EQUITES). Among these posts were various +procuratorships (chief of which was that of the imperial fisc), and the +offices _ab epistulis_, _a rationibus_ and _a libellis_ (secretary, +accountant, receiver of petitions). The prefect of the praetorian guard +was now the most important person in the state next to the emperor, and +subsequently became a supreme judge of appeal. Among the magnificent +buildings erected by Hadrian mention may be made of the following: In +the capital, the temple of Venus and Roma; his splendid mausoleum, which +formed the groundwork of the castle of St Angelo; the pantheon of +Agrippa; the Basilica Neptuni; at Tibur the great villa 8 m. in extent, +a kind of epitome of the world, with miniatures of the most celebrated +places in the provinces. Athens, however, was the favourite site of his +architectural labours; here he built the temple of Olympian Zeus, the +Panhellenion, the Pantheon, the library, a gymnasium and a temple of +Hera. + +Hadrian was fond of the society of learned men--poets, scholars, +rhetoricians and philosophers--whom he alternately humoured and +ridiculed. In painting, sculpture and music he considered himself the +equal of specialists. The architect Apollodorus of Damascus owed his +banishment and death to his outspoken criticism of the emperor's plans. +The sophist Favorinus was more politic; when reproached for yielding too +readily to the emperor in some grammatical discussion, he replied that +it was unwise to contradict the master of thirty legions. The Athenaeum +(q.v.) owed its foundation to Hadrian. He was a man of considerable +intellectual attainments, of prodigious memory, master of both Latin and +Greek, and wrote prose and verse with equal facility. His taste, +however, was curious; he preferred Cato the elder, Ennius and Caelius +Antipater to Cicero, Virgil and Sallust, the obscure poet Antimachus to +Homer and Plato. As a writer he displayed great versatility. He composed +an autobiography, published under the name of his freedman Phlegon; +wrote speeches, fragments of two of which are preserved in inscriptions +(a panegyric on his mother-in-law Matidia, and an address to the +soldiers at Lambaesis in Africa). In imitation of Antimachus he wrote a +work called _Catachannae_, probably a kind of miscellanea. The Latin and +Greek anthologies contain about a dozen epigrams under his name. The +letter of Hadrian to the consul Servianus (in Vopiscus, _Vita +Saturnini_, 8) is no longer considered genuine. Hadrian's celebrated +dying address to his soul may here be quoted:-- + + "Animula vagula, blandula, + Hospes comesque corporis, + Quae nunc abibis in loca + Pallidula, rigida, nudula; + Nec, ut soles, dabis iocos?" + +The character of Hadrian exhibits a mass of contradictions, well summed +up by Spartianus (14, 11). He was grave and gay, affable and dignified, +cruel and gentle, mean and generous, eager for fame yet not vain, +impulsive and cautious, secretive and open. He hated eminent qualities +in others, but gathered round him the most distinguished men of the +state; at one time affectionate towards his friends, at another he +mistrusted and put them to death. In fact, he was only consistent in his +inconsistency (_semper in omnibus varius_). Although he endeavoured to +win the popular favour, he was more feared than loved. A man of +unnatural passions and grossly superstitious, he was an ardent lover of +nature. But, with all his faults, he devoted himself so indefatigably to +the service of the state, that the period of his reign could be +characterized as a "golden age." + + The chief ancient authorities for the reign of Hadrian are: the life + by Aelius Spartianus in the _Scriptores historiae Augustae_ (see + AUGUSTAN HISTORY and bibliography); the epitome of Dio Cassius (lxix.) + by Xiphilinus; Aurelius Victor, Epit. 14, probably based on Marius + Maximus; Eutropius viii. 6; Zonaras xi. 23; Suidas, _s.v._ [Greek: + Adrianos]: and numerous inscriptions and coins. The autobiography was + used by both Dio Cassius and Marius Maximus. Modern authorities: C. + Merivale, _Hist. of the Romans under the Empire_, ch. lxvi.; H. + Schiller, _Geschichte der römischen Kaiserzeit_, i. 2, p. 602 (1883); + J. B. Bury, _The Student's Roman Empire_ (1893), where a concise table + of the journeys is given; P. von Rohden, _s.v._ "Aelius" (No. 64) in + Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopädie_, i. 1 (1894); J. Dürr, _Die Reisen + des Kaisers Hadrian_ (1881); F. Gregorovius, _The Emperor Hadrian_ + (Eng. tr. by Mary E. Robinson, 1898); A. Hausrath, _Neutestamentliche + Zeitgeschichte_, iii. (1874); W. Schurz, _De mutationibus in imperio + ordinando ab imp. Hadr. factis_, i. (Bonn, 1883); J. Plew, + _Quellenuntersuchungen zur Geschichte des Kaisers Hadrian_ + (Strassburg, 1890); O. T. Schulz, "Leben des Kaisers Hadrian," + _Quellenanalysen_ [of Spartianus' _Vita_] (1904); E. Kornemann, + _Kaiser Hadrian und der letzte grosse Historiker von Rom_ (1905); W. + Weber, _Untersuchungen zur Geschichte des Kaisers Hadrianus_ (1908); + H. F. Hitzig, _Die Stellung Kaiser Hadrians in der römischen + Rechtsgeschichte_ (1892); C. Schultess, _Bauten des Kaisers Hadrian_ + (1898); G. Doublet, _Notes sur les oeuvres littéraires de l'empéreur + Hadrien_ (Toulouse, 1893); J. B. Lightfoot, _Apostolic Fathers_, ii. + 1, 476 seq.; Sir W. M. Ramsay, _Church in the Roman Empire_, pp. 320 + seq.; V. Schultze, in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopädie_, vii. 315; + histories of Roman literature by Teuffel-Schwabe and Schanz. On Aelius + Caesar, see _Class. Quart._, 1908, i. (T. K.; J. H. F.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The chronology of Hadrian's journeys--indeed, of the whole + reign--is confused and obscure. In the above the article by von + Rohden in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopädie_ has been followed. + Weber's (see Bibliog.) is the most important discussion. + + + + +HADRIAN'S WALL, the name usually given to the remains of the Roman +fortifications which defended the northern frontier of the Roman +province of Britain, between the Tyne and the Solway. The works +consisted of (1) a continuous defensive rampart with a ditch in front +and a road behind; (2) various forts, blockhouses and towers along the +rampart; and (3) an earthwork to the south of it, generally called the +Vallum, of uncertain use. The defensive wall was probably first erected +by Hadrian about A.D. 122 as a turf wall, and rebuilt in stone by +Septimius Severus about A.D. 208. See further BRITAIN: _Roman_. + + + + +HADRUMETUM, a town of ancient Africa on the southern extremity of the +_sinus Neapolitanus_ (mod. Gulf of Hammamet) on the east coast of +Tunisia. The site is partly occupied by the modern town of Susa (q.v.). +The form of the name Hadrumetum varied much in antiquity; the Greeks +called it [Greek: Adrymês, Adrymêtos, Adramytês, Adramêtos]: the Romans +_Adrumetum_, _Adrimetum_, _Hadrumetum_, _Hadrymetum_, &c.; inscriptions +and coins gave _Hadrumetum_. The town was originally a Phoenician colony +founded by Tyrians long before Carthage (Sallust, _Jug._ 19). It became +subject to Carthage, but lost none of its prosperity. Often mentioned +during the Punic Wars, it was captured by Agathocles in 310, and was the +refuge of Hannibal and the remnants of his army after the battle of Zama +in 202. During the last Punic War it gave assistance to the Romans; +after the fall of Carthage in 146 it received an accession of territory +and the title of _civitas libera_ (Appian, _Punica_, xciv.; _C.I.L._ i. +p. 84). Caesar landed there in 46 B.C. on his way to the victory of +Thapsus (_De bello Afric._ iii.; Suetonius, _Div. Jul._ lix.). + +In the organization of the African provinces Hadrumetum became a capital +of the province of Byzacena. Its harbour was extremely busy and the +surrounding country unusually fertile. Trajan made it a Latin colony +under the title of _Colonia Concordia Ulpia Trajana Augusta Frugifera +Hadrumetina_; a dedication to the emperor Gordian the Good, found by M. +Cagnat at Susa in 1883 gives these titles to the town, and at the same +time identifies it with Susa. Quarrels arose between Hadrumetum and its +neighbour Thysdrus in connexion with the temple of Minerva situated on +the borders of their respective territories (Frontinus, _Gromatici_, ed. +Lachmannus, p. 57); Vespasian when pro-consul of Africa had to repress +a sedition among its inhabitants (Suetonius, _Vesp._ iv.; Tissot, +_Fastes de la prov. d'Afrique_, p. 66); it was the birthplace of the +emperor Albinus. At this period the metropolis of Byzacena was after +Carthage the most important town in Roman Africa. It was the seat of a +bishopric, and its bishops are mentioned at the councils of 258, 348, +393 and even later. Destroyed by the Vandals in 434 it was rebuilt by +Justinian and renamed Justinianopolis (Procop. _De aedif._ vi. 6). The +Arabic invasion at the end of the 7th century destroyed the Byzantine +towns, and the place became the haunt of pirates, protected by the +Kasbah (citadel); it was built on the substructions of the Punic, Roman +and Byzantine acropolis, and is used by the French for military +purposes. The Arabic geographer Bakri gave a description of the chief +Roman buildings which were standing in his time (Bakri, _Descr. de +l'Afrique_, tr. by de Slane, p. 83 et seq.). The modern town of Susa, +despite its commercial prosperity, occupies only a third of the old +site. + +In 1863 the French engineer, A. Daux, discovered the jetties and the +moles of the commercial harbour, and the line of the military harbour +(Cothon); both harbours, which were mainly artificial, are entirely +silted up. There remains a fragment of the fortifications of the Punic +town, which had a total length of 6410 metres, and remains of the +substructions of the Byzantine acropolis, of the circus, the theatre, +the water cisterns, and of other buildings, notably the interesting +Byzantine basilica which is now used as an Arab café (Kahwat-el-Kubba). +In the ruins there have been found numerous columns of Punic +inscriptions, Roman inscriptions and mosaic, among which is one +representing Virgil seated, holding the _Aeneid_ in his hand; another +represents the Cretan labyrinth with Theseus and the Minotaur (Héron de +Villefosse, _Revue de l'Afrique française_, v., December 1887, pp. 384 +and 394; _Comptes rendus de l'Acad. des Inscr. et Belles-Lettres_, 1892, +p. 318; other mosaics, _ibid._, 1896, p. 578; _Revue archéol._, 1897). +In 1904 Dr Carton and the abbé Leynaud discovered huge Christian +catacombs with several miles of subterranean galleries to which access +is obtained by a small vaulted chamber. In these catacombs we find +numerous sarcophagi and inscriptions painted or engraved of the Roman +and Byzantine periods (_Comptes rendus de l'Acad. des Inscr. et +Belles-Lettres_, 1904-1907; Carton and Leynaud, _Les Catacombes +d'Hadrumète_, Susa, 1905). We can recognize also the Punic and +Pagan-Roman cemeteries (_C. R. de l'Acad. des Inscr. et Belles-Lettres_, +1887; _Bull. archéol. du Comité_, 1885, p. 149; 1903, p. 157). The town +had no Punic coins, but under the Roman domination there were coins from +the time of the Republic. These are of bronze and bear the name of the +city in abbreviations, HADR or HADRVM accompanying the head of Neptune +or the Sun. We find also the names of local duumvirs. Under Augustus the +coins have on the obverse the imperial effigy, and on the reverse the +names and often the effigies of the pro-consuls who governed the +province, P. Quintilius Varus, L. Volusius Saturninus and Q. Fabius +Maximus Africanus. After Augustus the mint was finally closed. + + AUTHORITIES.--A. Daux, _Recherches sur l'origine et l'emplacement des + emporia phéniciens dans le Zeugis et le Byzacium_ (Paris, 1869); Ch. + Tissot, _Géographie comparée de la province romaine d'Afrique_, ii. p. + 149; Cagnat, _Explorations archéol. en Tunisie_ (2nd and 3rd fasc., + 1885); Lud. Müller, _Numismatique de l'Afrique ancienne_, ii p. 51; M. + Palat, in the _Bulletin arch. du Comité des travaux historiques_ + (1885), pp. 121 and 150; _Revue archéologique_ (1884 and 1897); + _Bulletin des antiquités africaines_ (1884 and 1885); _Bulletin de la + Société archéologique de Sousse_ (first published in 1903); _Atlas + archéol. de Tunisie_ (4th fascicule, with the plan of Hadrumetum). + (E. B.*) + + + + +HAECKEL, ERNST HEINRICH (1834- ), German biologist, was born at +Potsdam on the 16th of February 1834. He studied medicine and science at +Würzburg, Berlin and Vienna, having for his masters such men as Johannes +Müller, R. Virchow and R. A. Kölliker, and in 1857 graduated at Berlin +as M.D. and M.Ch. At the wish of his father he began to practise as a +doctor in that city, but his patients were few in number, one reason +being that he did not wish them to be many, and after a short time he +turned to more congenial pursuits. In 1861, at the instance of Carl +Gegenbaur, he became _Privatdozent_ at Jena; in the succeeding year he +was chosen extraordinary professor of comparative anatomy and director +of the Zoological Institute in the same university; in 1865 he was +appointed to a chair of zoology which was specially established for his +benefit. This last position he retained for 43 years, in spite of +repeated invitations to migrate to more important centres, such as +Strassburg or Vienna, and at Jena he spent his life, with the exception +of the time he devoted to travelling in various parts of the world, +whence in every case he brought back a rich zoological harvest. + +As a field naturalist Haeckel displayed extraordinary power and +industry. Among his monographs may be mentioned those on _Radiolaria_ +(1862), _Siphonophora_ (1869), _Monera_ (1870) and _Calcareous Sponges_ +(1872), as well as several _Challenger_ reports, viz. _Deep-Sea Medusae_ +(1881), _Siphonophora_ (1888), _Deep-Sea Keratosa_ (1889) and +_Radiolaria_ (1887), the last being accompanied by 140 plates and +enumerating over four thousand new species. This output of systematic +and descriptive work would alone have constituted a good life's work, +but Haeckel in addition wrote copiously on biological theory. It +happened that just when he was beginning his scientific career Darwin's +_Origin of Species_ was published (1859), and such was the influence it +exercised over him that he became the apostle of Darwinism in Germany. +He was, indeed, the first German biologist to give a whole-hearted +adherence to the doctrine of organic evolution and to treat it as the +cardinal conception of modern biology. It was he who first brought it +prominently before the notice of German men of science in his first +memoir on the _Radiolaria_, which was completely pervaded with its +spirit, and later at the congress of naturalists at Stettin in 1863. +Darwin himself has placed on record the conviction that Haeckel's +enthusiastic propagandism of the doctrine was the chief factor of its +success in Germany. His book on _General Morphology_ (1866), published +when he was only thirty-two years old, was called by Huxley a suggestive +attempt to work out the practical application of evolution to its final +results; and if it does not take rank as a classic, it will at least +stand out as a landmark in the history of biological doctrine in the +19th century. Although it contains a statement of most of the views with +which Haeckel's name is associated, it did not attract much attention on +its first appearance, and accordingly its author rewrote much of its +substance in a more popular style and published it a year or two later +as the _Natural History of Creation (Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte)_, +which was far more successful. In it he divided morphology into two +sections--tectology, the science of organic individuality; and +promorphology, which aims at establishing a crystallography of organic +forms. Among other matters, he laid particular stress on the +"fundamental biogenetic law" that ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny, that +the individual organism in its development is to a great extent an +epitome of the form-modifications undergone by the successive ancestors +of the species in the course of their historic evolution. His well-known +"gastraea" theory is an outcome of this generalization. He divided the +whole animal creation into two categories--the Protozoa or unicellular +animals, and the Metazoa or multicellular animals, and he pointed out +that while the former remain single-celled throughout their existence, +the latter are only so at the beginning, and are subsequently built up +of innumerable cells, the single primitive egg-cell (_ovum_) being +transformed by cleavage into a globular mass of cells (_morula_), which +first becomes a hollow vesicle and then changes into the _gastrula_. The +simplest multicellular animal he conceived to resemble this gastrula +with its two primary layers, ectoderm and endoderm, and the earliest +hypothetical form of this kind, from which the higher animals might be +supposed to be actually descended, he called the "gastraea." This theory +was first put forward in the memoir on the calcareous sponges, which in +its sub-title was described as an attempt at an analytical solution of +the problem of the origin of species, and was subsequently elaborated in +various _Studies on the Gastraea Theory_ (1873-1884). Haeckel, again, +was the first to attempt to draw up a genealogical tree (_Stammbaum_) +exhibiting the relationship between the various orders of animals with +regard both to one another and their common origin. His earliest attempt +in the _General Morphology_ was succeeded by many others, and his +efforts in this direction may perhaps be held to culminate in the paper +he read before the fourth International Zoological Congress, held at +Cambridge in 1898, when he traced the descent of the human race in +twenty-six stages from organisms like the still-existing _Monera_, +simple structureless masses of protoplasm, and the unicellular +_Protista_, through the chimpanzees and the _Pithecanthropus erectus_, +of which a few fossil bones were discovered in Java in 1894, and which +he held to be undoubtedly an intermediate form connecting primitive man +with the anthropoid apes. + +Not content with the study of the doctrine of evolution in its +zoological aspects, Haeckel also applied it to some of the oldest +problems of philosophy and religion. What he termed the integration of +his views on these subjects he published under the title of _Die +Welträtsel_ (1899), which in 1901 appeared in English as _The Riddle of +the Universe_. In this book, adopting an uncompromising monistic +attitude, he asserted the essential unity of organic and inorganic +nature. According to his "carbon-theory," which has been far from +achieving general acceptance, the chemico-physical properties of carbon +in its complex albuminoid compounds are the sole and the mechanical +cause of the specific phenomena of movement which distinguish organic +from inorganic substances, and the first development of living +protoplasm, as seen in the _Monera_, arises from such nitrogenous +carbon-compounds by a process of spontaneous generation. Psychology he +regarded as merely a branch of physiology, and psychical activity as a +group of vital phenomena which depend solely on physiological actions +and material changes taking place in the protoplasm of the organism in +which it is manifested. Every living cell has psychic properties, and +the psychic life of multicellular organisms is the sum-total of the +psychic functions of the cells of which they are composed. Moreover, +just as the highest animals have been evolved from the simplest forms of +life, so the highest faculties of the human mind have been evolved from +the soul of the brute-beasts, and more remotely from the simple +cell-soul of the unicellular Protozoa. As a consequence of these views +Haeckel was led to deny the immortality of the soul, the freedom of the +will, and the existence of a personal God. + +Haeckel's literary output was enormous, and at the time of the +celebration of his sixtieth birthday at Jena in 1894 he had produced 42 +works with 13,000 pages, besides numerous scientific memoirs. In +addition to the works already mentioned, he wrote _Freie Wissenschaft +und freie Lehre_ (1877) in reply to a speech in which Virchow objected +to the teaching of the doctrine of evolution in schools, on the ground +that it was an unproved hypothesis; _Die systematische Phylogenie_ +(1894), which has been pronounced his best book; _Anthropogenie_ (1874, +5th and enlarged edition 1903), dealing with the evolution of man; _Über +unsere gegenwärtige Kenntnis vom Ursprung des Menschen_ (1898, +translated into English as _The Last Link_, 1898); _Der Kampf um den +Entwickelungsgedanken_ (1905, English version, _Last Words on +Evolution_, 1906); _Die Lebenswunder_ (1904), a supplement to the +_Riddle of the Universe_; books of travel, such as _Indische +Reisebriefe_ (1882) and _Aus Insulinde_ (1901), the fruits of journeys +to Ceylon and to Java; _Kunstformen der Natur_ (1904), with plates +representing beautiful marine animal forms; and _Wanderbilder_ (1905), +reproductions of his oil-paintings and water-colour landscapes. + + There are biographies by W. Bölsche (Dresden, 1900, translated into + English by Joseph McCabe, with additions, London, 1906) and by + Breitenbach (Odenkirchen, 1904). See also Walther May, _Ernst + Haeckel_; _Versuch einer Chronik seines Lebens und Werkens_ (Leipzig, + 1909). + + + + +HAEMATITE, or HEMATITE, a mineral consisting of ferric oxide (Fe2O3), +named from the Greek word [Greek: haima] "blood," in allusion to its +typical colour, whence it is called also red iron ore. When +crystallized, however, haematite often presents a dark colour, even +iron-black; but on scratching the surface, the powder of the streak +shows the colour of dried blood. Haematite crystallizes in the +rhombohedral system, and is isomorphous with corundum (Al2O3). The +habit of the crystals may be rhombohedral, pyramidal or tabular, rarely +prismatic. In fig. 1 the crystal, from Elba, shows a combination of the +fundamental rhombohedron (R), an obtuse rhombohedron (s), and the +hexagonal bi-pyramid (n). Fig. 2 is a tabular crystal in which the basal +pinacoid (o) predominates. Haematite has no distinct cleavage, but may +show, in consequence of a lamellar structure, a tendency to parting +along certain planes. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +Crystallized haematite, such as that from the iron-mines of Elba, +presents a steel-grey or iron-black colour, with a brilliant metallic +lustre, sometimes beautifully iridescent. The splendent surface has +suggested for this mineral such names as specular iron ore, +looking-glass ore, and iron glance (_fer oligiste_ of French writers). +The hardness of the crystallized haematite is about 6, and the specific +gravity 5.2. The so-called "iron roses" (_Eisenrosen_) of Switzerland +are rosette-like aggregates of hexagonal tabular crystals, from fissures +in the gneissose rocks of the Alps. Specular iron ore occurs in the form +of brilliant metallic scales on many lavas, as at Vesuvius and Etna, in +the Auvergne and the Eifel, and notably in the Island of Ascension, +where the mineral forms beautiful tabular crystals. It seems to be a +sublimation-product formed in volcanoes by the interaction of the vapour +of ferric chloride and steam. + +Specular haematite forms a constituent of certain schistose rocks, such +as the Brazilian itabirite. In the Marquette district of Michigan (Lake +Superior) schistose specular ore occurs in important deposits, +associated with a jasper rock, in which the ore alternates with bands of +red quartzite. Micaceous iron ore consists of delicate steel-grey scales +of specular haematite, unctuous to the touch, used as a lubricant and +also as a pigment. It is worked in Devonshire under the name of shining +ore. Very thin laminae of haematite, blood-red by transmitted light, +occur as microscopic enclosures in certain minerals, such as carnallite +and sun-stone, to which they impart colour and lustre. + +Much haematite occurs in a compact or massive form, often mammillary, +and presenting on fracture a fibrous structure. The reniform masses are +known as kidney ore. Such red ore is generally neither so dense nor so +hard as the crystals. It often passes into an earthy form, termed soft +red ore, and when mixed with more or less clay constitutes red ochre, +ruddle or reddle (Ger. _Rötel_). + +The hard haematite is occasionally cut and polished as an ornamental +stone, and certain kinds have been made into beads simulating black +pearls. It was worked by the Assyrians for their engraved +cylinder-seals, and was used by the gnostics for amulets. Some of the +native tribes in the Congo basin employ it as a material for axes. The +hard fibrous ore of Cumberland is known as pencil ore, and is employed +for the burnishers used by bookbinders and others. Santiago de +Compostela in Spain furnishes a considerable supply of haematite +burnishers. + +Haematite is an important ore of iron (q.v.), and is extensively worked +in Elba, Spain (Bilbao), Scandinavia, the Lake Superior region and +elsewhere. In England valuable deposits occur in the Carboniferous +Limestone of west Cumberland (Whitehaven district) and north Lancashire +(Ulverston district). The hard ore is siliceous, and fine crystallized +specimens occur in association with smoky quartz. The ore is remarkably +free from phosphorus, and is consequently valued for the production of +pig-iron to be converted into Bessemer steel. (F. W. R.*) + + + + +HAEMATOCELE (Gr. [Greek: haima], blood, and [Greek: kêlê], tumour), the +medical term for a localized collection of blood in the tunica vaginalis +or cord. It is usually the result of a sudden blow or severe strain, but +may arise from disease. At first it forms a smooth, fluctuating, opaque +swelling, but later becomes hard and firm. In chronic cases the walls of +the tunica vaginalis undergo changes. The treatment of a case seen soon +after the injury is directed towards keeping the patient at rest, +elevating the parts, and applying an evaporating lotion or ice-bag. In +chronic cases it may be necessary to lay open the cavity and remove the +coagulum. + + + + +HAEMOPHILIA, the medical term for a condition of the vascular system, +often running in families, the members of which are known as "bleeders," +characterized by a disposition towards bleeding, whether with or without +the provocation of an injury to the tissue. When this bleeding is +spontaneous it comes from the mucous membranes, especially from the +nose, but also from the mouth, bowel and bronchial tubes. Slight bruises +are apt to be followed by extravasations of blood into the tissues; the +swollen joints (knee especially) of a bleeder are probably due, in the +first instance, to the escape of blood into the joint cavity or synovial +membrane. It is always from the smallest vessels that the blood escapes, +and may do so in such quantities as to cause death in a few hours. + + + + +HAEMORRHAGE (Gr. [Greek: haima], blood, and [Greek: rhêgnynai], to +burst), a general term for any escape of blood from a blood-vessel (see +Blood). It commonly results from injury, as the tearing or cutting of a +blood-vessel, but certain forms result from disease, as in scurvy and +purpura. The chief varieties of haemorrhage are _arterial_, _venous_ and +_capillary_. Bleeding from an artery is of a bright red colour, and +escapes from the end of the vessel nearest the heart in jets synchronous +with the heart's beat. Bleeding from a vein is of a darker colour; the +flow is steady, and the bleeding is from the distal end of the vessel. +Capillary bleeding is a general oozing from a raw surface. By +_extravasation of blood_ is meant the pouring out of blood into the +areolar tissues, which become boggy. This is termed a _bruise_ or +_ecchymosis_. _Epistaxis_ is a term given to bleeding from the nose. +_Haematemesis_ is vomiting of blood, the colour of which may be altered +by digestion, as is also the case in _melaena_, or passage of blood with +the faeces, in which the blood becomes dark and tarry-looking from the +action of the intestinal fluids. _Haemoptysis_ denotes an escape of +blood from the air-passages, which is usually bright red and frothy from +admixture with air. _Haematuria_ means passage of blood with the urine. + +Cessation of bleeding may take place from natural or from artificial +means. Natural arrest of haemorrhage arises from (1) the coagulation of +the blood itself, (2) the diminution of the heart's action as in +fainting, (3) changes taking place in the cut vessel causing its +retraction and contraction. In the surgical treatment of haemorrhage +minor means of arresting bleeding are: cold, which is most valuable in +general oozing and local extravasations; very hot water, 130° to 160° +F., a powerful haemostatic; position, such as elevation of the limb, +valuable in bleeding from the extremities; styptics or astringents, +applied locally, as perchloride of iron, tannic acid and others, the +most valuable being suprarenal extract. In arresting haemorrhage +temporarily the chief thing is to press directly on the bleeding part. +The pressure to be effectual need not be severe, but must be accurately +applied. If the bleeding point cannot be reached, the pressure should be +applied to the main artery between the bleeding point and the heart. In +small blood-vessels pressure will be sufficient to arrest haemorrhage +permanently. In large vessels it is usual to pass a ligature round the +vessel and tie it with a reef-knot. Apply the ligature, if possible, at +the bleeding point, tying both ends of the cut vessel. If this cannot be +done, the main artery of the limb must be exposed by dissection at the +most accessible point between the wound and the heart, and there +ligatured. + +Haemorrhage has been classified as--(1) primary, occurring at the time +of the injury; (2) reactionary, or within twenty-four hours of the +accident, during the stage of reaction; (3) secondary, occurring at a +later period and caused by faulty application of a ligature or septic +condition of the wound. In severe haemorrhage, as from the division of a +large artery, the patient may collapse and death ensue from syncope. In +this case stimulants and strychnine may be given, but they should be +avoided until it is certain the bleeding has been properly controlled, +as they tend to increase it. Transfusion of blood directly from the +vein of a healthy person to the blood-vessels of the patient, and +infusion of saline solution into a vein, may be practised (see Shock). +In a congenital condition known as _haemophylia_ (q.v.) it is difficult +to stop the flow of blood. + +The surgical procedure for the treatment of an open wound is--(1) arrest +of haemorrhage; (2) cleansing of the wound and removal of any foreign +bodies; (3) careful apposition of its edges and surfaces--the edges +being best brought in contact by sutures of aseptic silk or catgut, the +surfaces by carefully applied pressure; (4) free drainage, if necessary, +to prevent accumulation either of blood or serous effusion; (5) +avoidance of sepsis; (6) perfect rest of the part. These methods of +treatment require to be modified for wounds in special situations and +for those in which there is much contusion and laceration. When a +special poison has entered the wound at the time of its infliction or at +some subsequent date, it is necessary to provide against septic +conditions of the wound itself and blood-poisoning of the general +circulation. + + + + +HAEMORRHOIDS, or Hemorrhoids (from Gr. [Greek: haima], blood, and [Greek: +rhein], to flow), commonly called _piles_, swellings formed by the +dilatation of veins of the lowest part of the bowel, or of those just +outside the margin of its aperture. The former, _internal piles_, are +covered by mucous membrane; the latter, _external piles_, are just +beneath the skin. As the veins of the lining of the bowel become dilated +they form definite bulgings within the bowel, and, at last increasing in +size, escape through the anus when a motion is being passed. Growing +still larger, they may come down spontaneously when the individual is +standing or walking, and they are apt to be a grave source of pain or +annoyance. Eventually they may remain constantly protruded--nevertheless, +they are still _internal_ piles because they arise from the interior of +the bowel. Though a pile is sometimes solitary, there are usually several +of them. They are apt to become inflamed, and the inflammation is +associated with heat, pain, discharge and general uneasiness; ulceration +and bleeding are also common symptoms, hence the term "bleeding piles." +The _external pile_ is covered by the thin dark-coloured skin of the anal +margin. Severe pressure upon the large abdominal veins may retard the +upward flow of blood to the heart and so give rise to piles; this is apt +to happen in the case of disease of the liver, malignant and other +tumours, and pregnancy. General weakness of the constitution or of the +blood-vessels and habitual constipation may be predisposing causes of +piles. The exciting cause may be vigorous straining at stool or exposure +to damp, as from sitting on the wet ground. Piles are often only a +symptom, and in their treatment this fact should be kept in view; if the +cause is removed the piles may disappear. But in some cases it may be +impossible to remove the cause, as when a widely-spreading cancerous +growth of the rectum, or of the interior of the pelvis or abdomen, is +blocking the upward flow of blood in the veins. Sometimes when a pile has +been protruded, as during defaecation, it is tightly grasped by spasmodic +contraction of the circular muscular fibres which guard the outlet of the +bowel, and it then becomes swollen, engorged and extremely painful; the +strangulation may be so severe that the blood in the vessels coagulates +and the pile mortifies. This, indeed, is nature's attempt at curing a +pile, but it is distressing, and, as a rule, it is not entirely +successful. + +The palliative treatment of piles consists in obtaining a daily and easy +action of the bowels, in rest, cold bathing, astringent injections, +lotions and ointments. The radical treatment consists in their removal +by operation, but this should not be contemplated until palliative +treatment has failed. The operation consists in drawing the pile well +down, and strangling the vessels entering and leaving its base, either +by a strong ligature tightly applied, by crushing, or by cautery. Before +dealing with the pile the anus is vigorously dilated in order that the +pile may be dealt with with greater precision, and also that the +temporary paralysis of the sphincter muscle, which follows the +stretching, may prevent the occurrence of painful and spasmodic +contractions subsequently. The ligatures by which the base of the piles +are strangulated slough off with the pile in about ten days, and in +about ten days more the individual is, as a rule, well enough to return +to his work. If, for one reason or another, no operation is to be +undertaken, and the piles are troublesome, relief may be afforded by +warm sponging and by sitz-baths, the pile being gently dried afterwards +by a piece of soft linen, smeared with vaseline, and carefully returned +into the bowel. Under surgical advice, cocaine or morphia may be brought +in contact with the tender parts, either in the form of lotion, +suppository or ointment. In operating upon internal piles it is +undesirable to remove all the external piles around the anus, lest the +contraction of the circumferential scar should cause permanent narrowing +of the orifice. If, as often happens, blood clots in the vein of an +external pile, the small, hard, tender swelling may be treated with +anodyne fomentations, or it may be rendered insensitive by the ether +spray and opened by a small incision, the clot being turned out. + (E. O.*) + + + + +HAEMOSPORIDIA, in zoology, an order of Ectospora, which although +comparatively few in number and very inconspicuous in size and +appearance, have of late years probably attracted greater attention and +been more generally studied than any other Sporozoa; the reason being +that they include the organisms well known as malarial parasites. In +spite, however, of much and careful recent research--to a certain +extent, rather, as a result of it--it remains the case that the +Haemosporidia are, in some respects, the group of the Ectospora about +which our knowledge is, for the time being, in the most unsatisfactory +condition. Such important questions, indeed, as the scope and boundaries +of the group, its exact origin and affinities, the rank and +interclassification of the forms admittedly included in it, are answered +quite differently by different workers. For example, one well-known +Sporozoan authority (M. Lühe) has recently united the two groups, +Haemosporidia and Haemoflagellates, bodily into one, while others (e.g. +Novy and McNeal) deny that there is any connexion whatever between +"Cytozoa" and Trypanosomes. Again, the inclusion or exclusion of forms +like _Piroplasma_ and _Halteridium_ is also the subject of much +discussion. The present writer accepts here the view that the +Haemosporidia are derived from Haemoflagellates which have developed a +gregariniform (Sporozoan) phase at the expense, largely or entirely, of +the flagelliform one. The not inconsiderable differences met with among +different types are capable of explanation on the ground that certain +forms have advanced farther than others along this particular line of +evolution. In other words, it is most probable that the Haemosporidia +are to be regarded as comprising various parasites which represent +different stages intermediate between, on the one side, a Flagellate, +and on the other, a typical chlamydospore-forming Ectosporan parasite. +While, however, it is easy enough sharply to separate off all +Haemosporidia from other Ectospora, it is a very difficult matter to +define their limits on the former side. Two principal criteria which a +doubtful haemal parasite might very well be required to satisfy in order +to be considered as a Haemosporidian rather than a Haemoflagellate are +(a) the occurrence of schizogony during the "corpuscular" phase in the +Vertebrate host, and (b) the formation of many germs ("sporozoites") +from the zygote; so long as these conditions were complied with, the +present writer, at all events, would not feel he was countenancing any +protozoological heresy in allowing for the possibility of a Flagellate +(perhaps trypaniform) phase or features being present at some period or +other in the life-cycle.[1] To render this article complete, however, +one or two well-known parasites, hitherto referred to this order, must +also be mentioned, which, judged by the above (arbitrary) standard, are, +it may be, on the Haemoflagellate side of the dividing line (e.g. +_Halteridium_, according to Schaudinn). + +The chief characters which distinguish the Haemosporidia from other +Ectospora are the following. They are invariably blood parasites, and +for part or all of the trophic period come into intimate relation with +the cellular elements in the blood. There is always an alternation of +hosts and of generations, an Invertebrate being the definitive host, in +which sexual conjugation is undergone and which is to be regarded as the +primary one, a Vertebrate being the intermediate or secondary one. The +zygote or sporont is at first capable of movement and known as an +ookinete. No resistant spores (chlamydospores) are formed, the ultimate +germs or sporozoites always being free in the oocyst and not enclosed by +sporocysts. + +To Sir E. Ray Lankester is due the honour of discovering the first +Haemosporidian, a discovery which did not take place until after most of +the other kinds of Sporozoa were known. In 1871 this author described +the parasite of the frog, which he later termed _Drepanidium ranarum_. +The next discovery was the great and far-reaching one of Laveran, who in +1883 described all the characteristic phases of the malarial parasite +which are met with in human blood. While regarding the organism as the +cause of the disease, Laveran did not at once recognize its animal and +Sporozoan nature, but considered it rather as a vegetable, and termed it +_Oscillaria malariae_. As in the case of the Trypanosomes, we owe to +Danilewsky (1885-1889) the first serious attempts to study the +comparative anatomy and life-history of these parasites, from a +zoological point of view. Danilewsky first named them Haemosporidia, and +distinguished between _Haemocytozoa_ and _Leucocytozoa_. To the +brilliant researches of R. Ross and Grassi in the closing years of the +19th century is due the realization of the essential part played by the +gnat or mosquito in the life-cycle and transmission of the parasites; +and to MacCallum belongs the credit of first observing the true sexual +conjugation, in the case of a _Halteridium_. Since then, thanks to the +labours of Argutinsky and Schaudinn, our knowledge of the malarial +parasites has steadily increased. Until quite recently, however, very +little was known about the Haemosporidia of cold-blooded Vertebrates; +but in 1903 Siegel and Schaudinn demonstrated that the same rôle is +performed in their case by a leech or a tick, and since then many new +forms have been described. + + + Occurrence: habitat; effects on host. + +The Haemosporidia are widely distributed and of very general occurrence +among the chief classes of Vertebrates. Among Invertebrates they are +apparently limited to bloodsucking insects, ticks and leeches.[2] As +already stated, the universal habitat of the parasites in the Vertebrate +is the blood; as a result, of course, they are to be met with in the +capillaries of practically all the important organs of the body; and it +is to be noted that while certain phases (e.g. growing trophozoites, +mature gametocytes) are found in the peripheral circulation, others +(e.g. schizogonous "rosettes," young gametocytes) occur in the internal +organs, liver, kidneys, &c., where the circulation is sluggish. The +relation of the parasites to the blood-cells varies greatly. Most +attack, probably exclusively, the red blood corpuscles (haematids); a +few, however, select the leucocytes, and are therefore known as +Leucocytozoa. In the case of Mammalian and Avian forms (malarial +parasites) Schaudinn and Argutinsky have shown that the trophic and +schizogonic phases are not really endoglobular but closely attached to +the corpuscle, hollowing out a depression or space into which they +nestle; the gametocytes, on the other hand, are actually intercellular. +Forms parasitic in cold-blooded Vertebrates, on the contrary, are +always, so far as is known, endoglobular when in relation with the +corpuscles; and the same is apparently the case with the Mammalian +parasite, _Piroplasma_. Although in no instance so far described is the +parasite actually intranuclear (as certain Coccidia are), in one or two +cases (e.g. _Karyolysus_ of lizards and certain species of +_Haemogregarina_) it reacts markedly upon the nucleus and soon causes +its disintegration. While many Haemosporidia (e.g. malarial parasites, +with the exception of _Halteridium_) remain in connexion with the same +corpuscle throughout the whole period of growth and schizogony, the new +generation of merozoites first being set free from the broken-down cell, +others (the Haemogregarines, broadly speaking, and also _Halteridium_) +leave one corpuscle after a short time, wander about free in the plasma, +and then seek out another; and this may be repeated until the parasite +is ready for schizogony, which generally occurs in the corpuscle. + +As in the case of Trypanosomes (q.v.), normally--that is to say, when in +an accustomed, tolerant host, and under natural conditions--Haemosporidia +are non-pathogenic and do not give rise to any ill-effects in the animals +harbouring them. When, however, the parasites gain an entry into the +blood of man or other unadapted animals,[3] they produce, as is well +known, harmful and often very serious effects. There are three recognized +types of malarial fever, each caused by a distinct form and characterized +by the mode of manifestation. Two, the so-called benign fevers, are +intermittent; namely, tertian and quartan fever, in which the fever +recurs every second and third day respectively. This is due to the fact +that schizogony takes different lengths of time in the two cases, 48 +hours in the one, 72 in the other; the height of the fever-period +coincides with the break-down of the corpuscle at the completion of the +process, and the liberation of great numbers of merozoites in the blood. +The third type is the dangerous aestivo-autumnal or pernicious malaria, +in which the fever is irregular or continuous during long periods. + +A very general symptom is anaemia, which is sometimes present to a +marked extent, when it may lead to a fatal termination. This is the +result of the very considerable destruction of the blood-corpuscles +which takes place, the haemoglobin of which is absorbed by the parasites +as nutriment. A universal feature connected with this mode of nutrition +is the production, in the cytoplasm of the parasite, of a brown pigment, +termed melanin; this does not represent reserve material, but is an +excreted by-product derived from the haemoglobin. These pigment-grains +are at length liberated into the blood-stream and become deposited in +the various organs, spleen, liver, kidneys, brain, causing pronounced +pigmentation. + +Another type of fever, more acute and more generally fatal, is that +produced by forms belonging to the genus _Piroplasma_, in cattle, dogs, +horses and other domestic animals in different regions of the globe; and +recently Wilson and Chowning have stated that the "spotted fever of the +Rockies" is a human piroplasmosis caused by _P. hominis_. The disease of +cattle is known variously as Texas-fever, Tristeza, Red-water, Southern +cattle-fever, &c. In this type of illness the endogenous multiplication +of the parasites is very great and rapid, and brings about an enormous +diminution in the number of healthy red blood corpuscles. Their sudden +destruction results in the liberation of large quantities of haemoglobin +in the plasma, which turns deep-red in colour; and hence +haemoglobinuria, which occurs only rarely in malaria, is a constant +symptom in piroplasmosis. + + + Example of the life-history. + +The parasite of pernicious malaria, here termed _Laverania malariae_, +will serve very well as a type of the general life-cycle (fig. 1). +Slight differences shown by the other malarial parasites (_Plasmodium_) +will be mentioned in passing, but the main divergences which other +Haemosporidian types exhibit are best considered separately. With the +bite of an infected mosquito, the minute sickle-like sporozoites are +injected into the blood. They rapidly penetrate into the blood +corpuscles, in which they appear as small irregular, more or less +amoeboid trophozoites. A vacuole next arises in the cytoplasm, which +increases greatly in size, and gives rise to the well-known, much +discussed ring-form of the parasite, in which it resembles a +signet-ring, the nucleus forming a little thickening to one side. Some +authorities (e.g. Argutinsky) have regarded this structure as being +really a greatly distended vesicular nucleus, and, to a large extent, +indeed, an artifact, resulting from imperfect fixation; but Schaudinn +considers it is a true vacuole, and explains it on the ground of the +rapid nutrition and growth. Later on this vacuole disappears, and the +grains of pigment make their appearance. The trophozoite is now large +and full-grown, and has become rounded and ready for schizogony. The +nucleus of the schizont divides several times (more or less directly, by +simple or multiple fission) to form a number of daughter-nuclei, which +take up a regular position near the periphery. Around these the +cytoplasm becomes segmented, giving rise to the well-known _corps en +rosace_. Eventually the merozoites, in the form of little round +uninuclear bodies, are liberated from the now broken-down corpuscle, +leaving behind a certain amount of residual cytoplasm containing the +pigment grains. Besides the difference in the time taken by the complete +process of schizogony in the various species (see above), there are +distinctions in the composition of the rosettes. Thus, in _Laverania_, +the number of merozoites formed is very variable; in _Plasmodium vivax_ +(the tertian parasite) there are only few (9 to 12) merozoites, but in +_P. malariae_ (the quartan form) they are more numerous, from 12 to 24. +The liberated merozoites proceed to infect fresh blood corpuscles and a +new endogenous cycle is started. + +After asexual multiplication has gone on for some time, sexual forms +become developed. According to Schaudinn, the stimulus which determines +the production of gametocytes instead of schizonts is the reaction of +the host (at the height of a fever period) upon the parasites. A young +trophozoite which is becoming a gametocyte is distinguished from one +which gives rise to a schizont by its much slower rate of growth, and +the absence of any vacuoles in its cytoplasm. The gametocytes themselves +are characterized by their peculiar shape, like that of a sausage, +whence they are very generally known as "crescents." Male and female +gametocytes are distinguished (roughly) by the arrangement of the +pigment-grains; in the former, they are fairly evenly scattered +throughout the cytoplasm, but in the megagametocytes the pigment tends +to be aggregated centrally, around the nucleus. As they become +full-grown and mature, however, the gametocytes lose their crescentic +form and assume that of an oval, and finally of a sphere. At the same +time, they are set free from the remains of the blood corpuscle. The +spherical stage is practically the limit of development in the +Vertebrate host, although, sometimes, the nucleus of the microgametocyte +may proceed to division. The "crescents" of the pernicious parasite +afford a very important diagnostic difference from the gametocytes of +both species of _Plasmodium_, which have the ordinary, rounded shape of +the schizonts. In the case of the latter, points such as their slower +growth, their less amoeboid character, and their size furnish the means +of distinction. + +When a gnat or mosquito sucks blood, all phases of the parasite in the +peripheral circulation at that point may succeed in passing into the +insect. If this occurs all trophic and schizogonic phases are forthwith +digested, and the survival of the sexual phases depends entirely upon +whether the insect is a gnat or mosquito. Only in the latter case can +further development of the gametocytes go on; in other words, only the +genus _Anopheles_, and not the genus _Culex_, furnishes specific hosts +for the malarial parasites. This is a biological fact of considerable +importance in connexion with the prophylactic measures against malaria. +In the stomach of an _Anopheles_, the gametocytes quickly proceed to +gamete-formation. The nucleus of the microgametocyte divides up, and the +daughter-nuclei pass to the periphery. The surface of the body grows out +into long, whip-like processes, of which there are usually 6 to 8 +(probably the typical number is 8); each is very motile, in this respect +strongly resembling a flagellum. This phase may also develop in drawn +blood, which has, of course, become suddenly cooled by the exposure; and +it seems evident that it is the change in temperature, from the warm to +the cold-blooded host, which brings about the development of the actual +sexual elements. Earlier observers regarded the phase just described as +representing another parasite altogether, of a Flagellate nature--whence +the well-known term, _Polymitus_-form; and even more recent workers, +such as Labbé who connected it with the malarial parasite, failed to +appreciate its true significance, and considered it rather as a +degeneration-appearance. The micro-gametes soon liberate themselves from +the residual cytoplasm of the parent and swim away in search of a +megagamete; each is a very slender, wavy filament, composed largely of +chromatic substance. The finer details of structure of the microgamete +of a malarial parasite cannot be said, however, to be thoroughly known, +and it is by no means impossible that its structure is really +trypaniform, as, according to Schaudinn's great work, is the case with +the merozoites and sporozoites. + +[Illustration: From Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_. + +FIG. 1.--Diagram of the complete life-cycle of the parasite of +pernicious malaria, _Laverania malariae_, Gr. et Fel. The stages on the +upper side of the dotted line are those found in human blood; below the +dotted line are seen the phases through which the parasite passes in the +intermediate host, the mosquito. Plan and arrangement chiefly after +Neveu-Lemaire; details of the figures founded on those of Grassi, +Schaudinn (Leuckart's _Zoologische Wandtafeln_), Ross and others. + + I.-V. and 6-10 show the schizogony. + VI.-XII., The sexual generation. + XIII., The motile zygote. + XIV.-XIX., Sporogony. + I.-III., Young amoebulae in blood-corpuscles. + IV., Older, actively amoeboid trophozoite. + V., Still older, less amoeboid trophozoite. + 6, Mature schizont. + 7, Schizont, with nucleus dividing up. + 8, Young rosette stage. + 9, Fully formed rosette stage. + 10, Merozoites free in the blood by breaking down of the corpuscle. + VI., Young indifferent gametocyte. + VII., a, Male crescent. + VII., b, Female crescent. + VIII., a and b, The gametocytes becoming oval. + IX., a and b, Spherical gametocytes; in the male (IX. a) the nucleus + has divided up. + X., a and b, Formation of gametes; in the male (X. a) the so-called + flagella or male gametes (fl) are thrown out, one of them is seen + detached; in the female (X. b) a portion of the nucleus has been + expelled. + XI., A male gamete penetrating a female gamete at a cone of reception + formed near the nucleus. + XII., Zygote with two pronuclei in proximity. + XIII., Zygote in the motile stage (vermicule or oökinete). + XIV., Encysted zygote (oöcyst). + XV., Commencing multiplication of the nuclei in the oöcyst. + XVI., Oöcyst with numerous sporoblasts. + XVII., Commencing formation of sporozoites. + XVIII., Full-grown oocyst crammed with ripe sporozoites; on one side + the cyst has burst and the sporozoites are escaping. + XIX., Free sporozoites, showing their changes of form. + n, Nucleus of the parasite. + p, Melanin pigment. + fl, "Flagella." + sp. bl., Sporoblasts. + r. n., Residual nuclei. + r. p., Residual protoplasm.] + +[Illustration: From Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_. + +FIG. 2.--Stomach of a mosquito, with cysts of Haemosporidia. (After +Ross.) + + oes, Oesophagus. + st, Stomach. + cy, Cysts. + Mt, Malpighian tubules. + int, Intestine.] + +The megagametocyte becomes a megagamete directly after a process of +maturation, which consists in the expulsion of a certain amount of +nuclear substance. The actual conjugation is quite similar to the +process in Coccidia, and the resulting zygote perfectly homologous. In +the present case, however, the zygote does not at once secrete an +oöcyst, with a thick resistant wall; on the contrary, it changes its +shape, and becomes markedly gregariniform and active, and is known for +this reason as an ookinete. The ookinete passes through the epithelial +layer of the stomach, the thinner and more pointed end leading the way, +and comes to rest in the connective tissue forming the outer layer of +the stomach-wall (fig. 2). Here it becomes rounded and cyst-like, and +grows considerably; for only a thin, delicate cyst-membrane is secreted, +which does not impede the absorption of nutriment. Meanwhile, the +nucleus has divided into several, around each of which the cytoplasm +becomes segmented. Each of these segments ("blastophores," +"zoidophores") is entirely comparable to a sporoblast in the Coccidian +oocyst, the chief difference being that it never forms a spore; moreover +the segments or sporoblasts in the oocyst of a malarial parasite are +irregular in shape and do not become completely separated from one +another, but remain connected by thin cytoplasmic strands. Repeated +multiplication of the sporoblast-nuclei next takes place, with the +result that a great number of little nuclei are found all round the +periphery. A corresponding number of fine cytoplasmic processes grow out +from the surface, each carrying a nucleus with it, and in this manner a +huge number of slender, slightly sickle-shaped germs or sporozoites +("blasts," "zoids," &c.) are formed. Each oocyst may contain from +hundreds to thousands of sporozoites. + +When the sporogony (which lasts about 10 days) is completed, the oocyst +ruptures and the sporozoites are set free into the body-cavity, leaving +behind a large quantity of residual cytoplasm, including pigment grains, +&c. The sporozoites are carried about by the blood-stream; ultimately, +however, apparently by virtue of some chemotactic attraction, they +practically all collect in the salivary glands, filling the secretory +cells and also invading the ducts. When the mosquito next bites a man, +numbers of them are injected, together with the minute drop of saliva, +into his blood, where they begin a fresh endogenous cycle. + +There is only one other point with regard to the life-history that need +be mentioned. With the lapse of time all trophic and schizogonic +(asexual) phases of the parasite in the blood die off. But it has long +been known that malarial patients, apparently quite cured, may suddenly +exhibit all the symptoms again, without having incurred a fresh +infection. Schaudinn has investigated the cause of this recurrence, and +finds that it is due to the power of the megagametocytes, which are very +resistant and long-lived, to undergo a kind of parthenogenesis under +favourable conditions and give rise to the ordinary asexual schizonts, +which in turn can repopulate the host with all the other phases. +Microgametocytes, on the other hand, die off in time if they cannot pass +into a mosquito. + + [Illustration: From Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_. + + FIG. 3.--_Haemogregarina bigemina_, Laveran, from the blood of + blennies. (After Laveran, magnified about 1800 diameters.) + + a, The form of the parasite found free in the blood-plasma. + b, Parasite within a blood-corpuscle, preparing for division; the + nucleus has already divided. + c, The parasite has divided into two rounded corpuscles, which + assume the form of the free parasite, as seen in d, e and f. + N, Nucleus of the blood-corpuscle. + n, Nucleus of the parasite. The outline of the blood-corpuscle is + indicated by a thick black line.] + + + Comparative Morphology; variations in the life-cycle where known. + + Various types of form are to be met with among the Haemosporidia. In + one, characteristic of most (though not of absolutely all) parasites + of warm-blooded Vertebrates, the trophozoites are of irregular + amoeboid shape; hence this section is generally known as the + _Haemamoebidae_. In another type, characteristic of the parasites of + cold-blooded Vertebrates, the body possesses a definite, vermiform, + i.e. gregariniform shape, which is retained during the + intracorpuscular as well as during the free condition; this section + comprises the _Haemogregarinidae_. Allied to this latter type of form + are the trophozoites of _Piroplasma_, which are normally pear-shaped; + they differ, however, in being very minute, and, moreover, exhibit + considerable polymorphism, rod-like (so-called bacillary) and + ring-forms being of common occurrence. It is important to note that in + a certain species of _Haemogregarina_ (fig. 3) the young trophozoites + markedly resemble _Piroplasma_ in their pyriform appearance; and a + further point of agreement between the two forms is mentioned below. + Lastly there is the Avian genus _Halteridium_, the trophozoites of + which are characteristically bean-shaped or reniform. True + Haemogregarines also differ in other slight points from "Haemamoebae." + Thus the young endoglobular trophozoite does not exhibit a ring + (vacuolar) phase; and the cytoplasm never contains, at any period, the + characteristic melanin pigment above noted. In some species of + _Haemogregarina_ the parasite, while intracorpuscular, becomes + surrounded by a delicate membrane, the cytocyst; on entering upon an + active, "free" period, the cytocyst is ruptured and left behind with + the remains of the corpuscle. A very interesting cytological feature + is the occurrence, in one or two Haemosporidia, of nuclear dimorphism, + i.e. of a larger and smaller chromatic body, probably comparable to + the trophic and kinetic nuclei of a Trypanosome, or of the + "Leishman-Donovan" bodies. Schaudinn was the first to notice this + character, in _Piroplasma canis_, and his observation has since been + confirmed by Lühe.[4] Moreover, Brumpt has also noticed nuclear + dimorphism in the ookinete of a species of _Haemogregarina_ in a leech + (as the Invertebrate host)--a highly important observation. + + As regards the life-history, the endogenous (schizogonous) cycle is + known in many cases. Sometimes schizogony takes the primitive form of + simple binary (probably) longitudinal fission; this is the case in + _Piroplasma_ (fig. 4) and also in _Haemogregarina bigemina_ just + referred to. From this result the pairs of individuals ("twins") so + often found in the corpuscles. In addition, however, at any rate in + _Piroplasma_, it is probable that multiple division (more allied to + ordinary schizogony) also takes place; such is the case, according to + Laveran, in _P. equi_, and the occurrence at times of four parasites + in a corpuscle, arranged in a cruciform manner, is most likely to be + thus explained. Labbé has described schizogony in _Halteridium + danilewskyi_ as taking place in a rather peculiar manner; the parasite + becomes much drawn-out and halter-like, and the actual division is + restricted to its two ends, two clumps of merozoites being formed, at + first connected by a narrow strand of unused cytoplasm, which + subsequently disappears. Some doubt, however, attaches to this + account, as no one else appears to have seen the process. For the + rest, schizogony takes place more or less in the customary way, + allowing for variations in the mode of arrangement of the merozoites. + It remains to be noted that in _Karyolysus lacertarum_, according to + Labbé, two kinds of schizont are developed, which give rise, + respectively, to micromerozoites and megamerozoites, in either case + enclosed in a delicate cytocyst. This probably corresponds to an early + sexual differentiation (such as is found among certain Coccidia + (q.v.), the micromerozoites producing eventually micro-gametocytes, + the others megagametocytes. + + [Illustration: From Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_. + + FIG. 4.--Development and schizogony of _Piroplasma bigeminum_ in the + blood-corpuscles of the ox. (After Laveran and Nicolle.) + + a, Youngest form. + b, Slightly older. + c and d. Division of the nucleus. + e and f, Division of the body of the parasite. + g, h, i, j, Various forms of the twin parasite. + k and l, Doubly infected corpuscles.] + + It has now been recognized for some time that the sexual (exogenous) + part of the life-cycle of all the _Haemamoebidae_ takes place in an + Invertebrate (Insectan) host, and is fundamentally similar to that + above described in those cases where it has been followed. In + contradistinction to the malarial parasites, this host, in the Avian + forms (_Haemoproteus_ and _Halteridium_)[5] is a species of _Culex_ + and not of _Anopheles_; in other words, gamete-formation, conjugation + and subsequent sporozoite-formation in these cases will only go on in + the former. On the other hand, in the case of the Haemogregarines, it + was thought until quite lately that the entire life-history, including + conjugation and sporogony, went on in the Vertebrate host; and only in + 1902 Hintze described what purported to be the complete life-history + of _Lankesterella (Drepanidium) ranarum_ undergone in the frog. This + view was rendered obsolete by the work of Siegel and Schaudinn, who + demonstrated the occurrence of an alternation of hosts and of + generations in the case of _Haemogregarina stepanovi_, parasitic in a + tortoise, and in _Karyolysus lacertarum_; the Invertebrate hosts, in + which, in both cases, the sexual process is undergone, being + respectively a leech (_Placobdella_) and a tick (_Ixodes_). With this + discovery the main distinction (as supposed) between the Haemosporidia + of warm and of cold-blooded Vertebrates vanished. It was further + acknowledged by Schaudinn (under whom Hintze had worked) that the + latter had been misled by Coccidian cysts and spores, which he took + for those of _Lankesterella_. The gametogony and sporogony of + _Haemogregarina stepanovi_ in the leech agree in essential particulars + with the process above described. The microgametes are extremely + minute, and the sporozoites, which are developed in the salivary + glands, where the motile ookinetes finally come to rest, are extremely + "spirochaetiform"--the full significance of this latter fact being, + perhaps, not appreciated. + + Christophers recently described some remarkable phases which he + regarded as belonging to the cycle of _Haemogregarina gerbilli_ (one + of the few Mammalian Haemogregarines known) in a louse + (_Haematopinus_). In a private communication, however, the author + states that he has probably mistaken phases in the development of an + ordinary gregarine parasite in the louse for part of the life-cycle of + this Haemogregarine. + + The Mammalian parasite _Piroplasma_ is the one about whose + life-history our knowledge is most vague. Besides the typical and + generally occurring forms, others have also been observed in the + blood, but it is doubtful how far these are to be looked upon as + normal; for instance, Bowhill and Le Doux have described, in various + species, a phase in which a long, slender pseudopodial-like outgrowth + is present, with a swelling at the distal end. It is, moreover, quite + uncertain which are the sexual forms, comparable to gametocytes. + Doflein regards large pear-shaped forms as such (megagametocytes?), + which become spherical when maturing; and Nocard and Motas have + figured amoeboid, irregular forms, with the nucleus fragmented and + possessing flagella-like processes (possibly microgametes?). The + Invertebrate host is well known to be, in the case of all species, a + tick; thus bovine piroplasmosis (_P. bigeminum_) in America is + conveyed by _Rhipicephalus annulatus_ (_Boophilus bovis_), canine + piroplasmosis (_P. canis_) in South Africa by _Haemaphysalis leachi_ + (and perhaps _Dermacentor reticulatus_), and so on. The manner in + which the infection is transmitted by the tick varies greatly. In some + cases (e.g. _P. bigeminum_ and _P. canis_) only the generation + subsequent to that which receives the infection (by feeding on an + infected ox) can transmit it back again to another ox; in other words, + true hereditary infection of the ova in the mother-tick is found to + occur. The actual period in the life of the daughter-tick at which it + can convey the infection apparently varies. On the other hand, in the + case of East African coast-fever, Theiler found that hereditary + infection does not occur, the same generation transmitting the + parasite (_P. parvum_) at different periods of life. Little is + certainly known regarding the phases of the parasite which are passed + through in the tick. Lignières has observed a kind of multiple fission + in the stomach, several very minute bodies, consisting mostly of + chromatin, being formed, which may serve for endogenous reproduction. + Koch has published an account of certain curious forms of _P. + bigeminum_, in which the body is produced into many stiff, ray-like + processes, giving the appearance of a star; according to him fusion of + such forms takes place, and the resulting zygote becomes rounded, + perhaps transitional to the pear-shaped forms. + + + Classification. + + The classification and nomenclature of the Haemosporidia are in a very + unsettled condition. For an account of the various systems and + modifications hitherto adopted, the article of Minchin (see under + SPOROZOA: _Bibliography_) should be consulted. With the realization + that the life-history in the case of the "Haemamoebae" and the + Haemogregarines is fundamentally similar in type, the chief reason for + grouping them as distinct suborders has disappeared. It is most + convenient to regard them as separate, but closely allied families, + the _Plasmodidae_ ("_Haemamoebidae_") and the _Haemogregarinidae_. The + _Piroplasmata_, on the other hand, constitute another family, which is + better placed in a distinct section or sub-order. In addition there + are, as already noted, two or three genera whose systematic position + must be considered as quite uncertain. One is the well-known + _Halteridium_ of Labbé, parasitic in various birds; the type-species + is _H. danilewskyi_ (Gt. and Fel.). Another is the much-debated + parasite of white blood-corpuscles (leucocytes), originally described + in birds by Danilewsky under the name of _Leucocytozoon_, a form of + which has been recently observed in Mammals. + + In conclusion, the chief members of the above-mentioned families may + be enumerated. + + Fam. _Plasmodidae_ ("_Haemamoebidae_"). + + Genus _Laverania_, Gr. and Fel. (syn. _Haemamoenas_, Ross), for L. + _malariae_, Gr. and Fel. (synn. L. s. _Plasmodium_, s. "_Haemamoeba_," + &c., _praecox_ s. _immaculatum_, &c.), the parasite of pernicious + malaria. Genus _Plasmodium_, March. and Celli (syn. "_Haemamoeba_") + for _P. vivax_ and _P. malariae_, the tertian and quartan parasite, + respectively. There is also a form known in apes, _P. kochi_. Genus + _Haemoproteus_, Kruse (syn. _Proteosoma_), for _H. danilewskyi_ (syn. + _Proteosoma grassi_, _Plasmodium praecox_, &c.), parasitic in numerous + birds. Recently, another form has been described, from reptiles, which + Castellani and Willey have termed _Haemocystidium simondi_. + + _Remarks._--The distinguishing characters of the malarial parasites + have been mentioned above. Some authorities would include _Laverania_ + in the genus _Plasmodium_, as differing only specifically from the + other two forms. It has, moreover, been suggested by Sergent that all + three are merely different phases of the same parasite, predominating + at different seasons; this idea cannot be regarded, however, as in any + way proved so far. From what is known of the morphology and mode of + manifestation of these forms, the differences between _Laverania_ and + the two species of _Plasmodium_ are considerably more pronounced than + those between _P. vivax_ and _P. malariae_; if the latter are to be + considered as distinct species, the first-named is probably + generically distinct. Lühe, it may be noted, in his recent + comprehensive account of the Haematozoa, also takes this view. Lastly, + whatever be the correct solution of the above problem, there is + certainly not sufficient justification for including the Avian genus + _Haemoproteus_, as also only a species of _Plasmodium_, which is done + by some. Its different Vertebrate habitat, and also the fact that its + Insectan definitive host is Culex and not _Anopheles_, differentiate + it sharply from _Laverania_ and _Plasmodium_. + + [Illustration: From Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_. + + FIG. 5.--_Haemoproteus danilewskyi_, Kruse (parasite of various + birds). × about 1200. a, b, c and d from the chaffinch; d and e from + the lark. (After Labbé.) + + a, Young trophozoite in a blood-corpuscle, + b and c, Older trophozoite. + d and e, Sporulation. + d, Precocious sporulation with few merozoites. + e, Sporulation of a full-grown schizont, with numerous merozoites. + f, Gametocyte. + N, Nucleus of blood-corpuscle. + n, Nucleus of parasite. + p, Pigment. + mz, Merozoites. + r.p, Residual protoplasm.] + + [Illustration: From Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_. + + FIG. 6.--_Haemogregarina stepanovi_, Danilewsky (par. _Emys_ and + _Cistudo_), phases of the schizogony. (a-e and j after Laveran; f-i + after Börner.) × 1000 to 1200 diameters. + + a, Blood-corpuscle with young trophozoite. + b, Older trophozoite. + c, Full-grown trophozoite, ready to leave the corpuscle. + d and e, Trophozoites free in the blood-plasma, showing changes of + form. + f-i, Trophozoites, still within the blood-corpuscle (not drawn), + showing the structure of the nucleus, the coarse chromatoid + granules in the protoplasm and the manner in which the parasite + grows into the U-shaped Haemogregarine without increase of + body-mass. + j, Commencement of sporulation; the nucleus has divided into eight + nuclei, and the body of the parasite is beginning to divide up + into as many merozoites within a blood-corpuscle. + N, Nucleus of the blood-corpuscle. + n, Nucleus of the parasite.] + + Fam. _Haemogregarinidae._--The different genera are characterized + chiefly by their size relative to the blood-corpuscles, and their + disposition in the latter. Here, again, it has been suggested to unite + the various types all in one genus, _Haemogregarina_, but this seems + at least premature when it is remembered how little is known in most + cases of the life-cycle, which may prove to exhibit important + divergences. + + Genus _Haemogregarina_, Danilewsky (syn. _Danilewskya_, Labbé). The + body of the parasite exceeds the blood-corpuscle in length, when + adult, and is bent upon itself, like a U. A very great number of + species are known, mostly from reptiles and fishes; among them may be + mentioned _H. stepanovi_ (fig. 6), from _Emys_ and _Cistudo_, whose + sexual-cycle in a leech has been worked out by Siegel (see above), _H. + delagei_, from _Raja_, _H. bigemina_, from blennies, and _H. simondi_, + from soles. Recently one or two Mammalian forms have been observed, + _H. gerbilli_, from an Indian rat (_Gerbillus_), and _H. jaculi_, from + the jerboa. + + Genus _Lankesterella_, Labbé (syn. _Drepanidium_, Lankester). The + parasite is not more than three-quarters the length of the corpuscle. + _L. ranarum_ from _Rana_ is the type-species; another, recently + described by Fantham, is _L. tritonis_, from the newt. + + [Illustration: From Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_. + + FIG. 7.--_Karyolysus lacertarum_ (Danil.), in the blood-corpuscles of + Lacerta muralis, showing the effects of the parasite upon the nucleus + of the corpuscle. In c and d the nucleus is broken up. N, Nucleus of + the corpuscle; n, nucleus of the parasite, seen as a number of masses + of chromatin, not enclosed by a distinct membrane. (After Marceau.)] + + Genus _Karyolysus_, Labbé. The parasite does not exceed the corpuscle + in length; the forms included in this genus, moreover, although not + actually intranuclear, have a marked karyolytic and disintegrating + action upon the nucleus of the corpuscle. The type-species is the + well-known _K. lacertarum_, of lizards; another is _K. + (Haemogregarina) viperini_, from _Tropidonotus_. + + In the section of the _Piroplasmata_ there is only the genus + _Piroplasma_, Patton (synn. _Babesia_, Starcovici, _Pyrosoma_, Smith + and Kilborne), the principal species of which are as follows: _P. + bigeminum_, the cause of Texas cattle-fever, tick-fever + (Rinder-malaria) of South Africa, and _P. bovis_, causing + haemoglobinuria of cattle in Southern Europe; there is some + uncertainty as to whether these two are really distinct; _P. canis_, + _P. ovis_ and _P. equi_ associated, respectively, with those animals. + Lately, a very small form, _P. parvum_, has been described by Theiler + in Rhodesia, which causes East-African coast-fever; and another, _P. + muris_, has been observed in white rats by Fantham. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--(The older literature is enumerated in most treatises + on Sporozoa--see bibliography under SPOROZOA). P. Argutinsky, + "Malariastudien," _Arch. mikr. Anat._ 59, p. 315, pls. 18-21 (1901), + and _op. cit._ 61, p. 331, pl. 18 (1902); A. Balfour, "Haemogregarine + of Mammals," _J. Trop. Med._ 8, p. 241, 8 figs. (1905); C. A. Bentley, + "Leucocytozoan of the Dog," _B.M.J._ (1905), 1, pp. 988 and 1078; N. + Berestneff, "Über einen neuen Blutparasiten der indischen Frösche," + _Arch. Protistenk._ 2, p. 343, pl. 8 (1903); "Über das + _'Leucocytozoan' danilewskyi_," _op. cit._ 3, p. 376, pl. 15 (1904); + A. Billet, "Contribution à l'étude du paludisme et de son hématozoaire + en Algérie," _Ann. Inst. Pasteur_, 16, p. 186 (1902); (Notes on + various Haemogregarines). _C. R. Soc. Biol._ 56, pp. 482, 484, 607 and + 741 (1904); C. Börner, "Untersuchungen über Hämosporidien," _Zeitschr. + wiss. Zool._ 69, p. 398, 1 pl. (1901); T. Bowhill, "Equine + piroplasmosis," &c., _J. Hyg._ 5, p. 7, pls. 1-3 (1905); Bowhill and + C. le Doux, "Contribution to the Study of '_Piroplasmosis canis_,'" + _op. cit._ 4, p. 217, pl. 11 (1904); E. Brumpt and C. Lebailly, + "Description de quelques nouvelles espèces de trypanosomes et + d'hémogrégarines," &c., C. R. Ac. Sci. 139, p. 613 (1904); A. + Castellani and A. Willey, "Observations on the Haematozoa of + Vertebrates in Ceylon," _Spolia Zeylan_. 2, p. 78, 1 pl. (1904), and + _Q. J. Micr. Sci._ 49, p. 383, pl. 24 (1905); S. R. Christophers, + "_Haemogregarina gerbilli_," _Sci. Mem. India_, 18, 15 pp., 1 pl. + (1905); H. B. Fantham, "_Lankesterella tritonis_, n. sp.," &c., _Zool. + Anz._ 29, p. 257, 17 figs. (1905); "_Piroplasma muris_," &c., _Q. J. + Micr. Sci._ 50, p. 493, pl. 28 (1906); C. Graham-Smith, "A new Form of + Parasite found in the Red Blood-Corpuscles of Moles," _J. Hyg._ 5, p. + 453, pls. 13 and 14 (1905); R. Hintze, "Lebensweise und Entwickelung + von _Lankesterella minima_," _Zool. Jahrb. Anat._ 15, p. 693, pl. 36 + (1902); S. James, "On a Parasite found in the White Blood-Corpuscles + of Dogs," _Sci. Mem. India_, 14, 12 pp. 1 pl. (1905); R. Koch, + "Vorläufige Mitteilungen über die Ergebnisse einer Forschungsreise + nach Ostafrika," _Deutsch. med. Wochenschr._, 1905, p. 1865, 24 figs.; + A. Labbé, "Recherches sur les parasites endoglobulaires du sang des + vertébrés," _Arch. zool. exp._ (3) ii. p. 55, 10 pls. (1894); A. + Laveran, "Sur quelques hémogrégarines des ophidiens," _C. R. Ac. Sci._ + 135, p. 1036, 13 figs. (1902); "Sur une _Haemamoeba_ d'une mésange + (_Parus major_)," _C. R. Soc. Biol._ 54, p. 1121, 10 figs. (1902); + "Sur la piroplasmose bovine bacilliforme," _C. R. Ac. Sci._ 138, p. + 648, 18 figs. (1903); "Contribution à l'étude de _Haemamoeba + ziemanni_," _C. R. Soc. Biol._ 55, p. 620, 7 figs. (1903); "Sur une + hémogrégarine des gerboises," _C. R. Ac. Sci._ 141, p. 295, 9 figs. + (1905); (On different Haemogregarines) _C. R. Soc. Biol._ 59, pp. 175, + 176, with figs. (1905); "Haemocytozoa. Essai de classification," + _Bull. Inst. Pasteur_, 3, p. 809 (1905); Laveran and F. Mesnil, "Sur + les hématozoaires des poissons marins," _C. R. Ac. Sci._ 135, p. 567 + (1902); "Sur quelques protozoaires parasites d'une tortue d'Asie," + _t.c._ p. 609, 14 figs. (1902); Laveran and Nègre, "Sur un protozoaire + parasite de _Hyalomma aegyptium_," _C. R. Soc. Biol._ 58, p. 964, 6 + figs. (1905); (for various earlier papers by these authors, reference + should be made to the C. R. Ac. Sci. and C R. Soc. Biol. for previous + years); C. Lebailly (On Piscine Haemogregarines) _C. R. Ac. Sci._ 139, + p. 576 (1904), and _C. R. Soc. Biol._ 59, p. 304 (1905); J. Lignières, + "Sur la 'Tristeza,'" _Ann. Inst. Pasteur_, 15, p. 121, pl. 6 (1901); + "La Piroplasmose bovine; nouvelles recherches," &c., _Arch. parasit._ + 7, p. 398, pl. 4 (1903); M. Lühe, "Die im Blute schmarotzenden + Protozoen," in Mense's _Handbuch der Tropenkrankheiten_ (Leipzig, + 1906), 3, 1; F. Marceau, "Note sur le _Karyolysus lacertarum_," _Arch. + parasitol._ 4, p. 135, 46 figs. (1901); W. MacCallum, "On the + Haematozoan Infection of Birds," _J. Exp. Med._ 3, p. 117, pl. 12 + (1898); G. Mauser, "Die Malaria perniciosa," _Centrbl. Bakter._ (1) + 32, Orig. p. 695, 3 pls. (1902); C. Nicolle (On various Reptilian + Haemogregarines), _C. R. Soc. Biol._ 56, pp. 330, 608 and 912, with + figs. (1904); Nicolle and C. Comte, "Sur le rôle ... de _Hyalomma_ ... + dans l'infection hémogrégarinienne," op. cit. 58, p. 1045 (1905); + Norcard and Motas, "Contribution à l'étude de la piroplasmose canine," + _Ann. Inst. Pasteur_, 16, p. 256, pls. 5 and 6 (1902); G. Nuttall and + G. Graham-Smith, "Canine piroplasmosis," _J. Hygiene_, p. 237, pl. 9 + (1905); F. Schaudinn, "Der Generationswechsel der Coccidien und + Hämosporidien," _Zool. Centrbl._ 6, p. 675 (1899); "Studien über + krankheitserregende Protozoen--II. _Plasmodium vivax_," _Arb. Kais. + Gesundheitsamte_, 19, p. 169, pls. 4-6 (1902); E. and E. Sergent (On + different Haemogregarines), _C. R. Soc. Biol._ 56, pp. 130, 132 + (1904), _op. cit._ 58, pp. 56, 57, 670 (1905); J. Siegel, "Die + geschlechtliche Entwickelung von _Haemogregarina_," &c., _Arch. + Protistenk._ 2, p. 339, 7 figs. (1903); P. L. Simond, "Contribution à + l'étude des hématozoaires endoglobulaires des reptiles," _Ann. Inst. + Pasteur_, 15, p. 319, 1 pl. (1901); T. Smith and F. Kilborne, + "Investigations into the Nature, Causation and Prevention of Texas + Cattle Fever," _Rep. Bureau Animal Industry_, U.S.A., 9 and 10, p. + 177, pls. (1893); A. Theiler, "The _Piroplasma bigeminum_ of the + Immune Ox," _J. Army Med. Corps_, 3, pp. 469, 599, 1 pl. (1904); J. + Vassal, "Sur une hématozoaire endoglobulaire nouveau d'un mammifère," + _Ann. Inst. Pasteur_, 19, p. 224, pl. 10 (1905); L. B. Wilson and W. + Chowning, "Studies in _Piroplasmosis hominis_," _J. Infect. Diseases_, + 1, p. 31, 2 pls. (1904). (H. M. Wo.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Compare, for example, the flagellated granules of certain + Coccidia, which point unmistakably to a Flagellate ancestry. + + [2] A possible exception is a doubtful species of _Haemogregarina_, + which has been described from the walls of the blood-vessels of an + Annelid. + + [3] For an interesting account of the biological relations between + parasites and their hosts, and the penalty Man pays for his roving + propensities, the reader should see Lankester's article in the + _Quarterly Review_, July 1904. + + [4] This does away with one of the principal reasons on account of + which some authorities consider _Piroplasma (Leishmania) donovani_ as + quite distinct from other _Piroplasmata_ (see TRYPANOSOMES). + + [5] It must not be forgotten that one species of _Halteridium (H. + [Trypanomorpha] noctuae)_ is said to have well-marked trypaniform + phases in its life-cycle; these are preferably considered under + _Trypanosomes_ (q.v.), and therefore, to avoid repetition, are only + thus alluded to here. Whether _H. danilewskyi_ also becomes + trypaniform in certain phases, and how far it really agrees with the + criteria of a Haemosporidian above postulated, are matters which are + not yet definitely known. + + + + +HAETZER, or HETZER, LUDWIG (d. 1529), Swiss divine, was born in +Switzerland, at Bischofszell, in Thurgau. He studied at +Freiburg-im-Breisgau, and began his career in a chaplaincy at Wadenswil, +on the Lake of Zürich. At this time his attachment to the old faith was +tempered by a mystical turn, and by a devotion to the prophetical +writings of the Old Testament, which he studied in the original. By 1523 +we find him in Zürich, where he published, at first anonymously and in +Latin (_Judicium Dei_), later with his name and in German (Sept. 24, +1523), a small tract against the religious use of images, and bearing +the motto attached to all his subsequent works, "O Got erlösz die (or +dein) Gefangnen" ("O God, set the prisoners free"). An attempt to give +effect to the teaching of this (frequently reprinted) tract was followed +by a public religious disputation, of which Haetzer drew up the official +account. In 1524 he brought out a tract on the conversion of the Jews, +and published a German version of Johann Bugenhagen's brief exposition +of the epistles of St Paul (Ephesians to Hebrews); in the dedication +(dated Zürich, June 29, 1524) he undertakes to translate Bugenhagen's +comment on the Psalter. He then went to Augsburg, bearing Zwingli's +introduction to Johann Frosch. Here he came for a time under the +influence of Urbanus Regius, and was for a short time the guest of Georg +Regel. Returning to Zürich, he was in intercourse with leading +Anabaptists (though his own position was simply the disuse of infant +baptism) till their expulsion in January 1525. Again resorting to +Augsburg, and resuming work as corrector of the press for his printer +Silvan Ottmar, he pushed his views to the extreme of rejecting all +sacraments, reaching something like the mystical standpoint of the early +Quakers. He was expelled from Augsburg in the autumn of 1525, and made +his way through Constance to Basel, where Oecolampadius received him +kindly. He translated into German the first treatise of Oecolampadius on +the Lord's Supper (in which the words of institution are taken +figuratively), and proceeding to Zürich in November, published his +version there in February 1526, with a preface disclaiming connexion +with the Anabaptists. His relations with Zwingli were difficult; +returning to Basel he published (July 18, 1526) his translation of +Malachi, with Oecolampadius's exposition, and with a preface reflecting +on Zwingli. This he followed by a version of Isaiah xxxvi.-xxxvii. He +next went to Strassburg, and was received by Wolfgang Capito. At +Strassburg in the late autumn of 1526 he fell in with Hans Dengk or +Denck, who collaborated with him in the production of his _opus magnum_, +the translation of the Hebrew Prophets, _Alle Propheten nach hebraischer +Sprach vertuetscht_. The preface is dated Worms, 3 April 1527; and there +are editions, Worms, 13 April 1527, folio; Augsburg, 22 June 1527, +folio; Worms, 7 Sept. 1527, 16º; and Augsburg, 1528, folio. It was the +first Protestant version of the prophets in German, preceding Luther's +by five years, and highly spoken of by him. Haetzer and Denck now +entered on a propagandist mission from place to place, with some +success, but of short duration. Denck died at Basel in November 1527. +Haetzer was arrested at Constance in the summer of 1528. After long +imprisonment and many examinations he was condemned on the 3rd of +February 1529 to die by the sword, and the sentence was executed on the +following day. His demeanour on the scaffold impressed impartial +witnesses, Hans Zwick and Thomas Blaurer, who speak warmly of his +fervour and courage. The Dutch Baptist Martyrology describes him as "a +servant of Jesus Christ." The Moravian Chronicle says "he was condemned +for the sake of divine truth." His papers included an unpublished +treatise against the essential deity of Christ, which was suppressed by +Zwingli; the only extant evidence of his anti-trinitarian views being +contained in eight quaint lines of German verse preserved in Sebastian +Frank's _Chronica_. The discovery of his heterodox Christology (which +has led modern Unitarians to regard him as their proto-martyr) was +followed by charges of loose living, never heard of in his lifetime, and +destitute of evidence or probability. + + See Breitinger, "Anecdota quaedam de L. H." in _Museum Helveticum_ + (1746), parts 21 and 23; Wallace, _Antitrinitarian Biography_ (1850); + _Dutch Martyrology_ (Hanserd Knollys Society) (1856); Th. Keim, in + Hauck's _Realencyklopädie_ (1899). (A. Go.*) + + + + +HAFIZ. Shams-ud-din Mahommed, better known by his _takhallus_ or _nom de +plume_ of Hafiz, was one of the most celebrated writers of Persian +lyrical poetry. He was born at Shiraz, the capital of Fars, in the early +part of the 8th century of the Mahommedan era, that is to say, in the +14th of our own. The exact date of his birth is uncertain, but he +attained a ripe old age and died in 791 A.H. (A.D. 1388). This is the +date given in the chronogram which is engraved on his tomb, although +several Persian biographers give a different year. Very little is +actually known about his life, which appears to have been passed in +retirement in Shiraz, of which he always speaks in terms of affectionate +admiration. He was a subject of the Muzaffar princes, who ruled in +Shiraz, Yazd, Kirman and Ispahan, until the dynasty was overthrown by +Timur (Tamerlane). Of these princes his especial patrons were Shah +Shuja' and Shah Mansur. He early devoted himself to the study of poetry +and theology, and also became learned in mystic philosophy, which he +studied under Shaik Mahmud 'Attar, chief of an order of dervishes. Hafiz +afterwards enrolled himself in the same order and became a professor of +Koranic exegesis in a college which his friend and patron Haji +Kiwam-ud-din, the vizier, specially founded for him. This was probably +the reason of his adopting the sobriquet of Hafiz ("one who remembers"), +which is technically applied to any person who has learned the Koran by +heart. The restraints of an ascetic life seem to have been very little +to Hafiz's taste, and his loose conduct and wine-bibbing propensities +drew upon him the severe censure of his monastic colleagues. In revenge +he satirizes them unmercifully in his verses, and seldom loses an +opportunity of alluding to their hypocrisy. Hafiz's fame as a poet was +soon rapidly spread throughout the Mahommedan world, and several +powerful monarchs sent him presents and pressing invitations to visit +them. Amongst others he was invited by Mahmud Shah Bahmani, who reigned +in the south of India. After crossing the Indus and passing through +Lahore he reached Hurmuz, and embarked on board a vessel sent for him by +the Indian prince. He seems, however, to have been a bad sailor, and, +having invented an excuse for being put ashore, made the best of his way +back to Shiraz. Some biographies narrate a story of an interview between +Hafiz and the invader Timur. The latter sent for him and asked angrily, +"Art thou he who was so bold as to offer my two great cities Samarkand +and Bokhara for the black mole on thy mistress's cheek?" alluding to a +well-known verse in one of his odes. "Yes, sire," replied Hafiz, "and it +is by such acts of generosity that I have brought myself to such a state +of destitution that I have now to solicit your bounty." Timur was so +pleased at his ready wit that he dismissed the poet with a handsome +present. Unfortunately for the truth of this story Timur did not capture +Shiraz till A.D. 1393, while the latest date that can be assigned to +Hafiz's death is 1391. Of his private life little or nothing is known. +One of his poems is said to record the death of his wife, another that +of a favourite unmarried son, and several others speak of his love for a +girl called _Shakh i Nabat_, "Sugar-cane branch," and this is almost all +of his personal history that can be gathered from his writings. He was, +like most Persians, a Shi'ite by religion, believing in the transmission +of the office of Imam (head of the Moslem Church) in the family of Ali, +cousin of the prophet, and rejecting the _Hadith_ (traditional sayings) +of Mahomet, which form the Sunna or supplementary code of Mahommedan +ceremonial law. One of his odes which contains a verse in praise of Ali +is engraved on the poet's tomb, but is omitted by Sudi, the Turkish +editor and commentator, who was himself a rigid Sunnite. Hafiz's +heretical opinions and dissipated life caused difficulties to be raised +by the ecclesiastical authorities on his death as to his interment in +consecrated ground. The question was at length settled by Hafiz's own +works, which had then already begun to be used, as they are now +throughout the East, for the purposes of divination, in the same manner +as Virgil was employed in the middle ages for the divination called +_Sortes Virgilianae_. Opening the book at random after pronouncing the +customary formula asking for inspiration, the objectors hit upon the +following verse--"Turn not away thy foot from the bier of Hafiz, for +though immersed in sin, he will be admitted into Paradise." He was +accordingly buried in the centre of a small cemetery at Shiraz, now +included in an enclosure called the Hafiziyeh. + +His principal work is the _Diwan_, that is, a collection of short odes +or sonnets called _ghazals_, and consisting of from five to sixteen +_baits_ or couplets each, all the couplets in each ode having the same +rhyme in the last hemistich, and the last couplet always introducing the +poet's own _nom de plume_. The whole of these are arranged in +alphabetical order, an arrangement which certainly facilitates reference +but makes it absolutely impossible to ascertain their chronological +order, and therefore detracts from their value as a means of throwing +light upon the growth and development of his genius or the incidents of +his career. They are often held together by a very slender thread of +continuous thought, and few editions agree exactly in the order of the +couplets. Still, a careful study of them, especially from the point of +view indicated by the Sufiistic system of philosophy, will always show +that a single idea does run throughout the whole. The nature of these +poems has been the subject of much discussion in the West, some scholars +seeing in their anacreontic utterances nothing but sensuality and +materialism, while others, following the Oriental school, maintain that +they are wholly and entirely mystic and philosophic. Something between +the two would probably be nearer the truth. It must be remembered that +Hafiz was a professed dervish and Sufi, and that his _ghazals_ were in +all probability published from a _takia_, and arranged with at least a +view to Sufiistic interpretation. At the same time it is ridiculous to +suppose that the glowing imagery, the gorgeous and often tender +descriptions of natural beauties, the fervent love passages, and the +roystering drinking songs were composed in cool blood or with deliberate +ascetic purpose. The beauty of Hafiz's poetry is that it is natural. It +is the outcome of a fervent soul and a lofty genius delighting in +nature and enjoying life; and it is the poet's misfortune that he lived +in an age and amongst a people where rigid conventionality demanded that +his free and spontaneous thoughts should be recast in an artificial +mould. + + Besides the _Diwan_, Hafiz wrote a number of other poems; the Leipzig + edition of his works contains 573 _ghazals_ (forming the _Diwan_), 42 + _kit'as_ or fragments, 69 _ruba'iyat_ or tetrastics, 6 _masnaviyat_ or + poems in rhyming couplets, 2 _kasaïd_, idylls or panegyrics, and 1 + _mukhammes_ or poem in five-line strophes. Other editions contain + several _tarji'-band_ or poems with a refrain. The whole _Diwan_ was + translated into English prose by H. Wilberforce Clarke in 1891, with + introduction and exhaustive commentary and bibliography; a few rhyming + versions of single poems by Sir William Jones, J. Nott, J. Hindley, + Falconer, &c., are to be found scattered through the pages of the + _Oriental Miscellany_ and other periodicals, and a fine edition + containing a verse rendering of the principal poems by H. Bicknell + appeared in 1875. Other selections by S. Robinson (1875), A. Rogers + (1889), J. H. M'Carthy (1893), and Gertrude L. Bell (1897). The + principal German versions are by von Hammer Purgstall (1812), which + gave the first impulse to Goethe's _Westöstlicher Diwan_; a rhyming + and rhythmical translation of a large portion of Hafiz's works by + Vincenz von Rosenzweig of Vienna (Vienna, 1858), which contains also + the Persian text and notes; _Der Diwan des Schemseddin Muhammed + Hafis_, by G. H. F. Nesselmann (Berlin, 1865), in which the rhyming + system of the original is imitated. Besides these, the reader may + consult d'Herbelot, _Bibliothèque orientale_, article "Hafiz"; Sir + William Ouseley's _Oriental Collections_ (1797-1798); _A Specimen of + Persian Poetry, or Odes of Hafiz_, by John Richardson (London, 1802); + _Biographical Notices of Persian Poets_, by Sir Gore Ouseley (Oriental + Translation Fund, 1846); and an excellent article by Professor E. B. + Cowell in _Macmillan's Magazine_ (No. 177, July 1874); J. A. Vullers, + _Vitae poëtarum Persicorum_ (1839, translated from Daulatshah); S. + Robinson, _Persian Poetry for English Readers_ (1883). The best + edition of the text is perhaps that edited by Hermann Brockhaus of + Leipzig (1854-1856). which is based on the recension of the Turkish + editor Sudi, and contains his commentary in Turkish on the first + eighty _ghazals_. See also H. Ethé in _Grundriss der iranischen + Philologie_, ii. (Strassburg, 1896); P. Horn, _Geschichte der + persischen Literatur_ (Leipzig, 1901). (E. H. P.) + + + + +HAG. (1) (Probably a shortened form of the O. Eng. _hægtesse_, _hegtes_, +cognate with Ger. _Hexe_, witch, Dutch _hecse_), a word common during +the 16th and 17th centuries for a female demon or evil spirit, and so +particularly applied to such supernatural beings as the harpies and +fairies of classical mythology, and also to witches. In modern usage the +word is generally used of a hideous old woman whose repulsive exterior +is accompanied by malice or wickedness. The name is also used of an +eel-like parasitic fish, _Myxine glutinosa_, allied to the lamprey. + +(2) A word common in Scottish and northern English dialects for an +enclosed piece of wood, a copse. This is the same word as "hedge" (see +HEDGES) and "haw." "Hag" also means "to cut," and is used in Scotland of +an extent of woodland marked out for felling, and of a quantity of +felled wood. This word is also used of a cutting in the peat of a "moss" +or "bog," and hence applied to the small plots of firm ground or heather +in a bog; it is common in the form "moss-hags." + + + + +HAGEDORN, FRIEDRICH VON (1708-1754), German poet, was born on the 23rd +of April 1708 at Hamburg, where his father, a man of scientific and +literary taste, was Danish minister. He was educated at the gymnasium of +Hamburg, and later (1726) became a student of law at Jena. Returning to +Hamburg in 1729, he obtained the appointment of unpaid private secretary +to the Danish ambassador in London, where he lived till 1731. Hagedorn's +return to Hamburg was followed by a period of great poverty and +hardship, but in 1733 he was appointed secretary to the so-called +"English Court" (_Englischer Hof_) in Hamburg, a trading company founded +in the 13th century. He shortly afterwards married, and from this time +had sufficient leisure to pursue his literary occupations till his death +on the 28th of October 1754. Hagedorn is the first German poet who bears +unmistakable testimony to the nation's recovery from the devastation +wrought by the Thirty Years' War. He is eminently a social poet. His +light and graceful love-songs and anacreontics, with their undisguised +_joie de vivre_, introduced a new note into the German lyric; his fables +and tales in verse are hardly inferior in form and in delicate +persiflage to those of his master La Fontaine, and his moralizing poetry +re-echoes the philosophy of Horace. He exerted a dominant influence on +the German lyric until late in the 18th century. + + The first collection of Hagedorn's poems was published at Hamburg + shortly after his return from Jena in 1729, under the title _Versuch + einiger Gedichte_ (reprinted by A. Sauer, Heilbronn, 1883). In 1738 + appeared _Versuch in poetischen Fabeln und Erzählungen_; in 1742 a + collection of his lyric poems, under the title _Sammlung neuer Oden + und Lieder_; and his _Moralische Gedichte_ in 1750. A collection of + his entire works was published at Hamburg after his death in 1757. The + best is J. J. Eschenburg's edition (5 vols., Hamburg, 1800). + Selections of his poetry with an excellent introduction in F. + Muncker's _Anakreontiker und preussisch-patriotische Lyriker_ + (Stuttgart, 1894). See also H. Schuster, _F. von Hagedorn und seine + Bedeutung für die deutsche Literatur_ (Leipzig, 1882); W. Eigenbrodt, + _Hagedorn und die Erzählung in Reimversen_ (Berlin, 1884). + + + + +HAGEN, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH VON DER (1780-1856), German philologist, +chiefly distinguished for his researches in Old German literature, was +born at Schmiedeberg In Brandenburg on the 19th of February 1780. After +studying law at the university of Halle, he obtained a legal appointment +in the state service at Berlin, but in 1806 resigned this office in +order to devote himself exclusively to letters. In 1810 he was appointed +_professor extraordinarius_ of German literature in the university of +Berlin; in the following year he was transferred in a similar capacity +to Breslau, and in 1821 returned to Berlin as _professor ordinarius_. He +died at Berlin on the 11th of June 1856. Although von der Hagen's +critical work is now entirely out of date, the chief merit of awakening +an interest in old German poetry belongs to him. + + His principal publications are the _Nibelungenlied_, of which he + issued four editions, the first in 1810 and the last in 1842; the + _Minnesinger_ (Leipzig, 1838-1856, 4 vols, in 5 parts); _Lieder der + ältern Edda_ (Berlin, 1812); _Gottfried von Strassburg_ (Berlin, + 1823); a collection of Old German tales under the title + _Gesamtabenteuer_ (Stuttgart, 1850, 3 vols.) and _Das Heldenbuch_ + (Leipzig, 1855). He also published _Über die ältesten Darstellungen + der Faustsage_ (Berlin, 1844); and from 1835 he edited _Das neue + Jahrbuch der Berlinischen Gesellschaft für deutsche Sprache und + Altertumskunde_. His correspondence with C. G. Heyne and G. F. Benecke + was published by K. Dziatzko (Leipzig, 1893). + + + + +HAGEN, a town of Germany, In the Prussian province of Westphalia. Pop. +(1905), 77,498. It lies amid well-wooded hills at the confluence of the +Ennepe with the Volme, 15 m. N.E. of Elberfeld, on the main line to +Brunswick and Berlin, and at the junction of important lines of railway, +connecting it with the principal towns of the Westphalian iron district. +It has five Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic church, an Old +Catholic church, a synagogue, a gymnasium, realgyrnnasium, and a +technical school with special classes for machine-building. There are +also a museum, a theatre, and a prettily arranged municipal park. Hagen +is one of the most flourishing commercial towns in Westphalia, and +possesses extensive iron and steel works, large cotton print works, +woollen and cotton factories, manufactures of leather, paper, tobacco, +and iron and steel wares, breweries and distilleries. There are large +limestone quarries in the vicinity and also an alabaster quarry. + + + + +HAGENAU, a town of Germany, in the imperial province of Alsace-Lorraine, +situated in the middle of the Hagenau Forest, on the Moder, and on the +railway from Strassburg to Weissenburg, 10 m. N.N.E. of the former city. +Pop. (1905), 18,500. It has two Evangelical and two ancient Catholic +churches (one dating from the 12th, the other from the 13th century), a +gymnasium, a public library, a hospital, and a theatre. The principal +industries are wool and cotton spinning, and the manufacture of +porcelain, earthenware, boots, soap, oil, sparkling wines and beer. +There is also considerable trade in hops and vegetables. Hagenau is an +important military centre and has a large garrison, including three +artillery battalions. + +Hagenau dates from the beginning of the 12th century, and owes its +origin to the erection of a hunting lodge by the dukes of Swabia. The +emperor Frederick I. surrounded it with walls and gave it town rights in +1154. On the site of the hunting lodge he founded an imperial palace, in +which were preserved the jewelled imperial crown, sceptre, imperial +globe, and sword of Charlemagne. Subsequently it became the seat of the +_Landvogt_ of Hagenau, the imperial _advocatus_ in Lower Alsace. +Richard of Cornwall, king of the Romans, made it an imperial city in +1257. In 1648 it came into the possession of France, and in 1673 Louis +XIV. caused the fortifications to be razed. In 1675 it was captured by +imperial troops, but in 1677 it was retaken by the French and nearly all +destroyed by fire. In 1871 it fell, with the rest of Alsace-Lorraine, +into the possession of Germany. + + + + +HAGENBACH, KARL RUDOLF (1801-1874). German church historian, was born on +the 4th of March 1801 at Basel, where his father was a practising +physician. His preliminary education was received at a Pestalozzian +school, and afterwards at the gymnasium, whence in due course he passed +to the newly reorganized local university. He early devoted himself to +theological studies and the service of the church, while at the same +time cherishing and developing broad "humanistic" tendencies which found +expression in many ways and especially in an enthusiastic admiration for +the writings of Herder. The years 1820-1823 were spent first at Bonn, +where G. C. F. Lücke (1791-1855) exerted a powerful influence on his +thought, and afterwards at Berlin, where Schleiermacher and Neander +became his masters. Returning in 1823 to Basel, where W. M. L. de Wette +had recently been appointed to a theological chair, he distinguished +himself greatly by his trial-dissertation, _Observationes +historico-hermeneuticae circa Origenis methodum interpretendae sacrae +Scripturae_; in 1824 he became professor extraordinarius, and in 1829 +professor ordinarius of theology. Apart from his academic labours in +connexion with the history of dogma and of the church, he lived a life +of great and varied usefulness as a theologian, a preacher and a +citizen; and at his "jubilee" in 1873, not only the university and town +of Basel but also the various churches of Switzerland united to do him +honour. He died at Basel on the 7th of June 1874. + +Hagenbach was a voluminous author in many departments, but he is +specially distinguished as a writer on church history. Though neither so +learned and condensed as the contributions of Gieseler, nor so original +and profound as those of Neander, his lectures are clear, attractive and +free from narrow sectarian prejudice. In dogmatics, while avowedly a +champion of the "mediation theology" (_Vermittelungstheologie_), based +upon the fundamental conceptions of Herder and Schleiermacher, he was +much less revolutionary than were many others of his school. He sought +to maintain the old confessional documents, and to make the objective +prevail over the purely subjective manner of viewing theological +questions. But he himself was aware that in the endeavour to do so he +was not always successful, and that his delineations of Christian dogma +often betrayed a vacillating and uncertain hand. + + His works include _Tabellarische Übersicht der Dogmengeschichte_ + (1828); _Encyclopädie u. Methodologie der theol. Wissenschaften_ + (1833); _Vorlesungen über Wesen u. Geschichte der Reformation u. des + Protestantismus_ (1834-1843); _Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte_ + (1840-1841, 5th ed., 1867; English transl., 1850); _Vorlesungen über + die Geschichte der alien Kirche_ (1853-1855); _Vorlesungen über die + Kirchengeschichte des Mittelalters_ (1860-1861); _Grundlinien der + Homiletik u. Liturgik_ (1863); biographies of Johannes Oecolampadius + (1482-1564) and Oswald Myconius (1488-1552) and a _Geschichte der + theol. Schule Basels_ (1860); his _Predigten_ (1858-1875), two volumes + of poems entitled _Luther u. seine Zeit_ (1838), and _Gedichte_ + (1846). The lectures on church history under the general title + _Vorlesungen über die Kirchengeschichte von der ältesten Zeit bis zum + 19ten Jahrhundert_ were reissued in seven volumes (1868-1872). + + See especially the article in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_. + + + + +HAGENBECK, CARL (1844- ), wild-animal collector and dealer, was born +at Hamburg in 1844. In 1848 his father purchased some seals and a Polar +bear brought to Hamburg by a whaler, and subsequently acquired many +other wild animals. At the age of twenty-one Carl Hagenbeck was given +the whole collection, and before long had greatly extended the business, +so that in 1873 he had to erect large buildings in Hamburg to house his +animals. In 1875 he began to exhibit a collection of the representative +animals of many countries, accompanied by troupes of the natives of the +respective countries, throughout all the large cities of Europe. The +educational value of these exhibitions was officially recognized by the +French government, which in 1891 awarded Hagenbeck the diploma of the +Academy. Most of the wild animals exhibited in music-halls and other +popular places of entertainment throughout the world have come from +Hagenbeck's collection at Stellingen, near Hamburg. + + + + +HAGERSTOWN, a city and the county-seat of Washington county, Maryland, +U.S.A., near Antietam Creek, about 86 m. by rail W.N.W. from Baltimore. +Pop. (1890), 10,118; (1900), 13,591, of whom 1277 were negroes; (1910, +census), 16,507. Hagerstown is served by the Baltimore & Ohio, the +Western Maryland, the Norfolk & Western, and the Cumberland Valley +railways, and by an interurban electric line. It lies in a fertile +valley overlooked by South Mountain to the E. and North Mountain, more +distant, to the W. The city is the seat of Kee Mar College (1852; +non-sectarian) for women. Hagerstown is a business centre for the +surrounding agricultural district, has good water power, and as a +manufacturing centre ranked third in the state in 1905, its factory +products being valued in that year at $3,026,901, an increase of 66.3% +over their value in 1900. Among the manufactures are flour, shirts, +hosiery, gloves, bicycles, automobiles, agricultural implements, print +paper, fertilizers, sash, doors and blinds, furniture, carriages, spokes +and wheels. The municipality owns and operates its electric lighting +plant. Hagerstown was laid out as a town in 1762 by Captain Jonathan +Hager (who had received a patent to 200 acres here from Lord Baltimore +in 1739), and was incorporated in 1791. It was an important station on +the old National (or Cumberland) Road. General R. E. Lee concentrated +his forces at Hagerstown before the battle of Gettysburg. + + + + +HAG-FISH, GLUTINOUS HAG, Or BORER (_Myxine_), a marine fish which forms +with the lampreys one of the lowest orders of vertebrates +(_Cyclostomata_). Similar in form to a lamprey, it is usually found +within the body of dead cod or haddock, on the flesh of which it feeds +after having buried itself in the abdomen. When caught, it secretes a +thick glutinous slime in such quantity that it is commonly believed to +have the power of converting water into glue. It is found in the North +Atlantic and other temperate seas of the globe, being taken in some +localities in large numbers, e.g. off the east coast of Scotland and the +west coast of California (see CYCLOSTOMATA). + + + + +HAGGADA, or 'AGADA (literally "narrative"), includes the more homiletic +elements of rabbinic teaching. It is not logically distinguishable from +the halakha (q.v.), for the latter or forensic element makes up with the +haggada the Midrash (q.v.), but, being more popular than the halakha, is +often itself styled the Midrash. It may be described as the poetical and +ethical element as contrasted with the legal element in the Talmud +(q.v.), but the two elements are always closely connected. From one +point of view the haggada, amplifying and developing the contents of +Hebrew scripture in response to a popular religious need, may be termed +a rabbinical commentary on the Old Testament, containing traditional +stories and legends, sometimes amusing, sometimes trivial, and often +beautiful. The haggada abounds in parables. The haggadic passages of the +Talmud were collected in the _Eye of Jacob_, a very popular compilation +completed by Jakob ibn Habib in the 16th century. + + + + +HAGGAI, in the Bible, the tenth in order of the "minor prophets," whose +writings are preserved in the Old Testament. The name Haggai ([Hebrew: +Haggai], Gr. [Greek: 'Aggaios], whence Aggeus in the English version of +the Apocrypha) perhaps means "born on the feast day," "festive." But +Wellhausen[1] is probably right in taking the word as a contraction for +Hagariah ("Yahweh hath girded"), just as Zaccai (Zacchaeus) is known to +be a contraction of Zechariah. + +The book of Haggai contains four short prophecies delivered between the +first day of the sixth month and the twenty-fourth day of the ninth +month--that is, between September and December--of the second year of +Darius the king. The king in question must be Darius Hystaspis (521-485 +B.C.). The language of the prophet in ii. 3 suggests the probability +that he was himself one of those whose memories reached across the +seventy years of the captivity, and that his prophetic work began in +extreme old age. This supposition agrees well with the shortness of the +period covered by his book, and with the fact that Zechariah, who began +to prophesy in the same autumn and was associated with Haggai's labours +(Ezra v. 1), afterwards appears as the leading prophet in Jerusalem +(Zech. vii. 1-4). We know nothing further of the personal history of +Haggai from the Bible. Later traditions may be read in Carpzov's +_Introductio_, pars 3, cap. xvi. Epiphanius (_Vitae prophetarum_) says +that he came up from Babylon while still young, prophesied the return, +witnessed the building of the temple and received an honoured burial +near the priests. Haggai's name is mentioned in the titles of several +psalms in the Septuagint (Psalms cxxxvii., cxlv.-cxlviii.) and other +versions, but these titles are without value, and moreover vary in MSS. +Eusebius did not find them in the Hexaplar Septuagint.[2] + +In his first prophecy (i. 1-11) Haggai addresses Zerubbabel and Joshua, +rebuking the people for leaving the temple unbuilt while they are busy +in providing panelled houses for themselves. The prevalent famine and +distress are due to Yahweh's indignation at such remissness. Let them +build the house, and Yahweh will take pleasure in it and acknowledge the +honour paid to Him. The rebuke took effect, and the people began to work +at the temple, strengthened by the prophet's assurance that the Lord was +with them (i. 12-15). In a second prophecy (ii. 1-9) delivered in the +following month, Haggai forbids the people to be disheartened by the +apparent meanness of the new temple. The silver and gold are the Lord's. +He will soon shake all nations and their choicest gifts will be brought +to adorn His house. Its glory shall be greater than that of the former +temple, and in this place He will give peace. A third prophecy (ii. +10-19) contains a promise, enforced by a figure drawn from the priestly +ritual, that God will remove famine and bless the land from the day of +the foundation of the temple onwards. Finally, in ii. 20-23, Zerubbabel +is assured of God's special love and protection in the impending +catastrophe of kingdoms and nations to which the prophet had formerly +pointed as preceding the glorification of God's house on Zion. In thus +looking forward to a shaking of all nations Haggai agrees with earlier +prophecies, especially Isa. xxiv.-xxvii., while his picture of the glory +and peace of the new Zion and its temple is drawn from the great +anonymous prophet who penned Isa. lx and lxvi. The characteristic +features of the book are the importance assigned to the personality of +Zerubbabel, who, though a living contemporary, is marked out as the +Messiah; and the almost sacramental significance attached to the temple. +The hopes fixed on Zerubbabel, the chosen of the Lord, dear to Him as +His signet ring (cf. Jer. xxii. 24), are a last echo in Old Testament +prophecy of the theocratic importance of the house of David. In the book +of Zechariah Zerubbabel has already fallen into the background and the +high priest is the leading figure of the Judean community.[3] The stem +of David is superseded by the house of Zadok, the kingship has yielded +to the priesthood, and the extinction of national hopes gives new +importance to that strict organization of the hierarchy for which +Ezekiel had prepared the way by his sentence of disfranchisement against +the non-Zadokite priests. + +The indifference of the Jews to the desolate conditions of their +sanctuary opens up a problem of some difficulty. It is strange that +neither Haggai nor his contemporary Zechariah mentions or implies any +return of exiles from Babylon, and the suggestion has accordingly been +made that the return under Cyrus described in Ezra i.-iv. is +unhistorical, and that the community addressed by Haggai consisted of +the remnant that had been left in Jerusalem and its neighbourhood after +the majority had gone into exile or fled to Egypt (Jer. xliii.). Such a +remnant, amongst whom might be members of the priestly and royal +families, would gather strength and boldness as the troubles of Babylon +increased and her vigilance was relaxed, and might receive from Babylon +and other lands both refugees and some account at least of the writings +of Ezekiel and the Second Isaiah. Stimulated by such causes and +obtaining formal permission from the Persian government, they would +arise as a new Israel and enter on a new phase of national life and +divine revelation. + +In spite, however, of the plausibility of this theory, it seems +preferable to adhere to the story of Ezra i.-iv. Apart from the weighty +objections that the Edomites would have frustrated such a recrudescence +of the remnant Jews as has been described, it must be remembered that +the main stream of Jewish life and thought had been diverted to Babylon. +Thence, when the opportunity came under Cyrus, some 50,000 Jews, the +spiritual heirs of the best elements of the old Israel, returned to +found the new community. With them were all the resources, and the only +people they found at Jerusalem were hostile gentiles and Samaritans. +Full of enthusiasm, they set about rebuilding the temple and realizing +the glowing promises about the prosperity and dominance of Zion that had +fallen from the lips of the Second Isaiah (xlix. 14-26, xlv. 14). Bitter +disappointment, however, soon overcame them, the Samaritans were strong +enough to thwart and hinder their temple-building, and it seemed as +though the divine favour was withdrawn. Apathy took the place of +enthusiasm, and sordid worries succeeded to high hopes. "The like +collapse has often been experienced in history when bands of religious +men, going forth, as they thought, to freedom and the immediate erection +of a holy commonwealth, have found their unity wrecked and their +enthusiasm dissipated by a few inclement seasons on a barren and hostile +shore."[4] + +From this torpor they were roused by tidings which might well be +interpreted as the restoration of divine favour. Away in the East Cyrus +had been succeeded in 529 B.C. by Cambyses, who had annexed Egypt and on +whose death in 522 a Magian impostor, Gaumata, had seized the throne. +The fraud was short-lived, and Darius I. became king and the founder of +a new dynasty. These events shook the whole Persian empire; Babylon and +other subject states rose in revolt, and to the Jews it seemed that +Persia was tottering and that the Messianic era was nigh. It was +therefore natural that Haggai and Zechariah should urge the speedy +building of the temple, in order that the great king might be fittingly +received. + +It is sometimes levied as a reproach against Haggai that he makes no +direct reference to moral duties. But it is hardly fair to contrast his +practical counsel with the more ethical and spiritual teaching of the +earlier Hebrew prophets. One thing was needful--the temple. "Without a +sanctuary Yahweh would have seemed a foreigner to Israel. The Jews would +have thought that He had returned to Sinai, the holy mountain; and that +they were deprived of the temporal blessings which were the gifts of a +God who literally dwelt in the midst of his people." Haggai argued that +material prosperity was conditioned by zeal in worship; the prevailing +distress was an indication of divine anger due to the people's religious +apathy. Haggai's reproofs touched the conscience of the Jews, and the +book of Zechariah enables us in some measure to follow the course of a +religious revival which, starting with the restoration of the temple, +did not confine itself to matters of ceremony and ritual worship. On the +other hand, Haggai's treatment of his theme, practical and effective as +it was for the purpose in hand, moves on a far lower level than the +aspirations of the prophet who wrote the closing chapters of Isaiah. To +the latter the material temple is no more than a detail in the picture +of a work of restoration eminently ideal and spiritual, and he expressly +warns his hearers against attaching intrinsic importance to it (Isa. +lxvi. 1). To Haggai the temple appears so essential that he teaches that +while it lay waste, the people and all their works and offerings were +unclean (Hag. ii. 14). In this he betrays his affinity with Ezekiel, who +taught that it is by the possession of the sanctuary that Israel is +sanctified (Ezek. xxxvii. 28). In truth the new movement of religious +thought and feeling which started from the fall of the Hebrew state took +two distinct lines, of which Ezekiel and the anonymous authors of Isa. +xl.-lxvi. are the respective representatives. While the latter developed +their great picture of Israel the mediatorial nation, the systematic and +priestly mind of Ezekiel had shaped a more material conception of the +religious vocation of Israel in that picture of the new theocracy where +the temple and its ritual occupy the largest place, with a sanctity +which is set in express contrast to the older conception of the holiness +of the city of Jerusalem (cf. Ezek. xliii. 7 seq. with Jer. xxxi. 40, +Isa. iv. 5), and with a supreme significance for the religious life of +the people which is expressed in the figure of the living waters issuing +from under the threshold of the house (Ezek. xlvii.). It was the +conception of Ezekiel which permanently influenced the citizens of the +new Jerusalem, and took final shape in the institutions of Ezra. To this +consummation, with its necessary accompaniment in the extinction of +prophecy, the book of Haggai already points. + + AUTHORITIES.--The elaborate and valuable German commentary of A. + Köhler (Erlangen, 1860) forms the first part of his work on the + _Nachexilische Propheten_. Reinke's _Commentary_ (Münster, 1868) is + the work of a scholarly Roman Catholic. Haggai has generally been + treated in works on all the prophets, as by Ewald (2nd ed., 1868; Eng. + trans., vol. iii., 1878); or along with the other minor prophets, as + by Hitzig (3rd ed., by H. Steiner, Leipzig, 1881), Keil (1866, 3rd + ed., 1888, Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1868), and Pusey (1875), S. R. + Driver (1906), W. Nowack (2nd ed., 1905), K. Marti (1904), J. + Wellhausen (3rd ed., 1898); or with the other post-exile prophets, as + by Köhler, Pressel (Gotha, 1870), Dods (1879) and others. The older + literature will be found in books of introduction or in Rosenmüller's + _Scholia_. The learned commentary of Marckius may be specially + mentioned. On the place of Haggai in the history of Old Testament + prophecy, see Duhm, _Theologie der Propheten_ (Bonn, 1875); A. B. + Davidson, _The Theology of the Old Testament_ (1904); A. F. + Kirkpatrick, _The Doctrine of the Prophets_; G. A. Smith, _The Book of + the Twelve Prophets_, vol. 2 (1903); Tony Andrée, _Le Prophète Aggée_; + Ed. Meyer, _Entstehung des Judentums_ (1896). (W. R. S.; A. J. G.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] In Bleek's _Einleitung_, 4th ed., p. 434. + + [2] See the note on Ps. cxlv. 1 in Field's _Hexapla_; Köhler, + _Weissagungen Haggai's_, 32; Wright, _Zechariah and his Prophecies_, + xix. + + [3] After the foundation of the temple Zerubbabel disappears from + history and lives only in legend, which continued to busy itself with + his story, as we see from the apocryphal book of Esdras (cf. + Derenbourg, _Hist. de la Palestine_, chap. i). + + [4] G. A. Smith, _Minor Prophets_, ii. 235. + + + + +HAGGARD, HENRY RIDER (1856- ), English novelist, was born at Bradenham +Hall, Norfolk, on the 22nd of June 1856. When he was nineteen he went to +South Africa as secretary to Sir Henry Bulwer, governor of Natal. At the +time of the first annexation of the Transvaal (1877), he was on the +staff of the special commissioner, Sir Theophilus Shepstone; and he +subsequently became a master of the high court of the Transvaal. He +married in 1879 a Norfolk heiress, Miss Margitson, but returned to the +Transvaal in time to witness its surrender to the Boers and the +overthrow of the policy of his former chief. He returned to England and +read for the bar, but soon took to literary work; he published _Cetywayo +and his White Neighbours_ (1882), written in defence of Sir T. +Shepstone's policy. This was followed by the novels _Dawn_ (1884), _The +Witch's Head_ (1885), which contains an account of the British defeat at +Isandhlwana; and in 1886 _King Solomon's Mines_, suggested by the +Zimbabwe ruins, which first made him popular. _She_ (1887), another +fantastic African story, was also very successful, a sequel, _Ayesha, or +the Return of She_, being published in 1905. The scene of _Jess_ (1887) +and of _Allan Quatermain_ (1888) was also laid in Africa. In 1895 he +unsuccessfully contested the East Norfolk parliamentary division in the +Unionist interest; he showed great interest in rural and agricultural +questions, being a practical gardener and farmer on his estate in +Norfolk. In his _Rural England_ (2 vols., 1902) he exposed the evils of +depopulation in country districts. In 1905 he was commissioned by the +colonial office to inquire into the Salvation Army settlements at Fort +Romie, S. California, and Fort Amity, Colorado, with a view to the +establishment of similar colonies in South Africa. His report on the +subject was first published as a blue book, and afterwards, in an +enlarged form, as _The Poor and the Land_ (1905), with suggestions for a +scheme of national land settlement in Great Britain itself. + + His other books include _Maiwa's Revenge_ (1888), _Mr Meeson's Will_ + (1888), _Colonel Quaritch_, V.C. (1888), _Cleopatra_ (1889), _Eric + Brighteyes_ (1891), _The World's Desire_ (1890), a romance of Helen of + Troy, written with Mr Andrew Lang; _Nada the Lily_ (1892), + _Montezuma's Daughter_ (1894), _The People of the Mist_ (1894), _Joan + Haste_ (1895), _Heart of the World_ (1896), _Dr Therne_ (1898), _A + Farmer's Year_ (1899), _The New South Africa_ (1900), _Lysbeth, A Tale + of the Dutch_ (1901). _Stella Fregelius_ (1903), _A Gardener's Year_ + (1905), _A Farmer's Year_ (1899, revised ed., 1906), _The Way of the + Spirit_ (1906). + + + + + +HAGGIS, a dish consisting of a calf's, sheep's or other animal's heart, +liver and lungs, and also sometimes of the smaller intestines, boiled in +the stomach of the animal with seasoning of pepper, salt, onions, &c., +chopped fine with suet and oatmeal. It is considered peculiarly a +Scottish dish, but was common in England till the 18th century. The +derivation of the word is obscure. The Fr. _hachis_, English "hash," is +of later appearance than "haggis." It may be connected with a verb "to +hag," meaning to cut in small pieces, and would then be cognate +ultimately with "hash." + + + + +HAGIOLOGY (from Gr. [Greek: hagios], saint, [Greek: logos], discourse), +that branch of the historical sciences which is concerned with the lives +of the saints. If hagiology be considered merely in the sense in which +the term has come to be understood in the later stages of its +development, i.e. the critical study of hagiographic remains, there +would be no such science before the 17th century. But the bases of +hagiology may fairly be said to have been laid at the time when +hagiographic documents, hitherto dispersed, were first brought together +into collections. The oldest collection of this kind, the [Greek: +sunagôgê tôn archaiôn marturiôn] of Eusebius, to which the author refers +in several passages in his writings (_Hist. Eccl._, v. proem 2; v. 20, +5), and which has left more than one trace in Christian literature, is +unfortunately lost in its entirety. The _Martyrs of Palestine_, as also +the writings of Theodoret, Palladius and others, on the origins of the +monastic life, and, similarly, the _Dialogues_ of St Gregory (Pope +Gregory I.), belong to the category of sources rather than to that of +hagiologic collections. The _In gloria martyrum_ and _In gloria +confessorum_ of Gregory of Tours are valuable for the sources used in +their compilation. The most important collections are those which +comprise the Acts of the Martyrs and the lives of saints, arranged in +the order of the calendar. In the Greek Church these are called +menologies (from Gr. [Greek: mên], month, [Greek: logos], discourse), +and their existence can be traced back with certainty to the 9th century +(Theodore of Studium, _Epist._ i. 2). One of them, the menology of +Metaphrastes, compiled in the second half of the 10th century, enjoyed a +universal vogue (see SYMEON METAPHRASTES). The corresponding works in +the Western Church are the _passionaries_ or _legendaries_, varieties of +which are dispersed in libraries and have not been studied collectively. +They generally draw from a common source, the Roman legendary, and the +lives of the local saints, i.e. those specially honoured in a church, a +province or a country. One of the best known is the Austrian legendary +(_De magno legendario Austriaco_ in the _Analecta Bollandiana_, xvii. +24-264). From the menologies and legendaries various compilations were +made: in the Greek Church, the Synaxaria (see SYNAXARIUM); in the +Western Church, abridgments and extracts such as the _Speculum +hisloriale_ of Vincent de Beauvais; the _Legenda aurea_ of Jacobus de +Voragine; the _Sanctorale_ of Bernard Guy [d. 1331] (see L. Delisle, +_Notice sur les manuscrits de Bernard Guy_, Paris, 1879); the +_Sanctilogium_ of John of Tynemouth (c. 1366), utilized by John +Capgrave, and published in 1516 under the name of _Nova legenda Angliae_ +(new edition by C. Horstman, Oxford, 1901); and the _Catalogus +sanctorum_ of Petrus de Natalibus (c. 1375), published at Vicenza in +1493, and many times reprinted. The _Sanctuarium_ of B. Mombritius, +published at Milan about 1480, is particularly valuable because it gives +a faithful reproduction of the ancient texts according to the +manuscripts. One of the most zealous collectors of lives of saints was +John Gielemans of Brabant (d. 1487), whose work is of great value +(Bollandists, _De codicibus hagiographicis Iohannis Gielemans_, +Brussels, 1895), and with him must be associated Anton Geens, or +Gentius, of Groenendael, who died in 1543 (_Analecta Bollandiana_, vi. +31-34). + +Hagiology entered on a new development with the publication of the +_Sanctorum priscorum patrum vitae_ (Venice and Rome, 1551-1560) of +Aloysius Lipomanus (Lippomano), bishop of Verona. As a result of the +co-operation of humanist scholars a great number of Greek hagiographic +texts became for the first time accessible to the West in a Latin +translation. The Carthusian, Laurentius Surius, carried on the work of +Lippomano, completed it, and arranged the materials strictly in the +order of the calendar (_De probatis sanctorum historiis_, Cologne, +1570-1575). What prevents the work of Surius from being regarded as an +improvement upon Lippomano's is that Surius thought it necessary to +retouch the style of those documents which appeared to him badly +written, without troubling himself about the consequent loss of their +documentary value. + +The actual founder of hagiologic criticism was the Flemish Jesuit, +Heribert Rosweyde (d. 1629), who, besides his important works on the +martyrologies (see MARTYROLOGY), published the celebrated collection of +the _Vitae patrum_ (Antwerp, 1615), a veritable masterpiece for the time +at which it appeared. It was he, too, who conceived the plan of a great +collection of lives of saints, compiled from the manuscripts and +augmented with notes, from which resulted the collection of the _Acta +sanctorum_ (see BOLLANDISTS). This last enterprise gave rise to others +of a similar character but less extensive in scope. + + Dom T. Ruinart collected the best _Acta_ of the martyrs in his _Acta + martyrum sincera_ (Paris, 1689). The various religious orders + collected the Acta of their saints, often increasing the lists beyond + measure. The best publication of this kind, the _Acta sanctorum + ordinis S. Benedicti_ (Paris, 1668-1701) of d'Achery and Mabillon, + does not entirely escape this reproach. Countries, provinces and + dioceses also had their special hagiographic collections, conceived + according to various plans and executed with more or less historical + sense. Of these, the most important collections are those of O. + Caietanus, _Vitae sanctorum Siculorum_ (Palermo, 1657); G. A. + Lobineau, _Vie des saints de Bretagne_ (Rennes, 1725); and J. H. + Ghesquière, _Acta sanctorum Belgii_ (Brussels and Tongerloo, + 1783-1794). The principal lives of the German saints are published in + the _Monumenta Germaniae_, and a special section of the _Scriptores + rerum Merovingicarum_ is devoted to the lives of the saints. For + Scotland and Ireland mention must be made of T. Messingham's + _Florilegium insulae sanctorum_ (Paris, 1624); I. Colgan's _Acta + sanctorum veteris et maioris Scotiae seu Hiberniae_ (Louvain, + 1645-1647); John Pinkerton's _Vitae antiquae sanctorum ..._ (London, + 1789, of which a revised and enlarged edition was published by W. M. + Metcalfe at Paisley in 1889, under the title of _Lives of the Scottish + Saints_); W. J. Rees's _Lives of the Cambro-British Saints_ + (Llandovery, 1853); _Acta sanctorum Hiberniae_ (Edinburgh, 1888); + Whitley Stokes's _Lives of Saints from the Book of Lismore_ (Oxford, + 1890); and J. O'Hanlon's _Lives of the Irish Saints_ (Dublin, + 1875-1904). Towards the 13th century vernacular collections of lives + of saints began to increase. This literature is more interesting from + the linguistic than from the hagiologic point of view, and comes + rather within the domain of the philologist. + + The hagiography of the Eastern and the Greek church also has been the + subject of important publications. The Greek texts are very much + scattered. Of them, however, may be mentioned J. B. Malou's "Symeonis + Metaphrastae opera omnia" (_Patrologia Graeca_, 114, 115, 116) and + Theophilos Ioannu, [Greek: Mnêmeia agiologika] (Venice, 1884). For + Syriac, there are S. E. Assemani's _Acta sanctorum martyrum + orientalium_ (Rome, 1748) and P. Bedjan's _Acta martyrum et sanctorum_ + (Paris, 1890-1897); for Armenian, the acts of martyrs and lives of + saints, published in two volumes by the Mechitharist community of + Venice in 1874; for Coptic, Hyvernat's _Les Actes des martyrs de + l'Égypte_ (Paris, 1886); for Ethiopian, K. Conti Rossini's _Scriptores + Aethiopici, vitae sanctorum_ (Paris, 1904 seq.); and for Georgian, + Sabinin's _Paradise of the Georgian Church_ (St Petersburg, 1882). + + In addition to the principal collections must be mentioned the + innumerable works in which the hagiographic texts have been subjected + to detailed critical study. + + To realize the present state of hagiology, the _Bibliotheca + hagiographica_, both Latin and Greek, published by the Bollandists, + and the _Bulletin hagiographique_, which appears in each number of the + _Analecta Bollandiana_ (see BOLLANDISTS), must be consulted. Thanks to + the combined efforts of a great number of scholars, the classification + of the hagiographic texts has in recent years made notable progress. + The criticism of the sources, the study of literary styles, and the + knowledge of local history now render it easier to discriminate in + this literature between what is really historical and what is merely + the invention of the genius of the people or of the imagination of + pious writers (see H. Delehaye, _Les Légendes hagiographiques_, 2nd + ed., pp. 121-141, Brussels, 1906). "Though the lives of saints," says + a recent historian, "are filled with miracles and incredible stories, + they form a rich mine of information concerning the life and customs + of the people. Some of them are 'memorials of the best men of the time + written by the best scholars of the time,'" (C. Gross, _The Sources + and Literature of English History_, p. 34, London, 1900). (H. De.) + + + + +HAGIOSCOPE (from Gr. [Greek: hagios], holy, and [Greek: skopein], to +see), in architecture, an opening through the wall of a church in an +oblique direction, to enable the worshippers in the transepts or other +parts of the church, from which the altar was not visible, to see the +elevation of the Host. As a rule these hagioscopes, or "squints" as they +are sometimes called, are found on one or both sides of the chancel +arch. In some cases a series of openings has been cut in the walls in an +oblique line to enable a person standing in the porch (as in Bridgewater +church, Somerset) to see the altar; in this case and in other instances +such openings were sometimes provided for an attendant, who had to ring +the Sanctus bell when the Host was elevated. Though rarely met with on +the continent of Europe, there are occasions where they are found, so as +to enable a monk in one of the vestries to follow the service and +communicate with the bell-ringers. + + + + +HAGONOY, a town of the province of Bulacan, Luzon, Philippine Islands, +on Manila Bay and on the W. branch and the delta of the Pampanga Grande +river, about 25 m. N.W. of Manila. Pop. (1903), 21,304. Hagonoy is +situated in a rich agricultural region, producing rice, Indian corn, +sugar and a little coffee. Alcohol is made in considerable quantities +from the fermented juice of the nipa palm, which grows in the +neighbouring swamps, and from the leaves of which the nipa thatch is +manufactured. There is good fishing. The women of the town are very +skilful in weaving the native fabrics. The language is Tagalog. Hagonoy +was founded in 1581. + + + + +HAGUE, THE (in Dutch, _'s Gravenhage_, or, abbreviated, _den Haag_; in +Fr. _La Haye_; and in Late Lat. _Haga Comitis_), the chief town of the +province of South Holland, about 2½ m. from the sea, with a junction +station 9½ m. by rail S.W. by S. of Leiden. Steam tramways connect it +with the seaside villages of Scheveningen, Kykduin and 's Gravenzande, +as well as with Delft, Wassenaar and Leiden, and it is situated on a +branch of the main canal from Rotterdam to Amsterdam. Pop. (1900), +212,211. The Hague is the chief town of the province, the usual +residence of the court and diplomatic bodies, and the seat of the +government, the states-general, the high council of the Netherlands, the +council of state, the chamber of accounts and various other +administrative bodies. The characteristics of the town are quite in +keeping with its political position; it is as handsome as it is +fashionable, and was rightly described by de Amicis in his _Olanda_ as +half Dutch, half French. The Hague has grown very largely in modern +times, especially on its western side, which is situated on the higher +and more sandy soil, the south-eastern half of the town comprising the +poorer and the business quarters. The main features in a plan of the +town are its fine streets and houses and extensive avenues and +well-planted squares; while, as a city, the neighbourhood of an +attractive seaside resort, combined with the advantages and importance +of a large town, and the possession of beautiful and wooded +surroundings, give it a distinction all its own. + +The medieval-looking group of government buildings situated in the +Binnenhof (or "inner court"), their backs reflected in the pretty sheet +of water called the Vyver, represent both historically and +topographically the centre of the Hague. On the opposite side of the +Vyver lies the parallelogram formed by the fine houses and magnificent +avenue of trees of the Lange Voorhout, the Kneuterdyk and the Vyverburg, +representing the fashionable kernel of the city. Close by lies the +entrance to the Haagsche Bosch, or the wood, on one side of which is +situated the deer-park, and a little beyond on the other the zoological +gardens (1862). Away from the Lange Voorhout the fine Park Straat +stretches to the "1813 Plein" or square, in the centre of which rises the +large monument (1869) by Jaquet commemorating the jubilee of the +restoration of Dutch independence in 1813. Beyond this is the Alexander +Veld, used as a military drill ground, and close by is the entrance to +the beautiful road called the Scheveningensche Weg, which leads through +the "little woods" to Scheveningen. Parallel to the Park Straat is the +busy Noordeinde, in which is situated the royal palace. The palace was +purchased by the States in 1595, rebuilt by the stadtholder William III., +and extended by King William I. in the beginning of the 19th century. In +front of the building is an equestrian statue of William I. of Orange by +Count Nieuerkerke (1845), and behind are the gardens and extensive +stables. The Binnenhof, which has been already mentioned, was once +surrounded by a moat, and is still entered through ancient gateways. The +oldest portion was founded in 1249 by William II., count of Holland, +whose son, Florens V., enlarged it and made it his residence. Several +centuries later the stadtholders also lived here. The fine old hall of +the knights, built by Florens, and now containing the archives of the +home office, is the historic chamber in which the states of the +Netherlands abjured their allegiance to Philip II. of Spain, and in front +of which the grey-headed statesman Johan van Oldenbarneveldt was executed +in 1619. Close by on the one side are the courts of justice, and on the +other the first and second chambers of the states-general, containing +some richly painted ceilings and the portraits of various stadtholders. +Government offices occupy the remainder of the buildings, and in the +middle of the court is a fountain surmounted by a statuette of William +II., count of Holland (1227-1256). In the adjoining Buitenhof, or "outer +court," is a statue of King William II. (d. 1849), and the old Gevangen +Poort, or prison gate (restored 1875), consisting of a tower and gateway. +It was here that the brothers Cornelis and Jan de Witt were killed by the +mob in 1672. On the opposite side of the Binnenhof is the busy square +called the Plein, where all the tram-lines meet. Round about it are the +buildings of the ministry of justice and other government buildings, +including one to contain the state archives, the large club-house of the +Witte Societeit, and the Mauritshuis. The Mauritshuis was built in +1633-1644 by Count John Maurice of Nassau, governor of Brazil, and +contains the famous picture gallery of the Hague. The nucleus of this +collection was formed by the princes of Orange, notably by the +stadtholder William V. (1748-1806). King William I. did much to restore +the losses caused by the removal of many of the pictures during the +French occupation. Other artistic collections in the Hague are the +municipal museum (_Gernsente_ Museum), containing paintings by both +ancient and modern Dutch artists, and some antiquities; the fine +collection of pictures in the Steengracht gallery, belonging to Jonkheer +Steengracht; the museum Meermanno-Westreenianum, named after Count +Meermann and Baron Westreenen (d. 1850), containing some interesting MSS. +and specimens of early typography and other curiosities; and the Mesdag +Museum, containing the collection of the painter H. W. Mesdag (b. 1831) +presented by him to the state. The royal library (1798) contains upwards +of 500,000 volumes, including some early illuminated MSS., a valuable +collection of coins and medals and some fine antique gems. In addition to +the royal palace already mentioned, there are the palaces of the +queen-dowager, of the prince of Orange (founded about 1720 by Count Unico +of Wassenaar Twiekels) and of the prince von Wied, dating from 1825, and +containing some good early Dutch and Flemish masters. There are numerous +churches of various denominations in the Hague as well as an English +church, a Russian chapel and two synagogues, one of which is Portuguese. +The Groote Kerk of St James (15th and 16th centuries) has a fine vaulted +interior, and contains some old stained glass, a carved wooden pulpit +(1550), a large organ and interesting sepulchral monuments, and some +escutcheons of the knights of the Golden Fleece, placed here after the +chapter of 1456. The Nieuwe Kerk, or new church (first half 17th +century), contains the tombs of the brothers De Witt and of the +philosopher Spinoza. Spinoza is further commemorated by a monument in +front of the house in which he died in 1677. The picturesque town hall +(built in 1565 and restored and enlarged in 1882) contains a historical +picture gallery. The principal other buildings are the provincial +government offices, the royal school of music, the college of art, the +large building (1874) of the society for arts and sciences, the +ethnographical institute of the Netherlands Indies with fine library, the +theatres, civil and military hospitals, orphanage, lunatic asylum and +other charitable institutions; the fine modern railway station (1892), +the cavalry and artillery and the infantry barracks, and the cannon +foundry. The chief industries of the town are iron casting, copper and +lead smelting, cannon founding, the manufacture of furniture and +carriages, liqueur distilling, lithographing and printing. + +The Hague wood has been described as the city's finest ornament. It is +composed chiefly of oaks and alders and magnificent avenues of gigantic +beech-trees. Together with the Haarlem wood it is thought to be a +remnant of the immense forest which once extended along the coast. At +the end of one of the avenues which penetrates into it from the town is +the large summer club-house of the Witte Societeit, under whose auspices +concerts are given here in summer. Farther into the wood are some pretty +little lakes, and the famous royal villa called the Huis ten Bosch, or +"house in the wood." This villa was built by Pieter Post for the +Princess Amelia of Solms, in memory of her husband the stadtholder, +Frederick Henry of Orange (d. 1647), and wings were added to it by +Prince William IV. in 1748. The chief room is the Orange Saloon, an +octagonal hall 50 ft. high, covered with paintings by Dutch and Flemish +artists, chiefly of incidents in the life of Prince Frederick. In this +room the International Peace Conference had its sittings in the summer +of 1899. The collections in the Chinese and Japanese rooms, and the +grisailles in the dining-room painted by Jacobus de Wit (1695-1754), are +also noteworthy. + +The history of the Hague is in some respects singular. In the 13th +century it was no more than a hunting-lodge of the counts of Holland, +and though Count Floris V. (b. 1254-1296) made it his residence and it +thus became the seat of the supreme court of justice of Holland and the +centre of the administration, and from the time of William of Orange +onward the meeting-place of the states-general, it only received the +status of a town, from King Louis Bonaparte, early in the 19th century. + +In the latter part of the 17th and the first half of the 18th century +the Hague was the centre of European diplomacy. Among the many treaties +and conventions signed here may be mentioned the treaty of the Triple +Alliance (January 23, 1688) between England, Sweden and the Netherlands; +the concert of the Hague (March 31, 1710) between the Emperor, England +and Holland, for the maintenance of the neutrality of the Swedish +provinces in Germany during the war of the northern powers against +Sweden; the Triple Alliance (January 4, 1717) between France, England +and Holland for the guarantee of the treaty of Utrecht; the treaty of +peace (Feb. 17, 1717) between Spain, Savoy and Austria, by which the +first-named acceded to the principles of the Triple Alliance; the treaty +of peace between Holland and France (May 16, 1795); the first "Hague +Convention," the outcome of the "peace conference" assembled on the +initiative of the emperor Nicholas II. of Russia (July 27, 1899), and +the series of conventions, the results of the second peace conference +(June 15-October 18, 1907). The International court of arbitration or +Hague Tribunal was established in 1899 (see EUROPE: _History_; +ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL). The Palace of Peace designed to be +completed in 1913 as the seat of the tribunal, on the Scheveningen +avenue, is by a French architect, L. M. Cordonnier, and A. Carnegie +contributed £300,000 towards its cost. + + + + +HAHN, AUGUST (1792-1863), German Protestant theologian, was born on the +27th of March 1792 at Grossosterhausen near Eisleben, and studied +theology at the university of Leipzig. In 1819 he was nominated +_professor extraordinarius_ of theology and pastor of Altstadt in +Königsberg, and in 1820 received a superintendency in that city. In 1822 +he became _professor ordinarius_. In 1826 he removed as professor of +theology to Leipzig, where, hitherto distinguished only as editor of +Bardesanes, Marcion (_Marcion's Evangelium in seiner ursprünglichen +Gestalt_, 1823), and Ephraem Syrus, and the joint editor of a _Syrische +Chrestomathie_ (1824), he came into great prominence as the author of a +treatise, _De rationalismi qui dicitur vera indole et qua cum +naturalismo contineatur ratione_ (1827), and also of an _Offene +Erklärung an die Evangelische Kirche zunächst in Sachsen u. Preussen_ +(1827), in which, as a member of the school of E. W. Hengstenberg, he +endeavoured to convince the rationalists that it was their duty +voluntarily and at once to withdraw from the national church. In 1833 +Hahn's pamphlet against K. G. Bretschneider (_Über die Lage des +Christenthums in unserer Zeit_, 1832) having attracted the notice of +Friedrich Wilhelm III., he was called to Breslau as theological +professor and consistorial councillor, and in 1843 became "general +superintendent" of the province of Silesia. He died at Breslau on the +13th of May 1863. Though uncompromising in his "supra-naturalism," he +did not altogether satisfy the men of his own school by his own +doctrinal system. The first edition of his _Lehrbuch des christlichen +Glaubens_ (1828) was freely characterized as lacking in consistency and +as detracting from the strength of the old positions in many important +points. Many of these defects, however, he is considered to have +remedied in his second edition (1857). Among his other works are his +edition of the Hebrew Bible (1833), his _Bibliothek der Symbole und +Glaubensregeln der apostolisch-katholischen Kirche_ (1842; 2nd ed. 1877) +and _Predigten_ (1852). + +His eldest son, HEINRICH AUGUST HAHN (1821-1861), after studying +theology at Breslau and Berlin, became successively _Privatdozent_ at +Breslau (1845), professor _ad interim_ (1846) at Königsberg on the death +of Heinrich Hävernick, professor extraordinarius (1851) and professor +ordinarius (1860) at Greifswald. Amongst his published works were a +commentary on the Book of Job (1850), a translation of the Song of Songs +(1852), an exposition of Isaiah xl.-lxvi. (1857) and a commentary on the +Book of Ecclesiastes (1860). + + See the articles in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_, and the + _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_. + + + + +HAHNEMANN, SAMUEL CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1755-1843), German physician and +founder of "homoeopathy," was born at Meissen in Saxony on the 10th of +April 1755. He was educated at the "elector's school" of Meissen, and +studied medicine at Leipzig and Vienna, taking the degree of M.D. at +Erlangen in 1779. After practising in various places, he settled in +Dresden in 1784, and thence removed to Leipzig in 1789. In the following +year, while translating W. Cullen's _Materia medica_ into German, he was +struck by the fact that the symptoms produced by quinine on the healthy +body were similar to those of the disordered states it was used to cure. +He had previously felt dissatisfied with the state of the science of +medicine, and this observation led him to assert the truth of the "law of +similars," _similia similibus curantur_ or _curentur_--i.e. diseases are +cured (or should be treated) by those drugs which produce symptoms +similar to them in the healthy. He promulgated his new principle in a +paper published in 1796 in C. W. Hufeland's _Journal_, and four years +later, convinced that drugs in much smaller doses than were generally +employed effectually exerted their curative powers, he advanced his +doctrine of their potentization or dynamization. In 1810 he published his +chief work, _Organon der rationellen Heilkunde_, containing an exposition +of his system, which he called homoeopathy (q.v.), and in the following +years appeared the six volumes of his _Reine Arzneimittellehre_, which +detailed the symptoms produced by "proving" a large number of drugs, i.e. +by systematically administering them to healthy subjects. In 1821 the +hostility of established interests, and especially of the apothecaries, +whose services were not required under his system, forced him to leave +Leipzig, and at the invitation of the grand-duke of Anhalt-Cöthen he went +to live at Cöthen. Fourteen years later he removed to Paris, where he +practised with great success until his death on the 2nd of July 1843. +Statues were erected to his memory at Leipzig in 1851 and at Cöthen in +1855. He also wrote, in addition to the works already mentioned, +_Fragmenta de viribus medicamentorum positivis_ (1805) and _Die +chronischen Krankheiten_ (1828-1830). + + See the article HOMOEOPATHY; also Albrecht, _Hahnemann's Leben und + Werken_ (Leipzig, 1875); Bradford, _Hahnemann's Life and Letters_ + (Philadelphia, 1895). + + + + +HAHN-HAHN, IDA, COUNTESS VON (1805-1880), German author, was born at +Tressow, in Mecklenburg-Schwerin, on the 22nd of June 1805, daughter of +Graf (Count) Karl Friedrich von Hahn (1782-1857), well known for his +enthusiasm for the stage, upon which he squandered a large portion of +his fortune. She married in 1826 her wealthy cousin Count Adolf von +Hahn-Hahn. With him she had an extremely unhappy life, and in 1829 her +husband's irregularities led to a divorce. The countess travelled, +produced some volumes of poetry indicating true lyrical feeling, and in +1838 appeared as a novelist with _Aus der Gesellschaft_, a title which, +proving equally applicable to her subsequent novels, was retained as +that of a series, the book originally so entitled being renamed _Ida +Schönholm_. For several years the countess continued to produce novels +bearing a certain subjective resemblance to those of George Sand, but +less hostile to social institutions, and dealing almost exclusively with +aristocratic society. The author's patrician affectations at length drew +upon her the merciless ridicule of Fanny Lewald in a parody of her style +entitled _Diogena_ (1847), and this and the revolution of 1848 together +seem to have co-operated in inducing her to embrace the Roman Catholic +religion in 1850. She justified her step in a polemical work entitled +_Von Babylon nach Jerusalem_ (1851), which elicited a vigorous reply +from H. Abeken. In 1852 she retired into a convent at Angers, which she, +however, soon left, taking up her residence at Mainz where she founded a +nunnery, in which she lived without joining the order, and continued her +literary labours. For many years her novels were the most popular works +of fiction in aristocratic circles; many of her later publications, +however, passed unnoticed as mere party manifestoes. Her earlier works +do not deserve the neglect into which they have fallen. If their +sentimentalism is sometimes wearisome, it is grounded on genuine feeling +and expressed with passionate eloquence. _Ulrich_ and _Gräfin Faustine_, +both published in 1841, mark the culmination of her power; but +_Sigismund Forster_ (1843), _Cecil_ (1844), _Sibylle_ (1846) and _Maria +Regina_ (1860) also obtained considerable popularity. She died at Mainz +on the 12th of January 1880. + + Her collected works, _Gesammelte Werke_, with an introduction by O. + von Schaching, were published in two series, 45 volumes in all + (Regensburg, 1903-1904). See H. Keiter, _Gräfin Hahn-Hahn_ (Würzburg, + undated); P. Haffner, _Gräfin Ida Hahn-Hahn_, _eine psychologische + Studie_ (Frankfort, 1880); A. Jacoby, _Ida Gräfin Hahn-Hahn_ (Mainz, + 1894). + + + + +HAI (939-1038), Jewish Talmudical scholar, was born in 939. He was +educated by his father Sherira, gaon of Pombeditha (Pumbedita), whom he +afterwards assisted in his work. They were cast into prison for a short +time by the caliph Qadir, and subsequently on Sherira's death Hai was +appointed gaon in his place (998). This office he held till his death on +the 28th of March 1038. He is famous chiefly for his answers to problems +of ritual and civil law. He composed important treatises on Talmudic law +and the _Mishnah_; many poems are also attributed to him on doubtful +authority. In his _responsa_ he laid stress on custom and tradition +provided no infringement of the law were involved, and was essentially +conservative in theology. He had considerable knowledge not only of +religious movements within the Jewish body, but also of Mahommedan +theology and controversial method, and frequently consulted theologians +of other beliefs. + + See Steinschneider, _Hebr. Übersetz_. p. 910, and article in _Jewish + Encyclopedia_, vi. 153. + + + + +HAIBAK, a town and khanate of Afghan Turkestan. The valley of Haibak, +which is 3100 ft. above sea level, is fertile and richly cultivated. The +town, which is famed in Persian legend, consists now of only a couple of +streets, containing many Hindu shops and a small garrison. The +inhabitants call themselves Jagatais, a Turki race, though now generally +mixed with Tajiks and speaking Persian. In the neighbourhood of Haibak +are some very typical Buddhist ruins. Haibak derives its importance from +its position on the main line of communication between Kabul and Afghan +Turkestan. + + + + +HAIDA, a tribe of North American Indians of Skittagetan stock. They +still occupy their original home, the Queen Charlotte islands, British +Columbia. They are skilful seamen, making long fishing expeditions in +cedarwood canoes. They are noted for their carving and basket-work. They +formerly made raids on the coast tribes. Slavery was hereditary, the +slaves being prisoners of war. The population, some 7000 in the middle +of the 19th century, is now reduced to a few hundreds. + + See _Handbook of American Indians_ (Washington, 1907). For "Haida + Texts and Myths," see _Bull. 29 Smithsonian Institution Bureau Amer. + Ethnol._ (1905). + + + + +HAIDINGER, WILHELM KARL, RITTER VON (1795-1871), Austrian mineralogist, +geologist and physicist, was born at Vienna on the 5th of February 1795. +His father, Karl Haidinger, contributed largely to the development of +mineralogical science in the latter half of the 18th century. Having +studied at the normal school of St Anne, and attended classes at the +university, Wilhelm, at the age of seventeen, joined Professor F. Mohs +at Gratz, and five years later accompanied the professor to Freiberg on +the transfer of his labours to the mining academy of that town. + +In 1822 Haidinger visited France and England with Count Breunner, and, +journeying northward, took up his abode in Edinburgh. He translated into +English, with additions of his own, Mohs's _Grundriss der Mineralogie_, +published at Edinburgh in three volumes under the title _Treatise on +Mineralogy_ (1825). After a tour in northern Europe, including the +Scandinavian mining districts, he undertook the scientific direction of +the porcelain works at Elbogen, belonging to his brothers. In 1840 he +was appointed counsellor of mines (Bergrat) at Vienna in the place of +Professor Mohs, a post which included the charge of the imperial cabinet +of minerals. He devoted himself to the rearrangement and enrichment of +the collections, and the museum became the first in Europe. Shortly +after (1843) Haidinger commenced a series of lectures on mineralogy, +which was given to the world under the title _Handbuch der bestimmenden +Mineralogie_ (Vienna, 1845; tables, 1846). On the establishment of the +imperial geological institute, he was chosen director (1849); and this +important position he occupied for seventeen years. He was elected a +member of the imperial board of agriculture and mines, and a member of +the imperial academy of sciences of Vienna. He organized the society of +the Freunde der Naturwissenschaften. As a physicist Haidinger ranked +high, and he was one of the most active promoters of scientific progress +in Austria. He was the discoverer of the interesting optical appearances +which have been called after him "Haidinger's brushes." Knighted in +1865, the following year he retired to his estate at Dornbach near +Vienna, where he died on the 19th of March 1871. + + In addition to the works already named, Haidinger published + _Anfangsgründe der Mineralogie_ (Leipzig, 1829); _Geognostische + Übersichtskarte der österreich. Monarchie_ (Vienna, 1847); + _Bemerkungen über die Anordnung der kleinsten Theilchen in + Christallen_ (Vienna, 1853); _Interferenzlinien am Glimmer_ (Vienna, + 1855); _Vergleichungen von Augit und Amphibol_ (Vienna, 1855). He also + edited the _Naturwissenschaftliche Abhandlungen_ (Vienna, 1847); the + _Berichte über die Mittheilungen von Freunden der Naturwissenschaften + in Wien_ (Vienna, 1847-1851); and the _Jahrbuch_ of the Vienna K. K. + Geologische Reichsanstalt (1850), &c. Some of his papers will be found + in the _Transactions_ of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (vol. x.) and + of the Wernerian Society (1822-1823), _Edinburgh Phil. Journal, + Brewster's Journal of Science_, and _Poggendorff's Annalen_. + (H. B. Wo.) + + + + +HAIDUK (also written _Hayduk, Heiduc, Heyduke_ and _Heyduque_), a term +which appears originally to have meant "robber" or "brigand," a sense it +retains in Servia and some other parts of the Balkan Peninsula. It is +probably derived from the Turkish _haidud_, "marauder," but its origin +is not absolutely certain. Most of the European races with which the +Turks came into close contact during the 15th and 16th centuries seem to +have adopted it as a loan-word, and it appears in Magyar as _hajdú_ +(plural _hajduk_), in Serbo-Croatian, Rumanian, Polish and [)C]ech as +_hajduk_, in Bulgarian as _hajdutin_ and in Greek as [Greek: +chaintoutês]. By the beginning of the 17th century its use had spread +north and west as far as Sweden and Great Britain. In Hungary it was +applied to a class of mercenary foot-soldiers of Magyar stock. In 1605 +these haiduks were rewarded for their fidelity to the Protestant party +(see HUNGARY: _History_) with titles of nobility and territorial rights +over a district situated on the left bank of the river Theiss, known +thenceforward as the Haiduk region. This was enlarged in 1876 and +converted into the county of Hajdú (Ger. _Hajduken_). _Hajdú_ is also a +common prefix in Hungarian place-names, e.g. Hajdú-Szoboszló, +Hajdú-Námás. In Austria-Hungary, Germany, Poland, Sweden and some other +countries, _haiduk_ came to mean an attendant in a court of law, or a +male servant, dressed in Hungarian semi-military costume. It is also +occasionally used as a synonym for "footman" or "lackey." + + + + +HAIFA, a town of Palestine at the foot of Mt. Carmel, on the south of +the Bay of Acre. It represents the classical Sycaminum, but the present +town is entirely modern. It has developed since about 1890 into an +important port, and is connected by railway with Damascus. The +population is estimated at 12,000 (Moslems 6000, Christians 4000, Jews +1500, Germans 500; the last belong for the greater part to the Unitarian +sect of the "Templars," who have colonies also at Jaffa and Jerusalem). +The exports (grain and oil) were valued at £178,738 in 1900. Much of the +trade that formerly went to Acre has been attracted to Haifa. This port +is the best natural harbour on the Palestine coast. + + + + +HAIK (an Arabic word, from _hak_, to weave), a piece of cloth, usually +of coarse hand-woven wool, worn by Arabs, Moors and other Mahommedan +peoples. It is generally 6 to 6½ yds. long, and about 2 broad. It is +either striped or plain, and is worn equally by both sexes, usually as +an outer covering; but it is often the only garment of the poorer +classes. By women the "haik" is arranged to cover the head and, in the +presence of men, is held so as to conceal the face. A thin "haik" of +silk, like a veil, is used by brides at their marriage. + + + + +HAIL (O. Eng. _hægl_ and _hagol_,[1] cf. the cognate Teutonic _hagel_, +as in German, Dutch, Swedish, &c.; the Gr. [Greek: kachlêx], pebble, is +probably allied), the name for rounded masses or single pellets of ice +falling from the clouds in a shower. True hail has a concentric +structure caused by the frozen particles of moisture first descending +into a warm cloud, whence they are carried upwards on an ascending +current of heated air into a cold stratum where the fresh coating of +water vapour deposited in the cloud is frozen. The hailstone descends +again, receives a fresh coating, is carried up once more, refrozen, and +again descends. Thus the hailstone grows until the current is no longer +strong enough to support it when it falls to the ground. At times masses +of hail are frozen together, and a very sudden cooling will sometimes +result in the formation of ragged masses of ice that fall with +disastrous results. Hail must be distinguished from the frozen snow, +"soft-hail" or "graupel," that often falls at the rear of a spring +cyclone, since true hail is almost entirely a summer phenomenon, and +falls most frequently in thunderstorms which are produced under the +conditions that are favourable to the formation of hail, i.e. great +heat, a still atmosphere, the production of strong local convection +currents in consequence, and the passage of a cold upper drift. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] "Hail," a call of greeting or salutation, a shout to attract + attention, must, of course, be distinguished. This word represents + the Old Norwegian _heill_, prosperity, cognate with O. Eng. _hal_, + whence "hale," "whole," and _hæl_, whence "health," "heal." + + + + +HAILES, DAVID DALRYMPLE, LORD (1726-1792), Scottish lawyer and +historian, was born at Edinburgh on the 28th of October 1726. His +father, Sir James Dalrymple, Bart., of Hailes, in the county of +Haddington, auditor-general of the exchequer of Scotland, was a grandson +of James, first Viscount Stair; and his mother, Lady Christian Hamilton, +was a daughter of Thomas, 6th earl of Haddington. David was the eldest +of sixteen children. He was educated at Eton, and studied law at +Utrecht, being intended for the Scottish bar, to which he was admitted +shortly after his return to Scotland in 1748. As a pleader he attained +neither high distinction nor very extensive practice, but he rapidly +established a well-deserved reputation for sound knowledge, unwearied +application and strict probity; and in 1766 he was elevated to the +bench, when he assumed the title of Lord Hailes. Ten years later he was +appointed a lord of justiciary. He died on the 29th of November 1792. He +was twice married, and had a daughter by each wife. The baronetcy to +which he had succeeded passed to the son of his brother John, provost of +Edinburgh. Another brother was Alexander Dalrymple (1737-1808), the +first admiralty hydrographer, who distinguished himself in the East +India Company's service and as a geographer. Lord Hailes's younger +daughter married Sir James Fergusson; and their grandson, Sir Charles +Dalrymple, 1st Bart. (cr. 1887), M.P. for Bute from 1868 to 1885, +afterwards came into Lord Hailes's estate and took his family name. + +Lord Hailes's most important contribution to literature was the _Annals +of Scotland_, of which the first volume, "From the accession of Malcolm +III., surnamed Canmore, to the accession of Robert I.," appeared in +1776, and the second, "From the accession of Robert I., surnamed Bruce, +to the accession of the house of Stewart," in 1779. It is, as Dr Johnson +justly described this work at the time of its appearance, a "Dictionary" +of carefully sifted facts, which tells all that is wanted and all that +is known, but without any laboured splendour of language or affected +subtlety of conjecture. The other works of Lord Hailes include +_Historical Memoirs concerning the Provincial Councils of the Scottish +Clergy_ (1769); _An Examination of some of the Arguments for the High +Antiquity of Regiam Majestatem_ (1769); three volumes entitled _Remains +of Christian Antiquity_ ("Account of the Martyrs of Smyrna and Lyons in +the Second Century," 1776; "The Trials of Justin Martyr, Cyprian, &c.," +1778; "The History of the Martyrs of Palestine, translated from +Eusebius," 1780); _Disquisitions concerning the Antiquities of the +Christian Church_ (1783); and editions or translations of portions of +Lactantius, Tertullian and Minucius Felix. In 1786 he published _An +Inquiry into the Secondary Causes which Mr Gibbon has assigned for the +Rapid Growth of Christianity_ (Dutch translation, Utrecht, 1793), one of +the most respectable of the very many replies which were made to the +famous 15th and 16th chapters of the _Decline and Fall of the Roman +Empire_. + +A "Memoir" of Lord Hailes is prefixed to the 1808 reprint of his +_Inquiry into the Secondary Causes_. + + + + +HAILSHAM, a market-town in the Eastbourne parliamentary division of +Sussex, England, 54 m. S.S.E. from London by the London, Brighton & +South Coast railway. Pop. (1901), 4197. The church of St Mary is +Perpendicular. The picturesque Augustinian priory of Michelham lies 2 m. +W. by the Cuckmere river; it is altered into a dwelling house, but +retains a gate-house, crypt and other portions of Early English date. +There was also a Premonstratensian house at Otham, 3 m. S., but the +remains are scanty. Hailsham has a considerable agricultural trade, and +manufactures of rope and matting are carried on. + + + + +HAINAN, or, as it is usually called in Chinese, _K'iung-chow-fu_, a +large island belonging to the Chinese province of Kwang-tung, and +situated between the Chinese Sea and the Gulf of Tong-king from 20° 8´ +to 17° 52´ N., and from 108° 32´ to 111° 15´ E. It measures 160 m. from +N.E. to S.W., and the average breadth is about 90 m. The area is +estimated at from 1200 to 1400 sq. m., or two-thirds the size of Sicily. +From the peninsula of Lei-chow on the north it is separated by the +straits of Hainan, which have a breadth of 15 or 20 m. + +With the exception of a considerable area in the north, and broad tracts +on the north-east and north-west sides, the whole island is occupied by +jungle-covered mountains, with rich valleys between. The central range +bears the name of Li-mou shan or Wu-tchi shan (the Five-Finger +Mountain), and attains a height of 6000 or 7000 ft. Its praises are +celebrated in a glowing ode by Ch'iu, a native poet. The island appears +to be well watered, and some of its rivers are not without importance as +possible highways of commerce; but the details of its hydrography are +very partially ascertained. A navigable channel extends in an irregular +curve from the bay of Hoi-how (Hai-K'ow) in the north to Tan-chow on the +west coast. Being exposed to the winter monsoon, the northern parts of +the island enjoy much the same sort of temperate climate as the +neighbouring provinces of the mainland, but in the southern parts, +protected from the monsoon by the mountain ranges, the climate is almost +or entirely tropical. Snow falls so rarely that its appearance in 1684 +is reported in the native chronicles as a remarkable event. Earthquakes +are a much more familiar phenomenon, having occurred, according to the +same authority, in 1523, 1526, 1605, 1652, 1677, 1681, 1684, 1702, 1704, +1725, 1742, 1816, 1817 and 1822. Excellent timber of various +kinds--eagle-wood, rose-wood, liquidambar, &c.--is one of the principal +products of the island, and has even been specially transported to +Peking for imperial purposes. The coco palm flourishes freely even in +the north, and is to be found growing in clumps with the _Pinus +sinensis_. Rice, cotton, sugar, indigo, cinnamon, betel-nuts, sweet +potatoes, ground-nuts and tobacco are all cultivated in varying +quantities. The aboriginal inhabitants collect a kind of tea called +t'ien ch'a, or celestial tea, which looks like the leaves of a wild +camellia, and has an earthy taste when infused. Lead, silver, copper and +iron occur in the Shi-lu shan or "stone-green-hill"; the silver at least +was worked till 1850. Gold and lapis lazuli are found in other parts of +the island. + +The ordinary cattle of Hainan are apparently a cross between the little +yellow cow of south China and the zebu of India. Buffaloes are common, +and in the neighbourhood of Nanlu at least they are frequently albinos. +Horses are numerous but small. Hogs and deer are both common wild +animals, and of the latter there are three species, _Cervus Eldi, Cervus +hippelaphus_ and _Cervus vaginalis_. Among the birds, of which 172 +species are described by Mr Swinhoe in his paper in _The Ibis_ (1870), +there are eagles, notably a new species _Spilornis Rutherfordi_, +buzzards, harriers, kites, owls, goatsuckers and woodpeckers. The _Upupa +ceylonensis_ is familiar to the natives as the "bird of the Li matrons," +and the _Palaeornis javanica_ as the "sugar-cane bird." + +Hainan forms a fu or department of the province of Kwang-tung, though +strictly it is only a portion of the island that is under Chinese +administration, the remainder being still occupied by unsubjugated +aborigines. The department contains three _chow_ and ten _hien_ +districts. K'iung-chow-hien, in which the capital is situated; +Ting-an-hien, the only inland district; Wen-ch'ang-hien, in the +north-east of the island; Hui-t'ung-hien, Lo-hui-hien, Ling-shu-hien, +Wan-chow, Yai-chow (the southmost of all), Kan-en-hien, Ch'ang-hwa-hien, +Tan-chow, Lin-kao-hien and Ch'eng-mai-hien. The capital K'iung-chow-fu +is situated in the north about 10 li (or 3 m.) from the coast on the +river. It is a well-built compact city, and its temples and examination +halls are in good preservation. Carved articles in coco-nuts and scented +woods are its principal industrial product. In 1630 it was made the seat +of a Roman Catholic mission by Benoit de Mathos, a Portuguese Jesuit, +and the old cemetery still contains about 113 Christian graves. The port +of K'iung-chow-fu at the mouth of the river, which is nearly dry at low +water, is called simply Hoi-how, or in the court dialect Hai-K'ow, i.e. +seaport. The two towns are united by a good road, along which a large +traffic is maintained partly by coolie porters but more frequently by +means of wheel-barrows, which serve the purpose of cabs and carts. The +value of the trade of the port has risen from £670,600 in 1899 to +£719,333 in 1904. In the same year 424 vessels, representing a tonnage +of 312,554, visited the port. This trade is almost entirely with the +British colony of Hong-Kong, with which the port is connected by small +coasting steamers, but since 1893 it has had regular steamboat +communication with Haiphong in Tongking. The population of K'iung-chow, +including its shipping port of Hoi-how, is estimated at 52,000. The +number of foreign residents in 1900 was about 30, most of them officials +or missionaries. + +The inhabitants of Hainan may be divided into three classes, the Chinese +immigrants, the civilized aborigines or Shu-li and the wild aborigines +or Sheng-li. The Chinese were for the most part originally from Kwang-si +and the neighbouring provinces, and they speak a peculiar dialect, of +which a detailed account by Mr Swinhoe was given in _The Phoenix, a +Monthly Magazine for China, &c._ (1870). The Shu-li as described by Mr +Taintor are almost of the same stature as the Chinese, but have a more +decided copper colour, higher cheek-bones and more angular features, +while their eyes are not oblique. Their hair is long, straight and +black, and their beards, if they have any, are very scanty. They till +the soil and bring rice, fuel, timber, grass-cloth, &c., to the Chinese +markets. The Sheng-li or Li proper, called also La, Le or Lauy, are +probably connected with the Laos of Siam and the Lolos of China. Though +not gratuitously aggressive, they are highly intractable, and have given +great trouble to the Chinese authorities. Among themselves they carry on +deadly feuds, and revenge is a duty and an inheritance. Though they are +mainly dependent on the chase for food, their weapons are still the +spear and the bow, the latter being made of wood and strung with bamboo. +In marriage no avoidance of similarity of name is required. The bride's +face is tattooed according to a pattern furnished by the bridegroom. +Their funeral mourning consists of abstaining from drink and eating raw +beef, and they use a wooden log for a coffin. When sick they sacrifice +oxen. In the spring-time there is a festival in which the men and women +from neighbouring settlements move about in gay clothing hand in hand +and singing songs. The whole population of the island is estimated at +about 2½ millions. At its first conquest 23,000 families were introduced +from the mainland. In 1300 the Chinese authorities assign 166,257 +inhabitants; in 1370, 291,000; in 1617, 250,524; and in 1835, 1,350,000. + +It was in 111 B.C. that Lu-Po-Teh, general of the emperor Wu-ti, first +made the island of Hainan subject to the Chinese, who divided it into +the two prefectures, Tan-urh or Drooping Ear in the south, so-called +from the long ears of the native "king," and Chu-yai or Pearl Shore in +the north. During the decadence of the elder branch of the Han dynasty +the Chinese supremacy was weakened, but in A.D. 43 the natives were led +by the success of Ma-yuan in Tong-king to make a new tender of their +allegiance. About this time the whole island took the name of Chu-yai. +In A.D. 627 the name of K'iung-chow came into use. On its conquest by +the generals of Kublai Khan in 1278 the island was incorporated with the +western part of the province of Kwang-tung in a new satrapy, Hai-peh +Hai-nan Tao, i.e. the circuit north of the sea and south of the sea. It +was thus that Hai-nan-Tao, or district south of the sea or strait, came +into use as the name of the island, which, however, has borne the +official title of K'iung-chow-fu, probably derived from the Kiung shan +or Jade Mountains, ever since 1370, the date of its erection into a +department of Kwang-tung. For a long time Hainan was the refuge of the +turbulent classes of China and the place of deportation for delinquent +officials. It was there, for example, that Su-She or Su-Tung-po was +banished in 1097. From the 15th to the 19th century pirates made the +intercourse with the mainland dangerous, and in the 17th they were +considered so formidable that merchants were allowed to convey their +goods only across the narrow Hainan Strait. Since 1863 the presence of +English men-of-war has put an end to this evil. According to the treaty +of Tientsin, the capital K'iung-chow and the harbour Hoi-how (Hai-Kow) +were opened to European commerce; but it was not till 1876 that +advantage was taken of the permission. + + + + +HAINAU (officially HAYNAU), a town of Germany, in the Prussian province +of Silesia, on the Schnelle Deichsa and the railway from Breslau to +Dresden, 12 m. N.W. of Liegnitz. Pop. 10,500. It has an Evangelical and +a Roman Catholic church, manufactories of gloves, patent leather, paper, +metal ware and artificial manures, and a considerable trade in cereals. +Near Hainau the Prussian cavalry under Blücher inflicted a defeat on the +French rearguard on the 26th of May 1813. + + + + +HAINAUT (Flem. _Henegouwen_, Ger. _Hennegau_), a province of Belgium +formed out of the ancient county of Hainaut. Modern Hainaut is famous as +containing the chief coal and iron mines of Belgium. There are about +150,000 men and women employed in the mines, and about as many more in +the iron and steel works of the province. About 1880 these numbers were +not more than half their present totals. The principal towns of Hainaut +are Mons, the capital, Charleroi, Tournai, Jumet and La Louvière. The +province is watered by both the Scheldt and the Sambre, and is connected +with Flanders by the Charleroi-Ghent canal. The area of the province is +computed at 930,405 acres or 1453 sq. m. In 1904 the population was +1,192,967, showing an average of 821 per square mile. + +Under the successors of Clovis Hainaut formed part, first of the kingdom +of Metz, and then of that of Lotharingia. It afterwards became part of +the duchy of Lorraine. The first to bear the title of count of Hainaut +was Reginar "Long-Neck" (c. 875), who, later on, made himself master of +the duchy of Lorraine and died in 916. His eldest son inherited Lower +Lorraine, the younger, Reginar II., the countship of Hainaut, which +remained in the male line of his descendants, all named Reginar, until +the death of Reginar V. in 1036. His heiress, Richildis, married _en +secondes noces_ Baldwin VI. of Flanders, and, by him, became the +ancestress of the Baldwin (VI. of Hainaut) who in 1204 was raised by the +Crusaders to the empire of Constantinople. The emperor Baldwin's elder +daughter Jeanne brought the countship of Hainaut to her husbands +Ferdinand of Portugal (d. 1233) and Thomas of Savoy (d. 1259). On her +death in 1244, however, it passed to her sister Margaret, on whose death +in 1279 it was inherited by her grandson, John of Avesnes, count of +Holland (d. 1304). The countship of Hainaut remained united with that of +Holland during the 14th and 15th centuries. It was under the counts +William I. "the Good" (1304-1337), whose daughter Philippa married +Edward III. of England, and William II. (1337-1345) that the communes of +Hainaut attained great political importance. Margaret, who succeeded her +brother William II. in 1345, by her marriage with the emperor Louis IV. +brought Hainaut with the rest of her dominions to the house of +Wittelsbach. Finally, early in the 15th century, the countess Jacqueline +was dispossessed by Philip the Good of Burgundy, and Hainaut +henceforward shared the fate of the rest of the Netherlands. + + AUTHORITIES.--The _Chronicon Hanoniense_ or _Chronica Honnoniae_ of + Giselbert of Mons (d. 1223-1225), chancellor of Count Baldwin V., + covering the period between 1040 and 1195, is published in Pertz, + _Monum. Germ._ (Hanover, 1840, &c.). The _Chronicon Hanoniense_, + ascribed to Baldwin, count of Avesnes (d. 1289), and written between + 1278 and 1281, was published under the title _Hist. genealogica + comitum Hannoniae_, &c., at Antwerp (1691 and 1693) and Brussels + (1722). The Annals of Jacques de Guise (b. 1334; d. 1399) were + published by de Fortia d'Urban under the title, _Histoire de Hainault + par Jacques de Guyse_, in 19 vols. (Paris, 1826-1838); C. Delacourt, + "Bibliographie de l'hist. du Hainaut," in the _Annales du cercle + archéologique de Mons_, vol. v. (Mons, 1864); T. Bernier, _Dict. + géograph. historique, &c., de Hainault_ (Mons, 1891). See also Ulysse + Chevalier, _Répertoire des sources_ s.v. + + + + +HAINBURG, or HAIMBURG, a town of Austria, in Lower Austria, 38 m. E.S.E +of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900), 5134. It is situated on the Danube, only +2½ m. from the Hungarian frontier, and since the fire of 1827 Hainburg +has been much improved, being now a handsomely built town. It has one of +the largest tobacco manufactories in Austria, employing about 2000 +hands, and a large needle factory. It occupies part of the site of the +old Celtic town Carnuntum (q.v.). It is still surrounded by ancient +walls, and has a gate guarded by two old towers. There are numerous +Roman remains, among which may be mentioned the altar and tower at the +town-house, on the latter of which is a statue, said to be of Attila. A +Roman aqueduct is still used to bring water to the town. On the +neighbouring Hainberg is an old castle, built of Roman remains, which +appears in German tradition under the name of Heimburc; it was wrested +from the Hungarians in 1042 by the emperor Henry III. At the foot of the +same hill is a castle of the 12th century, where Ottakar of Bohemia was +married to Margaret of Austria in 1252; earlier it was the residence of +the dukes of Babenberg. Outside the town, on an island in the Danube, is +the ruined castle of Röthelstein or Rothenstein, held by the Knights +Templars. Hainburg was besieged by the Hungarians in 1477, was captured +by Matthias Corvinus in 1482, and was sacked and its inhabitants +massacred by the Turks in 1683. + + + + +HAINICHEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, on the Kleine +Striegis, 15 m. N.E. of Chemnitz, on the railway to Rosswein. Pop. +(1905), 7752. It has two Evangelical churches, a park, and commercial +and technical schools. Hainichen is a place of considerable industry. +Its chief manufacture is that of flannels, baize, and similar fabrics; +indeed it may be called the centre of this industry in Germany. The +special whiteness and excellence of the flannel made in Hainichen are +due to the peculiar nature of the water used in the manufacture. There +are also large dye-works and bleaching establishments. Hainichen is the +birthplace of Gellert, to whose memory a bronze statue was erected in +the market-place in 1865. The Gellert institution for the poor was +erected in 1815. + + + + +HAI-PHONG, a seaport of Tongking, French Indo-China, on the Cua-Cam, a +branch of the Song-koi (Red river) delta. The population numbers between +21,000 and 22,000, of whom 12,500 are Annamese, 7500 Chinese (attracted +by the rice trade of the port) and 1200 Europeans. It is situated about +20 m. from the Gulf of Tongking and 58 m. E. by S. of Hanoi, with which +it communicates by river and canal and by railway. It is the second +commercial port of French Indo-China, is a naval station, and has +government and private ship-building yards. The harbour is accessible at +all times to vessels drawing 19 to 20 ft., but is obstructed by a bar. +Hai-phong is the seat of a resident who performs the functions of mayor, +and the residency is the chief building of the town. A civil tribunal, a +tribunal of commerce and a branch of the Bank of Indo-China are also +among its institutions. It is the headquarters of the river steamboat +service (_Messageries fluviales_) of Tongking, which plies as far as +Lao-kay on the Song-koi, to the other chief towns of Tongking and +northern Annam, and also to Hong-kong. Cotton-spinning and the +manufacture of cement are carried on. + + + + +HAIR (a word common to Teutonic languages), the general term for the +characteristic outgrowth of the epidermis forming the coat of mammals. +The word is also applied by analogy to the filamentous outgrowths from +the body of insects, &c., plants, and metaphorically to anything of like +appearance. + +For anatomy, &c. of animal hair see SKIN AND EXOSKELETON; FIBRES and +allied articles; FUR, and LEATHER. + +_Anthropology._--The human hair has an important place among the +physical criteria of race. While its general structure and quantity vary +comparatively little, its length in individuals and relatively in the +two sexes, its form, its colour, its general consistency and the +appearance under the microscope of its transverse section show +persistent differences in the various races. It is the persistence of +these differences and specially in regard to its colour and texture, +which has given to hair its ethnological importance. So obvious a racial +differentiation had naturally long ago attracted the attention of +anthropologists. But it was not until the 19th century that microscopic +examination showed the profound difference in structure between the hair +characteristic of the great divisions of mankind. It was in 1863 that Dr +Pruner-Bey read a paper before the Paris Anthropological Society +entitled "On the Human Hair as a Race Character, examined by aid of the +Microscope." This address established the importance of hair as a racial +criterion. He demonstrated that the structure of the hair is +threefold:-- + +(1) Short and crisp, generally termed "woolly," elliptical or +kidney-shaped in section, with no distinguishable medulla or pith. Its +colour is almost always jet black, and it is characteristic of all the +black races except the Australians and aborigines of India. This type of +hair has two varieties. When the hairs are relatively long and the +spiral of the curls large, the head has the appearance of being +completely covered, as with some of the Melanesian races and most of the +negroes. Haeckel has called this "_eriocomous_" or "woolly" proper. In +some negroid peoples, however, such as the Hottentots and Bushmen, the +hair grows in very short curls with narrow spirals and forms little +tufts separated by spaces which appear bare. The head looks as if it +were dotted over with pepper-seed, and thus this hair has gained the +name of "peppercorn-growth." Haeckel has called it "_lophocomous_" or +"crested." Most negroes have this type of hair in childhood and, even +when fully grown, signs of it around the temples. The space between each +tuft is not bald, as was at one time generally assumed. The hair grows +uniformly over the head, as in all races. + +2. Straight, lank, long and coarse, round or nearly so in section, with +the medulla or pith easily distinguishable, and almost without exception +black. This is the hair of the yellow races, the Chinese, Mongols and +Indians of the Americas. + +3. Wavy and curly, or smooth and silky, oval in section, with medullary +tube but no pith. This is the hair of Europeans, and is mainly fair, +though black, brown, red or towy varieties are found. + +There is a fourth type of hair describable as "frizzy." It is easily +distinguishable from the Asiatic and European types, but not from the +negroid wool. It is always thick and black, and is characteristic of the +Australians, Nubians, and certain of the Mulattos. Generally hair curls +in proportion to its flatness. The rounder it is the stiffer and lanker. +These extremes are respectively represented by the Papuans and the +Japanese. Of all hair the woolly type is found to be the most +persistent, as in the case of the Brazilian Cafusos, negro and native +hybrids. Quatrefages quotes the case of a triple hybrid, "half negro, +quarter Cherokee, quarter English," who had short crisp furry-looking +hair. + +Wavy types of hair vary most in colour: almost the deepest hue of black +being found side by side with the most flaxen and towy. Colour varies +less in the lank type, and scarcely at all in the woolly. The only +important exception to the uniform blackness of the negroid wool is to +be found among the Wochuas, a tribe of African pigmies whose hair is +described by Wilhelm Junker (_Travels in Africa_, iii. p. 82) as "of a +dark, rusty brown hue." Fair hair in all its shades is frequent among +the populations of northern Europe, but much rarer in the south. +According to Dr John Beddoe there are sixteen blonds out of every +hundred Scotch, thirteen out of every hundred English, and two only out +of a hundred Italians. The percentage of brown hair is 75% among +Spaniards, 39 among French and 16 only in Scandinavia. Among the +straight-haired races fair hair is far rarer; it is, however, found +among the western Finns. Among those races with frizzy hair, red is +almost as common as among those with wavy hair. Red hair, however, is an +individual anomaly associated ordinarily with freckles. There are no +red-haired races. + +A certain correlation appears to exist between the nature of hair and +its absolute or relative length in the two sexes. Thus straight hair is +the longest (Chinese, Red Indians), while woolly is shortest. Wavy hair +holds an intermediate position. In the two extremes the difference of +length in man and woman is scarcely noticeable. In some lank-haired +races, men's tresses are as long as women's, e.g. the Chinese pigtail, +and the hair of Redskins which grows to the length sometimes of upwards +of 9 ft. In the frizzy-haired peoples, men and women have equally short +growths. Bushwomen, the female Hottentot and negresses have hair no +longer than men's. It is only in the wavy, and now and again in the +frizzy types, that the difference in the sexes is marked. Among European +men the length rarely exceeds 12 to 16 in., while with women the mean +length is between 25 and 30 in. and in some cases has been known to +reach 6 ft. or more. + +The growth of hair on the body corresponds in general with that on the +head. The hairiest races are the Australians and Tasmanians, whose heads +are veritable mops in the thickness and unkempt luxuriance of the locks. +Next to them are the Todas, and other hill-tribesmen of India, and the +Hairy Ainu of Japan. Traces, too, of the markedly hairy race, now +extinct, supposed to be the ancestor of Toda and Ainu alike, are to be +found here and there in Europe, especially among the Russian peasantry. +The least hairy peoples are the yellow races, the men often scarcely +having rudimentary beards, e.g. Indians of America and the Mongols. +Negroid peoples may be said to be intermediate, but usually incline to +hairlessness. The wavy-haired populations hold also an intermediate +position, but somewhat incline to hairiness. Among negroes especially no +rule can be formulated. Bare types such as the Bushmen and western +negroes are found contiguous to hairy types such as the inhabitants of +Ashantee. Neither is there any rule as to baldness. From statistics +taken in America it would seem that it is ten times less frequent among +negroes than among whites between the ages of thirty-three and +forty-five years, and thirty times less between twenty-one and +thirty-two years. Among Mulattos it is more frequent than among negroes +but less than among whites. It is rarer among Redskins than among +negroes. The _lanugo_ or downy hairs, with which the human foetus is +covered for some time before birth and which is mostly shed in the womb, +and the minute hairs which cover nearly every part of the adult human +body, may be regarded as rudimentary remains of a complete hairy +covering in the ancestors of mankind. The Pliocene, or at all events +Miocene precursor of man, was a furred creature. The discovery of +Egyptian mummies six thousand years old or more has proved that this +physical criterion remains unchanged, and that it is to-day what it was +so many scores of centuries back. Perhaps, then, the primary divisions +of mankind were distinguished by hair the same in texture and colour as +that which characterizes to-day the great ethnical groups. The wavy type +bridges the gulf between the lank and woolly types, all in turn derived +from a common hair-covered being. In this connexion it is worth mention, +as pointed out by P. Topinard, that though the regions occupied by the +negroid races are the habitat of the anthropoid apes, the hair of the +latter is real hair, not wool. Further in the eastern section of the +dark domain, while the Papuan is still black and dolichocephalic, his +presumed progenitor, the orang-utan, is brachycephalic with decidedly +red hair. Thus the white races are seen to come nearest the higher apes +in this respect, yellow next, and black farthest removed. + +No test has proved, on repeated examination, to be a safer one of racial +purity than the quality of hair, and Pruner-Bey goes so far as to +suggest that "a single hair presenting the average form characteristic +of the race might serve to define it." At any rate a hair of an +individual bears the stamp of his origin. + + See Dr Pruner-Bey in _Mémoires de la société d'anthropologie_, ii. P. + A. Brown, _Classification of Mankind by the Hair_; P. Topinard, + _L'Homme dans la nature_ (1891), chap. vi. + + _Commerce._--Hair enters into a considerable variety of manufactures. + Bristles are the stout elastic hairs obtained from the backs of + certain breeds of pigs. The finest qualities, and the greatest + quantities as well, are obtained from Russia, where a variety of pig + is reared principally on account of its bristles. The best and most + costly bristles are used by shoemakers, secondary qualities being + employed for toilet and clothes-brushes, while inferior qualities are + worked up into the commoner kinds of brushes used by painters and for + many mechanical purposes. For artists' use and for decorative + painting, brushes or pencils of hair from the sable, camel, badger, + polecat, &c., are prepared. The hair of various animals which is too + short for spinning into yarn is utilized for the manufacture of felt. + For this use the hair of rabbits, hares, beavers and of several other + rodents is largely employed, especially in France, in making the finer + qualities of felt hats. Cow hair, obtained from tanneries, is used in + the preparation of roofing felts, and felt for covering boilers or + steam-pipes, and for other similar purposes. It is also largely used + by plasterers for binding the mortar of the walls and roofs of houses; + and it is to some extent being woven up into coarse friezes, + horse-cloths, railway rugs and inferior blankets. The tail hair of + oxen is also of value for stuffing cushions and other upholstery work, + for which purpose, as well as for making the official wigs of law + officers, barristers, &c., the tail and body hair of the yak or Tibet + ox is also sometimes imported into Europe. The tail and mane hair of + horses is in great demand for various purposes. The long tail hair is + especially valuable for weaving into hair-cloth, mane hair and the + short tail hair being, on the other hand, principally prepared and + curled for stuffing the chairs, sofas and couches which are covered + with the cloth manufactured from the long hair. The horse hair used in + Great Britain is principally obtained from South America, Germany and + Russia, and its sorting, cleaning and working up into the various + manufactures dependent on the material are industries of some + importance. In addition to the purposes already alluded to, horse hair + is woven into crinoline for ladies' bonnets, plaited into fishing + lines, woven into bags for oil and cider pressers, and into straining + cloths for brewers, &c., and for numerous other minor uses. The + manufactures which arise in connexion with human hair are more + peculiar than important, although occasionally fashions arise which + cause a large demand for human hair. The fluctuations of such fashions + determine the value of hair; but at all times long tresses are of + considerable value. Grey, light, pale and auburn hair are + distinguished as extra colours, and command much higher prices than + the common shades. The light-coloured hair is chiefly obtained in + Germany and Austria, and the south of France is the principal source + of the darker shades. In the south of France the cultivation and sale + of heads of hair by peasant girls is a common practice; and hawkers + attend fairs for the special purpose of engaging in this traffic. Hair + 5 and even 6 ft. long is sometimes obtained. Scarcely any of the "raw + material" is obtained in the United Kingdom except in the form of + ladies' "combings." Bleaching of hair by means of peroxide of hydrogen + is extensively practised, with the view of obtaining a supply of + golden locks, or of preparing white hair for mixing to match grey + shades; but in neither case is the result very successful. Human hair + is worked up into a great variety of wigs, scalps, artificial fronts, + frizzets and curls, all for supplementing the scanty or failing + resources of nature. The plaiting of human hair into articles of + jewellery, watch-guards, &c., forms a distinct branch of trade. + + + + + +HAIR-TAIL (_Trichiurus_), a marine fish belonging to the +_Acanthopterygii scombriformes_, with a long band-like body terminating +in a thread-like tail, and with strong prominent teeth in both jaws. +Several species are known, of which one, common in the tropical +Atlantic, not rarely reaches the British Islands. + + + + +HAITI [HAÏTI, HAYTI, SAN DOMINGO, or _Hispaniola_], an island in the +West Indies. It lies almost in the centre of the chain and, with the +exception of Cuba, is the largest of the group. Its greatest length +between Cape Engano on the east and Cape des Irois on the west is 407 +m., and its greatest breadth between Cape Beata on the south and Cape +Isabella on the north 160 m. The area is 28,000 sq. m., being rather +less than that of Ireland. From Cuba, 70 m. W.N.W., and from Jamaica, +130 m. W.S.W., it is separated by the Windward Passage; and from Porto +Rico, 60 m. E., by the Mona Passage. It lies between 17° 37´ and 20° 0´ +N. and 68° 20´ and 74° 28´ W. From the west coast project two +peninsulas. The south-western, of which Cape Tiburon forms the +extremity, is the larger. It is 150 m. long and its width varies from 20 +to 40 m. Columbus landed at Mole St Nicholas at the point of the +north-western peninsula, which is 50 m. long, with an average breadth of +40 m. Between these lies the Gulf of Gonaïve, a triangular bay, at the +apex of which stands the city of Port-au-Prince. The island of Gonaïve, +opposite the city at a distance of 27 m., divides the entrance to +Port-au-Prince into two fine channels, and forms an excellent harbour, +200 sq. m. In extent, the coral reefs along the coast being its only +defect. On the north-east coast is the magnificent Bay of Samana, formed +by the peninsula of that name, a mountain range projecting into the sea; +its mouth is protected by a coral reef stretching 8½m. from the south +coast. There is however, a good passage for ships, and within lies a +safe and beautiful expanse of water 300 sq. m. in extent. Beyond Samana, +with the exception of the poor harbour of Santo Domingo, there are no +inlets on the east and south coasts until the Bays of Ocoa and Neyba are +reached. The south coast of the Tiburon peninsula has good harbours at +Jacmel, Bainet, Aquin and Les Cayes or Aux Cayes. The only inlets of any +importance between Aux Cayes and Port-au-Prince are Jeremie and the Bay +of Baraderes. The coast line is estimated at 1250 m. + +[Illustration: Map of Haiti.] + + Haiti is essentially a mountainous island. Steep escarpments, leading + to the rugged uplands of the interior, reach almost everywhere down to + the shores, leaving only here and there a few strips of beach. There + are three fairly distinct mountain ranges, the northern, central and + southern, with parallel axes from E. to W.; while extensive and + fertile plains lie between them. The northern range usually called the + Sierra de Monti Cristi, extends from Cape Samana on the east to Cape + Fragata on the west. It has a mean elevation of 3000 ft., culminating + in the Loma Diego Campo (3855 ft.), near the centre of the range. The + central range runs from Cape Engano to Cape St Nicholas, some 400 m. + in an oblique direction from E. to W. Towards the centre of the island + it broadens and forms two distinct chains; the northern, the Sierra + del Cibao, constituting the backbone of Haiti; the southern curving + first S.W., then N.W., and reaching the sea near St Marc. In addition + to these there are a number of secondary crests, difficult to trace to + the backbone of the system, since the loftiest peaks are usually on + some lateral ridge. Such for instance is Loma Tina (10,300 ft.) the + highest elevation on the island, which rises as a spur N.W. of the + city of Santo Domingo. In the Sierra del Cibao, the highest summit is + the Pico del Yaqui (9700 ft.). The southern range runs from the Bay of + Neyba due W. to Cape Tiburon. Its highest points are La Selle (8900 + ft.) and La Hotte (7400 ft.). The plain of Seybo or Los Llanos is the + largest of the Haitian plains. It stretches eastwards from the river + Ozama for 95 m. and has an average width of 16 m. It is perfectly + level, abundantly watered, and admirably adapted for the rearing of + cattle. But perhaps the grandest is the Vega Real, or Royal Plain, as + it was called by Columbus, which lies between the Cibao and Monti + Cristi ranges. It stretches from Samana Bay to Manzanillo Bay, a + distance of 140 m., but is interrupted in the centre by a range of + hills in which rise the rivers which drain it. The northern part of + this plain, however, is usually known as the Valley of Santiago. Most + of the large valleys are in a state of nature, in part savanna, in + part wooded, and all very fertile. + + There are four large rivers. The Yaqui, rising in the Pico del Yaqui, + falls, after a tortuous north-westerly course through the valley of + Santiago, into Manzanillo Bay; its mouth is obstructed by shallows, + and it is navigable only for canoes. The Neyba, or South Yaqui, also + rises in the Pico del Yaqui and flows S. into the Bay of Neyba. In the + mountains within a few miles from the sources of these rivers, rise + the Yuna and the Artibonite. The Yuna drains the Vega Real, flows into + Samana Bay, and is navigable by light-draught vessels for some + distance from its mouth. The Artibonite flows through the valley of + its name into the Gulf of Gonaïve. Of the smaller rivers the Ozama, on + which the city of Santo Domingo stands, is the most important. The + greatest lake is that of Enriquillo or Xaragua, at a height of 300 ft. + above sea-level. It is 27 m. long by 8 m. broad and very deep. Though + 25 m. from the sea its waters are salt, and the Haitian negroes call + it Etang Salé. After heavy rains it occasionally forms a continuous + sheet of water with another lake called Azuey, or Etang Saumatre, + which is 16 m. long by 4 m. broad; on these occasions the united lake + has a total length of 60 m. and is larger than the Lake of Geneva. + Farther S. is the Icoten de Limon, 5 m. long by 2 m. broad, a + fresh-water lake with no visible outlet. Smaller lakes are Rincon and + Miragoane. There are no active volcanoes, but earthquakes are not + infrequent. + + _Geology._--The geology of Haiti is still very imperfectly known, and + large tracts of the island have never been examined by a geologist. It + is possible that the schists that have been observed in some parts of + the island may be of Pre-cretaceous age, but the oldest rocks in which + fossils have yet been found belong to the Cretaceous System, and the + geological sequence is very similar to that of Jamaica. Excluding the + schists of doubtful age, the series begins with sandstones and + conglomerates, containing pebbles of syenite, granite, diorite, &c.; + and these are overlaid by marls, clays and limestones containing + _Hippurites_. Then follows a series of sandstones, clays and + limestones with occasional seams of lignite, evidently of + shallow-water origin. These are referred by R. T. Hill to the Eocene, + and they are succeeded by chalky beds which were laid down in a deeper + sea and which probably correspond with the Montpelier beds of Jamaica + (Oligocene). Finally, there are limestones and marls composed largely + of corals and molluscs, which are probably of very late Tertiary or + Post-tertiary age. Until, however, the island has been more thoroughly + examined, the correlation of the various Tertiary and Post-tertiary + deposits must remain doubtful. Some of the beds which Hill has placed + in the Eocene have been referred by earlier writers to the Miocene. + Tippenhauer describes extensive eruptions of basalt of Post-pliocene + age. + + _Fauna and Flora._--The fauna is not extensive. The agouti is the + largest wild mammal. Birds are few, excepting water-fowl and pigeons. + Snakes abound, though few are venomous. Lizards are numerous, and + insects swarm in the low parts, with tarantulas, scorpions and + centipedes. Caymans are found in the lakes and rivers, and the waters + teem with fish and other sea food. Wild cattle, hogs and dogs, + descendants of those brought from Europe, roam at large on the plains + and in the forests. The wild hogs furnish much sport to the natives, + who hunt them with dogs trained for the purpose. + + In richness and variety of vegetable products Haiti is not excelled by + any other country in the world. All tropical plants and trees grow in + perfection, and nearly all the vegetables and fruits of temperate + climates may be successfully cultivated in the highlands. Among + indigenous products are cotton, rice, maize, tobacco, cocoa, ginger, + native indigo (_indigo marron_ or _sauvage_), arrowroot, manioc or + cassava, pimento, banana, plantain, pine-apple, artichoke, yam and + sweet potato. Among the important plants and fruits are sugarcane, + coffee, indigo (called _indigo franc_, to distinguish it from the + native), melons, cabbage, lucerne, guinea grass and the bread-fruit, + mango, caimite, orange, almond, apple, grape, mulberry and fig. Most + of the imported fruits have degenerated from want of care, but the + mango, now spread over nearly the whole island, has become almost a + necessary article of food; the bread-fruit has likewise become common, + but is not so much esteemed. Haiti is also rich in woods, especially + in cabinet and dye woods; among the former are mahogany, manchineel, + satinwood, rosewood, cinnamon wood (_Canella alba_), yellow acoma + (_Sideroxylon mastichodendron_) and gri-gri; and among the latter are + Brazil wood, logwood, fustic and sassafras. On the mountains are + extensive forests of pine and a species of oak; and in various parts + occur the locust, ironwood, cypress or Bermuda cedar, palmetto and + many kinds of palms. + + _Climate._--Owing to the great diversity of its relief Haiti presents + a wider range of climate than any other part of the Antilles. The + yearly rainfall is abundant, averaging about 120 in., but the wet and + dry seasons are clearly divided. At Port-au-Prince the rainy season + lasts from April to October, but varies in other parts of the island, + so that there is never a season when rain is general. The mountain + districts are constantly bathed in dense mists and heavy dews, while + other districts are almost rainless. Owing to its sheltered position + the heat at Port-au-Prince is greater than elsewhere. In summer the + temperature there ranges between 80° and 95° F. and in winter between + 70° and 80° F. Even in the highlands the mercury never falls below 45° + F. Hurricanes are not so frequent as in the Windward Isles, but + violent gales often occur. The prevailing winds are from the east. + +_The Republic of Haiti._--Haiti is divided into two parts, the negro +republic of Haiti owning the western third of the island, while the +remainder belongs to Santo Domingo (q.v.) or the Dominican Republic. +Between these two governments there exists the strongest political +antipathy. + +Although but a small state, with an area of only 10,204 sq. m., the +republic of Haiti is, in many respects, one of the most interesting +communities in the world, as it is the earliest and most successful +example of a state peopled, and governed on a constitutional model, by +negroes. At its head is a president assisted by two chambers, the +members of which are elected and hold office under a constitution of +1889. This constitution, thoroughly republican in form, is French in +origin, as are also the laws, language, traditions and customs of Haiti. +In practice, however, the government resolves itself into a military +despotism, the power being concentrated in the hands of the president. +The Haitians seem to possess everything that a progressive and civilized +nation can desire, but corruption is spread through every portion and +branch of the government. Justice is venal, and the police are brutal +and inefficient. Since 1869 the Roman Catholic has been the state +religion, but all classes of society seem to be permeated with a thinly +disguised adherence to the horrid rites of _Voodoo_ (q.v.), although +this has been strenuously denied. The country is divided into 5 +_départements_, 23 _arrondissements_ and 67 _communes_. Each +_département_ and _arrondissement_ is governed by a general in the army. +The army numbers about 7000 men, and the navy consists of a few small +vessels. Elementary education is free, and there are some 400 primary +schools; secondary education is mainly in the hands of the church. The +Sisters of Charity and the Christian Brothers have schools at +Port-au-Prince, where there is also a lyceum, a medical and a law +school. The children of the wealthier classes are usually sent to France +for their education. The unit of money is the _gourde_, the nominal +value of which is the same as the American dollar, but it is subject to +great fluctuations. The revenue is almost entirely derived from customs, +paid both on imports and exports. There being a lack of capital and +enterprise, the excessive customs dues produce a very depressed +condition of trade. Imports are consequently confined to bare +necessaries, the cheapest sorts of dry and fancy goods, matches, flour, +salt beef and pork, codfish, lard, butter and similar provisions. The +exports are coffee, cocoa, logwood, cotton, gum, honey, tobacco and +sugar. The island is one of the most fertile in the world, and if it had +an enlightened and stable government, an energetic people, and a little +capital, its agricultural possibilities would seem to be endless. +Communications are bad; the roads constructed during the French +occupation have degenerated into mere bridle tracks. There is a coast +service of steamers, maintained since 1863, and 26 ports are regularly +visited every ten days. Foreign communication is excellent, more foreign +steamships visiting this island than any other in the West Indies. A +railway from Port-au-Prince runs through the Plain of Cul de Sac for 28 +m. to Manneville on the Etang Saumatre, another runs from Cap Haitien to +La Grande Rivière, 15 m. distant. + +The people are almost entirely pure-blooded negroes, the mulattoes, who +form about 10% of the population, being a rapidly diminishing and +much-hated class. The negroes are a kindly, hospitable people, but +ignorant and lazy. They have a passion for dancing weird African dances +to the accompaniment of the tom-tom. Marriage is neither frequent nor +legally prescribed, since children of looser unions are regarded by the +state as legitimate. In the interior polygamy is frequent. The people +generally speak a curious but not unattractive _patois_ of French +origin, known as Creole. French is the official language, and by a few +of the educated natives it is written and spoken in its purity. On the +whole it must be owned that, after a century of independence and +self-government, the Haitian people have made no progress, if they have +not actually shown signs of retrogression. The chief towns ate +Port-au-Prince (pop. 75,000), Cap Haitien (29,000), Les Cayes (25,000), +Gonaïve (18,000), and Port de Paix (10,000). Jeremie was the birthplace +of the elder Dumas. The ruins of the wonderful palace of Sans-Souci and +of the fortress of La Ferrière, built by King Henri Christophe +(1807-1825), can be seen near Millot, a town 9 m. inland from Cap +Haitien. Plaisance (25,000), Gros Morne (22,000) and La Croix des +Bouquets (20,000) are the largest towns in the interior. The entire +population of the republic is about 1,500,000. + +_History._--The history of Haiti begins with its discovery by Columbus, +who landed from Cuba at Mole St Nicholas on the 6th of December 1492. +The natives called the country Haiti (mountainous country), and +Quisquica (vast country). Columbus named it Espagnola (Little Spain), +which was latinized into Hispaniola. At the time of its discovery, the +island was inhabited by about 2,000,000 Indians, who are described by +the Spaniards as feeble in intellect and physically defective. They +were, however, soon exterminated, and their place was supplied (as early +as 1512) by slaves imported from Africa, the descendants of whom now +possess the land. Six years after its discovery Columbus had explored +the interior of the island, founded the present capital, and had +established flourishing settlements at Isabella, Santiago, La Vega, +Porto Plata and Bonao. Mines had been opened up, and advances made in +agriculture. Sugar was introduced in 1506, and in a few years became the +staple product. About 1630, a mixed company of French and English, +driven by the Spaniards from St Kitts, settled on the island of Tortuga, +where they became formidable under the name of Buccaneers. They soon +obtained a footing on the mainland of Haiti, and by the treaty of +Ryswick, 1697, the part they occupied was ceded to France. This new +colony, named Saint Dominique, subsequently attained a high degree of +prosperity, and was in a flourishing state when the French Revolution +broke out in 1789. The population was then composed of whites, free +coloured people (mostly mulattoes) and negro slaves. The mulattoes +demanded civil rights, up to that time enjoyed only by the whites; and +in 1791 the National Convention conferred on them all the privileges of +French citizens. The whites at once adopted the most violent measures, +and petitioned the home government to reverse the decree, which was +accordingly revoked. In August 1791, the plantation slaves broke out +into insurrection, and the mulattoes threw in their lot with them. A +period of turmoil followed, lasting for several years, during which both +parties were responsible for acts of the most revolting cruelty. +Commissioners were sent out from France with full powers to settle the +dispute, but although in 1793 they proclaimed the abolition of slavery, +they could effect nothing. To add further to the troubles of the colony, +it was invaded by a British force, which, in spite of the climate and +the opposition of the colonists, succeeded in maintaining itself until +driven out in 1798 by Toussaint l'Ouverture. By treaty with Spain, in +1795, France had acquired the title to the entire island. + +By 1801, Toussaint l'Ouverture, an accomplished negro of remarkable +military genius, had succeeded in restoring order. He then published, +subject to the approval of France, a form of constitutional government, +under which he was to be governor for life. This step, however, roused +the suspicions of Bonaparte, then first consul, who determined to reduce +the colony and restore slavery. He sent out his brother-in-law, General +Leclerc, with 25,000 troops; but the colonists offered a determined, and +often ferocious, resistance. At length, wearied of the struggle, Leclerc +proposed terms, and Toussaint, induced by the most solemn guarantees on +the part of the French, laid down his arms. He was seized and sent to +France, where he died in prison in 1803. The blacks, infuriated by this +act of treachery, renewed the struggle, under Jean Jacques Dessalines +(1758-1806), with a barbarity unequalled in previous contests. The +French, further embarrassed by the appearance of a British fleet, were +only too glad to evacuate the island in November 1803. + +The opening of the following year saw the declaration of independence, +and the restoration of the aboriginal name of Haiti. Dessalines, made +governor for life, inaugurated his rule with a bloodthirsty massacre of +all the whites. In October 1804, he proclaimed himself emperor and was +crowned with great pomp; but in 1806 his subjects, growing tired of his +tyranny, assassinated him. His position was now contended for by several +chiefs, one of whom, Henri Christophe (1767-1820), established himself +in the north, while Alexandre Sabes Pétion (1770-1818) took possession +of the southern part. The Spaniards re-established themselves in the +eastern part of the island, retaining the French name, modified to Santo +Domingo. Civil war now raged between the adherents of Christophe and +Pétion, but in 1810 hostilities were suspended. Christophe declared +himself king of Haiti under the title of Henry I.; but his cruelty +caused an insurrection, and in 1820 he committed suicide. Pétion was +succeeded in 1818 by General Jean Pierre Boyer (1776-1850), who, after +Christophe's death, made himself master of all the French part of the +island. In 1821 the eastern end of the island proclaimed its +independence of Spain, and Boyer, taking advantage of dissensions there, +invaded it, and in 1822 the dominion of the whole island fell into his +hands. Boyer held the presidency of the new government, which was called +the republic of Haiti, until 1843, when he was driven from the island by +a revolution. In 1844 the people at the eastern end of the island again +asserted their independence. The republic of Santo Domingo was +established, and from that time the two political divisions have been +maintained. Meanwhile in Haiti revolution followed revolution, and +president succeeded president, in rapid succession. Order, however, was +established in 1849, when Soulouque, who had previously obtained the +presidency, proclaimed himself emperor, under the title of Faustin I. +After a reign of nine years he was deposed and exiled, the republic +being restored under the mulatto president Fabre Geffrard. His firm and +enlightened rule rendered him so unpopular that in 1867 he was forced to +flee to Jamaica. He was succeeded by Sylvestre Salnave, who, after a +presidency of two years, was shot. Nissage-Saget (1870), Dominique +(1874), and Boisrond-Canal (1876) followed, each to be driven into exile +by revolution. The next president, Salomon, maintained himself in office +for ten years, but he too was driven from the country and died in exile. +Civil war raged in 1888-1889 between Generals Légitime and Hippolyte, +and the latter succeeded in obtaining the vacant presidency. He ruled +with the most absolute authority till his death in 1896. General +Tiresias Simon Sam followed and ruled till his flight to Paris in 1902. +The usual civil war ensued, and after nine months of turmoil, order was +restored by the election of Nord Alexis in December 1902. + +Alexis' administration was unsuccessful, and was marked by many +disturbances, culminating in his expulsion. In 1904 there was an attack +by native soldiery on the French and German representatives, and +punishment was exacted by these powers. In December 1904 ex-president +Sam, his wife and members of his ministry were sentenced to long terms +of imprisonment for fraudulently issuing bonds. In December 1907 a +conspiracy against the government was reported and the ringleaders were +sentenced to death. But in January 1908 the revolution spread, and +Gonaïve and St Marc and other places were reported to be in the hands of +the insurgents. Prompt measures were taken, the rising was checked, and +Alexis announced the pardon of the revolutionaries. In March, however, +this pacific policy was reversed by a new ministry; some suspects were +summarily executed, and the attitude of the government was only modified +when the powers sent war-ships to Port-au-Prince. In September the +criminal court at the capital sentenced to death, by default, a large +number of persons implicated in the risings earlier in the year, and in +November revolution broke out again. General Antoine Simon raised his +standard at Aux Cayes. Disaffection was rife among the government +troops, who deserted to him in great numbers. On the 2nd of December +Port-au-Prince was occupied without bloodshed by the revolutionaries, +and Alexis took to flight, escaping violence with some difficulty, and +finding refuge on a French ship. General Simon then assumed the +presidency. At the end of April 1910 Alexis died in Jamaica, in +circumstances of some obscurity; it had just been discovered that a plot +was on foot to depose Simon, and further trouble was threatened. + + AUTHORITIES.--B. Edwards, _Hist. Survey of the Island of S. Domingo_ + (London, 1801); Jordan, _Geschichte der Insel Haiti_ (Leipzig, 1846); + Linstant Pradin, _Recueil général des lois et actes du gouvernement + d'Haiti_ (Paris, 1851-1865); Monte y Tejada, Historia de Santo Domingo + (Havana, 1853); Saint Amand, _Hist. des révolutions d'Haiti_ (Paris, + 1859); Sam. Hazard, _Santo Domingo, Past and Present_ (London, 1873), + with bibliography; Sir Spencer St John, _Haiti, or the Black Republic_ + (London, 1889); L. Gentil Tippenhauer, _Die Insel Haiti_ (Leipzig, + 1893); Marcelin, _Haiti, études économiques, sociales, et politiques_; + and _Haiti, ses guerres civiles, leurs causes_ (Paris, 1893); Hesketh + Pritchard, _Where Black Rules White_ (London, 1900). For geology, see + W. M. Gabb, "On the Topography and Geology of Santo Domingo," _Trans. + Amer. Phil. Soc._, Philadelphia, new series, vol. xv. (1881). pp. + 49-259, with map; L. G. Tippenhauer, _Die Insel Haiti_ (Leipzig, + 1893); see also several articles by L. G. Tippenhauer in _Peterm. + Mitt._ 1899 and 1901. A comparison with the Jamaican succession will + be found in R. T. Hill, "The Geology and Physical Geography of + Jamaica," _Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool._, Harvard, vol. xxxiv. (1899). + + + + +HAJIPUR, a town of British India, in the Muzaffarpur district of Bengal, +on the Gandak, just above its confluence with the Ganges opposite Patna. +Pop. (1901), 21,398. Hajipur figures conspicuously in the history of the +struggles between Akbar and his rebellious Afghan governors of Bengal, +being twice besieged and captured by the imperial troops, in 1572 and +1574. Within the limits of the old fort is a small stone mosque, very +plain, but of peculiar architecture, and attributed to Haji Ilyas, its +traditional founder (c. 1350). Its command of water traffic in three +directions makes the town a place of considerable commercial importance. +Hajipur has a station on the main line of the Bengal and North-western +railway. + + + + +HAJJ or HADJ, the Arabic word, meaning literally a "setting out," for +the greater pilgrimage of Mahommedans to Mecca, which takes place from +the 8th to the 10th of the twelfth month of the Mahommedan year; the +lesser pilgrimage, called _umrah_ or _omra_, may be made to the mosque +at Mecca at any time other than that of the hajj proper, and is also a +meritorious act. The term _hajji_ or _hadji_ is given to those who have +performed the greater pilgrimage. The word _hajj_ is sometimes loosely +used of any Mahommedan pilgrimage to a sacred place or shrine, and is +also applied to the pilgrimages of Christians of the East to the Holy +Sepulchre at Jerusalem (see MECCA; MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION). + + + + +HAJJI KHALIFA [in full Mustafa ibn 'Abdallah Katib Chelebi Hajji +Khalifa] (ca. 1599-1658), Arabic and Turkish author, was born at +Constantinople. He became secretary to the commissariat department of +the Turkish army in Anatolia, was with the army in Bagdad in 1625, was +present at the siege of Erzerum, and returned to Constantinople in 1628. +In the following year he was again in Bagdad and Hamadan, and in 1633 at +Aleppo, whence he made the pilgrimage to Mecca (hence his title Hajji). +The following year he was in Erivan and then returned to Constantinople. +Here he obtained a post in the head office of the commissariat +department, which afforded him time for study. He seems to have attended +the lectures of great teachers up to the time of his death, and made a +practice of visiting bookshops and noting the titles and contents of all +books he found there. His largest work is the _Bibliographical +Encyclopaedia_ written in Arabic. In this work, after five chapters +dealing with the sciences generally, the titles of Arabian, Persian and +Turkish books written up to his own time are arranged in alphabetical +order. With the titles are given, where possible, short notes on the +author, his date, and sometimes the introductory words of his work. It +was edited by G. Flügel with Latin translation and a useful appendix (7 +vols. Leipzig, 1835-1858). The text alone of this edition has been +reproduced at Constantinople (1893). + + Hajji Khalifa also wrote in Turkish: a chronological conspectus of + general history (translated into Italian by G. R. Carli, Venice, + 1697); a history of the Turkish empire from 1594 to 1655 + (Constantinople, 1870); a history of the naval wars of the Turks + (Constantinople, 1729; chapters 1-4 translated by J. Mitchell, London, + 1831); a general geography published at Constantinople, 1732 (Latin + trans. by M. Norberg, London and Gotha, 1818; German trans. of part by + J. von Hammer, Vienna, 1812; French trans. of part by V. de St Martin + in his _Geography of Asia Minor_, vol. 1). + + For his life see the preface to Flügel's edition; list of his works in + C. Brockelmann's _Gesch. d. arabischen Literatur_ (Berlin, 1902), vol. + ii., pp. 428-429. (G. W. T.) + + + + +HAKE, EDWARD (fl. 1579), English satirist, was educated under John +Hopkins, the part-author of the metrical version of the Psalms. He +resided in Gray's Inn and Barnard's Inn, London. In the address "To the +Gentle Reader" prefixed to his _Newes out of Powles Churchyard ... +Otherwise entitled Syr Nummus_ (2nd ed., 1579) he mentions the "first +three yeeres which I spent in the Innes of Channcery, being now about a +dosen of yeeres passed." In 1585 and 1586 he was mayor of New Windsor, +and in 1588 he represented the borough in parliament. His last work was +published in 1604. He was protected by the earl of Leicester, whose +policy it was to support the Puritan party, and who no doubt found a +valuable ally in so vigorous a satirist of error in clerical places as +was Hake. _Newes out of Paules Churchyarde, A Trappe for Syr Monye_, +first appeared in 1567, but no copy of this impression is known, and it +was re-issued in 1579 with the title quoted above. The book takes the +form of a dialogue between Bertulph and Paul, who meet in the aisles of +the cathedral, and is divided into eight "satyrs," dealing with the +corruption of the higher clergy and of judges, the greed of attorneys, +the tricks of physicians and apothecaries, the sumptuary laws, +extravagant living, Sunday sports, the abuse of St Paul's cathedral as a +meeting-place for business and conversation, usury, &c. It is written in +rhymed fourteen-syllable metre, which is often more comic than the +author intended. It contains, amid much prefatory matter, a note to the +"carping and scornefull Sicophant," in which he attacks his enemies with +small courtesy and much alliteration. One is described as a "carping +careless cankerd churle." + + He also wrote a translation from Thomas à Kempis, _The Imitation, or + Following of Christ_ (1567, 1568); _A Touchstone for this Time + Present_ (1574), a scurrilous attack on the Roman Catholic Church, + followed by a treatise on education; _A Commemoration of the ... + Raigne of ... Elizabeth_ (1575), enlarged in 1578 to _A Joyfull + Continuance of the Commemoration, &c._; and of _Gold's Kingdom, and + this Unhelping Age_ (1604), a collection of pieces in prose and verse, + in which the author inveighs against the power of gold. A bibliography + of these and of Hake's other works was compiled by Mr Charles Edmonds + for his edition in 1872 of the _Newes_ (Isham Reprints, No. 2, 1872). + + + + +HAKE, THOMAS GORDON (1800-1895), English poet, was born at Leeds, of an +old Devonshire family, on the 10th of March 1809. His mother was a +Gordon of the Huntly branch. He studied medicine at St George's hospital +and at Edinburgh and Glasgow, but had given up practice for many years +before his death, and had devoted himself to a literary life. In 1839 he +published a prose epic _Vates_, republished in Ainsworth's magazine as +_Valdarno_, which attracted the attention of D. G. Rossetti. In after +years he became an intimate member of the circle of friends and +followers gathered round Rossetti, who so far departed from his usual +custom as to review Hake's poems in the _Academy_ and in the +_Fortnightly Review_. In 1871 he published _Madeline_; 1872, _Parables +and Tales_; 1883, _The Serpent Play_; 1890, _New Day Sonnets_; and in +1892 his _Memoirs of Eighty Years_. Dr Hake's works had much subtlety +and felicity of expression, and were warmly appreciated in a somewhat +restricted literary circle. In his last published verse, the sonnets, he +shows an advance in facility on the occasional harshness of his earlier +work. He was given a Civil List literary pension in 1893, and died on +the 11th of January 1895. + + + + +HAKE (_Merluccius vulgaris_), a fish which differs from the cod in +having only two dorsal fins, and one anal. It is very common on the +coasts of Europe and eastern North America, but its flesh is much less +esteemed than that of the true _Gadi_. Specimens 4 ft. in length are not +scarce. There are local variations in the use of "hake" as a name; in +America the "silver hake" (_Merluccius bilinearis_), sometimes called +"whiting," and "Pacific hake" (_Merluccius productus_) are also +food-fishes of inferior quality. + + + + +HAKKAS ("Guests," or "Strangers"), a people of S.W. China, chiefly found +in Kwang-Tung, Fu-Kien and Formosa. Their origin is doubtful, but there +is some ground for believing that they may be a cross between the +aboriginal Mongolic element of northern China and the Chinese proper. +According to their tradition, they were in Shantung and northern China +as early as the 3rd century B.C. In disposition, appearance and customs +they differ from the true Chinese. They speak a distinct dialect. Their +women, who are prettier than the pure Chinese, do not compress their +feet, and move freely about in public. The Hakkas are a most industrious +people and furnish at Canton nearly all the coolie labour employed by +Europeans. Their intelligence is great, and many noted scholars have +been of Hakka birth. Hung Sin-tsuan, the leader in the Taiping +rebellion, was a Hakka. In Formosa they serve as intermediaries between +the Chinese and European traders and the natives. From time immemorial +they seem to have been persecuted by the Chinese, whom they regard as +"foreigners," and with whom their means of communication is usually +"pidgin English." The earliest persecution occurred under the "first +universal emperor" of China, Shi-Hwang-ti (246-210 B.C.). From this time +the Hakkas appear to have become wanderers. Sometimes for generations +they were permitted to live unmolested, as under the Han dynasty, when +some of them held high official posts. During the Tang dynasty (7th, +8th, and 9th centuries) they settled in the mountains of Fu-kien and on +the frontiers of Kwang-Tung. On the invasion of Kublai Khan, the Hakkas +distinguished themselves by their bravery on the Chinese side. In the +14th century further persecutions drove them into Kwang-Tung. + + See "An Outline History of the Hakkas," _China Review_ (London, + 1873-1874), vol. ii.; Pitou, "On the Origin and History of the + Hakkas," ib.; Dyer Ball, _Easy Lessons in the Hakka Dialect_ (1884), + _Things Chinese_ (London, 1893); Schaub, "Proverbs in Daily Use among + the Hakkas," in _China Review_ (London, 1894-1895), vol. xxi.; Rev. J. + Edkins, _China's Place in Philology_; Girard de Rialle, _Rev. d. + anthrop._ (Jan. and April, 1885); G. Taylor, "The Aborigines of + Formosa," _China Review_, xiv. p. 198 seq., also xvi. No. 3, "A Ramble + through Southern Formosa." + + + + +HAKLUYT, RICHARD (c. 1553-1616), British geographer, was born of good +family in or near London about 1553. The Hakluyts were of Welsh +extraction, not Dutch as has been supposed. They appear to have settled +in Herefordshire as early as the 13th century. The family seat was +Eaton, 2 m. S.E. of Leominster. Hugo Hakelute was returned M.P. for that +borough in 1304/5. Richard went to school at Westminster, where he was a +queen's scholar; while there his future bent was determined by a visit +to his cousin and namesake, Richard Hakluyt of the Middle Temple. His +cousin's discourse, illustrated by "certain bookes of cosmographie, an +universall mappe, and the Bible," made young Hakluyt resolve to +"prosecute that knowledge and kind of literature." Entering Christ +Church, Oxford, in 1570, "his exercises of duty first performed," he +fell to his intended course of reading, and by degrees perused all the +printed or written voyages and discoveries that he could find. He took +his B.A. In 1573/4. It is probable that, shortly after taking his M.A. +(1577), he began at Oxford the first public lectures in geography that +"shewed both the old imperfectly composed and the new lately reformed +mappes, globes, spheares, and other instruments of this art." That this +was not in London is certain, as we know that the first lecture of the +kind was delivered in the metropolis on the 4th of November 1588 by +Thomas Hood. + +Hakluyt's first published work was his _Divers Voyages touching the +Discoverie of America_ (London, 1582, 4to.). This brought him to the +notice of Lord Howard of Effingham, and so to that of Sir Edward +Stafford, Lord Howard's brother-in-law; accordingly at the age of +thirty, being acquainted with "the chiefest captaines at sea, the +greatest merchants, and the best mariners of our nation," he was +selected as chaplain to accompany Stafford, now English ambassador at +the French court, to Paris (1583). In accordance with the instructions +of Secretary Walsingham, he occupied himself chiefly in collecting +information of the Spanish and French movements, and "making diligent +inquirie of such things as might yield any light unto our westerne +discoverie in America." The first fruits of Hakluyt's labours in Paris +are embodied in his important work entitled _A particuler discourse +concerning Westerne discoveries written in the yere 1584, by Richarde +Hackluyt of Oxforde, at the requeste and direction of the righte +worshipfull Mr Walter Raghly before the comynge home of his twoo +barkes_. This long-lost MS. was at last printed in 1877. Its object was +to recommend the enterprise of planting the English race in the +unsettled parts of North America. Hakluyt's other works consist mainly +of translations and compilations, relieved by his dedications and +prefaces, which last, with a few letters, are the only material we +possess out of which a biography of him can be framed. Hakluyt revisited +England in 1584, laid before Queen Elizabeth a copy of the _Discourse_ +"along with one in Latin upon Aristotle's _Politicks_," and obtained, +two days before his return to Paris, the grant of the next vacant +prebend at Bristol, to which he was admitted in 1586 and held with his +other preferments till his death. + +While in Paris Hakluyt interested himself in the publication of the MS. +journal of Laudonnière, the _Histoire notable de la Florida_, edited by +Bassanier (Paris, 1586, 8vo.). This was translated by Hakluyt and +published in London under the title of _A notable historie containing +foure voyages made by certayne French captaynes into Florida_ (London, +1587, 4to.). The same year _De orbe novo Petri Martyris Anglerii decades +octo illustratae labore et industria Richardi Hackluyti_ saw the light +at Paris. This work contains the exceedingly rare copperplate map +dedicated to Hakluyt and signed F. G. (supposed to be Francis Gualle); +it is the first on which the name of "Virginia" appears. + +In 1588 Hakluyt finally returned to England with Lady Stafford, after a +residence in France of nearly five years. In 1589 he published the first +edition of his chief work, _The Principall Navigations, Voiages and +Discoveries of the English Nation_ (fol., London, 1 vol.). In the +preface to this we have the announcement of the intended publication of +the first terrestrial globe made in England by Molyneux. In 1598-1600 +appeared the final, reconstructed and greatly enlarged edition of _The +Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques and Discoveries of the +English Nation_ (fol., 3 vols.). Some few copies contain an exceedingly +rare map, the first on the Mercator projection made in England according +to the true principles laid down by Edward Wright. Hakluyt's great +collection, though but little read, has been truly called the "prose +epic of the modern English nation." It is an invaluable treasure of +material for the history of geographical discovery and colonization, +which has secured for its editor a lasting reputation. In 1601 Hakluyt +edited a translation from the Portuguese of Antonio Galvano, _The +Discoveries of the World_ (4to., London). In the same year his name +occurs as an adviser to the East India Company, supplying them with +maps, and informing them as to markets. Meantime in 1590 (April 20th) he +had been instituted to the rectory of Withering-sett-cum-Brockford, +Suffolk. In 1602, on the 4th of May, he was installed prebendary of +Westminster, and in the following year he was elected archdeacon of +Westminster. In the licence of his second marriage (30th of March 1604) +he is also described as one of the chaplains of the Savoy, and his will +contains a reference to chambers occupied by him there up to the time of +his death; in another official document he is styled D.D. In 1605 he +secured the prospective living of James Town, the intended capital of +the intended colony of Virginia. This benefice he supplied, when the +colony was at last established in 1607, by a curate, one Robert Hunt. In +1606 he appears as one of the chief promoters of the petition to the +king for patents to colonize Virginia. He was also a leading adventurer +in the London or South Virginia Company. His last publication was a +translation of Fernando de Soto's discoveries in Florida, entitled +_Virginia richly valued by the description of Florida her next +neighbour_ (London, 1609, 4to). This work was intended to encourage the +young colony of Virginia; to Hakluyt, it has been said, "England is more +indebted for its American possession than to any man of that age." We +may notice that it was at Hakluyt's suggestion that Robert Parke +translated Mendoza's _History of China_ (London, 1588-1589) and John +Pory made his version of _Leo Africanus_ (_A Geographical History of +Africa_, London, 1600). Hakluyt died in 1616 (November 23rd) and was +buried in Westminster Abbey (November 26th); by an error in the abbey +register his burial is recorded under the year 1626. Out of his various +emoluments and preferments (of which the last was Gedney rectory, +Lincolnshire, in 1612) he amassed a small fortune, which was squandered +by a son. A number of his MSS., sufficient to form a fourth volume of +his collections of 1598-1600, fell into the hands of Samuel Purchas, who +inserted them in an abridged form in his _Pilgrimes_ (1625-1626, fol.). +Others are preserved at Oxford (Bib. Bod. MS. Seld. B. 8). which consist +chiefly of notes gathered from contemporary authors. + + Besides the MSS. or editions noticed in the text (_Divers Voyages_ + (1582); _Particuler Discourse_ (1584); Laudonnière's _Florida_ (1587); + Peter Martyr, _Decades_ (1587); _Principal Navigations_ (1589 and + 1598-1600); Galvano's _Discoveries_ (1601); De Soto's Florida record, + the _Virginia richly valued_ (1609, &c.), we may notice the Hakluyt + Society's London edition of the _Divers Voyages_ in 1850, the edition + of the _Particuler Discourse_, by Charles Deane in the _Collections of + the Maine Historical Society_ (Cambridge, Mass., 1870, with an + introduction by Leonard Woods); also, among modern issues of the + _Principal Navigations_, those of 1809 (5 vols., with much additional + matter), and of 1903-1905 (Glasgow, 12 vols.). The new title-page + issued for the first volume of the final edition of the _Principal + Navigations_, in 1599, merely cancelled the former 1598 title with its + reference to the Cadiz expedition of 1596; but from this has arisen + the mistaken supposition that a new _edition_ was then (1599) + published. Hakluyt's Galvano was edited for the Hakluyt Society by + Admiral C. R. D. Bethune in 1862. This Society, which was founded in + 1846 for printing rare and unpublished voyages and travels, includes + the Glasgow edition of the _Principal Navigations_ in its _extra + series_, as well as C. R. Beazley's edition of _Carpini_, _Rubruquis_, + and other medieval texts from Hakluyt (Cambridge, 1903, 1 vol.). + Reckoning in these and an issue of Purchas's _Pilgrimes_ by the + Glasgow publisher of the Hakluyt of 1903-1905, the society has now + published or "fathered" 150 vols. See also _Voyages of the Elizabethan + Seamen to America, being Select Narratives from the Principal + Navigations_, by E. J. Payne (Oxford, 1880; 1893; new edition by C. R. + Beazley, 1907). + + For Hakluyt's life the dedications of the 1589 and 1598 editions of + the _Principal Navigations_ should be especially consulted; also + Winter Jones's introduction to the Kakluyt Society edition of the + _Divers Voyages_; Fuller's _Worthies of England_, "Herefordshire"; + _Oxford Univ. Reg._ (Oxford Hist. Soc), ii., iii. 39; _Historical MSS. + Commission, 4th report, appendix_, p. 614, the last giving us the + Towneley MSS. referring to payments (prizes?) awarded to Hakluyt when + at Oxford, May 12th and June 4th, 1575. (C. H. C; C. R. B.) + + + + +HAKODATE, a town on the south of the island of Yezo, Japan, for many +years regarded as the capital of the island until Sapporo was officially +raised to that rank. Pop. (1903) 84,746. Its position, as has been +frequently remarked, is not unlike that of Gibraltar, as the town is +built along the north-western base of a rocky promontory (1157 ft. in +height) which forms the eastern boundary of a spacious bay, and is +united to the mainland by a narrow sandy isthmus. The summit of the +rock, called the Peak, is crowned by a fort. Hakodate is one of the +ports originally opened to foreign trade. The Bay of Hakodate, an inlet +of Tsugaru Strait, is completely land-locked, easy of access and +spacious, with deep water almost up to the shore, and good +holding-ground. The Russians formerly used Hakodate as a winter port. +The staple exports are beans, pulse and peas, marine products, sulphur, +furs and timber; the staple imports, comestibles (especially salted +fish), kerosene and oil-cake. The town is not situated so as to profit +largely by the development of the resources of Yezo, and as a port of +foreign trade its outlook is indifferent. Frequent steamers connect +Hakodate and Yokohama and other ports, and there is daily communication +with Aomori, 56 m. distant, whence there is rail-connexion with Tokyo. +Hakodate was opened to American commerce in 1854. In the civil war of +1868 the town was taken by the rebel fleet, but it was recovered by the +mikado in 1869. + + + + +HAL, a town of Brabant, Belgium, about 9 m. S.W. of Brussels, situated +on the river Senne and the Charleroi canal. Pop. (1904) 13,541. The +place is interesting chiefly on account of its fine church of Notre +Dame, formerly dedicated to St Martin. This church, a good example of +pure Gothic, was begun in 1341 and finished in 1409. Its principal +ornament is the alabaster altar, by J. Mone, completed in 1533. The +bronze font dates from 1446. Among the monuments is one in black marble +to the dauphin Joachim, son of Louis XI., who died in 1460. In the +treasury of the church are many costly objects presented by illustrious +personages, among others by the emperor Charles V., King Henry VIII. of +England, Charles the Bold of Burgundy, and several popes. The church is +chiefly celebrated, however, for its miraculous image of the Virgin. +Legend says that during a siege the bullets fired into the town were +caught by her in the folds of her dress. Some of these are still shown +in a chest that stands in a side chapel. In consequence of this belief a +great pilgrimage, attended by many thousands from all parts of Belgium, +is paid annually to this church. The hôtel de ville dates from 1616 and +has been restored with more than ordinary good taste. + + + + +HALA, or HALLA (formerly known as Murtazabad), a town of British India +in Hyderabad district, Sind. Pop. (1901) 4985. It has long been famous +for its glazed pottery and tiles, made from a fine clay obtained from +the Indus, mixed with powdered flints. The town has also a manufacture +of susis or striped trouser-cloths. + + + + +HALAESA, an ancient town on the north coast of Sicily, about 14 m. E. of +Cephaloedium [Cefalu], to the east of the modern Castel di Tusa, founded +in 403 B.C. by Archonides, tyrant of Herbita, whose name it sometimes +bore: we find, e.g. _Halaisa Archonida_ on a coin of the time of +Augustus (_Corp. inscrip. Lat._ x., Berlin, 1883, p. 768). It was the +first town to surrender to the Romans in the First Punic War, and was +granted freedom and immunity from tithe. It became a place of some +importance in Roman days, especially as a port, and entirely outstripped +its mother city. Halaesa is the only place in Sicily where an +inscription dedicated to a Roman governor of the republican period +(perhaps in 93 B.C.) has come to light. (T. As.) + + + + +HALAKHA, or HALACHA (literally "rule of conduct"), the rabbinical +development of the Mosaic law; with the haggada it makes up the Talmud +and Midrash (q.v.). As the haggada is the poetic, so the halakha is the +legal element of the Talmud (q.v.), and arose out of the faction between +the Sadducees, who disputed the traditions, and the Pharisees, who +strove to prove their derivation from scripture. Among the chief +attempts to codify the halakha were the _Great Rules (Halakhoth +Gedoloth)_ of Simon Kayyara (9th century), based on the letters written +by the Gaonim, the heads of the Babylonian schools, to Jewish inquirers +in many lands, the work of Jacob Alfassi (1013-1103), the _Strong Hand +of_ Maimonides (1180), and the _Table Prepared_ (_Shulhan Aruch_) of +Joseph Qaro (1565), which from its practical scope and its clarity as a +work of general reference became the universal handbook of Jewish life +in many of its phases. (I. A.) + + + + +HALBERSTADT, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Saxony, 56 +m. by rail N.W. of Halle, and 29 S.W. of Magdeburg. It lies in a fertile +country to the north of the Harz Mountains, on the Holzemme, at the +junction of railways to Halle, Goslar and Thale. Pop. (1905) 45,534. The +town has a medieval appearance, many old houses decorated with beautiful +wood-carving still surviving. The Gothic cathedral (now Protestant), +dating from the 13th and 14th centuries, is remarkable for the majestic +impression made by the great height of the interior, with its slender +columns and lofty, narrow aisles. The treasure, preserved in the former +chapter-house, is rich in reliquaries, vestments and other objects of +medieval church art. The beautiful spires, which had become unsafe, were +rebuilt in 1890-1895. Among the other churches the only one of special +interest is the Liebfrauenkirche (Church of Our Lady), a basilica, with +four towers, in the later Romanesque style, dating from the 12th and +13th centuries and restored in 1848, containing old mural frescoes and +carved figures. Remarkable among the other old buildings are the +town-hall, of the 14th century and restored in the 17th century, with a +crypt, and the Petershof, formerly the episcopal palace, but now +utilized as law courts and a prison. The principal educational +establishment is the gymnasium, with a library of 40,000 volumes. Close +to the cathedral lies the house of the poet Gleim (q.v.), since 1899 the +property of the municipality and converted into a museum. It contains a +collection of the portraits of the friends of the poet-scholar and some +valuable manuscripts. The principal manufactures of the town are sugar, +cigars, paper, gloves, chemical products, beer and machinery. About a +mile and a half distant are the Spiegelsberge, from which a fine view of +the surrounding country is obtained, and the Klusberge, with prehistoric +cave-dwellings cut out in the sandstone rocks. + + The history of Halberstadt begins with the transfer to it, by Bishop + Hildegrim I., in 820 of the see founded by Charlemagne at + Seligenstadt. At the end of the 10th century the bishops were granted + by the emperors the right to exercise temporal jurisdiction over their + see, which became one of the most considerable of the ecclesiastical + principalities of the Empire. As such it survived the introduction of + the Reformation in 1542; but in 1566, on the death of Sigismund of + Brandenburg (also archbishop of Madgeburg from 1552 to 1566), the last + Catholic bishop, the chapter from motives of economy elected the + infant Henry Julius of Brunswick-Lüneburg. In 1589 he became duke of + Brunswick, and two years later he abolished the Catholic rites in + Halberstadt. The see was governed by lay bishops until 1648, when it + was formally converted by the treaty of Westphalia into a secular + principality for the elector of Brandenburg. By the treaty of Tilsit + in 1807 it was annexed to the kingdom of Westphalia, but came again to + Prussia on the downfall of Napoleon. + + The town received a charter from Bishop Arnulf in 998. In 1113 it was + burnt by the emperor Henry V., and in 1179 by Henry the Lion. During + the Thirty Years' War it was occupied alternately by the Imperialists + and the Swedes, the latter of whom handed it over to Brandenburg. + + See Lucanus, _Der Dom zu Halberstadt_ (1837), _Wegweiser durch + Halberstadt_ (2nd ed., 1866) and _Die Liebfrauenkirche zu Halberstadt_ + (1872); Scheffer, _Inschriften und Legenden halberstädtischer Bauten_ + (1864); Schmidt, _Urkundenbuch der Stadt Halberstadt_ (Halle, 1878); + and Zschiesche, _Halberstadt, sonst und jetzi_ (1882). + + + + +HALBERT, HALBERD or HALBARD, a weapon consisting of an axe-blade +balanced by a pick and having an elongated pike-head at the end of the +staff, which was usually about 5 or 6 ft. in length. The utility of such +a weapon in the wars of the later middle ages lay in this, that it gave +the foot soldier the means of dealing with an armoured man on horseback. +The pike could do no more than keep the horseman at a distance. This +ensured security for the foot soldier but did not enable him to strike a +mortal blow, for which firstly a long-handled and secondly a powerful +weapon, capable of striking a heavy cleaving blow, was required. Several +different forms of weapon responding to these requirements are described +and illustrated below; it will be noticed that the thrusting pike is +almost always combined with the cutting-bill hook or axe-head, so that +the individual billman or halberdier should not be at a disadvantage if +caught alone by a mounted opponent, or if his first descending blow +missed its object. It will be noticed further that, concurrently with +the disuse of complete armour and the development of firearms, the pike +or thrusting element gradually displaces the axe or cleaving element in +these weapons, till at last we arrive at the court halberts and +partizans of the late 16th and early 17th centuries and the so-called +"halbert" of the infantry officer and sergeant in the 18th, which can +scarcely be classed even as partizans. + +Figs. 1-6 represent types of these long cutting, cut and thrust weapons +of the middle ages, details being omitted for the sake of clearness. The +most primitive is the _voulge_ (fig. 1), which is simply a heavy cleaver +on a pole, with a point added. The next form, the _gisarme_ or +_guisarme_ (fig. 2), appears in infinite variety but is always +distinguished from voulges, &c. by the hook, which was used to pull down +mounted men, and generally resembles the agricultural bill-hook of +to-day. The _glaive_ (fig. 3 is late German) is a broad, heavy, slightly +curved sword-blade on a stave; it is often combined with the hooked +gisarme as a _glaive-gisarme_ (fig. 4, Burgundian, about 1480). A +_gisarme-voulge_ is shown in fig. 5 (Swiss, 14th century). + +[Illustration: FIGS. 1-6.] + +The weapon best known to Englishmen is the _bill_, which was originally +a sort of scythe-blade, sharp on the concave side (whereas the glaive +has the cutting edge on the convex side), but in its best-known form it +should be called a bill-gisarme (fig. 6). The _partizans_, _ranseurs_ +and _halberts_ proper developed naturally from the earlier types. The +feature common to all, as has been said, is the combination of spear and +axe. In the halberts the axe predominates, as the examples (fig. 10, +Swiss, early 15th century; fig. 11, Swiss, middle 16th century; and fig. +12, German court halbert of the same period as fig. 11) show. In the +_partizan_ the pike is the more important, the axe-heads being reduced +to little more than an ornamental feature. A south German specimen (fig. +9, 1615) shows how this was compensated by the broadening of the +spear-head, the edges of which in such weapons were sharpened. Fig. 8, a +service weapon of simple form, merely has projections on either side, +and from this developed the _ranseur_ (fig. 7), a partizan with a very +long and narrow point, like the blade of a rapier, and with fork-like +projections intended to act as "sword-breakers," instead of the +atrophied axe-heads of the partizan proper. + +[Illustration: FIGS. 7-12.] + +The halbert played almost as conspicuous a part in the military history +of Middle Europe during the 15th and early 16th centuries as the pike. +But, even in a form distinguishable from the voulge and the glaive, it +dates from the early part of the 13th century, and for many generations +thereafter it was the special weapon of the Swiss. Fauchet, in his +_Origines des dignitez_, printed in 1600, states that Louis XI. of +France ordered certain new weapons of war called _hallebardes_ to be +made at Angers and other places in 1475. The Swiss had a mixed armament +of pikes and halberts at the battle of Morat in 1476. In the 15th and +16th centuries the halberts became larger, and the blades were formed in +many varieties of shape, often engraved, inlaid, or pierced in open +work, and exquisitely finished as works of art. This weapon was in use +in England from the reign of Henry VII. to the reign of George III., +when it was still carried (though in shape it had certainly lost its +original characteristics, and had become half partizan and half pike) by +sergeants in the guards and other infantry regiments. It is still +retained as the symbol of authority borne before the magistrates on +public occasions in some of the burghs of Scotland. The Lochaber axe may +be called a species of halbert furnished with a hook on the end of the +staff at the back of the blade. The godendag (Fr. _godendart_) is the +Flemish name of the halbert in its original form. + +The derivation of the word is as follows. The O. Fr. _hallebarde_, of +which the English "halberd," "halbert," is an adaptation, was itself +adapted from the M.H.G. _helmbarde_, mod. _Hellebarde_; the second part +is the O.H.G. _barta_ or _parta_, broad-axe, probably the same word as +_Bart_, beard, and so called from its shape; the first part is either +_helm_, handle, cf. "helm," tiller of a ship, the word meaning "hafted +axe," or else _helm_, helmet, an axe for smiting the helmet. A common +derivation was to take the word as representing a Ger. _halb-barde_, +half-axe; the early German form shows this to be an erroneous guess. + + + + +HALDANE, JAMES ALEXANDER (1768-1851), Scottish divine, the younger son +of Captain James Haldane of Airthrey House, Stirlingshire, was born at +Dundee on the 14th of July 1768. Educated first at Dundee and afterwards +at the high school and university of Edinburgh, at the age of seventeen +he joined the "Duke of Montrose" East Indiaman as a midshipman. After +four voyages to India he was nominated to the command of the "Melville +Castle" in the summer of 1793; but having during a long and unexpected +detention of his ship begun a careful study of the Bible, and also come +under the evangelical influence of David Bogue of Gosport, one of the +founders of the London Missionary Society, he abruptly resolved to quit +the naval profession for a religious life, and returned to Scotland +before his ship had sailed. About the year 1796 he became acquainted +with the celebrated evangelical divine, Charles Simeon of Cambridge, in +whose society he made several tours through Scotland, endeavouring by +tract-distribution and other means to awaken others to some of that +interest in religious subjects which he himself so strongly felt. In May +1797 he preached his first sermon, at Gilmerton near Edinburgh, with +encouraging success. In the same year he established a non-sectarian +organization for tract distribution and lay preaching called the +"Society for the Propagation of the Gospel at Home." During the next few +years he made repeated missionary journeys, preaching wherever he could +obtain hearers, and generally in the open air. Not originally disloyal +to the Church of Scotland, he was gradually driven by the hostility of +the Assembly and the exigencies of his position into separation. In 1799 +he was ordained as pastor of a large Independent congregation in +Edinburgh. This was the first congregational church known by that name +in Scotland. In 1801 a permanent building replaced the circus in which +the congregation had at first met. To this church he continued to +minister gratuitously for more than fifty years. In 1808 he made public +avowal of his conversion to Baptist views. As advancing years compelled +him to withdraw from the more exhausting labours of itineracy and +open-air preaching, he sought more and more to influence the discussion +of current religious and theological questions by means of the press. He +died on the 8th of February 1851. + +His son, DANIEL RUTHERFORD HALDANE (1824-1887), by his second wife, a +daughter of Professor Daniel Rutherford, was a prominent Scottish +physician, who became president of the Edinburgh College of Physicians. + + Among J. A. Haldane's numerous contributions to current theological + discussions were: _The Duty of Christian Forbearance in Regard to + Points of Church Order_ (1811); _Strictures on a Publication upon + Primitive Christianity by Mr John Walker_ (1819); _Refutation of + Edward Irving's Heretical Doctrines respecting the Person and + Atonement of Jesus Christ_. His _Observations on Universal Pardon_, + &c., was a contribution to the controversy regarding the views of + Thomas Erskine of Linlathen and Campbell of Row; _Man's + Responsibility_ (1842) is a reply to Howard Hinton on the nature and + extent of the Atonement. He also published: _Journal of a Tour in the + North_; _Early Instruction Commended_ (1801); _Views of the Social + Worship of the First Churches_ (1805); _The Doctrine and Duty of + Self-Examination_ (1806); _The Doctrine of the Atonement_ (1845); + _Exposition of the Epistle to the Galatians_ (1848). + + + + +HALDANE, RICHARD BURDON (1856- ), British statesman and philosopher, +was the third son of Robert Haldane of Cloanden, Perthshire, a writer to +the signet, and nephew of J. S. Burdon-Sanderson. He was a grand-nephew +of the Scottish divines J. A. and Robert Haldane. He was educated at +Edinburgh Academy and the universities of Edinburgh and Göttingen, where +he studied philosophy under Lotze. He took first-class honours in +philosophy at Edinburgh, and was Gray scholar and Ferguson scholar in +philosophy of the four Scottish Universities (1876). He was called to +the bar in 1879, and so early as 1890 became a queen's counsel. In 1885 +he entered parliament as liberal member for Haddingtonshire, for which +he was re-elected continuously up to and including 1910. He was included +in 1905 in Sir H. Campbell-Bannerman's cabinet as secretary for war, and +was the author of the important scheme for the reorganization of the +British army, by which the militia and the volunteer forces were +replaced by a single territorial force. Though always known as one of +the ablest men of the Liberal party and conspicuous during the Boer War +of 1899-1902 as a Liberal Imperialist, the choice of Mr Haldane for the +task of thinking out a new army organization on business lines had +struck many people as curious. Besides being a chancery lawyer, he was +more particularly a philosopher, conspicuous for his knowledge of +Hegelian metaphysics. But with German philosophy he had also the German +sense of thoroughness and system, and his scheme, while it was much +criticized, was recognized as the best that could be done with a +voluntary army. Mr Haldane's chief literary publications were: _Life of +Adam Smith_ (1887); _Education and Empire_ (1902); _The Pathway to +Reality_ (1903). He also translated, jointly with J. Kemp, +Schopenhauer's _Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung_ (_The World as Will +and Idea_, 3 vols., 1883-1886). + + + + +HALDANE, ROBERT (1764-1842), Scottish divine, elder brother of J. A. +Haldane (q.v.), was born in London on the 28th of February 1764. After +attending classes in the Dundee grammar school and in the high school +and university of Edinburgh in 1780, he joined H.M.S. "Monarch," of +which his uncle Lord Duncan was at that time in command, and in the +following year was transferred to the "Foudroyant," on board of which, +during the night engagement with the "Pegase," he greatly distinguished +himself. Haldane was afterwards present at the relief of Gibraltar, but +at the peace of 1783 he finally left the navy, and soon afterwards +settled on his estate of Airthrey, near Stirling. He put himself under +the tuition of David Bogue of Gosport and carried away deep impressions +from his academy. The earlier phases of the French Revolution excited +his deepest sympathy, a sympathy which induced him to avow his strong +disapproval of the war with France. As his over-sanguine visions of a +new order of things to be ushered in by political change disappeared, he +began to direct his thoughts to religious subjects. Resolving to devote +himself and his means wholly to the advancement of Christianity, his +first proposal for that end, made in 1796, was to organize a vast +mission to Bengal, of which he was to provide the entire expense; with +this view the greater part of his estate was sold, but the East India +Company refused to sanction the scheme, which therefore had to be +abandoned. In December 1797 he joined his brother and some others in the +formation of the "Society for the Propagation of the Gospel at Home," in +building chapels or "tabernacles" for congregations, in supporting +missionaries, and in maintaining institutions for the education of young +men to carry on the work of evangelization. He is said to have spent +more than £70,000 in the course of the following twelve years +(1798-1810). He also initiated a plan for evangelizing Africa by +bringing over native children to be trained as Christian teachers to +their own countrymen. In 1816 he visited the continent, and first at +Geneva and afterwards in Montauban (1817) he lectured and interviewed +large numbers of theological students with remarkable effect; among them +were Malan, Monod and Merle d'Aubigné. Returning to Scotland in 1819, he +lived partly on his estate of Auchengray and partly in Edinburgh, and +like his brother took an active part, chiefly through the press, in many +of the religious controversies of the time. He died on the 12th of +December 1842. + + In 1816 he published a work on the _Evidences and Authority of Divine + Revelation_, and in 1819 the substance of his theological prelections + in a _Commentaire sur l'Épître aux Romains_. Among his later writings, + besides numerous pamphlets on what was known as "the Apocrypha + controversy," are a treatise _On the Inspiration of Scripture_ (1828), + which has passed through many editions, and a later _Exposition of the + Epistle to the Romans_ (1835), which has been frequently reprinted, + and has been translated into French and German. + + See _Memoirs of R. and J. A. Haldane_, by Alexander Haldane (1852). + + + + +HALDEMAN, SAMUEL STEHMAN (1812-1880), American naturalist and +philologist, was born on the 12th of August 1812 at Locust Grove, Pa. He +was educated at Dickinson College, and in 1851 was appointed professor +of the natural sciences in the university of Pennsylvania. In 1855 he +went to Delaware College, where he filled the same position, but in 1869 +he returned to the university of Pennsylvania as professor of +comparative philology and remained there till his death, which occurred +at Chickies, Pa., on the 10th of September 1880. His writings include +_Freshwater Univalve Mollusca of the United States_ (1840); _Zoological +Contributions_ (1842-1843); _Analytic Orthography_ (1860); _Tours of a +Chess Knight_ (1864); _Pennsylvania Dutch, a Dialect of South German +with an Infusion of English_ (1872); _Outlines of Etymology_ (1877); and +_Word-Building_ (1881). + + + + +HALDIMAND, SIR FREDERICK (1718-1791), British general and administrator, +was born at Yverdun, Neuchâtel, Switzerland, on the 11th of August 1718, +of Huguenot descent. After serving in the armies of Sardinia, Russia and +Holland, he entered British service in 1754, and subsequently +naturalized as an English citizen. During the Seven Years' War he served +in America, was wounded at Ticonderoga (1758) and was present at the +taking of Montreal (1760). After filling with credit several +administrative positions in Canada, Florida and New York, in 1778 he +succeeded Sir Guy Carleton (afterwards Lord Dorchester) as +governor-general of Canada. His measures against French sympathizers +with the Americans have incurred extravagant strictures from +French-Canadian historians, but he really showed moderation as well as +energy. In 1785 he returned to London. He died at his birthplace on the +5th of June 1791. + + His life has been well written by Jean McIlwraith in the "Makers of + Canada" series (Toronto, 1904). His Correspondence and Diary fill 262 + volumes in the Canadian Archives, and are catalogued in the Annual + Reports (1884-1889). + + + + +HALE, EDWARD EVERETT (1822-1909), American author, was born in Boston on +the 3rd of April 1822, son of Nathan Hale (1784-1863), proprietor and +editor of the Boston _Daily Advertiser_, nephew of Edward Everett, the +orator and statesman, and grand-nephew of Nathan Hale, the martyr spy. +He graduated from Harvard in 1839; was pastor of the church of the +Unity, Worcester, Massachusetts, in 1846-1856, and of the South +Congregational (Unitarian) church, Boston, in 1856-1899; and in 1903 +became chaplain of the United States Senate. He died at Roxbury +(Boston), Massachusetts, on the 10th of June 1909. His forceful +personality, organizing genius, and liberal practical theology, together +with his deep interest in the anti-slavery movement (especially in +Kansas), popular education (especially Chautauqua work), and the +working-man's home, were active in raising the tone of American life for +half a century. He was a constant and voluminous contributor to the +newspapers and magazines. He was an assistant editor of the Boston +_Daily Advertiser_, and edited the _Christian Examiner, Old and New_ +(which he assisted in founding in 1869; in 1875 it was merged in +_Scribner's Magazine_), _Lend a Hand_ (founded by him in 1886 and merged +in the _Charities Review_ in 1897), and the _Lend a Hand Record_; and he +was the author or editor of more than sixty books--fiction, travel, +sermons, biography and history. + +He first came into notice as a writer in 1859, when he contributed the +short story "My Double and How He Undid Me" to the _Atlantic Monthly_. +He soon published in the same periodical other stories, the best known +of which was "The Man Without a Country" (1863), which did much to +strengthen the Union cause in the North, and in which, as in some of his +other non-romantic tales, he employed a minute realism which has led his +readers to suppose the narrative a record of fact. The two stories +mentioned, and such others as "The Rag-Man and the Rag-Woman" and "The +Skeleton in the Closet," gave him a prominent position among the +short-story writers of America. The story _Ten Times One is Ten_ (1870), +with its hero Harry Wadsworth, and its motto, first enunciated in 1869 +in his Lowell Institute lectures, "Look up and not down, look forward +and not back, look out and not in, and lend a hand," led to the +formation among young people of "Lend-a-Hand Clubs," "Look-up Legions" +and "Harry Wadsworth Clubs." Out of the romantic Waldensian story _In +His Name_ (1873) there similarly grew several other organizations for +religious work, such as "King's Daughters," and "King's Sons." + + Among his other books are _Kansas and Nebraska_ (1854); _The Ingham + Papers_ (1869); _His Level Best, and Other Stories_ (1870); _Sybaris + and Other Homes_ (1871); _Philip Nolan's Friends_ (1876), his + best-known novel, and a sequel to _The Man Without a Country; The + Kingdom of God_ (1880); _Christmas at Narragansett_ (1885); _East and + West_, a novel (1892); _For Fifty Years_ (poems, 1893); _Ralph Waldo + Emerson_ (1899); _We, the People_ (1903); _Prayers Offered in the + Senate of the United States_ (1904), and _Tarry-at-Home Travels_ + (1906). He edited Lingard's _History of England_ (1853), and + contributed to Winsor's _Memorial History of Boston_ (1880-1881), and + to his _Narrative and Critical History of America_ (1886-1889). With + his son, Edward Everett Hale, Jr., he published _Franklin in France_ + (2 vols., 1887-1888), based largely on original research. The most + charming books of his later years were _A New England Boyhood_ (1893), + _James Russell Lowell and His Friends_ (1899), and _Memories of a + Hundred Years_ (1902). + + A uniform and revised edition of his principal writings, in ten + volumes, appeared in 1899-1901. + + + + +HALE, HORATIO (1817-1896), American ethnologist, was born in Newport, +New Hampshire, on the 3rd of May 1817. He was the son of David Hale, a +lawyer, and of Sarah Josepha Hale (1790-1879), a popular poet, who, +besides editing _Godey's Lady's Magazine_ for many years and publishing +some ephemeral books, is supposed to have written the verses "Mary had a +little lamb," and to have been the first to suggest the national +observance of Thanksgiving Day. The son graduated in 1837 at Harvard, +and during 1838-1842 was philologist to the United States Exploring +Expedition, which under Captain Charles Wilkes sailed around the world. +Of the reports of that expedition Hale prepared the sixth volume, +_Ethnography and Philology_ (1846), which is said to have "laid the +foundations of the ethnography of Polynesia." He was admitted to the +Chicago bar in 1855, and in the following year removed to Clinton, +Ontario, Canada, where he practised his profession, and where on the +28th of December 1896 he died. He made many valuable contributions to +the science of ethnology, attracting attention particularly by his +theory of the origin of the diversities of human languages and +dialects--a theory suggested by his study of "child-languages," or the +languages invented by little children. He also emphasized the importance +of languages as tests of mental capacity and as "criteria for the +classification of human groups." He was, moreover, the first to discover +that the Tutelos of Virginia belonged to the Siouan family, and to +identify the Cherokee as a member of the Iroquoian family of speech. +Besides writing numerous magazine articles, he read a number of valuable +papers before learned societies. These include: _Indian Migrations as +Evidenced by Language_ (1882); _The Origin of Languages and the +Antiquity of Speaking Man_ (1886); _The Development of Language_ (1888); +and _Language as a Test of Mental Capacity: Being an Attempt to +Demonstrate the True Basis of Anthropology_ (1891). He also edited for +Brinton's "Library of Aboriginal Literature," the _Iroquois Book of +Rites_ (1883). + + + + +HALE, JOHN PARKER (1806-1873), American statesman, was born at +Rochester, New Hampshire, on the 31st of March 1806. He graduated at +Bowdoin College in 1827, was admitted to the New Hampshire bar in 1830, +was a member of the state House of Representatives in 1832, and from +1834 to 1841 was United States district attorney for New Hampshire. In +1843-1845 he was a Democratic member of the national House of +Representatives, and, though his earnest co-operation with John Quincy +Adams in securing the repeal of the "gag rule" directed against the +presentation to Congress of anti-slavery petitions estranged him from +the leaders of his party, he was renominated without opposition. In +January 1845, however, he refused in a public statement to obey a +resolution (28th of December 1844) of the state legislature directing +him and his New Hampshire associates in Congress to support the cause of +the annexation of Texas, a Democratic measure which Hale regarded as +being distinctively in the interest of slavery. The Democratic State +convention was at once reassembled, Hale was denounced, and his +nomination withdrawn. In the election which followed Hale ran +independently, and, although the Democratic candidates were elected in +the other three congressional districts of the state, his vote was large +enough to prevent any choice (for which a majority was necessary) in his +own. Hale then set out in the face of apparently hopeless odds to win +over his state to the anti-slavery cause. The remarkable canvass which +he conducted is known in the history of New Hampshire as the "Hale +Storm of 1845." The election resulted in the choice of a legislature +controlled by the Whigs and the independent Democrats, he himself being +chosen as a member of the state House of Representatives, of which in +1846 he was speaker. He is remembered, however, chiefly for his long +service in the United States Senate, of which he was a member from 1847 +to 1853 and again from 1855 to 1865. At first he was the only +out-and-out anti-slavery senator,--he alone prevented the vote of thanks +to General Taylor and General Scott for their Mexican war victories from +being made unanimous in the Senate (February 1848)--but in 1849 Salmon +P. Chase and William H. Seward, and in 1851 Charles Sumner joined him, +and the anti-slavery cause became for the first time a force to be +reckoned with in that body. In October 1847 he had been nominated for +president by the Liberty party, but he withdrew in favour of Martin Van +Buren, the Free Soil candidate, in 1848. In 1851 he was senior counsel +for the rescuers of the slave Shadrach in Boston. In 1852 he was the +Free Soil candidate for the presidency, but received only 156,149 votes. +In 1850 he secured the abolition of flogging in the U.S. navy, and +through his efforts in 1862 the spirit ration in the navy was abolished. +He was one of the organizers of the Republican party, and during the +Civil War was an eloquent supporter of the Union and chairman of the +Senate naval committee. From 1865 to 1869 he was United States minister +to Spain. He died at Dover, New Hampshire, on the 19th of December 1873. +A statue of Hale, presented by his son-in-law William Eaton Chandler (b. +1835), U.S. senator from New Hampshire in 1887-1901, was erected in +front of the Capitol in Concord, New Hampshire, in 1892. + + + + +HALE, SIR MATTHEW (1609-1676), lord chief justice of England, was born +on the 1st of November 1609 at Alderley in Gloucestershire, where his +father, a retired barrister, had a small estate. His paternal +grandfather was a rich clothier of Wotton-under-Edge; on his mother's +side he was connected with the noble family of the Poyntzes of Acton. +Left an orphan when five years old, he was placed by his guardian under +the care of the Puritan vicar of Wotton-under-Edge, with whom he +remained till he attained his sixteenth year, when he entered Magdalen +Hall, Oxford. At Oxford, Hale studied for several terms with a view to +holy orders, but suddenly there came a change. The diligent student, at +first attracted by a company of strolling players, threw aside his +studies, and plunged carelessly into gay society. He soon decided to +change his profession; and resolved to trail a pike as a soldier under +the prince of Orange in the Low Countries. Before going abroad, however, +Hale found himself obliged to proceed to London in order to give +instructions for his defence in a legal action which threatened to +deprive him of his patrimony. His leading counsel was the celebrated +Serjeant Glanville (1586-1661), who, perceiving in the acuteness and +sagacity of his youthful client a peculiar fitness for the legal +profession, succeeded, with much difficulty, in inducing him to renounce +his military for a legal career, and on the 8th of November 1629 Hale +became a member of the honourable society of Lincoln's Inn. + +He immediately resumed his habits of intense application. The rules +which he laid down for himself, and which are still extant in his +handwriting, prescribe sixteen hours a day of close application, and +prove, not only the great mental power, but also the extraordinary +physical strength he must have possessed, and for which indeed, during +his residence at the university, he had been remarkable. During the +period allotted to his preliminary studies, he read over and over again +all the yearbooks, reports, and law treatises in print, and at the Tower +of London and other antiquarian repositories examined and carefully +studied the records from the foundation of the English monarchy down to +his own time. But Hale did not confine himself to law. He dedicated no +small portion of his time to the study of pure mathematics, to +investigations in physics and chemistry, and even to anatomy and +architecture; and there can be no doubt that this varied learning +enhanced considerably the value of many of his judicial decisions. + +Hale was called to the bar in 1637, and almost at once found himself in +full practice. Though neither a fluent speaker nor bold pleader, in a +very few years he was at the head of his profession. He entered public +life at perhaps the most critical period of English history. Two parties +were contending in the state, and their obstinacy could not fail to +produce a most direful collision. But amidst the confusion Hale steered +a middle course, rising in reputation, and an object of solicitation +from both parties. Taking Pomponius Atticus as his political model, he +was persuaded that a man, a lawyer and a judge could best serve his +country and benefit his countrymen by holding aloof from partisanship +and its violent prejudices, which are so apt to distort and confuse the +judgment. But he is best vindicated from the charges of selfishness and +cowardice by the thoughts and meditations contained in his private +diaries and papers, where the purity and honour of his motives are +clearly seen. It has been said, but without certainty, that Hale was +engaged as counsel for the earl of Strafford; he certainly acted for +Archbishop Laud, Lord Maguire, Christopher Love, the duke of Hamilton +and others. It is also said that he was ready to plead on the side of +Charles I. had that monarch submitted to the court. The parliament +having gained the ascendancy, Hale signed the Solemn League and +Covenant, and was a member of the famous assembly of divines at +Westminster in 1644; but although he would undoubtedly have preferred a +Presbyterian form of church government, he had no serious objection to +the system of modified Episcopacy, proposed by Usher. Consistently with +his desire to remain neutral, Hale took the engagement to the +Commonwealth as he had done to the king, and in 1653, already serjeant, +he became a judge in the court of common pleas. Two years afterwards he +sat in Cromwell's parliament as one of the members for Gloucestershire. +After the death of the protector, however, he declined to act as a judge +under Richard Cromwell, although he represented Oxford in Richard's +parliament. At the Restoration in 1660 Hale was very graciously received +by Charles II., and in the same year was appointed chief baron of the +exchequer, and accepted, with extreme reluctance, the honour of +knighthood. After holding the office of chief baron for eleven years he +was raised to the higher dignity of lord chief justice, which he held +till February 1676, when his failing health compelled him to resign. He +retired to his native Alderley, where he died on the 25th of December of +the same year. He was twice married and survived all his ten children +save two. + +As a judge Sir Matthew Hale discharged his duties with resolute +independence and careful diligence. His sincere piety made him the +intimate friend of Isaac Barrow, Archbishop Tillotson, Bishop Wilkins +and Bishop Stillingfleet, as well as of the Nonconformist leader, +Richard Baxter. He is chargeable, however, with the condemnation and +execution of two poor women tried before him for witchcraft in 1664, a +kind of judicial murder then falling under disuse. He is also reproached +with having hastened the execution of a soldier for whom he had reason +to believe a pardon was preparing. + + Of Hale's legal works the only two of importance are his _Historia + placitorum coronae, or History of the Pleas of the Crown_ (1736); and + the _History of the Common Law of England, with an Analysis of the + Law_, &c. (1713). Among his numerous religious writings the + _Contemplations, Moral and Divine_, occupy the first place. Others are + _The Primitive Origination of Man_ (1677); _Of the Nature of True + Religion_, &c. (1684); _A Brief Abstract of the Christian Religion_ + (1688). One of his most popular works is the collection of _Letters of + Advice to his Children and Grandchildren_. He also wrote an _Essay + touching the Gravitation or Nongravitation of Fluid Bodies_ (1673); + _Difficiles Nugae, or Observations touching the Torricellian + Experiment_, &c. (1675); and a translation of the _Life of Pomponius + Atticus_, by Cornelius Nepos (1677). His efforts in poetry were + inauspicious. He left his valuable collection of MSS. and records to + the library of Lincoln's Inn. His life has been written by G. Burnet + (1682); by J. B. Williams (1835); by H. Roscoe, in his _Lives of + Eminent Lawyers_, in 1838; by Lord Campbell, in his _Lives of the + Chief Justices_, in 1849; and by E. Foss in his _Lives of the Judges_ + (1848-1870). + + + + +HALE, NATHAN (1756-1776). American hero of the War of Independence, was +born at Coventry, Conn., and educated at Yale, then becoming a school +teacher. He joined a Connecticut regiment after the breaking out of the +war, and served in the siege of Boston, being commissioned a captain at +the opening of 1776. When Heath's brigade departed for New York he went +with them, and the tradition is that he was one of a small and daring +band who captured an English provision sloop from under the very guns of +a man-of-war. But on the 21st of September, having volunteered to enter +the British lines to obtain information concerning the enemy, he was +captured in his disguise of a Dutch school-teacher and on the 22nd was +hanged. The penalty was in accordance with military law, but young +Hale's act was a brave one, and he has always been glorified as a +martyr. Tradition attributes to him the saying that he only regretted +that he had but one life to lose for his country; and it is said that +his request for a Bible and the services of a minister was refused by +his captors. There is a fine statue of Hale by Macmonnies in New York. + + See H. P. Johnston, _Nathan Hale_ (1901). + + + + +HALE, WILLIAM GARDNER (1849- ), American classical scholar, was born +on the 9th of February 1849 in Savannah, Georgia. He graduated at +Harvard University in 1870, and took a post-graduate course in +philosophy there in 1874-1876; studied classical philology at Leipzig +and Göttingen in 1876-1877; was tutor in Latin at Harvard from 1877 to +1880, and professor of Latin in Cornell University from 1880 to 1892, +when he became professor of Latin and head of the Latin department of +the University of Chicago. From 1894 to 1899 he was chairman and in +1895-1896 first director of the American School of Classical Studies at +Rome. He is best known as an original teacher on questions of syntax. In +The _Cum-Constructions: Their History and Functions_, which appeared in +_Cornell University Studies in Classical Philology_ (1888-1889; and in +German version by Neizert in 1891), he attacked Hoffmann's distinction +between absolute and relative temporal clauses as published in +_Lateinische Zeitpartikeln_ (1874); Hoffmann replied in 1891, and the +best summary of the controversy is in Wetzel's _Der Streit zwischen +Hoffmann und Hale_ (1892). Hale wrote also _The Sequence of Tenses in +Latin_ (1887-1888), _The Anticipatory Subjunctive in Greek and Latin_ +(1894), and a _Latin Grammar_ (1903), to which the parts on sounds, +inflection and word-formation were contributed by Carl Darling Buck. + + + + +HALEBID, a village in Mysore state, southern India; pop. (1901), 1524. +The name means "old capital," being the site of Dorasamudra, the capital +of the Hoysala dynasty founded early in the 11th century. In 1310 and +again in 1326 it was taken and plundered by the first Mahommedan invader +of southern India. Two temples, still standing, though never completed +and greatly ruined, are regarded as the finest examples of the +elaborately carved Chalukyan style of architecture. + + + + +HALES, or HAYLES, JOHN (d. 1571), English writer and politician, was a +son of Thomas Hales of Hales Place, Halden, Kent. He wrote his _Highway +to Nobility_ about 1543, and was the founder of a free school at +Coventry for which he wrote _Introductiones ad grammaticam_. In +political life Hales, who was member of parliament for Preston, was +specially concerned with opposing the enclosure of land, being the most +active of the commissioners appointed in 1548 to redress this evil; but +he failed to carry several remedial measures through parliament. When +the protector, the duke of Somerset, was deprived of his authority in +1550, Hales left England and lived for some time at Strassburg and +Frankfort, returning to his own country on the accession of Elizabeth. +However he soon lost the royal favour by writing a pamphlet, _A +Declaration of the Succession of the Crowne Imperiall of Inglande_, +which declared that the recent marriage between Lady Catherine Grey and +Edward Seymour, earl of Hertford, was legitimate, and asserted that, +failing direct heirs to Elizabeth, the English crown should come to Lady +Catherine as the descendant of Mary, daughter of Henry VII. The author +was imprisoned, but was quickly released, and died on the 28th of +December 1571. The _Discourse of the Common Weal_, described as "one of +the most informing documents of the age," and written about 1549, has +been attributed to Hales. This has been edited by E. Lamond (Cambridge, +1893). + +Hales is often confused with another John Hales, who was clerk of the +hanaper under Henry VIII. and his three immediate successors. + + + + +HALES, JOHN (1584-1656), English scholar, frequently referred to as "the +ever memorable," was born at Bath on the 19th of April 1584, and was +educated at Corpus Christi College, Oxford. He was elected a fellow of +Merton in 1605, and in 1612 he was appointed public lecturer on Greek. +In 1613 he was made a fellow of Eton. Five years later he went to +Holland, as chaplain to the English ambassador, Sir Dudley Carleton, who +despatched him to Dort to report upon the proceedings of the synod then +sitting. In 1619 he returned to Eton and spent his time among his books +and in the company of literary men, among whom he was highly reputed for +his common sense, his erudition and his genial charity. Andrew Marvell +called him "one of the clearest heads and best-prepared breasts in +Christendom." His eirenical tract entitled _Schism and Schismaticks_ +(1636) fell into the hands of Archbishop Laud, and Hales, hearing that +he had disapproved of it, is said to have written to the prelate a +vindication of his position. This led to a meeting, and in 1639 Hales +was made one of Laud's chaplains and also a canon of Windsor. In 1642 he +was deprived of his canonry by the parliamentary committee, and two +years later was obliged to hide in Eton with the college documents and +keys. In 1649 he refused to take the "Engagement" and was ejected from +his fellowship. He then retired to Buckinghamshire, where he found a +home with Mrs Salter, the sister of the bishop of Salisbury (Brian +Duppa), and acted as tutor to her son. The issue of the order against +harbouring malignants led him to return to Eton. Here, having sold his +valuable library at great sacrifice, he lived in poverty until his death +on the 19th of May 1656. + + His collected works (3 vols.) were edited by Lord Hailes, and + published in 1765. + + + + +HALES, STEPHEN (1677-1761), English physiologist, chemist and inventor, +was born at Bekesbourne in Kent on the 7th or 17th of September 1677, +the fifth (or sixth) son of Thomas Hales, whose father, Sir Robert +Hales, was created a baronet by Charles II. in 1670. In June 1696 he was +entered as a pensioner of Benet (now Corpus Christi) College, Cambridge, +with the view of taking holy orders, and in February 1703 was admitted +to a fellowship. He received the degree of master of arts in 1703 and of +bachelor of divinity in 1711. One of his most intimate friends was +William Stukeley (1687-1765) with whom he studied anatomy, chemistry, +&c. In 1708-1709 Hales was presented to the perpetual curacy of +Teddington in Middlesex, where he remained all his life, notwithstanding +that he was subsequently appointed rector of Porlock in Somerset, and +later of Faringdon in Hampshire. In 1717 he was elected fellow of the +Royal Society, which awarded him the Copley medal in 1739. In 1732 he +was named one of a committee for establishing a colony in Georgia, and +the next year he received the degree of doctor of divinity from Oxford. +He was appointed almoner to the princess-dowager of Wales in 1750. On +the death of Sir Hans Sloane in 1753, Hales was chosen foreign associate +of the French Academy of Sciences. He died at Teddington on the 4th of +January 1761. + +Hales is best known for his _Statical Essays_. The first volume, +_Vegetable Staticks_ (1727), contains an account of numerous experiments +in plant-physiology--the loss of water in plants by evaporation, the +rate of growth of shoots and leaves, variations in root-force at +different times of the day, &c. Considering it very probable that plants +draw "through their leaves some part of their nourishment from the air," +he undertook experiments to show in "how great a proportion air is +wrought into the composition of animal, vegetable and mineral +substances"; though this "analysis of the air" did not lead him to any +very clear ideas about the composition of the atmosphere, in the course +of his inquiries he collected gases over water in vessels separate from +those in which they were generated, and thus used what was to all +intents and purposes a "pneumatic trough." The second volume (1733) on +_Haemostaticks_, containing experiments on the "force of the blood" in +various animals, its rate of flow, the capacity of the different +vessels, &c., entitles him to be regarded as one of the originators of +experimental physiology. But he did not confine his attention to +abstract inquiries. The quest of a solvent for calculus in the bladder +and kidneys was pursued by him as by others at the period, and he +devised a form of forceps which, on the testimony of John Ranby +(1703-1773), sergeant-surgeon to George II., extracted stones with +"great ease and readiness." His observations of the evil effect of +vitiated air caused him to devise a "ventilator" (a modified +organ-bellows) by which fresh air could be conveyed into gaols, +hospitals, ships'-holds, &c.; this apparatus was successful in reducing +the mortality in the Savoy prison, and it was introduced into France by +the aid of H. L. Duhamel du Monceau. Among other things Hales invented a +"sea-gauge" for sounding, and processes for distilling fresh from sea +water, for preserving corn from weevils by fumigation with brimstone, +and for salting animals whole by passing brine into their arteries. His +_Admonition to the Drinkers of Gin, Brandy, &c._, published anonymously +in 1734, has been several times reprinted. + + + + +HALESOWEN, a market town in the Oldbury parliamentary division of +Worcestershire, England, on a branch line of the Great Western and +Midland railways, 6½ m. W.S.W. of Birmingham. Pop. (1901), 4057. It lies +in a pleasant country among the eastern foothills of the Lickey Hills. +There are extensive iron and steel manufactures. The church of SS Mary +and John the Baptist has rude Norman portions; and the poet William +Shenstone, buried in 1763 in the churchyard, has a memorial in the +church. His delight in landscape gardening is exemplified in the +neighbouring estate of the Leasowes, which was his property. There is a +grammar school founded in 1652, and in the neighbourhood is the +Methodist foundation of Bourne College (1883). Close to the town, on the +river Stour, which rises in the vicinity, are slight ruins of a +Premonstratensian abbey of Early English date. Within the parish and 2 +m. N.W. of Halesowen is Cradley, with iron and steel works, fire-clay +works and a large nail and chain industry. + + + + +HALEVI, JUDAH BEN SAMUEL (c. 1085-c. 1140), the greatest Hebrew poet of +the middle ages, was born in Toledo c. 1085, and died in Palestine after +1140. In his youth he wrote Hebrew love poems of exquisite fancy, and +several of his Wedding Odes are included in the liturgy of the +Synagogue. The mystical connexion between marital affection and the love +of God had, in the view of older exegesis, already expressed itself in +the scriptural _Song of Songs_ and Judah Halevi used this book as his +model. In this aspect of his work he found inspiration also in Arabic +predecessors. The second period of his literary career was devoted to +more serious pursuits. He wrote a philosophical dialogue in five books, +called the _Cuzari_, which has been translated into English by +Hirschfeld. This book bases itself on the historical fact that the +Crimean Kingdom of the Khazars adopted Judaism, and the Hebrew +poet-philosopher describes what he conceives to be the steps by which +the Khazar king satisfied himself as to the claims of Judaism. Like many +other medieval Jewish authors, Judah Halevi was a physician. His real +fame depends on his liturgical hymns, which are the finest written in +Hebrew since the Psalter, and are extensively used in the Septardic +rite. A striking feature of his thought was his devotion to Jerusalem. +To the love of the Holy City he devoted his noblest genius, and he wrote +some memorable Odes to Zion, which have been commemorated by Heine, and +doubly appreciated recently under the impulse of Zionism (q.v.). He +started for Jerusalem, was in Damascus in 1140, and soon afterwards +died. Legend has it that he was slain by an Arab horseman just as he +arrived within sight of what Heine called his "Woebegone poor darling, +Desolation's very image,--Jerusalem." + + Excellent English renderings of some of Judah Halevi's poems may be + read in Mrs H. Lucas's _The Jewish Year_, and Mrs R. N. Solomon's + _Songs of Exile_. (I. A.) + + + + +HALÉVY, JACQUES FRANÇOIS FROMENTAL ÉLIE (1799-1862), French composer, +was born on the 27th of May 1799, at Paris, of a Jewish family. He +studied at the Paris Conservatoire under Berton and Cherubini, and in +1819 gained the grand prix de Rome with his cantata _Herminie_. In +accordance with the conditions of his scholarship he started for Rome, +where he devoted himself to the study of Italian music, and wrote an +opera and various minor works. In 1827 his opera _L'Artisan_ was +performed at the Théâtre Feydeau in Paris, apparently without much +success. Other works of minor importance, and now forgotten, followed, +amongst which _Manon Lescaut_, a ballet, produced in 1830, deserves +mention. In 1834 the Opéra-Comique produced _Ludovic_, the score of +which had been begun by Hérold and had been completed by Halévy. In 1835 +Halévy composed the tragic opera _La Juive_ and the comic opera +_L'Éclair_, and on these works his fame is mainly founded. The famous +air of Eléazar and the anathema of the cardinal in _La Juive_ soon +became popular all over France. _L'Éclair_ is a curiosity of musical +literature. It is written for two tenors and two soprani, without a +chorus, and displays the composer's mastery over the most refined +effects of instrumentation and vocalization in a favourable light. After +these two works he wrote numerous operas of various genres, amongst +which only _La Reine de Chypre_, a spectacular piece analyzed by Wagner +in one of his Paris letters (1841), and _La Tempesta_, in three acts, +written for Her Majesty's theatre, London (1850), need be mentioned. In +addition to his productive work Halévy also rendered valuable services +as a teacher. He was professor at the Conservatoire from 1827 till his +death--some of the most successful amongst the younger composers in +France, such as Gounod, Victor Massé and Georges Bizet, the author of +_Carmen_, being amongst his pupils. He was _maestro al cembalo_ at the +Théâtre Italien from 1827 to 1829; then director of singing at the Opera +House in Paris until 1845, and in 1836 he succeeded Reicha at the +Institut de France. Halévy also tried his hand at literature. In 1857 he +became permanent secretary to the Académie des Beaux Arts, and there +exists an agreeable volume of _Souvenirs et portraits_ from his pen. He +died at Nice, on the 17th of March 1862. + + + + +HALÉVY, LUDOVIC (1834-1908), French author, was born in Paris on the 1st +of January 1834. His father, Léon Halévy (1802-1883), was a clever and +versatile writer, who tried almost every branch of literature--prose and +verse, vaudeville, drama, history--without, however, achieving decisive +success in any. His uncle, J. F. Fromental E. Halévy (q.v.), was for +many years associated with the opéra; hence the double and early +connexion of Ludovic Halévy with the Parisian stage. At the age of six +he might have been seen playing in that _Foyer de la danse_ with which +he was to make his readers so familiar, and, when a boy of twelve, he +would often, of a Sunday night, on his way back to the College Louis le +Grand, look in at the Odéon, where he had free admittance, and see the +first act of the new play. At eighteen he joined the ranks of the French +administration and occupied various posts, the last being that of +secrétaire-rédacteur to the Corps Législatif. In that capacity he +enjoyed the special favour and friendship of the famous duke of Morny, +then president of that assembly. In 1865 Ludovic Halévy's increasing +popularity as an author enabled him to retire from the public service. +Ten years earlier he had become acquainted with the musician Offenbach, +who was about to start a small theatre of his own in the Champs Élysées, +and he wrote a sort of prologue, _Entrez, messieurs, mesdames_, for the +opening night. Other little productions followed, _Ba-ta-clan_ being the +most noticeable among them. They were produced under the pseudonym of +Jules Servières. The name of Ludovic Halévy appeared for the first time +on the bills on the 1st of January 1856. Soon afterwards the +unprecedented run of _Orphée aux enfers_, a musical parody, written in +collaboration with Hector Crémieux, made his name famous. In the spring +of 1860 he was commissioned to write a play for the manager of the +Variétés in conjunction with another vaudevillist, Lambert Thiboust. The +latter having abruptly retired from the collaboration, Halévy was at a +loss how to carry out the contract, when on the steps of the theatre he +met Henri Meilhac (1831-1897), then comparatively a stranger to him. He +proposed to Meilhac the task rejected by Lambert Thiboust, and the +proposal was immediately accepted. Thus began a connexion which was to +last over twenty years, and which proved most fruitful both for the +reputation of the two authors and the prosperity of the minor Paris +theatres. Their joint works may be divided into three classes: the +_opérettes_, the farces, the comedies. The _opérettes_ afforded +excellent opportunities to a gifted musician for the display of his +peculiar humour. They were broad and lively libels against the society +of the time, but savoured strongly of the vices and follies they were +supposed to satirize. Amongst the most celebrated works of the joint +authors were _La Belle Hélène_ (1864), _Barbe Bleue_ (1866), _La Grande +Duchesse de Gerolstein_ (1867), and _La Périchole_ (1868). After 1870 +the vogue of Parody rapidly declined. The decadence became still more +apparent when Offenbach was no longer at hand to assist the two authors +with his quaint musical irony, and when they had to deal with +interpreters almost destitute of singing powers. They wrote farces of +the old type, consisting of complicated intrigues, with which they +cleverly interwove the representation of contemporary whims and social +oddities. They generally failed when they attempted comedies of a more +serious character and tried to introduce a higher sort of emotion. A +solitary exception must be made in the case of _Frou-frou_ (1869), +which, owing perhaps to the admirable talent of Aimée Desclée, remains +their unique _succès de larmes_. + +Meilhac and Halévy will be found at their best in light sketches of +Parisian life, _Les Sonnettes_, _Le Roi Candaule_, _Madame attend +Monsieur_, _Toto chez Tata_. In that intimate association between the +two men who had met so opportunely on the _perron des variétés_, it was +often asked who was the leading partner. The question was not answered +until the connexion was finally severed and they stood before the +public, each to answer for his own work. It was then apparent that they +had many gifts in common. Both had wit, humour, observation of +character. Meilhac had a ready imagination, a rich and whimsical fancy; +Halévy had taste, refinement and pathos of a certain kind. Not less +clever than his brilliant comrade, he was more human. Of this he gave +evidence in two delightful books, _Monsieur et Madame Cardinal_ (1873) +and _Les Petites Cardinal_, in which the lowest orders of the Parisian +middle class are faithfully described. The pompous, pedantic, venomous +Monsieur Cardinal will long survive as the true image of sententious and +self-glorifying immorality. M. Halévy's peculiar qualities are even more +visible in the simple and striking scenes of the _Invasion_, published +soon after the conclusion of the Franco-German War, in _Criquette_ +(1883) and _L'Abbé Constantin_ (1882), two novels, the latter of which +went through innumerable editions. Zola had presented to the public an +almost exclusive combination of bad men and women; in _L'Abbé +Constantin_ all are kind and good, and the change was eagerly welcomed +by the public. Some enthusiasts still maintain that the _Abbé_ will rank +permanently in literature by the side of the equally chimerical _Vicar +of Wakefield_. At any rate, it opened for M. Ludovic Halévy the doors of +the French Academy, to which he was elected in 1884. + +Halévy remained an assiduous frequenter of the Academy, the +Conservatoire, the Comédie Française, and the Society of Dramatic +Authors, but, when he died in Paris on the 8th of May 1908, he had +produced practically nothing new for many years. His last romance, _Kari +Kari_, appeared in 1892. + + The _Théâtre_ of MM. Meilhac and Halévy was published in 8 vols. + (1900-1902). + + + + +HALFPENNY, WILLIAM, English 18th-century architectural designer--he +described himself as "architect and carpenter." He was also known as +Michael Hoare; but whether his real name was William Halfpenny or +Michael Hoare is uncertain. His books, of which he published a score, +deal almost entirely with domestic architecture, and especially with +country houses in those Gothic and Chinese fashions which were so +greatly in vogue in the middle of the 18th century. His most important +publications, from the point of view of their effect upon taste, were +_New Designs for Chinese Temples_, in four parts (1750-1752); _Rural +Architecture in the Gothic Taste_ (1752); _Chinese and Gothic +Architecture Properly Ornamented_ (1752); and _Rural Architecture in the +Chinese Taste_ (1750-1752). These four books were produced in +collaboration with John Halfpenny, who is said to have been his son. +_New Designs for Chinese Temples_ is a volume of some significance in +the history of furniture, since, having been published some years before +the books of Thomas Chippendale and Sir Thomas Chambers, it disproves +the statement so often made that those designers introduced the Chinese +taste into this country. Halfpenny states distinctly that "the Chinese +manner" had been "already introduced here with success." The work of the +Halfpennys was by no means all contemptible. It is sometimes distinctly +graceful, but is marked by little originality. + + + + +HALF-TIMBER WORK, an architectural term given to those buildings in +which the framework is of timber with vertical studs and cross pieces +filled in between with brickwork, rubble masonry or plaster work on oak +laths; in the first two, brick nogging or nogging are the terms +occasionally employed (see CARPENTRY). Sometimes the timber structure is +raised on a stone or brick foundation, as at Ledbury town hall in +Herefordshire, where the lower storey is open on all sides; but more +often it is raised on a ground storey, either in brick or stone, and in +order to give additional size to the upper rooms projects forward, being +carried on the floor joists. Sometimes the masonry or brickwork rises +through two or three storeys and the half-brick work is confined to the +gables. There seems to be some difference of opinion as to whether the +term applies to the mixture of solid walling with the timber structure +or to the alternation of wood posts and the filling in, but the latter +definition is that which is generally understood. The half-timber +throughout England is of the most picturesque description, and the +earliest examples date from towards the close of the 15th century. In +the earliest example, Newgate House, York (c. 1450), the timber framing +is raised over the ground floor. The finest specimen is perhaps that of +Moreton Old Hall, Cheshire (1570), where there is only a stone +foundation about 12 in. high, and the same applies to Bramall Hall, near +Manchester, portions of which are very early. Among other examples are +Speke Hall, Lancashire; Park Hall, Shropshire (1553-1558); Hall i' th' +Wood, Lancashire (1591); St Peter's Hospital, Bristol (1607); the Ludlow +Feather's Inn (1610); many of the streets at Chester and Shrewsbury; the +Sparrowe's Home, Ipswich; and Staple Inn, Holborn, from which in recent +years the plaster coat which was put on many years ago has been removed, +displaying the ancient woodwork. A similar fate has overtaken a very +large number of half-timber buildings to keep out the driving winds; +thus in Lewes nearly all the half-timbered houses have had slates hung +on the timbers, others tiles, the greater number having been covered +with plaster or stucco. Although there are probably many more +half-timber houses in England than on the continent of Europe, in the +north of France and in Germany are examples in many of the principal +towns, and in some cases in better preservation than in England. They +are also enriched with carving of a purer and better type, especially in +France; thus at Chartres, Angers, Rouen, Caen, Lisieux, Bayeux, St Lô +and Beauvais, are many extremely fine examples of late Flamboyant and +early Transitional examples. Again on the borders of the Rhine in all +the small towns most of the houses are in half-timber work, the best +examples being at Bacharach, Rhense and Boppart. Far more elaborate +examples, however, are found in the vicinity of the Harz Mountains; the +supply of timber from the forests there being very abundant; thus at +Goslar, Wernigerode and Quedlingburg there is an endless variety, as +also farther on at Gelnhausen and Hameln, the finest series of all being +at Hildesheim. In Bavaria at Nuremberg, Rothenburg and Dinkelsbühl, +half-timber houses dating from the 16th century are still well +preserved; and throughout Switzerland the houses constructed in timber +and plaster are the most characteristic features of the country. + + + + +HALFWAY COVENANT, an expedient adopted in the Congregational churches of +New England between 1657 and 1662. Under its terms baptized persons of +moral life and orthodox belief might receive the privilege of baptism +for their children and other church benefits, without the full enrolment +in membership which admitted them to the communion of the Lord's Supper. + + See CONGREGATIONALISM: _American_. + + + + +HALHED, NATHANIEL BRASSEY (1751-1830), English Orientalist and +philologist, was born at Westminster on the 25th of May 1751. He was +educated at Harrow, where he began his intimacy with Richard Brinsley +Sheridan (see SHERIDAN FAMILY) continued after he entered Christ Church, +Oxford, where, also, he made the acquaintance of Sir William Jones, the +famous Orientalist, who induced him to study Arabic. Accepting a +writership in the service of the East India Company, Halhed went out to +India, and here, at the suggestion of Warren Hastings, by whose orders +it had been compiled, translated the Gentoo code from a Persian version +of the original Sanskrit. This translation was published in 1776 under +the title _A Code of Gentoo Laws_. In 1778 he published a Bengali +grammar, to print which he set up, at Hugli, the first press in India. +It is claimed for him that he was the first writer to call attention to +the philological connexion of Sanskrit with Persian, Arabic, Greek and +Latin. In 1785 he returned to England, and from 1790-1795 was M.P. for +Lymington, Hants. For some time he was a disciple of Richard Brothers +(q.v.), and his unwise speech in parliament in defence of Brothers made +it impossible for him to remain in the House, from which he resigned in +1795. He subsequently obtained a home appointment under the East India +Company. He died in London on the 18th of February 1830. + + His collection of Oriental manuscripts was purchased by the British + Museum, and there is an unfinished translation by him of the + _Mahabharata_ in the library of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. + + + + +HALIBURTON, THOMAS CHANDLER (1796-1865), British writer, long a judge of +Nova Scotia, was born at Windsor, Nova Scotia, in 1796, and received his +education there, at King's College. He was called to the bar in 1820, +and became a member of the House of Assembly. He distinguished himself +as a barrister, and in 1828 was promoted to the bench as a chief-justice +of the common pleas. In 1829 he published _An Historical and Statistical +Account of Nova Scotia_. But it is as a brilliant humourist and satirist +that he is remembered, in connexion with his fictitious character "Sam +Slick." In 1835 he contributed anonymously to a local paper a series of +letters professedly depicting the peculiarities of the genuine Yankee. +These sketches, which abounded in clever picturings of national and +individual character, drawn with great satirical humour, were collected +in 1837, and published under the title of _The Clockmaker, or Sayings +and Doings of Samuel Slick of Slickville_. A second series followed in +1838, and a third in 1840. _The Attaché, or Sam Slick in England_ +(1843-1844), was the result of a visit there in 1841. His other works +include: _The Old Judge, or Life in a Colony_ (1843); _The Letter Bag of +the Great Western_ (1839); _Rule and Misrule of the English in America_ +(1851); _Traits of American Humour_ (1852); and _Nature and Human +Nature_ (1855). + +Meanwhile he continued to secure popular esteem in his judicial +capacity. In 1840 he was promoted to be a judge of the supreme court; +but within two years he resigned his seat on the bench, removed to +England, and in 1859 entered parliament as the representative of +Launceston, in the Conservative interest. But the tenure of his seat for +Launceston was brought to an end by the dissolution of the parliament in +1865, and he did not again offer himself to the constituency. He died on +the 27th of August of the same year, at Gordon House, Isleworth, +Middlesex. + + A memoir of Haliburton, by F. Blake Crofton, appeared in 1889. + + + + +HALIBUT, or HOLIBUT (_Hippoglossus vulgaris_), the largest of all +flat-fishes, growing to a length of 10 ft. or more, specimens of 5 ft. +in length and of 100 [lb] in weight being frequently exposed for sale in +the markets. Indeed, specimens under 2 ft. in length are very rarely +caught, and singularly enough, no instance is known of a very young +specimen having been obtained. Small ones are commonly called "chicken +halibut." The halibut is much more frequent in the higher latitudes of +the temperate zone than in its southern portion; it is a circumpolar +species, being found on the northern coasts of America, Europe and Asia, +extending in the Pacific southwards to California. On the British coasts +it keeps at some distance from the shore, and is generally caught in +from 50 to 150 fathoms. Its flesh is generally considered coarse, but it +is white and firm, and when properly served is excellent for the table. +The name is derived from "holy" (M.E. _haly_), and recalls its use for +food on holy days. + + + + +HALICARNASSUS (mod. _Budrum_), an ancient Greek city on the S.W. coast +of Caria, Asia Minor, on a picturesque and advantageous site on the +Ceramic Gulf or Gulf of Cos. It originally occupied only the small +island of Zephyria close to the shore, now occupied by the great castle +of St Peter, built by the Knights of Rhodes in 1404; but in course of +time this island was united to the mainland and the city extended so as +to incorporate Salmacis, an older town of the Leleges and Carians. + +About the foundation of Halicarnassus various traditions were current; +but they agree in the main point as to its being a Dorian colony, and +the figures on its coins, such as the head of Medusa, Athena and +Poseidon, or the trident, support the statement that the mother cities +were Troezen and Argos. The inhabitants appear to have accepted as their +legendary founder Anthes, mentioned by Strabo, and were proud of the +title of Antheadae. At an early period Halicarnassus was a member of the +Doric Hexapolis, which included Cos, Cnidus, Lindus, Camirus and +Ialysus; but one of the citizens, Agasicles, having taken home the prize +tripod which he had won in the Triopian games instead of dedicating it +according to custom to the Triopian Apollo, the city was cut off from +the league. In the early 5th century Halicarnassus was under the sway of +Artemisia, who made herself famous at the battle of Salamis. Of +Pisindalis, her son and successor, little is known; but Lygdamis, who +next attained to power, is notorious for having put to death the poet +Panyasis and caused Herodotus, the greatest of Halicarnassians, to leave +his native city (c. 457 B.C.). In the 5th century B.C. Halicarnassus and +other Dorian cities of Asia were to some extent absorbed by the Delian +League, but the peace of Antalcidas in 387 made them subservient to +Persia; and it was under Mausolus, a Persian satrap who assumed +independent authority, that Halicarnassus attained its highest +prosperity. Struck by the natural strength and beauty of its position, +Mausolus removed to Halicarnassus from Mylasa, increasing the population +of the city by the inhabitants of six towns of the Leleges. He was +succeeded by Artemisia, whose military ability was shown in the +stratagem by which she captured the Rhodian vessels attacking her city, +and whose magnificence and taste have been perpetuated by the +"Mausoleum," the monument she erected to her husband's memory (see +MAUSOLUS). One of her successors, Pixodarus, tried to ally himself with +the rising power of Macedon, and is said to have gained the momentary +consent of the young Alexander to wed his daughter. The marriage, +however, was forbidden by Philip. Alexander, as soon as he had reduced +Ionia, summoned Halicarnassus, where Memnon, the paramount satrap of +Asia Minor, had taken refuge with the Persian fleet, to surrender; and +on its refusal took the city after hard fighting and devastated it, but +not being able to reduce the citadel, was forced to leave it blockaded. +He handed the government of the city back to the family of Mausolus, as +represented by Ada, sister of the latter. Not long afterwards we find +the citizens receiving the present of a gymnasium from Ptolemy, and +building in his honour a stoa or portico; but the city never recovered +altogether from the disasters of the siege, and Cicero describes it as +almost deserted. The site is now occupied in part by the town of Budrum; +but the ancient walls can still be traced round nearly all their +circuit, and the position of several of the temples, the theatre, and +other public buildings can be fixed with certainty. + +From the ruins of the Mausoleum sufficient has been recovered by the +excavations carried out in 1857 by C. T. Newton to enable a fairly +complete restoration of its design to be made. The building consisted of +five parts--a basement or podium, a pteron or enclosure of columns, a +pyramid, a pedestal and a chariot group. The basement, covering an area +of 114 ft. by 92, was built of blocks of greenstone and cased with +marble. Round the base of it were probably disposed groups of statuary. +The pteron consisted (according to Pliny) of thirty-six columns of the +Ionic order, enclosing a square _cella_. Between the columns probably +stood single statues. From the portions that have been recovered, it +appears that the principal frieze of the pteron represented combats of +Greeks and Amazons. In addition to these, there are also many life-size +fragments of animals, horsemen, &c., belonging probably to pedimental +sculptures, but formerly supposed to be parts of minor friezes. Above +the pteron rose the pyramid, mounting by 24 steps to an apex or +pedestal. On this apex stood the chariot with the figure of Mausolus +himself and an attendant. The height of the statue of Mausolus in the +British Museum is 9 ft. 9½ in. without the plinth. The hair rising from +the forehead falls in thick waves on each side of the face and descends +nearly to the shoulder; the beard is short and close, the face square +and massive, the eyes deep set under overhanging brows, the mouth well +formed with settled calm about the lips. The drapery is grandly +composed. All sorts of restorations of this famous monument have been +proposed. The original one, made by Newton and Pullan, is obviously in +error in many respects; and that of Oldfield, though to be preferred for +its lightness (the Mausoleum was said anciently to be "suspended in +mid-air"), does not satisfy the conditions postulated by the remains. +The best on the whole is that of the veteran German architect, F. Adler, +published in 1900; but fresh studies have since been made (see below). + + See C T. Newton and R. P. Pullan, _History of Discoveries at + Halicarnassus_ (1862-1863); J. Fergusson, _The Mausoleum at + Halicarnassus_ restored (1862); E. Oldfield, "The Mausoleum," in + _Archaeologia_ (1895); F. Adler, _Mausoleum zu Halikarnass_ (1900); J. + P. Six in _Journ. Hell. Studies_ (1905); W. B. Dinsmoor, in _Amer. + Journ. of Arch._ (1908); J. J. Stevenson, _A Restoration of the + Mausoleum of Halicarnassus_ (1909); J. B. K. Preedy, "The Chariot + Group of the Mausoleum," in _Journ. Hell. Stud._, 1910. (D. G. H.) + + + + +HALICZ, a town of Austria, in Galicia, 70 m. by rail S.S.E. of Lemberg. +Pop. (1900), 4809. It is situated at the confluence of the Luckow with +the Dniester and its principal resources are the recovery of salt from +the neighbouring brine wells, soap-making and the trade in timber. In +the neighbourhood are the ruins of the old castle, the seat of the ruler +of the former kingdom from which Galicia derived its Polish name. +Halicz, which is mentioned in annals as early as 1113, was from 1141 to +1255 the residence of the princes of that name, one of the +principalities into which western Russia was then divided. The town was +then much larger, as is shown by excavations in the neighbourhood made +during the 19th century, and probably met its doom during the Mongol +invasion of 1240. In 1349 it was incorporated in the kingdom of Poland. + + + + +HALIFAX, CHARLES MONTAGUE, EARL OF (1661-1715), English statesman and +poet, fourth son of the Hon. George Montague, fifth son of the first +earl of Manchester, was born at Horton, Northamptonshire, on the 16th of +April 1661. In his fourteenth year he was sent to Westminster school, +where he was chosen king's scholar in 1677, and distinguished himself in +the composition of extempore epigrams made according to custom upon +theses appointed for king's scholars at the time of election. In 1679 he +entered Trinity College, Cambridge, where he acquired a solid knowledge +of the classics and surpassed all his contemporaries at the university +in logic and ethics. Latterly, however, he preferred to the abstractions +of Descartes the practical philosophy of Sir Isaac Newton; and he was +one of the small band of students who assisted Newton in forming the +Philosophical Society of Cambridge. But it was his facility in +verse-writing, and neither his scholarship nor his practical ability, +that first opened up to him the way to fortune. His clever but absurdly +panegyrical poem on the death of Charles II. secured for him the notice +of the earl of Dorset, who invited him to town and introduced him to the +principal wits of the time; and in 1687 his joint authorship with Prior +of the _Hind and Panther transversed to the Story of the Country Mouse +and the City Mouse_, a parody of Dryden's political poem, not only +increased his literary reputation but directly helped him to political +influence. + +In 1689, through the patronage of the earl of Dorset, he entered +parliament as member for Maldon, and sat in the convention which +resolved that William and Mary should be declared king and queen of +England. About this time he married the countess-dowager of Manchester, +and it would appear, according to Johnson, that it was still his +intention to take orders; but after the coronation he purchased a +clerkship to the council. On being introduced by Earl Dorset to King +William, after the publication of his poetical _Epistle occasioned by +his Majesty's Victory in Ireland_, he was ordered to receive an +immediate pension of £500 per annum, until an opportunity should present +itself of "making a man of him." In 1691 he was chosen chairman of the +committee of the House of Commons appointed to confer with a committee +of the Lords in regard to the bill for regulating trials in cases of +high treason; and he displayed in these conferences such tact and +debating power that he was made one of the commissioners of the treasury +and called to the privy council. But his success as a politician was +less due to his oratorical gifts than to his skill in finance, and in +this respect he soon began to manifest such brilliant talents as +completely eclipsed the painstaking abilities of Godolphin. Indeed it +may be affirmed that no other statesman has initiated schemes which have +left a more permanent mark on the financial history of England. Although +perhaps it was inevitable that England should sooner or later adopt the +continental custom of lightening the annual taxation in times of war by +contracting a national debt, the actual introduction of the expedient +was due to Montague, who on the 15th of December 1692 proposed to raise +a million of money by way of loan. Previous to this the Scotsman William +Paterson (q.v.) had submitted to the government his plan of a national +bank, and when in the spring of 1694 the prolonged contest with France +had rendered another large loan absolutely necessary, Montague +introduced a bill for the incorporation of the Bank of England. The bill +after some opposition passed the House of Lords in May, and immediately +after the prorogation of parliament Montague was rewarded by the +chancellorship of the exchequer. In 1695 he was triumphantly returned +for the borough of Westminster to the new parliament, and succeeded in +passing his celebrated measure to remedy the depreciation which had +taken place in the currency on account of dishonest manipulations. To +provide for the expense of recoinage, Montague, instead of reviving the +old tax of hearth money, introduced the window tax, and the difficulties +caused by the temporary absence of a metallic currency were avoided by +the issue for the first time of exchequer bills. His other expedients +for meeting the emergencies of the financial crisis were equally +successful, and the rapid restoration of public credit secured him a +commanding influence both in the House of Commons and at the board of +the treasury; but although Godolphin resigned office in October 1696, +the king hesitated for some time between Montague and Sir Stephen Fox as +his successor, and it was not till 1697 that the former was appointed +first lord. In 1697 he was accused by Charles Duncombe, and in 1698 by a +Col. Granville, of fraud, but both charges broke down, and Duncombe was +shown to have been guilty of extreme dishonesty himself. In 1698 and +1699 he acted as one of the council of regency during the king's absence +from England. With the accumulation of his political successes his +vanity and arrogance became, however, so offensive that latterly they +utterly lost him the influence he had acquired by his administrative +ability and his masterly eloquence; and when his power began to be on +the wane he set the seal to his political overthrow by conferring the +lucrative sinecure office of auditor of the exchequer on his brother in +trust for himself should he be compelled to retire from power. This +action earned him the offensive nickname of "Filcher," and for some time +afterwards, in attempting to lead the House of Commons, he had to submit +to constant mortifications, often verging on personal insults. After the +return of the king in 1699 he resigned his offices in the government and +succeeded his brother in the auditorship. + +On the accession of the Tories to power he was removed in 1701 to the +House of Lords by the title of Lord Halifax. In the same year he was +impeached for malpractices along with Lord Somers and the earls of +Portland and Oxford, but all the charges were dismissed by the Lords; +and in 1703 a second attempt to impeach him was still more unsuccessful. +He continued out of office during the reign of Queen Anne, but in 1706 +he was named one of the commissioners to negotiate the union with +Scotland; and after the passing of the Act of Settlement in favour of +the house of Hanover, he was appointed ambassador to the elector's court +to convey the insignia of order of the garter to George I. On the death +of Anne (1714) he was appointed one of the council of regency until the +arrival of the king from Hanover; and after the coronation he received +the office of first lord of the treasury in the new ministry, being at +the same time created earl of Halifax and Viscount Sunbury. He died on +the 19th of May 1715 and left no issue. He was buried in the vault of +the Albemarle family in Westminster Abbey. His nephew George (d. 1739) +succeeded to the barony, and was created Viscount Sunbury and earl of +Halifax in 1715. + +Montague's association with Prior in the travesty of Dryden's _Hind and +Panther_ has no doubt largely aided in preserving his literary +reputation; but he is perhaps indebted for it chiefly to his subsequent +influential position and to the fulsome flattery of the men of letters +who enjoyed his friendship, and who, in return for his liberal donations +and the splendid banqueting which they occasionally enjoyed at his villa +on the Thames, "fed him," as Pope says, "all day long with dedications." +Swift says he gave them nothing but "good words, and good dinners." +That, however, his beneficence to needy talent, if sometimes +attributable to an itching ear for adulation, was at others prompted by +a sincere appreciation of intellectual merit, is sufficiently attested +by the manner in which he procured from Godolphin a commissionership for +Addison, and also by his life-long intimacy with Newton, for whom he +obtained the mastership of the mint. The small fragments of poetry which +he left behind him, and which were almost solely the composition of his +early years, display a certain facility and vigour of diction, but their +thought and fancy are never more than commonplace, and not unfrequently +in striving to be eloquent and impressive he is only grotesquely and +extravagantly absurd. In administrative talent he was the superior of +all his contemporaries, and his only rival in parliamentary eloquence +was Somers; but the skill with which he managed measures was superior to +his tact in dealing with men, and the effect of his brilliant financial +successes on his reputation was gradually almost nullified by the +affected arrogance of his manner and by the eccentricities of his +sensitive vanity. So eager latterly was his thirst for fame and power +that perhaps Marlborough did not exaggerate when he said that "he had no +other principle but his ambition, so that he would put all in +distraction rather than not gain his point." + + Among the numerous notices of Halifax by contemporaries may be + mentioned the eulogistic reference which concludes Addison's account + of the "greatest of English poets"; the dedications by Steel to the + second volume of the _Spectator_ and to the fourth of the _Tatler_; + Pope's laudatory mention of him in the epilogue to his _Satires_ and + in the preface to the _Iliad_, and his portrait of him as "Full-blown + Bufo" in the _Epistle to Arbuthnot_. Various allusions to him are to + be found in Swift's works and in Marlborough's _Letters_. See also + Burnet's _History of his Own Times; The Parliamentary History_; + Howell's _State Trials_; Johnson's _Lives of the Poets_; and + Macaulay's _History of England_. His _Miscellaneous Works_ were + published at London in 1704; his _Life and Miscellaneous Works_ in + 1715; and his _Poetical Works_, to which also his "Life" is attached, + in 1716. His poems were reprinted in the 9th volume of Johnson's + _English Poets_. + + + + +HALIFAX, GEORGE MONTAGU DUNK, 2ND EARL OF (1716-1771), son of George +Montagu, 1st earl of Halifax (of the second creation), was born on the +5th or 6th of October 1716, becoming earl of Halifax on his father's +death in 1739. Educated at Eton and at Trinity College, Cambridge, he +was married in 1741 to Anne Richards (d. 1753), a lady who had inherited +a great fortune from Sir Thomas Dunk, whose name was taken by Halifax. +After having been an official in the household of Frederick, prince of +Wales, the earl was made master of the buckhounds, and in 1748 he became +president of the Board of Trade. While filling this position he helped +to found Halifax, the capital of Nova Scotia, which was named after him, +and in several ways he rendered good service to trade, especially with +North America. About this time he sought to become a secretary of state, +but in vain, although he was allowed to enter the cabinet in 1757. In +March 1761 Halifax was appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland, and during +part of the time which he held this office he was also first lord of the +admiralty. He became secretary of state for the northern department +under the earl of Bute in October 1762, retaining this post under George +Grenville and being one of the three ministers to whom George III. +entrusted the direction of affairs. He signed the general warrant under +which Wilkes was arrested in 1763, for which action he was mulcted in +damages by the courts of law in 1769, and he was mainly responsible for +the exclusion of the name of the king's mother, Augusta, princess of +Wales, from the Regency Bill of 1765. With his colleagues the earl left +office in July 1765, returning to the cabinet as lord privy seal under +his nephew, Lord North, in January 1770. He had just been transferred to +his former position of secretary of state when he died on the 8th of +June 1771. Halifax, who was lord-lieutenant of Northamptonshire and a +lieutenant-general in the army, showed some disinterestedness in money +matters, but was very extravagant. He left no children, and his titles +became extinct on his death. Horace Walpole speaks slightingly of the +earl, and says he and his mistress, Mary Anne Faulkner, "had sold every +employment in his gift." + + See the _Memoirs_ of his secretary, Richard Cumberland (1807). + + + + +HALIFAX, GEORGE SAVILE, 1ST MARQUESS OF (1633-1695), English statesman +and writer, great-grandson of Sir George Savile of Lupset and Thornhill +in Yorkshire (created baronet in 1611), was the eldest son of Sir +William Savile, 3rd baronet, who distinguished himself in the civil war +in the royalist cause and who died in 1644, and of Anne, eldest daughter +of Lord Keeper Coventry. He was thus nephew of Sir William Coventry, who +is said to have influenced his political opinions, and of Lord +Shaftesbury, afterwards his most bitter opponent, and great-nephew of +the earl of Strafford; by his marriage with the Lady Dorothy Spencer, he +was brother-in-law to Lord Sunderland. He entered public life with all +the advantages of lineage, political connexions, great wealth and +estates, and uncommon abilities. He was elected member of the Convention +parliament for Pontefract in 1660, and this was his only appearance in +the Lower House. A peerage was sought for him by the duke of York in +1665, but was successfully opposed by Clarendon, on the ground of his +"ill-reputation amongst men of piety and religion," the real motives of +the chancellor's hostile attitude being probably Savile's connexion with +Buckingham and Coventry. The honours were, however, only deferred for a +short time and were obtained after the fall of Clarendon on the 31st of +December 1667,[1] when Savile was created Baron Savile of Eland and +Viscount Halifax. + +He supported zealously the anti-French policy formulated in the Triple +Alliance of January 1668. He was at this time in favour at court, was +created a privy councillor in 1672, and, while ignorant of the +disgraceful secret clauses in the treaty of Dover, was chosen envoy to +negotiate terms of peace with Louis XIV. and the Dutch at Utrecht. His +mission was still further deprived of importance by Arlington and +Buckingham, who were in the king's counsels, and who anticipated his +arrival and took the negotiations out of his hands; and though he signed +the compact, he had no share in the harsh terms imposed upon the Dutch, +and henceforth became a bitter opponent of the policy of subservience to +French interests and of the Roman Catholic claims. + +He took an active part in passing through parliament the great Test Act +of 1673[2] and forfeited in consequence his friendship with James. In +1674 he brought forward a motion for disarming "popish recusants," and +supported one by Lord Carlisle for restricting the marriages in the +royal family to Protestants; but he opposed the bill introduced by Lord +Danby (see LEEDS, 1ST DUKE OF) in 1675, which imposed a test oath on +officials and members of parliament, speaking "with that quickness, +learning and elegance that are inseparable from all his discourses," and +ridiculing the multiplication of oaths, since "no man would ever sleep +with open doors ... should all the town be sworn not to rob." He was now +on bad terms with Danby, and a witty sally at that minister's expense +caused his dismissal from the council in January 1676. In 1678 he took +an active part in the investigation of the "Popish Plot," to which he +appears to have given excessive credence, but opposed the bill which was +passed on the 30th of October 1678, to exclude Roman Catholics from the +House of Lords. + +In 1679, as a consequence of the fall of Danby, he became a member of +the newly constituted privy council. With Charles, who had at first +"kicked at his appointment," he quickly became a favourite, his lively +and "libertine" (i.e. free or sceptical) conversation being named by +Bishop Burnet as his chief attraction for the king. His dislike of the +duke of York and of the Romanist tendencies of the court did not induce +him to support the rash attempt of Lord Shaftesbury to substitute the +illegitimate duke of Monmouth for James in the succession. He feared +Shaftesbury's ascendancy in the national councils and foresaw nothing +but civil war and confusion as a result of his scheme. He declared +against the exclusion of James, was made an earl in 1679, and was one of +the "Triumvirate" which now directed public affairs. He assisted in +passing into law the Habeas Corpus Bill. According to Sir W. Temple he +showed great severity in putting into force the laws against the Roman +Catholics, but this statement is considered a misrepresentation.[3] In +1680 he voted against the execution of Lord Stafford. + +Meanwhile (1679) his whole policy had been successfully directed towards +uniting all parties with the object of frustrating Shaftesbury's plans. +Communications were opened with the prince of Orange, and the illness of +the king was made the occasion for summoning James from Brussels. +Monmouth was compelled to retire to Holland, and Shaftesbury was +dismissed. On the other hand, while Halifax was so far successful, James +was given an opportunity of establishing a new influence at the court. +It was with great difficulty that his retirement to Scotland was at last +effected; the ministers lost the confidence and support of the "country +party," and Halifax, fatigued and ill, at the close of this year, +retired to Rufford Abbey, the country home of the Saviles since the +destruction of Thornhill Hall in 1648, and for some time took little +part in affairs. He returned in September 1680 on the occasion of the +introduction of the Exclusion Bill in the Lords. The debate which +followed, one of the most famous in the whole annals of parliament, +became a duel of oratory between Halifax and his uncle Shaftesbury, the +finest two speakers of the day, watched by the Lords, the Commons at the +bar, and the king, who was present. It lasted seven hours. Halifax spoke +sixteen times, and at last, regardless of the menaces of the more +violent supporters of the bill, who closed round him, vanquished his +opponent. The rejection of the bill by a majority of 33 was attributed +by all parties entirely to the eloquence of Halifax. His conduct +transformed the allegiance to him of the Whigs into bitter hostility, +the Commons immediately petitioning the king to remove him from his +councils for ever, while any favour which he might have regained with +James was forfeited by his subsequent approval of the regency scheme. + +He retired to Rufford again in January 1681, but was present at the +Oxford parliament, and in May returned suddenly to public life and held +for a year the chief control of affairs. The arrest of Shaftesbury on +the 2nd of July was attributed to his influence, but in general, during +the period of Tory reaction, he seems to have urged a policy of +conciliation and moderation upon the king. He opposed James's return +from Scotland and, about this time (Sept.), made a characteristic but +futile attempt to persuade the duke to attend the services of the +Church of England and thus to end all difficulties. He renewed relations +with the prince of Orange, who in July paid a visit to England to seek +support against the French designs upon Luxemburg. The influence of +Halifax procured for the Dutch a formal assurance from Charles of his +support; but the king informed the French ambassador that he had no +intention of fulfilling his engagements, and made another secret treaty +with Louis. Halifax opposed in 1682 James's vindictive prosecution of +the earl of Argyll, arousing further hostility in the duke, while the +same year he was challenged to a duel by Monmouth, who attributed to him +his disgrace. + +His short tenure of power ended with the return of James in May. +Outwardly he still retained the king's favour and was advanced to a +marquisate (Aug. 17) and to the office of lord privy seal (Oct. 25). +Being still a member of the administration he must share responsibility +for the attack now made upon the municipal franchises, a violation of +the whole system of representative government, especially as the new +charters passed his office. In January 1684 he was one of the +commissioners "who supervise all things concerning the city and have +turned out those persons who are whiggishly inclined" (N. Luttrell's +_Diary_, i. 295). He made honourable but vain endeavours to save +Algernon Sidney and Lord Russell. "My Lord Halifax," declared Tillotson +in his evidence before the later inquiry, "showed a very compassionate +concern for my Lord Russell and all the readiness to serve them that +could be wished."[4] The Rye-House Plot, in which it was sought to +implicate them, was a disastrous blow to his policy, and in order to +counteract its consequences he entered into somewhat perilous +negotiations with Monmouth, and endeavoured to effect his reconciliation +with the king. On the 12th of February 1684, he procured the release of +his old antagonist, Lord Danby. Shortly afterwards his influence at the +court revived. Charles was no longer in receipt of his French pension +and was beginning to tire of James and Rochester. The latter, instead of +becoming lord treasurer, was, according to the epigram of Halifax which +has become proverbial, "kicked upstairs," to the office of lord +president of the council. Halifax now worked to establish intimate +relations between Charles and the prince of Orange and opposed the +abrogation of the recusancy laws. In a debate in the cabinet of November +1684, on the question of the grant of a fresh constitution to the New +England colonies, he urged with great warmth "that there could be no +doubt whatever but that the same laws which are in force in England +should also be established in a country inhabited by Englishmen and that +an absolute government is neither so happy nor so safe as that which is +tempered by laws and which sets bounds to the authority of the prince," +and declared that he could not "live under a king who should have it in +his power to take, whenever he thought proper, the money he has in his +pocket." The opinions thus expressed were opposed by all the other +ministers and highly censured by Louis XIV., James and Judge Jeffreys. + +At the accession of James he was immediately deprived of all power and +relegated to the presidency of the council. He showed no compliance, +like other Lords, with James's Roman Catholic preferences. He was +opposed to the parliamentary grant to the king of a revenue for life; he +promoted the treaty of alliance with the Dutch in August 1685; he +expostulated with the king on the subject of the illegal commissions in +the army given to Roman Catholics; and finally, on his firm refusal to +support the repeal of the Test and Habeas Corpus Acts, he was dismissed, +and his name was struck out of the list of the privy council (Oct. +1685). He corresponded with the prince of Orange, conferred with +Dykveldt, the latter's envoy, but held aloof from plans which aimed at +the prince's personal interference in English affairs. In 1687 he +published the famous _Letter to a Dissenter_, in which he warns the +Nonconformists against being beguiled by the "Indulgence" into joining +the court party, sets in a clear light the fatal results of such a step, +and reminds them that under their next sovereign their grievances would +in all probability be satisfied by the law. The tract, which has +received general and unqualified admiration, must be classed amongst the +few known writings which have actually and immediately altered the +course of history. Copies to the number of 20,000 were circulated +through the kingdom, and a great party was convinced of the wisdom of +remaining faithful to the national traditions and liberties. He took the +popular side on the occasion of the trial of the bishops in June 1688, +visited them in the Tower, and led the cheers with which the verdict of +"not guilty" was received in court; but the same month he refrained from +signing the invitation to William, and publicly repudiated any share in +the prince's plans. On the contrary he attended the court and refused +any credence to the report that the prince born to James was +supposititious. After the landing of William he was present at the +council called by James on the 27th of November. He urged the king to +grant large concessions, but his speech, in contrast to the harsh and +overbearing attitude of the Hydes, was "the most tender and obliging ... +that ever was heard." He accepted the mission with Nottingham and +Godolphin to treat with William at Hungerford, and succeeded in +obtaining moderate terms from the prince. The negotiations, however, +were abortive, for James had from the first resolved on flight. In the +crisis which ensued, when the country was left without a government, +Halifax took the lead. He presided over the council of Lords which +assembled and took immediate measures to maintain public order. On the +return of James to London on the 16th of November, after his capture at +Faversham, Halifax repaired to William's camp and henceforth attached +himself unremittingly to his cause. On the 17th he carried with Lords +Delamere and Shrewsbury a message from William to the king advising his +departure from London, and, after the king's second flight, directed the +proceedings of the executive. On the meeting of the convention on the +22nd of January 1689, he was formally elected speaker of the House of +Lords. He voted against the motion for a regency (Jan. 20), which was +only defeated by two votes. The moderate and comprehensive character of +the settlement at the revolution plainly shows his guiding hand, and it +was finally through his persuasion that the Lords yielded to the Commons +and agreed to the compromise whereby William and Mary were declared +joint sovereigns. On the 13th of February in the Banqueting House at +Whitehall, he tendered the crown to them in the name of the nation, and +conducted the proclamation of their accession in the city. + +At the opening of the new reign he had considerable influence, was made +lord privy seal, while Danby his rival was obliged to content himself +with the presidency of the council, and controlled the appointments to +the new cabinet which were made on a "trimming" or comprehensive basis. +His views on religious toleration were as wide as those of the new king. +He championed the claims of the Nonconformists as against the high or +rigid Church party, and he was bitterly disappointed at the miscarriage +of the Comprehension Bill. He thoroughly approved also at first of +William's foreign policy; but, having excited the hostility of both the +Whig and Tory parties, he now became exposed to a series of attacks in +parliament which finally drove him from power. He was severely censured, +as it seems quite unjustly, for the disorder in Ireland, and an attempt +was made to impeach him for his conduct with regard to the sentences on +the Whig leaders. The inquiry resulted in his favour; but +notwithstanding, and in spite of the king's continued support, he +determined to retire. He had already resigned the speakership of the +House of Lords, and he now (Feb. 8, 1690) quitted his place in the +cabinet. He still nominally retained his seat in the privy council, but +in parliament he became a bitter critic of the administration; and the +rivalry of Halifax (the Black Marquess) with Danby, now marquess of +Carmarthen (the White Marquess) threw the former at this time into +determined opposition. He disapproved of William's total absorption in +European politics, and his open partiality for his countrymen. In +January 1691 Halifax had an interview with Henry Bulkeley, the Jacobite +agent, and is said to have promised "to do everything that lay in his +power to serve the king." This was probably merely a measure of +precaution, for he had no serious Jacobite leanings. He entered bail for +Lord Marlborough, accused wrongfully of complicity in a Jacobite plot in +May 1692, and in June, during the absence of the king from England, his +name was struck off the privy council. + +He spoke in favour of the Triennial Bill (Jan. 12, 1693) which passed +the legislature but was vetoed by William, suggested a proviso in the +Licensing Act, which restricted its operation to anonymous works, +approved the Place Bill (1694), but opposed, probably on account of the +large sums he had engaged in the traffic of annuities, the establishment +of the bank of England in 1694. Early in 1695 he delivered a strong +attack on the administration in the House of Lords, and, after a short +illness arising from a neglected complaint, he died on the 5th of April +at the age of sixty-one. He was buried in Henry VII.'s chapel in +Westminster Abbey. + +The influence of Halifax, both as orator and as writer, on the public +opinion of his day was probably unrivalled. His intellectual powers, his +high character, his urbanity, vivacity and satirical humour made a great +impression on his contemporaries, and many of his witty sayings have +been recorded. But the superiority of his statesmanship could not be +appreciated till later times. Maintaining throughout his career a +complete detachment from party, he never acted permanently or +continuously with either of the two great factions, and exasperated both +in turn by deserting their cause at the moment when their hopes seemed +on the point of realization. To them he appeared weak, inconstant, +untrustworthy. They could not see what to us now is plain and clear, +that Halifax was as consistent in his principles as the most rabid Whig +or Tory. But the principle which chiefly influenced his political +action, that of compromise, differed essentially from those of both +parties, and his attitude with regard to the Whigs or Tories was thus by +necessity continually changing. Measures, too, which in certain +circumstances appeared to him advisable, when the political scene had +changed became unwise or dangerous. Thus the regency scheme, which +Halifax had supported while Charles still reigned, was opposed by him +with perfect consistency at the revolution. He readily accepted for +himself the character of a "trimmer," desiring, he said, to keep the +boat steady, while others attempted to weigh it down perilously on one +side or the other; and he concluded his tract with these assertions: +"that our climate is a Trimmer between that part of the world where men +are roasted and the other where they are frozen; that our Church is a +Trimmer between the frenzy of fanatic visions and the lethargic +ignorance of Popish dreams; that our laws are Trimmers between the +excesses of unbounded power and the extravagance of liberty not enough +restrained; that true virtue hath ever been thought a Trimmer, and to +have its dwelling in the middle between two extremes; that even God +Almighty Himself is divided between His two great attributes, His Mercy +and His Justice. In such company, our Trimmer is not ashamed of his +name...."[5] + +His powerful mind enabled him to regard the various political problems +of his time from a height and from a point of view similar to that from +which distance from the events enables us to consider them at the +present day; and the superiority of his vision appears sufficiently from +the fact that his opinions and judgments on the political questions of +his time are those which for the most part have ultimately triumphed and +found general acceptance. His attitude of mind was curiously modern.[6] +Reading, writing and arithmetic, he thinks, should be taught to all and +at the expense of the state. His opinions again on the constitutional +relations of the colonies to the mother country, already cited, were +completely opposed to those of his own period. For that view of his +character which while allowing him the merit of a brilliant political +theorist denies him the qualities of a man of action and of a practical +politician, there is no solid basis. The truth is that while his +political ideas are founded upon great moral or philosophical +generalizations, often vividly recalling and sometimes anticipating the +broad conceptions of Burke, they are at the same time imbued with +precisely those practical qualities which have ever been characteristic +of English statesmenship, and were always capable of application to +actual conditions. He was no star-gazing philosopher, with thoughts +superior to the contemplation of mundane affairs. He had no taste for +abstract political dogma. He seems to venture no further than to think +that "men should live in some competent state of freedom," and that the +limited monarchical and aristocratic government was the best adapted for +his country. "Circumstances," he writes in the _Rough Draft of a New +Model at Sea_, "must come in and are to be made a part of the matter of +which we are to judge; positive decisions are always dangerous, more +especially in politics." Nor was he the mere literary student buried in +books and in contemplative ease. He had none of the "indecisiveness +which commonly renders literary men of no use in the world" (Sir John +Dalrymple). The incidents of his career show that there was no +backwardness or hesitation in acting when occasion required. The +constant tendency of his mind towards antithesis and the balancing of +opinions did not lead to paralysis in time of action. He did not shrink +from responsibility, nor show on any occasion lack of courage. At +various times of crisis he proved himself a great leader. He returned to +public life to defeat the Exclusion Bill. At the revolution it was +Halifax who seized the reins of government, flung away by James, and +maintained public security. His subsequent failure in collaborating with +William is, it is true, disappointing. But the cause was one that has +not perhaps received sufficient attention. Party government had come to +the birth during the struggles over the Exclusion Bill, and there had +been unconsciously introduced into politics a novel element of which the +nature and importance were not understood or suspected. Halifax had +consistently ignored and neglected party; and it now had its revenge. +Detested by the Whigs and by the Tories alike, and defended by neither, +the favour alone of the king and his own transcendent abilities proved +insufficient to withstand the constant and violent attacks made upon him +in parliament, and he yielded to the superior force. He seems indeed +himself to have been at last convinced of the necessity in English +political life of party government, for though in his Cautions to +electors he warns them against men "tied to a party," yet in his last +words he declares "If there are two parties a man ought to adhere to +that which he disliked least though in the whole he doth not approve it; +for whilst he doth not list himself in one or the other party, he is +looked upon as such a straggler that he is fallen upon by both.... Happy +those that are convinced so as to be of the general opinions" +(_Political Thoughts and Reflections of Parties_). + +The private character of Lord Halifax was in harmony with the greatness +of his public career. He was by no means the "voluptuary" described by +Macaulay. He was on the contrary free from self-indulgence; his manner +of life was decent and frugal, and his dress proverbially simple. He was +an affectionate father and husband. "His heart," says Burnet (i. +492-493, ed. 1833), "was much set on raising his family"--his last +concern even while on his deathbed was the remarriage of his son Lord +Eland to perpetuate his name; and this is probably the cause of his +acceptance of so many titles for which he himself affected a +philosophical indifference. He was estimable in his social relations and +habits. He showed throughout his career an honourable independence, and +was never seen to worship the rising sun. In a period when even great +men stooped to accept bribes, Halifax was known to be incorruptible; at +a time when animosities were especially bitter, he was too great a man +to harbour resentments. "Not only from policy," says Reresby (_Mem._ p. +231), "(which teaches that we ought to let no man be our enemy when we +can help it), but from his disposition I never saw any man more ready to +forgive than himself." Few were insensible to his personal charm and +gaiety. He excelled especially in quick repartee, in "exquisite +nonsense," and in spontaneous humour. When quite a young man, just +entering upon political life he is described by Evelyn as "a witty +gentleman, if not a little too prompt and daring." The latter +characteristic was not moderated by time but remained through life. He +was incapable of controlling his spirit of raillery, from jests on +Siamese missionaries to sarcasms at the expense of the heir to the +throne and ridicule of hereditary monarchy, and his brilliant paradoxes, +his pungent and often profane epigrams were received by graver persons +as his real opinions and as evidences of atheism. This latter charge he +repudiated, assuring Burnet that he was "a Christian in submission," but +that he could not digest iron like an ostrich nor swallow all that the +divines sought to impose upon the world. + +The speeches of Halifax have not been preserved, and his political +writings on this account have all the greater value. _The Character of a +Trimmer_ (1684 or 1685), the authorship of which, long doubtful, is now +established,[7] was his most ambitious production, written seemingly as +advice to the king and as a manifesto of his own opinions. In it he +discusses the political problems of the time and their solution on broad +principles. He supports the Test Act and, while opposing the Indulgence, +is not hostile to the repeal of the penal laws against the Roman +Catholics by parliament. Turning to foreign affairs he contemplates with +consternation the growing power of France and the humiliation of +England, exclaiming indignantly at the sight of the "Roses blasted and +discoloured while lilies triumph and grow insolent upon the comparison." +The whole is a masterly and comprehensive summary of the actual +political situation and its exigencies; while, when he treats such +themes as liberty, or discusses the balance to be maintained between +freedom and government in the constitution, he rises to the political +idealism of Bolingbroke and Burke. _The Character of King Charles II._ +(printed 1750), to be compared with his earlier sketch of the king in +the _Character of a Trimmer_, is perhaps from the literary point of view +the most admirable of his writings. The famous _Letter to a Dissenter_ +(1687) was thought by Sir James Mackintosh to be unrivalled as a +political pamphlet. _The Lady's New Year's Gift: or Advice to a +Daughter_, refers to his daughter Elizabeth, afterwards wife of the 3rd +and mother of the celebrated 4th earl of Chesterfield (1688). In _The +Anatomy of an Equivalent_ (1688) he treats with keen wit and power of +analysis the proposal to grant a "perpetual edict" in favour of the +Established Church in return for the repeal of the test and penal laws. +_Maxims of State_ appeared about 1692. _The Rough Draft of a New Model +at Sea_ (c. 1694), though apparently only a fragment, is one of the most +interesting and characteristic of his writings. It opens with the +question: "'What shall we do to be saved in this world?' There is no +other answer but this, 'Look to your moat.' The first article of an +Englishman's political creed must be that he believeth in the sea." He +discusses the naval establishment, not from the naval point of view +alone, but from the general aspect of the constitution of which it is a +detail, and is thus led on to consider the nature of the constitution +itself, and to show that it is not an artificial structure but a growth +and product of the natural character. We may also mention _Some +Cautions_ to the electors of the parliament (1694), and _Political, +Moral and Miscellaneous Thoughts and Reflections_ (n.d.), a collection +of aphorisms in the style of the maxims of La Rochefoucauld, inferior in +style--but greatly excelling the French author in breadth of view and in +moderation. (For other writings attributed to Halifax, see Foxcroft, +_Life of Sir G. Savile_, ii. 529 sqq.). + +Halifax was twice married, first in 1656 to the Lady Dorothy +Spencer--daughter of the 1st earl of Sunderland and of Dorothy Sidney, +"Sacharissa"--who died in 1670, leaving a family; and secondly, in 1672, +to Gertrude, daughter of William Pierrepont of Thoresby, who survived +him, and by whom he had one daughter, Elizabeth, Lady Chesterfield, who +seems to have inherited a considerable portion of her father's +intellectual abilities. On the death of his son William, 2nd marquess of +Halifax, in August 1700 without male issue, the peerage became extinct, +and the baronetcy passed to the Saviles of Lupset, the whole male line +of the Savile family ending in the person of Sir George Savile, 8th +baronet, in 1784. Henry Savile, British envoy at Versailles, who died +unmarried in 1687, was a younger brother of the first marquess. Halifax +has been generally supposed to have been the father of the illegitimate +Henry Carey, the poet, but this is doubtful. + + See _Life and Letters of Sir George Savile, 1st Marquis of Halifax_ (2 + vols., 1898), by Miss H. C. Foxcroft, who has collected and made + excellent use of all the material available at that date, including + hitherto unexplored Savile MSS., at Devonshire House, in the Spencer + Archives, in the Longleat and other collections, and who has edited + the works of Halifax and printed a memorandum of conversations with + King William of 1688-1690, left in MS. by Halifax. Macaulay, in his + _History of England_, misjudged Halifax on some points, but + nevertheless understood and did justice to the greatness of his + statesmanship, and pronounced on him a well-merited and eloquent + eulogy (iv. 545). Contemporary characters of Halifax which must be + accepted with caution are Burnet's in the _History of His Own Times_ + (ed. 1833, vol. i. pp. 491-493, and iv. 268), that by the author of + "Savilianal," identified as William Mompesson, and "Sacellum + Apollinare," a panegyric in verse by Elkanah Settle (1695). + (P. C. Y.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _Cal. State Papers, Dom._ (Nov. 1667-Sep. 1668). p. 106. + + [2] _Lords' Journals_, 12, p. 567; _Savile Correspondence_, ed. by W. + D. Cooper, p. 136; "Character of a Trimmer," in _Life of Sir G. + Savile_, by H. C. Foxcroft, ii. 316. + + [3] Foxcroft i. 160, where Hallam is quoted to this effect. + + [4] _Hist. MSS. Comm. House of Lords MSS._ 1689-1690, p. 287. + + [5] _Character of a Trimmer_, conclusion. + + [6] Saviliana quoted by Foxcroft i. 115. + + [7] Foxcroft, ii. 273 et seq., and _Hist. MSS. Comm. MSS._ of F. W. + Leyborne-Popham, p. 264. + + + + +HALIFAX, a city and port of entry, capital of the province of Nova +Scotia, Canada. It is situated in 44° 59´ N. and 63° 35´ W., on the +south-east coast of the province, on a fortified hill, 225 ft. in +height, which slopes down to the waters of Chebucto Bay, now known as +Halifax Harbour. The harbour, which is open all the year, is about 6 m. +long by 1 m. in width, and has excellent anchorage in all parts; to the +north a narrow passage connects it with Bedford Basin, 6 m. in length by +4 m., and deep enough for the largest men-of-war. At the harbour mouth +lies McNab's Island, thus forming two entrances; the eastern passage is +only employed by small vessels, though in 1862 the Confederate cruiser, +"Tallahassee," slipped through by night, and escaped the northern +vessels which were watching off the western entrance. The population in +1901 was 40,832. + +The town was originally built of wood, plastered or stuccoed, but though +the wooden houses largely remain, the public buildings are of stone. +Inferior in natural strength to Quebec alone, the city and its +approaches have been fortified till it has become the strongest position +in Canada, and one of the strongest in the British Empire. Till 1906 it +was garrisoned by British troops, but in that year, with Esquimalt, on +the Pacific coast, it was taken over by the Canadian government, an +operation necessitating a large increase in the Canadian permanent +military force. At the same time, the royal dockyard, containing a +dry-dock 610 ft. in length, and the residences in connexion, were also +taken over for the use of the department of marine and fisheries. Till +1905 Halifax was the summer station of the British North American +squadron. In that year, in consequence of a redistribution of the fleet, +the permanent North American squadron was withdrawn; but Halifax is +still visited periodically by powerful squadrons of cruisers. + +Though, owing to the growth of Sydney and other outports, it no longer +monopolizes the foreign trade of the province, Halifax is still a +thriving town, and has the largest export trade of the Dominion in fish +and fish products, the export of fish alone, in 1904, amounting to over +three-fifths that of the entire Dominion. Lumber (chiefly spruce deals) +and agricultural products (especially apples) are also exported in large +quantities. The chief imports are manufactures from Great Britain and +the United States, and sugar, molasses, rum and fruit from the West +Indies. Its industrial establishments include foundries, sugar +refineries, manufactures of furniture and other articles of wood, a +skate factory and rope and cordage works, the produce of which are all +exported. It is the Atlantic terminus of the Intercolonial, Canadian +Pacific and several provincial railways, and the chief winter port of +Canada, numerous steamship lines connecting it with Great Britain, +Europe, the West Indies and the United States. The public gardens, +covering 14 acres, and Point Pleasant Park, left to a great extent in +its natural state, are extremely beautiful. Behind the city is an arm of +the sea (known as the North-West Arm), 5 m. in length and 1 m. in +breadth, with high, well-wooded shores, and covered in summer with +canoes and sailing craft. The educational institutions include a +ladies' college, several convents, a Presbyterian theological college +and Dalhousie University, with faculties of arts, law, medicine and +science. Established by charter in 1818 by the earl of Dalhousie, then +lieutenant governor, and reorganized in 1863, it has since become much +the most important seat of learning in the maritime provinces. Other +prominent buildings are Government House, the provincial parliament and +library, and the Roman Catholic cathedral. St Paul's church (Anglican) +dates from 1750, and though not striking architecturally, is interesting +from the memorial tablets and the graves of celebrated Nova Scotians +which it contains. The city is the seat of the Anglican bishop of Nova +Scotia and Prince Edward Island, and of the Roman Catholic bishop of +Halifax. + +Founded in 1749 by the Hon. Edward Cornwallis as a rival to the French +town of Louisburg in Cape Breton, it was named after the 2nd earl of +Halifax, president of the board of trade and plantations. In the +following year it superseded Annapolis as capital of the province. Its +privateers played a prominent part in the war of 1812-15 with the United +States, and during the American Civil War it was a favourite base of +operations for Confederate blockade-runners. The federation of the North +American provinces in 1867 lessened its relative importance, but its +merchants have gradually adapted themselves to the altered conditions. + + + + +HALIFAX, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough in the West +Riding of Yorkshire, England, 194 m. N.N.W. from London and 7 m. S.W. +from Bradford, on the Great Northern and the Lancashire & Yorkshire +railways. Pop. (1891), 97,714; (1901) 104,936. It lies in a bare hilly +district on and above the small river Hebble near its junction with the +Calder. Its appearance is in the main modern, though a few picturesque +old houses remain. The North Bridge, a fine iron structure, spans the +valley, giving connexion between the opposite higher parts of the town. +The principal public building is the town hall, completed in 1863 after +the designs of Sir Charles Barry; it is a handsome Palladian building +with a tower. Of churches the most noteworthy is that of St John the +Baptist, the parish church, a Perpendicular building with lofty western +tower. Two earlier churches are traceable on this side, the first +perhaps pre-Norman, the second of the Early English period. The old +woodwork is fine, part being Perpendicular, but the greater portion +dates from 1621. All Souls' church was built in 1859 from the designs of +Sir Gilbert Scott, of whose work it is a good example, at the expense of +Mr Edward Akroyd. The style is early Decorated, and a rich ornamentation +is carried out in Italian marble, serpentine and alabaster. A graceful +tower and spire 236 ft. high rise at the north-west angle. The Square +chapel, erected by the Congregationalists in 1857, is a striking +cruciform building with a tower and elaborate crocketed spire. Both the +central library and museum and the Akroyd museum and art gallery occupy +buildings which were formerly residences, the one of Sir Francis +Crossley (1817-1872) and the other of Mr Edward Akroyd. Among charitable +institutions the principal is the handsome royal infirmary, a +Renaissance building. The Heath grammar school was founded in 1585 under +royal charter for instruction in classical languages. It possesses close +scholarships at Oxford and Cambridge universities. The Waterhouse +charity school occupies a handsome set of buildings forming three sides +of a quadrangle, erected in 1855. The Crossley almshouses were erected +and endowed by Sir Francis and Mr Joseph Crossley, who also endowed the +Crossley orphan home and school. Technical schools are maintained by the +corporation. Among other public buildings may be noted the Piece-Hall, +erected in 1799 for the lodgment and sale of piece goods, now used as a +market, a great quadrangular structure occupying more than two acres; +the bonding warehouse, court-house, and mechanics' institute. There are +six parks, of which the People's Park of 12½ acres, presented by Sir +Francis Crossley in 1858, is laid out in ornate style from designs by +Sir Joseph Paxton. + +Halifax ranks with Leeds, Bradford and Huddersfield as a seat of the +woollen and worsted manufacture. The manufacture of carpets is a large +industry, one establishment employing some 5000 hands. The worsted, +woollen and cotton industries, and the iron, steel and machinery +manufactures are very extensive. There are collieries and freestone +quarries in the neighbourhood. + +The parliamentary borough returns two members. The county borough was +created in 1888. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 15 aldermen and +45 councillors. Area, 13,967 acres. + +At the time of the Conquest Halifax formed part of the extensive manor +of Wakefield, which belonged to the king, but in the 13th century was in +the hands of John, earl Warrenne (c. 1245-1305). The prosperity of the +town began with the introduction of the cloth trade in the 15th century, +when there are said to have been only thirteen houses, which before the +end of the 16th century had increased to 520. Camden, about the end of +the 17th century, wrote that "the people are very industrious, so that +though the soil about it be barren and improfitable, not fit to live on, +they have so flourished ... by the clothing trade that they are very +rich and have gained a reputation for it above their neighbours." The +trade is said to have been increased by the arrival of certain merchants +driven from the Netherlands by the persecution of the duke of Alva. +Among the curious customs of Halifax was the Gibbet Law, which was +probably established by a prescriptive right to protect the wool trade, +and gave the inhabitants the power of executing any one taken within +their liberty, who, when tried by a jury of sixteen of the +frith-burgesses, was found guilty of the theft of any goods of the value +of more than 13d. The executions took place on market days on a hill +outside the town, the gibbet somewhat resembling a guillotine. The first +execution recorded under this law took place in 1541, and the right was +exercised in Halifax longer than in any other town, the last execution +taking place in 1650. In 1635 the king granted the inhabitants of +Halifax licence to found a workhouse in a large house given to them for +that purpose by Nathaniel Waterhouse, and incorporated them under the +name of the master and governors. Nathaniel Waterhouse was appointed the +first master, his successors being elected every year by the twelve +governors from among themselves. Halifax was a borough by prescription, +its privileges growing up with the increased prosperity brought by the +cloth trade, but it was not incorporated until 1848. Since the Reform +Act of 1832 the burgesses have returned two members to parliament. In +1607 David Waterhouse, lord of the manor of Halifax, obtained a grant of +two markets there every week on Friday and Saturday and two fairs every +year, each lasting three days, one beginning on the 24th of June, the +other on the 11th of November. Later these fairs and markets were +confirmed with the addition of an extra market on Thursday to Sir +William Ayloffe, baronet, who had succeeded David Waterhouse as lord of +the manor. The market rights were sold to the Markets Company in 1810 +and purchased from them by the corporation in 1853. + +During the Civil War Halifax was garrisoned by parliament, and a field +near it is still called the Bloody Field on account of an engagement +which took place there between the forces of parliament and the +Royalists. + + See _Victoria County History_, "Yorkshire"; T. Wright, _The + Antiquities of the Town of Halifax_ (Leeds, 1738); John Watson, _The + History and Antiquities of the Parish of Halifax_ (London, 1775); John + Crabtree, _A Concise History of the Parish and Vicarage of Halifax_ + (Halifax and London, 1836). + + + + +HALISAH (Hebrew, [Hebrew: halitza] "untying"), the ceremony by which a +Jewish widow releases her brother-in-law from the obligation to marry +her in accordance with Deuteronomy xxv. 5-10, and obtains her own +freedom to remarry. By the law of Moses it became obligatory upon the +brother of a man dying childless to take his widow as wife. If he +refused, "then shall his brother's wife come unto him in the presence of +the elders and loose his shoe from off his foot, and spit in his face, +and shall answer and say, So shall it be done unto that man that will +not build up his brother's house." By Rabbinical law the ceremony was +later made more complex. The parties appear before a court of three +elders with two assessors. The place is usually the synagogue house, or +that of the Rabbi, sometimes that of the widow. After inquiry as to the +relationship of the parties and their status (for if either be a minor +or deformed, halisah cannot take place), the shoe is produced. It is +usually the property of the community and made entirely of leather from +the skin of a "clean" animal. It is of two pieces, the upper part and +the sole, sewn together with leathern threads. It has three small straps +in front, and two white straps to bind it on the leg. After it is +strapped on, the man must walk four cubits in the presence of the court. +The widow then loosens and removes the shoe, throwing it some distance, +and spits on the ground, repeating thrice the Biblical formula "So shall +it be done," &c. Halisah, which is still common among orthodox Jews, +must not take place on the Sabbath, a holiday, or the eve of either, or +in the evening. To prevent brothers-in-law from extorting money from a +widow as a price for releasing her from perpetual widowhood, Jewish law +obliges all brothers at the time of a marriage to sign a document +pledging themselves to submit to halisah without payment. (Compare +LEVIRATE). + + + + +HALKETT, HUGH, FREIHERR VON (1783-1863), British soldier and general of +infantry in the Hanoverian service, was the second son of Major-General +F. G. Halkett, who had served many years in the army, and whose +ancestors had for several generations distinguished themselves in +foreign services. With the "Scotch Brigade" which his father had been +largely instrumental in raising, Hugh Halkett served in India from 1798 +to 1801. In 1803 his elder brother Colin was appointed to command a +battalion of the newly formed King's German Legion, and in this he +became senior captain and then major. Under his brother's command he +served with Cathcart's expeditions to Hanover, Rügen and Copenhagen, +where his bold initiative on outpost duty won commendation. He was in +the Peninsula in 1808-1809, and at Walcheren. At Albuera, Salamanca, +&c., he commanded the 2nd Light Infantry Battalion, K.G.L., in +succession to his brother, and at Venta del Pozo in the Burgos retreat +he greatly distinguished himself. In 1813 he left the Peninsula and was +subsequently employed in the organization of the new Hanoverian army. He +led a brigade of these troops in Count Wallmoden's army, and bore a +marked part in the battle of Göhrde and the action of Schestedt, where +he took with his own hand a Danish standard. In the Waterloo campaign he +commanded two brigades of Hanoverian militia which were sent to the +front with the regulars, and during the fight with the Old Guard +captured General Cambronne. After the fall of Napoleon he elected to +stay in the Hanoverian service, though he retained his half-pay +lieutenant-colonelcy in the English army. He rose to be general and +inspector-general of infantry. In his old age he led the Xth Federal +Army Corps in the Danish War of 1848, and defeated the Danes at Oversee. +He had the G.C.H., the C.B. and many foreign orders, including the +Prussian order of the Black Eagle and _pour le Mérite_ and the Russian +St Anne. + + See Knesebeck, _Leben des Freiherrn Hugh von Halkett_ (Stuttgart, + 1865). + +His brother, SIR COLIN HALKETT (1774-1856), British soldier, began his +military career in the Dutch Guards and served in various "companies" +for three years, leaving as a captain in 1795. From 1800 to the peace of +Amiens he served with the Dutch troops in English pay in Guernsey. In +August 1803 Halkett was one of the first officers assigned to the +service of raising the King's German Legion, and he became major, and +later lieutenant-colonel, commanding the 2nd Light Infantry Battalion. +His battalion was employed in the various expeditions mentioned above, +from Hanover to Walcheren, and in 1811 Colin Halkett succeeded Charles +Alten in the command of the Light Brigade, K.G.L., which he held +throughout the Peninsula War from Albuera to Toulouse. In 1815 +Major-General Sir Colin Halkett commanded the 5th British Brigade of +Alten's division, and at Waterloo he received four wounds. Unlike his +brother, he remained in the British service, in which he rose to +general. At the time of his death he was governor of Chelsea hospital. +He had honorary general's rank in the Hanoverian service, the G.C.B. and +G.C.H., as well as numerous foreign orders. + + For information about both the Halketts, see Beamish, _History of the + King's German Legion_ (1832). + + + + +HALL, BASIL (1788-1844), British naval officer, traveller and +miscellaneous writer, was born at Edinburgh on the 31st of December +1788. His father was Sir James Hall of Dunglass, the geologist. Basil +Hall was educated at the High School, Edinburgh, and in 1802 entered the +navy, where he rose to the rank of post-captain in 1817, after seeing +active service in several fields. By observing the ethnological as well +as the physical peculiarities of the countries he visited, he collected +the materials for a very large number of scientific papers. In 1816 he +commanded the sloop "Lyra," which accompanied Lord Amherst's embassy to +China; and he described his cruise in _An Account of a Voyage of +Discovery to the West Coast of Corea and the Great Loo-choo Island in +the Japan Sea_ (London, 1818). In 1820 he held a command on the Pacific +coast of America, and in 1824 published two volumes of _Extracts from a +Journal written on the Coasts of Chili, Peru and Mexico in the Years +1820-21-22_. Retiring on half-pay in 1824, Hall in 1825 married +Margaret, daughter of Sir John Hunter, and in her company travelled +(1827-1828) through the United States. In 1829 he published his _Travels +in North America in the Years 1827 and 1828_, which was assailed by the +American press for its views of American society. _Schloss Hainfeld, or +a Winter in Lower Styria_ (1836), is partly a romance, partly a +description of a visit paid by the author to the castle of the countess +Purgstall. _Spain and the Seat of War in Spain_ appeared in 1837. _The +Fragments of Voyages and Travels_ (9 vols.) were issued in three +detachments between 1831 and 1840. Captain Hall was a fellow of the +Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh, and of the Royal Astronomical, +Royal Geographical and Geological Societies. His last work, a collection +of sketches and tales under the name of _Patchwork_ (1841), had not been +long published before its author became insane, and he died in Haslar +hospital, Portsmouth, on the 11th of September 1844. + + + + +HALL, CARL CHRISTIAN (1812-1888), Danish statesman, son of the highly +respected artisan and train-band colonel Mads Hall, was born at +Christianshavn on the 25th of February 1812. After a distinguished +career at school and college, he adopted the law as his profession, and +in 1837 married the highly gifted but eccentric Augusta Marie, daughter +of the philologist Peter Oluf Bröndsted. A natural conservatism +indisposed Hall at first to take any part in the popular movement of +1848, to which almost all his friends had already adhered; but the +moment he was convinced of the inevitability of popular government, he +resolutely and sympathetically followed in the new paths. Sent to the +_Rigsforsamling_ of 1848 as member for the first district of Copenhagen, +a constituency he continued to represent in the _Folketing_ till 1881, +he immediately took his place in the front rank of Danish politicians. +From the first he displayed rare ability as a debater, his inspiring and +yet amiable personality attracted hosts of admirers, while his +extraordinary tact and temper disarmed opposition and enabled him to +mediate between extremes without ever sacrificing principles. + +Hall was not altogether satisfied with the fundamental law of June; but +he considered it expedient to make the best use possible of the existing +constitution and to unite the best conservative elements of the nation +in its defence. The aloofness and sulkiness of the aristocrats and +landed proprietors he deeply deplored. Failing to rally them to the good +cause he determined anyhow to organize the great cultivated middle class +into a political party. Hence the "June Union," whose programme was +progress and reform in the spirit of the constitution, and at the same +time opposition to the one-sided democratism and party-tyranny of the +_Bondevenner_ or peasant party. The "Union" exercised an essential +influence on the elections of 1852, and was, in fact, the beginning of +the national Liberal party, which found its natural leader in Hall. +During the years 1852-1854 the burning question of the day was the +connexion between the various parts of the monarchy. Hall was +"eiderdansk" by conviction. He saw in the closest possible union +between the kingdom and a Schleswig freed from all risk of German +interference the essential condition for Denmark's independence; but he +did not think that Denmark was strong enough to carry such a policy +through unsupported, and he was therefore inclined to promote it by +diplomatic means and international combinations, and strongly opposed to +the Conventions of 1851-1852 (See DENMARK: _History_), though he was +among the first, subsequently, to accept them as an established fact and +the future basis for Denmark's policy. + +Hall first took office in the Bang administration (12th of December +1854) as minister of public worship. In May 1857 he became president of +the council after Andrae, Bang's successor, had retired, and in July +1858 he exchanged the ministry of public worship for the ministry of +foreign affairs, while still retaining the premiership. + +Hall's programme, "den Konstitutionelle Helstat," i.e. a single state +with a common constitution, was difficult enough in a monarchy which +included two nationalities, one of which, to a great extent, belonged to +a foreign and hostile jurisdiction. But as this political monstrosity +had already been guaranteed by the Conventions of 1851-1852, Hall could +not rid himself of it, and the attempt to establish this "Helstat" was +made accordingly by the Constitution of the 13th of November 1863. The +failure of the attempt and its disastrous consequences for Denmark are +described elsewhere. Here it need only be said that Hall himself soon +became aware of the impossibility of the "Helstat," and his whole policy +aimed at making its absurdity patent to Europe, and substituting for it +a constitutional Denmark to the Eider which would be in a position to +come to terms with an independent Holstein. That this was the best thing +possible for Denmark is absolutely indisputable, and "the diplomatic +Seven Years' War" which Hall in the meantime conducted with all the +powers interested in the question is the most striking proof of his +superior statesmanship. Hall knew that in the last resort the question +must be decided not by the pen but by the sword. But he relied, +ultimately, on the protection of the powers which had guaranteed the +integrity of Denmark by the treaty of London, and if words have any +meaning at all he had the right to expect at the very least the armed +support of Great Britain.[1] But the great German powers and the force +of circumstances proved too strong for him. On the accession of the new +king, Christian IX., Hall resigned rather than repeal the November +Constitution, which gave Denmark something to negotiate upon in case of +need. But he made matters as easy as he could for his successors in the +Monrad administration, and the ultimate catastrophe need not have been +as serious as it was had his advice, frankly given, been intelligently +followed. + +After 1864 Hall bore more than his fair share of the odium and +condemnation which weighed so heavily upon the national Liberal party, +making no attempt to repudiate responsibility and refraining altogether +from attacking patently unscrupulous opponents. But his personal +popularity suffered not the slightest diminution, while his clear, +almost intuitive, outlook and his unconquerable faith in the future of +his country made him, during those difficult years, a factor of +incalculable importance in the public life of Denmark. In 1870 he joined +the Holstein-Holsteinborg ministry as minister of public worship, and in +that capacity passed many useful educational reforms, but on the fall of +the administration, in 1873, he retired altogether from public life. In +the summer of 1879 Hall was struck down by apoplexy, and for the +remaining nine years of his life he was practically bedridden. He died +on the 14th of August 1888. In politics Hall was a practical, sagacious +"opportunist," in the best sense of that much abused word, with an eye +rather for things than for persons. Moreover, he had no very pronounced +political ambition, and was an utter stranger to that longing for power, +which drives so many men of talent to adopt extreme expedients. His +urbanity and perfect equilibrium at the very outset incited sympathy, +while his wit and humour made him the centre of every circle within +which he moved. + + See Vilhelm Christian Sigurd Topsöe, _Polit. Portraetstudier_ + (Copenhagen, 1878); Schöller Parelius Vilhelm Birkedal, _Personlige + Oplevelser_ (Copenhagen, 1890-1891). (R. N. B.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] On this head see the 3rd marquess of Salisbury's _Political + Essays_, reprinted from the _Quarterly Review_. + + + + +HALL, CHARLES FRANCIS (1821-1871), American Arctic explorer, was born at +Rochester, New Hampshire. After following the trade of blacksmith he +became a journalist in Cincinnati; but his enthusiasm for Arctic +exploration led him in 1859 to volunteer to the American Geographical +Society to "go in search for the bones of Franklin." With the proceeds +of a public subscription he was equipped for his expedition and sailed +in May 1860 on board a whaling vessel. The whaler being ice-bound, Hall +took up his abode in the regions to the north of Hudson Bay, where he +found relics of Frobisher's 16th-century voyages, and living with the +Eskimo for two years he acquired a considerable knowledge of their +habits and language. He published an account of these experiences under +the title of _Arctic Researches, and Life among the Esquimaux_ (1864). +Determined, however, to learn more about the fate of the Franklin +expedition he returned to the same regions in 1864, and passing five +years among the Eskimo was successful in obtaining a number of Franklin +relics, as well as information pointing to the exact fate of 76 of the +crew, whilst also performing some geographical work of interest. In 1871 +he was given command of the North Polar expedition fitted out by the +United States Government in the "Polaris." Making a remarkably rapid +passage up Smith Sound at the head of Baffin Bay, which was found to be +ice-free, the "Polaris" reached on the 30th of August the lat. of 82° +11´, at that time, and until the English expedition of 1876 the highest +northern latitude attained by vessel. The expedition went into winter +quarters in a sheltered cove on the Greenland coast. On the 24th of +October, Hall on his return from a successful sledge expedition to the +north was suddenly seized by an illness of which he died on the 8th of +November. Capt. S. O. Buddington (1823-1888) assumed command, and +although the "Polaris" was subsequently lost after breaking out of the +ice, with only part of the crew aboard, the whole were ultimately +rescued, and the scientific results of the expedition proved to be of +considerable importance. + + + + +HALL, CHRISTOPHER NEWMAN (1816-1902), English Nonconformist divine, was +born at Maidstone on the 22nd of May 1816. His father was John Vine +Hall, proprietor and printer of the _Maidstone Journal_, and the author +of a popular evangelical work called _The Sinner's Friend_. Christopher +was educated at University College, London, and took the London B.A. +degree. His theological training was gained at Highbury College, whence +he was called in 1842 to his first pastorate at the Albion +Congregational Church, Hull. During the twelve years of his ministry +there the membership was greatly increased, and a branch chapel and +school were opened. At Hull Newman Hall first began his active work in +temperance reform, and in defence of his position wrote _The Scriptural +Claims of Teetotalism_. In 1854 he accepted a call to Surrey chapel, +London, founded in 1783 by the Rev. Rowland Hill. A considerable sum had +been bequeathed by Hill for the perpetuation of his work on the +expiration of the lease; but, owing to some legal flaw in the will, the +money was not available, and Newman Hall undertook to raise the +necessary funds for a new church. By weekly offertories and donations +the money for the beautiful building called Christ Church at the +junction of the Kennington and Westminster Bridge Roads was collected, +and within four years of opening (1876) the total cost (£63,000) was +cleared. In 1892 Newman Hall resigned his charge and devoted himself to +general evangelical work. Most of his writings are small booklets or +tracts of a distinctly evangelical character. The best known of these is +_Come to Jesus_, of which over four million copies have been circulated +in forty different languages. Newman Hall visited the United States +during the Civil War, and did much to promote a friendly understanding +between England and America. A Liberal in politics, and a keen admirer +of John Bright, few preachers of any denomination have exercised so +far-reaching an influence as the "Dissenters' Bishop," as he came to be +termed. He died on the 18th of February 1902. + + See his _Autobiography_ (1898); obituary notice in _The Congregational + Year Book_ for 1903. + + + + +HALL, EDWARD (c. 1498-1547), English chronicler and lawyer, was born +about the end of the 15th century, being a son of John Hall of Northall, +Shropshire. Educated at Eton and King's College, Cambridge, he became a +barrister and afterwards filled the offices of common sergeant of the +city of London and judge of the sheriff's court. He was also member of +parliament for Bridgnorth. Hall's great work, _The Union of the Noble +and Illustre Famelies of Lancastre and York_, commonly called _Hall's +Chronicle_, was first published in 1542. Another edition was issued by +Richard Grafton in 1548, the year after Hall's death, and another in +1550; these include a continuation from 1532 compiled by Grafton from +the author's notes. In 1809 an edition was published under the +supervision of Sir Henry Ellis, and in 1904 the part dealing with the +reign of Henry VIII. was edited by C. Whibley. The _Chronicle_ begins +with the accession of Henry IV. to the English throne in 1399; it +follows the strife between the houses of Lancaster and York, and with +Grafton's continuation carries the story down to the death of Henry +VIII. in 1547. Hall presents the policy of this king in a very +favourable light and shows his own sympathy with the Protestants. For +all kinds of ceremonial he has all a lawyer's respect, and his pages are +often adorned and encumbered with the pageantry and material garniture +of the story. The value of the _Chronicle_ in its early stages is not +great, but this increases when dealing with the reign of Henry VII. and +is very considerable for the reign of Henry VIII. Moreover, the work is +not only valuable, it is attractive. To the historian it furnishes what +is evidently the testimony of an eye-witness on several matters of +importance which are neglected by other narrators; and to the student of +literature it has the exceptional interest of being one of the prime +sources of Shakespeare's historical plays. + + See J. Gairdner, _Early Chroniclers of Europe; England_ (1879). + + + + +HALL, FITZEDWARD (1825-1901), American Orientalist, was born in Troy, +New York, on the 21st of March 1825. He graduated with the degree of +civil engineer from the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute at Troy in +1842, and entered Harvard in the class of 1846; just before his class +graduated he left college and went to India in search of a runaway +brother. In January 1850 he was appointed tutor, and in 1853 professor +of Sanskrit and English, in the government college at Benares; and in +1855 was made inspector of public instruction in Ajmere-Merwara and in +1856 in the Central Provinces. He settled in England in 1862 and +received the appointment to the chair of Sanskrit, Hindustani and Indian +jurisprudence in King's College, London, and to the librarianship of the +India Office. He died at Marlesford, Suffolk, on the 1st of February +1901. Hall was the first American to edit a Sanskrit text, the +_Vishnupurana_; his library of a thousand Oriental MSS. he gave to +Harvard University. + + His works include: in Sanskrit, _Atmabodha_ (1852), + _Sankhyapravachana_ (1856), _Saryasiddhanta_ (1859), _Vasavadattu_ + (1859), _Sankhyasara_ (1862) and _Dasarupa_ (1865); in Hindi, + Ballantynes' _Hindi Grammar_ (1868) and a _Reader_ (1870); on English + philology, _Recent Exemplifications of False Philology_ (1872), + attacking Richard Grant White, _Modern English_ (1873), "On English + Adjectives in -able, with Special Reference to Reliable" (_Am. Jour. + Philology_, 1877), _Doctor Indoctus_ (1880). + + + + +HALL, ISAAC HOLLISTER (1837-1896), American Orientalist, was born in +Norwalk, Connecticut, on the 12th of December 1837. He graduated at +Hamilton College in 1859, was a tutor there in 1859-1863, graduated at +the Columbia Law School in 1865, practised law in New York City until +1875, and in 1875-1877 taught in the Syrian Protestant College at +Beirut, where he discovered a valuable Syriac manuscript of the +Philoxenian version of a large part of the New Testament, which he +published in part in facsimile in 1884. He worked with General di +Cesnola in classifying the famous Cypriote collection in the +Metropolitan Museum of New York City, and was a curator of that museum +from 1885 until his death in Mount Vernon, New York, on the 2nd of July +1896. He was an eminent authority on Oriental inscriptions. Following +the scanty clues given by George Smith and Samuel Birch, and working on +the data furnished by the di Cesnola collection, he succeeded about 1874 +in deciphering an entire Cypriote inscription, and in establishing the +Hellenic character of the dialect and the syllabic nature of the script. + + His work in Cypriote epigraphy is described in his articles in + _Scribner's Magazine_, vol. 20 (June, 1880), pp. 205-211 and in the + _Journal of the American Oriental Society_, vol. 10, No. 2 (1880), pp. + 201-218. He published in facsimile the Antilegomena epistles (1886), + which he deciphered from the W. F. Williams manuscript, and edited _A + Critical Bibliography of the Greek New Testament as Published in + America_ (1884). + + + + +HALL, SIR JAMES (1761-1832), Scottish geologist and physicist, eldest +son of Sir John Hall, Bart., was born at Dunglass on the 17th of January +1761; and became distinguished as the first to establish experimental +research as an aid to geological investigation. He was intimately +acquainted with James Hutton and John Playfair, and having studied rocks +in various parts of Europe he was eventually led to accept and to +demonstrate the truth of Hutton's views with regard to intrusive rocks. +He commenced a series of experiments to illustrate the fusion of rocks, +their vitreous and crystalline characters, and the influence of molten +rocks in altering adjacent strata. He thus assisted in proving that +granitic veins had been injected into overlying deposits after their +consolidation. He studied the volcanic rocks in Italy and recognized +that the old lava flows and the numerous dikes in Scotland must have had +a similar origin. He made further experiments to illustrate the +contortions of rocks. The results were brought before the Royal Society +of Edinburgh. He died at Edinburgh on the 23rd of June 1832. He +represented in parliament (1807-1812) the old borough of Michael in +Cornwall; he also wrote an Essay on the _Origin, History and Principles +of Gothic Architecture_ (1813). + +His eldest son, John Hall (1787-1860), who succeeded him, was a Fellow +of the Royal Society; the second son, Captain Basil Hall (q.v.), was the +distinguished traveller; the third son, James Hall (1800-1854), was a +painter, art-patron, and a friend of Sir David Wilkie. + + + + +HALL, JAMES (1793-1868), American judge and man of letters, was born at +Philadelphia on the 19th of August 1793. After for some time prosecuting +the study of law, he in 1812 joined the army, and in the war with Great +Britain distinguished himself in engagements at Lundy's Lane, Niagara +and Fort Erie. On the conclusion of the war he accompanied an expedition +against Algiers, but in 1818 he resigned his commission, and continued +the study of law at Pittsburg. In 1820 he removed to Shawneetown, +Illinois, where he commenced practice at the bar and also edited the +_Illinois Gazette_. Soon after he was appointed public prosecutor of the +circuit, and in 1824 state circuit judge. In 1827 he became state +treasurer, and held that office till 1831, but he continued at the same +time his legal practice and also edited the _Illinois Intelligencer_. +Subsequently he became editor of the _Western Souvenir_, an annual +publication, and of the _Illinois Monthly Magazine_, afterwards the +_Western Monthly Magazine_. He died near Cincinnati on the 5th of July +1868. + + The following are his principal works:--_Letters from the West_, + originally contributed to the _Portfolio_, and collected and published + in London in 1828; _Legends of the West_ (1832); _The Soldier's Bride + and other Tales_ (1832); _The Harpe's Head, a Legend of Kentucky_ + (1833); _Sketches of the West_ (2 vols., 1835); _Tales of the Border_ + (1835); _Notes on the Western States_ (1838); _History of the Indian + Tribes_, in conjunction with T. L. M'Keeney (3 vols., 1838-1844); _The + Wilderness and the War-Path_ (1845); _Romance of Western History_ + (1857). + + + + +HALL, JAMES (1811-1898). American geologist and palaeontologist, was +born at Hingham, Massachusetts, on the 12th of September 1811. In early +life he became attached to the study of natural history, and he +completed his education at the polytechnic institute at Troy in New +York, where he graduated in 1832, and afterwards became professor of +chemistry and natural science, and subsequently of geology. In 1836 he +was appointed one of the geologists on the Geological Survey of the +state of New York, and he was before long charged with the +palaeontological work. Eventually he became state geologist and director +of the museum of natural history at Albany. His published papers date +from 1836, and include numerous reports on the geology and palaeontology +of various portions of the United States and Canada. He dealt likewise +with physical geology, and in 1859 discussed the connexion between the +accumulation of sedimentary deposits and the elevation of +mountain-chains. His chief work was the description of the invertebrate +fossils of New York--in which he dealt with the graptolites, +brachiopods, mollusca, trilobites, echini and crinoids of the Palaeozoic +formations. The results were published in a series of quarto volumes +entitled _Palaeontology of New York_ (1847-1894), in which he was +assisted in course of time by R. P. Whitfield and J. M. Clarke. He +published also reports on the geology of Oregon and California (1845), +Utah (1852), Iowa (1859) and Wisconsin (1862). He received the Wollaston +medal from the Geological Society of London in 1858. He was a man of +great energy and untiring industry, and in 1897, when in his +eighty-sixth year, he journeyed to St Petersburg to take part in the +International Geological Congress, and then joined the excursion to the +Ural mountains. He died at Albany on the 7th of August 1898. + + See _Life and Work of James Hall_, by H. C. Hovey, _Amer. Geol._ + xxiii., 1899, p. 137 (portraits). + + + + +HALL, JOSEPH (1574-1656), English bishop and satirist, was born at +Bristow park, near Ashby de la Zouch, Leicestershire, on the 1st of July +1574. His father, John Hall, was agent in the town for Henry, earl of +Huntingdon, and his mother, Winifred Bambridge, was a pious lady, whom +her son compared to St Monica. Joseph Hall received his early education +at the local school, and was sent (1589) to Emmanuel College, Cambridge. +Hall was chosen for two years in succession to read the public lecture +on rhetoric in the schools, and in 1595 became fellow of his college. +During his residence at Cambridge he wrote his _Virgidemiarum_ (1597), +satires written after Latin models. The claim he put forward in the +prologue to be the earliest English satirist:-- + + "I first adventure, follow me who list + And be the second English satirist"-- + +gave bitter offence to John Marston, who attacks him in the satires +published in 1598. The archbishop of Canterbury gave an order (1599) +that Hall's satires should be burnt with works of John Marston, Marlowe, +Sir John Davies and others on the ground of licentiousness, but shortly +afterwards Hall's book, certainly unjustly condemned, was ordered to be +"staied at the press," which may be interpreted as reprieved (see _Notes +and Queries_, 3rd series, xii. 436). Having taken holy orders, Hall was +offered the mastership of Blundell's school, Tiverton, but he refused it +in favour of the living of Halsted, Essex, to which he was presented +(1601) by Sir Robert Drury. In his parish he had an opponent in a Mr +Lilly, whom he describes as "a witty and bold atheist." In 1603 he +married; and in 1605 he accompanied Sir Edmund Bacon to Spa, with the +special aim, he says, of acquainting himself with the state and practice +of the Romish Church. At Brussels he disputed at the Jesuit College on +the authentic character of modern miracles, and his inquiring and +argumentative disposition more than once threatened to produce serious +results, so that his patron at length requested him to abstain from +further discussion. His devotional writings had attracted the notice of +Henry, prince of Wales, who made him one of his chaplains (1608). In +1612 Lord Denny, afterwards earl of Norwich, gave him the curacy of +Waltham-Holy-Cross, Essex, and in the same year he received the degree +of D.D. Later he received the prebend of Willenhall in the collegiate +church of Wolverhampton, and in 1616 he accompanied James Hay, Lord +Doncaster, afterwards earl of Carlisle, to France, where he was sent to +congratulate Louis XIII. on his marriage, but Hall was compelled by +illness to return. In his absence the king nominated him dean of +Worcester, and in 1617 he accompanied James to Scotland, where he +defended the five points of ceremonial which the king desired to impose +upon the Scots. In the next year he was one of the English deputies at +the synod of Dort. In 1624 he refused the see of Gloucester, but in 1627 +became bishop of Exeter. + +He took an active part in the Arminian and Calvinist controversy in the +English church. He did his best in his _Via media, The Way of Peace_, to +persuade the two parties to accept a compromise. In spite of his +Calvinistic opinions he maintained that to acknowledge the errors which +had arisen in the Catholic Church did not necessarily imply disbelief in +her catholicity, and that the Church of England having repudiated these +errors should not deny the claims of the Roman Catholic Church on that +account. This view commended itself to Charles I. and his episcopal +advisers, but at the same time Archbishop Laud sent spies into Hall's +diocese to report on the Calvinistic tendencies of the bishop and his +lenience to the Puritan and low-church clergy. Hall says he was thrice +down on his knees to the King to answer Laud's accusations and at length +threatened to "cast up his rochet" rather than submit to them. He was, +however, amenable to criticism, and his defence of the English Church, +entitled _Episcopacy by Divine Right_ (1640), was twice revised at +Laud's dictation. This was followed by _An Humble Remonstrance to the +High Court of Parliament_ (1640 and 1641), an eloquent and forceful +defence of his order, which produced a retort from the syndicate of +Puritan divines, who wrote under the name of "Smectymnuus," and was +followed by a long controversy to which Milton contributed five +pamphlets, virulently attacking Hall and his early satires. + +In 1641 Hall was translated to the see of Norwich, and in the same year +sat on the Lords' Committee on religion. On the 30th of December he was, +with other bishops, brought before the bar of the House of Lords to +answer a charge of high treason of which the Commons had voted them +guilty. They were finally convicted of an offence against the Statute of +Praemunire, and condemned to forfeit their estates, receiving a small +maintenance from the parliament. They were immured in the Tower from New +Year to Whitsuntide, when they were released on finding bail for £5000 +each. On his release Hall proceeded to his new diocese at Norwich, the +revenues of which he seems for a time to have received, but in 1643, +when the property of the "malignants" was sequestrated, Hall was +mentioned by name. Mrs Hall had difficulty in securing a fifth of the +maintenance (£400) assigned to the bishop by the parliament; they were +eventually ejected from the palace, and the cathedral was dismantled. +Hall retired to the village of Higham, near Norwich, where he spent the +time preaching and writing until "he was first forbidden by man, and at +last disabled by God." He bore his many troubles and the additional +burden of much bodily suffering with sweetness and patience, dying on +the 8th of September 1656. Thomas Fuller says: "He was commonly called +our English Seneca, for the purenesse, plainnesse, and fulnesse of his +style. Not unhappy at _Controversies_, more happy at _Comments_, very +good in his _Characters_, better in his _Sermons_, best of all in his +_Meditations_." + + Bishop Hall's polemical writings, although vigorous and effective, + were chiefly of ephemeral interest, but many of his devotional + writings have been often reprinted. It is by his early work as the + censor of morals and the unsparing critic of contemporary literary + extravagance and affectations that he is best known. _Virgidemiarum._ + _Sixe Bookes. First three Bookes. Of Toothlesse Satyrs._ (1) + _Poeticall_, (2) _Academicall_, (3) _Morall_ (1597) was followed by an + amended edition in 1598, and in the same year by _Virgidemiarum_. _The + three last bookes. Of byting Satyres_ (reprinted 1599). His claim to + be reckoned the earliest English satirist, even in the formal sense, + cannot be justified. Thomas Lodge, in his _Fig for Momus_ (1593), had + written four satires in the manner of Horace, and John Marston and + John Donne both wrote satires about the same time, although the + publication was in both cases later than that of _Virgidemiae_. But if + he was not the earliest, Hall was certainly one of the best. He writes + in the heroic couplet, which he manoeuvres with great ease and + smoothness. In the first book of his satires (_Poeticall_) he attacks + the writers whose verses were devoted to licentious subjects, the + bombast of _Tamburlaine_ and tragedies built on similar lines, the + laments of the ghosts of the _Mirror for Magistrates_, the metrical + eccentricities of Gabriel Harvey and Richard Stanyhurst, the + extravagances of the sonneteers, and the sacred poets (Southwell is + aimed at in "Now good St Peter weeps pure Helicon, And both the Mary's + make a music moan"). In Book II. Satire 6 occurs the well-known + description of the trencher-chaplain, who is tutor and hanger-on in a + country manor. Among his other satirical portraits is that of the + famished gallant, the guest of "Duke Humfray."[1] Book VI. consists of + one long satire on the various vices and follies dealt with in the + earlier books. If his prose is sometimes antithetical and obscure, his + verse is remarkably free from the quips and conceits which mar so much + contemporary poetry. + + He also wrote _The King's Prophecie; or Weeping Joy_ (1603), a + gratulatory poem on the accession of James I.; _Epistles_, both the + first and second volumes of which appeared in 1608 and a third in + 1611; _Characters of Virtues and Vices_ (1608), versified by Nahum + Tate (1691); _Solomons Divine Arts ..._ (1609); and, probably _Mundus + alter et idem sive Terra Australis antehac semper incognita ... + lustrata_ (1605? and 1607), by "Mercurius Britannicus," translated + into English by John Healy (1608) as _The Discovery of a New World or + A Description of the South Indies ... by an English Mercury_. _Mundus + alter_ is an excuse for a satirical description of London, with some + criticism of the Romish church, its manners and customs, and is said + to have furnished Swift with hints for _Gulliver's Travels_. It was + not ascribed to him by name until 1674, when Thomas Hyde, the + librarian of the Bodleian, identified "Mercurius Britannicus" with + Joseph Hall. For the question of the authorship of this pamphlet, and + the arguments that may be advanced in favour of the suggestion that it + was written by Alberico Gentili, see E. A. Petherick, _Mundus alter et + idem_, reprinted from the _Gentleman's Magazine_ (July 1896). His + controversial writings, not already mentioned, include:--_A Common + Apology ... against the Brownists_ (1610), in answer to John + Robinson's _Censorious Epistle_; _The Olde Religion: A treatise, + wherein is laid downe the true state of the difference betwixt the + Reformed and the Romane Church; and the blame of this schisme is cast + upon the true Authors ..._ (1628); _Columba Noae olivam adferens ..._, + a sermon preached at St Paul's in 1623; _Episcopacie by Divine Right_ + (1640); _A Short Answer to the Vindication of Smectymnuus_ (1641); _A + Modest Confutation of ... (Milton's) Animadversions_ (1642). + + His devotional works include:--_Holy Observations Lib. I. Some few of + David's Psalmes Metaphrased_ (1607 and 1609); three centuries of + _Meditations and Vowes, Divine and Morall_ (1606, 1607, 1609), edited + by Charles Sayle (1901); _The Arte of Divine Meditation_ (1607); + _Heaven upon Earth, or of True Peace and Tranquillitie of Mind_ + (1606), reprinted with some of his letters in John Wesley's _Christian + Library_, vol. iv. (1819); _Occasional Meditations ..._ (1630), edited + by his son Robert Hall; _Henochisme; or a Treatise showing how to walk + with God_ (1639), translated from Bishop Hall's Latin by Moses Wall; + _The Devout Soul; or Rules of Heavenly Devotion_ (1644), often since + reprinted; _The Balm of Gilead ..._ (1646, 1752); _Christ Mysticall; + or the blessed union of Christ and his Members_ (1647), of which + General Gordon was a student (reprinted from Gordon's copy, 1893); + _Susurrium cum Deo_ (1659); _The Great Mysterie of Godliness_ (1650); + _Resolutions and Decisions of Divers Practicall cases of Conscience_ + (1649, 1650, 1654). + + AUTHORITIES.--The chief authority for Hall's biography is to be found + in his autobiographical tracts: _Observations of some Specialities of + Divine Providence in the Life of Joseph Hall, Bishop of Norwich, + Written with his own hand_; and his _Hard Measure_, a reprint of which + may be consulted in Dr Christopher Wordsworth's _Ecclesiastical + Biography_. The best criticism of his satires is to be found in Thomas + Warton's _History of English Poetry_, vol. iv. pp. 363-409 (ed. + Hazlitt, 1871), where a comparison is instituted between Marston and + Hall. In 1615 Hall published _A Recollection of such treatises as have + been ... published ..._ (1615, 1617, 1621); in 1625 appeared his Works + (reprinted 1627, 1628, 1634, 1662). The first complete _Works_ + appeared in 1808, edited by the Rev. Josiah Pratt. Other editions are + by Peter Hall (1837) and by Philip Wynter (1863). See also _Bishop + Hall, his Life and Times_ (1826), by Rev. John Jones; _Life of Joseph + Hall_, by Rev. George Lewis (1886); A. B. Grosart, _The Complete Poems + of Joseph Hall ... with introductions, &c._ (1879); _Satires, &c._ + (_Early English Poets_, ed. S. W. Singer, 1824). Many of Hall's works + were translated into French, and some into Dutch, and there have been + numerous selections from his devotional works. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The tomb of Sir John Beauchamp (d. 1358) in old St Paul's was + commonly known, in error, as that of Duke Humphrey of Gloucester. "To + dine with Duke Humphrey" was to go hungry among the debtors and + beggars who frequented "Duke Humphrey's Walk" in the cathedral. + + + + +HALL, MARSHALL (1790-1857). English physiologist, was born on the 18th +of February 1790, at Basford, near Nottingham, where his father, Robert +Hall, was a cotton manufacturer. Having attended the Rev. J. Blanchard's +academy at Nottingham, he entered a chemist's shop at Newark, and in +1809 began to study medicine at Edinburgh University. In 1811 he was +elected senior president of the Royal Medical Society; the following +year he took the M.D. degree, and was immediately appointed resident +house physician to the Royal Infirmary, Edinburgh. This appointment he +resigned after two years, when he visited Paris and its medical schools, +and, on a walking tour, those also of Berlin and Göttingen. In 1817, +when he settled at Nottingham, he published his _Diagnosis_, and in 1818 +he wrote the _Mimoses_, a work on the affections denominated bilious, +nervous, &c. The next year he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society +of Edinburgh, and in 1825 he became physician to the Nottingham general +hospital. In 1826 he removed to London, and in the following year he +published his _Commentaries_ on the more important diseases of females. +In 1830 he issued his _Observations on Blood-letting, founded on +researches on the morbid and curative effects of loss of blood_, which +were acknowledged by the medical profession to be of vast practical +value, and in 1831 his _Experimental Essay on the Circulation of the +Blood in the Capillary Vessels_, in which he showed that the +blood-channels intermediate between arteries and veins serve the office +of bringing the fluid blood into contact with the material tissues of +the system. In the following year he read before the Royal Society a +paper "On the inverse ratio which subsists between Respiration and +Irritability in the Animal Kingdom." His most important work in +physiology was concerned with the theory of reflex action, embodied in a +paper "On the reflex Function of the Medulla Oblongata and the Medulla +Spinalis" (1832), which was supplemented in 1837 by another "On the True +Spinal Marrow, and the Excito-motor System of Nerves." The "reflex +function" excited great attention on the continent of Europe, though in +England some of his papers were refused publication by the Royal +Society. Hall thus became the authority on the multiform deranged states +of health referable to an abnormal condition of the nervous system, and +he gained a large practice. His "ready method" for resuscitation in +drowning and other forms of suspended respiration has been the means of +saving innumerable lives. He died at Brighton of a throat affection, +aggravated by lecturing, on the 11th of August 1857. + + A list of his works and details of his "ready method," &c., are given + in his _Memoirs_ by his widow (London, 1861). + + + + +HALL, ROBERT (1764-1831), English Baptist divine, was born on the 2nd of +May 1764, at Arnesby near Leicester, where his father, Robert Hall +(1728-1791), a man whose cast of mind in some respects resembled closely +that of the son, was pastor of a Baptist congregation. Robert was the +youngest of a family of fourteen. While still at the dame's school his +passion for books absorbed the greater part of his time, and in the +summer it was his custom after school hours to retire to the churchyard +with a volume, which he continued to peruse there till nightfall, making +out the meaning of the more difficult words with the help of a pocket +dictionary. From his sixth to his eleventh year he attended the school +of Mr Simmons at Wigston, a village four miles from Arnesby. There his +precocity assumed the exceptional form of an intense interest in +metaphysics, partly perhaps on account of the restricted character of +his father's library; and before he was nine years of age he had read +and re-read Jonathan Edwards's _Treatise on the Will_ and Butler's +_Analogy_. This incessant study at such an early period of life seems, +however, to have had an injurious influence on his health. After he left +Mr Simmons's school his appearance was so sickly as to awaken fears of +the presence of phthisis. In order, therefore, to obtain the benefit of +a change of air, he stayed for some time in the house of a gentleman +near Kettering, who with an impropriety which Hall himself afterwards +referred to as "egregious," prevailed upon the boy of eleven to give +occasional addresses at prayer meetings. As his health seemed rapidly to +recover, he was sent to a school at Northampton conducted by the Rev. +John Ryland, where he remained a year and a half, and "made great +progress in Latin and Greek." On leaving school he for some time studied +divinity under the direction of his father, and in October 1778 he +entered the Bristol academy for the preparation of students for the +Baptist ministry. Here the self-possession which had enabled him in his +twelfth year to address unfalteringly various audiences of grown-up +people seems to have strangely forsaken him; for when, in accordance +with the arrangements of the academy, his turn came to deliver an +address in the vestry of Broadmead chapel, he broke down on two +separate occasions and was unable to finish his discourse. On the 13th +of August 1780 he was set apart to the ministry, but he still continued +his studies at the academy; and in 1781, in accordance with the +provisions of an exhibition which he held, he entered King's College, +Aberdeen, where he took the degree of master of arts in March 1785. At +the university he was without a rival of his own standing in any of the +classes, distinguishing himself alike in classics, philosophy and +mathematics. He there formed the acquaintance of Mackintosh (afterwards +Sir James), who, though a year his junior in age, was a year his senior +as a student. While they remained at Aberdeen the two were inseparable, +reading together the best Greek authors, especially Plato, and +discussing, either during their walks by the sea-shore and the banks of +the Don or in their rooms until early morning, the most perplexed +questions in philosophy and religion. + +During the vacation between his last two sessions at Aberdeen, Hall +acted as assistant pastor to Dr Evans at Broadmead chapel, Bristol, and +three months after leaving the university he was appointed classical +tutor in the Bristol academy, an office which he held for more than five +years. Even at this period his extraordinary eloquence had excited an +interest beyond the bounds of the denomination to which he belonged, and +when he preached the chapel was generally crowded to excess, the +audience including many persons of intellectual tastes. Suspicions in +regard to his orthodoxy having in 1789 led to a misunderstanding with +his colleague and a part of the congregation, he in July 1790 accepted +an invitation to make trial of a congregation at Cambridge, of which he +became pastor in July of the following year. From a statement of his +opinions contained in a letter to the congregation which he left, it +would appear that, while a firm believer in the proper divinity of +Christ, he had at this time disowned the cardinal principles of +Calvinism--the federal headship of Adam, and the doctrine of absolute +election and reprobation; and that he was so far a materialist as to +"hold that man's thinking powers and faculties are the result of a +certain organization of matter, and that after death he ceases to be +conscious till the resurrection." It was during his Cambridge ministry, +which extended over a period of fifteen years, that his oratory was most +brilliant and most immediately powerful. At Cambridge the intellectual +character of a large part of the audience supplied a stimulus which was +wanting at Leicester and Bristol. + +His first published compositions had a political origin. In 1791 +appeared _Christianity consistent with the Love of Freedom_, in which he +defended the political conduct of dissenters against the attacks of the +Rev. John Clayton, minister of Weighhouse, and gave eloquent expression +to his hopes of great political and social ameliorations as destined to +result nearly or remotely from the subversion of old ideas and +institutions in the maelstrom of the French Revolution. In 1793 he +expounded his political sentiments in a powerful and more extended +pamphlet entitled an _Apology for the Freedom of the Press_. On account, +however, of certain asperities into which the warmth of his feelings had +betrayed him, and his conviction that he had treated his subject in too +superficial a manner, he refused to permit the publication of the +pamphlet beyond the third edition, until the references of political +opponents and the circulation of copies without his sanction induced him +in 1821 to prepare a new edition, from which he omitted the attack on +Bishop Horsley, and to which he prefixed an advertisement stating that +his political opinions had undergone no substantial change. His other +publications while at Cambridge were three sermons--_On Modern +Infidelity_ (1801), _Reflections on War_ (1802), and _Sentiments proper +to the present Crisis_ (1803). He began, however, to suffer from mental +derangement in November 1804. He recovered so speedily that he was able +to resume his duties in April 1805, but a recurrence of the malady +rendered it advisable for him on his second recovery to resign his +pastoral office in March 1806. + +On leaving Cambridge he paid a visit to his relatives in Leicestershire, +and then for some time resided at Enderby, preaching occasionally in +some of the neighbouring villages. Latterly he ministered to a small +congregation in Harvey Lane, Leicester, from whom at the close of 1806 +he accepted a call to be their stated pastor. In the autumn of 1807 he +changed his residence from Enderby to Leicester, and in 1808 he married +the servant of a brother minister. His proposal of marriage had been +made after an almost momentary acquaintance, and, according to the +traditionary account, in very abrupt and peculiar terms; but, judging +from his subsequent domestic life, his choice did sufficient credit to +his penetration and sagacity. His writings at Leicester embraced various +tracts printed for private circulation; a number of contributions to the +_Eclectic Review_, among which may be mentioned his articles on +"Foster's Essays" and on "Zeal without Innovation"; several sermons, +including those _On the Advantages of Knowledge to the Lower Classes_ +(1810), _On the Death of the Princess Charlotte_ (1817), and _On the +Death of Dr Ryland_ (1825); and his pamphlet on _Terms of Communion_, in +which he advocated intercommunion with all those who acknowledged the +"essentials" of Christianity. In 1819 he published an edition in one +volume of his sermons formerly printed. On the death of Dr Ryland, Hall +was invited to return to the pastorate of Broadmead chapel, Bristol, and +as the peace of the congregation at Leicester had been to some degree +disturbed by a controversy regarding several cases of discipline, he +resolved to accept the invitation, and removed there in April 1826. The +malady of renal calculus had for many years rendered his life an almost +continual martyrdom, and henceforth increasing infirmities and +sufferings afflicted him. Gradually the inability to take proper +exercise, by inducing a plethoric habit of body and impeding the +circulation, led to a diseased condition of the heart, which resulted in +his death on the 21st of February 1831. He is remembered as a great +pulpit orator, of a somewhat laboured, rhetorical style in his written +works, but of undeniable vigour in his spoken sermons. + + See _Works of Robert Hall, A.M., with a Brief Memoir of his Life, by + Olinthus Gregory, LL.D., and Observations on his Character as Preacher + by John Foster_, originally published in 6 vols. (London, 1832); + _Reminiscences of the Rev. Robert Hall, A.M._, by John Greene, + (London, 1832); _Biographical Recollections of the Rev. Robert Hall_, + by J. W. Morris (1848); _Fifty Sermons of Robert Hall from Notes taken + at the time of their Delivery_, by the Rev. Thomas Grinfield, M.A. + (1843); _Reminiscences of College Life in Bristol during the Ministry + of the Rev. Robert Hall, A.M._, by Frederick Trestrail (1879). + + + + +HALL, SAMUEL CARTER (1800-1889), English journalist, was born at +Waterford on the 9th of May 1800, the son of an army officer. In 1821 he +went to London, and in 1823 became a parliamentary reporter. From 1826 +to 1837 he was editor of a great number and variety of public prints, +and in 1839 he founded and edited _The Art Journal_. His exposure of the +trade in bogus "Old Masters" earned for this publication a considerable +reputation. Hall resigned the editorship in 1880, and was granted a +Civil List pension "for his long and valuable services to literature and +art." He died in London on the 16th of March 1889. His wife, Anna Maria +Fielding (1800-1881), became well known as Mrs S. C. Hall, for her +numerous novels, sketches of Irish life, and plays. Two of the last, +_The Groves of Blarney_ and _The French Refugee_, were produced in +London with success. She also wrote a number of children's books, and +was practically interested in various London charities, several of which +she helped to found. + + + + +HALL, WILLIAM EDWARD (1835-1894), English writer on international law, +was the only child of William Hall, M.D., a descendant of a junior +branch of the Halls of Dunglass, and of Charlotte, daughter of William +Cotton, F.S.A. He was born on the 22nd of August 1835, at Leatherhead, +Surrey, but passed his childhood abroad, Dr Hall having acted as +physician to the king of Hanover, and subsequently to the British +legation at Naples. Hence, perhaps, the son's taste in after life for +art and modern languages. He was educated privately till, at the early +age of seventeen, he matriculated at Oxford, where in 1856 he took his +degree with a first class in the then recently instituted school of law +and history, gaining, three years afterwards, the chancellor's prize for +an essay upon "the effect upon Spain of the discovery of the precious +metals in America." In 1861 he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn, +but devoted his time less to any serious attempt to obtain practice than +to the study of Italian art, and to travelling over a great part of +Europe, always bringing home admirable water-colour drawings of +buildings and scenery. He was an early and enthusiastic member of the +Alpine Club, making several first ascents, notably that of the Lyskamm. +He was always much interested in military matters, and was under fire, +on the Danish side, in the war of 1864. In 1867 he published a pamphlet +entitled "A Plan for the Reorganization of the Army," and, many years +afterwards, he saw as much as he was permitted to see of the expedition +sent for the rescue of Gordon. He would undoubtedly have made his mark +in the army, but in later life his ideal, which he realized, with much +success, first at Llanfihangel in Monmouthshire, and then at Coker Court +in Somersetshire, was, as has been said, "the English country gentleman, +with cosmopolitan experiences, encyclopaedic knowledge, and artistic +feeling." His travels took him to Lapland, Egypt, South America and +India. He had done good work for several government offices, in 1871 as +inspector of returns under the Elementary Education Act, in 1877 by +reports to the Board of Trade upon Oyster Fisheries, in France as well +as in England; and all the time was amassing materials for ambitious +undertakings upon the history of civilization, and of the colonies. His +title to lasting remembrance rests, however, upon his labours in the +realm of international law, recognized by his election as _associé_ in +1875, and as _membre_ in 1882, of the _Institut de Droit International_. +In 1874 he published a thin 8vo upon the _Rights and Duties of +Neutrals_, and followed it up in 1880 by his _magnum opus_, the +_Treatise on International Law_, unquestionably the best book upon the +subject in the English language. It is well planned, free from the +rhetorical vagueness which has been the besetting vice of older books of +a similar character, full of information, and everywhere bearing traces +of the sound judgment and statesmanlike views of its author. In 1894 +Hall published a useful monograph upon a little-explored topic, "the +Foreign Jurisdictions of the British Crown," but on the 30th of November +of the same year, while apparently in the fullest enjoyment of bodily as +well as mental vigour, he suddenly died. He married, in 1866, Imogen, +daughter of Mr (afterwards Mr Justice) Grove, who died in 1886; and in +1891, Alice, daughter of Colonel Hill of Court Hill, Shropshire, but +left no issue. + + See T. E. Holland in _Law Quarterly Review_, vol. xi. p. 113; and in + _Studies in International Law_, p. 302. (T. E. H.) + + + + +HALL, or BAD-HALL, a market-place and spa of Austria, in Upper Austria, +25 m. S. of Linz by rail. Pop. (1900) 984. It is renowned for its saline +springs, strongly impregnated with iodine and bromine, which are +considered very efficacious in scrofulous affections and venereal skin +diseases. Although the springs are known since the 8th century, Hall +attained its actual importance only since 1855, when the springs became +the property of the government. The number of visitors in 1901 was 4300. + + + + +HALL (generally known as SCHWÄBISCH-HALL, to distinguish it from the +small town of Hall in Tirol and Bad-Hall, a health resort in Upper +Austria), a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Württemberg, situated in +a deep valley on both sides of the Kocher, and on the railway from +Heilbronn to Krailsheim, 35 m. N.E. of Stuttgart. Pop. (1905) 9400. It +possesses four Evangelical churches (of which the Michaeliskirche dates +from the 15th century and has fine medieval carving), a Roman Catholic +church, a handsome town hall and classical and modern schools. A short +distance south from the town is the royal castle of Komburg, formerly a +Benedictine abbey and now used as a garrison for invalid soldiers, with +a church dating from the 12th century. The town is chiefly known for its +production of salt, which is converted into brine and piped from +Wilhelmsglück mine, 5 m. distant. Connected with the salt-works there is +a salt-bath and whey-diet establishment. The industries of the town also +include cotton-spinning, iron founding, tanning, and the manufacture of +soap, starch, brushes, machines, carriages and metal ware. + +Hall was early of importance on account of its salt-mines, which were +held as a fief of the Empire by the so-called Salzgrafen (Salt-graves), +of whom the earliest known, the counts of Westheim, had their seat in +the castle of Hall. Later the town belonged to the Knights Templars. It +was made a free imperial city in 1276 by Rudolph of Habsburg. In 1802 it +came into the possession of Württemberg. + + + + +HALL (O. E. _heall_, a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. _Halle_), a term +which has two significations in England and is applied sometimes to the +manor house, the residence of the lord of the manor, which implied a +territorial possession, but more often to the entrance hall of a +mansion. In the latter case it was the one large room in the feudal +castle up to the middle of the 15th century, when it served as audience +chamber, dining-room, and dormitory. The hall was generally a +parallelogram on plan, with a raised daïs at the farther end, a large +bow window on one side, and in one or two cases on both sides. At the +entrance end was a passage, which was separated from the hall by a +partition screen often elaborately decorated, and over which was +provided a minstrels' gallery; on the opposite side of the passage were +the hatches communicating with the serveries. This arrangement is still +found in some of the colleges at Oxford and Cambridge, such as those of +New College, Christchurch, Wadham and Magdalen, Oxford, and in Trinity +College, Cambridge. In private mansions, however, the kitchen and +offices have been removed to a greater distance, and the great hall is +only used for banquets. Among the more remarkable examples are the halls +of Audley End; Hatfield; Brougham Castle; Hardwick; Knole Stanway in +Gloucestershire; Wollaton, where it is situated in the centre of the +mansion and lighted by clerestory windows; Burton Agnes in Yorkshire; +Canons Ashley, Northamptonshire; Westwood Park, Worcestershire; +Fountains, Yorkshire; Sydenham House, Devonshire; Cobham, Kent; +Montacute, Somersetshire; Bolsover Castle, Derbyshire (vaulted and with +two columns in the centre of the hall to carry the vault); Longford +Castle, Wiltshire; Barlborough, Derbyshire; Rushton Hall, +Northamptonshire, with a bow window at each end of the daïs and a third +bow window at the other end; Knole, Kent; and at Mayfield, Sussex (with +stone arches across to carry the roof), now converted into a Roman +Catholic chapel. Many of these halls have hammer-beam roofs, the most +remarkable of which is found in the Middle Temple Hall, London, where +both the tie and collar beams have hammer-beams. Of other halls, +Westminster is the largest, being 238 ft. long; followed by the +Banqueting Hall, Whitehall, 110 ft.; Wolsey's Hall, Hampton Court, 106 +ft.; the Egyptian Hall at the Mansion House; the hall at Lambeth, now +the library; Crosby Hall; Gray's Inn Hall; the Guildhall; Charterhouse; +and the following halls of the London City Companies--Clothworkers, +Brewers, Goldsmiths, Fishmongers. The term hall is also given to the +following English mansions:--Haddon, Hardwick, Apethorpe, Aston, +Blickling, Brereton, Burton Agnes, Cobham, Dingley, Rushton, Kirby, +Litford and Wollaton; and it was the name of some of the earlier +colleges at Oxford and Cambridge, most of which have now been absorbed +in other colleges, so that there remain only St Edmund's Hall, Oxford, +and Trinity Hall, Cambridge. + + + + +HALLAM, HENRY (1777-1859), English historian, was the only son of John +Hallam, canon of Windsor and dean of Bristol, and was born on the 9th of +July 1777. He was educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, where he +graduated in 1799. Called to the bar, he practised for some years on the +Oxford circuit; but his tastes were literary, and when, on the death of +his father in 1812, he inherited a small estate in Lincolnshire, he gave +himself up wholly to the studies of his life. He had early become +connected with the brilliant band of authors and politicians who then +led the Whig party, a connexion to which he owed his appointment to the +well-paid and easy post of commissioner of stamps; but in practical +politics, for which he was by nature unsuited, he took no active share. +But he was an active supporter of many popular movements--particularly +of that which ended in the abolition of the slave trade; and he was +throughout his entire life sincerely and profoundly attached to the +political principles of the Whigs, both in their popular and in their +aristocratic aspect. + +Hallam's earliest literary work was undertaken in connexion with the +great organ of the Whig party, the _Edinburgh Review_, where his review +of Scott's _Dryden_ attracted much notice. His first great work, _The +View of the State of Europe during the Middle Ages_, was produced in +1818, and was followed nine years later by the _Constitutional History +of England_. In 1838-1839 appeared the _Introduction to the Literature +of Europe in the 15th, 16th and 17th Centuries_. These are the three +works on which the fame of Hallam rests. They at once took a place in +English literature which has never been seriously challenged. A volume +of supplemental notes to his _Middle Ages_ was published in 1848. These +facts and dates represent nearly all the events of Hallam's career. The +strongest personal interest in his life was the affliction which befell +him in the loss of his children, one after another. His eldest son, +Arthur Henry Hallam,--the "A.H.H." of Tennyson's _In Memoriam_, and by +the testimony of his contemporaries a man of the most brilliant +promise,--died in 1833 at the age of twenty-two. Seventeen years later, +his second son, Henry Fitzmaurice Hallam, was cut off like his brother +at the very threshold of what might have been a great career. The +premature death and high talents of these young men, and the association +of one of them with the most popular poem of the age, have made Hallam's +family afflictions better known than any other incidents of his life. He +survived wife, daughter and sons by many years. In 1834 Hallam published +_The Remains in Prose and Verse of Arthur Henry Hallam, with a Sketch of +his Life_. In 1852 a selection of _Literary Essays and Characters_ from +the _Literature of Europe_ was published. Hallam was a fellow of the +Royal Society, and a trustee of the British Museum, and enjoyed many +other appropriate distinctions. In 1830 he received the gold medal for +history, founded by George IV. He died on the 21st of January 1859. + +The _Middle Ages_ is described by Hallam himself as a series of +historical dissertations, a comprehensive survey of the chief +circumstances that can interest a philosophical inquirer during the +period from the 5th to the 15th century. The work consists of nine long +chapters, each of which is a complete treatise in itself. The history of +France, of Italy, of Spain, of Germany, and of the Greek and Saracenic +empires, sketched in rapid and general terms, is the subject of five +separate chapters. Others deal with the great institutional features of +medieval society--the development of the feudal system, of the +ecclesiastical system, and of the free political system of England. The +last chapter sketches the general state of society, the growth of +commerce, manners, and literature in the middle ages. The book may be +regarded as a general view of early modern history, preparatory to the +more detailed treatment of special lines of inquiry carried out in his +subsequent works, although Hallam's original intention was to continue +the work on the scale on which it had been begun. + +The _Constitutional History of England_ takes up the subject at the +point at which it had been dropped in the _View of the Middle Ages_, +viz. the accession of Henry VII.,[1] and carries it down to the +accession of George III. Hallam stopped here for a characteristic +reason, which it is impossible not to respect and to regret. He was +unwilling to excite the prejudices of modern politics which seemed to +him to run back through the whole period of the reign of George III. As +a matter of fact they ran back much farther, as Hallam soon found. The +sensitive impartiality which withheld him from touching perhaps the most +interesting period in the history of the constitution did not save him +from the charge of partisanship. The _Quarterly Review_ for 1828 +contains an article on the _Constitutional History_, written by Southey, +full of railing and reproach. The work, he says, is the "production of a +decided partisan," who "rakes in the ashes of long-forgotten and a +thousand times buried slanders, for the means of heaping obloquy on all +who supported the established institutions of the country." No +accusation made by a critic ever fell so wide of the mark. Absolute +justice is the standard which Hallam set himself and maintained. His +view of constitutional history was that it should contain only so much +of the political and general history of the time as bears directly on +specific changes in the organization of the state, including therein +judicial as well as ecclesiastical institutions. But while abstaining +from irrelevant historical discussions, Hallam dealt with statesmen and +policies with the calm and fearless impartiality of a judge. It was his +cool treatment of such sanctified names as Charles, Cranmer and Laud +that provoked the indignation of Southey and the _Quarterly_, who forgot +that the same impartial measure was extended to statesmen on the other +side. If Hallam can ever be said to have deviated from perfect fairness, +it was in the tacit assumption that the 19th-century theory of the +constitution was the right theory in previous centuries, and that those +who departed from it on one side or the other were in the wrong. He did +unconsciously antedate the constitution, and it is clear from incidental +allusions in his last work that he did not regard with favour the +democratic changes which he thought to be impending. Hallam, like +Macaulay, ultimately referred all political questions to the standard of +Whig constitutionalism. But though his work is thus, like that of many +historians, coloured by his opinions, this was not the outcome of a +conscious purpose, and he was scrupulously conscientious in collecting +and weighing his materials. In this he was helped by his legal training, +and it was doubtless this fact which made the _Constitutional History_ +one of the text-books of English politics, to which men of all parties +appealed, and which, in spite of all the work of later writers, still +leaves it a standard authority. + +Like the _Constitutional History_, the _Introduction to the Literature of +Europe_ continues one of the branches of inquiry which had been opened in +the _View of the Middle Ages_. In the first chapter of the _Literature_, +which is to a great extent supplementary to the last chapter of the +_Middle Ages_, Hallam sketches the state of literature in Europe down to +the end of the 14th century: the extinction of ancient learning which +followed the fall of the Roman empire and the rise of Christianity; the +preservation of the Latin language in the services of the church; and the +slow revival of letters, which began to show itself soon after the 7th +century--"the _nadir_ of the human mind"--had been passed. For the first +century and a half of his special period he is mainly occupied with a +review of classical learning, and he adopts the plan of taking short +decennial periods and noticing the most remarkable works which they +produced. The rapid growth of literature in the 16th century compels him +to resort to a classification of subjects. Thus in the period 1520-1550 we +have separate chapters on ancient literature, theology, speculative +philosophy and jurisprudence, the literature of taste, and scientific and +miscellaneous literature; and the subdivisions of subjects is carried +further of course in the later periods. Thus poetry, the drama and polite +literature form the subjects of separate chapters. One inconvenient result +of this arrangement is that the same author is scattered over many +chapters, according as his works fall within this category or that period +of time. Names like Shakespeare, Grotius, Bacon, Hobbes appear in half a +dozen different places. The individuality of great authors is thus +dissipated except when it has been preserved by an occasional sacrifice of +the arrangement--and this defect, if it is to be esteemed a defect, is +increased by the very sparing references to personal history and character +with which Hallam was obliged to content himself. His plan excluded +biographical history, nor is the work, he tells us, to be regarded as one +of reference. It is rigidly an account of the books which would make a +complete library of the period,[2] arranged according to the date of their +publication and the nature of their subjects. The history of institutions +like universities and academies, and that of great popular movements like +the Reformation, are of course noticed in their immediate connexion with +literary results; but Hallam had little taste for the spacious +generalization which such subjects suggest. The great qualities displayed +in this work have been universally acknowledged--conscientiousness, +accuracy, judgment and enormous reading. Not the least striking testimony +to Hallam's powers is his mastery over so many diverse forms of +intellectual activity. In science and theology, mathematics and poetry, +metaphysics and law, he is a competent and always a fair if not a profound +critic. The bent of his own mind is manifest in his treatment of pure +literature and of political speculation--which seems to be inspired with +stronger personal interest and a higher sense of power than other parts of +his work display. Not less worthy of notice in a literary history is the +good sense by which both his learning and his tastes have been held in +control. Probably no writer ever possessed a juster view of the relative +importance of men and things. The labour devoted to an investigation is +with Hallam no excuse for dwelling on the result, unless that is in itself +important. He turns away contemptuously from the mere curiosities of +literature, and is never tempted to make a display of trivial erudition. +Nor do we find that his interest in special studies leads him to assign +them a disproportionate place in his general view of the literature of a +period. + +Hallam is generally described as a "philosophical historian." The +description is justified not so much by any philosophical quality in his +method as by the nature of his subject and his own temper. Hallam is a +philosopher to this extent that both in political and in literary +history he fixed his attention on results rather than on persons. His +conception of history embraced the whole movement of society. Beside +that conception the issue of battles and the fate of kings fall into +comparative insignificance. "We can trace the pedigree of princes," he +reflects, "fill up the catalogue of towns besieged and provinces +desolated, describe even the whole pageantry of coronations and +festivals, but we cannot recover the genuine history of mankind." But, +on the other hand, there is no trace in Hallam of anything like a +philosophy of history or society. Wise and generally melancholy +reflections on human nature and political society are not infrequent in +his writings, and they arise naturally and incidentally out of the +subject he is discussing. His object is the attainment of truth in +matters of fact. Sweeping theories of the movement of society, and broad +characterizations of particular periods of history seem to have no +attraction for him. The view of mankind on which such generalizations +are usually based, taking little account of individual character, was +highly distasteful to him. Thus he objects to the use of statistics +because they favour that tendency to regard all men as mentally and +morally equal which is so unhappily strong in modern times. At the same +time Hallam by no means assumes the tone of the mere scholar. He is even +solicitous to show that his point of view is that of the cultivated +gentleman and not of the specialist of any order. Thus he tells us that +Montaigne is the first French author whom an English gentleman is +ashamed not to have read. In fact, allusions to the necessary studies of +a gentleman meet us constantly, reminding us of the unlikely erudition +of the schoolboy in Macaulay. Hallam's prejudices, so far as he had any, +belong to the same character. His criticism is apt to assume a tone of +moral censure when he has to deal with certain extremes of human +thought--scepticism in philosophy, atheism in religion and democracy in +politics. + +Hallam's style is singularly uniform throughout all his writings. It is +sincere and straightforward, and obviously innocent of any motive beyond +that of clearly expressing the writer's meaning. In the _Literature of +Europe_ there are many passages of great imaginative beauty. (E. R.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Lord Brougham, overlooking the constitutional chapter in the + _Middle Ages_, censured Hallam for making an arbitrary beginning at + this point, and proposed to write a more complete history himself. + + [2] Technical subjects like painting or English law have been + excluded by Hallam, and history and theology only partially treated. + + + + +HALLAM, ROBERT (d. 1417), bishop of Salisbury and English representative +at the council of Constance, was educated at Oxford, and was chancellor +of the university from 1403 to 1405. In the latter year the pope +nominated him to be archbishop of York, but the king objected. However, +in 1407 he was consecrated by Gregory XII. at Siena as bishop of +Salisbury. At the council of Pisa in 1409 he was one of the English +representatives. On the 6th of June 1411 Pope John XXIII. made Hallam a +cardinal, but there was some irregularity, and his title was not +recognized. At the council of Constance (q.v.), which met in November +1414, Hallam was the chief English envoy. There he at once took a +prominent position, as an advocate of the cause of Church reform, and of +the superiority of the council to the pope. In the discussions which led +up to the deposition of John XXIII. on the 29th of May 1415 he had a +leading share. With the trials of John Hus and Jerome of Prague he had +less concern. The emperor Sigismund, through whose influence the council +had been assembled, was absent during the whole of 1416 on a diplomatic +mission in France and England; but when he returned to Constance in +January 1417, as the open ally of the English king, Hallam as Henry's +trusted representative obtained increased importance. Hallam contrived +skilfully to emphasize English prestige by delivering the address of +welcome to Sigismund on his formal reception. Afterwards, under his +master's direction, he gave the emperor vigorous support in the +endeavour to secure a reform of the Church, before the council proceeded +to the election of a new pope. This matter was still undecided when +Hallam died suddenly, on the 4th of September 1417. After his death the +direction of the English nation fell into less skilful hands, with the +result that the cardinals were able to secure the immediate election of +a new pope (Martin V., elected on the 11th of November). It has been +supposed that the abandonment of the reformers by the English was due +entirely to Hallam's death; but it is more likely that Henry V., +foreseeing the possible need for a change of front, had given Hallam +discretionary powers which the bishop's successors used with too little +judgment. Hallam himself, who had the confidence of Sigismund and was +generally respected for his straightforward independence, might have +achieved a better result. Hallam was buried in the cathedral at +Constance, where his tomb near the high altar is marked by a brass of +English workmanship. + + For the acts of the council of Constance see H. von der Hardt's + _Concilium Constantiense_, and H. Finke's _Acta concilii + Constanciensis_. For a modern account see Mandell Creighton's _History + of the Papacy_ (6 vols., London, 1897). (C. L. K.) + + + + +HALLÉ, SIR CHARLES (originally KARL HALLE) (1819-1895), English pianist +and conductor, German by nationality, was born at Hagen, in Westphalia, +on the 11th of April 1819. He studied under Rink at Darmstadt in 1835, +and as early as 1836 went to Paris, where for twelve years he lived in +constant intercourse with Cherubini, Chopin, Liszt and other musicians, +and enjoyed the friendship of such great literary figures as Alfred de +Musset and George Sand. He had started a set of chamber concerts with +Alard and Franchomme with great success, and had completed one series of +them when the revolution of 1848 drove him from Paris, and he settled, +with his wife and two children, in London. His pianoforte recitals, +given at first from 1850 in his own house, and from 1861 in St James's +Hall, were an important feature of London musical life, and it was due +in great measure to them that a knowledge of Beethoven's pianoforte +sonatas became general in English society. At the Musical Union founded +by John Ella, and at the Popular Concerts from their beginning, Hallé +was a frequent performer, and from 1853 was director of the Gentlemen's +Concerts in Manchester, where, in 1857, he started a series of concerts +of his own, raising the orchestra to a pitch of perfection quite unknown +at that time in England. In 1888 he married Madame Norman Neruda (b. +1839), the violinist, widow of Ludwig Norman, and daughter of Josef +Neruda, members of whose family had long been famous for musical talent. +In the same year he was knighted; and in 1890 and 1891 he toured with +his wife in Australia and elsewhere. He died at Manchester on the 25th +of October 1895. Hallé exercised an important influence in the musical +education of England; if his pianoforte-playing, by which he was mainly +known to the public in London, seemed remarkable rather for precision +than for depth, for crystal clearness rather than for warmth, and for +perfect realization of the written text rather than for strong +individuality, it was at least of immense value as giving the +composer's idea with the utmost fidelity. Those who were privileged to +hear him play in private, like those who could appreciate the power, +beauty and imaginative warmth of his conducting, would have given a very +different verdict; and they were not wrong in judging Hallé to be a man +of the widest and keenest artistic sympathies, with an extraordinary +gift of insight into music of every school, as well as a strong sense of +humour. He fought a long and arduous battle for the best music, and +never forgot the dignity of his art. In spite of the fact that his +technique was that of his youth, of the period before Liszt, the ease +and certainty he attained in the most modern music was not the less +wonderful because he concealed the mechanical means so completely. + +Lady Hallé, who from 1864 onwards had been one of the leading solo +violinists of the time, was constantly associated with her husband on +the concert stage till his death; and in 1896 a public subscription was +organized in her behalf, under royal patronage. She continued to appear +occasionally in public, notably as late as 1907, when she played at the +Joachim memorial concert. In 1901 she was given by Queen Alexandra the +title of "violinist to the queen." A fine classical player and artist, +frequently associated with Joachim, Lady Hallé was the first of the +women violinists who could stand comparison with men. + + + + +HALLE (known as HALLE-AN-DER-SAALE, to distinguish it from the small +town of Halle in Westphalia), a town of Germany, in the Prussian +province of Saxony, situated in a sandy plain on the right bank of the +Saale, which here divides into several arms, 21 m. N.W. from Leipzig by +the railway to Magdeburg. Pop. (1875), 60,503; (1885) 81,982; (1895) +116,304; (1905) 160,031. Owing to its situation at the junction of six +important lines of railway, bringing it into direct communication with +Berlin, Breslau, Leipzig, Frankfort-on-Main, the Harz country and +Hanover, it has greatly developed in size and in commercial and +industrial importance. It consists of the old, or inner, town surrounded +by promenades, which occupy the site of the former fortifications, and +beyond these of two small towns, Glaucha in the south and Neumarkt in +the north, and five rapidly increasing suburbs. The inner town is +irregularly built and presents a somewhat unattractive appearance, but +it has been much improved and modernized by the laying out of new +streets. + +The centre of the town proper is occupied by the imposing market square, +on which stand the fine medieval town hall (restored in 1883) and the +handsome Gothic Marienkirche, dating mainly from the 16th century, with +two towers connected by a bridge. In the middle of the square are a +clock-tower (_Der rote Turm_) 276 ft. in height, and a bronze statue of +Handel, the composer, a native of Halle. West of the market-square lies +the Halle, or the Tal, where the brine springs (see below) issue. Among +the eleven churches, nine Protestant and two Roman Catholic, may also be +mentioned the St Moritzkirche, dating from the 12th century, with fine +wood carvings and sculptures, and the cathedral (belonging since 1689 to +the Reformed or Calvinistic church), built in the 16th century and +containing an altar-piece representing Duke Augustus of Saxony and his +family. Of secular buildings the most noticeable are the ruins of the +castle of Moritzburg, formerly a citadel and the residence of the +archbishops of Magdeburg, destroyed by fire in the Thirty Years' War, +with the exception of the left wing now used for military purposes, the +university buildings, the theatre and the new railway station. The +famous university was founded by the elector Frederick III. of +Brandenburg (afterwards king of Prussia), in 1694, on behalf of the +jurist, Christian Thomasius (1655-1728), whom many students followed to +Halle, when he was expelled from Leipzig through the enmity of his +fellow professors. It was closed by Napoleon in 1806 and again in 1813, +but in 1815 was re-established and augmented by the removal to it of the +university of Wittenberg, with which it thus became united. It has +faculties of theology, law, medicine and philosophy. From the first it +has been recognized as one of the principal seats of Protestant +theology, originally of the pietistic and latterly of the rationalistic +and critical school. In connexion with the university there are a +botanical garden, a theological seminary, anatomical, pathological and +physical institutes, hospitals, an agricultural institute--one of the +foremost institutions of the kind in Germany--a meteorological +institute, an observatory and a library of 180,000 printed volumes and +800 manuscripts. Among other educational establishments must be +mentioned the Francke'sche Stiftungen, founded in 1691 by August Hermann +Francke (1663-1727), a bronze statue of whom by Rauch was erected in +1829 in the inner court of the building. They embrace an orphanage, a +laboratory where medicines are prepared and distributed, a Bible press +from which Bibles are issued at a cheap rate, and eight schools of +various grades, attended in all by over 3000 pupils. The other principal +institutions are the city gymnasium, the provincial lunatic asylum, the +prison, the town hospital and infirmary, and the deaf and dumb +institute. The salt-springs of Halle have been known from a very early +period. Some rise within the town and others on an island in the Saale; +and together their annual yield of salt is about 8500 tons. + +The workmen employed at the salt-works are of a peculiar race and are +known as the _Halloren_. They have been usually regarded as descendants +of the original Wendish inhabitants, or as Celtic immigrants, with an +admixture of Frankish elements. They wear a distinct dress, the ordinary +costume of about 1700, observe several ancient customs, and enjoy +certain exemptions and privileges derived from those of the ancient +_Pfannerschaft_ (community of the salt-panners). + +Among the other industries of Halle are sugar refining, machine +building, the manufacture of spirits, malt, chocolate, cocoa, +confectionery, cement, paper, chicory, lubricating and illuminating oil, +wagon grease, carriages and playing cards, printing, dyeing and coal +mining (soft brown coal). The trade, which is supervised by a chamber of +commerce, is very considerable, the principal exports being machinery, +raw sugar and petroleum. Halle is also noted as the seat of several +important publishing firms. The Bibelanstalt (Bible institution) of von +Castein is the central authority for the revision of Luther's Bible, of +which it sells annually from 60,000 to 70,000 copies. + + Halle is first mentioned as a fortress erected on the Saale in 806 by + Charles, son of Charlemagne, during his expedition against the Sorbs. + The place was, however, known long before, and owes its origin as well + as its name to the salt springs (_Halis_). In 968 Halle, with the + valuable salt works, was given by the emperor Otto I. to the newly + founded archdiocese of Magdeburg, and in 981 Otto II. gave it a + charter as a town. The interests of the archbishop were watched over + by a _Vogt (advocatus)_ and a burgrave, and from the first there were + separate jurisdictions for the Halloren and the German settlers in the + town, the former being under that of the _Salzgraf_ (comes salis), the + latter of a _Schultheiss_ or bailiff, both subordinate to the + burgrave. The conflict of interests and jurisdictions led to the usual + internecine strife during the middle ages. The panners (_Pfänner_) of + the Tal, feudatories or officials, became a close hereditary + aristocracy in perpetual rivalry with the gilds in the town; and both + resisted the pretensions of the archbishops. At the beginning of the + 12th century Halle had attained considerable importance, and in the + 13th and 14th centuries as a member of the Hanseatic League it carried + on successful wars with the archbishops of Magdeburg; and in 1435 it + resisted an army of 30,000 men under the elector of Saxony. Its + liberty perished, however, as a result of the internal feud between + the democratic gilds and the patrician panners. On the 20th of + September 1478 a demagogue and cobbler named Jakob Weissak, a member + of the town council, with his confederates opened the gates to the + soldiers of the archbishop. The townsmen were subdued, and to hold + them in check the archbishop, Ernest of Saxony, built the castle of + Moritzburg. Notwithstanding the efforts of the archbishops of Mainz + and Magdeburg, the Reformation found an entrance into the city in + 1522; and in 1541 a Lutheran superintendent was appointed. After the + peace of Westphalia in 1648 the city came into the possession of the + house of Brandenburg. In 1806 it was stormed and taken by the French, + after which, at the peace of Tilsit, it was united to the new kingdom + of Westphalia. After the battle between the Prussians and French, in + May 1813, it was taken by the Prussians. The rise of Leipzig was for a + long time hurtful to the prosperity of Halle, and its present rapid + increase in population and trade is principally due to its position as + the centre of a network of railways. + + See Dreyhaupt, _Ausführliche Beschreibung des Saalkreises_ (Halle, 2 + vols., 1755; 3rd edition, 1842-1844); Hoffbauer, _Geschichte der + Universität zu Halle_ (1806); _Halle in Vorzeit und Gegenwart_ (1851); + Knauth, _Kurze Geschichte und Beschreibung der Stadt Halle_ (3rd ed., + 1861); vom Hagen, _Die Stadt Halle_ (1866-1867); Hertzberg, + _Geschichte der Vereinigung der Universitäten von Wittenberg und + Halle_ (1867); Voss, _Zur Geschichte der Autonomie der Stadt Halle_ + (1874); Schrader, _Geschichte der Friedrichs-Universität zu Halle_ + (Berlin, 1894); Karl Hegel, _Städte und Gilden der germanischen + Völker_ (Leipzig, 1891), ii. 444-449. + + + + +HALLECK, FITZ-GREENE (1790-1867), American poet, was born at Guilford, +Connecticut, on the 8th of July 1790. By his mother he was descended +from John Eliot, the "Apostle to the Indians." At an early age he became +clerk in a store at Guilford, and in 1811 he entered a banking-house in +New York. Having made the acquaintance of Joseph Rodman Drake, in 1819 +he assisted him under the signature of "Croaker junior" in contributing +to the New York _Evening Post_ the humorous series of "Croaker Papers." +In 1821 he published his longest poem, _Fanny_, a satire on local +politics and fashions in the measure of Byron's _Don Juan_. He visited +Europe in 1822-1823, and after his return published anonymously in 1827 +_Alnwick Castle, with other Poems_. From 1832 to 1841 he was +confidential agent of John Jacob Astor, who named him one of the +trustees of the Astor library. In 1864 he published in the _New York +Ledger_ a poem of 300 lines entitled "Young America." He died at +Guilford, on the 19th of November 1867. The poems of Halleck are written +with great care and finish, and manifest the possession of a fine sense +of harmony and of genial and elevated sentiments. + + His _Life and Letters_, by James Grant Wilson, appeared in 1869. His + _Poetical Writings_, together with extracts from those of Joseph + Rodman Drake, were edited by Wilson in the same year. + + + + +HALLECK, HENRY WAGER (1815-1872), American general and jurist, was born +at Westernville, Oneida county, N.Y., in 1815, entered the West Point +military academy at the age of twenty, and on graduating in 1839 was +appointed to the engineers, becoming at the same time assistant +professor of engineering at the academy. In the following year he was +made an assistant to the Board of Engineers at Washington, from 1841 to +1846 he was employed on the defence works at New York, and in 1845 he +was sent by the government to visit the principal military +establishments of Europe. After his return, Halleck delivered a course +of lectures on the science of war, published in 1846 under the title +_Elements of Military Art and Science_. A later edition of this work was +widely used as a text-book by volunteer officers during the Civil War. +On the outbreak of the Mexican War in 1846, he served with the +expedition to California and the Pacific coast, in which he +distinguished himself not only as an engineer, but by his skill in civil +administration and by his good conduct before the enemy. He served for +several years in California as a staff officer, and as secretary of +state under the military government, and in 1849 he helped to frame the +state constitution of California, on its being admitted into the Union. +In 1852 he was appointed inspector and engineer of lighthouses, and in +1853 was employed in the fortification of the Pacific coast. In 1854 +Captain Halleck resigned his commission and took up the practice of law +with great success. He was also director of a quicksilver mine, and in +1855 he became president of the Pacific & Atlantic railway. On the +outbreak of the Civil War he returned to the army as a major-general, +and in November 1861 he was charged with the supreme command in the +western theatre of war. There can be no question that his administrative +skill was mainly instrumental in bringing order out of chaos in the +hurried formation of large volunteer armies in 1861, but the strategical +and tactical successes of the following spring were due rather to the +skill and activity of his subordinate generals Grant, Buell and Pope, +than to the plans of the supreme commander, and when he assumed command +of the united forces of these three generals before Corinth, the +methodical slowness of his advance aroused much criticism. In July, +however, he was called to Washington as general-in-chief of the armies. +At headquarters his administrative powers were conspicuous, but he +proved to be utterly wanting in any large grasp of the military problem; +the successive reverses of Generals McClellan, Pope, Burnside and Hooker +in Virginia were not infrequently traceable to the defects of the +general-in-chief. No co-ordination of the military efforts of the Union +was seriously undertaken by Halleck, and eventually in March 1864 Grant +was appointed to replace him, Major-General Halleck becoming chief of +staff at Washington. This post he occupied with credit until the end of +the war. In April 1865 he held the command of the military division of +the James and in August of the same year of the military division of the +Pacific, which he retained till June 1869, when he was transferred to +that of the South, a position he held till his death at Louisville, Ky., +on the 9th of January 1872. Halleck's position as a soldier is easily +defined by bis uniform success as an administrative official, his +equally uniform want of success as an officer at the head of large +armies in the field, and the popularity of his theoretical writings on +war. His influence, for good or evil, on the course of the greatest war +of modern times was greater than that of any soldier on either side save +Grant and Lee, and whilst his interference with the dispositions of the +commanders in the field was often disastrous, his services in organizing +and instructing the Union forces were always of the highest value, and +in this respect he was indispensable. + + Besides _Military Art and Science_, Halleck wrote _Bitumen, its + Varieties, Properties and Uses_ (1841); _The Mining Laws of Spain and + Mexico_ (1859); _International Law_ (1861; new edition, 1908); and + _Treatise on International Law and the Laws of War, prepared for the + use of Schools and Colleges_, abridged from the larger work. He + translated Jomini's _Vie politique et militaire de Napoléon_ (1864) + and de Fooz _On the Law of Mines_ (1860). The works on international + law mentioned above entitle General Halleck to be considered as one of + the great jurists of the 19th century. + + + + +HÄLLEFLINTA (a Swedish word meaning rock-flint), a white, grey, yellow, +greenish or pink, fine-grained rock consisting of an intimate mixture of +quartz and felspar. Many examples are banded or striated; others contain +porphyritic crystals of quartz which resemble those of the felsites and +porphyries. Mica, iron oxides, apatite, zircon, epidote and hornblende +may also be present in small amount. The more micaceous varieties form +transitions to granulite and gneiss. Hälleflinta under the microscope is +very finely crystalline, or even cryptocrystalline, resembling the +felsitic matrix of many acid rocks. It is essentially metamorphic and +occurs with gneisses, schists and granulites, especially in the +Scandinavian peninsula, where it is regarded as being very +characteristic of certain horizons. Of its original nature there is some +doubt, but its chemical composition and the occasional presence of +porphyritic crystals indicate that it has affinities to the fine-grained +acid intrusive rocks. In this group there may also have been placed +metamorphosed acid tuffs and a certain number of adinoles (shales, +contact altered by intrusions of diabase). The assemblage is not a +perfectly homogeneous one but includes both igneous and sedimentary +rocks, but the former preponderate. Rocks very similar to the typical +Swedish hälleflintas occur in Tirol, in Galicia and eastern Bohemia. + + + + +HALLEL (Heb. [Hebrew: hallel] a Mishnic derivative from [Hebrew: hillel] +hillel, "to praise"), a term in synagogal liturgy for (a) Psalms +cxiii.-cxviii., often called "the Egyptian Hallel" because of its +recitation during the paschal meal on the night of the Passover, (b) +Psalm cxxxvi. "the Great Hallel." C. A. Briggs[1] points out that the +term "Hallelujah" (Praise ye Yah) is found at the close of Pss. civ., +cv., cxv., cxvi., cxvii., at the beginning of Pss. cxi., cxii. and at +both ends of Pss. cvi., cxiii., cxxxv., cxlvi. to cl. The Septuagint +also gives it at the beginning of Pss. cv., cvii., cxiv., cxvi. to +cxix., cxxxvi. There are thus four groups of Hallel psalms:--civ.-cvii. +(a tetralogy on creation, the patriarchal age, the Exodus, and the +Restoration); cxi.-cxvii. which includes most of the "Egyptian Hallel"; +cxxxv.-cxxxvi.; cxlvi.-cl. All of these Hallels (except cxlvii. and +cxlix. which are Maccabean) belong to the Greek period, forming a +collection of sixteen psalms composed for public use by the choirs, +especially at the great feasts. Their distribution into four groups was +the work of the final editor of the psalter. Later liturgical use +regarded Pss. cxviii. and even cxix. as Hallels, as well as Pss. cxx. to +cxxxiv. + +It will be observed that the extent of the official Hallel varied from +time to time. It would appear that in the time of Gamaliel (_Pesahim_ +x. 5) the custom of its recitation at the paschal meal was still of +recent innovation. While the school of Shammai advised only Ps. cxiii., +the school of Hillel favoured Pss. cxiii. and cxiv.[2] The further +extension so as to include Pss. cxv. to cxviii. probably dates from the +first half of the 2nd century A.D., and these four psalms were recited +after the pouring out of the fourth cup, the two earlier ones being +taken at the beginning of the meal. From the 3rd century the use of the +Hallel was extended to other occasions, and was gradually incorporated +into the liturgy of eighteen festal days. + +The "Great Hallel" (Ps. cxxxvi. and its later extension to cxx.-cxxxvi.) +always served the wider purpose of a more general thanksgiving. +According to Rabbi Johanan it derived its name from the allusion in v. +25 to the Holy One who sits in heaven and thence distributes food to all +bis creatures. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _International Critical Commentary_, "Psalms," Intro. lxxviii. + + [2] The reference to a hymn at the institution of the Eucharist + (Matt. xxvi. 30, Mark xiv. 26) must be interpreted in the light of + this inceptive stage of the Hallel. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 12, Slice 7, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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