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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/38348-8.txt b/38348-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..bd9f542 --- /dev/null +++ b/38348-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,5085 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Energy System of Matter, by James Weir + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Energy System of Matter + A Deduction from Terrestrial Energy Phenomena + +Author: James Weir + +Release Date: December 20, 2011 [EBook #38348] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ENERGY SYSTEM OF MATTER *** + + + + +Produced by David Garcia, Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Cathy +Maxam and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net (This book was produced from scanned +images of public domain material from the Google Print +project.) + + + + + + + + + + +THE ENERGY SYSTEM OF MATTER + + + + + THE ENERGY SYSTEM OF MATTER + + A DEDUCTION FROM TERRESTRIAL + ENERGY PHENOMENA + + BY + JAMES WEIR + + _WITH 12 DIAGRAMS_ + + LONGMANS, GREEN AND CO. + 39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON + NEW YORK BOMBAY, AND CALCUTTA + 1912 + + All rights reserved + + + + +PREFACE + + +An intimate study of natural phenomena and a lengthened experience in +physical research have resulted in the formation of certain +generalisations and deductions which I now present in this volume. I +have reached the conclusion that every physical phenomenon is due to the +operation of energy transformations or energy transmissions embodied in +material, and takes place under the action or influence of incepting +energy fields. In any instance the precise nature of the phenomena is +dependent on the peculiar form of energy actively engaged, on the nature +of the material to which this energy is applied, and on the nature of +the incepting field which influences the process. In the course of the +work several concrete cases are discussed, in which these features of +energy are illustrated and explained by the use of simple experimental +apparatus. It is hoped that, by this means, the distinctive differences +which exist in the manifestations of energy, in its transformation, in +its transmission, and in its incepting forms will be rendered clear to +the reader. I have to express my indebtedness to Mr. James Affleck, +B.Sc., for his assistance in the preparation of this work for +publication. + +JAMES WEIR. + +OVER COURANCE, +LOCKERBIE, SCOTLAND. + + + + +CONTENTS + + + PAGE + + INTRODUCTION 1 + + + PART I + + GENERAL STATEMENT + + 1. ADVANTAGES OF GENERAL VIEW OF NATURAL OPERATIONS 7 + + 2. SEPARATE MASS IN SPACE 8 + + 3. ADVENT OF ENERGY--DISTORTIONAL EFFECTS 9 + + 4. THE GRAVITATION FIELD 11 + + 5. LIMITS OF ROTATIONAL ENERGY--DISRUPTIONAL + PHENOMENA 13 + + 6. PASSIVE FUNCTION AND GENERAL NATURE OF GRAVITATION + FIELD 17 + + 7. LIMIT OF GRAVITATION TRANSFORMATION 18 + + 8. INTERACTIONS OF TWO PLANETARY BODIES--EQUILIBRIUM + PHENOMENA 19 + + 9. AXIAL ENERGY--SECONDARY PROCESSES 22 + + 10. MECHANISM OF ENERGY RETURN 27 + + 11. REVIEW OF COSMICAL SYSTEM--GENERAL FUNCTION OF + ENERGY 29 + + 12. REVIEW OF COSMICAL SYSTEM--NATURAL CONDITIONS 31 + + + PART II + + PRINCIPLES OF INCEPTION + + 13. ILLUSTRATIVE SECONDARY PROCESSES 34 + + 14. INCEPTING ENERGY INFLUENCES 40 + + 15. COHESION AS AN INCEPTING INFLUENCE 45 + + 16. TERRESTRIAL GRAVITATION AS AN INCEPTING INFLUENCE 48 + + 17. THE GRAVITATION FIELD 51 + + 18. THE THERMAL FIELD 54 + + 19. THE LUMINOUS FIELD 58 + + 20. TRANSFORMATIONS--UPWARD MOVEMENT OF A MASS + AGAINST GRAVITY 62 + + 21. TRANSFORMATIONS--THE SIMPLE PENDULUM 67 + + 22. STATICAL ENERGY CONDITIONS 68 + + 23. TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE MOVING PENDULUM--ENERGY + OF MOTION TO ENERGY OF POSITION AND VICE VERSA 72 + + 24. TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE MOVING PENDULUM--FRICTIONAL + TRANSFORMATION AT THE BEARING SURFACES 77 + + 25. STABILITY OF ENERGY SYSTEMS 79 + + 26. THE PENDULUM AS A CONSERVATIVE SYSTEM 81 + + 27. SOME PHENOMENA OF TRANSMISSION PROCESSES--TRANSMISSION + OF HEAT ENERGY BY SOLID MATERIAL 84 + + 28. SOME PHENOMENA OF TRANSMISSION PROCESSES--TRANSMISSION + BY FLEXIBLE BAND OR CORD 89 + + 29. SOME PHENOMENA OF TRANSMISSION PROCESSES--TRANSMISSION + OF ENERGY TO AIR MASSES 92 + + 30. ENERGY MACHINES AND ENERGY TRANSMISSION 95 + + 31. IDENTIFICATION OF FORMS OF ENERGY 107 + + 32. COMPLETE SECONDARY CYCLICAL OPERATION 114 + + + PART III + + TERRESTRIAL CONDITIONS + + 33. GASEOUS EXPANSION 118 + + 34. GRAVITATIONAL EQUILIBRIUM OF GASES 124 + + 35. TOTAL ENERGY OF GASEOUS SUBSTANCES 131 + + 36. COMPARATIVE ALTITUDES OF PLANETARY ATMOSPHERES 135 + + 37. REACTIONS OF COMPOSITE ATMOSPHERE 139 + + 38. DESCRIPTION OF TERRESTRIAL CASE 143 + + 39. RELATIVE PHYSICAL CONDITIONS OF ATMOSPHERIC + CONSTITUENTS 150 + + 40. TRANSMISSION OF ENERGY FROM AQUEOUS VAPOUR TO + AIR MASSES 153 + + 41. TERRESTRIAL ENERGY RETURN 160 + + 42. EXPERIMENTAL ANALOGY AND DEMONSTRATION OF THE + GENERAL MECHANISM OF ENERGY TRANSFORMATION + AND RETURN IN THE ATMOSPHERIC CYCLE 170 + + 43. APPLICATION OF PENDULUM PRINCIPLES 181 + + 44. EXTENSION OF PENDULUM PRINCIPLES TO TERRESTRIAL + PHENOMENA 188 + + 45. CONCLUDING REVIEW OF TERRESTRIAL CONDITIONS--EFFECTS + OF INFLUX OF ENERGY 192 + + + + +THE ENERGY SYSTEM OF MATTER + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +The main principles on which the present work is founded were broadly +outlined in the author's _Terrestrial Energy_ in 1883, and also in a +later paper in 1892. + +The views then expressed have since been amply verified by the course of +events. In the march of progress, the forward strides of science have +been of gigantic proportions. Its triumphs, however, have been in the +realm, not of speculation or faith, but of experiment and fact. While, +on the one hand, the careful and systematic examination and +co-ordination of experimental facts has ever been leading to results of +real practical value, on the other, the task of the theorists, in their +efforts to explain phenomena on speculative grounds, has become +increasingly severe, and the results obtained have been decreasingly +satisfactory. Day by day it becomes more evident that not one of the +many existing theories is adequate to the explanation of the known +phenomena: but, in spite of this obvious fact, attempts are still +constantly being made, even by most eminent men, to rule the results of +experimental science into line with this or that accepted theory. The +contradictions are many and glaring, but speculative methods are still +rampant. They have become the fashion, or rather the fetish, of modern +science. It would seem that no experimental result can be of any value +until it is deductively accommodated to some preconceived hypothesis, +until it is embodied and under the sway of what is practically +scientific dogma. These methods have permeated all branches of science +more or less, but in no sphere has the tendency to indulge in +speculation been more pronounced than in that which deals with +energetics. In no sphere, also, have the consequences of such indulgence +been more disastrous. For the most part, the current conceptions of +energy processes are crude, fanciful, and inconsistent with Nature. They +require for their support--in fact, for their very existence--the +acceptance of equally fantastic conceptions of mythical substances or +ethereal media of whose real existence there is absolutely no +experimental evidence. On the assumed properties or motions of such +media are based the many inconsistent and useless attempts to explain +phenomena. But, as already pointed out, Nature has unmistakably +indicated the true path of progress to be that of experimental +investigation. In the use of this method only phenomena can be employed, +and any hypothesis which may be formulated as the result of research on +these lines is of scientific value only in so far as it is the correct +expression of the actual facts observed. By this method of holding close +to Nature reliable working hypotheses can, if necessary, be formed, and +real progress made. It is undeniably the method of true science. + +In recent years much attention has been devoted to certain speculative +theories with respect to the origin and ultimate nature of matter and +energy. Such hypotheses, emanating as they do from prominent workers, +and fostered by the inherent imaginative tendency of the human mind, +have gained considerable standing. But it is surely unnecessary to point +out that all questions relating to origins are essentially outside the +pale of true science. Any hypotheses which may be thus formulated have +not the support of experimental facts in their conclusions; they belong +rather to the realm of speculative philosophy than to that of science. +In the total absence of confirmatory phenomena, such theories can, at +best, only be regarded as plausible speculations, to be accepted, it may +be, without argument, and ranking in interest in the order of their +plausibility. + +Of modern research into the ultimate constitution of matter little +requires to be said. It is largely founded on certain radio-active and +electrical phenomena which, in themselves, contribute little +information. But aided by speculative methods and the use of +preconceived ethereal hypotheses, various elaborate theories have been +formulated, explaining matter and its properties entirely in terms of +ethereal motions. Such conceptions in their proper sphere--namely, that +of metaphysics--would be no doubt of interest, but when advanced as a +scientific proposition or solution they border on the ridiculous. In the +absence of phenomena bearing on the subject, it would seem that the last +resort of the modern scientist lies in terminology. To the average +seeker after truth, however, the term "matter," as applied to the +material world, will still convey as much meaning as the more elaborate +scientific definitions. + +It is not the purpose of this work to add another thread to the already +tangled skein of scientific theory. It is written, rather, with the +conviction, that it is impossible ever to get really behind or beyond +phenomena; in the belief that the complete description of any natural +process is simply the complete description of the associated phenomena, +which may always be observed and co-ordinated but never ultimately +explained. Phenomena must ever be accepted simply as phenomena--as the +inscrutable manifestations of Nature. By induction from phenomena it is +indeed possible to rise to working hypotheses, and thence, it may be, to +general conceptions of Nature's order, and as already pointed out, it is +to this method, of accepting phenomena, and of reasoning only from +experimental facts, that all the advances of modern science are due. On +the other hand, it is the neglect of this method--the departure, as it +were, from Nature--which has led to the introduction into the scientific +thought of the day of the various ethereal media with their extreme and +contradictory properties. The use of such devices really amounts to an +admission of direct ignorance of phenomena. They are, in reality, an +attempt to explain natural operations by a highly artificial method, +and, having no basis in fact, their whole tendency is to proceed, in +ever-increasing degree, from one absurdity to another. + +It is quite possible to gain a perfectly true and an absolutely reliable +knowledge of the properties of matter and energy, and the part which +each plays, without resorting to speculative aids. All that is required +is simply accurate and complete observation at first hand. The field of +research is wide; all Nature forms the laboratory. By this method every +result achieved may be tested and verified, not by its concurrence with +any approved theory, however plausible, but by direct reference to +phenomena. The verdict of Nature will be the final judgment on every +scheme. + +It is on these principles, allied with the great generalisations with +respect to the conservation of matter and energy, that this work is +founded. As the result of a long, varied, and intimate acquaintance with +Nature, and much experimental research in many spheres, the author has +reached the conclusion, already foreshadowed in _Terrestrial Energy_, +that the great principle of energy conservation is true, not only in the +universal and generally accepted sense, but also in a particular sense +with respect to all really separate bodies, such as planetary masses in +space. Each of these bodies, therefore, forms within itself a completely +conservative energy system. This conclusion obviously involves the +complete denial of the transmission of energy in any form across +interplanetary space, and the author, in this volume, now seeks to +verify the conclusion by the direct experimental evidence of terrestrial +phenomena. + +Under present-day conditions in science, the acceptance of the ordinary +doctrine of transmission across space involves likewise the acceptance +of the existence of an ethereal substance which pervades all space and +forms the medium by which such transmission is carried out. The +properties of this medium are, of course, precisely adapted to its +assumed function of transmission. These properties it is not necessary +to discuss, for when the existence of the transmission itself has been +finally disproved, the necessity for the transmitting medium clearly +vanishes. + + + + +PART I + +GENERAL STATEMENT + + +1. _Advantages of General View of Natural Operations_ + +The object of this statement is to outline and illustrate, in simple +fashion, a broad and general conception of the operation and interaction +of matter and energy in natural phenomena. + +Such a conception may be of value to the student of Nature, in several +ways. In modern times the general tendency of scientific work is ever +towards specialisation, with its corresponding narrowness of view. A +broad outlook on Nature is thus eminently desirable. It enables the +observer to perceive to some extent the links uniting the apparently +most insignificant of natural processes to those of seemingly greater +magnitude and importance. In this way a valuable idea of the natural +world as a whole may be gained, which will, in turn, tend generally to +clarify the aspect of particular operations. A broad general view of +Nature also leads to the appreciation of the full significance of the +great doctrines of the conservation of matter and energy. By its means +the complete verification of these doctrines, which appears to be beyond +human experiment, may be traced on the face of Nature throughout the +endless chain of natural processes. Such a view also leads to a firm +grasp of the essential nature and qualities of energy itself so far as +they are revealed by its general function in phenomena. + + +2. _Separate Mass in Space_ + +In the scheme now to be outlined, matter and energy are postulated at +the commencement without reference to their ultimate origin or inherent +nature. They are accepted, in their diverse forms, precisely as they are +familiar from ordinary terrestrial experience and phenomena. + +For the purpose of general illustration the reader is asked to conceive +a mass of heterogeneous matter, concentrated round a given point in +space, forming a single body. This mass is assumed to be assembled and +to obtain its coherent form in virtue of that universal and inherent +property of matter, namely, gravitative or central attraction. This +property is independent of precise energy conditions, its outward +manifestation being found simply in the persistent tendency of matter on +all occasions to press or force itself into the least possible space. In +the absence of all disturbing influences, therefore, the configuration +of this mass of matter, assumed assembled round the given point, would +naturally, under the influence of this gravitative tendency, resolve +itself into that of a perfect sphere. The precise magnitude or +dimensions of the spherical body thus constituted are of little moment +in the discussion, but, for illustrative purposes, it may, in the +meantime, be assumed that in mass it is equivalent to our known solar +system. It is also assumed to be completely devoid of energy, and as a +mass to be under the influence of no external constraint. Under these +conditions, the spherical body may obviously be assumed as stationary in +space, or otherwise as moving with perfectly uniform velocity along a +precisely linear path. Either conception is justifiable. The body has no +relative motion, and since it is absolutely unconstrained no force could +be applied to it and no energy expenditure would be required for its +linear movement. + + +3. _Advent of Energy--Distortional Effects_ + +Nature, however, does not furnish us with any celestial or other body +fulfilling such conditions. Absolutely linear motion is unknown, and +matter is never found divorced from energy. To complete the system, +therefore, the latter factor is required, and, with the advent of energy +to the mass, its prototype may be found in the natural world. + +This energy is assumed to be communicated in that form which we shall +term "work" energy (§§ 13, 31) and which, as a form of energy, will be +fully dealt with later. This "work" energy is assumed to be manifested, +in the first place, as energy of motion. As already pointed out, no +expenditure of energy can be associated with a linear motion of the +mass, since that motion is under no restraint, but in virtue of the +initial central attraction or gravitative strain, the form of energy +first communicated may be that of kinetic energy of rotation. Its +transmission to the mass will cause the latter to revolve about some +axis of symmetry within itself. Each particle of the mass thus pursues a +circular path with reference to that axis, and has a velocity directly +proportional to its radial displacement from it. + +This energised rotating spherical mass is thus the primal conception of +the energy scheme now to be outlined. It will be readily seen that, as a +primal conception, it is essentially and entirely natural; so much so, +indeed, that any one familiar with rotatory motion might readily predict +from ordinary experience the resulting phenomena on which the scheme is, +more or less, based. + +When energy is applied to the mass, the first phenomenon of note will be +that, as the mass rotates, it departs from its originally spherical +shape. By the action of what is usually termed centrifugal force, the +rotating body will be distorted; it will be flattened at the polar or +regions of lowest velocity situated at the extremities of the axis of +rotation, and it will be correspondingly distended at the equatorial or +regions of highest velocity. The spherical body will, in fact, assume a +more or less discoidal form according to the amount of energy applied to +it; there will be a redistribution of the original spherical matter; +certain portions of the mass will be forced into new positions more +remote from the central axis of rotation. + + +4. _The Gravitation Field_ + +These phenomena of motion are the outward evidence of certain energy +processes. The distortional movement of the material is carried out +against the action and within the field of certain forces which exist in +the mass of material in virtue of its gravitative or cohesive qualities. +It is carried out also in virtue of the application of energy to the +sphere, which energy has been, as it were, transformed or worked down, +in the distortional movement, against the restraining action of this +gravitation field or influence. The outward displacement of the material +from the central axis is thus coincident with a gain of energy to the +mass, this gain of energy being, of course, at the expense of, and by +the direct transformation of, the originally applied energy. It is +stored in the distorted material as energy of position, potential +energy, or energy of displacement relative to the central axis. But, in +the distortive movement, the mass will also gain energy in other forms. +The movement of one portion of its material relative to another will +give rise (since it is carried out under the gravitational influence) to +a fractional process in which, as we know from terrestrial experience, +heat and electrical energy will make their appearance. These forms of +energy will give rise, in their turn, to all the phenomena usually +attendant on their application to material. As already pointed out also, +the whole mass gains, in varying degree, energy of motion or kinetic +energy. It would appear, then, that although energy was nominally +applied to the mass in one form only, yet by its characteristic property +of transformation it has in reality manifested itself in several +entirely different forms. It is important to note the part played in +these transformation processes by the gravitation field or influence. +Its action really reveals one of the vital working principles of +energetics. This principle may be generally stated thus:-- + + EVERY TRANSFORMATION OF ENERGY IS CARRIED OUT BY THE ACTION OF + ENERGISED MATTER IN THE LINES OR FIELD OF AN INCEPTING ENERGY + INFLUENCE. + +In the particular case we have just considered, the incepting field is +simply the inherent gravitative property of the energised mass. This +property is manifested as an attractive force between portions of +matter. This, however, is not of necessity the only aspect of an +incepting influence. In the course of this work various instances of +transformation will be presented in which the incepting influence +functions in a guise entirely different. It is important to note that +the incepting influence itself is in no way changed, altered, or +transformed during the process of transformation which it influences. + + +5. _Limits of Rotational Energy. Disruptional Phenomena_ + +It is clear that the material at different parts of the rotating +spheroid will be energised to varying degrees. Since the linear velocity +of the material in the equatorial regions of the spheroid is greater +than that of the material about the poles, the energy of motion of the +former will exceed that of the latter, the difference becoming greater +as the mass is increasingly energised and assumes more and more the +discoidal form. + +The question now arises as to how far this process of energising the +material mass may be carried. What are its limits? The capacity of the +rotating body for energy clearly depends on the amount of work which +may be spent on its material in distorting it against the influence of +the gravitative attraction. The amount is again dependent on the +strength of this attraction. But the value of the gravitative attraction +or gravitation field is, by the law of gravitation, in direct proportion +to the quantity of material or matter present, and hence the capacity of +the body for energy depends on its mass or on the quantity of matter +which composes it. + +Now if energy be impressed on this mass beyond its capacity a new order +of phenomena appears. Distortion will be followed by disruption and +disintegration. By the action of the disruptive forces a portion of the +primary material will be projected into space as a planetary body. The +manner of formation of such a secondary body is perhaps best illustrated +by reference to the commonplace yet beautiful and suggestive phenomenon +of the separation of a drop of water or other viscous fluid under the +action of gravitation. In this process, during the first downward +movement of the drop, it is united to its source by a portion of +attenuated material which is finally ruptured, one part moving downwards +and being embodied in the drop whilst the remainder springs upwards +towards the source. In the process of formation of the planetary body we +are confronted with an order of phenomena of somewhat the same nature. +The planetary orb which is hurled into space is formed in a manner +similar to the drop of viscous fluid, and under the action of forces of +the same general nature. One of these forces is the bond of gravitative +attraction between planet and primary which is never severed, and when +complete separation of the two masses finally occurs, the incessant +combination of this force with the tangential force of disruption acting +on the planet will compel it into a fixed orbit, which it will pursue +around the central axis. When all material links have thus been severed, +the two bodies will then be absolutely separate masses in space. The +term "separate" is here used in its most rigid and absolute sense. No +material connection of any kind whatever exists, either directly or +indirectly, between the two masses. Each one is completely isolated from +the other by interplanetary space, and in reality, so far as material +connection is concerned, each one might be the sole occupant of that +space. This conception of separate masses in space is of great +importance to the author's scheme, but, at the same time, the condition +is one which cannot be illustrated by any terrestrial experimental +contrivance. It will be obvious that such a device, as might naturally +be conceived, of isolating two bodies by placing them in an exhausted +vessel or vacuous space, by no means complies with the full conditions +of true separation portrayed above, because some material connection +must always exist between the enclosed bodies and the containing +vessel. This aspect is more fully treated later (§ 30). The condition of +truly separate masses is, in fact, purely a celestial one. No means +whatever are existent whereby such a condition may be faithfully +reproduced in a terrestrial environment. + +In their separate condition the primary and planetary mass will each +possess a definite and unvarying amount of energy. It is to be noted +also, that since the original mass of the primary body has been +diminished by the mass of the planet cast off, the capacity for energy +of the primary will now be diminished in a corresponding degree. Any +further increment of energy to the primary in any form has now, however, +no direct influence on the energy of the planet, which must maintain its +position of complete isolation in its orbit. But although thus separate +and distinct from the primal mass in every material respect, the planet +is ever linked to it by the invisible bond of gravitation, and every +movement made by the planet in approaching or receding from the primary +is made in the field or influence of this attraction. In accordance, +therefore, with the general principle already enunciated (§ 4), these +actions or movements of the energised planetary mass, being made in the +field of the incepting gravitative influence, will be accompanied by +transformations, and thus the energy of the planet, although unvarying +in its totality, may vary in its form or distribution with the inward or +outward movement of the planet in its orbital path. As the planet +recedes from the primary it gains energy of position, but this gain is +obtained solely at the expense, and by the direct transformation of its +own orbital energy of motion. Its velocity in its orbit must, therefore, +decrease as it recedes from the central axis of the system, and increase +as it approaches that axis. Thus from energy considerations alone it is +clear that, if the planetary orbit is not precisely circular, the +velocity of the planet must vary at different points of its path. + + +6. _Passive Function and General Nature of Gravitation Field_ + +From the phenomena described above, it will be observed that, in the +energy processes of transformation occurring in both primary and planet, +the function of the gravitation field or influence is entirely passive +in nature. The field is, in truth, the persistent moving or directing +power behind the energy processes, the incepting energy influence or +agency which determines the nature of the transformation in each case +without being, in any way, actively engaged in it. In accelerating or +retarding the transformation process it has thus absolutely no effect. +These features are controlled by other factors. Neither does this +incepting agency affect, in any way, the limits of the transformation +process, these limits being prescribed by the physical or energy +qualities of the acting materials. In general nature the gravitation +field appears to be simply an energy influence--a peculiar manifestation +of certain passive qualities of energy. This aspect will, however, +become clearer to the reader when the properties of gravitation are +studied in conjunction with those of other incepting energy influences +(§§ 17, 18, 19). + + +7. _Limit of Gravitation Transformation_ + +In the case of a planetary body, there is a real limit to the extent of +the transformation of its orbital energy of motion under the influence +of the gravitation field. As the orbit of the planet widens, and its +mean distance from the primary becomes greater, its velocity in its +orbital path must correspondingly decrease. As already pointed out (§ +5), this decrease is simply the result of the orbital energy of motion +being transformed or worked down into energy of position. But since this +orbital energy is strictly limited in amount, a point must ultimately be +reached where it would be transformed in its entirety into energy of +position. When this limiting condition is attained, the planet clearly +could have no orbital motion; it would be instantaneously at rest in +somewhat the same way as a projectile from the earth's surface is at +rest at the summit of its flight in virtue of the complete +transformation of its energy of motion into energy of position. In this +limiting condition, also, the energy of position of the planet would be +the maximum possible, and its orbital energy zero. The scope of the +planetary orbital path is thus rigidly determined by the planetary +energy properties. Assuming the reduction of gravity with distance to +follow the usual law of inverse squares, the value of the displacement +of the planet from the central axis when in this stationary or limiting +position may be readily calculated if the various constants are known. +In any given case it is obvious that this limiting displacement must be +a finite quantity, since the planetary orbital energy which is being +worked down is itself finite in amount. + + +8. _Interactions of Two Planetary Bodies--Equilibrium Phenomena_ + +Up to the present point, the cosmical system has been assumed to be +composed of one planetary body only in addition to the primary mass. It +is clear, however, that by repetition of the process already described, +the system could readily evolve more than one planet; it might, in fact, +have several planetary masses originating in the same primary, each +endowed with a definite modicum of energy, and each pursuing a +persistent orbit round the central axis of the system. Since the mass of +the primary decreases as each successive planet is cast off, its +gravitative attractive powers will also decrease, and with every such +decline in the central restraining force the orbits of the previously +constituted planets will naturally widen. By the formation in this way +of a series of planetary masses, the material of the original primary +body would be as it were distributed over a larger area or space, and +this separation would be accompanied by a corresponding decrease in the +gravitative attraction between the several masses. If the distributive +or disruptive process were carried to its limit by the continuous +application of rotatory energy to each separate unit of the system, this +limit would be dependent on the capacity of the system for energy. As is +shown later (§ 20), this capacity would be determined by the mass of the +system. + +For simplicity, let us consider the case in which there are two +planetary bodies only in the system in addition to the primary. In +virtue of the gravitative attraction or gravitation field between the +two, they will mutually attract one another in their motion, and each +will, in consequence, be deflected more or less out of that orbital path +which it would normally pursue in the absence of the other. This +attraction will naturally be greatest when the planets are in the +closest proximity; the planet having the widest orbit will then be drawn +inwards towards the central axis, the other will be drawn outwards. The +distance moved in this way by each will depend on its mass, and on the +forces brought to bear on it by the combined action of the two remaining +masses of the system. Moving thus in different directions, the motion of +each planet is carried out in the lines of the gravitation field between +the two. One planet, therefore, gains and the other loses energy of +position with respect to the central axis of the system. The one planet +can thus influence, to some extent, the energy properties of the other, +although there is absolutely no direct energy communication between the +two; as shown hereafter, the whole action and the energy change will be +due simply to the motion carried out in the field of the incepting +gravitation influence. + +It is clear, however, that this influence is exerted on the distribution +of the energy, on the form in which it is manifested, and in no way +affects the energy totality of either planet. Each, as before, remains a +separate system with conservative energy properties. That planet which +loses energy of position gains energy of motion, and is correspondingly +accelerated in its orbital path; the other, in gaining energy of +position, does so at the expense of its own energy of motion, and is +retarded accordingly. The action is really very simple in nature when +viewed from a purely energy standpoint. It has been dealt with in some +detail in order to emphasise the fact that there is absolutely nothing +in the nature of a transmission of energy between one planet and the +other. Taking a superficial view of the operation, it might be inferred +that, as the planets approach one another, energy of motion (or energy +of position) is transmitted from one to the other, causing one to retard +and the other to accelerate its movement, but a real knowledge of the +energy conditions shows that the phenomenon is rather one of a simple +restoration of equilibrium, a redistribution or transformation of the +intrinsic energy of each to suit these altering conditions. Each planet +is, in the truest sense, a separate mass in space. + + +9. _Axial Energy--Secondary Processes_ + +Passing now to another aspect of the energy condition of a planetary +body, let the planet be assumed to be endowed with axial energy or +energy of rotation, so that, while pursuing its orbital path in space, +it also rotates with uniform angular velocity about an axis within +itself. What will be the effect of the primary mass on the planet under +these new energy conditions? We conceive that the effect is again purely +one of transformation. In this process the primary mass functions once +more as an entirely passive or incepting agent, which, while exerting a +continuous transforming influence on the planet, does not affect in any +way the inherent energy properties of the latter. Up to the present +point we have only dealt with one incepting influence in transformation +processes, namely, that of gravitation, which has always been +manifested as an attractive force. It is not to be supposed, however, +that this is the only aspect in which incepting influences may be +presented. Although attractive force is certainly an aspect of some +incepting influences, it is not a distinctive feature of incepting +influences generally. In many cases, the aspect of force, in the sense +of attraction or repulsion, is entirely awanting. In the new order of +transformations which come into play in virtue of the rotatory motion of +a planetary mass in the field of its primary, we shall find other +incepting influences in action entirely different in nature from the +gravitation influence, but, nevertheless, arising from the same primary +mass in a similar way. Now the application of energy to the planet, +causing it to rotate in the lines or under the influence of these +incepting fields of the primary, brings into existence on the planet an +entirely new order of phenomena. So long as the planet had no axial +motion of rotation, some of the incepting influences of the primary were +compelled, as it were, to inaction; but with the advent of axial energy +the conditions are at once favourable to their action, and to the +detection of their transforming effects. In accordance with the general +principle already enunciated (§ 4), the action of the planetary +energised material in the lines of the various incepting fields of the +primary is productive of energy transformations. The active energy of +these transformations is the axial or rotatory energy of the planet +itself, and, in virtue of these transformations, certain other forms of +energy will be manifested on the planet and associated with the various +forms of planetary material. These manifestations of energy, in fact, +constitute planetary phenomena. Since the action or movement of the +rotating material of the planet through the incepting fields of the +primary is most pronounced in the equatorial or regions of highest +linear velocity, and least in the regions of low velocity adjoining the +poles of rotation, the transforming effect may naturally be expected to +decrease in intensity from equator to poles. Planetary energy phenomena +will thus vary according to the location of the acting material. It will +be clear, also, that each incepting agency or influence associated with +the primary mass will give rise to its own peculiar transformations of +axial energy on the planetary surface. These leading or primary +transformations of axial energy, in which the incepting influence is +associated with the primary mass only, we term primary processes. But it +is evident that the various forms of energy thus set free on the planet +as a result of the primary processes will be communicated to, and will +operate on, the different forms of planetary material, and will give +rise to further or secondary transformations of energy, in which the +incepting agency is embodied in or associated with planetary material +only. The exact nature of these secondary transformations will vary +according to the circumstances in which they take place. Each of them, +however, as indicated above, will be, in itself, carried out in virtue +of some action of the energised planetary material in the lines or field +of what we might term a secondary incepting influence. The latter, +however, must not be confused with the influences of the primary. It is +essentially a planetary phenomenon, an aspect of planetary energy; it is +associated with the physical or material machine by means of which the +secondary process of transformation is carried out. The nature of this +secondary influence will determine the nature of the secondary +transformation in each case. Its precise extent may be limited by other +considerations (§ 15). + +As an example, assume a portion of the axial energy to be primarily +transformed into heat in virtue of the planet's rotation in the field of +an independent thermal incepting influence exerted by the primary. To +the action of this agency, which we might term the thermal field, we +assume are due all primary heating phenomena of planetary material. Now +the secondary transformations will take place when the heat energy thus +manifested is applied to some form of matter. It is obvious, however, +that this application might be carried out in various ways. Heat may be +devoted to the expansion of a solid against its cohesive forces. It may +be expended against the elastic forces of a gas, or it may be worked +down against chemical or electrical forces. In every case a +transformation of energy will result, varying in nature according to the +peculiar conditions under which it is carried out. In this or a similar +fashion each primary incepting influence may give rise to a series of +secondary actions more or less complex in nature. These secondary +transformation processes, allied with other processes of transmission, +will, in fact, constitute the visible phenomena of the planet, and in +their variety will exactly correspond to these phenomena. + +With regard to the gravitation field, its general influence on the +rotating mass may be readily predicted. The material on that part of the +planetary surface which is nearest to or happens to face the primary in +rotation is, during the short time it occupies that position, subjected +to a greater attractive influence than the remainder which is more +remote from the primary. It will, in consequence, tend to be more or +less distorted or elevated above its normal position on the planetary +surface. This distorting effect will vary in degree according to the +nature of the material, whether solid, liquid, or gaseous, but the +general effect of the distortional movement, combined with the rotatory +motion of the planet, will be to produce a tidal action or a periodical +rise and fall of the more fluid material distributed over the planetary +surface. The distortion will, of course, be accompanied by energy +processes in which axial energy will be transformed into heat and other +forms, which will finally operate in the secondary processes exactly as +in previous cases. + + +10. _Mechanism of Energy Return_ + +But the question now arises, as to how this continuous transformation of +the axial energy can be consistent with that condition of uniformity of +rotation of the planet which was originally assumed. If the total energy +of the planetary mass is limited, and if it can receive no increment of +energy from any external source, it is clear that the axial energy +transformed must, by some process, be continuously returned to its +original form. Some process or mechanism is evidently necessary to carry +out this operation. This mechanism we conceive to be provided by certain +portions of the material of the planet, principally the gaseous matter +which resides on its surface, completely enveloping it, and extending +outwards into space (§ 38). In other words, the atmosphere of the planet +forms the machine or material agency by which this return of the +transformed axial energy is carried out. It has already been pointed out +(§ 9) how the working energy of every secondary transformation is +derived from the original axial energy of the planet itself. Each of +these secondary transformations, however, forms but one link of one +cyclical chain of secondary transformations, in which a definite +quantity of energy, initially in the axial form, passes, in these +secondary operations, through various other forms, by different +processes and through the medium of different material machines, until +it is eventually absorbed into the atmosphere of the planet. These +complete series of cyclical operations, by which the various portions of +axial energy are carried to the atmosphere, may in some cases be of a +very simple nature, and may be continuously repeated over very short +intervals of time; in other cases, the cycle may seem obscure and +complicated, and its complete operation spread over very long periods, +but in all cases the final result is the same. The axial energy +abstracted, sooner or later, recurs to the atmospheric machine. By its +action in this machine, great masses of gaseous material are elevated +from the surface of the planet against the attractive force of +gravitation; the energy will thus now appear in the form of potential +energy or energy of position. By a subsequent movement of these gaseous +masses over the surface of the planet from the regions of high velocity +towards the poles, combined with a movement of descent to lower levels, +the energy of position with which they were endowed is returned once +more in the original axial form. + +This, roughly, constitutes the working of the planetary atmospheric +machine, which, while in itself completely reversible and +self-contained, forms also at the same time the source and the sink of +all the energy working in the secondary transformations. In the +ceaseless rounds of these transformations which form planetary phenomena +it links together the initial and concluding stages of each series by a +reversible process. Energy is thus stored and restored continuously. The +planet thus neither gains nor loses energy of axial motion; so far as +its energy properties are concerned, it is entirely independent of every +external influence. Its uniformity of rotation is absolutely maintained. +Each planet of the system will, in the same way, be an independent and +conservative unit. + + +11. _Review of Cosmical System--General Function of Energy_ + +Reviewing the system as a whole, the important part played by energy in +its constitution is readily perceived. The source of the energy which +operates in all parts of the system is found in that energy originally +applied (§ 3). When the system is finally constituted, this energy is +found distributed amongst the planets, each of which has received its +share, and each of which is thereby linked to the primary by its +influence. It is part of this same energy which undergoes transformation +in virtue of the orbital movements of the planets in the field of the +gravitative influence. Again, it is found in the form of planetary +axial energy, and thence, under the influence of various incepting +agencies, it passes in various forms through the whole gamut of +planetary phenomena, and finally functions in the atmospheric machine. +Every phenomenon of the system, great or small, is, in fact, but the +external evidence either of the transformation or of the transmission of +this energy--the outward manifestation of its changed or changing forms. +Its presence, which always implies its transformation (§ 4), is the +simple primary condition attached to every operation. The primal mass +originally responded to the application of energy by the presentation of +phenomena. Every material portion of the system will similarly respond +according to circumstances. Energy is, in fact, the working spirit of +the whole cosmical scheme. It is the influence linking every operation +of the system to the original transformations at the central axis, so +that all may be combined into one complete and consistent whole. It is +to be noted, however, that although they have a common origin the +orbital energy of each planetary mass is entirely distinct from its +energy of axial rotation, and is not interchangeable therewith. The +transformation of the one form of energy in no way affects the totality +of the other. + +The disruption of the primary mass furnishes a view of what is virtually +the birth of gravitation as it is conceived to exist between separate +bodies. It may now be pointed out that the attractive influence of +gravitation is, in reality, but one of the many manifestations of energy +of the system. It is not, however, an active manifestation of the +working energy, but rather an aspect of energy as it is related to the +properties of matter. We have absolutely no experimental experience of +matter devoid of energy. Gravitation might readily be termed an energy +property of matter, entirely passive in nature, and requiring the advent +of some other form in order that it may exercise its function as an +incepting agency. + +From a general consideration of the features of this system, in which +every phenomenon is an energy phenomenon, it seems feasible to conclude +also that every property of matter is likewise an energy property. It is +certain, indeed, that no reasonable or natural concept of either matter +or energy is possible if the two be dissociated. The system also +presents a direct and clear illustration of the principles of +conservation in the working of the whole, and also in each planetary +unit. + + +12. _Natural Conditions_ + +It will be noted that, up to the present point, the cosmical system has +been discussed from a purely abstract point of view. This method has +been adopted for a definite reason. Although able, at all points, to +bring more or less direct evidence from Nature, the author has no desire +that his scheme should be regarded in any way as an attempt to originate +or describe a system of creation. The object has been, by general +reasoning from already accepted properties of matter and energy, to +arrive at a true conception of a possible natural order of phenomena. It +is obvious, however, that the solar system forms the prototype of the +system described above. The motion of the earth and other planets is +continuously occurring under the influence of gravitation, thermal, +luminous, and other incepting fields which link them to the central +mass, the sun. As a result of the action of such fields, energy +transformations arise which form the visible phenomena of the system in +all its parts, each transformation, whether associated with animate or +inanimate matter, being carried out through the medium of some +arrangement of matter hereafter referred to as a material machine. The +conditions are precisely as laid down above. The system is dominated, in +its separate units, and as a whole, by the great principle of the +conservation of energy. Each planetary mass, as it revolves in space, +is, so far as its energy properties are concerned, an absolutely +conservative unit of that system. At the same time, however, each +planetary mass remains absolutely dependent on the primary for those +great controlling or incepting influences which determine the +transformation of its inherent energy. + +In the special case of the earth, which will be dealt with in some +detail, it is the object of this work to show that its property of +complete energy conservation is amply verified by terrestrial phenomena. +The extension of the principle from the earth to the whole planetary +system has been made on precisely the same grounds as Newton extended +the observed phenomena to his famous generalisation with respect to +gravitation. + + + + +PART II + +PRINCIPLES OF INCEPTION + + +13. _Illustrative Secondary Processes_ + +In this part of the work, an attempt will be made to place before the +reader some of the purely terrestrial and other evidential phenomena on +which the conclusions of the preceding General Statement are founded. +The complete and absolute verification of that Statement is obviously +beyond experimental device. Bound, as we are, within the confines of one +planet, and unable to communicate with the others, we can have no direct +experimental acquaintance with really separate bodies (§ 5) in space. +But, if from purely terrestrial experience we can have no direct proofs +on such matters, we have strong evidential conclusions which cannot be +gainsayed. If the same kind of energy operates throughout the solar +system, the experimental knowledge of its properties gained in one field +of research is valuable, and may be readily utilised in another. The +phenomena which are available to us for study are, of course, simply the +ordinary energy processes of the earth--those operations which in the +foregoing Statement have been described as secondary energy processes. +Their variety is infinite, and the author has accordingly selected +merely a few typical examples to illustrate the salient points of the +scheme. The energy acting in these secondary processes is, in every +case, derived, either directly or indirectly, from the energy of +rotation or axial energy of the earth. In themselves, the processes may +be either energy transformations or energy transmissions or a +combination of both these operations. When the action involves the +bodily movement of material mass in space, the dynamical energy thus +manifested, and which may be transmitted by the movement of this +material, is termed mechanical or "work" energy (§ 31); when the energy +active in the process is manifested as heat, chemical, or electrical +energy, we apply to it the term "molecular" energy. The significance of +these terms is readily seen. The operation of mechanical or "work" +energy on a mass of material may readily proceed without any permanent +alteration in the internal arrangement or general structure of that +mass. Mechanical or "work" energy is dissociated from any molecular +action. On the other hand, the application of such forms of energy as +heat or electrical energy to material leads to distinctly molecular or +internal effects, in which some alteration in the constitution of the +body affected may ensue. Hence the use of the terms, which of course is +completely arbitrary. + +The principal object of this part of the work is to illustrate clearly +the general nature, the working, and the limits of secondary processes. +For this purpose, the author has found it best to refer to certain more +or less mechanical contrivances. The apparatus made use of is merely +that utilised in everyday work for experimental or other useful +purposes. It is essentially of a very simple nature; no originality is +claimed for it, and no apology is offered for the apparent simplicity of +the particular energy operations chosen for discussion. In fact, this +feature has rather led to their selection. In scientific circles to-day, +familiarity with the more common instances of energy operations is apt +to engender the belief that these processes are completely understood. +There is no greater fallacy. In many cases, no doubt, the superficial +phenomena are well known, but in even the simplest instances the +mechanism or ultimate nature of the process remains unknown. A free and +somewhat loose method of applying scientific terms is frequently the +cloak which hides the ignorance of the observer. No attempt will here be +made to go beyond the simple phenomena. The object in view is simply to +describe such phenomena, to emphasise and explain certain aspects of +already well-known facts, which, up to the present, have been neglected. + +In some of the operations now to be described, mechanical or "work" +energy is the active agent, and material masses are thereby caused to +execute various movements in the lines or field of restraining +influences. For ordinary experimental convenience, the material thus +moved must of necessity be matter in the solid form. The illustrative +value of our experimental devices, however, will be very distinctly +improved if it be borne in mind that the operations of mechanical energy +are not restricted to solids only, but that the various processes of +transformation and transmission here illustrated by the motions of solid +bodies may, in other circumstances, be carried out in a precisely +similar fashion by the movements of liquids or even of gases. The +restrictions imposed in the method of illustration are simply those due +to the limitations of human experimental contrivance. Natural operations +exhibit apparatus of a different type. By the movements of solid +materials a convenient means of illustration is provided, but it is to +be emphasised that, so far as the operations of mechanical energy are +concerned, the precise form or nature of the material moved, whether it +be solid, liquid, or gaseous, is of no consequence. To raise one pound +of lead through a given distance against the gravitative attraction of +the earth requires no greater expenditure of energy than to raise one +pound of hydrogen gas through the same distance. The same principle +holds in all operations involving mechanical energy. + +Another point of some importance which will be revealed by the study of +secondary operations is that every energy process has in some manner +definite energy limits imposed upon it. In the workings of mechanical or +"work" energy it is the mass value of the moving material which, in this +respect, is important. The mass, in fact, is the real governing factor +of the whole process (§ 20). It determines the maximum amount of energy +which can be applied to the material, and thus controls the extent of +the energy operation. + +But in actions involving the molecular energies, the operation may be +limited by other considerations altogether. For example, the application +of heat to a solid body gives rise to certain energy processes (§ 27). +These processes may proceed to a certain degree with increase of +temperature, but a point will finally be attained where change of state +of the heated material takes place. This is the limiting point of this +particular operation. When change of state occurs, the phenomena will +assume an entirely different aspect. The first set of energy processes +will now be replaced by a set of operations absolutely different in +nature, themselves limited in extent, but by entirely different causes. +The first operation must thus terminate when the new order appears. In +this manner each process in which the applied energy is worked will be +confined within certain limiting boundaries. In any chain of energy +operations each link will thus have, as it were, a definite length. In +chemical reactions, the limits may be imposed in various ways according +to the precise nature of the action. Chemical combination, and chemical +disruption, must be looked on as operations which involve not only the +transformation of energy but also the transformation of matter. In most +cases, chemical reactions result in the appearance of matter in an +entirely new form--in the appearance, in fact, of actually different +material, with physical and energy properties absolutely distinct from +those of the reacting constituents. This appearance of matter in the new +form is usually the evidence of the termination, not only of the +particular chemical process, but also of the energy process associated +with it. Transformation of energy may thus be limited by transformation +of matter. + +Examples of the limiting features of energy operations could readily be +multiplied. Even a cursory examination of most natural operations will +reveal the existence of such limits. In no case do we find in Nature any +body, or any energy system, to which energy may be applied in unlimited +amount, but in every case, rigid energy limits are imposed, and, if +these limits are exceeded, the whole energy character of the body or +system is completely changed. + + +14. _Incepting Energy Influences_ + +In experimental and in physical work generally, it has been customary, +in describing any simple process of energy transformation, to take +account only of those energies or those forms of energy which play an +active part in the process--the energy in its initial or applied form +and the energy in its transformed or final form. This method, however, +requires enlarging so as to include another feature of energy +transformation, a feature hitherto completely overlooked, namely, that +of incepting energy. Now, this conception of incepting energy, or of +energy as an incepting influence, is of such vital importance to the +author's scheme, that it is necessary here, at the very outset, to deal +with it in some detail. To obtain some idea of the general nature of +these influences, it will be necessary to describe and review a few +simple instances of energy transformation. One of the most illuminating +for this purpose is perhaps the familiar process of dynamo-electric +transformation. + +A spherical mass A (Fig. 1) of copper is caused to rotate about its +central axis in the magnetic field in the neighbourhood of a long and +powerful electro-magnet. In such circumstances, certain well-known +transformations of energy will take place. The energy transformed is +that dynamical or "work" energy which is being applied to the spherical +mass by the external prime mover causing it to rotate. As a result of +this motion in the magnetic field, an electrical action takes place; +eddy currents are generated in the spherical mass, and the energy +originally applied is, through the medium of the electrical process, +finally converted into heat and other energy forms. The external +evidence of the process will be the rise in temperature and +corresponding expansion of the rotating mass. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1] + +Such is the energy transformation. Let us now review the conditions +under which it takes place. Passing over the features of the "work" +energy applied and the energy produced in the transformation, it is +evident that the primary and essential condition of the whole process is +the presence of the magnetic field. In the absence of this influence, +every other condition of this particular energy operation might have +been fulfilled without result. The magnetic field is, in reality, the +determining agency of the process. But this field of magnetic force is +itself an energy influence. Its existence implies the presence of +energy; it is the external manifestation of that energy (usually +described as stored in the field) which is returned, as shown by the +spark, when the exciting circuit of the electro-magnet is broken. The +transformation of the dynamical or "work" energy (§ 31) applied to the +rotating sphere is thus carried out by the direct agency, under the +power, or within the field of this magnetic energy influence, to which, +accordingly, we apply the expression, incepting energy influence, or +incepting energy. + +There are several points to be noted with regard to these phenomena of +inception. In the first place, it is clear that the energy which thus +constitutes the magnetic field plays no active part in the main process +of transformation: during the operation it neither varies in value nor +in nature: it is entirely a passive agent. Neither is any continuous +expenditure of energy required for the maintenance of this incepting +influence. It is true that the magnetic field is primarily due to a +circulatory current in the coils or winding of the electro-magnet, but +after the initial expenditure of energy in establishing that field is +incurred, the continuous expenditure of energy during the flow of the +current is devoted to simply heating the coils. A continuous heat +transformation is thus in progress. The magnetic energy influence, +although closely associated with this heat transformation, yet +represents in itself a distinct and separate energy feature. This last +point is, perhaps, made more clear if it be assumed that, without +altering the system in any way, the electro-magnet is replaced by a +permanent magnet of precisely the same dimensions and magnetic power. +There would then be no energy expenditure whatever for excitation, but +nevertheless, the main transformation would take place in precisely the +same manner and to exactly the same degree as before. The incepting +energy influence is found in the residual magnetism. + +If an iron ball or sphere were substituted, in the experiment, for the +copper one, the phenomena observed on its rotation would be of an +exactly similar nature to those described above. There is, however, one +point of difference. Since the iron is magnetic, the magnet pole will +now exert an attractive force on the iron mass, and if the latter were +in close proximity to the pole (Fig. 1), a considerable expenditure of +energy might be required to separate the two. It is evident, then, that +in the case of iron and the magnetic metals, this magnetic influence is +such that an expenditure of energy is required, not only to cause these +materials to move in rotation so as to cut the lines of the field of the +magnetic influence, but also to cause them to move outwards from the +seat of the influence _along_ the lines of the field. The movements, +indeed, involve transformations of energy totally different in nature. +Assuming the energy to be obtained, in both cases, from the same +external source, it is, in the first instance, converted by rotatory +motion in the field into electrical and heat energy, whereas, in the +second case, by the outward motion of displacement from the pole, it is +transformed and associated with the mass in the form of energy of +position or energy of displacement relative to the pole. Since the +attractive force between the iron mass and the pole may be assumed to +diminish according to a well-known law, the energy transformation per +unit displacement will also diminish at the same rate. The precise +nature and extent of the influence of the incepting agent thus depend on +the essential qualities of the energised material under its power. In +this case, the magnetic metals, such as iron, provide phenomena of +attraction which are notably absent in the case of the dia-magnetic +metals such as copper. Other substances, such as wood, appear to be +absolutely unaffected by any movement in the magnetic field. The precise +energy condition of the materials in the field of the incepting +influence is also an important point. The incepting energy might be +regarded as acting, not on the material itself, but rather on the energy +associated with that material. From the phenomena already considered, it +is clear that before the incepting influence of magnetism can act on the +copper ball, the latter must be endowed with energy of rotation. It is +on this energy, then, that the incepting influence exerts its +transforming power. It would be useless to energise the copper ball, say +by raising it to a high temperature, and then place it at rest in the +magnetic field; the magnetic energy influence would not operate on the +heat energy, and consequently, no transformation would ensue. + +It is easy to conceive, also, that in the course of an energy +transformation, the material may attain an energy condition in which the +incepting influence no longer affects it. Take once more the case of the +iron ball. It is well known that, at a high temperature, iron becomes +non-magnetic. It would follow, then, that if the rotational +transformation in the magnetic field could be carried out to the +requisite degree, so that, by the continuous application of that heat +energy which is the final product of the process, the ball had attained +this temperature, then the other transformation consequent on the +displacement of the ball from the attracting pole could not take place. +No change has really occurred in the incepting energy conditions. They +are still continuous and persistent, but the energy changes in the +material itself have carried it, to a certain degree, beyond the +influence of these conditions. + + +15. _Cohesion as an Incepting Influence_ + +Other aspects of incepting energy may be derived from the examples cited +above. Returning to the case of the rotating copper sphere, let it be +assumed that in consequence of its rotation in the magnetic field it is +raised from a low to a high temperature. Due to the heating effect +alone, the mass will expand or increase in volume. This increase is the +evidence of a definite energy process by which certain particles or +portions of the mass have in distortion gained energy of +position--energy of separation--or potential energy relative to the +centre of the sphere. In fact, if the mass were allowed to cool back to +its normal condition, this energy might by a suitable arrangement be +made available for some form of external work. It is obvious, however, +that this new energy of position or separation which has accrued to the +mass in its heated condition has in reality been obtained by the +transformation of the "work" energy originally applied. The abnormal +displacement of certain particles or portions of the mass from the +centre of the sphere is simply the external evidence of their increased +energy. Now this displacement, or strain, due to the heat expansion, is +carried out against the action of certain cohesive forces or stresses +existing between the particles throughout the mass. These cohesive +forces are, in fact, the agency which determines this transformation of +heat into energy of position. Their existence is essential to the +process. But these cohesive forces are simply the external manifestation +of that energy by virtue of which the mass tends to maintain its +coherent form. They are the symbol of that energy which might be termed +the cohesion energy of the mass--they are, in fact, the symbol of the +incepting energy influence of the transformation. This incepting energy +influence of cohesion is one which holds sway throughout all solid +material. It is, therefore, found in action in every movement involving +the internal displacement or distortion of matter. It is a property of +matter, and accordingly it is found to vary not only with the material, +but also with the precise physical condition or the energy state of the +material with which it is associated. In this respect, it differs +entirely from the preceding magnetic influence. The latter, we have +seen, has no direct association with the copper ball, or with the +material which is the actual venue of the transformation. As an energy +influence, it is itself persistent, and unaffected by the energy state +of that material. On the other hand, the cohesion energy, being purely a +property of the material which is the habitat of the energy process, is +directly affected by its energy state. This point will be clearer by +reference to the actual phenomena of the heat transformation. As the +process proceeds, the temperature of the mass as the expansion increases +will rise higher and higher, until, at a certain point, the solid +material is so energised that change of state ensues. At this, the +melting-point of the material, liquefaction takes place, and its +cohesive properties almost vanish. In this fashion, then, a limit is +clearly imposed on the process of heat transformation in the solid +body--a limit defined by the cohesive or physical properties of the +particular material. In this limiting power lies the difference between +cohesion and magnetism as incepting influences. Looking at the whole +dynamo-electric transformation in a general way, it will be clear that +the magnetic influence in no way limits or affects the amount of +dynamical or "work" energy which may be applied to the rotating sphere. +This amount is limited simply by the cohesive properties of the material +mass in rotation. The magnetic influence might, in fact, be regarded as +the primary or inducing factor in the system, and the cohesion influence +as the secondary or limiting factor. + + +16. _Terrestrial Gravitation as an Incepting Influence_ + +The attractive influence of gravitation appears as an incepting agency +in terrestrial as well as in celestial phenomena. In fact, of all the +agencies which incept energy transformations on the earth, gravitation, +in one form or another, is the most universal and the most important. +Gravitation being a property of all matter, no mundane body, animate or +inanimate, is exempt from its all-pervading influence, and every +movement of energised matter within the field of that influence leads +inevitably to energy transformation. + +Let us take a concrete illustration. A block of solid material is +supported on a horizontal table. By means of a cord attached, energy is +applied to the block from an external source, so that it slides over the +surface of the table. As a result of this motion and the associated +frictional process, heat energy will make its appearance at the sliding +surfaces of contact. This heat energy is obviously obtained by the +transformation of that energy originally applied to the block from the +external source. What is the incepting influence in this process of +transformation? The incepting influence is clearly the gravitative +attraction of the earth operating between the moving block and the +table. The frictional process, it is well known, is dependent in extent +or degree on the pressure between the surfaces in contact. This pressure +is, of course, due to the gravitative attraction of the earth on the +mass of the block. If it be removed, say by supporting the block from +above, the heat-transformation process at the surfaces at once +terminates. Gravity, then, is the primary incepting influence of the +process. The effect of gravitation in transformation has apparently been +eliminated by supporting the block from above and removing the pressure +between block and table. It is not really so, however, because the +pressure due to the gravitative attraction of the earth on the block has +in reality only been transferred to this new point of support, and if a +movement of the block is carried out it will be found that the heat +transformation has been also transferred to that point. But there are +also other influences at work in the process. The extent of the heat +transformation depends, not only on the pressure, but also on the nature +of the surfaces in contact. It is evident, that in the sliding movement +the materials in the neighbourhood of the surfaces in contact will be +more or less strained or distorted. This distortion is carried out in +the lines of the cohesive forces of the materials, and is the real +mechanism of the transformation of the applied work energy into heat. It +is obvious that the nature of the surfaces in contact must influence the +degree of distortion, that is, whether they are rough or smooth; the +cohesive qualities of the materials in contact will depend also on the +nature of these materials, and the extent of the heat transformation +will be limited by these cohesive properties in precisely the same way +as described for other examples (§ 15). The function of gravitation in +this transformation is, obviously, again quite passive in nature, and is +in no way influenced by the extent of the process. Gravitation is, as it +were, only the agency whereby the acting energy is brought into +communication with the cohesive forces of the sliding materials. + +A little reflection will convey to the reader the vast extent of this +influence of gravitation in frictional phenomena, and the important +place occupied by such phenomena in the economy of Nature. From the +leaf which falls from the tree to the mighty tidal motions of air, +earth, and sea due to the gravitative effects of the sun and moon, all +movements of terrestrial material are alike subject to the influence of +terrestrial gravitation, and will give rise to corresponding heat +processes. These heat processes are continually in evidence in natural +phenomena; the effect of their action is seen alike on the earth's +surface and in its interior (internal heating). Of the energy operating +in them we do not propose to say anything further at this stage, except +that it is largely communicated to the atmospheric air masses. + + +17. _The Gravitation Field_ + +The foregoing examples of transformation serve to place before the +reader some idea of the general nature and function of an incepting +energy influence. But for the broadest aspects of the latter agencies it +is necessary to revert once more to celestial phenomena. As already +indicated in the General Statement, the primary transformations of +planetary axial energy are stimulated by certain agencies inherent to, +and arising from, the central mass of the system. These energy agencies +or effects operate through space, and are entirely passive in nature. +They are in no way associated with energy transmission; they are merely +the determining causes of the energy-transforming processes which they +induce, and do not in the least affect the conservative energy +properties of the planetary masses over which their influence is cast. +Of the precise number and nature of such influences thus exerted by the +primary mass we can say nothing. The energy transformations which are +the direct result of their action are so extensive and so varied in +character that we would hesitate to place any limit on the number of the +influences at work. Some of these influences, however, being associated +with the phenomena of everyday experience, are more readily detected in +action than others and more accessible to study. It is to these that we +naturally turn in order to gain general ideas for application to more +obscure cases. + +Of the many incepting influences, therefore, which may emanate from the +primary mass there are three only which will be dealt with here. Each +exerts a profound action on the planetary system, and each may be +readily studied and its working verified by the observation of common +phenomena. These influences are respectively the gravitation, the +thermal, and the luminous fields. + +The general nature and properties of the gravitation field have to some +extent been already foreshadowed (§§ 4, 6, 16). Other examples will be +dealt with later, and it is unnecessary to go into further detail here. +The different aspects, however, in which the influence has been +presented may be pointed out. Firstly, in the separate body in space, as +an inherent property of matter (§ 2); secondly, as an attractive +influence exerted across space between primary and planet, both +absolutely separate bodies (§ 5); and thirdly, as a purely planetary or +secondary incepting influence (§ 16). In every case alike we find its +function to be of an entirely passive nature. Its most powerful effect +on planetary material is perhaps manifested in the tidal actions (§ 9). +With respect to these movements, it may be pointed out that the +planetary material periodically raised from the surface is itself +elevated against the inherent planetary gravitative forces, and also, to +a certain extent, against the cohesive forces of planetary material. +Each of these resisting influences functions as an incepting agency, and +thus the elevation of the mass involves a transformation of energy (§ +4). The source of the energy thus transformed is the axial energy of the +planet, and the new forms in which it is manifested are energy of +position or potential energy relative to the planetary surface, and heat +energy. On the return of the material to its normal position, its energy +of position, due to its elevation, will be returned in its original form +of axial energy. In the case of the heat transformation, however, it is +to be noted that this process will take place both as the material is +elevated and also as it sinks once more to its normal position. The +heat transformation thus operates continuously throughout the entire +movement. The upraising of the material in the tidal action is brought +about entirely at the expense of inherent planetary axial energy. The +gravitative and cohesive properties of the planetary material make such +a transformation process possible. It is in virtue of these properties +that energy may be applied to or expended on the material in this way. +The tidal action on the planetary surface is, in fact, simply a huge +secondary process in which axial energy is converted into heat. The +primary incepting power is clearly gravitation. + +Of the aspect of gravitation as a purely planetary influence (§ 16) +little requires to be said. The phenomena are so prominent and familiar +that the reader may be left to multiply instances for himself. + + +18. _The Thermal Field_ + +The thermal field which is induced by and emanates from the primary mass +differs from the gravitation field in that, so far as we know, it is +unaccompanied by any manifestation of force, attractive or otherwise. +Its action on the rotating planetary mass may be compared to that of the +electro-magnet on the rotating copper sphere (§ 14); the electro-magnet +exerts no force on the sphere, but an energy expenditure is, +nevertheless, required to rotate the latter through the field of the +magnetic influence. + +To this thermal field, then, in which the planets rotate, we ascribe all +primary planetary heating phenomena. The mode of action of the thermal +field appears to be similar to that of other incepting influences. By +its agency the energy of axial rotation of planetary material is +directly converted into the heat form. As already shown (§ 17), heat +energy may be developed in planetary material as a result of the action +of other incepting agencies, such as gravitation. These processes are, +however, more or less indirect in nature. But the operation due to the +thermal field is a direct one. The heat energy is derived from the +direct transformation of planetary axial energy of rotation without +passing through any intermediate forms. In common parlance, the thermal +field is the agency whereby the primary mass heats the planetary system. +No idea of transmission, however, is here implied in such phraseology; +the heating effect produced on any planetary mass is entirely the result +of the transformation of its own energy; the thermal field is purely and +simply the incepting influence of the process. Now, in virtue of the +configuration of the rotating planetary masses, their material in +equatorial regions is much more highly energised than the material in +the neighbourhood of the poles, and will, accordingly, move with much +greater linear velocity through the thermal field. The heat +transformation will vary accordingly. It will be much more pronounced at +the equator than at the poles, and a wide difference in temperature will +be maintained between the two regions. The thermal field, also, does not +necessarily produce the same heating effect on all planetary material +alike. Some materials appear to be peculiarly susceptible--others much +less so. This we may verify from terrestrial experience. Investigation +shows the opaque substances to be generally most susceptible, and the +transparent materials, such as glass, rock-salt, tourmaline, &c. almost +insusceptible, to the heating effect of the sun. The influence of the +thermal field can, in fact, operate through the latter materials. A +still more striking and important phenomenon may be observed in the +varying action of the thermal field on matter in its different forms. It +has been already pointed out that, in the course of transformation in +the field of an incepting influence, a material may attain a certain +energy state in which it is no longer susceptible to that influence. +This has been exemplified in the case of the iron ball (§ 14) and a +phenomenon of the same general nature is revealed in the celestial +transformation. A piece of solid material of low melting-point is +brought from the polar regions of the earth to the equator. Due to the +more rapid movement across the sun's thermal field, and the consequent +increased action of that field, a transformation of the axial energy of +rotation of the body takes place, whereby it is heated and finally +liquefied. In the liquid state the material is still susceptible to the +thermal field, and the transformation process accordingly proceeds until +the material finally assumes the gaseous form. At this point, however, +it is found that the operation is suspended; the material, in assuming +the gaseous state, has now attained a condition (§ 15) in which the +thermal field has no further incepting or transforming influence upon +it. No transformation of its axial energy into the heat form is now +possible by this means; indeed, so far as the _direct_ heating effect of +the sun is concerned, the free gaseous material on the planetary surface +is entirely unaffected. All the evidence of Nature points to the +conclusion that all gaseous material is absolutely transparent to the +_direct_ thermal influence of the sun. Matter in the gaseous form +reaches, as it were, an ultimate or limiting condition in this respect. +This fact, that energised material in the gaseous form is not +susceptible to the thermal field, is of very great importance in the +general economy of Nature. It is, in reality, the means whereby the +great primary process of the transformation of the axial energy of the +earth into the heat form is limited in extent. As will be explained +later, it is the device whereby the planetary energy stability is +conserved. It will be apparent, of course, that heat energy may be +readily applied to gaseous masses by other means, such as conduction or +radiation from purely terrestrial sources. The point which we wish here +to emphasise is, simply, that gaseous material endowed with axial energy +on the planetary surface cannot have this axial energy directly +transformed into heat through the instrumentality of the thermal field +of the primary. + + +19. _The Luminous Field_ + +The planetary bodies are indebted to the primary mass not only for heat +phenomena, but also for the phenomena of light. These light phenomena +are due to a separate and distinct energy influence (or influences) +which we term the luminous field. + +The mode of action of the luminous field is similar to that of other +incepting influences. It operates from the primary, and is entirely +passive in nature. Like the thermal field, it does not appear to be +accompanied by any manifestation of physical stress or force, except, +indeed, the experimental demonstrations of the "pressure of light" can +be regarded as such. In any case, this in no way affects the general +action of light as an incepting agency. Its action on energised +planetary material gives rise to certain transformations of energy, +transformations exclusive and peculiar to its own influence. We will +refer to terrestrial phenomena for illustrations of its working. + +Perhaps the commonest example of transformation in which the luminous +field appears as the incepting agency is seen in the growth of plant +life on the surface of the earth. The growth and development of +vegetation and plants generally is the outward evidence of certain +energy transformations. The processes of growth, however, are of such a +complex nature that it is impossible to state the governing energy +conditions in their entirety, but, considering them merely in general +fashion, it may be said that energy in various forms (potential, +chemical, &c.) is stored in the tissues of the growing material. Now the +source of this energy is the axial energy of the earth, and, as stated +above, the luminous field is an incepting factor (there may be others) +in the process of transformation, a factor whereby this axial energy is +converted into certain new forms. It is well known that, amongst the +factors which influence the growth of vegetation, one of the most potent +is that of light. The presence of sunlight is one of the essential +conditions for the successful working of certain transformations of +plant life, and these transformations vary not only in degree but in +nature, according to the variation of the imposed light in intensity and +quality. Some of the processes of growth are no doubt chemical in +nature. Here, again, light may be readily conceived to have a direct +determining influence upon them, exactly as in the cases of its +well-known action in chemical phenomena--for instance, as in +photography. Other examples will readily occur to the reader. One of the +most interesting is the action of light on the eye itself. It may be +pointed out indeed that light is, first and foremost, a phenomenon of +vision. Whatever may be its intrinsic nature, it is primarily an +influence affecting the eye. But the action of seeing, like all other +forms of human activity, involves a certain expenditure of bodily +energy. This energy is, of course, primarily derived from the axial +energy of the earth through the medium of plant and animal life and the +physico-chemical processes of the body itself. Its presence in one form +or another is, in fact, essential to all the phenomena of life. The +action of seeing accordingly involves the transformation of a certain +modicum of this energy, and the influence which incepts this +transformation is the luminous field which originates in and emanates +from the central mass of the system, the sun. In a similar way, +planetary material under certain conditions may become the source of an +incepting luminous field. It is this light influence or luminous field +which, in common parlance, is said to enter the eye. In that organ, +then, is found the mechanism or machine (§ 30), a complicated one, no +doubt, whereby this process of transformation is carried out which makes +the light influence perceptible to the senses. Of the precise nature of +the action little can be said. The theme is rather one for a treatise on +physiology. It may be pointed out, however, with regard to the process +of transformation, that Dewar has already demonstrated the fact that +when light falls on the retina of the eye, an electric current is set up +in the optic nerve. The energy associated with this current is, of +course, obtained at the expense of the bodily energy of the observer, +and this energy, after passing, it may be, through a large number of +transformation processes, will finally be returned to the source from +which it was originally derived, namely, the axial energy of the earth. +The luminous field, also, like the thermal field, has no transforming +effect whatever on the energy of certain substances. It may pass +completely through some and be reflected by others without any sign of +energy transformation. Its properties are, in fact, simply the +properties of light, and must be accepted simply as phenomena. Now, it +is very important, in studying matters of this kind, to realise that it +is impossible ever to get beyond or behind phenomena. It may be pointed +out that in no sphere of physics has the influence of so-called +explanatory mechanical hypotheses been stronger than in that dealing +with the properties of light. New theories are being expounded almost +daily in attempts to explain or dissect simple phenomena. But it may be +asked, In what does our really useful knowledge of light consist? +Simply in our knowledge of phenomena. Beyond this, one cannot go. We may +attempt to explain phenomena, but to create for this purpose elastic +ethereal media or substances without direct evidential phenomena in +support is not to advance real knowledge. There are certain properties +peculiar to the luminous as to all other incepting fields, certain +conditions under which each respectively will act, and the true method +of gaining real insight into these agencies is by the study of these +actual properties (or phenomena) and conditions, and not by attempts to +ultimately explain them. It will be evident that in most cases of +natural energy operations there is more than one energy influence in +action. As a rule there are several. In a growing plant, for example, we +have the thermal, luminous, gravitation, and cohesive influences all in +operation at the same time, each performing its peculiar function in +transformation, each contributing its own peculiar energy phenomena to +the whole. This feature adds somewhat to the complexity of natural +operations and to the difficulties in the precise description of the +various phenomena with which they are associated. + + +20. _Transformations--Upward Movement of a Mass against Gravity_ + +When the significance of energy inception and the characteristic +properties of the various agencies have been grasped, it becomes much +easier to deal with certain other aspects of energy processes. To +illustrate these aspects it is, therefore, now proposed to discuss a few +simple secondary operations embodied in experimental apparatus. A few +examples of the operations of transformation and transmission of energy +will be considered. The object in view is to show the general nature of +these processes, and more especially the limits imposed upon them by the +various factors or properties of the material machines in which they are +of necessity embodied. The reader is asked to bear in mind also the +observations already made (§ 13) with respect to experimental apparatus +generally. + +The first operation for discussion is that of the upward movement of a +mass of material against the gravitative attraction of the earth. This +movement involves one of the most simple and at the same time one of the +most important of secondary energy processes. As a concrete +illustration, consider the case of a body projected vertically upwards +with great velocity from the surface of the earth. The phenomena of its +motion will be somewhat as follows:--As the body recedes from the +earth's surface in its upward flight, its velocity suffers a continuous +decrease, and an altitude is finally attained where this velocity +becomes zero. The projectile, at this point, is instantaneously at rest. +Its motion then changes; it commences to fall, and to proceed once more +towards the starting-point with continuously increasing velocity. +Neglecting the effect of the air (§ 29) and the rotational movement of +the earth, it may be assumed that the retardation of the projectile in +its upward flight is numerically equal to its acceleration in its +downward flight, and that it finally returns to the starting-point with +velocity numerically equal to the initial velocity of projection. The +process then obviously involves a complete transformation and return of +energy. At the earth's surface, where its flight commences and +terminates, the body is possessed of energy of motion to a very high +degree. At the highest point of flight, this form of energy has entirely +vanished; the body is at rest. Its energy properties are then +represented by its position of displacement from the earth's surface; +its energy of motion in disappearing has assumed this form of energy of +position, energy of separation, or potential energy. The moving body has +thus been the mechanism of an energy transformation. At each stage of +its upward progress, a definite modicum of its original energy of motion +is converted into energy of position. Between the extreme points of its +flight, the energy of the body is compounded of these two forms, one of +which is increasing at the expense of the other. When the summit of +flight is reached the conversion into energy of position is complete. In +the downward motion, the action is completely reversed, and when the +body reaches the starting-point its energy of position has again been +completely transformed into energy of motion. It might be well to draw +attention here to the fact, often overlooked, that this energy of +position gained by the rising mass is, in reality, a form of energy, +separate and distinct, brought into existence by the transformation and +disappearance of the energy of the moving mass. Energy of position is as +truly a form of energy as heat or kinetic energy. + +The transformation here depicted is clearly a simple process, yet we +know absolutely nothing of its ultimate nature, of the why or wherefore +of the operation. Our knowledge is confined to the circumstances and +conditions under which it takes place. Let us now, therefore, deal with +these conditions. The transformation is clearly carried out in virtue of +the movement of the body in the lines or field of an incepting +influence. This influence is that of gravitation, which links the body +continually to the earth. Now the function of gravitation in this +process, as in others already described, is that of a completely passive +incepting agent. The active energy which suffers change in the process +is clearly the original work energy (§ 31) communicated to the projected +body. The whole process is, in fact, a purely mechanical operation, and +as in the case of other processes involving mechanical energy, it is +limited by the mass value of the moving material. It is clear that the +greater the amount of energy communicated to the projectile at the +starting-point, the greater will be the altitude it will attain in its +flight. The amount of energy, however, which can thus be communicated is +dependent on the maximum force which can be applied to the projectile. +But the maximum force which can be applied to any body depends entirely +on the resistance offered by that body, and in this case the resisting +force is the gravitative attraction of the earth on the projectile, +which attraction is again a direct function of its mass. The greater the +mass, the greater the gravitative force, and the greater the possibility +of transformation. The ultimate limit of the process would be reached if +the projected mass were so great as to equal half the mass of the earth. +In such circumstances, the earth being assumed to be divided into two +equal masses, the maximum limiting value of the gravitative attraction +would clearly be attained. Any increase of the one mass over the other +would again lead, however, to a diminution in the attractive force and a +corresponding decrease in the energy limit for transformation. The +precise manner in which the operations of mechanical energy are limited +by the mass will now be clear. The principle is quite general, and +applicable to all moving bodies. Mass is ever a direct measure of energy +capacity. A graphical method of representing energy transformations of +this kind, by a system of co-ordinates, would enable the reader to +appreciate more fully the quantitative relations of the forms of energy +involved and also their various limits. + + +21. _The Simple Pendulum_ + +The remaining operations of transformation for discussion are embodied +in the following simple apparatus. A spherical metallic mass M (Fig. 2) +is supported by a rod P which is rigidly connected to a horizontal +spindle HS as shown. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2] + +The spindle is supported and free to revolve in the bearings B{1} and +B{2} which form part of the supporting framework V resting on the +ground; the bearing surfaces at B{1} and B{2} are lubricated, and the +mass M is free to perform, in a vertical plane, complete revolutions +about the axis through the centre of the spindle. In carrying out this +motion its path will be circular, as shown at DCFE; the whole +arrangement is merely an adaptation of the simple pendulum. As +constituted, the apparatus may form the seat of certain energy +operations. Some of these will only take place with the application of +energy of motion to the pendulum from an external source, thereby +causing it to vibrate or to rotate: others, again, might be said to be +inherent to the apparatus, since they arise naturally from its +construction and configuration. We shall deal with the latter first. + + +22. _Statical Energy Conditions_ + +The pendulum with its spindle has a definite mass value, and, assuming +it to be at rest in the bearings B{1} and B{2}, it is acted upon by +gravitation, or in other words, it is under the influence or within the +field of the gravitative attraction of the earth's mass upon it. The +effect of this field is directly proportional to the mass of the +pendulum and spindle, and to its action is due that bearing pressure +which is transmitted through the lubricant to the bearing surfaces and +thence to the supporting arms N{1} and N{2} of the framework. Bearings +and columns alike are thus subjected to a downward thrust or pressure. +Being of elastic material, they will be more or less distorted. This +distortion will proceed until the downward forces are balanced by the +upward or reactive forces called into play in virtue of the cohesive +properties of the strained material. Corresponding to a slight downward +movement of the pendulum and spindle in thus straining or compressing +them, the supporting columns will be decreased in length. This downward +movement is the external evidence of certain energy operations. In +virtue of their elevation above the earth's surface, the pendulum and +spindle possess, to a certain degree, energy of position, and any free +downward movement would lead to the transformation of this energy into +energy of motion (§ 20). But the downward motion of pendulum and spindle +is not free. It is made against the resistance of the material of the +supporting columns, and the energy of position, instead of assuming the +form of energy of motion, is simply worked down or transformed against +the opposing cohesive forces of the supporting materials. This energy, +therefore, now resides in these materials in the form of energy of +strain or distortion. In general nature, this strain energy is akin to +energy of position (§ 20). Certain portions of the material of the +columns have been forced into new positions against the internal forces +of cohesion which are ever tending to preserve the original +configuration of the columns. This movement of material in the field of +the cohesive influence involves the transformation of energy (§ 4), and +the external evidence of the energy process is simply the strained or +distorted condition of the material. If the latter be released, and +allowed to resume its natural form once more, this stored energy of +strain would be entirely given up. In reality, the material can be said +to play the part of a machine or mechanism for the energy process of +storage and restoration. No energy process, in fact, ever takes place +unless associated with matter in some form. The supporting arms, in this +case, form the material factor or agency in the energy operation. All +such energy machines, also, are limited in the extent of their +operation, by the qualities of the material factors. In this particular +case, the energy compass of the machine is restricted by certain +physical properties of the material, by the maximum value of these +cohesive or elastic forces called into play in distortion. These forces +are themselves the evidence of energy, of that energy by virtue of which +the material possesses and maintains its coherent form. In this case +this energy is also the factor controlling the transformation, and +appears as a separate and distinct incepting agency. If the process is +to be a reversible one, so that the energy originally stored in the +material as strain energy or energy of distortion may be completely +returned, the material must not be stressed beyond a certain point. Only +a limited amount of work can be applied to it, only a limited amount of +energy can be stored in it. Too much energy applied--too great a weight +on the supporting columns--gives rise to permanent distortion or +crushing, and an entirely new order of phenomena. This energy limit for +reversibility is then imposed by the cohesive properties of the material +or by its elastic limits. Up to this point energy stored in the material +may be returned--the process is reversible in nature--but above this +elastic limit any energy applied must operate in an entirely different +manner. + +A little consideration will show also, that the state of distortion, or +energy strain, is not confined to the material of the supporting columns +alone. Action and reaction are equal. The same stresses are applied to +the spindle through the medium of bearings and lubricant. In fact, every +material substance of which the pendulum machine is built up is thus, +more or less, strained against internal forces; all possess, more or +less, cohesion or strain energy. It will be evident, also, that this +condition is not peculiar to this or any other form of apparatus. It is +the energy state or condition of every structure, either natural or +artificial, which is built up of ordinary material, and which, on the +earth's surface, is subjected to the influence of the gravitation field. +This cohesion or strain energy is one of the forms in which energy is +most widely distributed throughout material. + +In reviewing the statical condition of the above apparatus, the pendulum +itself has been assumed to be hanging vertically at rest under the +influence of gravitation. If energy be now applied to the system from +some external source so that the pendulum is caused to vibrate, or to +rotate about the axis of suspension, a new set of energy processes make +their appearance. The movement of the pendulum mass, in its circular +path around the central axis, is productive of certain energy reactions, +as follows:-- + + _a._ A transformation of energy of motion into energy of position + and vice versa. + + _b._ A frictional transformation at the bearing surfaces. + +These processes will each be in continuous operation so long as the +motion of the pendulum is maintained. Their general nature is quite +independent of the extent of that motion, whether it be merely vibratory +through a small arc, or completely rotatory about the central axis. In +the articles which immediately follow, the processes will be treated +separately. + + +23. _Transformations of the Moving Pendulum--a. Energy of Motion to + Energy of Position and Vice Versa_ + +In this simple transformation the motion of the pendulum about the axis +of suspension may be either vibratory or circular, according to the +amount of energy externally applied. In each case, every periodic +movement of the apparatus illustrates the whole energy operation. The +general conditions of the process are almost identical with those in the +case of the upward movement of a mass against gravity (§ 20). +Gravitation is the incepting energy influence of the operation. If the +pendulum simply vibrates through a small arc, then, at the highest +points of its flight, it is instantaneously at rest. Its energy of +motion is here, therefore, zero; its energy of position is a maximum. At +the lowest point of its flight, the conditions are exactly reversed. +Here its energy of motion is a maximum, while its energy of position +passes through a minimum value. The same general conditions hold when +the pendulum performs complete revolutions about the central axis. If +the energy of motion applied is just sufficient to raise it to the +highest point E (Fig. 2), the mass will there again be instantaneously +at rest with maximum energy of position. As the mass falls downwards in +completing the circular movement, its energy of position once more +assumes the kinetic form, and reaches its maximum value at C (Fig. 2), +the lowest position. The moving pendulum mass, so far as its energy +properties are concerned, behaves in precisely the same manner as a body +vertically projected in the field of the gravitative attraction (§ 20). +This simple energy operation of the pendulum is perhaps one of the most +familiar of energy processes. By its means, however, it is possible to +illustrate certain general features of energy reactions of great +importance to the author's scheme. + +The energy processes of the pendulum system are carried out through the +medium of the material pendulum machine, and are limited, both in nature +and degree, by the properties of that machine. As the pendulum vibrates, +the transformation of energy of motion to energy of position or vice +versa is an example of a reversible energy operation. The energy active +in this operation continually alternates between two forms of energy: +transformation is continually followed by a corresponding return. +Neglecting in the meantime all frictional and other effects, we will +assume complete reversibility, or that the energy of motion of the +pendulum, after passing completely into the form of energy of position +at the highest point, is again completely returned, in its original +form, in the descent. Now, for any given pendulum, the amount of energy +which can thus operate in the system depends on two factors, namely, the +mass of the pendulum and the vertical height through which it rises in +vibration. If the mass is fixed, then the maximum amount of energy will +be operating in the reversible cycle when the pendulum is performing +complete revolutions round its axis of suspension. The maximum height +through which the pendulum can rise, or the maximum amount of energy of +position which the system can acquire, is thus dependent on the length +of the pendulum arm. These two factors, then, the mass and the length of +the pendulum arm, are simply properties of this pendulum machine, +properties by which its energy compass is restricted. Let us now +examine these limiting factors more minutely. + +It is obvious that energy could readily be applied to the pendulum +system in such a degree as to cause it to rotate with considerable +angular velocity about the axis of suspension. Now the motion of the +pendulum mass in the lines of the gravitation field, although productive +of the same transformation process, differs from that of a body moving +vertically upward in that, while the latter has a linear movement, the +former is constrained into a circular path. This restraint is imposed in +virtue of the cohesive properties of the material of the pendulum arm, +and it is the presence of this restraining influence that really +distinguishes the pendulum machine from the machine in which the moving +mass is constrained by gravity alone (§ 20). It has been shown that the +energy capacity of a body projected vertically against gravity is +limited by its mass only; the energy capacity of the pendulum machine +may be likewise limited by its mass, but the additional restraining +factor of cohesion also imposes another limit. In the course of +rotation, energy is stored in the material of the pendulum against the +internal forces of cohesion. The action is simply that of what is +usually termed centrifugal force. As the velocity increases, the +pendulum arm lengthens correspondingly until the elastic limit of the +material in tension is reached. At this point, the pendulum may be said +to have reached the maximum length at which it can operate in that +reversible process of transformation in which energy of motion is +converted into energy of position. The amount of energy which would now +be working in that process may be termed the limiting energy for +reversibility. This limiting energy is the absolute maximum amount of +energy which can operate in the reversible cycle. It is coincident with +the maximum length of the pendulum arm in distortion. When the stress in +the material of that arm reaches the elastic limit, it is clear that the +transformation against cohesion will also have attained its limiting +value for reversibility. This transformation, if the velocity of the +pendulum is constant, is of the nature of a storage of energy. So long +as the velocity is constant the energy stored is constant. If the +elastic limiting stress of the material has not been exceeded, this +energy--neglecting certain minor processes (§§ 15, 29)--will be returned +in its original form as the velocity decreases. If, however, the +material be stressed beyond its elastic powers, the excess energy +applied will simply lead to permanent distortion or disruption of the +pendulum arm, and to a complete breakdown and change in the character of +the machine and the associated energy processes (§ 5). The physical +properties of the material thus limit the energy capacity of the +machine. This limiting feature, as already indicated, is not peculiar +to the pendulum machine alone. Every energy process embodied in a +material machine is limited in a similar fashion by the peculiar +properties of the acting materials. Every reversible process is carried +out within limits thus clearly defined. Nature presents no exception to +this rule, no example of a reversible energy system on which energy may +be impressed in unlimited amount. On the contrary, all the evidence +points to limitation of the strictest order in such processes. + + +24. _Transformations of the Moving Pendulum--b. Frictional + Transformation at the Bearing Surfaces_ + +The motion of the pendulum, whether it be completely rotatory or merely +vibratory in nature, invariably gives rise to heating at the bearings or +supporting points. Since the heating effect is only evident when motion +is taking place, and since the heat can only make its appearance as the +result of some energy process, it would appear that this persistent heat +phenomenon is the result of a transformation of the original energy of +motion of the pendulum. + +The general energy conditions of the apparatus already adverted to (§ +21) still hold, and the lubricating oil employed in the apparatus being +assumed to have sufficient capillarity or adhesive power to separate +the metallic surfaces of bearings and journals at all velocities, then +every action of the spindle on the bearings must be transmitted through +the lubricant. The latter is, therefore, strained or distorted against +the internal cohesive or viscous forces of its material. The general +effect of the rotatory motion of the spindle will be to produce a motion +of the material of the lubricant in the field of these incepting forces. +To this motion the heat transformation is primarily due. Other +conditions being the same, the extent of the transformation taking +place, in any given case, is dependent on the physical properties of the +lubricant, such as its viscosity, its cohesive or capillary power, +always provided that the metallic surfaces are separated, so that the +action is really carried out in the lines or field of the internal +cohesive forces of the lubricant. In itself, this transformation is not +a reversible process; no mechanism appears by which this heat energy +evolved at the bearing surfaces could be returned once more to its +original form of energy of motion. It may be, in fact, communicated by +conduction to the metallic masses of the bearings, and thence, by +conduction and radiation, to the air masses surrounding the apparatus. +Its action in these masses is dealt with below (§ 29). The operation of +bearing friction, though in itself not a reversible process, really +forms one link of a complete chain (§ 9) of secondary operations +(transmissions and transformations) which together form a comprehensive +and complete cyclical energy process (§ 32). + +When no lubricant is used in the apparatus, so that the metallic +surfaces of bearings and journals are in contact, the heat process is of +a precisely similar nature to that described above (see also § 16). +Distortion of the metals in contact takes place in the surface regions, +so that the material is strained against its internal cohesive forces. +The transformation will thus depend on the physical properties of these +metals, and will be limited by these properties. Different metallic or +other combinations will consequently give rise to quite different +results with respect to the amounts of heat energy evolved. + + +25. _Stability of Energy Systems_ + +The ratio of the maximum or limiting energy for reversibility to the +total energy of the system may vary in value. If the pendulum vibrates +only through a very small arc, then, neglecting the minor processes (§§ +24, 29), practically the whole energy of the system operates in the +reversible transformation. This condition is maintained as the length of +the arc of vibration increases, until the pendulum is just performing +complete revolutions about the central axis. After this, the ratio will +alter in value, because the greater part of any further increment of +energy does not enter into the reversible cyclical process, but merely +goes to increase the velocity of rotation and the total energy of the +system. The small amount of energy which thus enters the reversible +cycle as the velocity increases, does so in virtue of the increasing +length of the pendulum arm in distortion. To produce even a slight +distortion of the arm, a large amount of energy will require to be +applied to and stored in the system, and thus, at high velocities of +rotation, the energy which operates in the reversible cycle, even at its +limiting value, may form only a very small proportion of the total +energy of the system. At low velocities or low values of the total +energy, say when the pendulum is not performing complete rotations, +practically the whole energy of the system is working in the reversible +cycle; but, in these circumstances, it is clear that the total energy of +the system, which, in this case, is all working in the reversible +process, is much less than the maximum or limiting amount of energy +which might so work in that process. Under these conditions, when the +total energy of the system is less than the limiting value for +reversibility, so that this total energy in its entirety is free to take +part in the reversible process, then the energy system may be termed +stable with respect to that process. Stability, in an energy system, +thus implies that the operation considered is not being, as it were, +carried out at full energy capacity, but within certain reversible +energy limits. + +We have emphasised this point in order to draw attention to the fact +that the great reversible processes which are presented to our notice in +natural phenomena are all eminently stable in character. Perhaps the +most striking example of a natural reversible process is found in the +working of the terrestrial atmospheric machine (§§ 10, 38). The energy +in this case is limited by the mass, but in actual operation its amount +is well within the maximum limiting value. The machine, in fact, is +stable in nature. Other natural operations, such as the orbital +movements of planetary masses, (§ 8) illustrate the same conditions. +Nature, although apparently prodigal of energy in its totality, yet +rigidly defines the bounding limits of her active operations. + + +26. _The Pendulum as a Conservative System_ + +Under certain conditions the reversible energy cycle produces an +important effect on the rotatory motion of the pendulum. For the purpose +of illustration, let it be assumed that the pendulum is an isolated and +conservative system endowed with a definite amount of rotatory energy. +In its circular movement, the upward motion of the pendulum mass is +accompanied by a gain in its energy of position. This gain is, in the +given circumstances, obtained solely at the expense of its inherent +rotatory energy, which, accordingly, suffers a corresponding decrease. +The manifestation of this decrease will be simply a retardation of the +pendulum's rotatory motion. Its angular velocity will, therefore, +decrease until the highest altitude E (Fig. 2) is attained. After this, +on the downward path, the process will be reversed. Acceleration will +take place from the highest to the lowest point of flight, and the +energy stored as energy of position will be completely returned in its +original form of energy of motion. The effect of the working of the +reversible cycle, then, on the rotatory system, under the given +conditions, is simply to produce alternately a retardation and a +corresponding acceleration. Now, it is to be particularly noted that +these changes in the velocity of the system are produced, not by any +abstraction from or return of energy to the system, which is itself +conservative, but simply in consequence of the transformation and +re-transformation of a certain portion of its inherent rotatory energy +in the working of a reversible process embodied in the system. The same +features may be observed in other systems where the conditions are +somewhat similar. + +In the natural world, we find processes of the same general nature in +constant operation. When any mass of material is elevated from the +surface of a rotating planetary body against the gravitative attraction, +it thereby gains energy of position (§ 20). This energy, on the body's +return to the surface in the course of its cycle, reappears in the form +of energy of motion. Now the material mass, in rising from the planetary +surface, is not, in reality, separated from the planet. The atmosphere +of the planet forms an integral portion of its material, partakes of its +rotatory motion, and is bound to the solid core by the mutual +gravitative forces. Any mass, then, on the solid surface of a planet is, +in reality, in the planetary interior, and the rising of such a mass +from that surface does not imply any actual separative process, but +simply the radial movement, or displacement of a portion of the +planetary material from the central axis. If the energy expended in the +upraisal of the mass is derived at the expense of the inherent rotatory +energy of the planet, as it would be if the latter were a strictly +conservative energy system, then the raising of this portion of +planetary material from the surface would have a retarding effect on the +planetary motion of rotation. But if, on the other hand, the energy of +such a mass as it fell towards the planetary surface were converted once +more into its original form of energy of axial motion, exactly +equivalent in amount to its energy of position, it is evident that the +process would be productive of an accelerating effect on the planetary +motion of rotation, which would in magnitude exactly balance the +previous retardation. In such a process it is evident that energy +neither enters nor leaves the planet. It simply works in an energy +machine embodied in planetary material. This point will be more fully +illustrated later. The reader will readily see the resemblance of a +system of this nature to that which has already been illustrated by the +rotating pendulum. + +In the meantime, it may be pointed out that matter displaced from the +planetary surface need not necessarily be matter in the solid form. All +the operations mentioned above could be quite readily--in fact, more +readily--carried out by the movements of gaseous material, which is +admirably adapted for every kind of rising, falling, or flowing motion +relative to the planetary surface (§ 13). + + +27. _Some Phenomena of Transmission Processes--Transmission of Heat + Energy by Solid Material_ + +The pendulum machine described above furnishes certain outstanding +examples of the operation of energy transformation. It will be noted, +however, that it also portrays certain processes of energy transmission. +In this respect it is not peculiar. Most of the material machines in +which energy operates will furnish examples of both energy transmissions +and energy transformations. In some instances, the predominant operation +seems to be transformation, in others, transmission; and the machines +may be classified accordingly. It is, however, largely a matter of +terminology, since both operations are usually found closely associated +in one and the same machine. The apparatus now to be considered is +designed primarily to illustrate the operative features of certain +energy transmissions, but the description of the machines with their +allied phenomena will show that energy transformations also play a very +important part in their constitution and working. + +A cylindrical metallic bar about twelve inches long, say, and one inch +in diameter, is placed with its ends immersed in water in two separate +vessels, A and B, somewhat as shown. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3] + +By the application of heat energy, the temperature of the water in the +vessel A is raised to a point say 100° F. above that of B, and steadily +maintained at that point. It is assumed that B is also kept at the +constant lower temperature. In these circumstances, a transmission of +heat energy takes place from A to B through the metallic bar. When the +steady temperature condition is reached, the transmission will be +continuous and uniform; the rate at which it is carried out will be +determined by the length of the bar, by the material of which it is +composed, and by the temperature difference maintained between its +ends. Now what has really happened is that by a combination of +phenomena the bar has been converted into a machine for the transmission +of heat energy. A full description of these phenomena is, in reality, +the description of this machine, and vice versa. Let us, therefore, now +try to outline some of these phenomena. + +The first feature of note is the gradient of temperature which exists +between the ends of the bar. Further research is necessary regarding the +real nature of this gradient--it appears to differ greatly in different +materials--but the existence of such a gradient is one of the main +features of the energy machine, one of the essential conditions of the +transmission process. + +Another feature is that of the expansive motion of the bar itself. The +expansion of the bar due to the heating varies in value along its +length, from a maximum at the hot end to a minimum at the cool end. The +expansion, also, is the evidence of a transformation of energy. The bar +has been constrained into its new form against the action of the +internal molecular or cohesive forces of its material (§ 16). The energy +employed and transformed in producing the expansion is a part of the +original heat energy applied to the bar, and before any transmission of +this heat energy takes place between its extreme ends, a definite +modicum of the applied energy has to be completely transformed for the +sole purpose of producing this distortive movement or expansion against +cohesion. This preliminary straining of the bar is, in fact, a part of +the process of building up or constituting the energy transmission +machine, and must be completely carried out before any transmission can +take place. It is clear, then, that concurrent with the gradient of +temperature, there also exists, along the bar, what might be termed a +gradient of energy stored against cohesion, and that both are +characteristic and essential features of this particular energy machine. +A point of some importance to note is the permanency of these features. +Once the machine has been constituted with a constant temperature +difference, the transmission of energy will take place continuously and +at a uniform rate. But no further transformation against cohesion takes +place; no further expenditure of energy against the internal forces of +the material is necessary. Neglecting certain losses due to possible +external conditions, the whole energy applied to the machine at the one +end is transmitted in its entirety to the other, without influencing in +any way either the temperature or the energy gradient. + +Such is the general constitution of this machine for energy +transmission. Its material foundation is, indeed, the metallic bar, but +the temperature and energy gradients may be termed the true determining +factors of its operation. As already indicated, the magnitude of the +transformation is dependent on the temperature difference between the +ends of the bar. But this applies only within certain limits. With +respect to the cool end, the temperature may be as low as we please--so +far as we know, the limit is absolute zero of temperature; but with the +hot end, the case is entirely different, because here the limit is very +strictly imposed by the melting-point of the material of the bar. When +this melting temperature is attained, the melting of the bar indicates, +simply, that the heat energy stored or transformed against the cohesive +forces of the material has reached its limiting value; change of state +of the material is taking place, and the machine is thereby being +destroyed. + +It is evident, then, that the energy which is actually being transmitted +has itself no effect whatever in restricting the action or scope of the +transmission machine. It is, in reality, the residual energy stored +against the cohesive forces which imposes the limits on the working. It +is the maximum energy which can be transformed in the field of the +cohesive forces of the material which determines the power of that +material as a transmitting agent. This maximum will, of course, be +different for different materials according to their physical +constitution. It is attained in this machine in each case when melting +of the bar takes place. + + +28. _Some Phenomena of Transmission Processes--Transmission by Flexible + Band or Cord_ + +This method is often adopted when energy of motion, or mechanical +energy, is required to be transmitted from one point to another. For +illustration, consider the case of two parallel spindles or shafts, A +and B (Fig. 4), each having a pulley securely keyed upon it. Spindle A +is connected to a source of of mechanical energy, and it is desired to +transmit this energy across the intervening space to spindle B. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4] + +This, of course, might be accomplished in various ways, but one of the +most simple, and, at the same time, one of the most efficient, is the +direct drive by means of a flexible band or cord. The band is placed +tightly round, and adheres closely to both pulleys; the coefficient of +friction between band and pulleys may, in the first instance, be assumed +to be sufficiently great to prevent slipping of the band up to the +highest stress which it is capable of sustaining in normal working. +Connected in this fashion, the spindles will rotate in unison, and +mechanical energy, if applied at A, may be directly transmitted to B. +The material operator in the transmission is the connecting flexible +band, and associated with this material are certain energy processes +which are also essential features of the energy machine. When +transmission of energy is taking place, a definite tension or stress +exists in the connecting band, and neglecting certain inevitable losses +due to bearing friction (§ 24) and windage (§ 29), practically the whole +of the mechanical or work energy communicated to the one spindle is +transmitted to the other. Now the true method of studying this or any +energy process is simply to describe the constitution and principal +features of the machine by which it is carried out. These are found in +the phenomena of transmission. One of the most important is the peculiar +state of strain or tension existing in the connecting band. This, as +already indicated, is an absolutely essential condition of the whole +operation. No transmission is possible without some stress or pull in +the band. This pull is exerted against the cohesive forces of the +material of the band, so that before transmission takes place it is +distorted and a definite amount of the originally applied work energy is +expended in straining it against these forces. This energy is +accordingly stored in the form of strain energy or energy of separation +(§ 22), and, if the velocity is uniform, the magnitude of the +transmission is proportional to this pull in the band, or to the +quantity of energy thus stored against the internal forces of its +material. But, in every case, a limit to this amount of energy is +clearly imposed by the strength of the band. The latter must not be +strained beyond its limiting elastic stress. So long as energy is being +transmitted, a certain transformation and return of energy of strain or +separation is taking place in virtue of the differing values of the +tensions in the two sides of the band; and if the latter were stressed +beyond the elastic limit, permanent distortion or disruption of the +material would take place. Under such conditions, the reversible energy +process, involving storage and restoration of strain energy as the band +passes round the pulleys, would be impossible, and the energy +transmission machine would be completely disorganised. The magnitude of +the energy operation is thus limited by the physical properties of the +connecting band. + +Another important feature of this energy transmission machine is the +velocity, or rather the kinetic energy, of the band. The magnitude of +the transmission process is directly proportional to this velocity, and +is, therefore, also a function of the kinetic energy. At any given rate +of transmission, this kinetic energy, like the energy stored against the +cohesive influence, will be constant in amount, and like that energy +also, will have been obtained at the expense of the originally applied +energy. This kinetic energy is an important feature in the constitution +of the transmission machine. As in the case of the strain energy, its +maximum value is strictly limited, and thus imposes a limit on the +general operation of the machine. For, at very high velocities, owing to +the action of centrifugal force, it is not possible to keep the band in +close contact with the surface of the pulleys. When the speed rises +above a certain limit, although the energy actually being transmitted +may not have attained the maximum value possible at lower speeds with +greater tension in the band, the latter will, in virtue of the strain +imposed by centrifugal action, be forced radially outwards from the +pulley. The coefficient of friction will be thereby reduced; slipping +will ensue, and the transmission may cease either in whole or in part. +In this way the velocity or kinetic energy limit is imposed. The machine +for energy transmission may thus be limited in its operation by two +different factors. The precise way in which the limit will be applied in +any given case will, of course, depend on the circumstances of working. + + +29. _Some Phenomena of Transmission Processes--Transmission of Energy to + Air Masses_ + +The movement of the pendulum (§ 23) is accompanied by a certain +transmission of energy to the surrounding medium. When this medium is a +gaseous one such as air, the amount of energy thus transmitted is +relatively small. The process, however, has a real existence. To +illustrate its general nature, let it be assumed that the motion of the +pendulum is carried out, not in air, but in a highly viscous fluid, say +a heavy oil. Obviously, a pendulum falling from its highest position to +its lowest, in such a medium would transmit its energy almost in its +entirety to the medium, and would reach its lowest position almost +devoid of energy of motion. The energy of position with which it was +originally endowed would thus be transformed and transmitted to the +surrounding medium. The agent by which the transmission is carried out +is the moving material of the pendulum, which, as it passes through the +fluid, distorts that fluid in the lines or field of its internal +cohesive or viscous forces which offer a continuous resistance to the +motion. As the pendulum passes down through the liquid, the succeeding +layers of the latter are thus alternately distorted and released. The +distortive movement takes place in virtue of the communication of energy +from the moving pendulum to the liquid, and during the movement energy +is stored in the fluid as energy of strain and as kinetic energy. At the +same time, a transformation of the applied energy into heat takes place +in the distorted material. The release of this material from strain, and +its movement back towards its original state, is also accompanied by a +similar transformation, in which the stored strain energy is, in turn, +converted into the heat form. The whole operation is similar in nature +to that frictional process already described (§ 16) in the case of a +body moving on a rough horizontal table. The final action of the heat +energy thus communicated to the fluid is to expand the latter against +the internal cohesive or viscous forces of its material, and also +against the gravitative attraction of the earth. + +Now when the pendulum moves in air, the action taking place is of the +same nature, and the final result is the same as in oil. It differs +merely in degree. Compared with the oil, the air masses offer only a +slight resistance to the motion, and thus only an exceedingly small part +of the pendulum's energy is transmitted to them. The pendulum, however, +does set the surrounding air masses in motion, and by a process similar +in nature to that in the oil, a modicum of the energy of the falling +pendulum is converted into heat, and thence by the expansion of the air +into energy of position. In the downward motion from rest, the first +stage of the process is a transformation peculiar to the pendulum +itself, namely, energy of position into energy of motion. The +transmission to the fluid is a necessary secondary result. It is +important to note that this transmission is carried out in virtue of the +actual movement of the material of the pendulum, and that the energy +transmitted is in reality mechanical or work energy (§ 31). This +mechanical or work energy, then actually leaves or is transmitted from +the pendulum system, and is finally absorbed by the surrounding air +masses in the form of energy of position. + +Considered as a whole, there is evidently no aspect of reversibility +about the operation, but it will be shown later (§ 32) that with the +introduction of other factors, it really forms part of a comprehensive +cyclical process. It is itself a process of direct transmission. It is +carried out by means of a definite material machine which embodies +certain energy transformations, and which is strictly limited in the +extent of its operations by certain physical factors. These factors are +the cohesive properties of the moving pendulum mass and the fluid with +which it is in contact (§ 16). It is clear, also, that in an apparatus +in which the motion is carried out in oil, any heat energy communicated +to the oil would inevitably find its way to the surrounding air masses +by conduction and radiation. The final result of the pendulum's motion +would therefore be the same in this case as in air; the heat energy +would, when communicated to the surrounding air masses, cause an +expansive movement against gravity. + + +30. _Energy Machines and Energy Transmission_ + +[Illustration: FIG. 5] + +The various examples of energy transformation and transmission which +have been discussed above (§§ 13-27) will suffice to show the essential +differences which exist in the general nature of these operations. But +they will also serve another purpose in portraying one striking and +important aspect in which these processes are alike. From the +descriptions given above, it will be amply evident that each of these +processes, whether transformation or transmission, requires as an +essential condition of its existence, the presence of a certain +arrangement of matter; each process is of necessity associated with and +embodied in a definite physical and material machine. This material +machine is simply the contrivance provided by Nature to carry out the +energy operation. It differs in construction and in character for +different processes, but in every case there must be in its constitution +some material substance, perceptible to the senses, with which the +acting energy is intimately associated. This fact is but another aspect +of the principle that energy is never found dissociated from matter (§ +11). In every energy machine, the material substance or operator forms +the real foundation or basis of the energy operation, but besides this +there are also always other phenomena of a secondary nature, totally +different, it may be, from the main energy operation, which combine with +that operation to constitute the whole. These subsidiary energy +phenomena are the incepting factors, and are most important +characteristics. Their presence is just as essential in energy +transmission as it is in energy transformation. As demonstrated above, +they are usually associated with the physical peculiarities of the basis +or acting material of the energy machine, and their peculiar function is +to conserve or limit the extent of its action. A complete description of +these phenomena, in any given case, would not only be equivalent to a +complete description of the machine, but would also serve as a complete +description of the main energy operation embodied in that machine. +Sometimes, however, the description of the machine is a matter of +extreme difficulty, and may be, in fact, impossible owing to the lack of +a full knowledge of the intimate phenomena concerned. An illustrative +example of this is provided by the familiar phenomenon of heat +radiation. Take the case of two isolated solid bodies A and B (Fig. 5) +in close proximity on the earth's surface. If the body A at a high +temperature be sufficiently near to B at a lower temperature, a +transmission of energy takes place from A to B. This transmission is +usually attributed to "radiation," but, after all, the use of the term +"radiation" is merely a descriptive device which hides our ignorance of +the operation. It is known that a transmission takes place, but the +intimate phenomena are not known, and, accordingly, it is impossible to +describe the machine or mechanism by which it is carried out. From +general considerations, however, it appears that the material basis of +this machine is to be found in the air medium which surrounds the two +bodies. Experiment shows, indeed, that if this intervening material +medium of air be even partially withdrawn or removed, the transmission +is immensely reduced in amount. In fact, this latter phenomenon is +largely taken advantage of in the so-called vacuum flasks or other +devices to maintain bodies at a temperature either above or below that +of the external surrounding bodies. The device adopted is, simply, as +far as practicable to withdraw all material connection between the body +which it is desired to isolate thermally and its surroundings. But it is +clearly impossible to isolate completely any terrestrial body in this +way. There must be some material connection remaining. As already +pointed out (§ 5), we have no experimental experience of really separate +bodies or of an absolute vacuum. It is to be noted that any vacuous +space which we can experimentally arrange does not even approximately +reproduce the conditions of true separation prevailing in interplanetary +space. Any arrangement of separate bodies which might thus be contrived +is necessarily entirely surrounded or enclosed by terrestrial material +which, in virtue of its stressed condition, constitutes an energy +machine of the same nature as those already described (§ 21). Even +although the air could be absolutely exhausted from a vessel, it is +still quite impossible to enclose any body permanently within that +vessel without some material connection between the body and the +enclosing walls. If for example, as shown in Fig. 6, CC represents a +spherical vessel, completely exhausted, and having two bodies, A and B +at different temperatures, in its interior, it is obvious that if these +bodies are to maintain continuously their relative positions of +separation, each must be united by some material connection to the +containing vessel. But when such a connection is made, say as shown at D +and E (Fig. 7), it is clear that A and B are no longer separate bodies +in the fullest sense of the word, but are now in direct communication +with one another through the supports at D and E and the enclosing sides +of the vessel CC. The practicable conditions are thus far from those of +separate bodies in a complete vacuum. It would seem, indeed, to be +beyond human experimental contrivance to reproduce such conditions in +their entirety. So far as these conditions can be achieved, however, +and judging solely by the experimental results already attained with +respect to the effect of exhaustion on radiation, it may be quite justly +averred that, if the conditions portrayed in Fig. 6 could be realised, +no transmission of energy would take place between two bodies, such as A +and B, completely isolated from one another in a vacuous space. It +appears, in fact, to be a quite reasonable and logical deduction from +the experimental evidence that the energy operation of transmission of +heat from one body to another by radiation is dependent on the existence +between these bodies of a real and material substance which forms in +some way (at present unknown) the transmitting medium or machine. The +difficulty which arises in the description of this machine is due, as +already explained above, simply to lack of knowledge of the intimate +phenomena of its working. Many other energy processes will, no doubt, +occur to the reader in which the same difficulty presents itself, due to +the same cause. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6] + +In dealing with terrestrial operations generally, and particularly when +transmission processes are under consideration, it is important to +recognise clearly the precise nature of these operations and the +peculiar conditions under which they work. It must ever be borne in mind +that the terrestrial atmosphere is a real and material portion of the +earth's mass, extending from the surface for a limited distance into +space (§ 34), and whatever its condition of gaseous tenuity, completely +occupying that space in the manner peculiar to a gaseous substance. When +the whole mass of the planet, including the atmosphere, is taken into +consideration, it is readily seen that all energy operations embodied in +or associated with material on what is usually termed the surface of the +earth take place at the bottom of this atmospheric ocean, or, in +reality, in the interior of the earth. The operations themselves are the +manifestations of purely terrestrial energy, which, by its working in +various devices or arrangements of material is being transformed and +transmitted from one form of matter to another. As will be fully +demonstrated later (Part III.), the nature of the terrestrial energy +system makes it impossible for this energy ever to escape beyond the +confines of the planetary atmospheric envelope. These are briefly the +general conditions under which the study of terrestrial or secondary +energy operations is of necessity conducted, and it is specially +important to notice these conditions when it is sought to apply the +results of experimental work to the discussion of celestial phenomena. +It must ever be borne in mind that even the direct observation of the +latter must always be carried out through the encircling planetary +atmospheric material. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7] + +In this portion of the work it is proposed to investigate in the light +of known phenomena the possibility of energy transmission between +separate masses. As explained above, the term separate is here meant to +convey the idea of perfect isolation, and the only masses in Nature +which truly satisfy this condition are the celestial and planetary +bodies, separated as they are from one another by interplanetary space +and in virtue of their energised condition (§ 5). Since this state of +separation cannot be experimentally realised under terrestrial +conditions, it is obvious, therefore, that no purely terrestrial energy +process can be advanced either as direct verification or direct disproof +of a transmission of energy between such truly separate masses as the +celestial bodies. But as we are unable to experiment directly on these +bodies themselves or across interplanetary space, we are forced of +necessity to rely, for experimental facts and conclusions, on the +terrestrial energy phenomena to which access is possible. As already +indicated in the General Statement (§ 11), the same energy is bestowed +on all parts of the cosmical system, and by the close observation of the +phenomena of its action in familiar operations the truest guidance may +be obtained as to its general nature and working. In such +investigations, however, only the actual phenomena of the operation are +of scientific or informative value. There is no gain to real knowledge +in assuming, say in the examination of the phenomena of magnetic +attraction between two bodies, that the one is urged towards the other +by stresses in an intervening ethereal medium, when absolutely no +phenomenal evidence of the existence of such a medium is available. It +may be urged that the conception of an ethereal medium is adapted to the +explanation of phenomena, and appears in many instances to fulfil this +function. But as already pointed out (see Introduction), it is +absolutely impossible to explain phenomena. So-called explanations must +ever resolve themselves simply into revelations of further phenomena. +While the value of true working hypotheses cannot be denied, it is +surely evident that such hypotheses, unless they embody and are under +the limitation of controlling facts, are not only useless, but, from the +misleading ideas they are apt to convey, may even be dangerous factors +in the search for truth. Now, if all speculative ideas or hypotheses are +banished from the mind, and reliance is placed solely on the evidential +phenomena of Nature, the study of terrestrial energy operations leads +inevitably to certain conclusions on the question of energy +transmission. In the first place, it must lead to the denial of what has +been virtually the great primary assumption of modern science, namely, +that a mass of material at a high temperature isolated in interplanetary +space would radiate heat in all directions through that space. Such a +conception is unsupported by our experimental or real knowledge of +radiation. The fact that heat radiation takes place from a hot to a cold +body in whatever direction the latter is placed relatively to the +former, does not justify the assumption that such radiation takes place +in all directions in the absence of a cold body. And since there is +absolutely no manifestation of any real material medium occupying +interplanetary space, no sign of the material agency or machine which +the results of direct experiment have led us to conclude is a necessity +for the transmission process of heat radiation, the whole conception +must be regarded as at least doubtful. Even with our limited knowledge +of radiation, the doctrine of heat radiation through space stands +controverted by ordinary experimental experience. With this doctrine +must fall also the allied conception of the transmission of heat energy +by radiation from the sun to the earth. It is to be noted, however, that +only the actual transmission of heat energy from the sun to the earth is +inadmissible; the _heating effect_ of the sun on the earth, which leads +to the manifestation of terrestrial energy in the heat form, is a +continuous operation readily explained in the light of the general +principle of energy transformation already enunciated (§ 4). With +respect to other possible processes of energy transmission between the +sun and the earth or across interplanetary space, the same general +methods of experimental investigation must be adopted. The transmission +of energy under terrestrial conditions is carried out in many different +forms and by the working of a large variety of machines. In every case, +no matter in what form the energy is transmitted, that energy must be +associated with a definite arrangement of terrestrial material +constituting the transmission machine. Each energy process of +transmission has its own peculiar conditions of operation which must be +completely satisfied. By the study of these conditions and the allied +phenomena it is possible to gain a real knowledge of the precise +circumstances in which the process can be carried out. Now let us apply +the knowledge of transmission processes thus gained to the general +celestial case, to the question of energy transmission between truly +separate bodies, and particularly to the case of the sun and the earth. +Do we find in this case any evidence of the presence of a machine for +energy transmission? It is impossible, within the limits of this work, +to deal with all the forms in which energy may be transmitted, but let +the reader review any instance of the transmission of energy under +terrestrial conditions, or any energy-transmission machine with which he +is familiar, noting particularly the essential phenomena and material +arrangements, and let him ask himself if there is any evidence of the +existence of a machine of this kind in operation between the sun and +the earth or across interplanetary space. We venture to assert that the +answer must be in the negative. The real knowledge of terrestrial +processes of energy transmission at command, on which all our deductions +must be based, does not warrant in the slightest degree the assumption +of transmission between the sun and the earth. The most plausible of +such assumptions is undoubtedly that which attributes transmission to +heat radiation, but this has already been shown to be at variance with +well-known facts. The question of light transmission will offer no +difficulty if it be borne in mind that light is not in itself a form of +energy, but merely a manifestation of energy as an incepting influence, +which like other incepting influences of a similar nature, can readily +operate across either vacuous or interplanetary space (§ 19). + +On these general considerations, deduced from the observation of +terrestrial phenomena, allied with the conception of energy machines and +separate masses in space, the author bases one aspect of the denial of +energy transmission between celestial masses. The doctrine of +transmission cannot be sustained in the face of legitimate scientific +deduction from natural phenomena. In the later parts of this work, and +from a more positive point of view, the denial is completely justified. + + +31. _Identification of Forms of Energy_ + +Before leaving the question of energy transmission, there are still one +or two interesting features to be considered. Although energy, as +already pointed out, is ever found associated with matter, this +association does not, in itself, always furnish phenomena sufficient to +distinguish the precise phase in which the energy may be manifested. +Some means must, as a rule, be adopted to isolate and identify the +various forms. + +Now one of the most interesting and important features of the process of +energy transmission is that it usually provides the direct means for the +identification of the acting energy. Energy, as it were, in movement, in +the process of transmission, is capable of being detected in its +different phases and recognised in each. The phenomena of transmission +usually serve, either directly or indirectly, to portray the precise +nature of the energy taking part in the operation. One of the most +direct instances of this is provided by the transmission of heat energy. +For illustrative purposes, let it be assumed that a body A, possessed of +heat energy to an exceedingly high degree, is isolated within a +spherical glass vessel CC, somewhat as already shown (Fig. 6). If it be +assumed that the space within CC is a perfect vacuum, and that no +material connection exists between the walls of the vessel and the body +A, the latter is completely isolated, and no means whatever are +available for the detection of its heat qualities (§ 30). It may seem +that, if the temperature of the body A were sufficiently high, its +energy state might be detected, and in a manner estimated, by its effect +on the eye or by its luminous properties, but we take this opportunity +of pointing out that luminosity is not invariably associated with high +temperature. On the contrary, many bodies are found in Nature, both +animate and inanimate, which are luminous and affect the eye at +comparatively low temperatures. How then is the energy condition of the +body to be definitely ascertained? The only means whereby it is possible +to identify the energy of the body is by transmitting a portion of that +energy to some other body and observing the resultant phenomena. +Suppose, then, another body, such as B (Fig. 6), at a lower temperature +than A, is brought into contact with A, so that a transmission of heat +energy ensues between the two. The phenomena which would result in such +circumstances will be exactly as already described in the case of the +transmission of energy through a solid (§ 27). Amongst other +manifestations it would be noticeable that the material of B was +expanded against its inherent cohesive forces. Now if, instead of a +spherical body such as B, a mercurial thermometer were utilised, the +phenomena would be of precisely the same nature. A definite portion of +the heat energy would be transmitted to the thermometer, and would +produce expansion of the contained fluid. By the amount of this +expansion it becomes possible to estimate the energy condition and +properties of the body A, relative to its surroundings or to certain +generally accepted standard conditions. Thermometric measurement is, in +fact, merely the employment of a process of energy transmission for the +purpose of identifying and estimating the heat-energy properties of +material substances. + +In everyday life, rough ideas of heat energy are constantly being +obtained by the aid of the senses. This method is, however, only another +aspect of transmission, for it will be clear that the sensations of heat +and cold are, in themselves, but the evidence of the transformation of +heat energy to or from the body. + +The process of energy transmission by a flexible band or cord (§ 28) +also provides evidence leading to the identification of the peculiar +form of energy which is being transmitted. At first sight, it would +appear as if this energy were simply energy of motion or kinetic energy. +A little reflection, however, on the general conditions of the process +must dispel this idea, for it is clear that the precise nature of the +energy transmitted has no real connection with the kinetic properties of +the system. The latter, truly, influence the rate of transmission and +impose certain limits, but evidently, if the pull in the band increases +without any increase in its velocity, the actual amount of energy +transmitted by the system would increase without altering in any respect +the kinetic properties. It becomes necessary, then, to distinguish +clearly the energy inherent to, or as it were, latent in the system, +from the energy actually transmitted by the system, to recognise the +difference between the energy transmitted by moving material and the +energy of that material. In this special instance, to identify the form +of energy transmitted it must of necessity be associated with the +peculiar phenomena of transmission. Now the energy is evidently +transmitted by the movement of the connecting belt or band. Before any +transmission can take place, however, a certain amount of energy must be +stored in the moving system, partly as cohesion or strain energy and +partly as energy of motion or kinetic energy. It is this preliminary +storage of energy which, in reality, constitutes the transmission +machine, and for a given rate of transmission, the energy thus stored +will be constant in value. It is obtained at the expense of the applied +energy, and, neglecting certain minor processes, will be returned (or +transmitted) in its entirety when the moving system once more comes to +rest. This stored energy, in fact, works in a reversible process. But +when the transmission machine is once constituted, the energy +transmitted is then that energy which is being continually applied at +the spindle A (Fig. 4) and as continually withdrawn at the spindle B. It +must be emphasised that the energy thus transmitted is absolutely +different from the kinetic or other energy associated with the moving +material of the system. It is the function of this energised material of +the band to transmit the energy from A to B, but this is the only +relationship which the transmitted energy bears to the material. The +energy thus transmitted by the moving material we term mechanical or +work energy. We may thus define mechanical or work energy as "_that form +of energy transmitted by matter in motion_." + +The idea of work is usually associated with that of a force acting +through a certain distance. The form of energy referred to above as work +energy is, in the same way, always associated with the idea of a thrust +or of a pressure of some kind acting on moving material. Work energy +thus bears two aspects, which really correspond to the familiar product +of pressure and volume. Both aspects are manifested in transmission. +Since work energy is invariably transmitted by matter in motion, every +machine for its transmission must possess energy of motion as one of its +essential features. As shown above (see also § 28), this energy of +motion is really obtained at the expense of the originally applied work +energy, and as it remains unaltered in value during the progress of a +uniform transmission, it may be regarded as simply transformed work +energy, stored or latent in the system, which will be returned in its +entirety and in its original form at the termination of the operation. +The energy stored against cohesion or other forces may be regarded in +the same way. It is really the manifestation of the pressure or thrust +aspect of the work energy, just as the kinetic energy is the +manifestation of the translational or velocity aspect. + +Our definition of work energy given above enables us to recognise its +operation in many familiar processes. Take the case of a gas at high +pressure confined in a cylinder behind a movable piston. We can at once +say that the energy of the gas is work energy because this energy may +quite clearly be transmitted from the gas by the movement of the piston. +If the latter form part of a steam-engine mechanism of rods and crank, +the energy may, by the motion of this mechanism, be transmitted to the +crank shaft, and there utilised. This is eminently a case in which +energy is _transmitted_ by matter in motion. The moving material +comprises the piston, piston-rod, and connecting-rod, which are, one and +all, endowed with both cohesive and kinetic energy qualities, and form +together the transmission machine. So long as the piston is at rest only +one aspect of the work energy of the gas is apparent, namely, the +pressure aspect, but immediately motion and transmission take place, +both aspects are presented. The work energy of the gas, obtained in the +boiler by a _transformation_ of heat energy is thus, by matter in +motion, transmitted and made available at the crank shaft. The shaft +itself is also commonly utilised for the further transmission of the +work energy applied. By the application of the energy at the crank, it +is thrown into a state of strain, and at the same time is endowed with +kinetic energy of rotation. It thus forms a machine for transmission, +and the work energy applied at one point of the shaft may be withdrawn +at another point more remote. The transmission is, in reality, effected +by the movement of the material of the shaft. So long as the shaft is +stationary, it is clear that no actual transmission can be carried out, +no matter how great may be the strain imposed. If our engine mechanism +were, by a change in design, adapted to the use of a liquid substance as +the working material instead of a gas, it is clear that no change would +be effected in the general conditions. The energy of a liquid under +pressure is again simply work energy, and it would be transmitted by the +moving mechanism in precisely the same manner. + +From the foregoing, it will now be evident to the reader that the energy +originally applied to the primary mass (§ 3) of our cosmical system must +be work energy. It is this form of energy also which is inherent to each +unit of the planetary system associated with the primary. In this system +it is of course presented outwardly in the two phases of kinetic energy +and energy of strain or distortion. It is apparent, also, that work +energy could be transmitted from the primary mass to the separate +planets on one condition only, that is, by the movement of some material +substance connecting each planet to the primary. Since no such material +connection is admitted, the transmission of work energy is clearly +impossible. + + +32. _Complete Secondary Cyclical Operation_ + +A general outline of the conditions of working and the relationships of +secondary processes has already been given in the General Statement (§ +9), but it still remains to indicate, in a broad way, the general +methods whereby these operations are linked to the atmospheric machine. +In the example of the simple pendulum, it has been pointed out that the +energy processes giving rise to heating at the bearing surfaces and +transmission of energy to the air masses are not directly reversible +processes, but really form part of a more extensive cyclical operation, +in itself, however, complete and self-contained. This cyclical operation +may be regarded as a typical illustration of the manner in which +separate processes of energy transmission or transformation, such as +already described, are combined or united in a continuous chain forming +a complete whole. + +It has been assumed, in all the experiments with the pendulum, that the +operating energy is initially communicated from an outside source, say +the hand of the observer. This energy is, therefore, the acting energy +which must be traced through all its various phases from its origin to +its final destination. At the outset, it may be pointed out that this +energy, applied by hand, is obtained from the original rotational energy +of the earth by certain definite energy processes. Due to the influences +of various incepting fields which emanate from the sun (§§ 17-19), a +portion of the earth's rotational energy is transformed into that form +of plant energy which is stored in plant tissue, and which, by the +physico-chemical processes of digestion, is in turn converted into heat +and the various other forms of energy associated with the human frame. +This, then, is the origin of the energy communicated to the pendulum. +Its progress through that machine has already been described in detail +(§§ 21-26). The transformation of energy of motion to energy of position +which takes place is in itself a reversible process and may in the +meantime be neglected. But the final result of the operations, at the +bearing surfaces and in the air masses surrounding the moving pendulum, +was shown to be, in each case, that heat energy was communicated to +these air masses. The effect of the heat energy thus impressed, is to +cause the expansion of the air and its elevation from the surface of the +earth in the lines or field of the gravitative attraction, so that this +heat energy is transformed, and resides in the air masses as energy of +position. The energy then, originally drawn from the rotational energy +of the earth, has thus worked through the pendulum machine, and is now +stored in the air masses in this form of energy of position. To make the +process complete and cyclical this energy must now, therefore, be +returned once more to the earth in its original rotational form. This +final step is carried out in the atmospheric machine (§ 41). In this +machine, therefore, the energy of position possessed by the air masses +is, in their descent to their original positions at lower levels, +transformed once more into axial or rotational energy. In this fashion +this series of secondary processes, involving both transformations and +transmissions, is linked to the great atmospheric process. The amount of +energy which operates through the particular chain of processes we have +described is, of course, exceedingly small, but in this or a similar +manner all secondary operations, great or small, are associated with the +atmospheric machine. Instances could readily be multiplied, but a little +reflection will show how almost every energy operation, no matter what +may be its nature, whether physical, chemical, or electrical, leads +inevitably to the communication of energy to the atmospheric air masses +and to their consequent upraisal. + +It is interesting to note the infallible tendency of energy to revert +to its original form of axial energy, or energy of rotation, by means of +the air machine. All Nature bears witness to this tendency, and although +the path of energy through the maze of terrestrial transformation often +appears tortuous and uncertain, its final destination is always sure. +The secondary operations are thus interlinked into one great whole by +their association in the terrestrial energy cycle. Many of these +secondary operations are of short duration; others extend over long +periods of time. Energy, in some cases, appears to slumber, as in the +coal seams of the earth, until an appropriate stimulus is applied, when +it enters into active operation once more. The cyclical operations are +thus long or short according to the duration of their constituent +secondary energy processes. But the balance of Nature is ever preserved. +Axial energy, transformed by the working of one cyclical process, is +being as continuously returned by the simultaneous operation of others. + + + + +PART III + + + + +TERRESTRIAL CONDITIONS + + +33. _Gaseous Expansion_ + +Before proceeding to the general description of the atmospheric machine +(§ 10), it is desirable to consider one or two features of gaseous +reaction which have a somewhat important bearing on its working. Let it +be assumed that a mass of gaseous material is confined within the lower +portion of a narrow tube ABCD (Fig. 8) assumed to be thermally +non-conducting; the upper portion of the tube is in free communication +with the atmosphere. The gas within the tube is assumed to be isolated +from the atmosphere by a movable piston EF, free to move vertically in +the tube, and for the purpose of illustration, assumed also frictionless +and weightless. With these assumptions, the pressure on the confined gas +will simply be that due to the atmosphere. If heat energy be now +applied to the gas, its temperature will rise and expansion will ensue. +This expansion will be carried out at constant atmospheric pressure; the +gaseous material, as it expands, must lift with it the whole of the +superimposed atmospheric column against the downward attractive force of +the earth's gravitation on that column. Work is thus done by the +expanding gas, and in consequence of this work done, a definite quantity +of atmospheric material gains energy of position or potential energy +relative to the earth's surface. At the same time, the rise of +temperature of the gas will indicate an accession of heat energy to its +mass. These familiar phenomena of expansion under constant pressure +serve to illustrate the important fact that, when heat energy is applied +to a gaseous mass, it really manifests itself therein in two aspects, +namely, heat energy and work energy. The increment of heat energy is +indicated by the increase in temperature, the increment of work energy +by the increase in pressure. In the example just quoted, however, there +is no increase in pressure, because the work energy, as rapidly as it is +applied to the gas, is transformed or worked down in displacing the +atmospheric column resting on the upper side of the moving piston. The +energy applied, in the form of heat from the outside source, has in +reality been introduced into a definite energy machine, a machine in +this case adapted for the complete transformation of work energy into +energy of position. As already indicated, when the expansive movement is +completed, the volume and temperature of the gaseous mass are both +increased but the pressure remains unaltered. While the increase in +temperature is the measure and index of a definite increase in the heat +energy of the gas, it is important to note that, so far as its work +energy is concerned, the gas is finally in precisely the same condition +as at the commencement of the operation. Work energy has been, by the +working of this energy machine, as it were passed through the gaseous +mass into the surrounding atmosphere. The pressure of the gas is the +true index of its work energy properties. So long as the pressure +remains unaltered, the inherent work energy of the material remains +absolutely unaffected. A brief consideration of the nature of work +energy as already portrayed (§ 31) will make this clear. Work energy has +been defined as "_that form of energy transmitted by matter in motion_," +and it is clear that pressure is the essential factor in any +transmission of this nature. Temperature has no direct bearing on it +whatever. It is common knowledge, however, that in the application of +heat energy to a gaseous substance, the two aspects of pressure and +temperature cannot be really dissociated. They are mutually dependent. +Any increment of heat energy to the gas is accompanied by an increment +of work energy, and vice versa. The precise mode of action of the work +energy will, of course, depend on the general circumstances of the +energy machine in which it operates. In the case just considered the +work energy does not finally reside in the gaseous mass itself, but, by +the working of the machine, is communicated to the atmosphere. If, on +the other hand, heat energy were applied in the same fashion to a mass +of gas in a completely enclosed vessel, that is to say at constant +volume instead of at constant pressure, the general phenomena are merely +altered in degree according to the change in the precise nature of the +energy machine. In the former case, the nature of the energy machine was +such that the work energy communicated was expended in its entirety +against gravitation. Under what is usually termed constant volume +conditions, only a portion of the total work energy communicated is +transformed, and the transformation of this portion is carried out, not +against gravitation, but against the cohesive forces of the material of +the enclosing vessel which restrains the expansion. No matter how great +may be the elastic properties of this material, it will be distorted, +more or less, by the application of work energy. This distortional +movement is the external evidence of the energy process of +transformation. Energy is stored in the material against the forces of +cohesion (§ 15). But the energy thus stored is only a small proportion +of the total work energy which accrues to the gas in the heating +process. The remainder is stored in the gas itself, and the evidence of +such storage is found simply in the increase of pressure. Different +energy machines thus offer different facilities for the transformation +or the storage of the applied energy. In every case where the work +energy applied has no opportunity of expending itself, its presence will +be indicated by an increase in the pressure or work function of the gas. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8] + +The principles which underlie the above phenomena can readily be applied +to other cases of gaseous expansion. It is a matter of common experience +that if a given mass of gaseous material be introduced into a vessel +which has been exhausted by an air-pump or other device for the +production of a vacuum, the whole space within the vessel is instantly +permeated by the gas, which will expand until its volume is precisely +that of the containing vessel. Further phenomena of the operation are +that the expanding gas suffers a decrease in temperature and pressure +corresponding to the degree or ratio of the expansion. Before the +expansive process took place the gaseous mass, as indicated by its +initial temperature and pressure, is endowed with a definite quantity of +energy in the form of heat and work energy. After expansion, these +quantities are diminished, as indicated by its final and lower +temperature and pressure. The operation of expansion has thus involved +an expenditure of energy. This expenditure takes place in virtue of the +movement of the gaseous material (§ 4). It is obvious that if the volume +of the whole is to be increased, each portion of the expanding gas +requires to move relatively to the remainder. This movement is carried +out in the lines of the earth's gravitative attraction, and to a certain +extent over the surface of the containing vessel. In some respects, it +thus corresponds simply to the movement of a body over the earth's +surface (§ 16). It is also carried out against the viscous or frictional +forces existing throughout the gaseous material itself (§ 29). Assuming +no influx of energy from without, the energy expended in the movement of +the gaseous material must be obtained at the expense of the inherent +heat and work energy of the gas, and these two functions will decrease +simultaneously. The heat and work energy of the gas or its inherent +energy is thus taken to provide the energy necessary for the expansive +movement. This energy, however, does not leave the gas, but still +resides therein in a form akin to that of energy of position or +separation. It will be clear also, that the reverse operation cannot, in +this case, be carried out; the gas cannot move back to its original +volume in the same fashion as it expanded into the vacuum, so that the +energy utilised in this way for separation cannot be directly returned. + +The expansion of the gas has been assumed above to take place into a +vacuous space, but a little consideration will show that this condition +cannot be properly or even approximately fulfilled under ordinary +experimental conditions. The smallest quantity of gas introduced into +the exhausted vessel will at once completely fill the vacuous space, +and, on this account, the whole expansion of the gas does not in reality +take place _in vacuo_ at all. To study the action of the gas under the +latter conditions, it is necessary to look on the operation of expansion +in a more general way, which might be presented as follows. + + +34. _Gravitational Equilibrium of Gases_ + +Consider a planetary body, in general nature similar to the earth, but, +unlike the earth, possessing no atmosphere whatever. The space +surrounding such a celestial mass may then be considered as a perfect +vacuum. Now let it be further assumed that in virtue of some change in +the conditions, a portion of the material of the planetary mass is +volatilised and a mass of gas thereby liberated over its surface. The +gas is assumed to correspond in temperature to that portion of the +planet's surface with which it is in contact. It is clear that, in the +circumstances, the gas, in virtue of its elastic and energetic +properties, will expand in all directions. It will completely envelop +the planet, and it will also move radially outwards into space. In these +respects, its expansion will correspond to that of a gas introduced +into a vacuous space of unlimited extent. + +The question now arises as to the nature of the action of the gaseous +substance in these circumstances. It is clear that the radial or outward +movement of the gas from the planetary surface is made directly against +the gravitative attraction of the planet on the gaseous mass. In other +words, matter or material is being moved in the lines or field of this +gravitative force. This movement, accordingly, will be productive of an +energy transformation (§ 4). In its initial or surface condition each +portion of the gaseous mass is possessed of a perfectly definite amount +of energy indicated by and dependent on that condition. As it moves +upwards from the surface, it does work against gravity in the raising of +its own mass. But as the mass is thus raised, it is gaining energy of +position (§ 20), and as it has absolutely no communication with any +external source of energy in its ascent, the energy of position thus +gained can only be obtained at the expense of its initial inherent heat +and work energy. The operation is, in fact, a simple transformation of +this inherent energy into energy of position, a transformation in which +gravity is the incepting agency. The external evidence of transformation +will be a fall in temperature of the material. Since the action is +exactly similar for all ascending particles, it is evident that as the +altitude of the gaseous mass increases the temperature will +correspondingly diminish. This diminution will proceed so long as the +gaseous particles continue to ascend, and until an elevation is finally +attained at which their inherent energy is entirely converted into +energy of position. The expansion of the gas, and the associated +transformation of energy, thus leads to the erection of a gaseous column +in space, the temperature of which steadily diminishes from the base to +the summit. At the latter elevation, the inherent energy of the gaseous +particles which attain to it is completely transformed or worked out +against gravity in the ascent; the energy possessed by the gas at this +elevation is, therefore, entirely energy of position; the energy +properties of heat and work have entirely vanished, and the temperature +will, therefore, at this elevation, be absolute zero. It is important to +note also that in the building of such a column or gaseous spherical +envelope round the planet, the total energy of any gaseous particle of +that column will remain unchanged throughout the process. No matter +where the particle may be situated in the column, its total energy must +always be expressed by its heat and work energy properties together with +its energy of position. This sum is always a constant quantity. For if +the particle descends from a higher to a lower altitude, its total +energy is still unchanged, because a definite transformation of its +energy of position takes place corresponding to its fall, and this +transformed energy duly appears in its original form of heat and work +energy in accordance with the decreased altitude of the particle. Since +the temperature of the column remains unchanged at the base surface and +only decreases in the ascent, it is clear that the entire heat and work +energy of the originally liberated gaseous mass is not expended in the +movement against gravity. Every gaseous particle--excepting those on the +absolute outer surface of the gaseous envelope--has still the property +of temperature. It is evident, therefore, that in the constitution of +the column, only a portion of the total original heat and work energy of +the gaseous substance is transformed into energy of position. + +The space into which the gas expands has been referred to as unlimited +in extent. But although in one sense it may be correctly described thus, +yet in another, and perhaps in a truer sense, the space is very strictly +limited. It is true there is no enclosing vessel or bounding surface, +but nevertheless the expansion of the gas is restrained in two ways or +limited by two factors. The position of the bounding surface of the +spherical gaseous envelope depends, in the first place, on the original +energy of the gas as deduced from its initial temperature and its other +physical properties, and secondly on the value of the gravitative +attraction exerted on the gas by the planetary body. Looking at the +first factor, it is obvious that since the gaseous mass initially +possesses only a limited amount of energy, and since only a certain +portion of this energy is really available for the transformation, the +whole process is thereby limited in extent. The complete transformation +and disappearance of that available portion of the gaseous energy in the +process of erection of the atmospheric column will correspond to a +definite and limited increase of energy of position of gaseous material. +Since the energy of position is thus restricted in its totality, and the +mass of material for elevation is constant, the height of the column or +the boundary of expansion of the gas is likewise rigidly defined. In +this fashion, the energy properties of the gaseous material limit the +expansive process. + +Looking at the operation from another standpoint, it is clear that the +maximum height of the spherical gaseous envelope must also be dependent +on the resistance against which the upward movement of the gas is +carried out, that is, on the value of the gravitative attraction. The +expenditure of energy in the ascent varies directly as the opposing +force; if this force be increased the ultimate height must decrease, and +vice versa. Each particle might be regarded as moving in the ascent +against the action of an invisible spring, stretching it so that with +increase of altitude more and more of the energy of the particle is +transformed or stored in the spring in the extension. When the particle +descends to its original position, the operation is reversed; the +spring is now contracting, and yielding up the stored energy to the +particle in the contraction. The action of the spring would here be +merely that of an apparatus for the storage and return of energy. In the +case of the gaseous mass, we conceive the action of gravitation to be +exactly analogous to that of a spring offering an approximately constant +resistance to extension. (The value of gravity is assumed approximately +constant, and independent of the particle's displacement.) The energy +stored or transformed in the ascension against gravity is returned on +the descent in a precisely similar fashion. The operation is a +completely reversible one. The range of motion of the gaseous mass or +the ultimate height of the gaseous column will thus depend on the value +of the opposing attractive force controlling the motion or, in other +words, on the value of gravity. This value is of course defined by the +relative mass of the planet (§ 20). + +It is evident that the spherical envelope which would thus enwrap the +planetary mass possesses certain peculiar properties which are not +associated with gaseous masses under ordinary experimental conditions. +It by no means corresponds to any ordinary body of gaseous material, +having a homogeneous constitution and a precise and determinate pressure +and temperature throughout. On the contrary, its properties are somewhat +complex. Throughout the gaseous envelope the physical condition of the +substance is continually changing with change of altitude. The extremes +are found at the inner and outer bounding surfaces. At any given level, +the gaseous pressure is simply the result of the attractive action of +gravitation on the mass of gaseous material above that level--or, more +simply, to the weight of material above that level. There is, of course, +a certain decrease in the value of the gravitative attraction with +increase of altitude, but within the limits of atmospheric height +obtained by ordinary gaseous substances (§ 36) this decrease may be +neglected, and the weight of unit mass of the material assumed constant +at different levels. Increase of atmospheric altitude is thus +accompanied by decrease in atmospheric pressure. But decrease in +pressure must be accompanied by a corresponding decrease in density of +the gas, so that, if uniform temperature were for the time being +assumed, it would be necessary at the higher levels to rise through a +greater distance to experience the same decrease in pressure than at the +lower levels. In fact, given uniform conditions of temperature, if +different altitudes were taken in arithmetical progression the +respective pressures and densities would diminish in geometrical +progression. But we have seen that the energy conditions absolutely +preclude the condition of uniformity of temperature, and accordingly, +the decreasing pressure and density must be counteracted to some extent +at least by the decreasing temperature. The conditions are somewhat +complex; but the general effect of the decreasing temperature factor +would seem to be by increasing the density to cause the available +gaseous energy to be completely worked down at a somewhat lower level +than otherwise, and thus to lessen to some degree the height of the +gaseous envelope. + +It is to be noted that a gaseous column or atmosphere of this nature +would be in a state of complete equilibrium under the action of the +gravitative attraction--provided there were no external disturbing +influences. The peculiar feature of such a column is that the total +energy of unit mass of its material, wherever that mass may be situated, +is a constant quantity. In virtue of this property, the equilibrium of +the column might be termed neutral or statical equilibrium. The gas may +then be described as in the neutral or statical condition. This statical +condition of equilibrium of a gas is of course a purely hypothetical +one. It has been described in order to introduce certain ideas which are +essential to the discussion of energy changes and reactions of gases in +the lines of gravitational forces. These reactions will now be dealt +with. + + +35. _Total Energy of Gaseous Substances_ + +Since the maximum height of a planetary atmosphere is dependent on the +total energy of the gaseous substance or substances of which it is +composed, it becomes necessary, in determining this height, to estimate +this total energy. This, however, is a matter of some difficulty. By the +total energy is here meant the entire energy possessed by the substance, +that energy which it would yield up in cooling from its given condition +down to absolute zero of temperature. On examination of the recorded +properties of the various gaseous substances familiar to us, it will be +found that in no single instance are the particulars available for +anything more than an exceedingly rough estimate of this total energy. +Each substance, in proceeding from the gaseous condition towards +absolute zero, passes through many physical phases. In most cases, there +is a lack of experimental phenomena or data of any kind relating to +certain of these phases; the necessary information on certain points, +such as the values and variations of latent and specific heats and other +physical quantities, is, in the meantime, not accessible. Experimental +research in regions of low temperature may be said to be in its infancy, +and the properties of matter in these regions are accordingly more or +less unknown. The researches of Mendeleef and others tend to show, also, +that the comparatively simple laws successfully applied to gases under +normal conditions are entirely departed from at very low temperatures. +In view of these facts, it is necessary, in attempting to estimate, by +ordinary methods, the total energy of any substance, to bear in mind +that the quantity finally obtained may only be a rough approximation to +the true value. These approximations, however, although of little value +as precise measurements, may be of very great importance for certain +general comparative purposes. + +Keeping in view these general considerations, it is now proposed to +estimate, under ordinary terrestrial atmospheric conditions, the total +energy properties of the three gaseous substances, oxygen, nitrogen, and +aqueous vapour. The information relative to the energy calculation which +is in the meantime available is shown below in tabular form. As far as +possible all the heat and other energy properties of each substance as +it cools to absolute zero have been taken into account. + +_Table of Properties_ + + +--------+---------+----------+----------+-------------+-------+---------+ + | I | II | III | IV | V | VI | VII | + +--------+---------+----------+----------+-------------+-------+---------+ + | |Specific | Evaporation | | | | + | | Heat at |Temperature of Liquid| Approximate | Latent| Vapour | + | Gas | Constant| at Atmospheric | Latent Heat |Heat of|Pressure.| + | |Pressure.| Pressure. |of Gas 50° F.|Liquid.| 50° F. | + | | | °F. °F. (Abs.)| | | | + +--------+---------+----------+----------+-------------+-------+---------+ + |Oxygen | 0·2175 | -296 | 164 | 100 | ... | ... | + +--------+---------+----------+----------+-------------+-------+---------+ + |Nitrogen| 0·2438 | -320 | 141 | 100 | ... | ... | + +--------+---------+----------+----------+-------------+-------+---------+ + |Aqueous | | | | | | | + |Vapour | 0·4 | 212 | 673 | 1080 | 144 | 0·176 | + +--------+---------+----------+----------+-------------+-------+---------+ + +Since no reliable data can be obtained with regard to the values and +variations of specific heats at extremely low temperatures, they are +assumed for the purpose of our calculation to be in each case that of +the gas, and to be constant under all conditions. Latent heats are +utilised in every case when available. + +With these reservations, the total energy, referred to absolute zero, of +one pound of oxygen gas at normal temperature of 50° F. or 511° F. +(Abs.) will be approximately + + (511 × 0·2175) + 100 = 211 Thermal Units Fahrenheit. + +This in work units is roughly equivalent to + + 211 × 778 = 164,000 ft. lbs. + +Adopting the same method with nitrogen gas, its energy at the same +initial temperature will be, per unit mass, + + 174,600 ft. lbs. + +There is thus a somewhat close resemblance, not only in the general +temperature conditions but also in the energy conditions, of the two +gases oxygen and nitrogen. + +It will be readily seen, however, that under the same conditions the +energy state of aqueous vapour differs very considerably from either, +for by the same method as before the energy per pound of aqueous vapour +is equal to + + {(511 × 0·4) + 1080 + 144} × 778 = 1,111,000 ft. lbs. + +Under ordinary terrestrial atmospheric conditions, the energy of aqueous +vapour per unit mass is thus nearly seven times as great as that of +either oxygen or nitrogen gas. It is to be observed, also, that +three-fourths of this energy of the vapour under the given conditions is +present in the form of latent energy of the gas, or what we have already +termed work energy. + +The values of the various temperatures and other physical features, +which we have included in the Table of Properties above, and which will +be utilised throughout this discussion, are merely those in everyday use +in scientific work. They form simply the accessible information on the +respective materials. They are the records of phenomena, and on these +phenomena are based our energy calculations. Further research may reveal +the true values of other factors which up to the present we have been +forced to assume, and so lead to more accurate computation of the energy +in each case. Such investigation, however, is unlikely to affect in any +way the general object of this part of the work, which is simply to +portray in an approximate manner the relative energy properties of the +three gaseous substances under certain assumed conditions. + + +36. _Comparative Altitudes of Planetary Atmospheres_ + +The total energy of equal masses of the gases oxygen, nitrogen, and +aqueous vapour, as estimated by the method above, are respectively in +the ratios + + 1 : 1·06 : 6·8 + +Referring back once more to the phenomena described with reference to +the gravitational equilibrium of a gas, let it be assumed that the +gaseous substance liberated on the surface of the planetary body is +oxygen, and that the planetary body itself is of approximately the same +constitution and dimensions as the earth. The oxygen gas thus liberated +will expand against gravity, and envelop the planet in the manner +already described (§ 34). Now the total energy of a mass of one pound of +oxygen has been estimated under certain assumptions (§ 35) to be 164,000 +ft. lbs. The value of the gravitative attraction of the planet on this +mass is the same as under ordinary terrestrial conditions, so that if +the entire energy of one pound of the gas were utilised in raising +itself against gravity, the height through which this mass would be +raised, and at which the material would attain the level of absolute +zero of temperature, assuming gravity constant with increasing altitude, +would be simply 164,000 ft. or approximately 31 miles. The whole energy +would not, of course, be expended in the expansive movement; only the +outermost surface material of the planetary gaseous envelope attains to +absolute zero of temperature. In estimating the altitude of this +surface, however, the precise mass of gaseous substance assumed for the +purpose of calculation is of little or no importance. Whatever may be +the value of the mass assumed, its total energy and the gravitative +attraction of the planetary body on it are both alike entirely and +directly dependent on that mass value. It is therefore clear that no +matter how the mass under consideration be diminished, the height at +which its energy would be completely worked down, and at which its +temperature would be absolute zero, is the same, namely 31 miles. At the +planet's surface, the total energy of an infinitesimally small portion +of the gaseous mass is proportional to that mass. This amount of energy +is, however, all that is available for transformation against +gravitation in the ascent. But at the same time, the gravitative force +on the particle, that force which resists its upward movement, is +proportionately small corresponding to the small mass, so that the +particle will in reality require to rise to the same altitude of 31 +miles in order to completely transform its energy and attain absolute +zero of temperature. When the expansive process is completed, the outer +surface of the spherical gaseous envelope surrounding the planet is then +formed of matter in this condition of absolute zero; this height of 31 +miles is then the altitude or depth of the statical atmospheric column +at a point on the planetary surface where the temperature is 50° F. + +It is to be particularly noted that this height is entirely dependent +on the gravitation, temperature, and energy conditions assumed. + +With respect, also, to the assumption made above, of constant +gravitation with increasing altitude, the variation in the value of +gravity within the height limits in which the gas operates is so slight, +that the energy of the expanding substance is completely worked down +long before the variation appreciably affects the estimated altitude of +absolute zero. In any case, bearing in mind the approximate nature of +the estimate of the energy of the gases themselves, the variation of +gravity is evidently a factor of little moment in our scheme of +comparison. + +Knowing the maximum height to be 31 miles, a uniform temperature +gradient from the planetary surface to the outermost surface of the +atmospheric material may be readily calculated. In the case of oxygen, +the decrease of temperature with altitude will be at the rate of 16° F. +per mile, or 1° F. per 330 ft. + +If the planetary atmosphere were composed of nitrogen instead of oxygen, +the height of the statical atmospheric column under the given conditions +would then be approximately + + 31 × 1·06 = 33 miles, + +and the gradient of temperature 15·5° F. per mile. + +In the case of aqueous vapour, which is possessed of much more powerful +energy properties than either oxygen or nitrogen, the height of the +statical column, to correspond to the energy of the material, is no less +than 210 miles and the temperature gradient only 2·4° F. per mile. + +Each of the gases, then, if separately associated with the planetary +body, would form an atmosphere around it depending in height on the +peculiar energy properties of the gas. A point to be observed is that +the actual or total mass of any gas thus liberated at the planet's +surface has no bearing on the ultimate height of the atmosphere which it +would constitute. When the expansive motion is completed, the density +properties of the atmosphere would of course depend on the initial mass +of gas liberated, but for any given value of gravity it is the energy +properties of the gas per unit mass, or what might be termed its +specific energy properties, which really determine the height of its +atmosphere. + + +37. _Reactions of Composite Atmosphere_ + +It is now possible to deal with the case in which not only one gas but +several gases are initially liberated on the planetary surface. Since +the gases are different, then at the given surface temperature of the +planet they possess different amounts of heat energy, and for each gas +considered statically, the temperature-altitude gradient will be +different from any of the others. The limiting height of the gaseous +column for each gas, considered separately, will also depend on the +total energy of that gas per unit mass, at the surface temperature. But +it is evident that in a composite atmosphere, the separate statical +conditions of several gases could not be maintained. In such a mixture, +separate temperature-altitude gradients would be impossible. Absolute +zero of temperature could clearly not be attained at more than one +altitude, and it is evident that the temperature-altitude gradient of +the mixture must, in some way, settle down to a definite value, and +absolute zero of temperature must occur at some determinate height. This +can only be brought about by energy exchanges and reactions between the +atmospheric constituents. When these reactions have taken place, the +atmosphere as a whole will have attained a condition analogous to that +of statical equilibrium (§ 34). Each of its constituents, however, will +have decidedly departed from this latter condition. In the course of the +mutual energy reactions, some will lose a portion of their energy. +Others will gain at their expense. All are in equilibrium as +constituents of the composite atmosphere, but none approach the +condition of statical equilibrium peculiar to an atmosphere composed of +one gas only (§ 35). The precise energy operations which would thus take +place in any composite atmosphere would of course depend in nature and +extent on the physical properties of the reacting constituents. If the +latter were closely alike in general properties, the energy changes are +likely to be small. A strong divergence in energy properties will give +rise to more powerful reactions. A concrete instance will perhaps make +this more clear. Let it be assumed in the first place that the planetary +atmosphere is composed of the two gases oxygen and nitrogen. From +previous considerations, it will be clear that the natural decrease of +temperature of nitrogen gas with increase of altitude is, in virtue of +its slightly superior energy qualities, correspondingly slower than that +of oxygen. The approximate rates are 15·5° F. and 16° F. per mile +respectively. The tendency of the nitrogen is therefore to transmit a +portion of its energy to the oxygen. Such a transmission, however, would +increase the height of the oxygen column and correspondingly decrease +the height of the nitrogen. When the balance is finally obtained, the +height of the atmospheric column does not correspond to the energy +properties of either gas, but to those of the combination. In the case +of these two materials, oxygen and nitrogen, the energy reactions +necessary to produce the condition of equilibrium are comparatively +small in magnitude on account of the somewhat close resemblance in the +energy properties of the two substances. On this account, therefore, the +two gases might readily be assumed to behave as one gas composing the +planetary atmosphere. + +But what, then, will be the effect of introducing a quantity of aqueous +vapour into an atmosphere this nature? The general phenomena will be of +the same order as before, but of much greater magnitude. From the +approximate figures obtained (§§ 35, 36), the inherent energy of aqueous +vapour per unit mass is seen to be, under the same conditions, +enormously greater than that of the other two gases. In statical +equilibrium (§ 34), the altitude of the gaseous column formed by aqueous +vapour is almost seven times as great as that of the oxygen or nitrogen +with which, in the composite atmosphere, it would be intermixed. In the +given circumstances, then, aqueous vapour would be forced by these +conditions to give up a very large portion of its energy to the other +atmospheric constituents. The latter would thus be still further +expanded against gravity; the aqueous vapour itself would suffer a loss +of energy equivalent to the work transmitted from it. It is therefore +clear that in a composite atmosphere formed in the manner described, any +gas possessed of energy properties superior to the other constituents is +forced of necessity to transmit energy to these constituents. This +phenomenon is merely a consequence of the natural disposition of the +atmospheric gaseous substances towards a condition of equilibrium with +more or less uniform temperature gradation. The greater the inherent +energy qualities of any one constituent relative to the others, the +greater will be the quantity of energy transmitted from it in this way. + + +38. _Description of Terrestrial Case_ + +Bearing in mind the general considerations which have been advanced +above with respect to planetary atmospheres, it is now possible to place +before the reader a general descriptive outline of the circumstances and +operation of an atmospheric machine in actual working. The machine to be +described is that associated with the earth. + +In the earth is found an example of a planetary body of spheroidal form +pursuing a clearly defined orbit in space and at the same time rotating +with absolutely uniform velocity about a central axis within itself. The +structural details of its surface and the general distribution of +material thereon will be more or less familiar to the reader, and it is +not, therefore, proposed to dwell on these features here. Attention may +be drawn, however, to the fact that a very large proportion of the +surface of the earth is a liquid surface. Of all the material familiar +to us from terrestrial experience there is none which enters into the +composition of the earth's crust in so large a proportion as water. In +the free state, or in combination with other material, water is found +everywhere. In the liquid condition it is widely distributed. Although +the liquid or sea surface of the planet extends over a large part of +the whole, the real water surface, that is, the _wetted_ surface, if we +except perhaps a few desert regions, may be said to comprise practically +the entire surface area of the planet. And water is found not only on +the earth's crust but throughout the gaseous atmospheric envelope. The +researches of modern chemistry have revealed the fact that the +atmosphere by which the earth is surrounded is not only a mixture of +gases, but an exceedingly complex mixture. The relative proportions of +the rarer gases present are, however, exceedingly small, and their +properties correspondingly obscure. Taken broadly, the atmosphere may be +said to be composed of air and water (in the form of aqueous vapour) in +varying proportion. The former constituent exists as a mixture of oxygen +and nitrogen gases of fairly constant proportion over the entire surface +of the globe. The latter is present in varying amount at different +points according to local conditions. This mixture of gaseous +substances, forming the terrestrial atmosphere, resides on the surface +of the planet and forms, as already described (§ 34), a column or +envelope completely surrounding it; the quantity of gaseous material +thus heaped up on the planetary surface is such that it exerts almost +uniformly over that surface the ordinary atmospheric pressure of +approximately 14·7 lb. per sq. inch. It is advisable, also, at this +stage to point out and emphasise the fact that the planetary atmosphere +must be regarded as essentially a material portion of the planet itself. +Although the atmosphere forms a movable shell or envelope, and is +composed of purely gaseous material, it will still partake of the same +complete orbital and rotatory axial motion as the solid core, and will +also be subjected to the same external and internal influences of +gravitation. Such are the general planetary conditions. Let us now turn +to the particular phenomena of axial revolution. + +In virtue of the unvarying rotatory movement of the planetary mass in +the lines of the various incepting fields of its primary the sun, +transformations of the axial or mechanical energy of the planet will be +in continuous operation (§§ 17-19). Although the gaseous atmospheric +envelope of the planet partakes of this general rotatory motion under +the influence of the incepting fields, the latter have apparently no +action upon it. The sun's influence penetrates, as it were, the +atmospheric veil, and operating on the solid and liquid material below, +provokes the numerous and varied transformations of planetary energy +which constitute planetary phenomena. At the equatorial band, where the +velocity or axial energy properties of the surface material is greatest, +these effects of transformation will naturally be most pronounced. In +the polar regions of low velocity they will be less evident. One of the +most important of these transforming effects may be termed the heating +action of the primary on the planet--a process which takes place in +greater or less degree over the entire planetary surface, and which is +the result of the direct transformation of axial energy into the form of +heat (§ 18). In virtue of this heat transformation, or heating effect of +the sun, the temperature of material on the earth's surface is +maintained in varying values from regions of high velocity to those of +low--from equator to poles--according to latitude or according to the +displacement of that material, in rotation, from the central axis. Owing +to the irregular distribution of matter on the earth's surface, and +other causes to be referred to later, this variation in temperature is +not necessarily uniform with the latitude. This heating effect of the +sun on the earth will provoke on the terrestrial surface all the +familiar secondary processes (§ 9) associated with the heating of +material. Most of these processes, in combination with the operations of +radiation and conduction, will lead either directly or indirectly to the +communication of energy to the atmospheric masses (§ 27). + +Closely associated with the heat transformation, there is also in +operation another energy process of great importance. This process is +one of evaporative transformation. Reference has already been made to +the vast extent of the liquid or wetted surface of the earth. This +surface forms the seat of evaporation, and the action of the sun's +incepting influence on the liquid of this surface is to induce a direct +transformation of the earth's axial or mechanical energy into the +elastic energy of a gas, or in other words into the form of work energy. +By this process, therefore, water is converted into aqueous vapour. +Immediately the substance attains the latter or gaseous state it becomes +unaffected by, or transparent to, the incepting influence of the sun (§ +18). And the action of evaporation is not restricted in locality to the +earth's surface only. It may proceed throughout the atmosphere. Wherever +condensation of aqueous vapour takes place and water particles are +thereby suspended in the atmosphere, these particles are immediately +susceptible to the sun's incepting field, and if the conditions are +otherwise favourable, re-evaporation will at once ensue. Like the +ordinary heating action also, that of transformation will take place +with greater intensity in equatorial than in polar regions. These two +planetary secondary processes, of heating and evaporation, are of vital +importance to the working of the atmospheric machine. But, as already +pointed out elsewhere (§§ 10, 32), every secondary operation is in some +fashion linked to that machine. Other incepting influences, such as +light, are in action on the planet, and produce transformations peculiar +to themselves. These, in the meantime, will not be considered except to +point out that in every case the energy active in them is the axial +energy of the earth itself operating under the direct incepting +influence of the sun. The general conditions of planetary revolution and +transformation are thus intimately associated with the operation of the +atmospheric machine. In this machine is embodied a huge energy process, +in the working of which the axial energy of the earth passes through a +series of energy changes which, in combination, form a complete cyclical +operation. In their perhaps most natural sequence these processes are as +follows:-- + +1. The direct transformation of terrestrial axial energy into the work +energy of aqueous vapour. + +2. The direct transmission of the work energy of aqueous vapour to the +general atmospheric masses, and the consequent elevation of these masses +from the earth's surface against gravity. + +3. The descent of the atmospheric air masses in their movement towards +regions of low velocity, and the return in the descent of the initially +transformed axial energy to its original form. + +The first of these processes is carried out through the medium of the +aqueous material of the earth. It is simply the evaporative +transformation referred to above. By that evaporative process a portion +of the energy of motion or axial energy of the earth is directly +communicated or passed into the aqueous material. Its form, in that +material, is that of work energy, or the elastic energy of aqueous +vapour, and, as already pointed out, this process of evaporative +transformation reaches its greatest intensity in equatorial or regions +of highest velocity. In these regions also, in virtue of the working of +the heat process already referred to above, the temperature conditions +are eminently favourable to the presence of large quantities of aqueous +vapour. The tension or pressure of the vapour, which really depends on +the quantity of gaseous material present, is directly proportional to +the temperature, so that in equatorial regions not only is the general +action of transformation in the aqueous material most intense, but the +surrounding temperature conditions in these regions are such as to +favour the continuous presence of large quantities of the aqueous vapour +which is the direct product of the action of transformation. The +equatorial regions of the earth, or the regions of high velocity, are +thus eminently adapted, by the natural conditions, to be the seat of the +most powerful transformations of axial energy. As already pointed out, +however, these same transformations take place over the entire +terrestrial surface in varying degree and intensity according to the +locality and the temperature or other conditions which may prevail. Now +this transformation of axial energy which takes place through the medium +of the evaporative process is a continuous operation. The energy +involved, which passes into the aqueous vapour, augmented by the energy +of other secondary processes (§ 32), is the energy which is applied to +the atmospheric air masses in the second stage of the working of the +atmospheric machine. Before proceeding to the description of this stage, +however, it is absolutely necessary to point out certain very important +facts with reference to the energy condition of the atmospheric +constituents in the peculiar circumstances of their normal working. + + +39. _Relative Physical Conditions of Atmospheric Constituents_ + +It will be evident that no matter where the evaporation of the aqueous +material takes place, it must be carried out at the temperature +corresponding to that location, and since the aqueous vapour itself is +not superheated in any way (being transparent to the sun's influence), +the axial energy transformed and the work energy stored in the material +per unit mass, will be simply equivalent to the latent heat of aqueous +vapour under the temperature conditions which prevail. In virtue of the +relatively high value of this latent heat under ordinary conditions, the +gas may be regarded as comparatively a very highly energised substance. +It is clear, however, that since the gas is working at its precise +temperature of evaporation, the maximum amount of energy which it can +possibly yield up at that temperature is simply this latent heat of +evaporation, and if this energy be by any means withdrawn, either in +whole or in part, then condensation corresponding to the energy +withdrawal will at once ensue. The condition of the aqueous vapour is in +fact that of a true vapour, or of a gaseous substance operating exactly +at its evaporation temperature, and unable to sustain even the slightest +abstraction of energy without an equivalent condensation. No matter in +what manner the abstraction is carried out, whether by the direct +transmission of heat from the substance or by the expansion of the gas +against gravity, the result is the same; part of the gaseous material +returns to the liquid form. + +In the case of the more stable or permanent constituents of the +atmosphere, namely oxygen and nitrogen, their physical conditions are +entirely different from that of the aqueous vapour. Examination of the +Table of Properties (p. 133) shows that the evaporation temperatures of +these two substances under ordinary conditions of atmospheric pressure +are as low as -296° F. and -320° F. respectively. At an ordinary +atmospheric temperature of say 50° F. these two gases are therefore so +far above their evaporation temperature that they are in the condition +of what might be termed true gaseous substances. Although only at a +temperature of 50° F., they may be truly described as highly superheated +gases, and it is evident that they may be readily cooled from 50° F. +through wide ranges of temperature, without any danger of their +condensation or liquefaction. Oxygen and nitrogen gases thus present in +their physical condition and qualities a strong contrast to aqueous +vapour, and it is this difference in properties, particularly the +difference in evaporation temperatures, which is of vital importance in +the working of the atmospheric machine. The two gases oxygen and +nitrogen are, however, so closely alike in their general energy +properties that, in the meantime, the atmospheric mixture of the two can +be conveniently assumed to act simply as one gas--atmospheric air. + +From these considerations of the ordinary atmospheric physical +properties of air and aqueous vapour it may be readily seen how each is +eminently adapted to its function in the atmospheric process. The +peculiar duty of the aqueous vapour is the absorption and transmission +of energy. Its relatively enormous capacity for energy, the high value +of its latent heat at all ordinary atmospheric temperatures, and the +fact that it must always operate precisely at its evaporation +temperature makes it admirably suited for both functions. Thus, in +virtue of its peculiar physical properties, it forms an admirable agent +for the storage of energy and for its transmission to the surrounding +air masses. The low temperature of evaporation of these air masses +ensures their permanency in the gaseous state. They are thus perfectly +adapted for expansive and other movements, for the conversion of their +energy against gravity into energy of position, or for any other +reactions involving temperature change without condensation. + + +40. _Transmission of Energy from Aqueous Vapour to Air Masses_ + +The working of the second or transmission stage of the atmospheric +machine involves certain energy operations in which gravitation is the +incepting factor or agency. Let it be assumed that a mass of aqueous +vapour liberated at its surface of evaporation by the transformation of +axial energy, expands upwards against the gravitative attraction of the +earth (§§ 34, 38). As the gaseous particles ascend and thus gain energy +of position, they do work against gravity. This work is done at the +expense of their latent energy. Since the aqueous material is always +working precisely at its evaporation temperature, this gain in energy of +position and consequent loss of latent energy will be accompanied by an +equivalent condensation and conversion of the rising vapour into the +liquid form. This condensation will thus be the direct evidence and +measure of work done by the aqueous material against the gravitational +forces, and the energy expended or worked down in this way may now, +accordingly, be regarded as stored in the condensed material or liquid +particles in virtue of their new and exalted position above the earth's +surface. It is this energy which is finally transmitted to the +atmospheric air masses. The transmission process is carried out in the +downward movement of the liquid particles. The latter, in their exalted +positions, are at a low temperature corresponding to that position--that +is, corresponding to the work done--and provided no energy were +transmitted from them to the surrounding air masses, their temperature +would gradually rise during the descent by the transformation of this +energy of position. In fact the phenomena of descent, supposing no +transmission of energy from the aqueous material, would simply be the +reverse of the phenomena of ascent. Since, however, the energy of +position which the liquid particles possess is transmitted from them to +the atmospheric masses, then it follows that this natural increase in +their temperature would not occur in the descent. A new order of +phenomena would now appear. Since the evaporative process is a +continuous one, the liquid particles in their downward movement must be +in intimate contact with rising gaseous material, and these liquid +particles will, accordingly, at each stage of the descent, absorb from +this rising material the whole energy necessary to raise their +temperature to the values corresponding to their decreasing elevation. +In virtue of this absorption of energy then, from the rising material, +these liquid particles are enabled to reach the level of evaporation at +the precise temperature of that level. + +Now, considering the process as a whole, it will be readily seen that +for any given mass of aqueous material thus elevated from and returned +to a surface of evaporation, there must be a definite expenditure of +energy (axial energy) at that surface. Since the material always regains +the surface at the precise temperature of evaporation, this expenditure +is obviously, in total, equal to the latent heat of aqueous vapour at +the surface temperature. It may be divided into two parts. One portion +of the axial energy--the transmitted portion--is utilised in the +elevation of the material against gravity; the remainder is expended, as +explained above, in the heating of the returning material. The whole +operation takes place between two precise temperatures, a higher +temperature, which is that of the surface of evaporation, and a lower +temperature, corresponding to the work done, and so related to the +higher that the whole of the energy expended by the working aqueous +substance--in heating the returning material and in transmitted work--is +exactly equivalent to the latent heat of aqueous vapour at the high or +surface temperature. But, as will be demonstrated later, the whole +energy transmitted from the aqueous material to the air masses is +finally returned in its entirety as axial energy, and is thus once more +made available in the evaporative transformation process. The energy +expended in raising the temperature of the working material returning to +the surface of evaporation is obviously returned with that material. +Both portions of the original expenditure are thus returned to the +source in different ways. The whole operation is, in fact, completely +cyclical in nature; we are in reality describing "Nature's Perfect +Engine," which is completely reversible and which has the highest +possible efficiency.[1] Although the higher temperature at the +evaporation surface may vary with different locations of that surface, +in every case the lower temperature is so related to it as to make the +total expenditure precisely equal to the latent heat at that evaporation +temperature.[2] It must be borne in mind also, that all the condensed +material in the upper strata of the atmosphere must not of necessity +return to the planetary liquid surface. On the contrary, immediately +condensation of the aqueous vapour takes place and the material leaves +the gaseous state, no matter where that material is situated, it is once +more susceptible to the incepting influences of the sun. Re-evaporation +may thus readily take place even at high altitudes, and complete +cyclical operations may be carried out there. These operations will, +however, be carried out in every case between precise temperature limits +as explained above. + + [1] The conception of "Nature's Perfect Engine" was originally + arrived at by the author from consideration of the phenomena of the + steam-engine. The following extract from the "Review" of his work + (1895) illustrates the various stages which finally lead to that + conclusion:-- + + "My first steps in the right direction came about thus. I had always + been working with a cylinder and piston, and could make no progress, + till at length it struck me to make my cylinder high enough to do + without a piston--that is, to leave the steam to itself and observe + its behaviour when left to work against gravity. The first thing I + had to settle was the height of my cylinder. And I found, by + calculation from Regnault's experiments that it would require to be + very high, and that the exact height would depend on the temperature + of the water in the boiler which was the bottom of this ideal + cylinder. Now, at any ordinary temperature the height was so great + that it was impossible to get known material to support its own + weight, and I did not wish to use a hypothetical substance in the + construction of this engine. Finally, the only course left me was to + abolish the cylinder as I had done the piston. I then discovered + that the engine I had been trying to evolve--the perfect engine--was + not the ideal thing I had been groping after but an actual reality, + in full working order, its operations taking place every day before + my eyes. + + "Every natural phenomenon fitted in exactly; it had its function to + perform, and the performance of its function constituted the + phenomenon. Let me trace the analogy in a few of its details. The + sea corresponds to the boiler; its cylinder surrounds the earth; it + has for its fuel the axial energy of the earth; it has no condenser + because it has no exhaust; the work it performs is all expended in + producing the fuel. Every operation in the cycle is but an energy + transformation, and these various transformations constitute the + visible life of the world." + + [2] For definite numerical examples see the author's _Terrestrial + Energy_ (Chap. 1.). + +It will be evident, from a general consideration of this process of +transmission of energy from the aqueous vapour, that relatively large +quantities of that vapour are not required in the atmosphere for the +working of the gaseous machine. The peculiar property of ready +condensation of the aqueous vapour makes the evaporative process a +continuous one, and the highly energised aqueous material, although only +present in comparatively small amount, contributes a continuous flow of +energy, and is thus able to steadily convey a very large quantity to +the atmospheric masses. For the same reason, the greater part of the +energy transmission from the aqueous vapour to the air will take place +at comparatively low altitudes and between reasonably high temperatures. +The working of any evaporative cycle may also be spread over very large +terrestrial areas by the free movement of the acting material. Aqueous +vapour rising in equatorial regions may finally return to the earth in +the form of ice-crystals at the poles. In every complete cycle, however, +the total expenditure per unit mass of material initially evaporated is +always the latent heat at the higher or evaporation temperature; in the +final or return stages of the cycle, any energy not transmitted to the +air masses is devoted to the heating of returning aqueous material. + +Referring again to the transmitted energy, and speaking in the broadest +fashion, the function of the aqueous vapour in the atmosphere may be +likened to that of the steam in the cylinder of a steam-engine. In both +cases the aqueous material works in a definite machine for energy +transmission. In the case of the steam-engine work energy is transmitted +(§ 31) from the steam through the medium of the moving piston and +rotating shaft, and thence may be further diverted to useful purposes. +In the planetary atmospheric machine the work energy of aqueous vapour +is likewise transmitted by the agency of the moving air masses, not to +any external agent, but back once more to its original source, which is +the planetary axial energy. In neither case are we able to explain the +precise nature of the transmission process in its ultimate details. We +cannot say _how_ the steam transmits its work energy by the moving +piston, nor yet by what agency the elevated particles of aqueous +material transmit their energy to the air masses. Our knowledge is +confined entirely to the phenomena, and, fortunately, these are in some +degree accessible. Nature presents direct evidence that such +transmissions actually take place. This evidence is to be found, in both +cases, in the condensation of the aqueous material which sustains the +loss of its work energy. In the engine cylinder condensation takes place +due to work being transmitted from the steam; in the atmosphere the +visible phenomena of condensation are likewise the ever present evidence +of the transmission of work energy from the aqueous vapour to the air +masses. In virtue of this accession of energy these masses will, +accordingly, be expanded upwards against the gravitational attractive +forces. This upward movement, being made entirely at the expense of +energy communicated from the aqueous vapour, is not accompanied by the +normal fall of temperature due to the expansion of the air. Planetary +axial energy, originally absorbed by the aqueous vapour, in the work +form, has been transferred to the air masses in the same form, and is +now, after the expansive movement, resident in these masses in the form +of energy of position. It is the function of the atmospheric machine in +its final stage to return this energy in the original axial form. + + +41. _Terrestrial Energy Return_ + +Let it be assumed that an atmospheric mass has been raised, by the +transmission of work energy, to a high altitude in the equatorial +regions of the earth. The assumption of locality is made merely for +illustrative purposes; it will be evident to the reader that the +transmission of work energy to the atmospheric masses and their +consequent elevation will be continuously proceeding, more or less, over +the whole planetary surface. To replace the gaseous material thus +raised, a corresponding mass of air will move at a lower level, towards +the equator from the more temperate zones adjoining. A circulatory +motion will thus be set up in the atmosphere. In the upper regions the +elevated and energised air masses move towards the poles; at lower +levels the replacing masses move towards the equator, and in their +passage may be operated on by the aqueous vapour which they encounter, +energised, and raised to higher levels. The movement will be continuous. +In their transference from equatorial towards polar regions, the +atmospheric masses are leaving the surfaces or regions of high linear +velocity for those of low, and must in consequence lose or return in +the passage a portion of that natural energy of motion which they +possess in virtue of their high linear velocity at the equator. But on +the other hand, the replacing air masses, which are travelling in the +opposite direction from poles to equator, must gain or absorb a +corresponding amount of energy. The one operation thus balances the +other, and the planetary equilibrium is in no way disturbed. But the +atmospheric masses which are moving from the equator in the polar +direction will possess, in addition, that energy of position which has +been communicated to them through the medium of the aqueous vapour and +by the working of the second stage of the atmospheric machine. These +masses, in the circulatory polar movements, move downwards towards the +planetary surface. In this downward motion (as in the downward motion of +a pendulum mass vibrating under the action of gravitation) the energy of +position of the air mass is converted once more into energy of +motion--that is, into its original form of axial energy of rotation. In +equatorial regions the really important energy property of the +atmospheric mass was indicated by its elevation or its energy of +position. In the descent this energy is thus entirely transformed, and +reverts once more to its original form of energy of rotation. + +The continual transformation of axial energy by the aqueous vapour, and +the conversion of that energy by the upward movement of the air masses +into energy of position, naturally tends to produce a retardative effect +on the motion of revolution of the earth. But this retardative effect is +in turn completely neutralised or balanced by the corresponding +accelerative effect due to the equally continuous return as the energy +of the air masses reverts in the continuous polar movement to its +original axial form. Speaking generally, the equatorial regions, or the +regions of high velocity, are the location of the most powerful +transformation or abstraction of axial energy by the aqueous vapour. +Conversely, the polar or regions of low velocity are the location of the +greatest return of energy by the air. As no energy return is possible +unless by the transference of the atmospheric material from regions of +high to regions of low velocity, the configuration of the planet in +rotation must conform to this condition. The spheroidal form of the +earth is thus exquisitely adapted to the working of the atmospheric +machine. As already pointed out, however, the energising and raising of +atmospheric masses is by no means confined to equatorial regions, but +takes place more or less over the whole planetary surface. The same +applies to the energy return. The complete cycle may be carried out in +temperate zones; gaseous masses, also, leaving equatorial regions at +high altitudes do not necessarily reach the polar regions, but may +attain their lowest levels at intermediate points. Neither do such +masses necessarily proceed to the regions of low velocity by purely +linear paths. On the contrary, they may and do move both towards the +poles and downwards by circuitous and even vortical paths. In fact, as +will be readily apparent, their precise path is of absolutely no moment +in the consideration of energy return. + +It might naturally be expected that such movements of the atmospheric +air masses as have been described above would give rise to great +atmospheric disturbance over the earth's surface, and that the transfer +of gaseous material from pole to equator and vice versa would be +productive of violent storms of wind. Such storms, however, are +phenomena of somewhat rare occurrence; the atmosphere, on the whole, +appears to be in a state of comparative tranquillity. This serenity of +the atmosphere is, however, confined to the lower strata, and may be +ascribed to an inherent stability possessed by the air mass as a whole +in virtue of the accession of energy to it at high levels. As already +explained, the transfer of energy from the vapour to the air masses is +accomplished at comparatively low altitudes, and when this reaction is +taking place the whole tendency of the energised material is to move +upwards. In so moving it tends to leave behind it the condensed aqueous +vapour, and would, therefore, rise to the higher altitudes in a +comparatively dry condition. This dryness is accentuated by the further +loss of aqueous vapour by condensation as the air moves toward regions +of low velocity. That air which actually attains to the poles will be +practically dry, and having also returned, in its entirety, the surplus +energy obtained from the aqueous vapour, it will be in this region +practically in the condition of statical equilibrium of a gas against +gravity (§ 34). But the general state of the atmosphere in other regions +where a transference of energy from the aqueous vapour has taken or is +taking place is very different from this condition of natural statical +equilibrium which is approached at the poles. In the lower strata of the +atmosphere the condition in some cases may approximate to the latter, +but in the upper strata it is possessed of energy qualities quite +abnormal to statical equilibrium. Its condition is rather one of the +nature of stable equilibrium. It is in a condition similar to that of a +liquid heated in its upper layers; there is absolutely no tendency to a +direct or vertical downward circulation. In statical equilibrium, any +downward movement of an air mass would simply be accompanied by the +natural rise in temperature corresponding to the transformation of its +energy of position, but in this condition of stable equilibrium any +motion downwards must involve, not only this natural temperature rise, +but also a return, either in whole or in part, of the energy absorbed +from the aqueous vapour. The natural conditions are therefore against +any direct vertical return. These conditions, however, favour in every +respect the circulatory motion of the highly energised upper air masses +towards regions of low velocity. All circumstances combine, in fact, to +confine the more powerfully energised and highly mobile air masses to +high altitudes. In the lower atmosphere, owing to the continuous action +of the aqueous vapour on the air masses moving from regions of low to +those of high velocity, the circulation tends largely to be a vertical +one, so that this locality is on the whole preserved in comparative +tranquillity. It may happen, however, that owing to changes in the +distribution of aqueous vapour, or other causes, this natural stability +of the atmosphere may be disturbed over certain regions of the earth's +surface. The circumstances will then favour a direct or more or less +vertical return of the energy of the air masses in the neighbourhood of +these regions. This return will then take the form of violent storms of +wind, usually of a cyclonic nature, and affording direct evidence of the +tendency of the air masses to pursue vortical paths in their movement +towards lower levels. + +Under normal conditions, however, the operation of the atmospheric +machine is smooth and continuous. The earth's axial energy, under the +sun's incepting influence, steadily flows at all parts of the earth's +surface through the aqueous vapour into the atmospheric masses, and the +latter, rising from the terrestrial surface, with a motion somewhat like +that of a column of smoke, spread out and speed towards regions of lower +velocity, and travelling by devious and lengthened paths towards the +surface, steadily return the abstracted energy in its original form. +Every operation is exactly balanced; energy expenditure and energy +return are complementary; the terrestrial atmospheric machine as a whole +works without jar or discontinuity, and the earth's motion of rotation +is maintained with absolute uniformity. + +Like every other energy machine, the atmospheric machine has +clearly-defined energy limits. The total quantity of energy in operation +is strictly limited by the mass of the acting materials. It is well, +also, to note the purely mechanical nature of the machine. Every +operation is in reality the operation of mechanical energy, and involves +the movement of matter in some way or other relative to the earth's +surface and under the incepting action of the earth's gravitation (§§ +16, 20). The moving gaseous masses have as real an existence as masses +of lead or other solid material, and require as real an expenditure of +energy to move them relative to the terrestrial surface (§ 18). This +aspect of the planetary machine will be more fully treated later. + +Throughout this description we have constantly assumed the atmospheric +mixture of oxygen and nitrogen to act as one gas, and at ordinary +temperatures the respective energy properties of the two substances (§ +35) make this assumption justifiable. Both gases are then working far +above their respective evaporation temperatures. But, in the higher +regions of the atmosphere, where very low temperatures prevail, a point +or altitude will be reached where the temperature corresponds to the +evaporation or condensation temperature of one of the gases. Since +oxygen appears to have the highest temperature of evaporation (see Table +of Properties, p. 133), it would naturally be the first to condense in +the ascent. But immediately condensation takes place, the material will +become susceptible to the incepting influence of the sun, and working as +it does at its temperature of evaporation it will convey its energy to +the surrounding nitrogen in precisely the same fashion as the aqueous +vapour conveys the energy to the aerial mixture in the lower atmosphere. +The whole action is made possible simply by the difference existing in +the respective evaporation temperatures of the two gases. It will give +rise to another cyclical atmospheric energy process exactly as already +described for lower altitudes. Axial energy of rotation will be +communicated to the nitrogen by the working material, which is now the +oxygen, and by the movement of the nitrogen masses towards regions of +low velocity, this transmitted energy will be finally returned to its +original axial form. + +It has been already explained (§§ 10, 32) how all terrestrial energy +processes, also, great or small, are sooner or later linked to the +general atmospheric machine. The latter, therefore, presents in every +phase of its working completely closed energy circuits. In no aspect of +its operation can we find any evidence of, or indeed any necessity for, +an energy transmission either to or from any external body or agent such +as the sun. Every phenomenon of Nature is, in fact, a direct denial of +such transmission. + +The student of terrestrial phenomena will readily find continuous and +ample evidence in Nature of the working of the atmospheric machine. In +the rising vapour and the falling rain he will recognise the visible +signs of the operation of that great secondary process of transmission +by which the inherent axial energy of the earth is communicated to the +air masses. The movements of bodies, animate and inanimate, on the +earth's surface, the phenomena of growth and decay, and in fact almost +every experience of everyday life, will reveal to him the persistent +tendency of the energy of secondary processes to revert to the +atmospheric machine. And in the winds that traverse the face of the +globe he will also witness the mechanism of that energy return which +completes the atmospheric cyclical process. It may be pointed out here +also that the terrestrial cyclical energy processes are not necessarily +all embodied in the atmosphere. The author has reason to believe, and +phenomenal evidence is not awanting to show, that the circulatory +motions of the atmosphere are in some degree reproduced in the sea. The +reader will readily perceive that as regards stability the water +composing the sea is in precisely the same condition as the atmosphere, +namely, that of a liquid heated in its upper strata, and any circulatory +motion of the water must therefore be accompanied by corresponding +transformations of energy. That such a circulatory motion takes place is +undoubted, and in the moving mass of sea-water we have therefore a +perfectly reversible energy machine of the same general nature as the +atmospheric machine, but working at a very much slower rate. It is not +beyond the limits of legitimate scientific deduction to trace also the +working of a similar machine in the solid material of the earth. The +latter is, after all, but an agglomeration of loose material bound by +the force of gravitation into coherent form. By the action of various +erosive agencies a movement of solid material is continually taking +place over the earth's surface. The material thus transported, it may +be, from mountain chains, and deposited on the sea-bed, causes a +disturbance of that gravitational equilibrium which defines the exact +form of the earth. The forces tending to maintain this equilibrium are +so enormous compared with the cohesive forces of the material forming +the earth that readjustment continuously takes place, as evidenced by +the tremors observed in the earth's crust. Where the structure of the +latter is of such a nature as to offer great resistance to the +gravitational forces, the readjustment may take the form of an +earthquake. Geological evidence, as a whole, strongly points to a +continuous kneading and flow of terrestrial material. The structure of +igneous rocks, also, is exactly that which would be produced from +alluvial deposits subjected during these cyclical movements to the +enormous pressure and consequent heating caused by superimposed +material. The occurrence of coal in polar regions, and of glacial +residue in the tropics, may be regarded as further corroborative +evidence. From this point of view also, it becomes unnecessary to +postulate a genesis for the earth, as every known geological formation +is shown to be capable of production under present conditions in Nature, +and in fact to be in actual process of production at all times. + + +42. _Experimental Analogy and Demonstration of the General Mechanism of + Energy Transformation and Return in the Atmospheric Cycle_ + +In the preceding articles, the atmospheric machine has been regarded +more or less from the purely physical point of view. The purpose of this +demonstration is now to place before the reader what might be termed +the mechanical aspects of the machine; to give an outline, using simple +experimental analogies, of its nature and operation when considered +purely and simply as a mechanism for the transformation and return of +mechanical energy. + +Familiar apparatus is used in illustration. In all cases, it is merely +some adaptation of the simple pendulum (§ 21). Its minute structural +details are really of slight importance in the discussion, and have +accordingly been ignored, but the apparatus generally, and the energy +operations embodied therein, are so familiar to physicists and engineers +that the experimental results illustrated can be readily verified by +everyday experience. It is of great importance, also, in considering +these results, to bear in mind the principles already enunciated (§§ 13, +20) with reference to the operation of mechanical energy on the various +forms of matter. The general working conditions of energy systems with +respect to energy limits, stability, and reversibility (§ 23) should +also be kept in view. + +As an introductory step we shall review first a simple system of +rotating pendulums. Two simple pendulums CM and DM{1} (Fig. 9) are +mounted by means of a circular collar CD upon a vertical spindle AB, +which is supported at A and B and free to rotate. When the central +spindle AB is at rest the pendulums hang vertically; when energy is +applied to the system, and AB is thereby caused to rotate, the +spherical masses M and M{1} will rise by circular paths about C and D. +This upward movement, considered apart from the centrifugal influence +producing it, corresponds in itself to the upward movement of the simple +pendulum (§ 21) against gravity. It is representative of a definite +transformation, namely, the transformation of the work energy originally +applied to the system and manifested in its rotary motion, into energy +of position. The movements of the rotating pendulums will also be +accompanied by other energy operations associated with bearing friction +and windage (§§ 23, 29), but these operations being part of a separate +and complete cyclical energy process (§ 32), they will in this case be +neglected. + +[Illustration: FIG. 9] + +It will be readily seen, however, that the working of this rotating +pendulum machine, when considered as a whole, is of a nature somewhat +different from that of the simple pendulum machine in that the energy of +position of the former (as measured by the vertical displacement of M +and M{1} in rotation) and its energy of rotation must increase +concurrently, and also in that the absolute maximum value of this energy +of position will be attained when the pendulum masses reach merely the +horizontal level HL in rotation. The machines are alike, however, in +this respect, that the transformation of energy of motion into energy of +position is in each case a completely reversible process. In the working +of the rotating pendulums the limiting amount of energy which can +operate in this reversible process is dependent on and rigidly defined +by the maximum length of the pendulum arms; the longer the arms, the +greater is the possible height through which the masses at their +extremities must rise to attain the horizontal position in rotation. It +will be clear also that it is not possible for the whole energy of the +rotating system to work in the reversible process as in the case of the +simple pendulum. As the pendulum masses rise, the ratio of the limiting +energy for reversibility to the total energy of the system becomes in +fact smaller and smaller, until at the horizontal or position of maximum +energy it reaches a minimum value. This is merely an aspect of the +experimental fact that, as the pendulum masses approach the ultimate +horizontal position, a much greater increment of energy to the system is +necessary for their elevation through a given vertical distance than at +the lower levels. A larger proportion of the applied energy is, in fact, +stored in the material of the system in the form of energy of strain or +distortion. + +The two points which this system is designed to illustrate, and which +it is desirable to emphasise, are thus as follows. Firstly, as the whole +system rotates, the movement of the pendulum masses M and M{1} from the +lower to the higher levels, or from the regions of low to those of +higher velocity, is productive of a transformation of the rotatory +energy of the system into energy of position--a transformation of the +same nature as in the case of the simple pendulum system. Neglecting the +minor transformations (§§ 24, 29), this energy process is a reversible +one, and consequently, the return of the masses from the higher to the +lower positions will be accompanied by the complete return of the +transformed energy in its original form of energy of rotation. Secondly, +the maximum amount of energy which can work in this reversible process +is always less than the total energy of the system. The latter, +therefore, conforms to the general condition of stability (§ 25). + +But this arrangement of rotating pendulums may be extended so as to +include other features. To eliminate or in a manner replace the +influence of gravitation, and to preserve the energy of position of the +system--relative to the earth's surface--at a constant value, the +pendulum arms may be assumed to be duplicated or extended to the points +K and R (Fig. 10) respectively, where pendulum masses equal to M and +M{1} are attached. + +The arms MK and M{1}R are thus continuous. Each arm is assumed to be +pivoted at its middle point about a horizontal axis through N, and as +the lower masses M and M{1} rise in the course of the rotatory movement +about AB the upper masses K and R will fall by corresponding amounts. +The total energy of position of the system--referred to the earth's +surface--thus remains constant whatever may be the position of the +masses in the system. The restraining influence on the movement of the +masses, formerly exercised by gravitation, is now furnished by means of +a central spring F. A collar CD, connected as shown to the pendulum +arms, slides on the spindle AB and compresses this spring as the masses +move towards the horizontal level HL. As the masses return towards A and +B the spring is released. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10] + +If energy be applied to the system, so that it is caused to rotate about +the central axis AB, the pendulum masses will tend to move outwards from +that axis. Their movement may be said to be carried out over the surface +of an imaginary sphere with centre on AB at N. The motion of the masses, +as the velocity of rotation increases, is from the region of lower +peripheral velocity, in the vicinity of the axis AB, to the regions of +higher velocity, in the neighbourhood of H and L. This outward movement +from the central axis towards H and L is representative of a +transformation of energy of an exactly similar nature to that described +above in the simple case. Part of the original energy of rotation of the +system is now stored in the pendulum masses in virtue of their new +position of displacement. But in this case, the movement is made, not +against gravity, but against the central spring F. The energy, then, +which in the former case might be said to be stored against gravitation +(acting as an invisible spring) is in this case stored in the form of +energy of strain or cohesion (§ 15) in the central spring, which thus as +it were takes the place of gravitation in the system. As in the previous +case also, the operation is a reversible energy process. If the pendulum +masses move in the opposite direction from the regions of higher +velocity to those of lower velocity, the energy stored in the spring +will be returned to the system in its original form of energy of motion. +A vibratory motion of the pendulums to and from the central axis would +thus be productive of an alternate storage and return of energy. It is +obvious also, that due to the action of centrifugal force, the pendulum +masses would tend to move radially outwards on the arms as they move +towards the regions of highest velocity. Let this radial movement be +carried out against the action of four radial springs S{1}, S{2}, +S{3}, S{4}, as shown (Fig. 11). In virtue of the radial movement of +the masses, these springs will be compressed and energy stored in them +in the form of energy of strain or cohesion (§ 15). The radial movement +implies also that the masses will be elevated from the surface of the +imaginary sphere over which they are assumed to move. The elevation from +this surface will be greatest in the regions of high velocity in the +neighbourhood of H and L, and least at A and B. As the masses move, +therefore, from H and L towards the axis AB, they will also move inwards +on the pendulum arms, relieving the springs, so that the energy stored +in them is free to be returned to the system in its original form of +energy of rotation. Every movement of the masses from the central axis +outwards against the springs is thus made at the expense of the original +energy of motion, and every movement inwards provokes a corresponding +return of that energy to the system. Every movement also against the +springs forms part of a reversible operation. The sum total of the +energy which works in these reversible operations is always less than +the complete energy of the rotatory system, and the latter is always +stable (§ 25), with respect to its energy properties. Let it now be +assumed that the complete system as described is possessed of a precise +and limited amount of energy of rotation, and that with the pendulum +masses in an intermediate position as shown (Fig. 11) it is rotating +with uniform angular velocity. The condition of the rotatory system +might now be described as that of equilibrium. A definite amount of its +original rotatory energy is now stored in the central spring and also in +the radial springs. If now, without alteration in the intrinsic rotatory +energy of the system, the pendulum masses were to execute a vibratory or +pendulum motion about the position of equilibrium so that they move +alternately to and from the central axis, then as they move inwards +towards that axis the energy stored in the springs would be returned to +the system in the original form of energy of rotation. This inward +motion would, accordingly, produce acceleration. But, in the outward +movement from the position of equilibrium, retardation would ensue on +account of energy of motion being withdrawn from the system and stored +in the springs. + +[Illustration: FIG. 11] + +Under the given conditions, then, any vibratory motion of the pendulum +masses to and from the central axis would be accompanied by alternate +retardation and acceleration of the moving system. The storage of energy +in the springs (central and radial) produces retardation, the +restoration of this energy gives rise to a corresponding acceleration. +The angular velocity of the system would rise and fall accordingly. +These are the natural conditions of working of the system. As already +pointed out, the motion of the pendulum masses may be regarded as +executed over the surface of an imaginary sphere. Their motion against +the radial springs would therefore correspond to a displacement outwards +or upwards from the spherical surface. A definite part of the effect of +retardation is, of course, due to this outward or radial displacement of +the masses. + +Assuming still the property of constancy of energy of rotation, let it +now be supposed that in such a vibratory movement of the pendulum masses +as described above, the energy required merely for the displacement of +the masses _against the radial springs_ is not withdrawn from and +obtained at the expense of the original rotatory energy of the system, +but is obtained from some energy agency, completely external to the +system, and to which energy cannot be returned. The retardation, +normally due to the outward displacement of the masses against the +radial springs, would not then take place. But the energy is, +nevertheless, stored in the springs. It now, therefore, forms part of +the energy of the system, and consequently, on the returning or inward +movement of vibration of the masses towards the central axis, this +energy, received from the external source, would pass directly from the +springs to the rotational energy of the system. It is clear, then, that +while the introduction of energy in this fashion from an external source +has in part eliminated the effect of retardation, the accelerating +effect must still operate as before. Each vibratory movement of the +pendulum system, under the given conditions, will lead to a definite +increase in its energy of rotation by the amount stored in the radial +springs. If the vibratory movement is continuous, the rotatory velocity +of the system will steadily increase in value. Energy once stored in the +radial springs can only be released by the return movement of the masses +and _in the form of energy of rotation_; the nature of the mechanical +machine is, in fact, such that if any incremental energy is applied to +the displacement of the masses against the radial springs, it can only +be returned in this form of energy of motion. + +These features of this experimental system are of vital importance to +the author's scheme. They may be illustrated more completely, however, +and in a form more suitable for their most general application, by the +hypothetical system now to be described. This system is, of course, +devised for purely illustrative purposes, but the general principles of +working of pendulum systems and of energy return, as demonstrated above, +will be assumed. + + +43. _Application of Pendulum Principles_ + +The movements of the pendulum masses described in the previous article +have been regarded as carried out over the surface of an imaginary +sphere. Let us now proceed to consider the phenomena of a similar +movement of material over the surface of an actual spherical mass. The +precise dimensions of the sphere are of little moment in the discussion, +but for the purpose of illustration, its mass and general outline may be +assumed to correspond to that of the earth or other planetary body. This +spherical mass A (Fig. 12) rotates with uniform angular velocity about +an axis NS through its centre. Associated with the rotating sphere are +four auxiliary spherical masses, M{1}, M{2}, M{3}, M{4}, also of +solid material, which are assumed to be placed symmetrically round its +circumference as shown. These masses form an inherent part of the +spherical system; they are assumed to be united to the main body of +material by the attractive force of gravitation in precisely the same +fashion as the atmosphere or other surface material of a planet is +united to its inner core (§ 34); they will therefore partake completely +of the rotatory motion of the sphere about its axis NS, moving in paths +similar to those of the rotating pendulum masses already described (§ +42). The restraining action of the pendulum arms is, however, replaced +in this celestial case by the action of gravitation, which is the +central force or influence of the system. Opposite masses are thus only +united through the attractive influence of the material of the sphere. +The place of the springs, both central and radial, in our pendulum +system is now taken by this centripetal force of gravitative attraction, +which therefore forms the restraining influence or determining factor in +all the associated energy processes. While the auxiliary masses M{1} +M{2}, &c., partake of the general motion of revolution of the main +spherical mass about NS, they may also be assumed to revolve +simultaneously about the axis WE, perpendicular to NS, and also passing +through the centre of the sphere. Each of these masses will thus have a +peculiar motion, a definite velocity over the surface of the sphere from +pole to pole--about the axis WE--combined with a velocity of rotation +about the central axis NS. The value of the latter velocity is, at any +instant, directly proportional to the radius of the circle of latitude +of the point on the surface of the sphere where the mass happens to be +situated at that instant in its rotatory motion from pole to pole; this +velocity accordingly diminishes as the mass withdraws from the equator, +and becomes zero when it actually reaches the poles of rotation at N and +S; and the energy of each mass in motion, since its linear velocity is +thus constantly varying, will be itself a continuously varying quantity, +increasing or diminishing accordingly as the mass is moving to or from +the equatorial regions, attaining its maximum value at the equator and +its minimum value at the poles. Now, since the masses thus moving are +assumed to be a material and inherent portion of the spherical system, +the source of the energy which is thus alternately supplied to and +returned by them is the original energy of motion of the system; this +original energy being assumed strictly limited in amount, the increase +of the energy of each mass as it moves towards the equator will, +therefore, be productive of a retardative effect on the revolution of +the system as a whole. But, in a precisely similar manner, the energy +thus gained by the mass would be fully returned on its movement towards +the pole, and an accelerative effect would be produced corresponding to +the original retardation. In the arrangement shown (Fig. 12), the moving +masses are assumed to be situated at the extremities of diameters at +right angles. With this symmetrical distribution, the transformation +and return of energy would take place concurrently. Retardation is +continually balanced by acceleration, and the motion of the sphere +would, therefore, be approximately uniform about the central axis of +rotation. It will be clear that the movements thus described of the +masses will be very similar in nature to those of the pendulum masses in +the experimental system previously discussed. The fact that the motion +of the auxiliary masses over the surface of the sphere is assumed to be +completely circular and not vibratory, as in the pendulum case, has no +bearing on the general energy phenomena. These are readily seen to be +identical in nature with those of the simpler system. In each case every +movement of the masses implies either an expenditure of energy or a +return, accordingly as the direction of that movement is to or from the +regions of high velocity. + +[Illustration: FIG. 12] + +The paths of the moving auxiliary masses have been considered, so far, +only as parallel to the surface of the sphere, but the general energy +conditions are in no way altered if they are assumed to have in addition +some motion normal to that surface; if, for example, they are repelled +from the surface as they approach the equatorial regions, and return +towards it once more as they approach the poles. Such a movement of the +masses normal to the spherical surface really corresponds to the +movement against the radial springs in the pendulum system; it would +now be made against the attractive or restraining influence of +gravitation, and a definite expenditure of energy would thus necessarily +be required to produce the displacement. Energy, formerly stored in the +springs, corresponds now to energy stored as energy of position (§ 20) +against gravitation. If this energy is obtained at the expense of the +inherent rotatory energy of the sphere, then its conversion in this +fashion into energy of position will again be productive of a definite +retardative effect on the revolution of the system. It is clear, +however, that if each mass descends to the surface level once more in +moving towards the poles, then in this operation its energy of position, +originally obtained at the expense of the rotatory energy of the sphere, +will be gradually but completely returned to that source. In a balanced +system, such as we have assumed above, the descent of one mass in +rotation would be accompanied by the elevation of another at a different +point; the abstraction and return of the energy of rotation would then +be equivalent, and would not affect the primary condition of uniformity +of rotation of the system. In the circumstances assumed, the whole +energy process which takes place in the movement of the masses from +poles to equator and normal to the spherical surface would obviously be +of a cyclical nature and completely reversible. It would be the working +of mechanical energy in a definite material machine, and in accordance +with the principles already outlined (§ 20) the maximum amount of +energy which can operate in this machine is strictly limited by the mass +of the material involved in the movement. The energy machine has thus a +definite capacity, and as the maximum energy operating in the reversible +cycle is assumed to be within this limit, the machine would be +completely stable in nature (§ 25). The movements of the auxiliary +masses have hitherto also been considered as taking place over somewhat +restricted paths, but this convention is one which can readily be +dispensed with. The general direction of motion of the masses must of +course be from equator to pole or vice versa; but it is quite obvious +that the exact paths pursued by the masses in this general motion is of +no moment in the consideration of energy return, nor yet the precise +region in which they may happen to be restored once more to the surface +level. Whatever may be its position at any instant, each mass is +possessed of a definite amount of energy corresponding to that position; +this amount will always be equal to the total energy abstracted by that +mass, less the energy returned. The nature of the energy system is, +however, such that the various energy phases of the different masses +will be completely co-ordinated. Since the essential feature of the +system is its property of uniformity of rotation, any return of energy +in the rotational form at any part of the system--due to the descent of +material--produces a definite accelerating effect on the system, which +effect is, however, at once neutralised or absorbed by a corresponding +retardative effect due to that energy which must be extracted from the +system in equivalent amount and devoted to the upraising of material at +a different point. For simplicity in illustration only four masses have +been considered in motion over the surface of the sphere, but it will be +clear that the number which may so operate is really limited only by the +dimensions of the system. The spherical surface might be completely +covered with moving material, not necessarily of spherical form, not +necessarily even material in the solid form (§ 13), which would rise and +fall relative to the surface and flow to and from the poles exactly in +the fashion already illustrated by the moving masses. The capacity of +the reversible energy machine--which depends on the mass--would be +altered in this case, but not the general nature of the machine itself. +If the system were energised to the requisite degree, every energy +operation could be carried out as before. + +As already pointed out, the dominating feature of a spherical system +such as we have just described would be essentially its property of +energy conservation manifested by its uniformity of rotation. All its +operations could be carried out independently of the direct action of +any external energy influences. For if it be assumed that the energy +gained by the auxiliary moving surface material _in virtue of its +displacement normal to the spherical surface_ be derived, not from the +inherent rotational energy of the sphere itself, but by an influx of +energy from some source completely external to the system, then since +there has been no energy abstraction there will be no retardative effect +on the revolution due to the upraising of this material. But the influx +of energy thus stored in the material must of necessity work through the +energy machine. In the movement towards the poles this energy would +therefore be applied to the system in the form of energy of rotation, +and would produce a definite accelerative effect. If the influx of +energy were continuous, and no means were existent for a corresponding +efflux, the rotatory velocity of the system would steadily increase. The +phenomena would be of precisely the same nature as those already alluded +to in the case of the system of rotating pendulums (§ 42). Acceleration +would take place without corresponding retardation. A direct +contribution would be continuously made to the rotatory energy of the +system, and would under the given conditions be manifested by an +increase in its velocity of revolution. + + +44. _Extension of Pendulum Principles to Terrestrial Phenomena_ + +The energy phenomena illustrated by the experimental devices above are +to be observed, in their aspects of greatest perfection, in the natural +world. In the earth, united to its encircling atmosphere by the +invisible bond of gravitation, we find the prototype of the hypothetical +system just described. Its uniformity of rotation is an established fact +of centuries, and over its spheroidal surface we have, corresponding to +the motion of our illustrative spherical masses, the movement of +enormous quantities of atmospheric air in the general directions from +equatorial to polar regions and vice versa. This circulatory movement, +and the internal energy reactions which it involves, have been already +fully dealt with (§ 88); we have now to consider it in a somewhat more +comprehensive fashion, in the light of the pendulum systems described +above. As already explained (§ 13), the operation of mechanical energy +is not confined to solid and liquid masses only, but may likewise be +manifested by the movements of gaseous masses. The terrestrial +atmospheric machine provides an outstanding example. In its working +conditions, and in the general nature of the energy operations involved, +the terrestrial atmospheric machine is very clearly represented by the +rotating pendulum system (§ 42). The analogy is still closer in the case +of the hypothetical system just described. The actual terrestrial energy +machine differs from both only in that the energy processes, which they +illustrate by the movements of solid material, are carried out in the +course of its working by the motion of gaseous masses. It is obvious, +however, that this in no way affects the inherent nature of the energy +processes themselves. They are carried out quite as completely and +efficiently--in fact, more completely and more efficiently--by the +motions of gaseous as by the motions of solid material. + +The atmospheric circulation, then, may be readily regarded as the +movement, over the terrestrial surface, of gaseous masses which absorb +and return energy in regions of high and low velocity exactly in the +fashion explained above for solid material. In their movement from polar +towards equatorial regions these masses, by the action of the aqueous +vapour (§ 38), absorb energy (axial energy) and expand upwards against +gravity. Here we have an energy operation identical in nature with that +embodied in the movements of a pendulum mass simultaneously over a +spherical surface and against radial springs as in the system of +rotating pendulums, or identical with the equatorial and radial movement +of the auxiliary masses in the hypothetical system. The return movement +of the aerial masses over the terrestrial surface in the opposite +direction from equatorial to polar regions provides also exactly the +same phenomena of energy return as the return movement of the masses in +our illustrative systems. These systems, in fact, portray the general +operation of mechanical energy precisely as it occurs in the terrestrial +atmospheric machine. But obviously they cannot illustrate the natural +conditions in their entirety. The passage or flow of the atmospheric air +masses over the earth's surface is a movement of an exceedingly complex +nature, impossible to illustrate by experimental apparatus. And indeed, +such illustration is quite unnecessary. As already pointed out (§ 38), +no matter what may be the precise path of an aerial mass in its movement +towards the planetary surface the final energy return is the same. +Sooner or later its energy of position is restored in the original axial +form. + +The terrestrial atmospheric machine will be thus readily recognised as +essentially a material mechanical machine corresponding in general +nature to the illustrative examples described above. The combination of +its various energy processes is embodied in a complete cyclical and +reversible operation. Its energy capacity, as in the simpler cases, is +strictly limited by the total mass of the operating material. The active +or working energy is well within the limit for reversibility (§ 23), and +the machine is therefore essentially stable in nature. The continuous +abstraction of axial energy by the aqueous vapour is balanced by an +equally continuous return from the air masses, and the system, so far as +its energy properties are concerned, is absolutely conservative. Energy +transmission from or to any external source is neither admissible nor +necessary for its working. + + +45. _Concluding Review of Terrestrial Conditions--Effects of Influx of + Energy_ + +The aspect of the earth as a separate mass in space, and its energy +relationship to its primary the sun and to the associated planetary +masses of the solar system have been broadly presented in the General +Statement (§§ 1-12). In that statement, based entirely on the +universally accepted properties of matter and energy, an order of +phenomena is described which is in strict accordance with observed +natural conditions, and which portrays the earth and the other planetary +bodies, so far as their material or energy properties are concerned, as +absolutely isolated masses in space. The scientific verification of this +position must of necessity be founded on the terrestrial observation of +phenomena. So far as the orbital movements of the planet are concerned +these are admittedly orderly; each planetary mass wheels its flight +through space with unvarying regularity; the energy processes, also, +associated with the variations of planetary orbital path, and which +attain limiting conditions at perihelion and aphelion, are readily +acknowledged to be reversible and cyclical in nature. In fact, even a +slight observation of the movements of celestial masses inevitably leads +to the conviction that the great energy processes of the solar system +are inherently cyclical in nature, that every movement of its material +and every manifestation of its energy is part of some complete +operation. The whole appears to be but the natural or material +embodiment of the great principle of energy conservation. It has been +one of the objects of this work to show that the cyclical nature of the +energy operations of the solar system is not confined only to the more +prominent energy phenomena, but that it penetrates and is exhibited in +the working of even the most insignificant planetary processes. Each one +of the latter in reality forms part of an unbroken series or chain of +energy phenomena. Each planet forms in itself a complete, perfect, and +self-contained energy system. Every manifestation of planetary energy, +great or small, whether associated with animate or inanimate matter, is +but one phase or aspect of that energy as it pursues its cyclical path. + +It is a somewhat remarkable fact that in this age of scientific reason +the observation of the strictly orderly arrangement of phenomena in the +solar system as a whole should not have led to some idea in the minds of +philosophical workers of a similar order of phenomena in its separate +parts, but the explanation lies generally in the continual attempts to +bring natural phenomena into line with certain preconceived hypotheses, +and more particularly to the almost universal acceptance of the doctrine +of the direct transmission of energy from the sun to the earth and the +final rejection or radiation of this energy into space. There is no +denying the eminent plausibility of this doctrine. The evidence of +Nature _prima facie_ may even appear to completely substantiate it. But +we would submit that the general circumstances in which this doctrine is +now so readily accepted are very similar to those which prevailed in +more ancient times, when the revolution of the sun and stars round the +earth was the universal tenet of natural philosophy. This conception, +allied to the belief that the sole function of the celestial bodies was +to provide light and heat to the terrestrial mass, appeared to be in +strict accordance with observed phenomena, and held undisturbed +possession of the minds of men for centuries, until it was finally +demolished by Copernicus as the result of simple and accurate +observation of and deduction from natural phenomena. At the present +time, the somewhat venerable belief in the transmission of energy in +various forms from the sun to the earth appears at first sight to be +supported by actual facts. But a more rigid scrutiny of the evidence and +of the mental processes must inevitably lead the unbiassed mind to the +conclusion that this belief has no real foundation on truly scientific +observation, but is entirely unsupported by natural phenomena. Every +operation of Nature, in fact, when considered in its true relationships +is an absolute denial of the whole conception. Like its predecessor +relating to the motion of the sun and stars round the earth, the +doctrine of energy transmission between separate masses in space such as +the sun and the earth cannot be sustained in the face of scientific +observation. This doctrine is found on investigation to be supported not +by phenomena but by the conception of an elastic ethereal medium, of +whose existence there is absolutely no evidential proof, and the +necessity for which disappears along with the hypothesis it supports. It +is, however, not proposed to discuss in any detail either the supposed +transmission of energy from the sun to the planets or the arbitrary +properties of the transmitting medium, but rather to adopt a more +positive method of criticism by summarising briefly the evidential +phenomena which show the cyclical nature of the whole terrestrial energy +process, and which remove the basis of belief in such a transmission. + +To recapitulate the more general conditions, we find the earth, alike +with other planetary masses, pursuing a defined orbital path, and +rotating with uniform angular velocity in the lines or under the +influence of the gravitation, thermal, luminous, and other incepting +fields (§§ 17, 18, 19) which originate in the sun. Its axial rotation, +in these circumstances, gives rise to all the secondary transformations +(§ 9) of terrestrial axial energy, which in their operation provide the +varied panorama of terrestrial phenomena. Terrestrial axial energy is +thus diverted into terrestrial secondary processes. Each of these +processes is found to be united to or embodied in a definite material +machine (§§ 27-30), and is, accordingly, limited in nature and extent by +the physical properties and incepting factors associated with the +materials of which the machine is composed. By ordinary methods of +transmission, energy may pass from one material to another, that is to +say from one machine to another, and by this means definite chains of +energy processes are constituted, through which, therefore, passes the +axial energy originally transformed by the action of the sun. These +series or chains of energy processes are also found to be one and all +linked at some stage of their progress to the general atmospheric +machine (§ 29). The energy operating in them is, in every case, after +many or few vicissitudes according to the nature of the intermediate +operations, communicated to the gaseous atmospheric material. By the +movement of this material in the working of the atmospheric machine (§ +38) the energy is finally returned in its original form of axial energy +of rotation. The sun's action is thus in a manner to force the inherent +rotatory energy of the planet into the cyclical secondary operations, +all of which converge alike towards the general atmospheric mechanism of +return. The passage of the energy through the complete secondary +operations, and its re-conversion into its original axial form, may be +rapid or slow according to circumstances. In equatorial regions, where +the influence of the sun's incepting fields is most intense, we find +that the inherent planetary axial energy is communicated with great +rapidity through the medium of the aqueous vapour to the air masses. By +the movement of the latter it may be just as rapidly returned, and the +whole operation completed in a comparatively short interval of time. In +the same equatorial regions, the transformations of axial energy which +are manifested in plant life attain their greatest perfection and +vigour. But in this case the complete return of the operating energy may +be very slow. The stored energy of tropical vegetation may still in +great part remain in the bosom of the earth, awaiting an appropriate +stimulus to be communicated to more active material for the concluding +stages of that cyclical process which had its commencement in the +absorption of axial energy into plant tissue. The duration of the +complete secondary operation has, however, absolutely no bearing on the +conservative energy properties of the planet. In this respect, the +system is perfectly balanced. Every transformation or absorption of +rotatory energy, great or small, for long or short periods of time, is +counteracted by a corresponding return. Absolute uniformity of planetary +axial rotation is thus steadily maintained. + +It is scarcely necessary at this stage to point out that the +verification of this description of natural operations lies simply and +entirely in the observation of Nature's working at first hand. The +description is based on no theory and obscured by no preconceived ideas, +it is founded entirely on direct experimental evidence. The field of +study and of verification is not restricted, but comprises the whole +realm of natural phenomena. In a lifetime of observation the author has +failed to discern a single contradictory phenomenon; every natural +operation is in reality a direct confirmation. + +The conception of energy, working only through the medium of definite +material machines with their incepting and limiting agencies, is one +which is of great value not only in natural philosophy but also in +practical life. By its means it is possible in many cases to co-ordinate +phenomena, apparently antagonistic, but in reality only different phases +of energy machines. It aids materially also in the obtaining of a true +grasp of the inexorable principle of energy conservation and its +application to natural conditions, and it emphasises the indefensible +nature of such ideas as the radiation of energy into _space_. + +It will be evident that in a planetary system such as described above +there is no room for any transmission of energy to the system from an +external source. The nature of the system is, in fact, such that a +transmission of this kind is entirely unnecessary. As already +demonstrated, every phenomenon and every energy operation can be +carried out independently of any such transmission. For the purpose of +illustration, however, it may be assumed that such a communication of +energy does take place; that according to the accepted doctrines of +modern science the sun pours energy in a continuous stream into the +terrestrial system. Now, no matter in what form this energy is +communicated, it is clear that once it is associated with or attached to +the various planetary materials it is, as it were, incorporated or +embodied in the planetary energy machines, and must of necessity work +through the secondary energy operations. But these operations have been +shown to be naturally and irresistibly connected to the general +atmospheric machine. Into this machine, then, the incremental energy +must be carried, and it will be there directly converted into the form +of axial energy of rotation. Once the incremental energy is actually in +the planet, once it is actually communicated to planetary material, the +nature of the system absolutely forbids its escape. The effect of a +direct and continuous influx such as we have assumed would inevitably be +an increase in the angular velocity of the system. This effect has +already been verified from an experimental point of view by +consideration of the phenomena of a rotating pendulum system (§§ 42, +43). Whilst the influx of energy proceeds, then in virtue of the +increasing velocity of the planetary material in the lines of the +various incepting fields of the sun, all terrestrial phenomena involving +the transformation of rotary or axial energy would be increased in +magnitude and intensified in degree. The planet would thus rapidly +attain an unstable condition; its material would soon become energised +beyond its normal capacity, and the natural stability (§ 25) of its +constituent energy machines would be destroyed; the system as a whole +would steadily proceed towards disruption. + +But, happily, Nature presents no evidence of such a course of events. +The earth spins on its axis with quiet and persistent regularity; the +unvarying uniformity of its motion of axial rotation has been verified +by the observations of generations of philosophers. Its temperature +gradations show no evidence of change or decay in its essential heat +qualities, and the recurrence of natural phenomena is maintained without +visible sign of increase either in their intensity or multiplicity. The +finger of Nature ever points to closed energy circuits, to the earth as +a complete and conservative system in which energy, mutable to the +highest degree with respect to its plurality of form, attains to the +perfection of permanence in its essential character and amount. + + + + +Printed by BALLANTYNE, HANSON & CO. + +Edinburgh & London + + + + +TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE: + +In this plain-text version, numerical subscripts have been transcribed +within {} brackets, such as: M{1}. + +Obvious typographical errors from the original printed version of this +book have been corrected without comment. + +Footnotes in the plain-text version have been placed at the end of the +paragraph in which the footnote tag appears. + +Illustrations have been moved to the nearest paragraph break. + + + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Energy System of Matter, by James Weir + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ENERGY SYSTEM OF MATTER *** + +***** This file should be named 38348-8.txt or 38348-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/8/3/4/38348/ + +Produced by David Garcia, Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Cathy +Maxam and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net (This book was produced from scanned +images of public domain material from the Google Print +project.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Energy System of Matter + A Deduction from Terrestrial Energy Phenomena + +Author: James Weir + +Release Date: December 20, 2011 [EBook #38348] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ENERGY SYSTEM OF MATTER *** + + + + +Produced by David Garcia, Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Cathy +Maxam and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net (This book was produced from scanned +images of public domain material from the Google Print +project.) + + + + + + +</pre> + + + + + +<h1>THE ENERGY SYSTEM<br /> +OF MATTER</h1> + + + +<p class="center bigger pb">A DEDUCTION FROM TERRESTRIAL<br /> +ENERGY PHENOMENA</p> + +<p class="center small pt">BY</p> +<p class="center big pb">JAMES WEIR</p> + +<p class="center pspace"><i>WITH 12 DIAGRAMS</i></p> + +<p class="center pt"><span class="big">LONGMANS, GREEN AND CO.</span><br /> +39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON<br /> +NEW YORK BOMBAY, AND CALCUTTA<br /> +1912</p> + +<p class="center smaller pspace">All rights reserved +</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<h2>PREFACE</h2> + + +<p>An intimate study of natural phenomena and a +lengthened experience in physical research have +resulted in the formation of certain generalisations +and deductions which I now present in this +volume. I have reached the conclusion that every +physical phenomenon is due to the operation of +energy transformations or energy transmissions +embodied in material, and takes place under the +action or influence of incepting energy fields. In +any instance the precise nature of the phenomena +is dependent on the peculiar form of energy actively +engaged, on the nature of the material to which +this energy is applied, and on the nature of the +incepting field which influences the process. In +the course of the work several concrete cases are +discussed, in which these features of energy are +illustrated and explained by the use of simple experimental +apparatus. It is hoped that, by this means, +the distinctive differences which exist in the manifestations +of energy, in its transformation, in its +transmission, and in its incepting forms will be +rendered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span> +clear to the reader. I have to express +my indebtedness to Mr. James Affleck, B.Sc., +for his assistance in the preparation of this work +for publication.</p> + +<p class="attr"> +JAMES WEIR.</p> + +<p class="small"><span class="ind1 smcap">Over Courance,</span><br /> +<span class="ind smcap">Lockerbie, Scotland.</span> + +</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></p> +<p class="center bigger">CONTENTS</p> + + + + + +<table cellpadding="4" summary="contents"> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td class="tdr">PAGE</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><span class="smcap"><a href="#INTRODUCTION">Introduction</a></span></td> +<td class="tdr">1</td> +</tr> + +<tr><td> </td></tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class="center big">PART I</td> +<td></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class="center big"><a href="#PART_I">GENERAL STATEMENT</a></td> +<td></td> +</tr> + + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">1.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_1"><span class="smcap">Advantages of General View of Natural Operations</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">7</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">2.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_2"><span class="smcap">Separate Mass in Space</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">8</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">3.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_3"><span class="smcap">Advent of Energy</span>—<span class="smcap">Distortional Effects</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">9</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">4.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_4"><span class="smcap">The Gravitation Field</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">11</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">5.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_5"><span class="smcap">Limits of Rotational Energy</span>—<span class="smcap">Disruptional + Phenomena</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">13</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">6.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_6"><span class="smcap">Passive Function and General Nature of Gravitation + Field</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">17</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">7.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_7"><span class="smcap">Limit of Gravitation Transformation</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">18</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">8.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_8"><span class="smcap">Interactions of two Planetary Bodies</span>—<span class="smcap">Equilibrium + Phenomena</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">19</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">9.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_9"><span class="smcap">Axial Energy</span>—<span class="smcap">Secondary Processes</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">22</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">10.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_10"><span class="smcap">Mechanism of Energy Return</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">27</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">11.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_11"><span class="smcap">Review of Cosmical System</span>—<span class="smcap">General Function of + Energy</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">29</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">12.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_12"><span class="smcap">Review of Cosmical System</span>— +<span class="smcap">Natural Conditions</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">31</td> +</tr> + +<tr><td> </td></tr> + + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class="center big">PART II</td> +<td></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class="center big"><a href="#PART_II">PRINCIPLES OF INCEPTION</a></td> +<td></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">13. </td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_13"><span class="smcap">Illustrative Secondary Processes</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">34</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">14.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_14"><span class="smcap">Incepting Energy Influences</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">40</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">15.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_15"><span class="smcap">Cohesion as an Incepting Influence</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">45</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">16.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_16"><span class="smcap">Terrestrial Gravitation as an Incepting Influence</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">48<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">17.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_17"><span class="smcap">The Gravitation Field</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">51</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">18.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_18"><span class="smcap">The Thermal Field</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">54</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">19.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_19"><span class="smcap">The Luminous Field</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">58</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">20.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_20"><span class="smcap">Transformations</span>—<span class="smcap">Upward Movement of a Mass + against Gravity</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">62</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">21.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_21"><span class="smcap">Transformations</span>— +<span class="smcap">The Simple Pendulum</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">67</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">22.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_22"><span class="smcap">Statical Energy Conditions</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">68</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">23.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_23"><span class="smcap">Transformations of the Moving +Pendulum</span>—<span class="smcap">Energy + of Motion to Energy of Position and Vice + Versa</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">72</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">24.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_24"><span class="smcap">Transformations of the Moving Pendulum</span>—<span class="smcap">Frictional + Transformation at the Bearing Surfaces</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">77</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">25.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_25"><span class="smcap">Stability of Energy Systems</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">79</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">26.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_26"><span class="smcap">The Pendulum as a Conservative System</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">81</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">27.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_27"><span class="smcap">Some Phenomena of Transmission Processes</span>—<span class="smcap">Transmission + of Heat Energy by Solid Material</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">84</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">28.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_28"><span class="smcap">Some Phenomena of Transmission Processes</span>—<span class="smcap">Transmission + by Flexible Band or Cord</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">89</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">29.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_29"><span class="smcap">Some Phenomena of Transmission Processes</span>—<span class="smcap">Transmission + of Energy to Air Masses</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">92</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">30.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_30"><span class="smcap">Energy Machines and Energy Transmission</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">95</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">31.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_31"><span class="smcap">Identification of Forms of Energy</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">107</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">32.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_32"><span class="smcap">Complete Secondary Cyclical Operation</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">114</td> +</tr> + +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class="center big">PART III</td> +<td></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class="center big"><a href="#PART_III">TERRESTRIAL CONDITIONS</a></td> +<td class="tdr"></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">33.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_33"><span class="smcap">Gaseous Expansion</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">118</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">34.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_34"><span class="smcap">Gravitational Equilibrium of Gases</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">124</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">35.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_35"><span class="smcap">Total Energy of Gaseous Substances</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">131</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">36.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_36"><span class="smcap">Comparative Altitudes of Planetary Atmospheres</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">135</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">37.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_37"><span class="smcap">Reactions of Composite Atmosphere</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">139</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">38.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_38"><span class="smcap">Description of Terrestrial Case</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">143</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">39.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_39"><span class="smcap">Relative Physical Conditions of Atmospheric + Constituents</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">150<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">40.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_40"><span class="smcap">Transmission of Energy from Aqueous Vapour to + Air Masses</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">153</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">41.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_41"><span class="smcap">Terrestrial Energy Return</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">160</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">42.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_42"><span class="smcap">Experimental Analogy and Demonstration of the + General Mechanism of Energy Transformation + and Return in the Atmospheric Cycle</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">170</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">43.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_43"><span class="smcap">Application of Pendulum Principles</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">181</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">44.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_44"><span class="smcap">Extension of Pendulum Principles to Terrestrial + Phenomena</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">188</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">45.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_45"><span class="smcap">Concluding Review of Terrestrial Conditions</span>—<span class="smcap">Effects + of Influx of Energy</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">192</td> +</tr> + +</table> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2>THE ENERGY SYSTEM OF MATTER</h2> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="INTRODUCTION" id="INTRODUCTION"></a>INTRODUCTION</h2> + + +<p>The main principles on which the present work is +founded were broadly outlined in the author's <i>Terrestrial +Energy</i> in 1883, and also in a later paper in 1892.</p> + +<p>The views then expressed have since been amply +verified by the course of events. In the march of +progress, the forward strides of science have been +of gigantic proportions. Its triumphs, however, have +been in the realm, not of speculation or faith, but +of experiment and fact. While, on the one hand, +the careful and systematic examination and co-ordination +of experimental facts has ever been leading +to results of real practical value, on the other, the +task of the theorists, in their efforts to explain +phenomena on speculative grounds, has become +increasingly severe, and the results obtained have +been decreasingly satisfactory. Day by day it +becomes more evident that not one of the many +existing theories is adequate to the explanation of +the known phenomena: but, in spite of this obvious +fact, attempts are still constantly being made, even +by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> +most eminent men, to rule the results of experimental +science into line with this or that accepted +theory. The contradictions are many and glaring, +but speculative methods are still rampant. They have +become the fashion, or rather the fetish, of modern +science. It would seem that no experimental +result can be of any value until it is deductively +accommodated to some preconceived hypothesis, +until it is embodied and under the sway of what +is practically scientific dogma. These methods have +permeated all branches of science more or less, +but in no sphere has the tendency to indulge in +speculation been more pronounced than in that +which deals with energetics. In no sphere, also, +have the consequences of such indulgence been more +disastrous. For the most part, the current conceptions +of energy processes are crude, fanciful, and +inconsistent with Nature. They require for their +support—in fact, for their very existence—the acceptance +of equally fantastic conceptions of mythical +substances or ethereal media of whose real existence +there is absolutely no experimental evidence. On +the assumed properties or motions of such media +are based the many inconsistent and useless attempts +to explain phenomena. But, as already pointed out, +Nature has unmistakably indicated the true path of +progress to be that of experimental investigation. +In the use of this method only phenomena can be +employed, and any hypothesis which may be formulated +as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span> +the result of research on these lines is of +scientific value only in so far as it is the correct expression +of the actual facts observed. By this method +of holding close to Nature reliable working hypotheses +can, if necessary, be formed, and real progress made. +It is undeniably the method of true science.</p> + +<p>In recent years much attention has been devoted +to certain speculative theories with respect to the +origin and ultimate nature of matter and energy. +Such hypotheses, emanating as they do from prominent +workers, and fostered by the inherent imaginative +tendency of the human mind, have gained +considerable standing. But it is surely unnecessary +to point out that all questions relating to origins +are essentially outside the pale of true science. Any +hypotheses which may be thus formulated have not +the support of experimental facts in their conclusions; +they belong rather to the realm of speculative philosophy +than to that of science. In the total absence +of confirmatory phenomena, such theories can, at +best, only be regarded as plausible speculations, to +be accepted, it may be, without argument, and +ranking in interest in the order of their plausibility.</p> + +<p>Of modern research into the ultimate constitution +of matter little requires to be said. It is largely +founded on certain radio-active and electrical phenomena +which, in themselves, contribute little information. +But aided by speculative methods and the +use of preconceived ethereal hypotheses, various +elaborate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> +theories have been formulated, explaining +matter and its properties entirely in terms of +ethereal motions. Such conceptions in their proper +sphere—namely, that of metaphysics—would be +no doubt of interest, but when advanced as a +scientific proposition or solution they border on +the ridiculous. In the absence of phenomena bearing +on the subject, it would seem that the last resort +of the modern scientist lies in terminology. To +the average seeker after truth, however, the term +"matter," as applied to the material world, will still +convey as much meaning as the more elaborate +scientific definitions.</p> + +<p>It is not the purpose of this work to add +another thread to the already tangled skein of +scientific theory. It is written, rather, with the +conviction, that it is impossible ever to get really +behind or beyond phenomena; in the belief that +the complete description of any natural process +is simply the complete description of the associated +phenomena, which may always be observed +and co-ordinated but never ultimately explained. +Phenomena must ever be accepted simply as +phenomena—as the inscrutable manifestations of +Nature. By induction from phenomena it is indeed +possible to rise to working hypotheses, and thence, +it may be, to general conceptions of Nature's order, +and as already pointed out, it is to this method, of +accepting phenomena, and of reasoning only from +experimental<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> +facts, that all the advances of modern +science are due. On the other hand, it is the +neglect of this method—the departure, as it were, +from Nature—which has led to the introduction +into the scientific thought of the day of the various +ethereal media with their extreme and contradictory +properties. The use of such devices really amounts +to an admission of direct ignorance of phenomena. +They are, in reality, an attempt to explain natural +operations by a highly artificial method, and, having +no basis in fact, their whole tendency is to proceed, in +ever-increasing degree, from one absurdity to another.</p> + +<p>It is quite possible to gain a perfectly true and +an absolutely reliable knowledge of the properties of +matter and energy, and the part which each plays, +without resorting to speculative aids. All that is required +is simply accurate and complete observation at +first hand. The field of research is wide; all Nature +forms the laboratory. By this method every result +achieved may be tested and verified, not by its concurrence +with any approved theory, however plausible, +but by direct reference to phenomena. The verdict +of Nature will be the final judgment on every scheme.</p> + +<p>It is on these principles, allied with the great +generalisations with respect to the conservation of +matter and energy, that this work is founded. As +the result of a long, varied, and intimate acquaintance +with Nature, and much experimental research in +many spheres, the author has reached the conclusion, +already<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> +foreshadowed in <i>Terrestrial Energy</i>, that +the great principle of energy conservation is true, +not only in the universal and generally accepted +sense, but also in a particular sense with respect to +all really separate bodies, such as planetary masses +in space. Each of these bodies, therefore, forms +within itself a completely conservative energy +system. This conclusion obviously involves the complete +denial of the transmission of energy in any +form across interplanetary space, and the author, in +this volume, now seeks to verify the conclusion by the +direct experimental evidence of terrestrial phenomena.</p> + +<p>Under present-day conditions in science, the +acceptance of the ordinary doctrine of transmission +across space involves likewise the acceptance of the +existence of an ethereal substance which pervades +all space and forms the medium by which such +transmission is carried out. The properties of this +medium are, of course, precisely adapted to its assumed +function of transmission. These properties it +is not necessary to discuss, for when the existence of +the transmission itself has been finally disproved, the +necessity for the transmitting medium clearly vanishes.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="PART_I" id="PART_I"></a>PART I</h2> + +<p class="center big">GENERAL STATEMENT</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_1" id="sec_1"></a>1. <i>Advantages of General View of Natural +Operations</i></h3> + +<p>The object of this statement is to outline and +illustrate, in simple fashion, a broad and general +conception of the operation and interaction of matter +and energy in natural phenomena.</p> + +<p>Such a conception may be of value to the +student of Nature, in several ways. In modern +times the general tendency of scientific work is +ever towards specialisation, with its corresponding +narrowness of view. A broad outlook on Nature +is thus eminently desirable. It enables the observer +to perceive to some extent the links uniting the +apparently most insignificant of natural processes +to those of seemingly greater magnitude and importance. +In this way a valuable idea of the natural +world as a whole may be gained, which will, in turn, +tend generally to clarify the aspect of particular +operations. A broad general view of Nature also +leads to the appreciation of the full significance of +the great doctrines of the conservation of matter +and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> +energy. By its means the complete verification +of these doctrines, which appears to be beyond +human experiment, may be traced on the face of +Nature throughout the endless chain of natural processes. +Such a view also leads to a firm grasp of +the essential nature and qualities of energy itself +so far as they are revealed by its general function +in phenomena.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_2" id="sec_2"></a>2. <i>Separate Mass in Space</i></h3> + +<p>In the scheme now to be outlined, matter and +energy are postulated at the commencement without +reference to their ultimate origin or inherent nature. +They are accepted, in their diverse forms, precisely +as they are familiar from ordinary terrestrial experience +and phenomena.</p> + +<p>For the purpose of general illustration the reader +is asked to conceive a mass of heterogeneous matter, +concentrated round a given point in space, forming +a single body. This mass is assumed to be assembled +and to obtain its coherent form in virtue of that +universal and inherent property of matter, namely, +gravitative or central attraction. This property is +independent of precise energy conditions, its outward +manifestation being found simply in the persistent +tendency of matter on all occasions to press +or force itself into the least possible space. In +the absence of all disturbing influences, therefore, +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> +configuration of this mass of matter, assumed +assembled round the given point, would naturally, +under the influence of this gravitative tendency, +resolve itself into that of a perfect sphere. The +precise magnitude or dimensions of the spherical +body thus constituted are of little moment in the +discussion, but, for illustrative purposes, it may, +in the meantime, be assumed that in mass it is +equivalent to our known solar system. It is also +assumed to be completely devoid of energy, and +as a mass to be under the influence of no external +constraint. Under these conditions, the spherical +body may obviously be assumed as stationary in +space, or otherwise as moving with perfectly uniform +velocity along a precisely linear path. Either +conception is justifiable. The body has no relative +motion, and since it is absolutely unconstrained +no force could be applied to it and no +energy expenditure would be required for its linear +movement.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_3" id="sec_3"></a>3. <i>Advent of Energy—Distortional Effects</i></h3> + +<p>Nature, however, does not furnish us with any +celestial or other body fulfilling such conditions. +Absolutely linear motion is unknown, and matter +is never found divorced from energy. To complete +the system, therefore, the latter factor is +required, and, with the advent of energy to the +mass,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> +its prototype may be found in the natural +world.</p> + +<p>This energy is assumed to be communicated in +that form which we shall term "work" energy +(§§ <a href="#sec_13">13,</a> <a href="#sec_31">31</a>) and which, as a form of energy, will +be fully dealt with later. This "work" energy is +assumed to be manifested, in the first place, as +energy of motion. As already pointed out, no expenditure +of energy can be associated with a linear +motion of the mass, since that motion is under +no restraint, but in virtue of the initial central +attraction or gravitative strain, the form of energy +first communicated may be that of kinetic energy +of rotation. Its transmission to the mass will cause +the latter to revolve about some axis of symmetry +within itself. Each particle of the mass thus pursues +a circular path with reference to that axis, +and has a velocity directly proportional to its radial +displacement from it.</p> + +<p>This energised rotating spherical mass is thus +the primal conception of the energy scheme now +to be outlined. It will be readily seen that, as +a primal conception, it is essentially and entirely +natural; so much so, indeed, that any one familiar +with rotatory motion might readily predict from +ordinary experience the resulting phenomena on +which the scheme is, more or less, based.</p> + +<p>When energy is applied to the mass, the first +phenomenon of note will be that, as the mass +rotates,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> +it departs from its originally spherical shape. +By the action of what is usually termed centrifugal +force, the rotating body will be distorted; it will +be flattened at the polar or regions of lowest +velocity situated at the extremities of the axis of +rotation, and it will be correspondingly distended +at the equatorial or regions of highest velocity. +The spherical body will, in fact, assume a more or +less discoidal form according to the amount of +energy applied to it; there will be a redistribution +of the original spherical matter; certain portions +of the mass will be forced into new positions more +remote from the central axis of rotation.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_4" id="sec_4"></a>4. <i>The Gravitation Field</i></h3> + +<p>These phenomena of motion are the outward +evidence of certain energy processes. The distortional +movement of the material is carried out +against the action and within the field of certain +forces which exist in the mass of material in virtue +of its gravitative or cohesive qualities. It is carried +out also in virtue of the application of energy to +the sphere, which energy has been, as it were, +transformed or worked down, in the distortional +movement, against the restraining action of this +gravitation field or influence. The outward displacement +of the material from the central axis +is thus coincident with a gain of energy to the +mass,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> +this gain of energy being, of course, at the +expense of, and by the direct transformation of, +the originally applied energy. It is stored in the +distorted material as energy of position, potential +energy, or energy of displacement relative to the +central axis. But, in the distortive movement, the +mass will also gain energy in other forms. The +movement of one portion of its material relative +to another will give rise (since it is carried out +under the gravitational influence) to a fractional +process in which, as we know from terrestrial experience, +heat and electrical energy will make their +appearance. These forms of energy will give rise, in +their turn, to all the phenomena usually attendant on +their application to material. As already pointed out +also, the whole mass gains, in varying degree, energy +of motion or kinetic energy. It would appear, then, +that although energy was nominally applied to the +mass in one form only, yet by its characteristic property +of transformation it has in reality manifested itself +in several entirely different forms. It is important to +note the part played in these transformation processes +by the gravitation field or influence. Its action really +reveals one of the vital working principles of energetics. +This principle may be generally stated thus:—</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Every Transformation of Energy is carried +out by the Action of Energised Matter in the +Lines or Field of an Incepting Energy Influence.</span></p> + +<p>In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> +the particular case we have just considered, +the incepting field is simply the inherent gravitative +property of the energised mass. This property is +manifested as an attractive force between portions +of matter. This, however, is not of necessity the +only aspect of an incepting influence. In the course +of this work various instances of transformation +will be presented in which the incepting influence +functions in a guise entirely different. It is important +to note that the incepting influence itself +is in no way changed, altered, or transformed during +the process of transformation which it influences.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_5" id="sec_5"></a>5. <i>Limits of Rotational Energy. Disruptional +Phenomena</i></h3> + +<p>It is clear that the material at different parts +of the rotating spheroid will be energised to varying +degrees. Since the linear velocity of the material +in the equatorial regions of the spheroid is greater +than that of the material about the poles, the +energy of motion of the former will exceed that of +the latter, the difference becoming greater as the +mass is increasingly energised and assumes more and +more the discoidal form.</p> + +<p>The question now arises as to how far this process +of energising the material mass may be carried. +What are its limits? The capacity of the rotating +body for energy clearly depends on the amount +of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> +work which may be spent on its material in +distorting it against the influence of the gravitative +attraction. The amount is again dependent on the +strength of this attraction. But the value of the +gravitative attraction or gravitation field is, by +the law of gravitation, in direct proportion to the +quantity of material or matter present, and hence the +capacity of the body for energy depends on its mass +or on the quantity of matter which composes it.</p> + +<p>Now if energy be impressed on this mass beyond +its capacity a new order of phenomena appears. +Distortion will be followed by disruption and disintegration. +By the action of the disruptive forces +a portion of the primary material will be projected +into space as a planetary body. The manner of +formation of such a secondary body is perhaps best +illustrated by reference to the commonplace yet beautiful +and suggestive phenomenon of the separation +of a drop of water or other viscous fluid under the +action of gravitation. In this process, during the +first downward movement of the drop, it is united +to its source by a portion of attenuated material +which is finally ruptured, one part moving downwards +and being embodied in the drop whilst the +remainder springs upwards towards the source. In +the process of formation of the planetary body we +are confronted with an order of phenomena of +somewhat the same nature. The planetary orb +which is hurled into space is formed in a manner +similar<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> +to the drop of viscous fluid, and under the +action of forces of the same general nature. One +of these forces is the bond of gravitative attraction +between planet and primary which is never severed, +and when complete separation of the two masses +finally occurs, the incessant combination of this +force with the tangential force of disruption acting +on the planet will compel it into a fixed orbit, which +it will pursue around the central axis. When all +material links have thus been severed, the two bodies +will then be absolutely separate masses in space. The +term "separate" is here used in its most rigid and +absolute sense. No material connection of any kind +whatever exists, either directly or indirectly, between +the two masses. Each one is completely isolated +from the other by interplanetary space, and in +reality, so far as material connection is concerned, +each one might be the sole occupant of that space. +This conception of separate masses in space is of +great importance to the author's scheme, but, at +the same time, the condition is one which cannot be +illustrated by any terrestrial experimental contrivance. +It will be obvious that such a device, as +might naturally be conceived, of isolating two +bodies by placing them in an exhausted vessel or +vacuous space, by no means complies with the full +conditions of true separation portrayed above, because +some material connection must always exist +between the enclosed bodies and the containing +vessel.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> +This aspect is more fully treated later +(§ <a href="#sec_30">30</a>). The condition of truly separate masses is, +in fact, purely a celestial one. No means whatever +are existent whereby such a condition may be +faithfully reproduced in a terrestrial environment.</p> + +<p>In their separate condition the primary and planetary +mass will each possess a definite and unvarying +amount of energy. It is to be noted also, that since +the original mass of the primary body has been +diminished by the mass of the planet cast off, the +capacity for energy of the primary will now be +diminished in a corresponding degree. Any further +increment of energy to the primary in any form has +now, however, no direct influence on the energy of +the planet, which must maintain its position of complete +isolation in its orbit. But although thus +separate and distinct from the primal mass in every +material respect, the planet is ever linked to it by +the invisible bond of gravitation, and every movement +made by the planet in approaching or receding +from the primary is made in the field or influence of +this attraction. In accordance, therefore, with the +general principle already enunciated (§ <a href="#sec_4">4</a>), these +actions or movements of the energised planetary +mass, being made in the field of the incepting gravitative +influence, will be accompanied by transformations, +and thus the energy of the planet, although +unvarying in its totality, may vary in its form or +distribution with the inward or outward movement +of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> +the planet in its orbital path. As the planet +recedes from the primary it gains energy of position, +but this gain is obtained solely at the expense, and by +the direct transformation of its own orbital energy of +motion. Its velocity in its orbit must, therefore, +decrease as it recedes from the central axis of the +system, and increase as it approaches that axis. +Thus from energy considerations alone it is clear +that, if the planetary orbit is not precisely circular, +the velocity of the planet must vary at different +points of its path.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_6" id="sec_6"></a>6. <i>Passive Function and General Nature of +Gravitation Field</i></h3> + +<p>From the phenomena described above, it will be +observed that, in the energy processes of transformation +occurring in both primary and planet, the +function of the gravitation field or influence is entirely +passive in nature. The field is, in truth, the persistent +moving or directing power behind the energy +processes, the incepting energy influence or agency +which determines the nature of the transformation +in each case without being, in any way, actively +engaged in it. In accelerating or retarding the +transformation process it has thus absolutely no +effect. These features are controlled by other +factors. Neither does this incepting agency affect, +in any way, the limits of the transformation process, +these<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> +limits being prescribed by the physical or +energy qualities of the acting materials. In general +nature the gravitation field appears to be simply +an energy influence—a peculiar manifestation of +certain passive qualities of energy. This aspect will, +however, become clearer to the reader when the +properties of gravitation are studied in conjunction +with those of other incepting energy influences +(§§ <a href="#sec_17">17,</a> <a href="#sec_18">18,</a> <a href="#sec_19">19</a>).</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_7" id="sec_7"></a>7. <i>Limit of Gravitation Transformation</i></h3> + +<p>In the case of a planetary body, there is a real +limit to the extent of the transformation of its orbital +energy of motion under the influence of the gravitation +field. As the orbit of the planet widens, and its +mean distance from the primary becomes greater, its +velocity in its orbital path must correspondingly +decrease. As already pointed out (§ <a href="#sec_5">5</a>), this decrease +is simply the result of the orbital energy of +motion being transformed or worked down into +energy of position. But since this orbital energy is +strictly limited in amount, a point must ultimately +be reached where it would be transformed in its +entirety into energy of position. When this limiting +condition is attained, the planet clearly could +have no orbital motion; it would be instantaneously +at rest in somewhat the same way as a projectile +from the earth's surface is at rest at the summit of +its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> +flight in virtue of the complete transformation of +its energy of motion into energy of position. In this +limiting condition, also, the energy of position of the +planet would be the maximum possible, and its +orbital energy zero. The scope of the planetary +orbital path is thus rigidly determined by the planetary +energy properties. Assuming the reduction of +gravity with distance to follow the usual law of +inverse squares, the value of the displacement of the +planet from the central axis when in this stationary +or limiting position may be readily calculated if the +various constants are known. In any given case it is +obvious that this limiting displacement must be a +finite quantity, since the planetary orbital energy +which is being worked down is itself finite in amount.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_8" id="sec_8"></a>8. <i>Interactions of Two Planetary Bodies—Equilibrium +Phenomena</i></h3> + +<p>Up to the present point, the cosmical system has +been assumed to be composed of one planetary body +only in addition to the primary mass. It is clear, +however, that by repetition of the process already +described, the system could readily evolve more than +one planet; it might, in fact, have several planetary +masses originating in the same primary, each endowed +with a definite modicum of energy, and each +pursuing a persistent orbit round the central axis of +the system. Since the mass of the primary decreases +as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> +each successive planet is cast off, its gravitative +attractive powers will also decrease, and with every +such decline in the central restraining force the orbits +of the previously constituted planets will naturally +widen. By the formation in this way of a series of +planetary masses, the material of the original primary +body would be as it were distributed over a larger area +or space, and this separation would be accompanied +by a corresponding decrease in the gravitative attraction +between the several masses. If the distributive +or disruptive process were carried to its limit +by the continuous application of rotatory energy to +each separate unit of the system, this limit would be +dependent on the capacity of the system for energy. +As is shown later (§ <a href="#sec_20">20</a>), this capacity would be +determined by the mass of the system.</p> + +<p>For simplicity, let us consider the case in which +there are two planetary bodies only in the system in +addition to the primary. In virtue of the gravitative +attraction or gravitation field between the two, they +will mutually attract one another in their motion, and +each will, in consequence, be deflected more or less +out of that orbital path which it would normally +pursue in the absence of the other. This attraction +will naturally be greatest when the planets are in the +closest proximity; the planet having the widest +orbit will then be drawn inwards towards the central +axis, the other will be drawn outwards. The distance +moved in this way by each will depend on its +mass,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> +and on the forces brought to bear on it by the +combined action of the two remaining masses of the +system. Moving thus in different directions, the +motion of each planet is carried out in the lines of +the gravitation field between the two. One planet, +therefore, gains and the other loses energy of position +with respect to the central axis of the system. The +one planet can thus influence, to some extent, the +energy properties of the other, although there is +absolutely no direct energy communication between +the two; as shown hereafter, the whole action and +the energy change will be due simply to the motion +carried out in the field of the incepting gravitation +influence.</p> + +<p>It is clear, however, that this influence is exerted +on the distribution of the energy, on the form in +which it is manifested, and in no way affects the +energy totality of either planet. Each, as before, +remains a separate system with conservative energy +properties. That planet which loses energy of position +gains energy of motion, and is correspondingly +accelerated in its orbital path; the other, in gaining +energy of position, does so at the expense of its own +energy of motion, and is retarded accordingly. The +action is really very simple in nature when viewed +from a purely energy standpoint. It has been +dealt with in some detail in order to emphasise the +fact that there is absolutely nothing in the nature of +a transmission of energy between one planet and the +other.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> +Taking a superficial view of the operation, it +might be inferred that, as the planets approach one +another, energy of motion (or energy of position) is +transmitted from one to the other, causing one to +retard and the other to accelerate its movement, but +a real knowledge of the energy conditions shows that +the phenomenon is rather one of a simple restoration +of equilibrium, a redistribution or transformation of +the intrinsic energy of each to suit these altering conditions. +Each planet is, in the truest sense, a separate +mass in space.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_9" id="sec_9"></a>9. <i>Axial Energy—Secondary Processes</i></h3> + +<p>Passing now to another aspect of the energy condition +of a planetary body, let the planet be assumed +to be endowed with axial energy or energy of rotation, +so that, while pursuing its orbital path in space, it +also rotates with uniform angular velocity about an +axis within itself. What will be the effect of the +primary mass on the planet under these new energy +conditions? We conceive that the effect is again +purely one of transformation. In this process the +primary mass functions once more as an entirely +passive or incepting agent, which, while exerting a +continuous transforming influence on the planet, does +not affect in any way the inherent energy properties of +the latter. Up to the present point we have only dealt +with one incepting influence in transformation processes, +namely, that of gravitation, which has always +been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> +manifested as an attractive force. It is not to +be supposed, however, that this is the only aspect +in which incepting influences may be presented. +Although attractive force is certainly an aspect of +some incepting influences, it is not a distinctive feature +of incepting influences generally. In many cases, the +aspect of force, in the sense of attraction or repulsion, +is entirely awanting. In the new order of transformations +which come into play in virtue of the +rotatory motion of a planetary mass in the field of +its primary, we shall find other incepting influences +in action entirely different in nature from the gravitation +influence, but, nevertheless, arising from the +same primary mass in a similar way. Now the application +of energy to the planet, causing it to rotate +in the lines or under the influence of these incepting +fields of the primary, brings into existence on the +planet an entirely new order of phenomena. So +long as the planet had no axial motion of rotation, +some of the incepting influences of the primary were +compelled, as it were, to inaction; but with the +advent of axial energy the conditions are at once +favourable to their action, and to the detection of +their transforming effects. In accordance with the +general principle already enunciated (§ <a href="#sec_4">4</a>), the action +of the planetary energised material in the lines of +the various incepting fields of the primary is productive +of energy transformations. The active +energy of these transformations is the axial or +energy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> +rotatory +of the planet itself, and, in virtue +of these transformations, certain other forms of +energy will be manifested on the planet and associated +with the various forms of planetary material. +These manifestations of energy, in fact, constitute +planetary phenomena. Since the action or movement +of the rotating material of the planet through +the incepting fields of the primary is most pronounced +in the equatorial or regions of highest +linear velocity, and least in the regions of low +velocity adjoining the poles of rotation, the transforming +effect may naturally be expected to decrease +in intensity from equator to poles. Planetary +energy phenomena will thus vary according to the +location of the acting material. It will be clear, +also, that each incepting agency or influence associated +with the primary mass will give rise to its own +peculiar transformations of axial energy on the +planetary surface. These leading or primary transformations +of axial energy, in which the incepting +influence is associated with the primary mass only, +we term primary processes. But it is evident that +the various forms of energy thus set free on the +planet as a result of the primary processes will be +communicated to, and will operate on, the different +forms of planetary material, and will give rise to +further or secondary transformations of energy, in +which the incepting agency is embodied in or associated +with planetary material only. The exact +nature<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> +of these secondary transformations will vary +according to the circumstances in which they take +place. Each of them, however, as indicated above, +will be, in itself, carried out in virtue of some action +of the energised planetary material in the lines or +field of what we might term a secondary incepting +influence. The latter, however, must not be confused +with the influences of the primary. It is +essentially a planetary phenomenon, an aspect of +planetary energy; it is associated with the physical +or material machine by means of which the secondary +process of transformation is carried out. The nature +of this secondary influence will determine the nature +of the secondary transformation in each case. Its +precise extent may be limited by other considerations +(§ <a href="#sec_15">15</a>).</p> + +<p>As an example, assume a portion of the axial +energy to be primarily transformed into heat in +virtue of the planet's rotation in the field of an independent +thermal incepting influence exerted by the +primary. To the action of this agency, which we +might term the thermal field, we assume are due all +primary heating phenomena of planetary material. +Now the secondary transformations will take place +when the heat energy thus manifested is applied to +some form of matter. It is obvious, however, that +this application might be carried out in various ways. +Heat may be devoted to the expansion of a solid +against its cohesive forces. It may be expended +against<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> +the elastic forces of a gas, or it may be worked +down against chemical or electrical forces. In every +case a transformation of energy will result, varying +in nature according to the peculiar conditions under +which it is carried out. In this or a similar fashion +each primary incepting influence may give rise to a +series of secondary actions more or less complex in +nature. These secondary transformation processes, +allied with other processes of transmission, will, in +fact, constitute the visible phenomena of the planet, +and in their variety will exactly correspond to these +phenomena.</p> + +<p>With regard to the gravitation field, its general +influence on the rotating mass may be readily predicted. +The material on that part of the planetary +surface which is nearest to or happens to face the +primary in rotation is, during the short time it +occupies that position, subjected to a greater attractive +influence than the remainder which is more remote +from the primary. It will, in consequence, tend to +be more or less distorted or elevated above its normal +position on the planetary surface. This distorting +effect will vary in degree according to the nature +of the material, whether solid, liquid, or gaseous, but +the general effect of the distortional movement, +combined with the rotatory motion of the planet, +will be to produce a tidal action or a periodical rise +and fall of the more fluid material distributed over +the planetary surface. The distortion will, of course, +be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> +accompanied by energy processes in which axial +energy will be transformed into heat and other forms, +which will finally operate in the secondary processes +exactly as in previous cases.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_10" id="sec_10"></a>10. <i>Mechanism of Energy Return</i></h3> + +<p>But the question now arises, as to how this continuous +transformation of the axial energy can be consistent +with that condition of uniformity of rotation of +the planet which was originally assumed. If the total +energy of the planetary mass is limited, and if it can +receive no increment of energy from any external +source, it is clear that the axial energy transformed +must, by some process, be continuously returned to +its original form. Some process or mechanism is +evidently necessary to carry out this operation. +This mechanism we conceive to be provided by +certain portions of the material of the planet, principally +the gaseous matter which resides on its +surface, completely enveloping it, and extending +outwards into space (§ <a href="#sec_38">38</a>). In other words, the +atmosphere of the planet forms the machine or +material agency by which this return of the +transformed axial energy is carried out. It has +already been pointed out (§ <a href="#sec_9">9</a>) how the working +energy of every secondary transformation is derived +from the original axial energy of the planet itself. +Each of these secondary transformations, however, +forms<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> +but one link of one cyclical chain of secondary +transformations, in which a definite quantity of +energy, initially in the axial form, passes, in these +secondary operations, through various other forms, +by different processes and through the medium of +different material machines, until it is eventually +absorbed into the atmosphere of the planet. These +complete series of cyclical operations, by which the +various portions of axial energy are carried to the +atmosphere, may in some cases be of a very simple +nature, and may be continuously repeated over very +short intervals of time; in other cases, the cycle +may seem obscure and complicated, and its complete +operation spread over very long periods, but in all +cases the final result is the same. The axial energy +abstracted, sooner or later, recurs to the atmospheric +machine. By its action in this machine, great masses +of gaseous material are elevated from the surface +of the planet against the attractive force of gravitation; +the energy will thus now appear in the form +of potential energy or energy of position. By a +subsequent movement of these gaseous masses over +the surface of the planet from the regions of high +velocity towards the poles, combined with a movement +of descent to lower levels, the energy of +position with which they were endowed is returned +once more in the original axial form.</p> + +<p>This, roughly, constitutes the working of the +planetary atmospheric machine, which, while in itself +completely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> +reversible and self-contained, forms also +at the same time the source and the sink of all the +energy working in the secondary transformations. +In the ceaseless rounds of these transformations +which form planetary phenomena it links together +the initial and concluding stages of each series by +a reversible process. Energy is thus stored and restored +continuously. The planet thus neither gains +nor loses energy of axial motion; so far as its +energy properties are concerned, it is entirely independent +of every external influence. Its uniformity +of rotation is absolutely maintained. Each +planet of the system will, in the same way, be an +independent and conservative unit.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_11" id="sec_11"></a>11. <i>Review of Cosmical System—General Function +of Energy</i></h3> + +<p>Reviewing the system as a whole, the important +part played by energy in its constitution is readily +perceived. The source of the energy which operates +in all parts of the system is found in that energy +originally applied (§ <a href="#sec_3">3</a>). When the system is finally +constituted, this energy is found distributed amongst +the planets, each of which has received its share, and +each of which is thereby linked to the primary by +its influence. It is part of this same energy which +undergoes transformation in virtue of the orbital +movements of the planets in the field of the gravitative +influence.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> +Again, it is found in the form +of planetary axial energy, and thence, under the +influence of various incepting agencies, it passes in +various forms through the whole gamut of planetary +phenomena, and finally functions in the atmospheric +machine. Every phenomenon of the system, great +or small, is, in fact, but the external evidence either +of the transformation or of the transmission of this +energy—the outward manifestation of its changed +or changing forms. Its presence, which always implies +its transformation (§ <a href="#sec_4">4</a>), is the simple primary +condition attached to every operation. The primal +mass originally responded to the application of +energy by the presentation of phenomena. Every +material portion of the system will similarly respond +according to circumstances. Energy is, in fact, the +working spirit of the whole cosmical scheme. It +is the influence linking every operation of the system +to the original transformations at the central axis, +so that all may be combined into one complete and +consistent whole. It is to be noted, however, that +although they have a common origin the orbital +energy of each planetary mass is entirely distinct +from its energy of axial rotation, and is not interchangeable +therewith. The transformation of the +one form of energy in no way affects the totality +of the other.</p> + +<p>The disruption of the primary mass furnishes a +view of what is virtually the birth of gravitation +as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> +it is conceived to exist between separate bodies. +It may now be pointed out that the attractive influence +of gravitation is, in reality, but one of the +many manifestations of energy of the system. It +is not, however, an active manifestation of the working +energy, but rather an aspect of energy as it is +related to the properties of matter. We have absolutely +no experimental experience of matter devoid +of energy. Gravitation might readily be termed an +energy property of matter, entirely passive in nature, +and requiring the advent of some other form in +order that it may exercise its function as an incepting +agency.</p> + +<p>From a general consideration of the features of +this system, in which every phenomenon is an +energy phenomenon, it seems feasible to conclude +also that every property of matter is likewise an +energy property. It is certain, indeed, that no +reasonable or natural concept of either matter or +energy is possible if the two be dissociated. The +system also presents a direct and clear illustration +of the principles of conservation in the working of +the whole, and also in each planetary unit.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_12" id="sec_12"></a>12. <i>Natural Conditions</i></h3> + +<p>It will be noted that, up to the present point, +the cosmical system has been discussed from a +purely abstract point of view. This method has +been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> +adopted for a definite reason. Although able, +at all points, to bring more or less direct evidence +from Nature, the author has no desire that his +scheme should be regarded in any way as an attempt +to originate or describe a system of creation. The +object has been, by general reasoning from already +accepted properties of matter and energy, to arrive +at a true conception of a possible natural order of +phenomena. It is obvious, however, that the solar +system forms the prototype of the system described +above. The motion of the earth and other planets is +continuously occurring under the influence of gravitation, +thermal, luminous, and other incepting fields +which link them to the central mass, the sun. As a +result of the action of such fields, energy transformations +arise which form the visible phenomena +of the system in all its parts, each transformation, +whether associated with animate or inanimate matter, +being carried out through the medium of some +arrangement of matter hereafter referred to as a +material machine. The conditions are precisely as +laid down above. The system is dominated, in +its separate units, and as a whole, by the great +principle of the conservation of energy. Each +planetary mass, as it revolves in space, is, so far +as its energy properties are concerned, an absolutely +conservative unit of that system. At the +same time, however, each planetary mass remains +absolutely dependent on the primary for those great +controlling<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> +or incepting influences which determine +the transformation of its inherent energy.</p> + +<p>In the special case of the earth, which will be +dealt with in some detail, it is the object of this +work to show that its property of complete energy +conservation is amply verified by terrestrial phenomena. +The extension of the principle from the +earth to the whole planetary system has been made +on precisely the same grounds as Newton extended +the observed phenomena to his famous generalisation +with respect to gravitation.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="PART_II" id="PART_II"></a>PART II</h2> + +<p class="center big">PRINCIPLES OF INCEPTION</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_13" id="sec_13"></a>13. <i>Illustrative Secondary Processes</i></h3> + +<p>In this part of the work, an attempt will be made to +place before the reader some of the purely terrestrial +and other evidential phenomena on which the conclusions +of the preceding General Statement are +founded. The complete and absolute verification of +that Statement is obviously beyond experimental +device. Bound, as we are, within the confines of +one planet, and unable to communicate with the +others, we can have no direct experimental acquaintance +with really separate bodies (§ <a href="#sec_5">5</a>) in space. +But, if from purely terrestrial experience we can +have no direct proofs on such matters, we have strong +evidential conclusions which cannot be gainsayed. +If the same kind of energy operates throughout +the solar system, the experimental knowledge of its +properties gained in one field of research is valuable, +and may be readily utilised in another. The phenomena +which are available to us for study are, of course, +simply the ordinary energy processes of the earth—those +operations which in the foregoing Statement +have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> +been described as secondary energy processes. +Their variety is infinite, and the author has +accordingly selected merely a few typical examples +to illustrate the salient points of the scheme. The +energy acting in these secondary processes is, in +every case, derived, either directly or indirectly, from +the energy of rotation or axial energy of the earth. +In themselves, the processes may be either energy +transformations or energy transmissions or a combination +of both these operations. When the action +involves the bodily movement of material mass in +space, the dynamical energy thus manifested, and +which may be transmitted by the movement of this +material, is termed mechanical or "work" energy +(§ <a href="#sec_31">31</a>); when the energy active in the process is +manifested as heat, chemical, or electrical energy, +we apply to it the term "molecular" energy. The +significance of these terms is readily seen. The +operation of mechanical or "work" energy on a mass +of material may readily proceed without any permanent +alteration in the internal arrangement or +general structure of that mass. Mechanical or +"work" energy is dissociated from any molecular +action. On the other hand, the application of such +forms of energy as heat or electrical energy to +material leads to distinctly molecular or internal +effects, in which some alteration in the constitution +of the body affected may ensue. Hence the use of +the terms, which of course is completely arbitrary.</p> + +<p>The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> +principal object of this part of the work is +to illustrate clearly the general nature, the working, +and the limits of secondary processes. For this +purpose, the author has found it best to refer to +certain more or less mechanical contrivances. The +apparatus made use of is merely that utilised in +everyday work for experimental or other useful +purposes. It is essentially of a very simple nature; +no originality is claimed for it, and no apology is +offered for the apparent simplicity of the particular +energy operations chosen for discussion. In fact, +this feature has rather led to their selection. In +scientific circles to-day, familiarity with the more +common instances of energy operations is apt to +engender the belief that these processes are completely +understood. There is no greater fallacy. +In many cases, no doubt, the superficial phenomena +are well known, but in even the simplest instances +the mechanism or ultimate nature of the process +remains unknown. A free and somewhat loose +method of applying scientific terms is frequently +the cloak which hides the ignorance of the observer. +No attempt will here be made to go beyond the +simple phenomena. The object in view is simply +to describe such phenomena, to emphasise and explain +certain aspects of already well-known facts, +which, up to the present, have been neglected.</p> + +<p>In some of the operations now to be described, +mechanical or "work" energy is the active agent, +and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> +material masses are thereby caused to execute +various movements in the lines or field of restraining +influences. For ordinary experimental convenience, +the material thus moved must of necessity +be matter in the solid form. The illustrative value +of our experimental devices, however, will be very +distinctly improved if it be borne in mind that the +operations of mechanical energy are not restricted +to solids only, but that the various processes of +transformation and transmission here illustrated by +the motions of solid bodies may, in other circumstances, +be carried out in a precisely similar fashion +by the movements of liquids or even of gases. The +restrictions imposed in the method of illustration +are simply those due to the limitations of human +experimental contrivance. Natural operations exhibit +apparatus of a different type. By the movements +of solid materials a convenient means of +illustration is provided, but it is to be emphasised +that, so far as the operations of mechanical energy +are concerned, the precise form or nature of the +material moved, whether it be solid, liquid, or +gaseous, is of no consequence. To raise one pound +of lead through a given distance against the gravitative +attraction of the earth requires no greater +expenditure of energy than to raise one pound of +hydrogen gas through the same distance. The +same principle holds in all operations involving +mechanical energy.</p> + +<p>Another<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> +point of some importance which will be +revealed by the study of secondary operations is +that every energy process has in some manner +definite energy limits imposed upon it. In the +workings of mechanical or "work" energy it is the +mass value of the moving material which, in this +respect, is important. The mass, in fact, is the real +governing factor of the whole process (§ <a href="#sec_20">20</a>). +It determines the maximum amount of energy +which can be applied to the material, and thus +controls the extent of the energy operation.</p> + +<p>But in actions involving the molecular energies, +the operation may be limited by other considerations +altogether. For example, the application of +heat to a solid body gives rise to certain energy +processes (§ <a href="#sec_27">27</a>). These processes may proceed +to a certain degree with increase of temperature, +but a point will finally be attained where change +of state of the heated material takes place. This +is the limiting point of this particular operation. +When change of state occurs, the phenomena will +assume an entirely different aspect. The first set +of energy processes will now be replaced by a set +of operations absolutely different in nature, themselves +limited in extent, but by entirely different +causes. The first operation must thus terminate +when the new order appears. In this manner each +process in which the applied energy is worked will +be confined within certain limiting boundaries. In +any<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> +chain of energy operations each link will thus +have, as it were, a definite length. In chemical +reactions, the limits may be imposed in various +ways according to the precise nature of the action. +Chemical combination, and chemical disruption, must +be looked on as operations which involve not only +the transformation of energy but also the transformation +of matter. In most cases, chemical reactions +result in the appearance of matter in an +entirely new form—in the appearance, in fact, of +actually different material, with physical and energy +properties absolutely distinct from those of the +reacting constituents. This appearance of matter +in the new form is usually the evidence of the +termination, not only of the particular chemical +process, but also of the energy process associated +with it. Transformation of energy may thus be +limited by transformation of matter.</p> + +<p>Examples of the limiting features of energy +operations could readily be multiplied. Even a +cursory examination of most natural operations will +reveal the existence of such limits. In no case do +we find in Nature any body, or any energy system, +to which energy may be applied in unlimited amount, +but in every case, rigid energy limits are imposed, +and, if these limits are exceeded, the whole energy +character of the body or system is completely +changed.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span></p> +<h3><a name="sec_14" id="sec_14"></a>14. <i>Incepting Energy Influences</i></h3> + +<p>In experimental and in physical work generally, +it has been customary, in describing any simple +process of energy transformation, to take account +only of those energies or those forms of energy +which play an active part in the process—the energy +in its initial or applied form and the energy in its +transformed or final form. This method, however, +requires enlarging so as to include another feature +of energy transformation, a feature hitherto completely +overlooked, namely, that of incepting energy. +Now, this conception of incepting energy, or of +energy as an incepting influence, is of such vital +importance to the author's scheme, that it is necessary +here, at the very outset, to deal with it in some +detail. To obtain some idea of the general nature of +these influences, it will be necessary to describe and +review a few simple instances of energy transformation. +One of the most illuminating for this purpose +is perhaps the familiar process of dynamo-electric +transformation.</p> + +<p>A spherical mass A (<a href="#i051">Fig. 1</a>) of copper is caused +to rotate about its central axis in the magnetic field +in the neighbourhood of a long and powerful +electro-magnet. In such circumstances, certain well-known +transformations of energy will take place. +The energy transformed is that dynamical or +"work"<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> +energy which is being applied to the +spherical mass by the external prime mover causing +it to rotate. As a result of this motion in the +magnetic field, an electrical action takes place; eddy +currents are generated in the spherical mass, and the +energy originally applied is, through the medium +of the electrical process, finally converted into heat +and other energy forms. The external evidence of +the process will be the rise +in temperature and corresponding +expansion of the +rotating mass.</p> + + + +<div class="figright"><a id="i051" name="i051"></a> +<img src="images/i051.jpg" alt="" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1</span></p> + +</div> + + +<p>Such is the energy transformation. +Let us now +review the conditions under +which it takes place. Passing +over the features of the +"work" energy applied and +the energy produced in the transformation, it is +evident that the primary and essential condition +of the whole process is the presence of the +magnetic field. In the absence of this influence, +every other condition of this particular energy operation +might have been fulfilled without result. The +magnetic field is, in reality, the determining agency +of the process. But this field of magnetic force is +itself an energy influence. Its existence implies the +presence of energy; it is the external manifestation +of that energy (usually described as stored in the +field)<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> +which is returned, as shown by the spark, when +the exciting circuit of the electro-magnet is broken. +The transformation of the dynamical or "work" +energy (§ <a href="#sec_31">31</a>) applied to the rotating sphere is thus +carried out by the direct agency, under the power, +or within the field of this magnetic energy influence, +to which, accordingly, we apply the expression, +incepting energy influence, or incepting energy.</p> + +<p>There are several points to be noted with regard +to these phenomena of inception. In the first place, +it is clear that the energy which thus constitutes the +magnetic field plays no active part in the main +process of transformation: during the operation it +neither varies in value nor in nature: it is entirely a +passive agent. Neither is any continuous expenditure +of energy required for the maintenance of this +incepting influence. It is true that the magnetic +field is primarily due to a circulatory current in the +coils or winding of the electro-magnet, but after the +initial expenditure of energy in establishing that field +is incurred, the continuous expenditure of energy +during the flow of the current is devoted to simply +heating the coils. A continuous heat transformation +is thus in progress. The magnetic energy influence, +although closely associated with this heat transformation, +yet represents in itself a distinct and +separate energy feature. This last point is, perhaps, +made more clear if it be assumed that, without +altering the system in any way, the electro-magnet +is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> +replaced by a permanent magnet of precisely the +same dimensions and magnetic power. There would +then be no energy expenditure whatever for excitation, +but nevertheless, the main transformation would +take place in precisely the same manner and to +exactly the same degree as before. The incepting +energy influence is found in the residual magnetism.</p> + +<p>If an iron ball or sphere were substituted, in the +experiment, for the copper one, the phenomena +observed on its rotation would be of an exactly +similar nature to those described above. There is, +however, one point of difference. Since the iron is +magnetic, the magnet pole will now exert an attractive +force on the iron mass, and if the latter were in +close proximity to the pole (<a href="#i051">Fig. 1</a>), a considerable +expenditure of energy might be required to separate +the two. It is evident, then, that in the case of iron +and the magnetic metals, this magnetic influence is +such that an expenditure of energy is required, not +only to cause these materials to move in rotation so +as to cut the lines of the field of the magnetic influence, +but also to cause them to move outwards from +the seat of the influence <i>along</i> the lines of the field. +The movements, indeed, involve transformations of +energy totally different in nature. Assuming the +energy to be obtained, in both cases, from the same +external source, it is, in the first instance, converted +by rotatory motion in the field into electrical and heat +energy, whereas, in the second case, by the outward +motion<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> +of displacement from the pole, it is transformed +and associated with the mass in the form of +energy of position or energy of displacement relative +to the pole. Since the attractive force between the +iron mass and the pole may be assumed to diminish +according to a well-known law, the energy transformation +per unit displacement will also diminish at +the same rate. The precise nature and extent of the +influence of the incepting agent thus depend on the +essential qualities of the energised material under its +power. In this case, the magnetic metals, such as +iron, provide phenomena of attraction which are +notably absent in the case of the dia-magnetic metals +such as copper. Other substances, such as wood, +appear to be absolutely unaffected by any movement +in the magnetic field. The precise energy +condition of the materials in the field of the incepting +influence is also an important point. The +incepting energy might be regarded as acting, not +on the material itself, but rather on the energy +associated with that material. From the phenomena +already considered, it is clear that before the incepting +influence of magnetism can act on the copper +ball, the latter must be endowed with energy of +rotation. It is on this energy, then, that the incepting +influence exerts its transforming power. It would +be useless to energise the copper ball, say by raising +it to a high temperature, and then place it at rest +in the magnetic field; the magnetic energy influence +would<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> +not operate on the heat energy, and consequently, +no transformation would ensue.</p> + +<p>It is easy to conceive, also, that in the course +of an energy transformation, the material may +attain an energy condition in which the incepting +influence no longer affects it. Take once +more the case of the iron ball. It is well known +that, at a high temperature, iron becomes non-magnetic. +It would follow, then, that if the +rotational transformation in the magnetic field could +be carried out to the requisite degree, so that, +by the continuous application of that heat energy +which is the final product of the process, the ball had +attained this temperature, then the other transformation +consequent on the displacement of the ball from +the attracting pole could not take place. No change +has really occurred in the incepting energy conditions. +They are still continuous and persistent, +but the energy changes in the material itself have +carried it, to a certain degree, beyond the influence +of these conditions.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_15" id="sec_15"></a>15. <i>Cohesion as an Incepting Influence</i></h3> + +<p>Other aspects of incepting energy may be derived +from the examples cited above. Returning to the +case of the rotating copper sphere, let it be assumed +that in consequence of its rotation in the magnetic +field it is raised from a low to a high temperature. +Due<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> +to the heating effect alone, the mass will expand +or increase in volume. This increase is the +evidence of a definite energy process by which +certain particles or portions of the mass have in distortion +gained energy of position—energy of separation—or +potential energy relative to the centre of +the sphere. In fact, if the mass were allowed to cool +back to its normal condition, this energy might by a +suitable arrangement be made available for some +form of external work. It is obvious, however, that +this new energy of position or separation which has +accrued to the mass in its heated condition has in +reality been obtained by the transformation of the +"work" energy originally applied. The abnormal +displacement of certain particles or portions of the +mass from the centre of the sphere is simply the +external evidence of their increased energy. Now +this displacement, or strain, due to the heat expansion, +is carried out against the action of certain +cohesive forces or stresses existing between the +particles throughout the mass. These cohesive +forces are, in fact, the agency which determines this +transformation of heat into energy of position. +Their existence is essential to the process. But +these cohesive forces are simply the external manifestation +of that energy by virtue of which the +mass tends to maintain its coherent form. They +are the symbol of that energy which might be +termed the cohesion energy of the mass—they +are,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> +in fact, the symbol of the incepting energy +influence of the transformation. This incepting +energy influence of cohesion is one which holds +sway throughout all solid material. It is, therefore, +found in action in every movement involving +the internal displacement or distortion of +matter. It is a property of matter, and accordingly +it is found to vary not only with the material, but +also with the precise physical condition or the energy +state of the material with which it is associated. In +this respect, it differs entirely from the preceding +magnetic influence. The latter, we have seen, has +no direct association with the copper ball, or with +the material which is the actual venue of the transformation. +As an energy influence, it is itself persistent, +and unaffected by the energy state of that +material. On the other hand, the cohesion energy, +being purely a property of the material which is the +habitat of the energy process, is directly affected by +its energy state. This point will be clearer by +reference to the actual phenomena of the heat transformation. +As the process proceeds, the temperature +of the mass as the expansion increases will rise higher +and higher, until, at a certain point, the solid material +is so energised that change of state ensues. At this, +the melting-point of the material, liquefaction takes +place, and its cohesive properties almost vanish. In +this fashion, then, a limit is clearly imposed on the +process of heat transformation in the solid body—a +limit<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> +defined by the cohesive or physical properties +of the particular material. In this limiting power +lies the difference between cohesion and magnetism +as incepting influences. Looking at the whole +dynamo-electric transformation in a general way, it +will be clear that the magnetic influence in no way +limits or affects the amount of dynamical or "work" +energy which may be applied to the rotating sphere. +This amount is limited simply by the cohesive +properties of the material mass in rotation. The +magnetic influence might, in fact, be regarded as the +primary or inducing factor in the system, and the +cohesion influence as the secondary or limiting +factor.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_16" id="sec_16"></a>16. <i>Terrestrial Gravitation as an Incepting +Influence</i></h3> + +<p>The attractive influence of gravitation appears +as an incepting agency in terrestrial as well as in +celestial phenomena. In fact, of all the agencies +which incept energy transformations on the earth, +gravitation, in one form or another, is the most +universal and the most important. Gravitation +being a property of all matter, no mundane body, +animate or inanimate, is exempt from its all-pervading +influence, and every movement of energised +matter within the field of that influence leads inevitably +to energy transformation.</p> + +<p>Let us take a concrete illustration. A block +of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> +solid material is supported on a horizontal table. +By means of a cord attached, energy is applied to +the block from an external source, so that it slides +over the surface of the table. As a result of this +motion and the associated frictional process, heat +energy will make its appearance at the sliding surfaces +of contact. This heat energy is obviously +obtained by the transformation of that energy +originally applied to the block from the external +source. What is the incepting influence in this +process of transformation? The incepting influence +is clearly the gravitative attraction of the earth +operating between the moving block and the table. +The frictional process, it is well known, is dependent +in extent or degree on the pressure between the +surfaces in contact. This pressure is, of course, due +to the gravitative attraction of the earth on the +mass of the block. If it be removed, say by supporting +the block from above, the heat-transformation +process at the surfaces at once terminates. +Gravity, then, is the primary incepting influence of +the process. The effect of gravitation in transformation +has apparently been eliminated by supporting +the block from above and removing the +pressure between block and table. It is not really +so, however, because the pressure due to the gravitative +attraction of the earth on the block has in +reality only been transferred to this new point +of support, and if a movement of the block is +carried<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> +out it will be found that the heat transformation +has been also transferred to that point. +But there are also other influences at work in the +process. The extent of the heat transformation +depends, not only on the pressure, but also on the +nature of the surfaces in contact. It is evident, +that in the sliding movement the materials in the +neighbourhood of the surfaces in contact will be +more or less strained or distorted. This distortion +is carried out in the lines of the cohesive forces of +the materials, and is the real mechanism of the +transformation of the applied work energy into +heat. It is obvious that the nature of the surfaces +in contact must influence the degree of distortion, +that is, whether they are rough or smooth; the +cohesive qualities of the materials in contact will +depend also on the nature of these materials, and +the extent of the heat transformation will be limited +by these cohesive properties in precisely the same +way as described for other examples (§ <a href="#sec_15">15</a>). The +function of gravitation in this transformation is, +obviously, again quite passive in nature, and is in +no way influenced by the extent of the process. +Gravitation is, as it were, only the agency whereby +the acting energy is brought into communication +with the cohesive forces of the sliding materials.</p> + +<p>A little reflection will convey to the reader the +vast extent of this influence of gravitation in frictional +phenomena, and the important place occupied +by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> +such phenomena in the economy of Nature. +From the leaf which falls from the tree to the +mighty tidal motions of air, earth, and sea due to +the gravitative effects of the sun and moon, all +movements of terrestrial material are alike subject +to the influence of terrestrial gravitation, and will +give rise to corresponding heat processes. These +heat processes are continually in evidence in natural +phenomena; the effect of their action is seen alike +on the earth's surface and in its interior (internal +heating). Of the energy operating in them we do +not propose to say anything further at this stage, +except that it is largely communicated to the +atmospheric air masses.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_17" id="sec_17"></a>17. <i>The Gravitation Field</i></h3> + +<p>The foregoing examples of transformation serve +to place before the reader some idea of the general +nature and function of an incepting energy influence. +But for the broadest aspects of the latter agencies +it is necessary to revert once more to celestial +phenomena. As already indicated in the General +Statement, the primary transformations of planetary +axial energy are stimulated by certain agencies inherent +to, and arising from, the central mass of +the system. These energy agencies or effects operate +through space, and are entirely passive in nature. +They are in no way associated with energy transmission; +they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> +are merely the determining causes of +the energy-transforming processes which they induce, +and do not in the least affect the conservative +energy properties of the planetary masses over which +their influence is cast. Of the precise number and +nature of such influences thus exerted by the primary +mass we can say nothing. The energy transformations +which are the direct result of their action are +so extensive and so varied in character that we +would hesitate to place any limit on the number +of the influences at work. Some of these influences, +however, being associated with the phenomena of +everyday experience, are more readily detected in +action than others and more accessible to study. +It is to these that we naturally turn in order to +gain general ideas for application to more obscure +cases.</p> + +<p>Of the many incepting influences, therefore, which +may emanate from the primary mass there are three +only which will be dealt with here. Each exerts +a profound action on the planetary system, and each +may be readily studied and its working verified by +the observation of common phenomena. These +influences are respectively the gravitation, the thermal, +and the luminous fields.</p> + +<p>The general nature and properties of the gravitation +field have to some extent been already foreshadowed +(§§ <a href="#sec_4">4,</a> <a href="#sec_6">6,</a> <a href="#sec_16">16</a>). Other examples will be dealt +with later, and it is unnecessary to go into further +detail<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> +here. The different aspects, however, in which +the influence has been presented may be pointed +out. Firstly, in the separate body in space, as an +inherent property of matter (§ <a href="#sec_2">2</a>); secondly, as +an attractive influence exerted across space between +primary and planet, both absolutely separate bodies +(§ <a href="#sec_5">5</a>); and thirdly, as a purely planetary or secondary +incepting influence (§ <a href="#sec_16">16</a>). In every case alike +we find its function to be of an entirely passive +nature. Its most powerful effect on planetary +material is perhaps manifested in the tidal actions +(§ <a href="#sec_9">9</a>). With respect to these movements, it may +be pointed out that the planetary material periodically +raised from the surface is itself elevated against +the inherent planetary gravitative forces, and also, +to a certain extent, against the cohesive forces of +planetary material. Each of these resisting influences +functions as an incepting agency, and thus +the elevation of the mass involves a transformation of +energy (§ <a href="#sec_4">4</a>). The source of the energy thus transformed +is the axial energy of the planet, and the new +forms in which it is manifested are energy of position +or potential energy relative to the planetary surface, +and heat energy. On the return of the material to +its normal position, its energy of position, due to +its elevation, will be returned in its original form +of axial energy. In the case of the heat transformation, +however, it is to be noted that this process +will take place both as the material is elevated and +also <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> +as it sinks once more to its normal position. +The heat transformation thus operates continuously +throughout the entire movement. The upraising +of the material in the tidal action is brought about +entirely at the expense of inherent planetary axial +energy. The gravitative and cohesive properties +of the planetary material make such a transformation +process possible. It is in virtue of these properties +that energy may be applied to or expended +on the material in this way. The tidal action on +the planetary surface is, in fact, simply a huge +secondary process in which axial energy is converted +into heat. The primary incepting power is +clearly gravitation.</p> + +<p>Of the aspect of gravitation as a purely planetary +influence (§ <a href="#sec_16">16</a>) little requires to be said. The +phenomena are so prominent and familiar that the +reader may be left to multiply instances for himself.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_18" id="sec_18"></a>18. <i>The Thermal Field</i></h3> + +<p>The thermal field which is induced by and +emanates from the primary mass differs from the +gravitation field in that, so far as we know, it +is unaccompanied by any manifestation of force, +attractive or otherwise. Its action on the rotating +planetary mass may be compared to that of the +electro-magnet on the rotating copper sphere (§ <a href="#sec_14">14</a>); +the electro-magnet exerts no force on the sphere, +but an energy expenditure is, nevertheless, required +to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> +rotate the latter through the field of the magnetic +influence.</p> + +<p>To this thermal field, then, in which the planets +rotate, we ascribe all primary planetary heating +phenomena. The mode of action of the thermal +field appears to be similar to that of other incepting +influences. By its agency the energy of axial +rotation of planetary material is directly converted +into the heat form. As already shown (§ <a href="#sec_17">17</a>), +heat energy may be developed in planetary material +as a result of the action of other incepting agencies, +such as gravitation. These processes are, however, +more or less indirect in nature. But the operation +due to the thermal field is a direct one. The heat +energy is derived from the direct transformation +of planetary axial energy of rotation without passing +through any intermediate forms. In common +parlance, the thermal field is the agency whereby +the primary mass heats the planetary system. No +idea of transmission, however, is here implied in +such phraseology; the heating effect produced on +any planetary mass is entirely the result of the +transformation of its own energy; the thermal field +is purely and simply the incepting influence of +the process. Now, in virtue of the configuration +of the rotating planetary masses, their material in +equatorial regions is much more highly energised +than the material in the neighbourhood of the poles, +and will, accordingly, move with much greater linear +velocity<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> +through the thermal field. The heat transformation +will vary accordingly. It will be much +more pronounced at the equator than at the poles, +and a wide difference in temperature will be maintained +between the two regions. The thermal field, +also, does not necessarily produce the same heating +effect on all planetary material alike. Some materials +appear to be peculiarly susceptible—others much +less so. This we may verify from terrestrial experience. +Investigation shows the opaque substances +to be generally most susceptible, and the transparent +materials, such as glass, rock-salt, tourmaline, &c. +almost insusceptible, to the heating effect of the +sun. The influence of the thermal field can, in +fact, operate through the latter materials. A still +more striking and important phenomenon may be +observed in the varying action of the thermal field +on matter in its different forms. It has been already +pointed out that, in the course of transformation +in the field of an incepting influence, a material +may attain a certain energy state in which it is +no longer susceptible to that influence. This has +been exemplified in the case of the iron ball (§ <a href="#sec_14">14</a>) +and a phenomenon of the same general nature is +revealed in the celestial transformation. A piece +of solid material of low melting-point is brought +from the polar regions of the earth to the equator. +Due to the more rapid movement across the sun's +thermal field, and the consequent increased action +of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> +that field, a transformation of the axial energy +of rotation of the body takes place, whereby it is +heated and finally liquefied. In the liquid state +the material is still susceptible to the thermal +field, and the transformation process accordingly +proceeds until the material finally assumes the +gaseous form. At this point, however, it is found +that the operation is suspended; the material, +in assuming the gaseous state, has now attained +a condition (§ <a href="#sec_15">15</a>) in which the thermal field has no +further incepting or transforming influence upon +it. No transformation of its axial energy into +the heat form is now possible by this means; +indeed, so far as the <i>direct</i> heating effect of the +sun is concerned, the free gaseous material on the +planetary surface is entirely unaffected. All the +evidence of Nature points to the conclusion that +all gaseous material is absolutely transparent to +the <i>direct</i> thermal influence of the sun. Matter +in the gaseous form reaches, as it were, an ultimate +or limiting condition in this respect. This fact, +that energised material in the gaseous form is not +susceptible to the thermal field, is of very great +importance in the general economy of Nature. It +is, in reality, the means whereby the great primary +process of the transformation of the axial energy +of the earth into the heat form is limited in extent. +As will be explained later, it is the device whereby +the planetary energy stability is conserved. It will +be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> +apparent, of course, that heat energy may be +readily applied to gaseous masses by other means, +such as conduction or radiation from purely terrestrial +sources. The point which we wish here to emphasise +is, simply, that gaseous material endowed with axial +energy on the planetary surface cannot have this +axial energy directly transformed into heat through +the instrumentality of the thermal field of the +primary.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_19" id="sec_19"></a>19. <i>The Luminous Field</i></h3> + +<p>The planetary bodies are indebted to the +primary mass not only for heat phenomena, but +also for the phenomena of light. These light phenomena +are due to a separate and distinct energy +influence (or influences) which we term the luminous +field.</p> + +<p>The mode of action of the luminous field is +similar to that of other incepting influences. It +operates from the primary, and is entirely passive +in nature. Like the thermal field, it does not appear +to be accompanied by any manifestation of physical +stress or force, except, indeed, the experimental +demonstrations of the "pressure of light" can be +regarded as such. In any case, this in no way affects +the general action of light as an incepting agency. +Its action on energised planetary material gives rise +to certain transformations of energy, transformations +exclusive and peculiar to its own influence. +We<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> +will refer to terrestrial phenomena for illustrations +of its working.</p> + +<p>Perhaps the commonest example of transformation +in which the luminous field appears as the +incepting agency is seen in the growth of plant life +on the surface of the earth. The growth and +development of vegetation and plants generally is +the outward evidence of certain energy transformations. +The processes of growth, however, are of +such a complex nature that it is impossible to state +the governing energy conditions in their entirety, +but, considering them merely in general fashion, it +may be said that energy in various forms (potential, +chemical, &c.) is stored in the tissues of the growing +material. Now the source of this energy is the +axial energy of the earth, and, as stated above, the +luminous field is an incepting factor (there may be +others) in the process of transformation, a factor +whereby this axial energy is converted into certain +new forms. It is well known that, amongst the +factors which influence the growth of vegetation, one +of the most potent is that of light. The presence +of sunlight is one of the essential conditions for +the successful working of certain transformations of +plant life, and these transformations vary not only in +degree but in nature, according to the variation of +the imposed light in intensity and quality. Some of +the processes of growth are no doubt chemical in +nature. Here, again, light may be readily conceived +to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> +have a direct determining influence upon them, +exactly as in the cases of its well-known action in +chemical phenomena—for instance, as in photography. +Other examples will readily occur to the reader. +One of the most interesting is the action of light on +the eye itself. It may be pointed out indeed that +light is, first and foremost, a phenomenon of vision. +Whatever may be its intrinsic nature, it is primarily +an influence affecting the eye. But the action of seeing, +like all other forms of human activity, involves +a certain expenditure of bodily energy. This energy +is, of course, primarily derived from the axial energy +of the earth through the medium of plant and +animal life and the physico-chemical processes of the +body itself. Its presence in one form or another is, +in fact, essential to all the phenomena of life. The +action of seeing accordingly involves the transformation +of a certain modicum of this energy, and the +influence which incepts this transformation is the +luminous field which originates in and emanates +from the central mass of the system, the sun. In a +similar way, planetary material under certain conditions +may become the source of an incepting +luminous field. It is this light influence or luminous +field which, in common parlance, is said to +enter the eye. In that organ, then, is found +the mechanism or machine (§ <a href="#sec_30">30</a>), a complicated +one, no doubt, whereby this process of transformation +is carried out which makes the light +influence<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> +perceptible to the senses. Of the precise +nature of the action little can be said. The theme +is rather one for a treatise on physiology. It +may be pointed out, however, with regard to the +process of transformation, that Dewar has already +demonstrated the fact that when light falls on the +retina of the eye, an electric current is set up in +the optic nerve. The energy associated with this +current is, of course, obtained at the expense of the +bodily energy of the observer, and this energy, after +passing, it may be, through a large number of transformation +processes, will finally be returned to the +source from which it was originally derived, namely, +the axial energy of the earth. The luminous field, +also, like the thermal field, has no transforming effect +whatever on the energy of certain substances. It +may pass completely through some and be reflected +by others without any sign of energy transformation. +Its properties are, in fact, simply the properties of +light, and must be accepted simply as phenomena. +Now, it is very important, in studying matters of +this kind, to realise that it is impossible ever to get +beyond or behind phenomena. It may be pointed +out that in no sphere of physics has the influence +of so-called explanatory mechanical hypotheses been +stronger than in that dealing with the properties of +light. New theories are being expounded almost +daily in attempts to explain or dissect simple +phenomena. But it may be asked, In what does our +really<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> +useful knowledge of light consist? Simply in +our knowledge of phenomena. Beyond this, one +cannot go. We may attempt to explain phenomena, +but to create for this purpose elastic ethereal media +or substances without direct evidential phenomena +in support is not to advance real knowledge. There +are certain properties peculiar to the luminous as to +all other incepting fields, certain conditions under +which each respectively will act, and the true +method of gaining real insight into these agencies +is by the study of these actual properties (or phenomena) +and conditions, and not by attempts to ultimately +explain them. It will be evident that in +most cases of natural energy operations there is +more than one energy influence in action. As a rule +there are several. In a growing plant, for example, +we have the thermal, luminous, gravitation, and +cohesive influences all in operation at the same time, +each performing its peculiar function in transformation, +each contributing its own peculiar energy +phenomena to the whole. This feature adds somewhat +to the complexity of natural operations and to +the difficulties in the precise description of the +various phenomena with which they are associated.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_20" id="sec_20"></a>20. <i>Transformations—Upward Movement of a +Mass against Gravity</i></h3> + +<p>When the significance of energy inception and +the characteristic properties of the various agencies +have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> +been grasped, it becomes much easier to deal +with certain other aspects of energy processes. To +illustrate these aspects it is, therefore, now proposed +to discuss a few simple secondary operations embodied +in experimental apparatus. A few examples +of the operations of transformation and transmission +of energy will be considered. The object in view +is to show the general nature of these processes, +and more especially the limits imposed upon them +by the various factors or properties of the material +machines in which they are of necessity embodied. +The reader is asked to bear in mind also the observations +already made (§ <a href="#sec_13">13</a>) with respect to +experimental apparatus generally.</p> + +<p>The first operation for discussion is that of the +upward movement of a mass of material against the +gravitative attraction of the earth. This movement +involves one of the most simple and at the same +time one of the most important of secondary +energy processes. As a concrete illustration, consider +the case of a body projected vertically upwards +with great velocity from the surface of the +earth. The phenomena of its motion will be somewhat +as follows:—As the body recedes from the +earth's surface in its upward flight, its velocity +suffers a continuous decrease, and an altitude is +finally attained where this velocity becomes zero. +The projectile, at this point, is instantaneously at rest. +Its motion then changes; it commences to fall, and +to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> +proceed once more towards the starting-point +with continuously increasing velocity. Neglecting +the effect of the air (§ <a href="#sec_29">29</a>) and the rotational +movement of the earth, it may be assumed that the +retardation of the projectile in its upward flight is +numerically equal to its acceleration in its downward +flight, and that it finally returns to the starting-point +with velocity numerically equal to the initial +velocity of projection. The process then obviously +involves a complete transformation and return of +energy. At the earth's surface, where its flight +commences and terminates, the body is possessed of +energy of motion to a very high degree. At the +highest point of flight, this form of energy has +entirely vanished; the body is at rest. Its energy +properties are then represented by its position of +displacement from the earth's surface; its energy of +motion in disappearing has assumed this form of +energy of position, energy of separation, or potential +energy. The moving body has thus been the +mechanism of an energy transformation. At each +stage of its upward progress, a definite modicum of +its original energy of motion is converted into energy +of position. Between the extreme points of its +flight, the energy of the body is compounded of +these two forms, one of which is increasing at the +expense of the other. When the summit of flight +is reached the conversion into energy of position is +complete. In the downward motion, the action is +completely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> +reversed, and when the body reaches the +starting-point its energy of position has again been +completely transformed into energy of motion. It +might be well to draw attention here to the fact, +often overlooked, that this energy of position gained +by the rising mass is, in reality, a form of energy, +separate and distinct, brought into existence by the +transformation and disappearance of the energy of +the moving mass. Energy of position is as truly a +form of energy as heat or kinetic energy.</p> + +<p>The transformation here depicted is clearly a +simple process, yet we know absolutely nothing of +its ultimate nature, of the why or wherefore of the +operation. Our knowledge is confined to the circumstances +and conditions under which it takes +place. Let us now, therefore, deal with these conditions. +The transformation is clearly carried out +in virtue of the movement of the body in the lines +or field of an incepting influence. This influence +is that of gravitation, which links the body continually +to the earth. Now the function of gravitation +in this process, as in others already described, +is that of a completely passive incepting agent. +The active energy which suffers change in the +process is clearly the original work energy (§ <a href="#sec_31">31</a>) +communicated to the projected body. The whole +process is, in fact, a purely mechanical operation, +and as in the case of other processes involving +mechanical energy, it is limited by the mass value +of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> +the moving material. It is clear that the +greater the amount of energy communicated to +the projectile at the starting-point, the greater +will be the altitude it will attain in its flight. +The amount of energy, however, which can thus +be communicated is dependent on the maximum +force which can be applied to the projectile. But +the maximum force which can be applied to any +body depends entirely on the resistance offered by +that body, and in this case the resisting force is the +gravitative attraction of the earth on the projectile, +which attraction is again a direct function of its +mass. The greater the mass, the greater the gravitative +force, and the greater the possibility of transformation. +The ultimate limit of the process would +be reached if the projected mass were so great as +to equal half the mass of the earth. In such circumstances, +the earth being assumed to be divided +into two equal masses, the maximum limiting value +of the gravitative attraction would clearly be attained. +Any increase of the one mass over the +other would again lead, however, to a diminution +in the attractive force and a corresponding decrease +in the energy limit for transformation. The precise +manner in which the operations of mechanical energy +are limited by the mass will now be clear. The +principle is quite general, and applicable to all +moving bodies. Mass is ever a direct measure of +energy capacity. A graphical method of representing +energy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> +transformations of this kind, by a system +of co-ordinates, would enable the reader to appreciate +more fully the quantitative relations of the forms +of energy involved and also their various limits.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_21" id="sec_21"></a>21. <i>The Simple Pendulum</i></h3> + +<p>The remaining operations of transformation for +discussion are embodied in the following simple +apparatus. A spherical metallic mass M (<a href="#i077">Fig. 2</a>) is +supported by a rod P which is rigidly connected to +a horizontal spindle HS as shown.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a id="i077" name="i077"></a> +<img src="images/i077.jpg" alt="" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2</span></p> +</div> + +<p>The spindle is supported and free to revolve in +the bearings B<sub>1</sub> and B<sub>2</sub> which form part of the +supporting framework V resting on the ground; the +bearing surfaces at B<sub>1</sub> and B<sub>2</sub> are lubricated, and +the mass M is free to perform, in a vertical plane, +complete revolutions about the axis through the +centre of the spindle. In carrying out this motion +its path will be circular, as shown at DCFE; +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> +whole arrangement is merely an adaptation +of the simple pendulum. As constituted, the +apparatus may form the seat of certain energy +operations. Some of these will only take place with +the application of energy of motion to the pendulum +from an external source, thereby causing it to vibrate +or to rotate: others, again, might be said to be +inherent to the apparatus, since they arise naturally +from its construction and configuration. We shall +deal with the latter first.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_22" id="sec_22"></a>22. <i>Statical Energy Conditions</i></h3> + +<p>The pendulum with its spindle has a definite mass +value, and, assuming it to be at rest in the bearings +B<sub>1</sub> and B<sub>2</sub>, it is acted upon by gravitation, or in +other words, it is under the influence or within the +field of the gravitative attraction of the earth's mass +upon it. The effect of this field is directly proportional +to the mass of the pendulum and spindle, +and to its action is due that bearing pressure which +is transmitted through the lubricant to the bearing +surfaces and thence to the supporting arms N<sub>1</sub> and +N<sub>2</sub> of the framework. Bearings and columns alike +are thus subjected to a downward thrust or pressure. +Being of elastic material, they will be more or less +distorted. This distortion will proceed until the +downward forces are balanced by the upward or reactive +forces called into play in virtue of the cohesive +properties<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> +of the strained material. Corresponding +to a slight downward movement of the pendulum +and spindle in thus straining or compressing them, +the supporting columns will be decreased in length. +This downward movement is the external evidence +of certain energy operations. In virtue of their +elevation above the earth's surface, the pendulum +and spindle possess, to a certain degree, energy of +position, and any free downward movement would +lead to the transformation of this energy into energy +of motion (§ <a href="#sec_20">20</a>). But the downward motion of +pendulum and spindle is not free. It is made against +the resistance of the material of the supporting +columns, and the energy of position, instead of assuming +the form of energy of motion, is simply worked +down or transformed against the opposing cohesive +forces of the supporting materials. This energy, +therefore, now resides in these materials in the form +of energy of strain or distortion. In general nature, +this strain energy is akin to energy of position (§ <a href="#sec_20">20</a>). +Certain portions of the material of the columns have +been forced into new positions against the internal +forces of cohesion which are ever tending to preserve +the original configuration of the columns. This +movement of material in the field of the cohesive +influence involves the transformation of energy (§ <a href="#sec_4">4</a>), +and the external evidence of the energy process is +simply the strained or distorted condition of the +material. If the latter be released, and allowed to +resume<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> +its natural form once more, this stored energy +of strain would be entirely given up. In reality, the +material can be said to play the part of a machine +or mechanism for the energy process of storage and +restoration. No energy process, in fact, ever takes +place unless associated with matter in some form. +The supporting arms, in this case, form the material +factor or agency in the energy operation. All such +energy machines, also, are limited in the extent of +their operation, by the qualities of the material factors. +In this particular case, the energy compass of the +machine is restricted by certain physical properties +of the material, by the maximum value of these +cohesive or elastic forces called into play in distortion. +These forces are themselves the evidence of energy, +of that energy by virtue of which the material +possesses and maintains its coherent form. In this +case this energy is also the factor controlling the +transformation, and appears as a separate and distinct +incepting agency. If the process is to be a reversible +one, so that the energy originally stored in the material +as strain energy or energy of distortion may be completely +returned, the material must not be stressed +beyond a certain point. Only a limited amount of +work can be applied to it, only a limited amount of +energy can be stored in it. Too much energy applied—too +great a weight on the supporting columns—gives +rise to permanent distortion or crushing, and +an entirely new order of phenomena. This energy +limit<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> +for reversibility is then imposed by the cohesive +properties of the material or by its elastic limits. +Up to this point energy stored in the material may be +returned—the process is reversible in nature—but +above this elastic limit any energy applied must +operate in an entirely different manner.</p> + +<p>A little consideration will show also, that the +state of distortion, or energy strain, is not confined +to the material of the supporting columns alone. +Action and reaction are equal. The same stresses +are applied to the spindle through the medium of +bearings and lubricant. In fact, every material substance +of which the pendulum machine is built up +is thus, more or less, strained against internal forces; +all possess, more or less, cohesion or strain energy. +It will be evident, also, that this condition is not +peculiar to this or any other form of apparatus. It +is the energy state or condition of every structure, +either natural or artificial, which is built up of ordinary +material, and which, on the earth's surface, is +subjected to the influence of the gravitation field. +This cohesion or strain energy is one of the forms +in which energy is most widely distributed throughout +material.</p> + +<p>In reviewing the statical condition of the above +apparatus, the pendulum itself has been assumed +to be hanging vertically at rest under the influence of +gravitation. If energy be now applied to the system +from some external source so that the pendulum +is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> +caused to vibrate, or to rotate about the axis of +suspension, a new set of energy processes make their +appearance. The movement of the pendulum mass, +in its circular path around the central axis, is productive +of certain energy reactions, as follows:—</p> + +<blockquote><p><i>a.</i> A transformation of energy of motion into +energy of position and vice versa.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> A frictional transformation at the bearing +surfaces.</p></blockquote> + +<p>These processes will each be in continuous operation +so long as the motion of the pendulum is maintained. +Their general nature is quite independent +of the extent of that motion, whether it be merely +vibratory through a small arc, or completely rotatory +about the central axis. In the articles which immediately +follow, the processes will be treated separately.</p> + + +<h3 class="left hang3"><a name="sec_23" id="sec_23"></a>23. +<i>Transformations of the Moving Pendulum</i>—<br /> +<i>a. Energy of Motion to Energy of Position +and Vice Versa</i></h3> + +<p>In this simple transformation the motion of the +pendulum about the axis of suspension may be either +vibratory or circular, according to the amount of +energy externally applied. In each case, every +periodic movement of the apparatus illustrates the +whole energy operation. The general conditions of +the process are almost identical with those in the +case of the upward movement of a mass against +gravity<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> +(§ <a href="#sec_20">20</a>). Gravitation is the incepting energy +influence of the operation. If the pendulum simply +vibrates through a small arc, then, at the highest +points of its flight, it is instantaneously at rest. Its +energy of motion is here, therefore, zero; its energy +of position is a maximum. At the lowest point of +its flight, the conditions are exactly reversed. Here +its energy of motion is a maximum, while its energy +of position passes through a minimum value. The +same general conditions hold when the pendulum +performs complete revolutions about the central axis. +If the energy of motion applied is just sufficient to +raise it to the highest point E (<a href="#i077">Fig. 2</a>), the mass +will there again be instantaneously at rest with +maximum energy of position. As the mass falls +downwards in completing the circular movement, +its energy of position once more assumes the kinetic +form, and reaches its maximum value at C (<a href="#i077">Fig. 2</a>), +the lowest position. The moving pendulum mass, +so far as its energy properties are concerned, behaves +in precisely the same manner as a body vertically +projected in the field of the gravitative attraction +(§ <a href="#sec_20">20</a>). This simple energy operation of the pendulum +is perhaps one of the most familiar of +energy processes. By its means, however, it is +possible to illustrate certain general features of +energy reactions of great importance to the author's +scheme.</p> + +<p>The energy processes of the pendulum system +are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> +carried out through the medium of the material +pendulum machine, and are limited, both in nature +and degree, by the properties of that machine. As +the pendulum vibrates, the transformation of energy +of motion to energy of position or vice versa is an +example of a reversible energy operation. The +energy active in this operation continually alternates +between two forms of energy: transformation is +continually followed by a corresponding return. +Neglecting in the meantime all frictional and other +effects, we will assume complete reversibility, or that +the energy of motion of the pendulum, after passing +completely into the form of energy of position at the +highest point, is again completely returned, in its +original form, in the descent. Now, for any given +pendulum, the amount of energy which can thus +operate in the system depends on two factors, namely, +the mass of the pendulum and the vertical height +through which it rises in vibration. If the mass +is fixed, then the maximum amount of energy will +be operating in the reversible cycle when the pendulum +is performing complete revolutions round its +axis of suspension. The maximum height through +which the pendulum can rise, or the maximum +amount of energy of position which the system can +acquire, is thus dependent on the length of the +pendulum arm. These two factors, then, the mass +and the length of the pendulum arm, are simply +properties of this pendulum machine, properties by +which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> +its energy compass is restricted. Let us now +examine these limiting factors more minutely.</p> + +<p>It is obvious that energy could readily be +applied to the pendulum system in such a degree +as to cause it to rotate with considerable angular +velocity about the axis of suspension. Now the +motion of the pendulum mass in the lines of the +gravitation field, although productive of the same +transformation process, differs from that of a body +moving vertically upward in that, while the latter +has a linear movement, the former is constrained +into a circular path. This restraint is imposed in +virtue of the cohesive properties of the material of +the pendulum arm, and it is the presence of this +restraining influence that really distinguishes the +pendulum machine from the machine in which the +moving mass is constrained by gravity alone (§ <a href="#sec_20">20</a>). +It has been shown that the energy capacity of a +body projected vertically against gravity is limited +by its mass only; the energy capacity of the +pendulum machine may be likewise limited by its +mass, but the additional restraining factor of cohesion +also imposes another limit. In the course of +rotation, energy is stored in the material of the +pendulum against the internal forces of cohesion. +The action is simply that of what is usually termed +centrifugal force. As the velocity increases, the +pendulum arm lengthens correspondingly until the +elastic limit of the material in tension is reached. +At<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> +this point, the pendulum may be said to have +reached the maximum length at which it can +operate in that reversible process of transformation +in which energy of motion is converted into energy +of position. The amount of energy which would +now be working in that process may be termed the +limiting energy for reversibility. This limiting +energy is the absolute maximum amount of energy +which can operate in the reversible cycle. It is +coincident with the maximum length of the pendulum +arm in distortion. When the stress in the +material of that arm reaches the elastic limit, it +is clear that the transformation against cohesion +will also have attained its limiting value for reversibility. +This transformation, if the velocity of +the pendulum is constant, is of the nature of a +storage of energy. So long as the velocity is constant +the energy stored is constant. If the elastic +limiting stress of the material has not been exceeded, +this energy—neglecting certain minor processes +(§§ <a href="#sec_15">15,</a> <a href="#sec_29">29</a>)—will be returned in its original form +as the velocity decreases. If, however, the material +be stressed beyond its elastic powers, the excess +energy applied will simply lead to permanent distortion +or disruption of the pendulum arm, and to a +complete breakdown and change in the character of +the machine and the associated energy processes (§ <a href="#sec_5">5</a>). +The physical properties of the material thus limit +the energy capacity of the machine. This limiting +feature,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> +as already indicated, is not peculiar to the +pendulum machine alone. Every energy process +embodied in a material machine is limited in a +similar fashion by the peculiar properties of the +acting materials. Every reversible process is carried +out within limits thus clearly defined. Nature +presents no exception to this rule, no example of a +reversible energy system on which energy may be +impressed in unlimited amount. On the contrary, +all the evidence points to limitation of the strictest +order in such processes.</p> + + +<h3 class="left hang3"><a name="sec_24" id="sec_24"></a>24. <i>Transformations of the Moving Pendulum</i>—<br /> +<i>b. Frictional Transformation at the Bearing +Surfaces</i></h3> + +<p>The motion of the pendulum, whether it be +completely rotatory or merely vibratory in nature, +invariably gives rise to heating at the bearings or +supporting points. Since the heating effect is only evident +when motion is taking place, and since the heat +can only make its appearance as the result of some +energy process, it would appear that this persistent +heat phenomenon is the result of a transformation +of the original energy of motion of the pendulum.</p> + +<p>The general energy conditions of the apparatus +already adverted to (§ <a href="#sec_21">21</a>) still hold, and the +lubricating oil employed in the apparatus being +assumed to have sufficient capillarity or adhesive +power<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> +to separate the metallic surfaces of bearings +and journals at all velocities, then every action of +the spindle on the bearings must be transmitted +through the lubricant. The latter is, therefore, +strained or distorted against the internal cohesive +or viscous forces of its material. The general effect +of the rotatory motion of the spindle will be to +produce a motion of the material of the lubricant +in the field of these incepting forces. To this +motion the heat transformation is primarily due. +Other conditions being the same, the extent of the +transformation taking place, in any given case, is +dependent on the physical properties of the lubricant, +such as its viscosity, its cohesive or capillary +power, always provided that the metallic surfaces +are separated, so that the action is really carried +out in the lines or field of the internal cohesive +forces of the lubricant. In itself, this transformation +is not a reversible process; no mechanism +appears by which this heat energy evolved at the +bearing surfaces could be returned once more to its +original form of energy of motion. It may be, in fact, +communicated by conduction to the metallic masses +of the bearings, and thence, by conduction and +radiation, to the air masses surrounding the apparatus. +Its action in these masses is dealt with +below (§ <a href="#sec_29">29</a>). The operation of bearing friction, +though in itself not a reversible process, really forms +one link of a complete chain (§ <a href="#sec_9">9</a>) of secondary +operations<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> +(transmissions and transformations) which +together form a comprehensive and complete cyclical +energy process (§ <a href="#sec_32">32</a>).</p> + +<p>When no lubricant is used in the apparatus, so +that the metallic surfaces of bearings and journals +are in contact, the heat process is of a precisely +similar nature to that described above (see also § <a href="#sec_16">16</a>). +Distortion of the metals in contact takes place in the +surface regions, so that the material is strained against +its internal cohesive forces. The transformation will +thus depend on the physical properties of these +metals, and will be limited by these properties. +Different metallic or other combinations will consequently +give rise to quite different results with +respect to the amounts of heat energy evolved.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_25" id="sec_25"></a>25. <i>Stability of Energy Systems</i></h3> + +<p>The ratio of the maximum or limiting energy for +reversibility to the total energy of the system may +vary in value. If the pendulum vibrates only +through a very small arc, then, neglecting the minor +processes (§§ <a href="#sec_24">24,</a> <a href="#sec_29">29</a>), practically the whole energy of +the system operates in the reversible transformation. +This condition is maintained as the length of the arc +of vibration increases, until the pendulum is just +performing complete revolutions about the central +axis. After this, the ratio will alter in value, because +the greater part of any further increment of energy +does<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> +not enter into the reversible cyclical process, +but merely goes to increase the velocity of rotation +and the total energy of the system. The small +amount of energy which thus enters the reversible +cycle as the velocity increases, does so in virtue of +the increasing length of the pendulum arm in distortion. +To produce even a slight distortion of the arm, +a large amount of energy will require to be applied to +and stored in the system, and thus, at high velocities +of rotation, the energy which operates in the reversible +cycle, even at its limiting value, may form only +a very small proportion of the total energy of the +system. At low velocities or low values of the total +energy, say when the pendulum is not performing +complete rotations, practically the whole energy of +the system is working in the reversible cycle; but, in +these circumstances, it is clear that the total energy +of the system, which, in this case, is all working in +the reversible process, is much less than the maximum +or limiting amount of energy which might so work +in that process. Under these conditions, when the +total energy of the system is less than the limiting +value for reversibility, so that this total energy in its +entirety is free to take part in the reversible process, +then the energy system may be termed stable with +respect to that process. Stability, in an energy +system, thus implies that the operation considered +is not being, as it were, carried out at full energy +capacity, but within certain reversible energy limits.</p> + +<p>We<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> +have emphasised this point in order to draw +attention to the fact that the great reversible processes +which are presented to our notice in natural +phenomena are all eminently stable in character. +Perhaps the most striking example of a natural +reversible process is found in the working of the +terrestrial atmospheric machine (§§ <a href="#sec_10">10</a>, <a href="#sec_38">38</a>). The +energy in this case is limited by the mass, but in +actual operation its amount is well within the maximum +limiting value. The machine, in fact, is stable +in nature. Other natural operations, such as the +orbital movements of planetary masses, (§ <a href="#sec_8">8</a>) illustrate +the same conditions. Nature, although apparently +prodigal of energy in its totality, yet rigidly defines +the bounding limits of her active operations.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_26" id="sec_26"></a>26. <i>The Pendulum as a Conservative System</i></h3> + +<p>Under certain conditions the reversible energy +cycle produces an important effect on the rotatory +motion of the pendulum. For the purpose of illustration, +let it be assumed that the pendulum is an +isolated and conservative system endowed with a +definite amount of rotatory energy. In its circular +movement, the upward motion of the pendulum +mass is accompanied by a gain in its energy of +position. This gain is, in the given circumstances, +obtained solely at the expense of its inherent rotatory +energy, which, accordingly, suffers a corresponding +decrease.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> +The manifestation of this decrease +will be simply a retardation of the pendulum's rotatory +motion. Its angular velocity will, therefore, +decrease until the highest altitude E (<a href="#i077">Fig. 2</a>) is +attained. After this, on the downward path, the +process will be reversed. Acceleration will take +place from the highest to the lowest point of flight, +and the energy stored as energy of position will +be completely returned in its original form of energy +of motion. The effect of the working of the reversible +cycle, then, on the rotatory system, under the +given conditions, is simply to produce alternately a +retardation and a corresponding acceleration. Now, +it is to be particularly noted that these changes in +the velocity of the system are produced, not by any +abstraction from or return of energy to the system, +which is itself conservative, but simply in consequence +of the transformation and re-transformation +of a certain portion of its inherent rotatory energy +in the working of a reversible process embodied in +the system. The same features may be observed +in other systems where the conditions are somewhat +similar.</p> + +<p>In the natural world, we find processes of the +same general nature in constant operation. When +any mass of material is elevated from the surface of +a rotating planetary body against the gravitative +attraction, it thereby gains energy of position (§ <a href="#sec_20">20</a>). +This energy, on the body's return to the surface in +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> +course of its cycle, reappears in the form of +energy of motion. Now the material mass, in rising +from the planetary surface, is not, in reality, separated +from the planet. The atmosphere of the planet +forms an integral portion of its material, partakes of +its rotatory motion, and is bound to the solid core +by the mutual gravitative forces. Any mass, then, +on the solid surface of a planet is, in reality, in the +planetary interior, and the rising of such a mass from +that surface does not imply any actual separative +process, but simply the radial movement, or displacement +of a portion of the planetary material from the +central axis. If the energy expended in the upraisal +of the mass is derived at the expense of the inherent +rotatory energy of the planet, as it would be if the +latter were a strictly conservative energy system, +then the raising of this portion of planetary material +from the surface would have a retarding effect on +the planetary motion of rotation. But if, on the +other hand, the energy of such a mass as it fell +towards the planetary surface were converted once +more into its original form of energy of axial motion, +exactly equivalent in amount to its energy of position, +it is evident that the process would be productive +of an accelerating effect on the planetary +motion of rotation, which would in magnitude +exactly balance the previous retardation. In such a +process it is evident that energy neither enters nor +leaves the planet. It simply works in an energy +machine<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> +embodied in planetary material. This +point will be more fully illustrated later. The +reader will readily see the resemblance of a system +of this nature to that which has already been illustrated +by the rotating pendulum.</p> + +<p>In the meantime, it may be pointed out that +matter displaced from the planetary surface need +not necessarily be matter in the solid form. All +the operations mentioned above could be quite +readily—in fact, more readily—carried out by the +movements of gaseous material, which is admirably +adapted for every kind of rising, falling, or flowing +motion relative to the planetary surface (§ <a href="#sec_13">13</a>).</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_27" id="sec_27"></a>27. <i>Some Phenomena of Transmission Processes—Transmission +of Heat Energy by Solid Material</i></h3> + +<p>The pendulum machine described above furnishes +certain outstanding examples of the operation of +energy transformation. It will be noted, however, +that it also portrays certain processes of energy +transmission. In this respect it is not peculiar. +Most of the material machines in which energy +operates will furnish examples of both energy transmissions +and energy transformations. In some instances, +the predominant operation seems to be +transformation, in others, transmission; and the +machines may be classified accordingly. It is, +however, largely a matter of terminology, since +both<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> +operations are usually found closely associated +in one and the same machine. The apparatus now +to be considered is designed primarily to illustrate +the operative features of certain energy transmissions, +but the description of the machines with their allied +phenomena will show that energy transformations +also play a very important part in their constitution +and working.</p> + +<p>A cylindrical metallic bar about twelve inches +long, say, and one inch in diameter, is placed with +its ends immersed +in water in two +separate vessels, A +and B, somewhat +as shown.</p> + +<div class="figright"><a id="i095" name="i095"></a> +<img src="images/i095.jpg" alt="" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3</span></p> +</div> + +<p>By the application +of heat energy, the temperature of the +water in the vessel A is raised to a point say +100° F. above that of B, and steadily maintained +at that point. It is assumed that B is +also kept at the constant lower temperature. In +these circumstances, a transmission of heat energy +takes place from A to B through the metallic +bar. When the steady temperature condition is +reached, the transmission will be continuous and +uniform; the rate at which it is carried out will +be determined by the length of the bar, by the +material of which it is composed, and by the +temperature difference maintained between its ends. +Now<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> +what has really happened is that by a combination +of phenomena the bar has been converted +into a machine for the transmission of heat energy. +A full description of these phenomena is, in reality, +the description of this machine, and vice versa. Let +us, therefore, now try to outline some of these +phenomena.</p> + +<p>The first feature of note is the gradient of +temperature which exists between the ends of the +bar. Further research is necessary regarding the +real nature of this gradient—it appears to differ +greatly in different materials—but the existence of +such a gradient is one of the main features of the +energy machine, one of the essential conditions of +the transmission process.</p> + +<p>Another feature is that of the expansive motion +of the bar itself. The expansion of the bar due +to the heating varies in value along its length, +from a maximum at the hot end to a minimum +at the cool end. The expansion, also, is the evidence +of a transformation of energy. The bar has +been constrained into its new form against the action +of the internal molecular or cohesive forces of its +material (§ <a href="#sec_16">16</a>). The energy employed and transformed +in producing the expansion is a part of +the original heat energy applied to the bar, and +before any transmission of this heat energy takes +place between its extreme ends, a definite modicum +of the applied energy has to be completely transformed +for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> +the sole purpose of producing this +distortive movement or expansion against cohesion. +This preliminary straining of the bar is, in +fact, a part of the process of building up or constituting +the energy transmission machine, and must +be completely carried out before any transmission +can take place. It is clear, then, that concurrent +with the gradient of temperature, there also exists, +along the bar, what might be termed a gradient +of energy stored against cohesion, and that both +are characteristic and essential features of this particular +energy machine. A point of some importance +to note is the permanency of these features. +Once the machine has been constituted with a +constant temperature difference, the transmission +of energy will take place continuously and at a +uniform rate. But no further transformation against +cohesion takes place; no further expenditure of +energy against the internal forces of the material +is necessary. Neglecting certain losses due to possible +external conditions, the whole energy applied +to the machine at the one end is transmitted in +its entirety to the other, without influencing in any +way either the temperature or the energy gradient.</p> + +<p>Such is the general constitution of this machine +for energy transmission. Its material foundation is, +indeed, the metallic bar, but the temperature and +energy gradients may be termed the true determining +factors of its operation. As already indicated, the +magnitude<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> +of the transformation is dependent on the +temperature difference between the ends of the bar. +But this applies only within certain limits. With +respect to the cool end, the temperature may be as +low as we please—so far as we know, the limit is +absolute zero of temperature; but with the hot end, +the case is entirely different, because here the limit is +very strictly imposed by the melting-point of the +material of the bar. When this melting temperature +is attained, the melting of the bar indicates, simply, +that the heat energy stored or transformed against +the cohesive forces of the material has reached its +limiting value; change of state of the material is +taking place, and the machine is thereby being +destroyed.</p> + +<p>It is evident, then, that the energy which is actually +being transmitted has itself no effect whatever +in restricting the action or scope of the transmission +machine. It is, in reality, the residual energy stored +against the cohesive forces which imposes the limits +on the working. It is the maximum energy which +can be transformed in the field of the cohesive forces +of the material which determines the power of that +material as a transmitting agent. This maximum +will, of course, be different for different materials +according to their physical constitution. It is attained +in this machine in each case when melting of +the bar takes place.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span></p> +<h3><a name="sec_28" id="sec_28"></a>28. <i>Some Phenomena of Transmission Processes—Transmission +by Flexible Band or Cord</i></h3> + +<p>This method is often adopted when energy of +motion, or mechanical energy, is required to be transmitted +from one point to another. For illustration, +consider the case of two parallel spindles or shafts, A +and B (<a href="#i099">Fig. 4</a>), each having a pulley securely keyed +upon it. Spindle A is connected to a source of +of mechanical energy, +and it is desired to +transmit this energy +across the intervening +space to spindle B.</p> + +<div class="figright"><a id="i099" name="i099"></a> +<img src="images/i099.jpg" alt="" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4</span></p> + +</div> + +<p>This, of course, might be accomplished in various +ways, but one of the most simple, and, at the same +time, one of the most efficient, is the direct drive by +means of a flexible band or cord. The band is placed +tightly round, and adheres closely to both pulleys; +the coefficient of friction between band and pulleys +may, in the first instance, be assumed to be sufficiently +great to prevent slipping of the band up to +the highest stress which it is capable of sustaining in +normal working. Connected in this fashion, the +spindles will rotate in unison, and mechanical energy, +if applied at A, may be directly transmitted to B. +The material operator in the transmission is the +connecting flexible band, and associated with this +material<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> +are certain energy processes which are also +essential features of the energy machine. When +transmission of energy is taking place, a definite +tension or stress exists in the connecting band, and +neglecting certain inevitable losses due to bearing +friction (§ <a href="#sec_24">24</a>) and windage (§ <a href="#sec_29">29</a>), practically the +whole of the mechanical or work energy communicated +to the one spindle is transmitted to the other. +Now the true method of studying this or any energy +process is simply to describe the constitution and +principal features of the machine by which it is +carried out. These are found in the phenomena of +transmission. One of the most important is the +peculiar state of strain or tension existing in the +connecting band. This, as already indicated, is an +absolutely essential condition of the whole operation. +No transmission is possible without some stress or +pull in the band. This pull is exerted against the +cohesive forces of the material of the band, so that +before transmission takes place it is distorted and +a definite amount of the originally applied work +energy is expended in straining it against these +forces. This energy is accordingly stored in the +form of strain energy or energy of separation (§ <a href="#sec_22">22</a>), +and, if the velocity is uniform, the magnitude of the +transmission is proportional to this pull in the band, +or to the quantity of energy thus stored against the +internal forces of its material. But, in every case, a +limit to this amount of energy is clearly imposed by +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> +strength of the band. The latter must not be +strained beyond its limiting elastic stress. So long +as energy is being transmitted, a certain transformation +and return of energy of strain or separation is +taking place in virtue of the differing values of the +tensions in the two sides of the band; and if the +latter were stressed beyond the elastic limit, permanent +distortion or disruption of the material would +take place. Under such conditions, the reversible +energy process, involving storage and restoration +of strain energy as the band passes round the +pulleys, would be impossible, and the energy transmission +machine would be completely disorganised. +The magnitude of the energy operation is thus +limited by the physical properties of the connecting +band.</p> + +<p>Another important feature of this energy transmission +machine is the velocity, or rather the kinetic +energy, of the band. The magnitude of the transmission +process is directly proportional to this velocity, +and is, therefore, also a function of the kinetic +energy. At any given rate of transmission, this +kinetic energy, like the energy stored against the +cohesive influence, will be constant in amount, and +like that energy also, will have been obtained at the +expense of the originally applied energy. This +kinetic energy is an important feature in the constitution +of the transmission machine. As in the +case of the strain energy, its maximum value is +strictly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> +limited, and thus imposes a limit on the +general operation of the machine. For, at very +high velocities, owing to the action of centrifugal +force, it is not possible to keep the band in close +contact with the surface of the pulleys. When +the speed rises above a certain limit, although the +energy actually being transmitted may not have +attained the maximum value possible at lower speeds +with greater tension in the band, the latter will, +in virtue of the strain imposed by centrifugal action, +be forced radially outwards from the pulley. The +coefficient of friction will be thereby reduced; slipping +will ensue, and the transmission may cease either +in whole or in part. In this way the velocity or +kinetic energy limit is imposed. The machine for +energy transmission may thus be limited in its +operation by two different factors. The precise way in +which the limit will be applied in any given case will, +of course, depend on the circumstances of working.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_29" id="sec_29"></a>29. <i>Some Phenomena of Transmission Processes—Transmission +of Energy to Air Masses</i></h3> + +<p>The movement of the pendulum (§ <a href="#sec_23">23</a>) is accompanied +by a certain transmission of energy to the +surrounding medium. When this medium is a +gaseous one such as air, the amount of energy thus +transmitted is relatively small. The process, however, +has a real existence. To illustrate its general +nature,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> +let it be assumed that the motion of the +pendulum is carried out, not in air, but in a highly +viscous fluid, say a heavy oil. Obviously, a pendulum +falling from its highest position to its lowest, in +such a medium would transmit its energy almost +in its entirety to the medium, and would reach +its lowest position almost devoid of energy of +motion. The energy of position with which it was +originally endowed would thus be transformed and +transmitted to the surrounding medium. The agent +by which the transmission is carried out is the +moving material of the pendulum, which, as it passes +through the fluid, distorts that fluid in the lines +or field of its internal cohesive or viscous forces +which offer a continuous resistance to the motion. +As the pendulum passes down through the liquid, +the succeeding layers of the latter are thus +alternately distorted and released. The distortive +movement takes place in virtue of the communication +of energy from the moving pendulum +to the liquid, and during the movement energy +is stored in the fluid as energy of strain and as +kinetic energy. At the same time, a transformation +of the applied energy into heat takes place +in the distorted material. The release of this +material from strain, and its movement back towards +its original state, is also accompanied by a +similar transformation, in which the stored strain +energy is, in turn, converted into the heat form. +The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> +whole operation is similar in nature to that +frictional process already described (§ <a href="#sec_16">16</a>) in the +case of a body moving on a rough horizontal +table. The final action of the heat energy thus +communicated to the fluid is to expand the latter +against the internal cohesive or viscous forces of +its material, and also against the gravitative attraction +of the earth.</p> + +<p>Now when the pendulum moves in air, the +action taking place is of the same nature, and +the final result is the same as in oil. It differs +merely in degree. Compared with the oil, the air +masses offer only a slight resistance to the motion, +and thus only an exceedingly small part of the +pendulum's energy is transmitted to them. The +pendulum, however, does set the surrounding air +masses in motion, and by a process similar in +nature to that in the oil, a modicum of the +energy of the falling pendulum is converted into +heat, and thence by the expansion of the air into +energy of position. In the downward motion from +rest, the first stage of the process is a transformation +peculiar to the pendulum itself, namely, energy of +position into energy of motion. The transmission +to the fluid is a necessary secondary result. It is +important to note that this transmission is carried +out in virtue of the actual movement of the material +of the pendulum, and that the energy transmitted +is in reality mechanical or work energy (§ <a href="#sec_31">31</a>). This +mechanical<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> +or work energy, then actually leaves or +is transmitted from the pendulum system, and is +finally absorbed by the surrounding air masses in +the form of energy of position.</p> + +<p>Considered as a whole, there is evidently no +aspect of reversibility about the operation, but it will +be shown later (§ <a href="#sec_32">32</a>) that with the introduction of +other factors, it really forms part of a comprehensive +cyclical process. It is itself a process of direct transmission. +It is carried out by means of a definite +material machine which embodies certain energy +transformations, and which is strictly limited in the +extent of its operations by certain physical factors. +These factors are the cohesive properties of the +moving pendulum mass and the fluid with which it +is in contact (§ <a href="#sec_16">16</a>). It is clear, also, that in an apparatus +in which the motion is carried out in oil, any +heat energy communicated to the oil would inevitably +find its way to the surrounding air masses by +conduction and radiation. The final result of the +pendulum's motion would therefore be the same in +this case as in air; the heat energy would, when +communicated to the surrounding air masses, cause +an expansive movement against gravity.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_30" id="sec_30"></a>30. <i>Energy Machines and Energy Transmission</i></h3> + +<div class="figright"><a id="i107" name="i107"></a> +<img src="images/i107.jpg" alt="" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5</span></p> + +</div> + +<p>The various examples of energy transformation +and transmission which have been discussed above +(§§ <a href="#sec_13">13-27</a>)<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> +will suffice to show the essential differences +which exist in the general nature of these operations. +But they will also serve another purpose in portraying +one striking and important aspect in which these +processes are alike. From the descriptions given +above, it will be amply evident that each of these +processes, whether transformation or transmission, +requires as an essential condition of its existence, the +presence of a certain arrangement of matter; each +process is of necessity associated with and embodied +in a definite physical and material machine. This +material machine is simply the contrivance provided +by Nature to carry out the energy operation. It +differs in construction and in character for different +processes, but in every case there must be in its +constitution some material substance, perceptible to +the senses, with which the acting energy is intimately +associated. This fact is but another aspect of the +principle that energy is never found dissociated from +matter (§ <a href="#sec_11">11</a>). In every energy machine, the +material substance or operator forms the real foundation +or basis of the energy operation, but besides this +there are also always other phenomena of a secondary +nature, totally different, it may be, from the main +energy operation, which combine with that operation +to constitute the whole. These subsidiary energy +phenomena are the incepting factors, and are most +important characteristics. Their presence is just as +essential in energy transmission as it is in energy +transformation.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> +As demonstrated above, they are +usually associated with the physical peculiarities of +the basis or acting material of the energy machine, +and their peculiar function is to conserve or limit the +extent of its action. A complete description of +these phenomena, in any given case, would not only +be equivalent to a complete description of the +machine, but would also serve as a complete description +of the main energy operation embodied in that +machine. Sometimes, however, the description of +the machine is +a matter of extreme +difficulty, +and may be, in +fact, impossible +owing to the lack +of a full knowledge of the intimate phenomena concerned. +An illustrative example of this is provided +by the familiar phenomenon of heat radiation. Take +the case of two isolated solid bodies A and B (<a href="#i107">Fig. 5</a>) +in close proximity on the earth's surface. If the +body A at a high temperature be sufficiently near +to B at a lower temperature, a transmission of energy +takes place from A to B. This transmission is +usually attributed to "radiation," but, after all, the +use of the term "radiation" is merely a descriptive +device which hides our ignorance of the operation. +It is known that a transmission takes place, but the +intimate phenomena are not known, and, accordingly, +it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> +is impossible to describe the machine or mechanism +by which it is carried out. From general considerations, +however, it appears that the material basis +of this machine is to be found in the air medium +which surrounds the two bodies. Experiment shows, +indeed, that if this intervening material medium of +air be even partially withdrawn or removed, the +transmission is immensely reduced in amount. In +fact, this latter phenomenon is largely taken advantage +of in the so-called vacuum flasks or other +devices to maintain bodies at a temperature either +above or below that of the external surrounding +bodies. The device adopted is, simply, as far as +practicable to withdraw all material connection +between the body which it is desired to isolate +thermally and its surroundings. But it is clearly impossible +to isolate completely any terrestrial body in +this way. There must be some material connection +remaining. As already pointed out (§ <a href="#sec_5">5</a>), we have no +experimental experience of really separate bodies or +of an absolute vacuum. It is to be noted that any +vacuous space which we can experimentally arrange +does not even approximately reproduce the conditions +of true separation prevailing in interplanetary +space. Any arrangement of separate bodies which +might thus be contrived is necessarily entirely +surrounded or enclosed by terrestrial material which, +in virtue of its stressed condition, constitutes an +energy machine of the same nature as those already +described<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> +(§ <a href="#sec_21">21</a>). Even although the air could be +absolutely exhausted from a vessel, it is still quite +impossible to enclose any body permanently within +that vessel without some material connection between +the body and the enclosing +walls. If for example, as +shown in <a href="#i109a">Fig. 6</a>, CC represents +a spherical vessel, completely +exhausted, and having two bodies, +A and B at different temperatures, +in its interior, it is obvious +that if these bodies are to +maintain continuously their relative positions of +separation, each must be united by some material +connection to the containing vessel. But when +such a connection is made, say as shown at D +and E (<a href="#i109b">Fig. 7</a>), it is clear +that A and B are no longer +separate bodies in the fullest +sense of the word, but are +now in direct communication +with one another through +the supports at D and E +and the enclosing sides of +the vessel CC. The practicable conditions are thus +far from those of separate bodies in a complete +vacuum. It would seem, indeed, to be beyond +human experimental contrivance to reproduce such +conditions in their entirety. So far as these conditions +can<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> +be achieved, however, and judging +solely by the experimental results already attained +with respect to the effect of exhaustion on radiation, +it may be quite justly averred that, if the conditions +portrayed in <a href="#i109a">Fig. 6</a> could be realised, no +transmission of energy would take place between +two bodies, such as A and B, completely isolated +from one another in a vacuous space. It appears, +in fact, to be a quite reasonable and logical +deduction from the experimental evidence that the +energy operation of transmission of heat from one +body to another by radiation is dependent on +the existence between these bodies of a real and +material substance which forms in some way (at +present unknown) the transmitting medium or +machine. The difficulty which arises in the description +of this machine is due, as already explained +above, simply to lack of knowledge of the intimate +phenomena of its working. Many other energy +processes will, no doubt, occur to the reader in which +the same difficulty presents itself, due to the same +cause.</p> + +<div class="figright"><a id="i109a" name="i109a"></a> +<img src="images/i109a.jpg" alt="" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6</span></p> + +</div> + + +<p>In dealing with terrestrial operations generally, +and particularly when transmission processes are +under consideration, it is important to recognise +clearly the precise nature of these operations and +the peculiar conditions under which they work. It +must ever be borne in mind that the terrestrial +atmosphere is a real and material portion of the +earth's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> +mass, extending from the surface for a +limited distance into space (§ <a href="#sec_34">34</a>), and whatever its +condition of gaseous tenuity, completely occupying +that space in the manner peculiar to a gaseous +substance. When the whole mass of the planet, +including the atmosphere, is taken into consideration, +it is readily seen that all energy operations +embodied in or associated with material on what +is usually termed the surface of the earth take +place at the bottom of this atmospheric ocean, +or, in reality, in the interior of the earth. The +operations themselves are the manifestations of +purely terrestrial energy, which, by its working +in various devices or arrangements of material +is being transformed and transmitted from one +form of matter to another. As will be fully +demonstrated later (<a href="#PART_III">Part III.</a>), the nature of the +terrestrial energy system makes it impossible for +this energy ever to escape beyond the confines of +the planetary atmospheric envelope. These are +briefly the general conditions under which the study +of terrestrial or secondary energy operations is of +necessity conducted, and it is specially important to +notice these conditions when it is sought to apply +the results of experimental work to the discussion +of celestial phenomena. It must ever be borne in +mind that even the direct observation of the latter +must always be carried out through the encircling +planetary atmospheric material.</p> + +<div class="figleft"><a id="i109b" name="i109b"></a> +<img src="images/i109b.jpg" alt="" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 7</span></p> + +</div> + +<p>In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> +this portion of the work it is proposed to +investigate in the light of known phenomena the +possibility of energy transmission between separate +masses. As explained above, the term separate +is here meant to convey the idea of perfect +isolation, and the only masses in Nature which +truly satisfy this condition are the celestial and +planetary bodies, separated as they are from one +another by interplanetary space and in virtue of +their energised condition (§ <a href="#sec_5">5</a>). Since this state of +separation cannot be experimentally realised under +terrestrial conditions, it is obvious, therefore, that no +purely terrestrial energy process can be advanced +either as direct verification or direct disproof of a +transmission of energy between such truly separate +masses as the celestial bodies. But as we are unable +to experiment directly on these bodies themselves +or across interplanetary space, we are forced +of necessity to rely, for experimental facts and conclusions, +on the terrestrial energy phenomena to which +access is possible. As already indicated in the +General Statement (§ <a href="#sec_11">11</a>), the same energy is bestowed +on all parts of the cosmical system, and by +the close observation of the phenomena of its action +in familiar operations the truest guidance may be +obtained as to its general nature and working. In +such investigations, however, only the actual phenomena +of the operation are of scientific or informative +value. There is no gain to real knowledge in assuming, +say<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> +in the examination of the phenomena +of magnetic attraction between two bodies, that the +one is urged towards the other by stresses in an +intervening ethereal medium, when absolutely no +phenomenal evidence of the existence of such a +medium is available. It may be urged that the conception +of an ethereal medium is adapted to the +explanation of phenomena, and appears in many instances +to fulfil this function. But as already +pointed out (see Introduction), it is absolutely impossible +to explain phenomena. So-called explanations +must ever resolve themselves simply into +revelations of further phenomena. While the value +of true working hypotheses cannot be denied, it is +surely evident that such hypotheses, unless they embody +and are under the limitation of controlling +facts, are not only useless, but, from the misleading +ideas they are apt to convey, may even be dangerous +factors in the search for truth. Now, if all speculative +ideas or hypotheses are banished from the mind, +and reliance is placed solely on the evidential phenomena +of Nature, the study of terrestrial energy +operations leads inevitably to certain conclusions on +the question of energy transmission. In the first +place, it must lead to the denial of what has been +virtually the great primary assumption of modern +science, namely, that a mass of material at a high +temperature isolated in interplanetary space would +radiate heat in all directions through that space. +Such<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> +a conception is unsupported by our experimental +or real knowledge of radiation. The fact +that heat radiation takes place from a hot to a +cold body in whatever direction the latter is placed +relatively to the former, does not justify the assumption +that such radiation takes place in all directions +in the absence of a cold body. And since there is +absolutely no manifestation of any real material +medium occupying interplanetary space, no sign of +the material agency or machine which the results of +direct experiment have led us to conclude is a +necessity for the transmission process of heat radiation, +the whole conception must be regarded as at +least doubtful. Even with our limited knowledge +of radiation, the doctrine of heat radiation through +space stands controverted by ordinary experimental +experience. With this doctrine must fall also the +allied conception of the transmission of heat energy +by radiation from the sun to the earth. It is to +be noted, however, that only the actual transmission +of heat energy from the sun to the earth is inadmissible; +the <i>heating effect</i> of the sun on the earth, +which leads to the manifestation of terrestrial energy +in the heat form, is a continuous operation readily +explained in the light of the general principle of +energy transformation already enunciated (§ <a href="#sec_4">4</a>). +With respect to other possible processes of energy +transmission between the sun and the earth or across +interplanetary space, the same general methods of +experimental<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> +investigation must be adopted. The +transmission of energy under terrestrial conditions +is carried out in many different forms and by the +working of a large variety of machines. In every +case, no matter in what form the energy is transmitted, +that energy must be associated with a +definite arrangement of terrestrial material constituting +the transmission machine. Each energy process +of transmission has its own peculiar conditions of +operation which must be completely satisfied. By +the study of these conditions and the allied phenomena +it is possible to gain a real knowledge of +the precise circumstances in which the process can +be carried out. Now let us apply the knowledge of +transmission processes thus gained to the general +celestial case, to the question of energy transmission +between truly separate bodies, and particularly to +the case of the sun and the earth. Do we find in +this case any evidence of the presence of a machine +for energy transmission? It is impossible, within +the limits of this work, to deal with all the forms +in which energy may be transmitted, but let the +reader review any instance of the transmission of +energy under terrestrial conditions, or any energy-transmission +machine with which he is familiar, +noting particularly the essential phenomena and +material arrangements, and let him ask himself if +there is any evidence of the existence of a machine +of this kind in operation between the sun and the +earth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> +or across interplanetary space. We venture +to assert that the answer must be in the negative. +The real knowledge of terrestrial processes of energy +transmission at command, on which all our deductions +must be based, does not warrant in the slightest +degree the assumption of transmission between the +sun and the earth. The most plausible of such assumptions +is undoubtedly that which attributes +transmission to heat radiation, but this has already +been shown to be at variance with well-known facts. +The question of light transmission will offer no +difficulty if it be borne in mind that light is not +in itself a form of energy, but merely a manifestation +of energy as an incepting influence, which like other +incepting influences of a similar nature, can readily +operate across either vacuous or interplanetary +space (§ <a href="#sec_19">19</a>).</p> + +<p>On these general considerations, deduced from +the observation of terrestrial phenomena, allied with +the conception of energy machines and separate +masses in space, the author bases one aspect of +the denial of energy transmission between celestial +masses. The doctrine of transmission cannot be +sustained in the face of legitimate scientific deduction +from natural phenomena. In the later parts +of this work, and from a more positive point of view, +the denial is completely justified.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span></p> +<h3><a name="sec_31" id="sec_31"></a>31. <i>Identification of Forms of Energy</i></h3> + +<p>Before leaving the question of energy transmission, +there are still one or two interesting features +to be considered. Although energy, as already +pointed out, is ever found associated with matter, +this association does not, in itself, always furnish +phenomena sufficient to distinguish the precise +phase in which the energy may be manifested. Some +means must, as a rule, be adopted to isolate and +identify the various forms.</p> + +<p>Now one of the most interesting and important +features of the process of energy transmission is that +it usually provides the direct means for the identification +of the acting energy. Energy, as it were, in +movement, in the process of transmission, is capable +of being detected in its different phases and recognised +in each. The phenomena of transmission +usually serve, either directly or indirectly, to portray +the precise nature of the energy taking part in the +operation. One of the most direct instances of this +is provided by the transmission of heat energy. For +illustrative purposes, let it be assumed that a body A, +possessed of heat energy to an exceedingly high +degree, is isolated within a spherical glass vessel +CC, somewhat as already shown (<a href="#i109a">Fig. 6</a>). If it be +assumed that the space within CC is a perfect vacuum, +and that no material connection exists between the +walls<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> +of the vessel and the body A, the latter is completely +isolated, and no means whatever are available +for the detection of its heat qualities (§ <a href="#sec_30">30</a>). It may +seem that, if the temperature of the body A were +sufficiently high, its energy state might be detected, +and in a manner estimated, by its effect on the eye +or by its luminous properties, but we take this +opportunity of pointing out that luminosity is not +invariably associated with high temperature. On +the contrary, many bodies are found in Nature, both +animate and inanimate, which are luminous and +affect the eye at comparatively low temperatures. +How then is the energy condition of the body to be +definitely ascertained? The only means whereby it +is possible to identify the energy of the body is by +transmitting a portion of that energy to some other +body and observing the resultant phenomena. Suppose, +then, another body, such as B (<a href="#i109a">Fig. 6</a>), at a lower +temperature than A, is brought into contact with A, +so that a transmission of heat energy ensues between +the two. The phenomena which would result in +such circumstances will be exactly as already described +in the case of the transmission of energy +through a solid (§ <a href="#sec_27">27</a>). Amongst other manifestations +it would be noticeable that the material of B +was expanded against its inherent cohesive forces. +Now if, instead of a spherical body such as B, a +mercurial thermometer were utilised, the phenomena +would be of precisely the same nature. A definite +portion<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> +of the heat energy would be transmitted to +the thermometer, and would produce expansion of +the contained fluid. By the amount of this expansion +it becomes possible to estimate the energy condition +and properties of the body A, relative to +its surroundings or to certain generally accepted +standard conditions. Thermometric measurement +is, in fact, merely the employment of a process of +energy transmission for the purpose of identifying +and estimating the heat-energy properties of material +substances.</p> + +<p>In everyday life, rough ideas of heat energy are +constantly being obtained by the aid of the senses. +This method is, however, only another aspect of +transmission, for it will be clear that the sensations +of heat and cold are, in themselves, but the evidence +of the transformation of heat energy to or from the +body.</p> + +<p>The process of energy transmission by a flexible +band or cord (§ <a href="#sec_28">28</a>) also provides evidence leading +to the identification of the peculiar form of energy +which is being transmitted. At first sight, it would +appear as if this energy were simply energy of motion +or kinetic energy. A little reflection, however, on +the general conditions of the process must dispel +this idea, for it is clear that the precise nature of +the energy transmitted has no real connection with +the kinetic properties of the system. The latter, +truly, influence the rate of transmission and impose +certain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> +limits, but evidently, if the pull in the band +increases without any increase in its velocity, the +actual amount of energy transmitted by the system +would increase without altering in any respect the +kinetic properties. It becomes necessary, then, to +distinguish clearly the energy inherent to, or as it +were, latent in the system, from the energy actually +transmitted by the system, to recognise the difference +between the energy transmitted by moving material +and the energy of that material. In this special +instance, to identify the form of energy transmitted +it must of necessity be associated with the peculiar +phenomena of transmission. Now the energy is +evidently transmitted by the movement of the connecting +belt or band. Before any transmission can +take place, however, a certain amount of energy +must be stored in the moving system, partly as +cohesion or strain energy and partly as energy of +motion or kinetic energy. It is this preliminary +storage of energy which, in reality, constitutes +the transmission machine, and for a given rate of +transmission, the energy thus stored will be constant +in value. It is obtained at the expense of the +applied energy, and, neglecting certain minor processes, +will be returned (or transmitted) in its entirety +when the moving system once more comes to +rest. This stored energy, in fact, works in a reversible +process. But when the transmission machine +is once constituted, the energy transmitted is then +that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> +energy which is being continually applied at +the spindle A (<a href="#i099">Fig. 4</a>) and as continually withdrawn +at the spindle B. It must be emphasised that the +energy thus transmitted is absolutely different from +the kinetic or other energy associated with the moving +material of the system. It is the function of this +energised material of the band to transmit the +energy from A to B, but this is the only relationship +which the transmitted energy bears to the material. +The energy thus transmitted by the moving material +we term mechanical or work energy. We may +thus define mechanical or work energy as "<i>that form +of energy transmitted by matter in motion</i>."</p> + +<p>The idea of work is usually associated with that +of a force acting through a certain distance. The +form of energy referred to above as work energy +is, in the same way, always associated with the idea +of a thrust or of a pressure of some kind acting on +moving material. Work energy thus bears two +aspects, which really correspond to the familiar +product of pressure and volume. Both aspects are +manifested in transmission. Since work energy +is invariably transmitted by matter in motion, every +machine for its transmission must possess energy of +motion as one of its essential features. As shown +above (see also § <a href="#sec_28">28</a>), this energy of motion is really +obtained at the expense of the originally applied work +energy, and as it remains unaltered in value during the +progress of a uniform transmission, it may be regarded +as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> +simply transformed work energy, stored or latent in +the system, which will be returned in its entirety and +in its original form at the termination of the operation. +The energy stored against cohesion or other forces +may be regarded in the same way. It is really the +manifestation of the pressure or thrust aspect of +the work energy, just as the kinetic energy is the +manifestation of the translational or velocity aspect.</p> + +<p>Our definition of work energy given above +enables us to recognise its operation in many familiar +processes. Take the case of a gas at high pressure +confined in a cylinder behind a movable piston. +We can at once say that the energy of the gas is +work energy because this energy may quite clearly +be transmitted from the gas by the movement of +the piston. If the latter form part of a steam-engine +mechanism of rods and crank, the energy may, by +the motion of this mechanism, be transmitted to +the crank shaft, and there utilised. This is eminently +a case in which energy is <i>transmitted</i> by matter +in motion. The moving material comprises the +piston, piston-rod, and connecting-rod, which are, +one and all, endowed with both cohesive and kinetic +energy qualities, and form together the transmission +machine. So long as the piston is at rest only one +aspect of the work energy of the gas is apparent, +namely, the pressure aspect, but immediately motion +and transmission take place, both aspects are presented. +The work energy of the gas, obtained in the +boiler<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> +by a <i>transformation</i> of heat energy is thus, by +matter in motion, transmitted and made available +at the crank shaft. The shaft itself is also commonly +utilised for the further transmission of the work +energy applied. By the application of the energy +at the crank, it is thrown into a state of strain, and +at the same time is endowed with kinetic energy of +rotation. It thus forms a machine for transmission, +and the work energy applied at one point of the +shaft may be withdrawn at another point more +remote. The transmission is, in reality, effected by +the movement of the material of the shaft. So long +as the shaft is stationary, it is clear that no actual +transmission can be carried out, no matter how great +may be the strain imposed. If our engine mechanism +were, by a change in design, adapted to the use of +a liquid substance as the working material instead +of a gas, it is clear that no change would be effected +in the general conditions. The energy of a liquid +under pressure is again simply work energy, and +it would be transmitted by the moving mechanism +in precisely the same manner.</p> + +<p>From the foregoing, it will now be evident to +the reader that the energy originally applied to the +primary mass (§ <a href="#sec_3">3</a>) of our cosmical system must be +work energy. It is this form of energy also which +is inherent to each unit of the planetary system +associated with the primary. In this system it is +of course presented outwardly in the two phases of +kinetic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> +energy and energy of strain or distortion. +It is apparent, also, that work energy could be +transmitted from the primary mass to the separate +planets on one condition only, that is, by the movement +of some material substance connecting each +planet to the primary. Since no such material connection +is admitted, the transmission of work energy +is clearly impossible.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_32" id="sec_32"></a>32. <i>Complete Secondary Cyclical Operation</i></h3> + +<p>A general outline of the conditions of working +and the relationships of secondary processes has +already been given in the General Statement (§ <a href="#sec_9">9</a>), +but it still remains to indicate, in a broad way, the +general methods whereby these operations are linked +to the atmospheric machine. In the example of the +simple pendulum, it has been pointed out that the +energy processes giving rise to heating at the bearing +surfaces and transmission of energy to the air masses +are not directly reversible processes, but really form +part of a more extensive cyclical operation, in itself, +however, complete and self-contained. This cyclical +operation may be regarded as a typical illustration of +the manner in which separate processes of energy +transmission or transformation, such as already +described, are combined or united in a continuous +chain forming a complete whole.</p> + +<p>It has been assumed, in all the experiments with +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> +pendulum, that the operating energy is initially +communicated from an outside source, say the hand +of the observer. This energy is, therefore, the acting +energy which must be traced through all its various +phases from its origin to its final destination. At +the outset, it may be pointed out that this energy, +applied by hand, is obtained from the original rotational +energy of the earth by certain definite energy +processes. Due to the influences of various incepting +fields which emanate from the sun (§§ <a href="#sec_17">17-19</a>), a +portion of the earth's rotational energy is transformed +into that form of plant energy which is stored in +plant tissue, and which, by the physico-chemical +processes of digestion, is in turn converted into heat +and the various other forms of energy associated with +the human frame. This, then, is the origin of the +energy communicated to the pendulum. Its progress +through that machine has already been described in +detail (§§ <a href="#sec_21">21-26</a>). The transformation of energy of +motion to energy of position which takes place is +in itself a reversible process and may in the meantime +be neglected. But the final result of the +operations, at the bearing surfaces and in the air +masses surrounding the moving pendulum, was +shown to be, in each case, that heat energy was +communicated to these air masses. The effect of +the heat energy thus impressed, is to cause the +expansion of the air and its elevation from the +surface of the earth in the lines or field of the +gravitative<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> +attraction, so that this heat energy is +transformed, and resides in the air masses as energy +of position. The energy then, originally drawn from +the rotational energy of the earth, has thus worked +through the pendulum machine, and is now stored in +the air masses in this form of energy of position. +To make the process complete and cyclical this +energy must now, therefore, be returned once more +to the earth in its original rotational form. This +final step is carried out in the atmospheric machine +(§ <a href="#sec_41">41</a>). In this machine, therefore, the energy +of position possessed by the air masses is, in their +descent to their original positions at lower levels, +transformed once more into axial or rotational +energy. In this fashion this series of secondary +processes, involving both transformations and transmissions, +is linked to the great atmospheric process. +The amount of energy which operates through the +particular chain of processes we have described is, +of course, exceedingly small, but in this or a similar +manner all secondary operations, great or small, are +associated with the atmospheric machine. Instances +could readily be multiplied, but a little reflection will +show how almost every energy operation, no matter +what may be its nature, whether physical, chemical, +or electrical, leads inevitably to the communication +of energy to the atmospheric air masses and to their +consequent upraisal.</p> + +<p>It is interesting to note the infallible tendency of +energy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> +to revert to its original form of axial energy, +or energy of rotation, by means of the air machine. +All Nature bears witness to this tendency, and +although the path of energy through the maze of +terrestrial transformation often appears tortuous +and uncertain, its final destination is always sure. +The secondary operations are thus interlinked into +one great whole by their association in the terrestrial +energy cycle. Many of these secondary operations +are of short duration; others extend over long periods +of time. Energy, in some cases, appears to slumber, +as in the coal seams of the earth, until an appropriate +stimulus is applied, when it enters into active +operation once more. The cyclical operations are +thus long or short according to the duration of their +constituent secondary energy processes. But the +balance of Nature is ever preserved. Axial energy, +transformed by the working of one cyclical process, +is being as continuously returned by the simultaneous +operation of others.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="PART_III" id="PART_III"></a>PART III</h2> + + +<p class="center big">TERRESTRIAL CONDITIONS</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_33" id="sec_33"></a>33. <i>Gaseous Expansion</i></h3> + + + +<p>Before proceeding to the general description of +the atmospheric machine (§ <a href="#sec_10">10</a>), it is desirable to +consider one or two features of gaseous reaction +which have a somewhat important bearing on its +working. Let it be assumed +that a mass of gaseous material +is confined within the +lower portion of a narrow +tube ABCD (<a href="#i128">Fig. 8</a>) assumed +to be thermally non-conducting; +the upper portion +of the tube is in free communication +with the atmosphere. +The gas within the +tube is assumed to be isolated +from the atmosphere by a movable piston EF, +free to move vertically in the tube, and for the purpose +of illustration, assumed also frictionless and weightless. +With these assumptions, the pressure on the +confined gas will simply be that due to the atmosphere. +If<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> +heat energy be now applied to the gas, +its temperature will rise and expansion will ensue. +This expansion will be carried out at constant +atmospheric pressure; the gaseous material, as it +expands, must lift with it the whole of the superimposed +atmospheric column against the downward +attractive force of the earth's gravitation on that +column. Work is thus done by the expanding gas, +and in consequence of this work done, a definite +quantity of atmospheric material gains energy of +position or potential energy relative to the earth's +surface. At the same time, the rise of temperature +of the gas will indicate an accession of heat energy +to its mass. These familiar phenomena of expansion +under constant pressure serve to illustrate the +important fact that, when heat energy is applied to +a gaseous mass, it really manifests itself therein in +two aspects, namely, heat energy and work energy. +The increment of heat energy is indicated by the +increase in temperature, the increment of work +energy by the increase in pressure. In the example +just quoted, however, there is no increase in +pressure, because the work energy, as rapidly as it is +applied to the gas, is transformed or worked down in +displacing the atmospheric column resting on the +upper side of the moving piston. The energy +applied, in the form of heat from the outside source, +has in reality been introduced into a definite energy +machine, a machine in this case adapted for the +complete<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> +transformation of work energy into energy +of position. As already indicated, when the expansive +movement is completed, the volume and temperature +of the gaseous mass are both increased but +the pressure remains unaltered. While the increase +in temperature is the measure and index of a definite +increase in the heat energy of the gas, it is important +to note that, so far as its work energy is concerned, +the gas is finally in precisely the same condition +as at the commencement of the operation. Work +energy has been, by the working of this energy +machine, as it were passed through the gaseous mass +into the surrounding atmosphere. The pressure of +the gas is the true index of its work energy properties. +So long as the pressure remains unaltered, +the inherent work energy of the material remains +absolutely unaffected. A brief consideration of +the nature of work energy as already portrayed +(§ <a href="#sec_31">31</a>) will make this clear. Work energy has been +defined as "<i>that form of energy transmitted by matter +in motion</i>," and it is clear that pressure is the +essential factor in any transmission of this nature. +Temperature has no direct bearing on it whatever. +It is common knowledge, however, that in the +application of heat energy to a gaseous substance, +the two aspects of pressure and temperature cannot +be really dissociated. They are mutually dependent. +Any increment of heat energy to the gas is accompanied +by an increment of work energy, and vice +versa.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> +The precise mode of action of the work +energy will, of course, depend on the general circumstances +of the energy machine in which it operates. +In the case just considered the work energy does +not finally reside in the gaseous mass itself, but, by +the working of the machine, is communicated to +the atmosphere. If, on the other hand, heat energy +were applied in the same fashion to a mass of gas +in a completely enclosed vessel, that is to say at +constant volume instead of at constant pressure, the +general phenomena are merely altered in degree +according to the change in the precise nature of the +energy machine. In the former case, the nature of +the energy machine was such that the work energy +communicated was expended in its entirety against +gravitation. Under what is usually termed constant +volume conditions, only a portion of the total work +energy communicated is transformed, and the transformation +of this portion is carried out, not against +gravitation, but against the cohesive forces of the +material of the enclosing vessel which restrains the +expansion. No matter how great may be the elastic +properties of this material, it will be distorted, more or +less, by the application of work energy. This distortional +movement is the external evidence of the energy +process of transformation. Energy is stored in the +material against the forces of cohesion (§ <a href="#sec_15">15</a>). But +the energy thus stored is only a small proportion of +the total work energy which accrues to the gas in +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> +heating process. The remainder is stored in the +gas itself, and the evidence of such storage is found +simply in the increase of pressure. Different energy +machines thus offer different facilities for the transformation +or the storage of the applied energy. In +every case where the work energy applied has no +opportunity of expending itself, its presence will be +indicated by an increase in the pressure or work +function of the gas.</p> + +<div class="figleft"><a id="i128" name="i128"></a> +<img src="images/i128.jpg" alt="" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 8</span></p> + +</div> + +<p>The principles which underlie the above phenomena +can readily be applied to other cases of +gaseous expansion. It is a matter of common experience +that if a given mass of gaseous material be +introduced into a vessel which has been exhausted by +an air-pump or other device for the production of a +vacuum, the whole space within the vessel is instantly +permeated by the gas, which will expand until its +volume is precisely that of the containing vessel. +Further phenomena of the operation are that the +expanding gas suffers a decrease in temperature and +pressure corresponding to the degree or ratio of the +expansion. Before the expansive process took place +the gaseous mass, as indicated by its initial temperature +and pressure, is endowed with a definite quantity +of energy in the form of heat and work energy. +After expansion, these quantities are diminished, as +indicated by its final and lower temperature and +pressure. The operation of expansion has thus involved +an expenditure of energy. This expenditure +takes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> +place in virtue of the movement of the gaseous +material (§ <a href="#sec_4">4</a>). It is obvious that if the volume of the +whole is to be increased, each portion of the expanding +gas requires to move relatively to the remainder. +This movement is carried out in the lines +of the earth's gravitative attraction, and to a certain +extent over the surface of the containing vessel. In +some respects, it thus corresponds simply to the +movement of a body over the earth's surface (§ <a href="#sec_16">16</a>). +It is also carried out against the viscous or frictional +forces existing throughout the gaseous material itself +(§ <a href="#sec_29">29</a>). Assuming no influx of energy from without, +the energy expended in the movement of the +gaseous material must be obtained at the expense +of the inherent heat and work energy of the +gas, and these two functions will decrease simultaneously. +The heat and work energy of the gas or +its inherent energy is thus taken to provide the +energy necessary for the expansive movement. This +energy, however, does not leave the gas, but still +resides therein in a form akin to that of energy of +position or separation. It will be clear also, that the +reverse operation cannot, in this case, be carried out; +the gas cannot move back to its original volume in +the same fashion as it expanded into the vacuum, so +that the energy utilised in this way for separation +cannot be directly returned.</p> + +<p>The expansion of the gas has been assumed above +to take place into a vacuous space, but a little consideration +will<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> +show that this condition cannot be +properly or even approximately fulfilled under +ordinary experimental conditions. The smallest +quantity of gas introduced into the exhausted vessel +will at once completely fill the vacuous space, and, +on this account, the whole expansion of the gas does +not in reality take place <i>in vacuo</i> at all. To study +the action of the gas under the latter conditions, it +is necessary to look on the operation of expansion +in a more general way, which might be presented +as follows.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_34" id="sec_34"></a>34. <i>Gravitational Equilibrium of Gases</i></h3> + +<p>Consider a planetary body, in general nature similar +to the earth, but, unlike the earth, possessing no +atmosphere whatever. The space surrounding such +a celestial mass may then be considered as a perfect +vacuum. Now let it be further assumed that in +virtue of some change in the conditions, a portion of +the material of the planetary mass is volatilised and +a mass of gas thereby liberated over its surface. The +gas is assumed to correspond in temperature to that +portion of the planet's surface with which it is in +contact. It is clear that, in the circumstances, the +gas, in virtue of its elastic and energetic properties, +will expand in all directions. It will completely +envelop the planet, and it will also move radially +outwards into space. In these respects, its expansion +will<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> +correspond to that of a gas introduced into a +vacuous space of unlimited extent.</p> + +<p>The question now arises as to the nature of the +action of the gaseous substance in these circumstances. +It is clear that the radial or outward movement +of the gas from the planetary surface is made +directly against the gravitative attraction of the +planet on the gaseous mass. In other words, +matter or material is being moved in the lines or +field of this gravitative force. This movement, +accordingly, will be productive of an energy transformation +(§ <a href="#sec_4">4</a>). In its initial or surface condition +each portion of the gaseous mass is possessed of a +perfectly definite amount of energy indicated by and +dependent on that condition. As it moves upwards +from the surface, it does work against gravity in the +raising of its own mass. But as the mass is thus +raised, it is gaining energy of position (§ <a href="#sec_20">20</a>), and as it +has absolutely no communication with any external +source of energy in its ascent, the energy of position +thus gained can only be obtained at the expense of +its initial inherent heat and work energy. The +operation is, in fact, a simple transformation of this +inherent energy into energy of position, a transformation +in which gravity is the incepting agency. The +external evidence of transformation will be a fall in +temperature of the material. Since the action is +exactly similar for all ascending particles, it is evident +that as the altitude of the gaseous mass increases the +temperature<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> +will correspondingly diminish. This +diminution will proceed so long as the gaseous +particles continue to ascend, and until an elevation +is finally attained at which their inherent energy is +entirely converted into energy of position. The expansion +of the gas, and the associated transformation +of energy, thus leads to the erection of a gaseous +column in space, the temperature of which steadily +diminishes from the base to the summit. At the +latter elevation, the inherent energy of the gaseous +particles which attain to it is completely transformed +or worked out against gravity in the ascent; the energy +possessed by the gas at this elevation is, therefore, +entirely energy of position; the energy properties of +heat and work have entirely vanished, and the temperature +will, therefore, at this elevation, be absolute +zero. It is important to note also that in the building +of such a column or gaseous spherical envelope +round the planet, the total energy of any gaseous +particle of that column will remain unchanged +throughout the process. No matter where the +particle may be situated in the column, its total +energy must always be expressed by its heat and +work energy properties together with its energy of +position. This sum is always a constant quantity. +For if the particle descends from a higher to a lower +altitude, its total energy is still unchanged, because a +definite transformation of its energy of position takes +place corresponding to its fall, and this transformed +energy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> +duly appears in its original form of heat and +work energy in accordance with the decreased altitude +of the particle. Since the temperature of the column +remains unchanged at the base surface and only +decreases in the ascent, it is clear that the entire heat +and work energy of the originally liberated gaseous +mass is not expended in the movement against gravity. +Every gaseous particle—excepting those on the +absolute outer surface of the gaseous envelope—has +still the property of temperature. It is evident, +therefore, that in the constitution of the column, only +a portion of the total original heat and work energy +of the gaseous substance is transformed into energy +of position.</p> + +<p>The space into which the gas expands has been +referred to as unlimited in extent. But although in +one sense it may be correctly described thus, yet in +another, and perhaps in a truer sense, the space is +very strictly limited. It is true there is no enclosing +vessel or bounding surface, but nevertheless the +expansion of the gas is restrained in two ways or +limited by two factors. The position of the bounding +surface of the spherical gaseous envelope depends, +in the first place, on the original energy of the gas +as deduced from its initial temperature and its other +physical properties, and secondly on the value of the +gravitative attraction exerted on the gas by the +planetary body. Looking at the first factor, it is +obvious that since the gaseous mass initially possesses +only<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> +a limited amount of energy, and since only a +certain portion of this energy is really available for +the transformation, the whole process is thereby +limited in extent. The complete transformation and +disappearance of that available portion of the gaseous +energy in the process of erection of the atmospheric +column will correspond to a definite and limited +increase of energy of position of gaseous material. +Since the energy of position is thus restricted in its +totality, and the mass of material for elevation is +constant, the height of the column or the boundary +of expansion of the gas is likewise rigidly defined. +In this fashion, the energy properties of the gaseous +material limit the expansive process.</p> + +<p>Looking at the operation from another standpoint, +it is clear that the maximum height of the +spherical gaseous envelope must also be dependent on +the resistance against which the upward movement +of the gas is carried out, that is, on the value of the +gravitative attraction. The expenditure of energy in +the ascent varies directly as the opposing force; if +this force be increased the ultimate height must +decrease, and vice versa. Each particle might be +regarded as moving in the ascent against the action +of an invisible spring, stretching it so that with +increase of altitude more and more of the energy of +the particle is transformed or stored in the spring in +the extension. When the particle descends to its +original position, the operation is reversed; the spring +is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> +now contracting, and yielding up the stored energy +to the particle in the contraction. The action of the +spring would here be merely that of an apparatus +for the storage and return of energy. In the +case of the gaseous mass, we conceive the action of +gravitation to be exactly analogous to that of a +spring offering an approximately constant resistance +to extension. (The value of gravity is assumed +approximately constant, and independent of the +particle's displacement.) The energy stored or transformed +in the ascension against gravity is returned +on the descent in a precisely similar fashion. The +operation is a completely reversible one. The range +of motion of the gaseous mass or the ultimate height +of the gaseous column will thus depend on the value +of the opposing attractive force controlling the +motion or, in other words, on the value of gravity. +This value is of course defined by the relative mass +of the planet (§ <a href="#sec_20">20</a>).</p> + +<p>It is evident that the spherical envelope which +would thus enwrap the planetary mass possesses +certain peculiar properties which are not associated +with gaseous masses under ordinary experimental +conditions. It by no means corresponds to any +ordinary body of gaseous material, having a homogeneous +constitution and a precise and determinate +pressure and temperature throughout. On the contrary, +its properties are somewhat complex. Throughout +the gaseous envelope the physical condition of +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> +substance is continually changing with change +of altitude. The extremes are found at the inner +and outer bounding surfaces. At any given level, +the gaseous pressure is simply the result of the attractive +action of gravitation on the mass of gaseous +material above that level—or, more simply, to the +weight of material above that level. There is, of +course, a certain decrease in the value of the gravitative +attraction with increase of altitude, but within +the limits of atmospheric height obtained by ordinary +gaseous substances (§ <a href="#sec_36">36</a>) this decrease may be +neglected, and the weight of unit mass of the material +assumed constant at different levels. Increase of +atmospheric altitude is thus accompanied by decrease +in atmospheric pressure. But decrease in pressure +must be accompanied by a corresponding decrease in +density of the gas, so that, if uniform temperature were +for the time being assumed, it would be necessary at +the higher levels to rise through a greater distance to +experience the same decrease in pressure than at the +lower levels. In fact, given uniform conditions of +temperature, if different altitudes were taken in +arithmetical progression the respective pressures and +densities would diminish in geometrical progression. +But we have seen that the energy conditions absolutely +preclude the condition of uniformity of temperature, +and accordingly, the decreasing pressure and +density must be counteracted to some extent at least +by the decreasing temperature. The conditions are +somewhat<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> +complex; but the general effect of the +decreasing temperature factor would seem to be by +increasing the density to cause the available gaseous +energy to be completely worked down at a somewhat +lower level than otherwise, and thus to lessen to +some degree the height of the gaseous envelope.</p> + +<p>It is to be noted that a gaseous column or +atmosphere of this nature would be in a state of +complete equilibrium under the action of the gravitative +attraction—provided there were no external +disturbing influences. The peculiar feature of such +a column is that the total energy of unit mass of its +material, wherever that mass may be situated, is +a constant quantity. In virtue of this property, +the equilibrium of the column might be termed +neutral or statical equilibrium. The gas may then +be described as in the neutral or statical condition. +This statical condition of equilibrium of a gas is +of course a purely hypothetical one. It has been +described in order to introduce certain ideas which +are essential to the discussion of energy changes +and reactions of gases in the lines of gravitational +forces. These reactions will now be dealt with.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_35" id="sec_35"></a>35. <i>Total Energy of Gaseous Substances</i></h3> + +<p>Since the maximum height of a planetary atmosphere +is dependent on the total energy of the +gaseous substance or substances of which it is +composed,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> +it becomes necessary, in determining +this height, to estimate this total energy. This, +however, is a matter of some difficulty. By +the total energy is here meant the entire energy +possessed by the substance, that energy which +it would yield up in cooling from its given +condition down to absolute zero of temperature. +On examination of the recorded properties of the +various gaseous substances familiar to us, it will be +found that in no single instance are the particulars +available for anything more than an exceedingly +rough estimate of this total energy. Each substance, +in proceeding from the gaseous condition towards +absolute zero, passes through many physical phases. +In most cases, there is a lack of experimental +phenomena or data of any kind relating to certain +of these phases; the necessary information on certain +points, such as the values and variations of latent +and specific heats and other physical quantities, is, +in the meantime, not accessible. Experimental research +in regions of low temperature may be said +to be in its infancy, and the properties of matter +in these regions are accordingly more or less unknown. +The researches of Mendeleef and others +tend to show, also, that the comparatively simple +laws successfully applied to gases under normal +conditions are entirely departed from at very low +temperatures. In view of these facts, it is necessary, +in attempting to estimate, by ordinary methods, the +total<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> +energy of any substance, to bear in mind +that the quantity finally obtained may only +be a rough approximation to the true value. +These approximations, however, although of little +value as precise measurements, may be of very +great importance for certain general comparative +purposes.</p> + +<p>Keeping in view these general considerations, +it is now proposed to estimate, under ordinary +terrestrial atmospheric conditions, the total energy +properties of the three gaseous substances, oxygen, +nitrogen, and aqueous vapour. The information +relative to the energy calculation which is in the +meantime available is shown below in tabular form. +As far as possible all the heat and other energy +properties of each substance as it cools to absolute +zero have been taken into account.</p> + +<p class="center pt"><a name="Table_of_Properties" id="Table_of_Properties"></a><i>Table of Properties</i></p> + +<table border="1" cellpadding="10" +style="margin-left: -5%; margin-right: 5%; width: 110%" summary="properties"> + + + +<tr> +<td class="center">I</td> +<td class="center">II</td> +<td class="center">III</td> +<td class="center">IV</td> +<td class="center">V</td> +<td class="center">VI </td> +<td class="center">VII </td> +</tr> + + + +<tr> +<td class="center">Gas</td> + +<td class="center">Specific<br /> +Heat at<br /> +Constant<br /> +Pressure.</td> + +<td class="center" colspan="2">Evaporation<br /> +Temperature<br /> +of Liquid<br /> +at Atmospheric<br /> +Pressure.<br /> +</td> + + +<td class="center">Approximate<br /> +Latent Heat<br /> +of Gas 50° F.</td> + +<td class="center">Latent<br /> +Heat of<br /> +Liquid.</td> + +<td class="center">Vapour<br /> +Pressure<br /> + 50° F.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td class="center">°F.</td> +<td class="center">°F. (Abs.)</td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +</tr> + + + +<tr> +<td class="center">Oxygen</td> +<td class="tdl">0·2175</td> +<td class="center">-296</td> +<td class="center">164</td> +<td class="center">100</td> +<td class="center"> ...</td> +<td class="center"> ...</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="center">Nitrogen</td> +<td class="tdl">0·2438</td> +<td class="center">-320</td> +<td class="center">141</td> +<td class="center">100</td> +<td class="center">...</td> +<td class="center">...</td> +</tr> + + +<tr> +<td class="center">Aqueous<br /> +Vapour</td> +<td class="tdl">0·4</td> +<td class="center">212</td> +<td class="center">673</td> +<td class="center">1080</td> +<td class="center">144</td> +<td class="center">0·176</td> +</tr> + + +</table> + +<p class="pt">Since<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> +no reliable data can be obtained with +regard to the values and variations of specific heats at +extremely low temperatures, they are assumed for the +purpose of our calculation to be in each case that +of the gas, and to be constant under all conditions. +Latent heats are utilised in every case when available.</p> + +<p>With these reservations, the total energy, referred +to absolute zero, of one pound of oxygen gas at +normal temperature of 50° F. or 511° F. (Abs.) will +be approximately</p> + +<p class="center"> +(511 × 0·2175) + 100 = 211 Thermal Units Fahrenheit.<br /> +</p> + +<p>This in work units is roughly equivalent to</p> + +<p class="center"> +211 × 778 = 164,000 ft. lbs.<br /> +</p> + +<p>Adopting the same method with nitrogen gas, +its energy at the same initial temperature will be, +per unit mass,</p> + +<p class="center"> +174,600 ft. lbs.<br /> +</p> + +<p>There is thus a somewhat close resemblance, +not only in the general temperature conditions but +also in the energy conditions, of the two gases +oxygen and nitrogen.</p> + +<p>It will be readily seen, however, that under the +same conditions the energy state of aqueous vapour +differs very considerably from either, for by the +same method as before the energy per pound of +aqueous vapour is equal to</p> + +<p class="center"> +{(511 × 0·4) + 1080 + 144} × 778 = 1,111,000 ft. lbs.<br /> +</p> + +<p>Under<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> +ordinary terrestrial atmospheric conditions, +the energy of aqueous vapour per unit mass is +thus nearly seven times as great as that of either +oxygen or nitrogen gas. It is to be observed, also, +that three-fourths of this energy of the vapour +under the given conditions is present in the form +of latent energy of the gas, or what we have already +termed work energy.</p> + +<p>The values of the various temperatures and other +physical features, which we have included in the +Table of Properties above, and which will be utilised +throughout this discussion, are merely those in everyday +use in scientific work. They form simply the +accessible information on the respective materials. +They are the records of phenomena, and on these +phenomena are based our energy calculations. +Further research may reveal the true values of +other factors which up to the present we have +been forced to assume, and so lead to more accurate +computation of the energy in each case. Such +investigation, however, is unlikely to affect in any +way the general object of this part of the work, +which is simply to portray in an approximate manner +the relative energy properties of the three gaseous +substances under certain assumed conditions.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_36" id="sec_36"></a>36. <i>Comparative Altitudes of Planetary Atmospheres</i></h3> + +<p>The total energy of equal masses of the gases +oxygen, nitrogen, and aqueous vapour, as estimated +by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> +the method above, are respectively in +the ratios</p> + +<p class="center"> +1 : 1·06 : 6·8<br /> +</p> + +<p>Referring back once more to the phenomena +described with reference to the gravitational equilibrium +of a gas, let it be assumed that the +gaseous substance liberated on the surface of the +planetary body is oxygen, and that the planetary +body itself is of approximately the same constitution +and dimensions as the earth. The oxygen gas thus +liberated will expand against gravity, and envelop +the planet in the manner already described (§ <a href="#sec_34">34</a>). +Now the total energy of a mass of one pound of +oxygen has been estimated under certain assumptions +(§ <a href="#sec_35">35</a>) to be 164,000 ft. lbs. The value of the +gravitative attraction of the planet on this mass is +the same as under ordinary terrestrial conditions, +so that if the entire energy of one pound of the gas +were utilised in raising itself against gravity, the +height through which this mass would be raised, and +at which the material would attain the level of +absolute zero of temperature, assuming gravity constant +with increasing altitude, would be simply +164,000 ft. or approximately 31 miles. The whole +energy would not, of course, be expended in the +expansive movement; only the outermost surface +material of the planetary gaseous envelope attains +to absolute zero of temperature. In estimating the +altitude of this surface, however, the precise mass +of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> +gaseous substance assumed for the purpose of +calculation is of little or no importance. Whatever +may be the value of the mass assumed, its total +energy and the gravitative attraction of the planetary +body on it are both alike entirely and directly +dependent on that mass value. It is therefore clear +that no matter how the mass under consideration +be diminished, the height at which its energy +would be completely worked down, and at which its +temperature would be absolute zero, is the same, +namely 31 miles. At the planet's surface, the total +energy of an infinitesimally small portion of the +gaseous mass is proportional to that mass. This +amount of energy is, however, all that is available +for transformation against gravitation in the ascent. +But at the same time, the gravitative force on the +particle, that force which resists its upward movement, +is proportionately small corresponding to the +small mass, so that the particle will in reality require +to rise to the same altitude of 31 miles in +order to completely transform its energy and attain +absolute zero of temperature. When the expansive +process is completed, the outer surface of the spherical +gaseous envelope surrounding the planet is then +formed of matter in this condition of absolute zero; +this height of 31 miles is then the altitude or depth +of the statical atmospheric column at a point on the +planetary surface where the temperature is 50° F.</p> + +<p>It is to be particularly noted that this height is +entirely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> +dependent on the gravitation, temperature, +and energy conditions assumed.</p> + +<p>With respect, also, to the assumption made +above, of constant gravitation with increasing altitude, +the variation in the value of gravity within +the height limits in which the gas operates is so +slight, that the energy of the expanding substance +is completely worked down long before the variation +appreciably affects the estimated altitude of +absolute zero. In any case, bearing in mind the +approximate nature of the estimate of the energy +of the gases themselves, the variation of gravity is +evidently a factor of little moment in our scheme +of comparison.</p> + +<p>Knowing the maximum height to be 31 miles, +a uniform temperature gradient from the planetary +surface to the outermost surface of the atmospheric +material may be readily calculated. In the case of +oxygen, the decrease of temperature with altitude +will be at the rate of 16° F. per mile, or 1° F. +per 330 ft.</p> + +<p>If the planetary atmosphere were composed of +nitrogen instead of oxygen, the height of the statical +atmospheric column under the given conditions +would then be approximately</p> + +<p class="center"> +31 × 1·06 = 33 miles,<br /> +</p> + +<p>and the gradient of temperature 15·5° F. per mile.</p> + +<p>In the case of aqueous vapour, which is possessed +of much more powerful energy properties than +either<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> +oxygen or nitrogen, the height of the statical +column, to correspond to the energy of the material, +is no less than 210 miles and the temperature +gradient only 2·4° F. per mile.</p> + +<p>Each of the gases, then, if separately associated +with the planetary body, would form an atmosphere +around it depending in height on the peculiar +energy properties of the gas. A point to be observed +is that the actual or total mass of any gas +thus liberated at the planet's surface has no bearing +on the ultimate height of the atmosphere which it +would constitute. When the expansive motion is +completed, the density properties of the atmosphere +would of course depend on the initial mass of gas +liberated, but for any given value of gravity it is +the energy properties of the gas per unit mass, or +what might be termed its specific energy properties, +which really determine the height of its atmosphere.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_37" id="sec_37"></a>37. <i>Reactions of Composite Atmosphere</i></h3> + +<p>It is now possible to deal with the case in which +not only one gas but several gases are initially +liberated on the planetary surface. Since the gases +are different, then at the given surface temperature +of the planet they possess different amounts of heat +energy, and for each gas considered statically, the +temperature-altitude gradient will be different from +any of the others. The limiting height of the +gaseous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> +column for each gas, considered separately, +will also depend on the total energy of that gas +per unit mass, at the surface temperature. But it is +evident that in a composite atmosphere, the separate +statical conditions of several gases could not be maintained. +In such a mixture, separate temperature-altitude +gradients would be impossible. Absolute +zero of temperature could clearly not be attained +at more than one altitude, and it is evident that +the temperature-altitude gradient of the mixture +must, in some way, settle down to a definite +value, and absolute zero of temperature must +occur at some determinate height. This can +only be brought about by energy exchanges and +reactions between the atmospheric constituents. +When these reactions have taken place, the atmosphere +as a whole will have attained a condition +analogous to that of statical equilibrium (§ <a href="#sec_34">34</a>). +Each of its constituents, however, will have decidedly +departed from this latter condition. In the +course of the mutual energy reactions, some will +lose a portion of their energy. Others will gain at +their expense. All are in equilibrium as constituents +of the composite atmosphere, but none approach +the condition of statical equilibrium peculiar to an +atmosphere composed of one gas only (§ <a href="#sec_35">35</a>). The +precise energy operations which would thus take +place in any composite atmosphere would of course +depend in nature and extent on the physical properties +of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> +the reacting constituents. If the latter +were closely alike in general properties, the energy +changes are likely to be small. A strong divergence +in energy properties will give rise to more powerful +reactions. A concrete instance will perhaps make +this more clear. Let it be assumed in the first place +that the planetary atmosphere is composed of the +two gases oxygen and nitrogen. From previous +considerations, it will be clear that the natural decrease +of temperature of nitrogen gas with increase +of altitude is, in virtue of its slightly superior energy +qualities, correspondingly slower than that of oxygen. +The approximate rates are 15·5° F. and 16° F. per +mile respectively. The tendency of the nitrogen is +therefore to transmit a portion of its energy to the +oxygen. Such a transmission, however, would +increase the height of the oxygen column and correspondingly +decrease the height of the nitrogen. +When the balance is finally obtained, the height +of the atmospheric column does not correspond to +the energy properties of either gas, but to those of +the combination. In the case of these two materials, +oxygen and nitrogen, the energy reactions necessary +to produce the condition of equilibrium are comparatively +small in magnitude on account of the +somewhat close resemblance in the energy properties +of the two substances. On this account, therefore, +the two gases might readily be assumed to behave +as one gas composing the planetary atmosphere.</p> + +<p>But<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> +what, then, will be the effect of introducing +a quantity of aqueous vapour into an atmosphere +this nature? The general phenomena will be of +the same order as before, but of much greater +magnitude. From the approximate figures obtained +(§§ <a href="#sec_35">35,</a> <a href="#sec_36">36</a>), the inherent energy of aqueous vapour per +unit mass is seen to be, under the same conditions, +enormously greater than that of the other two +gases. In statical equilibrium (§ <a href="#sec_34">34</a>), the altitude +of the gaseous column formed by aqueous vapour +is almost seven times as great as that of the oxygen +or nitrogen with which, in the composite atmosphere, +it would be intermixed. In the given circumstances, +then, aqueous vapour would be forced by these conditions +to give up a very large portion of its energy +to the other atmospheric constituents. The latter +would thus be still further expanded against gravity; +the aqueous vapour itself would suffer a loss of +energy equivalent to the work transmitted from +it. It is therefore clear that in a composite atmosphere +formed in the manner described, any gas +possessed of energy properties superior to the other +constituents is forced of necessity to transmit energy +to these constituents. This phenomenon is merely +a consequence of the natural disposition of the +atmospheric gaseous substances towards a condition +of equilibrium with more or less uniform temperature +gradation. The greater the inherent energy qualities +of any one constituent relative to the others, the +greater<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> +will be the quantity of energy transmitted +from it in this way.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_38" id="sec_38"></a>38. <i>Description of Terrestrial Case</i></h3> + +<p>Bearing in mind the general considerations which +have been advanced above with respect to planetary +atmospheres, it is now possible to place before the +reader a general descriptive outline of the circumstances +and operation of an atmospheric machine in +actual working. The machine to be described is +that associated with the earth.</p> + +<p>In the earth is found an example of a planetary +body of spheroidal form pursuing a clearly defined +orbit in space and at the same time rotating with +absolutely uniform velocity about a central axis +within itself. The structural details of its surface +and the general distribution of material thereon will +be more or less familiar to the reader, and it is +not, therefore, proposed to dwell on these features +here. Attention may be drawn, however, to the +fact that a very large proportion of the surface of +the earth is a liquid surface. Of all the material +familiar to us from terrestrial experience there is +none which enters into the composition of the +earth's crust in so large a proportion as water. In +the free state, or in combination with other material, +water is found everywhere. In the liquid condition +it is widely distributed. Although the liquid or +sea<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> +surface of the planet extends over a large part +of the whole, the real water surface, that is, the +<i>wetted</i> surface, if we except perhaps a few desert +regions, may be said to comprise practically the +entire surface area of the planet. And water is +found not only on the earth's crust but throughout +the gaseous atmospheric envelope. The researches +of modern chemistry have revealed the fact that +the atmosphere by which the earth is surrounded +is not only a mixture of gases, but an exceedingly +complex mixture. The relative proportions of the +rarer gases present are, however, exceedingly small, +and their properties correspondingly obscure. Taken +broadly, the atmosphere may be said to be composed +of air and water (in the form of aqueous +vapour) in varying proportion. The former constituent +exists as a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen +gases of fairly constant proportion over the entire +surface of the globe. The latter is present in +varying amount at different points according to +local conditions. This mixture of gaseous substances, +forming the terrestrial atmosphere, resides +on the surface of the planet and forms, as already +described (§ <a href="#sec_34">34</a>), a column or envelope completely +surrounding it; the quantity of gaseous material +thus heaped up on the planetary surface is such +that it exerts almost uniformly over that surface +the ordinary atmospheric pressure of approximately +14·7 lb. per sq. inch. It is advisable, +also,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> +at this stage to point out and emphasise the +fact that the planetary atmosphere must be regarded +as essentially a material portion of the planet itself. +Although the atmosphere forms a movable shell or +envelope, and is composed of purely gaseous material, +it will still partake of the same complete orbital and +rotatory axial motion as the solid core, and will also +be subjected to the same external and internal influences +of gravitation. Such are the general +planetary conditions. Let us now turn to the +particular phenomena of axial revolution.</p> + +<p>In virtue of the unvarying rotatory movement +of the planetary mass in the lines of the various +incepting fields of its primary the sun, transformations +of the axial or mechanical energy of the planet +will be in continuous operation (§§ <a href="#sec_17">17-19</a>). Although +the gaseous atmospheric envelope of the planet +partakes of this general rotatory motion under the +influence of the incepting fields, the latter have +apparently no action upon it. The sun's influence +penetrates, as it were, the atmospheric veil, and +operating on the solid and liquid material below, +provokes the numerous and varied transformations +of planetary energy which constitute planetary +phenomena. At the equatorial band, where the +velocity or axial energy properties of the surface +material is greatest, these effects of transformation +will naturally be most pronounced. In the polar +regions of low velocity they will be less evident. +One<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> +of the most important of these transforming +effects may be termed the heating action of the +primary on the planet—a process which takes place +in greater or less degree over the entire planetary +surface, and which is the result of the direct transformation +of axial energy into the form of heat +(§ <a href="#sec_18">18</a>). In virtue of this heat transformation, or +heating effect of the sun, the temperature of material +on the earth's surface is maintained in varying values +from regions of high velocity to those of low—from +equator to poles—according to latitude or according +to the displacement of that material, in rotation, +from the central axis. Owing to the irregular distribution +of matter on the earth's surface, and other +causes to be referred to later, this variation in +temperature is not necessarily uniform with the +latitude. This heating effect of the sun on the +earth will provoke on the terrestrial surface all +the familiar secondary processes (§ <a href="#sec_9">9</a>) associated +with the heating of material. Most of these processes, +in combination with the operations of radiation +and conduction, will lead either directly or +indirectly to the communication of energy to the +atmospheric masses (§ <a href="#sec_27">27</a>).</p> + +<p>Closely associated with the heat transformation, +there is also in operation another energy process of +great importance. This process is one of evaporative +transformation. Reference has already been made +to the vast extent of the liquid or wetted surface of +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> +earth. This surface forms the seat of evaporation, +and the action of the sun's incepting influence on +the liquid of this surface is to induce a direct transformation +of the earth's axial or mechanical energy +into the elastic energy of a gas, or in other words into +the form of work energy. By this process, therefore, +water is converted into aqueous vapour. Immediately +the substance attains the latter or gaseous state +it becomes unaffected by, or transparent to, the incepting +influence of the sun (§ <a href="#sec_18">18</a>). And the action of +evaporation is not restricted in locality to the earth's +surface only. It may proceed throughout the atmosphere. +Wherever condensation of aqueous vapour +takes place and water particles are thereby suspended +in the atmosphere, these particles are immediately +susceptible to the sun's incepting field, and if the +conditions are otherwise favourable, re-evaporation +will at once ensue. Like the ordinary heating action +also, that of transformation will take place with +greater intensity in equatorial than in polar regions. +These two planetary secondary processes, of heating +and evaporation, are of vital importance to the +working of the atmospheric machine. But, as already +pointed out elsewhere (§§ <a href="#sec_10">10,</a> <a href="#sec_32">32</a>), every secondary +operation is in some fashion linked to that machine. +Other incepting influences, such as light, are in action +on the planet, and produce transformations peculiar +to themselves. These, in the meantime, will not be +considered except to point out that in every case the +energy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> +active in them is the axial energy of the earth +itself operating under the direct incepting influence +of the sun. The general conditions of planetary +revolution and transformation are thus intimately +associated with the operation of the atmospheric +machine. In this machine is embodied a huge energy +process, in the working of which the axial energy of +the earth passes through a series of energy changes +which, in combination, form a complete cyclical +operation. In their perhaps most natural sequence +these processes are as follows:—</p> + +<p>1. The direct transformation of terrestrial axial +energy into the work energy of aqueous vapour.</p> + +<p>2. The direct transmission of the work energy +of aqueous vapour to the general atmospheric masses, +and the consequent elevation of these masses from +the earth's surface against gravity.</p> + +<p>3. The descent of the atmospheric air masses in +their movement towards regions of low velocity, and +the return in the descent of the initially transformed +axial energy to its original form.</p> + +<p>The first of these processes is carried out through +the medium of the aqueous material of the earth. +It is simply the evaporative transformation referred +to above. By that evaporative process a portion of +the energy of motion or axial energy of the earth is +directly communicated or passed into the aqueous +material. Its form, in that material, is that of +work energy, or the elastic energy of aqueous +vapour,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> +and, as already pointed out, this process of +evaporative transformation reaches its greatest intensity +in equatorial or regions of highest velocity. In +these regions also, in virtue of the working of the +heat process already referred to above, the temperature +conditions are eminently favourable to the +presence of large quantities of aqueous vapour. The +tension or pressure of the vapour, which really +depends on the quantity of gaseous material present, +is directly proportional to the temperature, so that in +equatorial regions not only is the general action of +transformation in the aqueous material most intense, +but the surrounding temperature conditions in these +regions are such as to favour the continuous presence +of large quantities of the aqueous vapour which is +the direct product of the action of transformation. +The equatorial regions of the earth, or the regions of +high velocity, are thus eminently adapted, by the +natural conditions, to be the seat of the most powerful +transformations of axial energy. As already +pointed out, however, these same transformations +take place over the entire terrestrial surface in varying +degree and intensity according to the locality and +the temperature or other conditions which may +prevail. Now this transformation of axial energy +which takes place through the medium of the evaporative +process is a continuous operation. The energy +involved, which passes into the aqueous vapour, +augmented by the energy of other secondary processes +(§ <a href="#sec_32">32</a>),<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> +is the energy which is applied to the atmospheric +air masses in the second stage of the working +of the atmospheric machine. Before proceeding to +the description of this stage, however, it is absolutely +necessary to point out certain very important facts +with reference to the energy condition of the atmospheric +constituents in the peculiar circumstances of +their normal working.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_39" id="sec_39"></a>39. <i>Relative Physical Conditions of Atmospheric +Constituents</i></h3> + +<p>It will be evident that no matter where the +evaporation of the aqueous material takes place, +it must be carried out at the temperature corresponding +to that location, and since the aqueous vapour +itself is not superheated in any way (being transparent +to the sun's influence), the axial energy transformed +and the work energy stored in the material +per unit mass, will be simply equivalent to the latent +heat of aqueous vapour under the temperature conditions +which prevail. In virtue of the relatively +high value of this latent heat under ordinary conditions, +the gas may be regarded as comparatively a +very highly energised substance. It is clear, however, +that since the gas is working at its precise temperature +of evaporation, the maximum amount of energy +which it can possibly yield up at that temperature is +simply this latent heat of evaporation, and if this +energy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> +be by any means withdrawn, either in whole +or in part, then condensation corresponding to the +energy withdrawal will at once ensue. The condition +of the aqueous vapour is in fact that of a true vapour, +or of a gaseous substance operating exactly at its evaporation +temperature, and unable to sustain even the +slightest abstraction of energy without an equivalent +condensation. No matter in what manner the +abstraction is carried out, whether by the direct +transmission of heat from the substance or by the +expansion of the gas against gravity, the result is +the same; part of the gaseous material returns to +the liquid form.</p> + +<p>In the case of the more stable or permanent +constituents of the atmosphere, namely oxygen and +nitrogen, their physical conditions are entirely different +from that of the aqueous vapour. Examination +of the Table of Properties (p. 133) shows that the +evaporation temperatures of these two substances +under ordinary conditions of atmospheric pressure +are as low as -296° F. and -320° F. respectively. +At an ordinary atmospheric temperature of say +50° F. these two gases are therefore so far +above their evaporation temperature that they are +in the condition of what might be termed true +gaseous substances. Although only at a temperature +of 50° F., they may be truly described as highly +superheated gases, and it is evident that they may +be readily cooled from 50° F. through wide ranges +of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> +temperature, without any danger of their condensation +or liquefaction. Oxygen and nitrogen +gases thus present in their physical condition and +qualities a strong contrast to aqueous vapour, and +it is this difference in properties, particularly the +difference in evaporation temperatures, which is of +vital importance in the working of the atmospheric +machine. The two gases oxygen and nitrogen are, +however, so closely alike in their general energy +properties that, in the meantime, the atmospheric +mixture of the two can be conveniently assumed +to act simply as one gas—atmospheric air.</p> + +<p>From these considerations of the ordinary atmospheric +physical properties of air and aqueous vapour +it may be readily seen how each is eminently +adapted to its function in the atmospheric process. +The peculiar duty of the aqueous vapour is the absorption +and transmission of energy. Its relatively +enormous capacity for energy, the high value of its +latent heat at all ordinary atmospheric temperatures, +and the fact that it must always operate precisely +at its evaporation temperature makes it admirably +suited for both functions. Thus, in virtue of its +peculiar physical properties, it forms an admirable +agent for the storage of energy and for its transmission +to the surrounding air masses. The low temperature +of evaporation of these air masses ensures +their permanency in the gaseous state. They +are thus perfectly adapted for expansive and other +movements,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> +for the conversion of their energy +against gravity into energy of position, or for any +other reactions involving temperature change without +condensation.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_40" id="sec_40"></a>40. <i>Transmission of Energy from Aqueous Vapour +to Air Masses</i></h3> + +<p>The working of the second or transmission stage +of the atmospheric machine involves certain energy +operations in which gravitation is the incepting factor +or agency. Let it be assumed that a mass of +aqueous vapour liberated at its surface of evaporation +by the transformation of axial energy, expands upwards +against the gravitative attraction of the earth +(§§ <a href="#sec_34">34,</a> <a href="#sec_38">38</a>). As the gaseous particles ascend and thus +gain energy of position, they do work against +gravity. This work is done at the expense of +their latent energy. Since the aqueous material +is always working precisely at its evaporation temperature, +this gain in energy of position and consequent +loss of latent energy will be accompanied +by an equivalent condensation and conversion of the +rising vapour into the liquid form. This condensation +will thus be the direct evidence and measure +of work done by the aqueous material against the +gravitational forces, and the energy expended or +worked down in this way may now, accordingly, be +regarded as stored in the condensed material or +liquid<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> +particles in virtue of their new and exalted +position above the earth's surface. It is this energy +which is finally transmitted to the atmospheric air +masses. The transmission process is carried out in +the downward movement of the liquid particles. +The latter, in their exalted positions, are at a low +temperature corresponding to that position—that is, +corresponding to the work done—and provided no +energy were transmitted from them to the surrounding +air masses, their temperature would gradually +rise during the descent by the transformation of this +energy of position. In fact the phenomena of descent, +supposing no transmission of energy from the +aqueous material, would simply be the reverse of the +phenomena of ascent. Since, however, the energy of +position which the liquid particles possess is transmitted +from them to the atmospheric masses, then +it follows that this natural increase in their temperature +would not occur in the descent. A new order +of phenomena would now appear. Since the evaporative +process is a continuous one, the liquid particles +in their downward movement must be in intimate +contact with rising gaseous material, and these +liquid particles will, accordingly, at each stage of the +descent, absorb from this rising material the whole +energy necessary to raise their temperature to the +values corresponding to their decreasing elevation. +In virtue of this absorption of energy then, from the +rising material, these liquid particles are enabled to +reach<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> +the level of evaporation at the precise temperature +of that level.</p> + +<p>Now, considering the process as a whole, it will +be readily seen that for any given mass of aqueous +material thus elevated from and returned to a +surface of evaporation, there must be a definite +expenditure of energy (axial energy) at that surface. +Since the material always regains the surface at the +precise temperature of evaporation, this expenditure +is obviously, in total, equal to the latent heat of +aqueous vapour at the surface temperature. It may +be divided into two parts. One portion of the axial +energy—the transmitted portion—is utilised in the +elevation of the material against gravity; the remainder +is expended, as explained above, in the +heating of the returning material. The whole operation +takes place between two precise temperatures, +a higher temperature, which is that of the surface +of evaporation, and a lower temperature, corresponding +to the work done, and so related to the higher +that the whole of the energy expended by the working +aqueous substance—in heating the returning material +and in transmitted work—is exactly equivalent to +the latent heat of aqueous vapour at the high or +surface temperature. But, as will be demonstrated +later, the whole energy transmitted from the aqueous +material to the air masses is finally returned in its +entirety as axial energy, and is thus once more made +available in the evaporative transformation process. +The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> +energy expended in raising the temperature of +the working material returning to the surface of +evaporation is obviously returned with that material. +Both portions of the original expenditure are thus +returned to the source in different ways. The whole +operation is, in fact, completely cyclical in nature; +we are in reality describing "Nature's Perfect +Engine," which is completely reversible and which +has the highest possible efficiency.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> Although the +higher temperature at the evaporation surface may +vary with different locations of that surface, in every +case<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> +the lower temperature is so related to it as to +make the total expenditure precisely equal to the +latent heat at that evaporation temperature.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> It +must be borne in mind also, that all the condensed +material in the upper strata of the atmosphere must +not of necessity return to the planetary liquid surface. +On the contrary, immediately condensation of +the aqueous vapour takes place and the material +leaves the gaseous state, no matter where that +material is situated, it is once more susceptible to the +incepting influences of the sun. Re-evaporation +may thus readily take place even at high altitudes, +and complete cyclical operations may be carried out +there. These operations will, however, be carried +out in every case between precise temperature limits +as explained above.</p> + + +<p>It will be evident, from a general consideration +of this process of transmission of energy from the +aqueous vapour, that relatively large quantities of +that vapour are not required in the atmosphere for +the working of the gaseous machine. The peculiar +property of ready condensation of the aqueous +vapour makes the evaporative process a continuous +one, and the highly energised aqueous material, +although only present in comparatively small amount, +contributes a continuous flow of energy, and is thus +able to steadily convey a very large quantity to the +atmospheric<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> +masses. For the same reason, the +greater part of the energy transmission from the +aqueous vapour to the air will take place at comparatively +low altitudes and between reasonably +high temperatures. The working of any evaporative +cycle may also be spread over very large terrestrial +areas by the free movement of the acting material. +Aqueous vapour rising in equatorial regions may +finally return to the earth in the form of ice-crystals +at the poles. In every complete cycle, however, the +total expenditure per unit mass of material initially +evaporated is always the latent heat at the higher or +evaporation temperature; in the final or return +stages of the cycle, any energy not transmitted to +the air masses is devoted to the heating of returning +aqueous material.</p> + +<p>Referring again to the transmitted energy, and +speaking in the broadest fashion, the function of the +aqueous vapour in the atmosphere may be likened to +that of the steam in the cylinder of a steam-engine. +In both cases the aqueous material works in a +definite machine for energy transmission. In the +case of the steam-engine work energy is transmitted +(§ <a href="#sec_31">31</a>) from the steam through the medium +of the moving piston and rotating shaft, and thence +may be further diverted to useful purposes. In the +planetary atmospheric machine the work energy +of aqueous vapour is likewise transmitted by the +agency of the moving air masses, not to any external +agent,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span> +but back once more to its original source, +which is the planetary axial energy. In neither +case are we able to explain the precise nature of the +transmission process in its ultimate details. We +cannot say <i>how</i> the steam transmits its work +energy by the moving piston, nor yet by what agency +the elevated particles of aqueous material transmit +their energy to the air masses. Our knowledge is +confined entirely to the phenomena, and, fortunately, +these are in some degree accessible. Nature presents +direct evidence that such transmissions actually take +place. This evidence is to be found, in both cases, +in the condensation of the aqueous material which +sustains the loss of its work energy. In the +engine cylinder condensation takes place due to +work being transmitted from the steam; in the atmosphere +the visible phenomena of condensation are +likewise the ever present evidence of the transmission +of work energy from the aqueous vapour to the air +masses. In virtue of this accession of energy these +masses will, accordingly, be expanded upwards against +the gravitational attractive forces. This upward +movement, being made entirely at the expense of +energy communicated from the aqueous vapour, is not +accompanied by the normal fall of temperature due +to the expansion of the air. Planetary axial energy, +originally absorbed by the aqueous vapour, in the +work form, has been transferred to the air masses +in the same form, and is now, after the expansive +movement,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> +resident in these masses in the form of +energy of position. It is the function of the atmospheric +machine in its final stage to return this +energy in the original axial form.</p> + + + +<h3><a name="sec_41" id="sec_41"></a>41. <i>Terrestrial Energy Return</i></h3> + +<p>Let it be assumed that an atmospheric mass has +been raised, by the transmission of work energy, +to a high altitude in the equatorial regions of the +earth. The assumption of locality is made merely +for illustrative purposes; it will be evident to the +reader that the transmission of work energy to +the atmospheric masses and their consequent elevation +will be continuously proceeding, more or less, +over the whole planetary surface. To replace the +gaseous material thus raised, a corresponding mass +of air will move at a lower level, towards the equator +from the more temperate zones adjoining. A circulatory +motion will thus be set up in the atmosphere. +In the upper regions the elevated and +energised air masses move towards the poles; at +lower levels the replacing masses move towards the +equator, and in their passage may be operated on by +the aqueous vapour which they encounter, energised, +and raised to higher levels. The movement will be +continuous. In their transference from equatorial +towards polar regions, the atmospheric masses are +leaving the surfaces or regions of high linear velocity +for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span> +those of low, and must in consequence lose or +return in the passage a portion of that natural energy +of motion which they possess in virtue of their high +linear velocity at the equator. But on the other +hand, the replacing air masses, which are travelling +in the opposite direction from poles to equator, must +gain or absorb a corresponding amount of energy. +The one operation thus balances the other, and the +planetary equilibrium is in no way disturbed. But +the atmospheric masses which are moving from the +equator in the polar direction will possess, in addition, +that energy of position which has been communicated +to them through the medium of the +aqueous vapour and by the working of the second +stage of the atmospheric machine. These masses, +in the circulatory polar movements, move downwards +towards the planetary surface. In this downward +motion (as in the downward motion of a +pendulum mass vibrating under the action of gravitation) +the energy of position of the air mass is +converted once more into energy of motion—that +is, into its original form of axial energy of rotation. +In equatorial regions the really important energy +property of the atmospheric mass was indicated by +its elevation or its energy of position. In the +descent this energy is thus entirely transformed, and +reverts once more to its original form of energy of +rotation.</p> + +<p>The continual transformation of axial energy by +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> +aqueous vapour, and the conversion of that +energy by the upward movement of the air masses +into energy of position, naturally tends to produce a +retardative effect on the motion of revolution of the +earth. But this retardative effect is in turn completely +neutralised or balanced by the corresponding +accelerative effect due to the equally continuous +return as the energy of the air masses reverts in the +continuous polar movement to its original axial +form. Speaking generally, the equatorial regions, or +the regions of high velocity, are the location of the +most powerful transformation or abstraction of axial +energy by the aqueous vapour. Conversely, the +polar or regions of low velocity are the location of +the greatest return of energy by the air. As no +energy return is possible unless by the transference +of the atmospheric material from regions of high to +regions of low velocity, the configuration of the +planet in rotation must conform to this condition. +The spheroidal form of the earth is thus exquisitely +adapted to the working of the atmospheric machine. +As already pointed out, however, the energising and +raising of atmospheric masses is by no means confined +to equatorial regions, but takes place more or +less over the whole planetary surface. The same +applies to the energy return. The complete cycle +may be carried out in temperate zones; gaseous +masses, also, leaving equatorial regions at high altitudes +do not necessarily reach the polar regions, but +may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> +attain their lowest levels at intermediate points. +Neither do such masses necessarily proceed to the +regions of low velocity by purely linear paths. On +the contrary, they may and do move both towards +the poles and downwards by circuitous and even +vortical paths. In fact, as will be readily apparent, +their precise path is of absolutely no moment in the +consideration of energy return.</p> + +<p>It might naturally be expected that such movements +of the atmospheric air masses as have been +described above would give rise to great atmospheric +disturbance over the earth's surface, and that the +transfer of gaseous material from pole to equator and +vice versa would be productive of violent storms of +wind. Such storms, however, are phenomena of +somewhat rare occurrence; the atmosphere, on the +whole, appears to be in a state of comparative tranquillity. +This serenity of the atmosphere is, however, +confined to the lower strata, and may be ascribed to +an inherent stability possessed by the air mass as a +whole in virtue of the accession of energy to it at +high levels. As already explained, the transfer of +energy from the vapour to the air masses is accomplished +at comparatively low altitudes, and when this +reaction is taking place the whole tendency of the +energised material is to move upwards. In so +moving it tends to leave behind it the condensed +aqueous vapour, and would, therefore, rise to the +higher altitudes in a comparatively dry condition. +This<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> +dryness is accentuated by the further loss of +aqueous vapour by condensation as the air moves +toward regions of low velocity. That air which +actually attains to the poles will be practically dry, +and having also returned, in its entirety, the surplus +energy obtained from the aqueous vapour, it will be +in this region practically in the condition of statical +equilibrium of a gas against gravity (§ <a href="#sec_34">34</a>). But +the general state of the atmosphere in other regions +where a transference of energy from the aqueous +vapour has taken or is taking place is very different +from this condition of natural statical equilibrium +which is approached at the poles. In the lower +strata of the atmosphere the condition in some cases +may approximate to the latter, but in the upper +strata it is possessed of energy qualities quite abnormal +to statical equilibrium. Its condition is +rather one of the nature of stable equilibrium. It is +in a condition similar to that of a liquid heated in its +upper layers; there is absolutely no tendency to a +direct or vertical downward circulation. In statical +equilibrium, any downward movement of an air mass +would simply be accompanied by the natural rise in +temperature corresponding to the transformation of +its energy of position, but in this condition of stable +equilibrium any motion downwards must involve, +not only this natural temperature rise, but also a +return, either in whole or in part, of the energy +absorbed from the aqueous vapour. The natural +conditions<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> +are therefore against any direct vertical +return. These conditions, however, favour in every +respect the circulatory motion of the highly energised +upper air masses towards regions of low velocity. +All circumstances combine, in fact, to confine the +more powerfully energised and highly mobile air +masses to high altitudes. In the lower atmosphere, +owing to the continuous action of the aqueous +vapour on the air masses moving from regions of low +to those of high velocity, the circulation tends largely +to be a vertical one, so that this locality is on the +whole preserved in comparative tranquillity. It may +happen, however, that owing to changes in the distribution +of aqueous vapour, or other causes, this +natural stability of the atmosphere may be disturbed +over certain regions of the earth's surface. The +circumstances will then favour a direct or more or +less vertical return of the energy of the air masses in +the neighbourhood of these regions. This return +will then take the form of violent storms of wind, +usually of a cyclonic nature, and affording direct +evidence of the tendency of the air masses to pursue +vortical paths in their movement towards lower +levels.</p> + +<p>Under normal conditions, however, the operation +of the atmospheric machine is smooth and continuous. +The earth's axial energy, under the sun's +incepting influence, steadily flows at all parts of the +earth's surface through the aqueous vapour into the +atmospheric<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> +masses, and the latter, rising from the +terrestrial surface, with a motion somewhat like that +of a column of smoke, spread out and speed towards +regions of lower velocity, and travelling by devious +and lengthened paths towards the surface, steadily +return the abstracted energy in its original form. +Every operation is exactly balanced; energy expenditure +and energy return are complementary; +the terrestrial atmospheric machine as a whole works +without jar or discontinuity, and the earth's motion of +rotation is maintained with absolute uniformity.</p> + +<p>Like every other energy machine, the atmospheric +machine has clearly-defined energy limits. +The total quantity of energy in operation is strictly +limited by the mass of the acting materials. It is +well, also, to note the purely mechanical nature of +the machine. Every operation is in reality the +operation of mechanical energy, and involves the +movement of matter in some way or other relative +to the earth's surface and under the incepting action +of the earth's gravitation (§§ <a href="#sec_16">16,</a> <a href="#sec_20">20</a>). The moving +gaseous masses have as real an existence as masses of +lead or other solid material, and require as real an +expenditure of energy to move them relative to the +terrestrial surface (§ <a href="#sec_18">18</a>). This aspect of the planetary +machine will be more fully treated later.</p> + +<p>Throughout this description we have constantly +assumed the atmospheric mixture of oxygen and +nitrogen to act as one gas, and at ordinary temperatures +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> +respective energy properties of the two +substances (§ <a href="#sec_35">35</a>) make this assumption justifiable. +Both gases are then working far above their respective +evaporation temperatures. But, in the +higher regions of the atmosphere, where very low +temperatures prevail, a point or altitude will be +reached where the temperature corresponds to the +evaporation or condensation temperature of one of +the gases. Since oxygen appears to have the highest +temperature of evaporation (see <a href="#Table_of_Properties">Table of Properties</a>, +p. 133), it would naturally be the first to condense in +the ascent. But immediately condensation takes +place, the material will become susceptible to the +incepting influence of the sun, and working as it +does at its temperature of evaporation it will convey +its energy to the surrounding nitrogen in precisely +the same fashion as the aqueous vapour conveys the +energy to the aerial mixture in the lower atmosphere. +The whole action is made possible simply by the +difference existing in the respective evaporation +temperatures of the two gases. It will give rise to +another cyclical atmospheric energy process exactly +as already described for lower altitudes. Axial +energy of rotation will be communicated to the +nitrogen by the working material, which is now the +oxygen, and by the movement of the nitrogen +masses towards regions of low velocity, this transmitted +energy will be finally returned to its original +axial form.</p> + +<p>It<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> +has been already explained (§§ <a href="#sec_10">10,</a> <a href="#sec_32">32</a>) how all +terrestrial energy processes, also, great or small, are +sooner or later linked to the general atmospheric +machine. The latter, therefore, presents in every +phase of its working completely closed energy +circuits. In no aspect of its operation can we find +any evidence of, or indeed any necessity for, an +energy transmission either to or from any external +body or agent such as the sun. Every phenomenon +of Nature is, in fact, a direct denial of such transmission.</p> + +<p>The student of terrestrial phenomena will readily +find continuous and ample evidence in Nature of the +working of the atmospheric machine. In the rising +vapour and the falling rain he will recognise the +visible signs of the operation of that great secondary +process of transmission by which the inherent axial +energy of the earth is communicated to the air +masses. The movements of bodies, animate and +inanimate, on the earth's surface, the phenomena of +growth and decay, and in fact almost every experience +of everyday life, will reveal to him the persistent +tendency of the energy of secondary processes +to revert to the atmospheric machine. And in the +winds that traverse the face of the globe he will also +witness the mechanism of that energy return which +completes the atmospheric cyclical process. It may +be pointed out here also that the terrestrial cyclical +energy processes are not necessarily all embodied +in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span> +the atmosphere. The author has reason to believe, +and phenomenal evidence is not awanting to show, +that the circulatory motions of the atmosphere are in +some degree reproduced in the sea. The reader will +readily perceive that as regards stability the water +composing the sea is in precisely the same condition +as the atmosphere, namely, that of a liquid heated in +its upper strata, and any circulatory motion of the +water must therefore be accompanied by corresponding +transformations of energy. That such a +circulatory motion takes place is undoubted, and in +the moving mass of sea-water we have therefore a +perfectly reversible energy machine of the same +general nature as the atmospheric machine, but +working at a very much slower rate. It is not +beyond the limits of legitimate scientific deduction +to trace also the working of a similar machine in the +solid material of the earth. The latter is, after all, +but an agglomeration of loose material bound by the +force of gravitation into coherent form. By the +action of various erosive agencies a movement of +solid material is continually taking place over the +earth's surface. The material thus transported, it +may be, from mountain chains, and deposited on +the sea-bed, causes a disturbance of that gravitational +equilibrium which defines the exact form of +the earth. The forces tending to maintain this +equilibrium are so enormous compared with the +cohesive forces of the material forming the earth +that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> +readjustment continuously takes place, as +evidenced by the tremors observed in the earth's +crust. Where the structure of the latter is of such +a nature as to offer great resistance to the gravitational +forces, the readjustment may take the form +of an earthquake. Geological evidence, as a whole, +strongly points to a continuous kneading and flow +of terrestrial material. The structure of igneous +rocks, also, is exactly that which would be produced +from alluvial deposits subjected during these +cyclical movements to the enormous pressure and +consequent heating caused by superimposed material. +The occurrence of coal in polar regions, and of +glacial residue in the tropics, may be regarded as +further corroborative evidence. From this point +of view also, it becomes unnecessary to postulate +a genesis for the earth, as every known geological +formation is shown to be capable of production +under present conditions in Nature, and in fact to +be in actual process of production at all times.</p> + + +<h3 class="left hang3"><a name="sec_42" id="sec_42"></a>42. <i>Experimental Analogy and Demonstration of the +General Mechanism of Energy Transformation +and Return in the Atmospheric Cycle</i></h3> + +<p>In the preceding articles, the atmospheric machine +has been regarded more or less from the purely +physical point of view. The purpose of this demonstration +is now to place before the reader what +might<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> +be termed the mechanical aspects of the +machine; to give an outline, using simple experimental +analogies, of its nature and operation when +considered purely and simply as a mechanism for +the transformation and return of mechanical energy.</p> + +<p>Familiar apparatus is used in illustration. In all +cases, it is merely some adaptation of the simple +pendulum (§ <a href="#sec_21">21</a>). Its minute structural details are +really of slight importance in the discussion, and +have accordingly been ignored, but the apparatus +generally, and the energy operations embodied therein, +are so familiar to physicists and engineers that the +experimental results illustrated can be readily verified +by everyday experience. It is of great importance, +also, in considering these results, to bear in mind the +principles already enunciated (§§ <a href="#sec_13">13,</a> <a href="#sec_20">20</a>) with reference +to the operation of mechanical energy on the +various forms of matter. The general working conditions +of energy systems with respect to energy +limits, stability, and reversibility (§ <a href="#sec_23">23</a>) should also +be kept in view.</p> + +<p>As an introductory step we shall review first a +simple system of rotating pendulums. Two simple +pendulums CM and DM<sub>1</sub> (<a href="#i182">Fig. 9</a>) are mounted by +means of a circular collar CD upon a vertical +spindle AB, which is supported at A and B and free +to rotate. When the central spindle AB is at rest +the pendulums hang vertically; when energy is +applied to the system, and AB is thereby caused +to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> +rotate, the spherical masses M and M<sub>1</sub> will rise +by circular paths about C and D. This upward +movement, considered apart from the centrifugal +influence producing it, corresponds in itself to the +upward movement of the simple pendulum (§ <a href="#sec_21">21</a>) +against gravity. It is representative of a definite +transformation, namely, the transformation of the +work energy originally applied to the system +and manifested in its +rotary motion, into +energy of position. +The movements of +the rotating pendulums +will also be accompanied +by other +energy operations associated +with bearing +friction and windage (§§ <a href="#sec_23">23,</a> <a href="#sec_29">29</a>), but these operations +being part of a separate and complete cyclical energy +process (§ <a href="#sec_32">32</a>), they will in this case be neglected.</p> + +<div class="figleft"><a id="i182" name="i182"></a> +<img src="images/i182.jpg" alt="" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9</span></p> + +</div> + +<p>It will be readily seen, however, that the working +of this rotating pendulum machine, when considered +as a whole, is of a nature somewhat different from +that of the simple pendulum machine in that the +energy of position of the former (as measured by +the vertical displacement of M and M<sub>1</sub> in rotation) +and its energy of rotation must increase concurrently, +and also in that the absolute maximum value of +this energy of position will be attained when the +pendulum<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> +masses reach merely the horizontal level +HL in rotation. The machines are alike, however, +in this respect, that the transformation of energy of +motion into energy of position is in each case a +completely reversible process. In the working of +the rotating pendulums the limiting amount of +energy which can operate in this reversible process +is dependent on and rigidly defined by the maximum +length of the pendulum arms; the longer the arms, +the greater is the possible height through which the +masses at their extremities must rise to attain the +horizontal position in rotation. It will be clear also +that it is not possible for the whole energy of the +rotating system to work in the reversible process +as in the case of the simple pendulum. As the +pendulum masses rise, the ratio of the limiting +energy for reversibility to the total energy of the +system becomes in fact smaller and smaller, until at +the horizontal or position of maximum energy it +reaches a minimum value. This is merely an aspect +of the experimental fact that, as the pendulum +masses approach the ultimate horizontal position, +a much greater increment of energy to the system +is necessary for their elevation through a given +vertical distance than at the lower levels. A larger +proportion of the applied energy is, in fact, stored in +the material of the system in the form of energy +of strain or distortion.</p> + +<p>The two points which this system is designed to +illustrate,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> +and which it is desirable to emphasise, +are thus as follows. Firstly, as the whole system +rotates, the movement of the pendulum masses M +and M<sub>1</sub> from the lower to the higher levels, or from +the regions of low to those of higher velocity, is +productive of a transformation of the rotatory +energy of the system into energy of position—a +transformation of the same nature as in the case +of the simple pendulum system. Neglecting the +minor transformations (§§ <a href="#sec_24">24,</a> <a href="#sec_29">29</a>), this energy process +is a reversible one, and consequently, the return of +the masses from the higher to the lower positions will +be accompanied by the complete return of the transformed +energy in its original form of energy of +rotation. Secondly, the maximum amount of energy +which can work in this reversible process is always +less than the total energy of the system. The latter, +therefore, conforms to the general condition of +stability (§ <a href="#sec_25">25</a>).</p> + +<p>But this arrangement of rotating pendulums may +be extended so as to include other features. To +eliminate or in a manner replace the influence of +gravitation, and to preserve the energy of position +of the system—relative to the earth's surface—at a +constant value, the pendulum arms may be assumed +to be duplicated or extended to the points K and R +(<a href="#i185">Fig. 10</a>) respectively, where pendulum masses equal +to M and M<sub>1</sub> are attached.</p> + +<p>The arms MK and M<sub>1</sub>R are thus continuous. +Each<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> +arm is assumed to be pivoted at its middle +point about a horizontal axis through N, and as the +lower masses M and M<sub>1</sub> rise in the course of the +rotatory movement about AB the upper masses +K and R will fall by corresponding amounts. The +total energy of position of the system—referred to +the earth's surface—thus remains constant whatever +may be the position of the masses in the system. +The restraining influence on the movement of the +masses, formerly exercised +by gravitation, is +now furnished by means +of a central spring F. +A collar CD, connected +as shown to the pendulum +arms, slides on the +spindle AB and compresses +this spring as the +masses move towards the horizontal level HL. As +the masses return towards A and B the spring is +released.</p> + +<div class="figright"><a id="i185" name="i185"></a> +<img src="images/i185.jpg" alt="" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 10</span></p> + +</div> + +<p>If energy be applied to the system, so that +it is caused to rotate about the central axis AB, +the pendulum masses will tend to move outwards +from that axis. Their movement may be said to be +carried out over the surface of an imaginary sphere +with centre on AB at N. The motion of the masses, +as the velocity of rotation increases, is from the +region of lower peripheral velocity, in the vicinity of +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> +axis AB, to the regions of higher velocity, in the +neighbourhood of H and L. This outward movement +from the central axis towards H and L is +representative of a transformation of energy of an +exactly similar nature to that described above in the +simple case. Part of the original energy of rotation +of the system is now stored in the pendulum masses +in virtue of their new position of displacement. But +in this case, the movement is made, not against +gravity, but against the central spring F. The +energy, then, which in the former case might be said +to be stored against gravitation (acting as an invisible +spring) is in this case stored in the form of energy +of strain or cohesion (§ <a href="#sec_15">15</a>) in the central spring, +which thus as it were takes the place of gravitation +in the system. As in the previous case also, the +operation is a reversible energy process. If the +pendulum masses move in the opposite direction +from the regions of higher velocity to those of lower +velocity, the energy stored in the spring will be +returned to the system in its original form of energy +of motion. A vibratory motion of the pendulums +to and from the central axis would thus be productive +of an alternate storage and return of energy. +It is obvious also, that due to the action of centrifugal +force, the pendulum masses would tend to +move radially outwards on the arms as they move +towards the regions of highest velocity. Let this +radial movement be carried out against the action of +four<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span> +radial springs S<sub>1</sub>, S<sub>2</sub>, S<sub>3</sub>, S<sub>4</sub>, as shown (<a href="#i187">Fig. 11</a>). +In virtue of the radial movement of the masses, +these springs will be compressed and energy stored in +them in the form of energy of strain or cohesion (§ <a href="#sec_15">15</a>). +The radial movement implies also that the masses +will be elevated from the surface of the imaginary +sphere over which they are assumed to move. The +elevation from this surface will be greatest in the +regions of high velocity in the neighbourhood +of H and L, and least +at A and B. As the +masses move, therefore, +from H and L towards +the axis AB, they will +also move inwards on +the pendulum arms, relieving +the springs, so +that the energy stored +in them is free to be returned to the system +in its original form of energy of rotation. Every +movement of the masses from the central axis outwards +against the springs is thus made at the +expense of the original energy of motion, and every +movement inwards provokes a corresponding return +of that energy to the system. Every movement also +against the springs forms part of a reversible operation. +The sum total of the energy which works in +these reversible operations is always less than the +complete energy of the rotatory system, and the +latter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> +is always stable (§ <a href="#sec_25">25</a>), with respect to its +energy properties. Let it now be assumed that +the complete system as described is possessed of a +precise and limited amount of energy of rotation, +and that with the pendulum masses in an intermediate +position as shown (<a href="#i187">Fig. 11</a>) it is rotating +with uniform angular velocity. The condition of +the rotatory system might now be described as that +of equilibrium. A definite amount of its original +rotatory energy is now stored in the central spring +and also in the radial springs. If now, without +alteration in the intrinsic rotatory energy of the +system, the pendulum masses were to execute a +vibratory or pendulum motion about the position +of equilibrium so that they move alternately to and +from the central axis, then as they move inwards +towards that axis the energy stored in the springs +would be returned to the system in the original form +of energy of rotation. This inward motion would, +accordingly, produce acceleration. But, in the outward +movement from the position of equilibrium, +retardation would ensue on account of energy of +motion being withdrawn from the system and stored +in the springs.</p> + +<div class="figright"><a id="i187" name="i187"></a> +<img src="images/i187.jpg" alt="" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 11</span></p> + +</div> + +<p>Under the given conditions, then, any vibratory +motion of the pendulum masses to and from the +central axis would be accompanied by alternate retardation +and acceleration of the moving system. +The storage of energy in the springs (central and +radial)<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> +produces retardation, the restoration of this +energy gives rise to a corresponding acceleration. +The angular velocity of the system would rise and +fall accordingly. These are the natural conditions of +working of the system. As already pointed out, the +motion of the pendulum masses may be regarded as +executed over the surface of an imaginary sphere. +Their motion against the radial springs would therefore +correspond to a displacement outwards or +upwards from the spherical surface. A definite part +of the effect of retardation is, of course, due to this +outward or radial displacement of the masses.</p> + +<p>Assuming still the property of constancy of +energy of rotation, let it now be supposed that in +such a vibratory movement of the pendulum masses +as described above, the energy required merely for +the displacement of the masses <i>against the radial +springs</i> is not withdrawn from and obtained at the +expense of the original rotatory energy of the system, +but is obtained from some energy agency, completely +external to the system, and to which energy +cannot be returned. The retardation, normally +due to the outward displacement of the masses +against the radial springs, would not then take place. +But the energy is, nevertheless, stored in the springs. +It now, therefore, forms part of the energy of the +system, and consequently, on the returning or +inward movement of vibration of the masses towards +the central axis, this energy, received from the external +source,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> +would pass directly from the springs +to the rotational energy of the system. It is clear, +then, that while the introduction of energy in this +fashion from an external source has in part eliminated +the effect of retardation, the accelerating effect +must still operate as before. Each vibratory movement +of the pendulum system, under the given conditions, +will lead to a definite increase in its energy +of rotation by the amount stored in the radial springs. +If the vibratory movement is continuous, the rotatory +velocity of the system will steadily increase in value. +Energy once stored in the radial springs can only be +released by the return movement of the masses and +<i>in the form of energy of rotation</i>; the nature of the +mechanical machine is, in fact, such that if any +incremental energy is applied to the displacement of +the masses against the radial springs, it can only be +returned in this form of energy of motion.</p> + +<p>These features of this experimental system are of +vital importance to the author's scheme. They may +be illustrated more completely, however, and in a +form more suitable for their most general application, +by the hypothetical system now to be described. +This system is, of course, devised for purely illustrative +purposes, but the general principles of working +of pendulum systems and of energy return, as demonstrated +above, will be assumed.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span></p> +<h3><a name="sec_43" id="sec_43"></a>43. <i>Application of Pendulum Principles</i></h3> + +<p>The movements of the pendulum masses described +in the previous article have been regarded as carried +out over the surface of an imaginary sphere. Let us +now proceed to consider the phenomena of a similar +movement of material over the surface of an actual +spherical mass. The precise dimensions of the sphere +are of little moment in the discussion, but for the +purpose of illustration, its mass and general outline +may be assumed to correspond to that of the earth +or other planetary body. This spherical mass A +(<a href="#i191">Fig. 12</a>) rotates with uniform angular velocity about +an axis NS through its centre. Associated with the +rotating sphere are four auxiliary spherical masses, +M<sub>1</sub>, M<sub>2</sub>, M<sub>3</sub>, M<sub>4</sub>, also of solid material, which are +assumed to be placed symmetrically round its circumference +as shown. These masses form an inherent +part of the spherical system; they are assumed to +be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span> +united to the main body of material by the attractive +force of gravitation in precisely the same fashion +as the atmosphere or other surface material of a +planet is united to its inner core (§ <a href="#sec_34">34</a>); they will +therefore partake completely of the rotatory motion +of the sphere about its axis NS, moving in paths +similar to those of the rotating pendulum masses +already described (§ <a href="#sec_42">42</a>). The restraining action of +the pendulum arms is, however, replaced in this +celestial case by the action of gravitation, which is +the central force or influence of the system. Opposite +masses are thus only united through the attractive +influence of the material of the sphere. The place +of the springs, both central and radial, in our pendulum +system is now taken by this centripetal force +of gravitative attraction, which therefore forms the +restraining influence or determining factor in all the +associated energy processes. While the auxiliary +masses M<sub>1</sub> M<sub>2</sub>, &c., partake of the general motion of +revolution of the main spherical mass about NS, +they may also be assumed to revolve simultaneously +about the axis WE, perpendicular to NS, and also +passing through the centre of the sphere. Each of +these masses will thus have a peculiar motion, a +definite velocity over the surface of the sphere from +pole to pole—about the axis WE—combined with +a velocity of rotation about the central axis NS. +The value of the latter velocity is, at any instant, +directly proportional to the radius of the circle of +latitude<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span> +of the point on the surface of the sphere +where the mass happens to be situated at that +instant in its rotatory motion from pole to pole; +this velocity accordingly diminishes as the mass withdraws +from the equator, and becomes zero when it +actually reaches the poles of rotation at N and S; +and the energy of each mass in motion, since its +linear velocity is thus constantly varying, will be +itself a continuously varying quantity, increasing or +diminishing accordingly as the mass is moving to +or from the equatorial regions, attaining its maximum +value at the equator and its minimum value at the +poles. Now, since the masses thus moving are +assumed to be a material and inherent portion of the +spherical system, the source of the energy which is +thus alternately supplied to and returned by them +is the original energy of motion of the system; +this original energy being assumed strictly limited +in amount, the increase of the energy of each mass +as it moves towards the equator will, therefore, be +productive of a retardative effect on the revolution +of the system as a whole. But, in a precisely similar +manner, the energy thus gained by the mass would +be fully returned on its movement towards the pole, +and an accelerative effect would be produced corresponding +to the original retardation. In the arrangement +shown (<a href="#i191">Fig. 12</a>), the moving masses are assumed +to be situated at the extremities of diameters at right +angles. With this symmetrical distribution, the +transformation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> +and return of energy would take place +concurrently. Retardation is continually balanced +by acceleration, and the motion of the sphere would, +therefore, be approximately uniform about the +central axis of rotation. It will be clear that the +movements thus described of the masses will be very +similar in nature to those of the pendulum masses in +the experimental system previously discussed. The +fact that the motion of the auxiliary masses over +the surface of the sphere is assumed to be completely +circular and not vibratory, as in the pendulum case, +has no bearing on the general energy phenomena. +These are readily seen to be identical in nature with +those of the simpler system. In each case every +movement of the masses implies either an expenditure +of energy or a return, accordingly as the direction +of that movement is to or from the regions of high +velocity.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a id="i191" name="i191"></a> +<img src="images/i191.jpg" alt="" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 12</span></p> + +</div> + +<p>The paths of the moving auxiliary masses have +been considered, so far, only as parallel to the surface +of the sphere, but the general energy conditions +are in no way altered if they are assumed to have in +addition some motion normal to that surface; if, for +example, they are repelled from the surface as they +approach the equatorial regions, and return towards +it once more as they approach the poles. Such a +movement of the masses normal to the spherical +surface really corresponds to the movement against +the radial springs in the pendulum system; it would +now<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> +be made against the attractive or restraining +influence of gravitation, and a definite expenditure of +energy would thus necessarily be required to produce +the displacement. Energy, formerly stored in the +springs, corresponds now to energy stored as energy +of position (§ <a href="#sec_20">20</a>) against gravitation. If this energy +is obtained at the expense of the inherent rotatory +energy of the sphere, then its conversion in this +fashion into energy of position will again be productive +of a definite retardative effect on the revolution +of the system. It is clear, however, that if each +mass descends to the surface level once more in +moving towards the poles, then in this operation its +energy of position, originally obtained at the expense +of the rotatory energy of the sphere, will be gradually +but completely returned to that source. In a +balanced system, such as we have assumed above, the +descent of one mass in rotation would be accompanied +by the elevation of another at a different +point; the abstraction and return of the energy of +rotation would then be equivalent, and would not +affect the primary condition of uniformity of rotation +of the system. In the circumstances assumed, the +whole energy process which takes place in the movement +of the masses from poles to equator and normal +to the spherical surface would obviously be of a +cyclical nature and completely reversible. It would +be the working of mechanical energy in a definite +material machine, and in accordance with the principles +already<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> +outlined (§ <a href="#sec_20">20</a>) the maximum amount +of energy which can operate in this machine is strictly +limited by the mass of the material involved in the +movement. The energy machine has thus a definite +capacity, and as the maximum energy operating in +the reversible cycle is assumed to be within this +limit, the machine would be completely stable in +nature (§ <a href="#sec_25">25</a>). The movements of the auxiliary +masses have hitherto also been considered as taking +place over somewhat restricted paths, but this convention +is one which can readily be dispensed with. +The general direction of motion of the masses must +of course be from equator to pole or vice versa; but +it is quite obvious that the exact paths pursued by +the masses in this general motion is of no moment +in the consideration of energy return, nor yet the +precise region in which they may happen to be restored +once more to the surface level. Whatever +may be its position at any instant, each mass is possessed +of a definite amount of energy corresponding +to that position; this amount will always be equal +to the total energy abstracted by that mass, less the +energy returned. The nature of the energy system +is, however, such that the various energy phases of +the different masses will be completely co-ordinated. +Since the essential feature of the system is its +property of uniformity of rotation, any return of +energy in the rotational form at any part of the +system—due to the descent of material—produces a +definite<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span> +accelerating effect on the system, which +effect is, however, at once neutralised or absorbed +by a corresponding retardative effect due to that +energy which must be extracted from the system in +equivalent amount and devoted to the upraising of +material at a different point. For simplicity in +illustration only four masses have been considered +in motion over the surface of the sphere, but it will +be clear that the number which may so operate is +really limited only by the dimensions of the system. +The spherical surface might be completely covered +with moving material, not necessarily of spherical +form, not necessarily even material in the solid form +(§ <a href="#sec_13">13</a>), which would rise and fall relative to the surface +and flow to and from the poles exactly in the +fashion already illustrated by the moving masses. +The capacity of the reversible energy machine—which +depends on the mass—would be altered in this +case, but not the general nature of the machine itself. +If the system were energised to the requisite degree, +every energy operation could be carried out as before.</p> + +<p>As already pointed out, the dominating feature +of a spherical system such as we have just described +would be essentially its property of energy conservation +manifested by its uniformity of rotation. +All its operations could be carried out independently +of the direct action of any external energy influences. +For if it be assumed that the energy gained by the +auxiliary moving surface material <i>in virtue of its +displacement<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span> +normal to the spherical surface</i> be derived, +not from the inherent rotational energy of the sphere +itself, but by an influx of energy from some source +completely external to the system, then since there +has been no energy abstraction there will be no +retardative effect on the revolution due to the +upraising of this material. But the influx of energy +thus stored in the material must of necessity work +through the energy machine. In the movement +towards the poles this energy would therefore be +applied to the system in the form of energy of +rotation, and would produce a definite accelerative +effect. If the influx of energy were continuous, and +no means were existent for a corresponding efflux, +the rotatory velocity of the system would steadily +increase. The phenomena would be of precisely +the same nature as those already alluded to in the +case of the system of rotating pendulums (§ <a href="#sec_42">42</a>). +Acceleration would take place without corresponding +retardation. A direct contribution would be continuously +made to the rotatory energy of the system, +and would under the given conditions be manifested +by an increase in its velocity of revolution.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_44" id="sec_44"></a>44. <i>Extension of Pendulum Principles to +Terrestrial Phenomena</i></h3> + +<p>The energy phenomena illustrated by the experimental +devices above are to be observed, in their +aspects<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> +of greatest perfection, in the natural world. +In the earth, united to its encircling atmosphere +by the invisible bond of gravitation, we find the +prototype of the hypothetical system just described. +Its uniformity of rotation is an established +fact of centuries, and over its spheroidal surface +we have, corresponding to the motion of our illustrative +spherical masses, the movement of enormous +quantities of atmospheric air in the general directions +from equatorial to polar regions and vice versa. +This circulatory movement, and the internal energy +reactions which it involves, have been already fully +dealt with (§ <a href="#sec_38">38</a>); we have now to consider it in +a somewhat more comprehensive fashion, in the +light of the pendulum systems described above. As +already explained (§ <a href="#sec_13">13</a>), the operation of mechanical +energy is not confined to solid and liquid masses +only, but may likewise be manifested by the movements +of gaseous masses. The terrestrial atmospheric +machine provides an outstanding example. In its +working conditions, and in the general nature of the +energy operations involved, the terrestrial atmospheric +machine is very clearly represented by the rotating +pendulum system (§ <a href="#sec_42">42</a>). The analogy is still closer +in the case of the hypothetical system just described. +The actual terrestrial energy machine differs +from both only in that the energy processes, which +they illustrate by the movements of solid material, are +carried out in the course of its working by the motion +of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> +gaseous masses. It is obvious, however, that this +in no way affects the inherent nature of the energy +processes themselves. They are carried out quite as +completely and efficiently—in fact, more completely +and more efficiently—by the motions of gaseous as +by the motions of solid material.</p> + +<p>The atmospheric circulation, then, may be +readily regarded as the movement, over the terrestrial +surface, of gaseous masses which absorb and +return energy in regions of high and low velocity +exactly in the fashion explained above for solid +material. In their movement from polar towards +equatorial regions these masses, by the action of the +aqueous vapour (§ <a href="#sec_38">38</a>), absorb energy (axial energy) +and expand upwards against gravity. Here we have +an energy operation identical in nature with that +embodied in the movements of a pendulum mass +simultaneously over a spherical surface and against +radial springs as in the system of rotating pendulums, +or identical with the equatorial and radial movement +of the auxiliary masses in the hypothetical system. +The return movement of the aerial masses over the +terrestrial surface in the opposite direction from +equatorial to polar regions provides also exactly +the same phenomena of energy return as the return +movement of the masses in our illustrative systems. +These systems, in fact, portray the general operation +of mechanical energy precisely as it occurs in the +terrestrial atmospheric machine. But obviously they +cannot<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> +illustrate the natural conditions in their entirety. +The passage or flow of the atmospheric air +masses over the earth's surface is a movement of an +exceedingly complex nature, impossible to illustrate +by experimental apparatus. And indeed, such illustration +is quite unnecessary. As already pointed +out (§ <a href="#sec_38">38</a>), no matter what may be the precise path +of an aerial mass in its movement towards the +planetary surface the final energy return is the same. +Sooner or later its energy of position is restored in +the original axial form.</p> + +<p>The terrestrial atmospheric machine will be +thus readily recognised as essentially a material +mechanical machine corresponding in general nature +to the illustrative examples described above. The +combination of its various energy processes is +embodied in a complete cyclical and reversible +operation. Its energy capacity, as in the simpler +cases, is strictly limited by the total mass of the +operating material. The active or working energy +is well within the limit for reversibility (§ <a href="#sec_23">23</a>), and +the machine is therefore essentially stable in nature. +The continuous abstraction of axial energy by the +aqueous vapour is balanced by an equally continuous +return from the air masses, and the system, so far +as its energy properties are concerned, is absolutely +conservative. Energy transmission from or to any +external source is neither admissible nor necessary +for its working.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span></p> +<h3><a name="sec_45" id="sec_45"></a>45. <i>Concluding Review of +Terrestrial Conditions—Effects +of Influx of Energy</i></h3> + +<p>The aspect of the earth as a separate mass in +space, and its energy relationship to its primary the +sun and to the associated planetary masses of the +solar system have been broadly presented in the +General Statement (§§ <a href="#PART_I">1-12</a>). In that statement, based +entirely on the universally accepted properties of +matter and energy, an order of phenomena is described +which is in strict accordance with observed +natural conditions, and which portrays the earth +and the other planetary bodies, so far as their +material or energy properties are concerned, as absolutely +isolated masses in space. The scientific +verification of this position must of necessity be +founded on the terrestrial observation of phenomena. +So far as the orbital movements of the planet are +concerned these are admittedly orderly; each planetary +mass wheels its flight through space with unvarying +regularity; the energy processes, also, associated +with the variations of planetary orbital path, and +which attain limiting conditions at perihelion and +aphelion, are readily acknowledged to be reversible +and cyclical in nature. In fact, even a slight observation +of the movements of celestial masses inevitably +leads to the conviction that the great energy +processes of the solar system are inherently cyclical +in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span> +nature, that every movement of its material and +every manifestation of its energy is part of some +complete operation. The whole appears to be but +the natural or material embodiment of the great +principle of energy conservation. It has been one +of the objects of this work to show that the cyclical +nature of the energy operations of the solar system +is not confined only to the more prominent energy +phenomena, but that it penetrates and is exhibited +in the working of even the most insignificant planetary +processes. Each one of the latter in reality +forms part of an unbroken series or chain of energy +phenomena. Each planet forms in itself a complete, +perfect, and self-contained energy system. Every +manifestation of planetary energy, great or small, +whether associated with animate or inanimate matter, +is but one phase or aspect of that energy as it pursues +its cyclical path.</p> + +<p>It is a somewhat remarkable fact that in this age +of scientific reason the observation of the strictly +orderly arrangement of phenomena in the solar +system as a whole should not have led to some idea +in the minds of philosophical workers of a similar +order of phenomena in its separate parts, but the +explanation lies generally in the continual attempts +to bring natural phenomena into line with certain +preconceived hypotheses, and more particularly to +the almost universal acceptance of the doctrine of +the direct transmission of energy from the sun to +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> +earth and the final rejection or radiation of this +energy into space. There is no denying the eminent +plausibility of this doctrine. The evidence of +Nature <i>prima facie</i> may even appear to completely +substantiate it. But we would submit that the +general circumstances in which this doctrine is now +so readily accepted are very similar to those which +prevailed in more ancient times, when the revolution +of the sun and stars round the earth was the universal +tenet of natural philosophy. This conception, +allied to the belief that the sole function of the +celestial bodies was to provide light and heat to the +terrestrial mass, appeared to be in strict accordance +with observed phenomena, and held undisturbed +possession of the minds of men for centuries, until +it was finally demolished by Copernicus as the +result of simple and accurate observation of and +deduction from natural phenomena. At the present +time, the somewhat venerable belief in the +transmission of energy in various forms from the +sun to the earth appears at first sight to be supported +by actual facts. But a more rigid scrutiny +of the evidence and of the mental processes +must inevitably lead the unbiassed mind to the +conclusion that this belief has no real foundation +on truly scientific observation, but is entirely unsupported +by natural phenomena. Every operation +of Nature, in fact, when considered in its true +relationships is an absolute denial of the whole +conception.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> +Like its predecessor relating to the +motion of the sun and stars round the earth, the +doctrine of energy transmission between separate +masses in space such as the sun and the earth cannot +be sustained in the face of scientific observation. This +doctrine is found on investigation to be supported not +by phenomena but by the conception of an elastic +ethereal medium, of whose existence there is absolutely +no evidential proof, and the necessity for which +disappears along with the hypothesis it supports. +It is, however, not proposed to discuss in any +detail either the supposed transmission of energy +from the sun to the planets or the arbitrary properties +of the transmitting medium, but rather +to adopt a more positive method of criticism +by summarising briefly the evidential phenomena +which show the cyclical nature of the whole terrestrial +energy process, and which remove the basis +of belief in such a transmission.</p> + +<p>To recapitulate the more general conditions, we +find the earth, alike with other planetary masses, +pursuing a defined orbital path, and rotating with +uniform angular velocity in the lines or under the +influence of the gravitation, thermal, luminous, and +other incepting fields (§§ <a href="#sec_17">17,</a> <a href="#sec_18">18,</a> <a href="#sec_19">19</a>) which originate in +the sun. Its axial rotation, in these circumstances, +gives rise to all the secondary transformations (§ <a href="#sec_9">9</a>) +of terrestrial axial energy, which in their operation +provide the varied panorama of terrestrial phenomena. +Terrestrial<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> +axial energy is thus diverted into terrestrial +secondary processes. Each of these processes +is found to be united to or embodied in a definite +material machine (§§ <a href="#sec_27">27-30</a>), and is, accordingly, +limited in nature and extent by the physical properties +and incepting factors associated with the +materials of which the machine is composed. By +ordinary methods of transmission, energy may pass +from one material to another, that is to say from one +machine to another, and by this means definite chains +of energy processes are constituted, through which, +therefore, passes the axial energy originally transformed +by the action of the sun. These series or +chains of energy processes are also found to be one +and all linked at some stage of their progress to the +general atmospheric machine (§ <a href="#sec_29">29</a>). The energy +operating in them is, in every case, after many or +few vicissitudes according to the nature of the intermediate +operations, communicated to the gaseous +atmospheric material. By the movement of this +material in the working of the atmospheric machine +(§ <a href="#sec_38">38</a>) the energy is finally returned in its original +form of axial energy of rotation. The sun's action +is thus in a manner to force the inherent rotatory +energy of the planet into the cyclical secondary +operations, all of which converge alike towards the +general atmospheric mechanism of return. The +passage of the energy through the complete secondary +operations, and its re-conversion into its original axial +form,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span> +may be rapid or slow according to circumstances. +In equatorial regions, where the influence +of the sun's incepting fields is most intense, we find +that the inherent planetary axial energy is communicated +with great rapidity through the medium +of the aqueous vapour to the air masses. By the +movement of the latter it may be just as rapidly +returned, and the whole operation completed in a +comparatively short interval of time. In the same +equatorial regions, the transformations of axial +energy which are manifested in plant life attain their +greatest perfection and vigour. But in this case the +complete return of the operating energy may be very +slow. The stored energy of tropical vegetation may +still in great part remain in the bosom of the earth, +awaiting an appropriate stimulus to be communicated +to more active material for the concluding +stages of that cyclical process which had its commencement +in the absorption of axial energy into +plant tissue. The duration of the complete secondary +operation has, however, absolutely no bearing on the +conservative energy properties of the planet. In +this respect, the system is perfectly balanced. Every +transformation or absorption of rotatory energy, +great or small, for long or short periods of time, is +counteracted by a corresponding return. Absolute +uniformity of planetary axial rotation is thus steadily +maintained.</p> + +<p>It is scarcely necessary at this stage to point out +that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span> +the verification of this description of natural +operations lies simply and entirely in the observation +of Nature's working at first hand. The description is +based on no theory and obscured by no preconceived +ideas, it is founded entirely on direct experimental +evidence. The field of study and of verification is +not restricted, but comprises the whole realm of +natural phenomena. In a lifetime of observation +the author has failed to discern a single contradictory +phenomenon; every natural operation is in reality +a direct confirmation.</p> + +<p>The conception of energy, working only through +the medium of definite material machines with their +incepting and limiting agencies, is one which is of +great value not only in natural philosophy but also +in practical life. By its means it is possible in many +cases to co-ordinate phenomena, apparently antagonistic, +but in reality only different phases of energy +machines. It aids materially also in the obtaining of +a true grasp of the inexorable principle of energy +conservation and its application to natural conditions, +and it emphasises the indefensible nature of +such ideas as the radiation of energy into <i>space</i>.</p> + +<p>It will be evident that in a planetary system such +as described above there is no room for any transmission +of energy to the system from an external +source. The nature of the system is, in fact, such +that a transmission of this kind is entirely unnecessary. +As already demonstrated, every phenomenon +and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span> +every energy operation can be carried out independently +of any such transmission. For the +purpose of illustration, however, it may be assumed +that such a communication of energy does take place; +that according to the accepted doctrines of modern +science the sun pours energy in a continuous stream +into the terrestrial system. Now, no matter in what +form this energy is communicated, it is clear that +once it is associated with or attached to the various +planetary materials it is, as it were, incorporated or +embodied in the planetary energy machines, and +must of necessity work through the secondary energy +operations. But these operations have been shown +to be naturally and irresistibly connected to the +general atmospheric machine. Into this machine, +then, the incremental energy must be carried, and it +will be there directly converted into the form of +axial energy of rotation. Once the incremental +energy is actually in the planet, once it is actually +communicated to planetary material, the nature of +the system absolutely forbids its escape. The effect +of a direct and continuous influx such as we have +assumed would inevitably be an increase in the +angular velocity of the system. This effect has +already been verified from an experimental point of +view by consideration of the phenomena of a rotating +pendulum system (§§ <a href="#sec_42">42,</a> <a href="#sec_43">43</a>). Whilst the influx of +energy proceeds, then in virtue of the increasing +velocity of the planetary material in the lines of the +various<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span> +incepting fields of the sun, all terrestrial +phenomena involving the transformation of rotary or +axial energy would be increased in magnitude and +intensified in degree. The planet would thus rapidly +attain an unstable condition; its material would soon +become energised beyond its normal capacity, and +the natural stability (§ <a href="#sec_25">25</a>) of its constituent energy +machines would be destroyed; the system as a +whole would steadily proceed towards disruption.</p> + +<p>But, happily, Nature presents no evidence of such +a course of events. The earth spins on its axis with +quiet and persistent regularity; the unvarying uniformity +of its motion of axial rotation has been +verified by the observations of generations of philosophers. +Its temperature gradations show no evidence +of change or decay in its essential heat qualities, and +the recurrence of natural phenomena is maintained +without visible sign of increase either in their intensity +or multiplicity. The finger of Nature ever +points to closed energy circuits, to the earth as a +complete and conservative system in which energy, +mutable to the highest degree with respect to its +plurality of form, attains to the perfection of permanence +in its essential character and amount.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p class="center small">Printed by <span class="smcap">Ballantyne, Hanson & Co.</span><br /> +Edinburgh & London</p> + +<div class="notes"><p class="center">FOOTNOTES:</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> The conception of "Nature's Perfect Engine" was originally arrived +at by the author from consideration of the phenomena of the steam-engine. +The following extract from the "Review" of his work (1895) +illustrates the various stages which finally lead to that conclusion:— +</p> + +<p>"My first steps in the right direction came about thus. I had always +been working with a cylinder and piston, and could make no progress, +till at length it struck me to make my cylinder high enough to do +without a piston—that is, to leave the steam to itself and observe its +behaviour when left to work against gravity. The first thing I had to +settle was the height of my cylinder. And I found, by calculation from +Regnault's experiments that it would require to be very high, and that +the exact height would depend on the temperature of the water in the +boiler which was the bottom of this ideal cylinder. Now, at any +ordinary temperature the height was so great that it was impossible to +get known material to support its own weight, and I did not wish to +use a hypothetical substance in the construction of this engine. Finally, +the only course left me was to abolish the cylinder as I had done the +piston. I then discovered that the engine I had been trying to evolve—the +perfect engine—was not the ideal thing I had been groping after but +an actual reality, in full working order, its operations taking place every +day before my eyes. +</p><p> +"Every natural phenomenon fitted in exactly; it had its function to +perform, and the performance of its function constituted the phenomenon. +Let me trace the analogy in a few of its details. The sea corresponds to +the boiler; its cylinder surrounds the earth; it has for its fuel the axial +energy of the earth; it has no condenser because it has no exhaust; +the work it performs is all expended in producing the fuel. Every +operation in the cycle is but an energy transformation, and these various +transformations constitute the visible life of the world."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> For definite numerical examples see the author's <i>Terrestrial +Energy</i> (Chap. 1.).</p></div> +</div> + + +<div class="notes"><p>TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE:</p> + +<p>Obvious typographical errors from the original printed version of this +book have been corrected without comment.</p> + +<p>Footnotes in the html version have been placed at the end of the +book.</p> + +<p>Illustrations have been moved to the nearest paragraph break.</p></div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Energy System of Matter, by James Weir + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ENERGY SYSTEM OF MATTER *** + +***** This file should be named 38348-h.htm or 38348-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/8/3/4/38348/ + +Produced by David Garcia, Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Cathy +Maxam and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net (This book was produced from scanned +images of public domain material from the Google Print +project.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Energy System of Matter + A Deduction from Terrestrial Energy Phenomena + +Author: James Weir + +Release Date: December 20, 2011 [EBook #38348] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ENERGY SYSTEM OF MATTER *** + + + + +Produced by David Garcia, Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Cathy +Maxam and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net (This book was produced from scanned +images of public domain material from the Google Print +project.) + + + + + + + + + + +THE ENERGY SYSTEM OF MATTER + + + + + THE ENERGY SYSTEM OF MATTER + + A DEDUCTION FROM TERRESTRIAL + ENERGY PHENOMENA + + BY + JAMES WEIR + + _WITH 12 DIAGRAMS_ + + LONGMANS, GREEN AND CO. + 39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON + NEW YORK BOMBAY, AND CALCUTTA + 1912 + + All rights reserved + + + + +PREFACE + + +An intimate study of natural phenomena and a lengthened experience in +physical research have resulted in the formation of certain +generalisations and deductions which I now present in this volume. I +have reached the conclusion that every physical phenomenon is due to the +operation of energy transformations or energy transmissions embodied in +material, and takes place under the action or influence of incepting +energy fields. In any instance the precise nature of the phenomena is +dependent on the peculiar form of energy actively engaged, on the nature +of the material to which this energy is applied, and on the nature of +the incepting field which influences the process. In the course of the +work several concrete cases are discussed, in which these features of +energy are illustrated and explained by the use of simple experimental +apparatus. It is hoped that, by this means, the distinctive differences +which exist in the manifestations of energy, in its transformation, in +its transmission, and in its incepting forms will be rendered clear to +the reader. I have to express my indebtedness to Mr. James Affleck, +B.Sc., for his assistance in the preparation of this work for +publication. + +JAMES WEIR. + +OVER COURANCE, +LOCKERBIE, SCOTLAND. + + + + +CONTENTS + + + PAGE + + INTRODUCTION 1 + + + PART I + + GENERAL STATEMENT + + 1. ADVANTAGES OF GENERAL VIEW OF NATURAL OPERATIONS 7 + + 2. SEPARATE MASS IN SPACE 8 + + 3. ADVENT OF ENERGY--DISTORTIONAL EFFECTS 9 + + 4. THE GRAVITATION FIELD 11 + + 5. LIMITS OF ROTATIONAL ENERGY--DISRUPTIONAL + PHENOMENA 13 + + 6. PASSIVE FUNCTION AND GENERAL NATURE OF GRAVITATION + FIELD 17 + + 7. LIMIT OF GRAVITATION TRANSFORMATION 18 + + 8. INTERACTIONS OF TWO PLANETARY BODIES--EQUILIBRIUM + PHENOMENA 19 + + 9. AXIAL ENERGY--SECONDARY PROCESSES 22 + + 10. MECHANISM OF ENERGY RETURN 27 + + 11. REVIEW OF COSMICAL SYSTEM--GENERAL FUNCTION OF + ENERGY 29 + + 12. REVIEW OF COSMICAL SYSTEM--NATURAL CONDITIONS 31 + + + PART II + + PRINCIPLES OF INCEPTION + + 13. ILLUSTRATIVE SECONDARY PROCESSES 34 + + 14. INCEPTING ENERGY INFLUENCES 40 + + 15. COHESION AS AN INCEPTING INFLUENCE 45 + + 16. TERRESTRIAL GRAVITATION AS AN INCEPTING INFLUENCE 48 + + 17. THE GRAVITATION FIELD 51 + + 18. THE THERMAL FIELD 54 + + 19. THE LUMINOUS FIELD 58 + + 20. TRANSFORMATIONS--UPWARD MOVEMENT OF A MASS + AGAINST GRAVITY 62 + + 21. TRANSFORMATIONS--THE SIMPLE PENDULUM 67 + + 22. STATICAL ENERGY CONDITIONS 68 + + 23. TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE MOVING PENDULUM--ENERGY + OF MOTION TO ENERGY OF POSITION AND VICE VERSA 72 + + 24. TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE MOVING PENDULUM--FRICTIONAL + TRANSFORMATION AT THE BEARING SURFACES 77 + + 25. STABILITY OF ENERGY SYSTEMS 79 + + 26. THE PENDULUM AS A CONSERVATIVE SYSTEM 81 + + 27. SOME PHENOMENA OF TRANSMISSION PROCESSES--TRANSMISSION + OF HEAT ENERGY BY SOLID MATERIAL 84 + + 28. SOME PHENOMENA OF TRANSMISSION PROCESSES--TRANSMISSION + BY FLEXIBLE BAND OR CORD 89 + + 29. SOME PHENOMENA OF TRANSMISSION PROCESSES--TRANSMISSION + OF ENERGY TO AIR MASSES 92 + + 30. ENERGY MACHINES AND ENERGY TRANSMISSION 95 + + 31. IDENTIFICATION OF FORMS OF ENERGY 107 + + 32. COMPLETE SECONDARY CYCLICAL OPERATION 114 + + + PART III + + TERRESTRIAL CONDITIONS + + 33. GASEOUS EXPANSION 118 + + 34. GRAVITATIONAL EQUILIBRIUM OF GASES 124 + + 35. TOTAL ENERGY OF GASEOUS SUBSTANCES 131 + + 36. COMPARATIVE ALTITUDES OF PLANETARY ATMOSPHERES 135 + + 37. REACTIONS OF COMPOSITE ATMOSPHERE 139 + + 38. DESCRIPTION OF TERRESTRIAL CASE 143 + + 39. RELATIVE PHYSICAL CONDITIONS OF ATMOSPHERIC + CONSTITUENTS 150 + + 40. TRANSMISSION OF ENERGY FROM AQUEOUS VAPOUR TO + AIR MASSES 153 + + 41. TERRESTRIAL ENERGY RETURN 160 + + 42. EXPERIMENTAL ANALOGY AND DEMONSTRATION OF THE + GENERAL MECHANISM OF ENERGY TRANSFORMATION + AND RETURN IN THE ATMOSPHERIC CYCLE 170 + + 43. APPLICATION OF PENDULUM PRINCIPLES 181 + + 44. EXTENSION OF PENDULUM PRINCIPLES TO TERRESTRIAL + PHENOMENA 188 + + 45. CONCLUDING REVIEW OF TERRESTRIAL CONDITIONS--EFFECTS + OF INFLUX OF ENERGY 192 + + + + +THE ENERGY SYSTEM OF MATTER + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +The main principles on which the present work is founded were broadly +outlined in the author's _Terrestrial Energy_ in 1883, and also in a +later paper in 1892. + +The views then expressed have since been amply verified by the course of +events. In the march of progress, the forward strides of science have +been of gigantic proportions. Its triumphs, however, have been in the +realm, not of speculation or faith, but of experiment and fact. While, +on the one hand, the careful and systematic examination and +co-ordination of experimental facts has ever been leading to results of +real practical value, on the other, the task of the theorists, in their +efforts to explain phenomena on speculative grounds, has become +increasingly severe, and the results obtained have been decreasingly +satisfactory. Day by day it becomes more evident that not one of the +many existing theories is adequate to the explanation of the known +phenomena: but, in spite of this obvious fact, attempts are still +constantly being made, even by most eminent men, to rule the results of +experimental science into line with this or that accepted theory. The +contradictions are many and glaring, but speculative methods are still +rampant. They have become the fashion, or rather the fetish, of modern +science. It would seem that no experimental result can be of any value +until it is deductively accommodated to some preconceived hypothesis, +until it is embodied and under the sway of what is practically +scientific dogma. These methods have permeated all branches of science +more or less, but in no sphere has the tendency to indulge in +speculation been more pronounced than in that which deals with +energetics. In no sphere, also, have the consequences of such indulgence +been more disastrous. For the most part, the current conceptions of +energy processes are crude, fanciful, and inconsistent with Nature. They +require for their support--in fact, for their very existence--the +acceptance of equally fantastic conceptions of mythical substances or +ethereal media of whose real existence there is absolutely no +experimental evidence. On the assumed properties or motions of such +media are based the many inconsistent and useless attempts to explain +phenomena. But, as already pointed out, Nature has unmistakably +indicated the true path of progress to be that of experimental +investigation. In the use of this method only phenomena can be employed, +and any hypothesis which may be formulated as the result of research on +these lines is of scientific value only in so far as it is the correct +expression of the actual facts observed. By this method of holding close +to Nature reliable working hypotheses can, if necessary, be formed, and +real progress made. It is undeniably the method of true science. + +In recent years much attention has been devoted to certain speculative +theories with respect to the origin and ultimate nature of matter and +energy. Such hypotheses, emanating as they do from prominent workers, +and fostered by the inherent imaginative tendency of the human mind, +have gained considerable standing. But it is surely unnecessary to point +out that all questions relating to origins are essentially outside the +pale of true science. Any hypotheses which may be thus formulated have +not the support of experimental facts in their conclusions; they belong +rather to the realm of speculative philosophy than to that of science. +In the total absence of confirmatory phenomena, such theories can, at +best, only be regarded as plausible speculations, to be accepted, it may +be, without argument, and ranking in interest in the order of their +plausibility. + +Of modern research into the ultimate constitution of matter little +requires to be said. It is largely founded on certain radio-active and +electrical phenomena which, in themselves, contribute little +information. But aided by speculative methods and the use of +preconceived ethereal hypotheses, various elaborate theories have been +formulated, explaining matter and its properties entirely in terms of +ethereal motions. Such conceptions in their proper sphere--namely, that +of metaphysics--would be no doubt of interest, but when advanced as a +scientific proposition or solution they border on the ridiculous. In the +absence of phenomena bearing on the subject, it would seem that the last +resort of the modern scientist lies in terminology. To the average +seeker after truth, however, the term "matter," as applied to the +material world, will still convey as much meaning as the more elaborate +scientific definitions. + +It is not the purpose of this work to add another thread to the already +tangled skein of scientific theory. It is written, rather, with the +conviction, that it is impossible ever to get really behind or beyond +phenomena; in the belief that the complete description of any natural +process is simply the complete description of the associated phenomena, +which may always be observed and co-ordinated but never ultimately +explained. Phenomena must ever be accepted simply as phenomena--as the +inscrutable manifestations of Nature. By induction from phenomena it is +indeed possible to rise to working hypotheses, and thence, it may be, to +general conceptions of Nature's order, and as already pointed out, it is +to this method, of accepting phenomena, and of reasoning only from +experimental facts, that all the advances of modern science are due. On +the other hand, it is the neglect of this method--the departure, as it +were, from Nature--which has led to the introduction into the scientific +thought of the day of the various ethereal media with their extreme and +contradictory properties. The use of such devices really amounts to an +admission of direct ignorance of phenomena. They are, in reality, an +attempt to explain natural operations by a highly artificial method, +and, having no basis in fact, their whole tendency is to proceed, in +ever-increasing degree, from one absurdity to another. + +It is quite possible to gain a perfectly true and an absolutely reliable +knowledge of the properties of matter and energy, and the part which +each plays, without resorting to speculative aids. All that is required +is simply accurate and complete observation at first hand. The field of +research is wide; all Nature forms the laboratory. By this method every +result achieved may be tested and verified, not by its concurrence with +any approved theory, however plausible, but by direct reference to +phenomena. The verdict of Nature will be the final judgment on every +scheme. + +It is on these principles, allied with the great generalisations with +respect to the conservation of matter and energy, that this work is +founded. As the result of a long, varied, and intimate acquaintance with +Nature, and much experimental research in many spheres, the author has +reached the conclusion, already foreshadowed in _Terrestrial Energy_, +that the great principle of energy conservation is true, not only in the +universal and generally accepted sense, but also in a particular sense +with respect to all really separate bodies, such as planetary masses in +space. Each of these bodies, therefore, forms within itself a completely +conservative energy system. This conclusion obviously involves the +complete denial of the transmission of energy in any form across +interplanetary space, and the author, in this volume, now seeks to +verify the conclusion by the direct experimental evidence of terrestrial +phenomena. + +Under present-day conditions in science, the acceptance of the ordinary +doctrine of transmission across space involves likewise the acceptance +of the existence of an ethereal substance which pervades all space and +forms the medium by which such transmission is carried out. The +properties of this medium are, of course, precisely adapted to its +assumed function of transmission. These properties it is not necessary +to discuss, for when the existence of the transmission itself has been +finally disproved, the necessity for the transmitting medium clearly +vanishes. + + + + +PART I + +GENERAL STATEMENT + + +1. _Advantages of General View of Natural Operations_ + +The object of this statement is to outline and illustrate, in simple +fashion, a broad and general conception of the operation and interaction +of matter and energy in natural phenomena. + +Such a conception may be of value to the student of Nature, in several +ways. In modern times the general tendency of scientific work is ever +towards specialisation, with its corresponding narrowness of view. A +broad outlook on Nature is thus eminently desirable. It enables the +observer to perceive to some extent the links uniting the apparently +most insignificant of natural processes to those of seemingly greater +magnitude and importance. In this way a valuable idea of the natural +world as a whole may be gained, which will, in turn, tend generally to +clarify the aspect of particular operations. A broad general view of +Nature also leads to the appreciation of the full significance of the +great doctrines of the conservation of matter and energy. By its means +the complete verification of these doctrines, which appears to be beyond +human experiment, may be traced on the face of Nature throughout the +endless chain of natural processes. Such a view also leads to a firm +grasp of the essential nature and qualities of energy itself so far as +they are revealed by its general function in phenomena. + + +2. _Separate Mass in Space_ + +In the scheme now to be outlined, matter and energy are postulated at +the commencement without reference to their ultimate origin or inherent +nature. They are accepted, in their diverse forms, precisely as they are +familiar from ordinary terrestrial experience and phenomena. + +For the purpose of general illustration the reader is asked to conceive +a mass of heterogeneous matter, concentrated round a given point in +space, forming a single body. This mass is assumed to be assembled and +to obtain its coherent form in virtue of that universal and inherent +property of matter, namely, gravitative or central attraction. This +property is independent of precise energy conditions, its outward +manifestation being found simply in the persistent tendency of matter on +all occasions to press or force itself into the least possible space. In +the absence of all disturbing influences, therefore, the configuration +of this mass of matter, assumed assembled round the given point, would +naturally, under the influence of this gravitative tendency, resolve +itself into that of a perfect sphere. The precise magnitude or +dimensions of the spherical body thus constituted are of little moment +in the discussion, but, for illustrative purposes, it may, in the +meantime, be assumed that in mass it is equivalent to our known solar +system. It is also assumed to be completely devoid of energy, and as a +mass to be under the influence of no external constraint. Under these +conditions, the spherical body may obviously be assumed as stationary in +space, or otherwise as moving with perfectly uniform velocity along a +precisely linear path. Either conception is justifiable. The body has no +relative motion, and since it is absolutely unconstrained no force could +be applied to it and no energy expenditure would be required for its +linear movement. + + +3. _Advent of Energy--Distortional Effects_ + +Nature, however, does not furnish us with any celestial or other body +fulfilling such conditions. Absolutely linear motion is unknown, and +matter is never found divorced from energy. To complete the system, +therefore, the latter factor is required, and, with the advent of energy +to the mass, its prototype may be found in the natural world. + +This energy is assumed to be communicated in that form which we shall +term "work" energy (Secs. 13, 31) and which, as a form of energy, will be +fully dealt with later. This "work" energy is assumed to be manifested, +in the first place, as energy of motion. As already pointed out, no +expenditure of energy can be associated with a linear motion of the +mass, since that motion is under no restraint, but in virtue of the +initial central attraction or gravitative strain, the form of energy +first communicated may be that of kinetic energy of rotation. Its +transmission to the mass will cause the latter to revolve about some +axis of symmetry within itself. Each particle of the mass thus pursues a +circular path with reference to that axis, and has a velocity directly +proportional to its radial displacement from it. + +This energised rotating spherical mass is thus the primal conception of +the energy scheme now to be outlined. It will be readily seen that, as a +primal conception, it is essentially and entirely natural; so much so, +indeed, that any one familiar with rotatory motion might readily predict +from ordinary experience the resulting phenomena on which the scheme is, +more or less, based. + +When energy is applied to the mass, the first phenomenon of note will be +that, as the mass rotates, it departs from its originally spherical +shape. By the action of what is usually termed centrifugal force, the +rotating body will be distorted; it will be flattened at the polar or +regions of lowest velocity situated at the extremities of the axis of +rotation, and it will be correspondingly distended at the equatorial or +regions of highest velocity. The spherical body will, in fact, assume a +more or less discoidal form according to the amount of energy applied to +it; there will be a redistribution of the original spherical matter; +certain portions of the mass will be forced into new positions more +remote from the central axis of rotation. + + +4. _The Gravitation Field_ + +These phenomena of motion are the outward evidence of certain energy +processes. The distortional movement of the material is carried out +against the action and within the field of certain forces which exist in +the mass of material in virtue of its gravitative or cohesive qualities. +It is carried out also in virtue of the application of energy to the +sphere, which energy has been, as it were, transformed or worked down, +in the distortional movement, against the restraining action of this +gravitation field or influence. The outward displacement of the material +from the central axis is thus coincident with a gain of energy to the +mass, this gain of energy being, of course, at the expense of, and by +the direct transformation of, the originally applied energy. It is +stored in the distorted material as energy of position, potential +energy, or energy of displacement relative to the central axis. But, in +the distortive movement, the mass will also gain energy in other forms. +The movement of one portion of its material relative to another will +give rise (since it is carried out under the gravitational influence) to +a fractional process in which, as we know from terrestrial experience, +heat and electrical energy will make their appearance. These forms of +energy will give rise, in their turn, to all the phenomena usually +attendant on their application to material. As already pointed out also, +the whole mass gains, in varying degree, energy of motion or kinetic +energy. It would appear, then, that although energy was nominally +applied to the mass in one form only, yet by its characteristic property +of transformation it has in reality manifested itself in several +entirely different forms. It is important to note the part played in +these transformation processes by the gravitation field or influence. +Its action really reveals one of the vital working principles of +energetics. This principle may be generally stated thus:-- + + EVERY TRANSFORMATION OF ENERGY IS CARRIED OUT BY THE ACTION OF + ENERGISED MATTER IN THE LINES OR FIELD OF AN INCEPTING ENERGY + INFLUENCE. + +In the particular case we have just considered, the incepting field is +simply the inherent gravitative property of the energised mass. This +property is manifested as an attractive force between portions of +matter. This, however, is not of necessity the only aspect of an +incepting influence. In the course of this work various instances of +transformation will be presented in which the incepting influence +functions in a guise entirely different. It is important to note that +the incepting influence itself is in no way changed, altered, or +transformed during the process of transformation which it influences. + + +5. _Limits of Rotational Energy. Disruptional Phenomena_ + +It is clear that the material at different parts of the rotating +spheroid will be energised to varying degrees. Since the linear velocity +of the material in the equatorial regions of the spheroid is greater +than that of the material about the poles, the energy of motion of the +former will exceed that of the latter, the difference becoming greater +as the mass is increasingly energised and assumes more and more the +discoidal form. + +The question now arises as to how far this process of energising the +material mass may be carried. What are its limits? The capacity of the +rotating body for energy clearly depends on the amount of work which +may be spent on its material in distorting it against the influence of +the gravitative attraction. The amount is again dependent on the +strength of this attraction. But the value of the gravitative attraction +or gravitation field is, by the law of gravitation, in direct proportion +to the quantity of material or matter present, and hence the capacity of +the body for energy depends on its mass or on the quantity of matter +which composes it. + +Now if energy be impressed on this mass beyond its capacity a new order +of phenomena appears. Distortion will be followed by disruption and +disintegration. By the action of the disruptive forces a portion of the +primary material will be projected into space as a planetary body. The +manner of formation of such a secondary body is perhaps best illustrated +by reference to the commonplace yet beautiful and suggestive phenomenon +of the separation of a drop of water or other viscous fluid under the +action of gravitation. In this process, during the first downward +movement of the drop, it is united to its source by a portion of +attenuated material which is finally ruptured, one part moving downwards +and being embodied in the drop whilst the remainder springs upwards +towards the source. In the process of formation of the planetary body we +are confronted with an order of phenomena of somewhat the same nature. +The planetary orb which is hurled into space is formed in a manner +similar to the drop of viscous fluid, and under the action of forces of +the same general nature. One of these forces is the bond of gravitative +attraction between planet and primary which is never severed, and when +complete separation of the two masses finally occurs, the incessant +combination of this force with the tangential force of disruption acting +on the planet will compel it into a fixed orbit, which it will pursue +around the central axis. When all material links have thus been severed, +the two bodies will then be absolutely separate masses in space. The +term "separate" is here used in its most rigid and absolute sense. No +material connection of any kind whatever exists, either directly or +indirectly, between the two masses. Each one is completely isolated from +the other by interplanetary space, and in reality, so far as material +connection is concerned, each one might be the sole occupant of that +space. This conception of separate masses in space is of great +importance to the author's scheme, but, at the same time, the condition +is one which cannot be illustrated by any terrestrial experimental +contrivance. It will be obvious that such a device, as might naturally +be conceived, of isolating two bodies by placing them in an exhausted +vessel or vacuous space, by no means complies with the full conditions +of true separation portrayed above, because some material connection +must always exist between the enclosed bodies and the containing +vessel. This aspect is more fully treated later (Sec. 30). The condition of +truly separate masses is, in fact, purely a celestial one. No means +whatever are existent whereby such a condition may be faithfully +reproduced in a terrestrial environment. + +In their separate condition the primary and planetary mass will each +possess a definite and unvarying amount of energy. It is to be noted +also, that since the original mass of the primary body has been +diminished by the mass of the planet cast off, the capacity for energy +of the primary will now be diminished in a corresponding degree. Any +further increment of energy to the primary in any form has now, however, +no direct influence on the energy of the planet, which must maintain its +position of complete isolation in its orbit. But although thus separate +and distinct from the primal mass in every material respect, the planet +is ever linked to it by the invisible bond of gravitation, and every +movement made by the planet in approaching or receding from the primary +is made in the field or influence of this attraction. In accordance, +therefore, with the general principle already enunciated (Sec. 4), these +actions or movements of the energised planetary mass, being made in the +field of the incepting gravitative influence, will be accompanied by +transformations, and thus the energy of the planet, although unvarying +in its totality, may vary in its form or distribution with the inward or +outward movement of the planet in its orbital path. As the planet +recedes from the primary it gains energy of position, but this gain is +obtained solely at the expense, and by the direct transformation of its +own orbital energy of motion. Its velocity in its orbit must, therefore, +decrease as it recedes from the central axis of the system, and increase +as it approaches that axis. Thus from energy considerations alone it is +clear that, if the planetary orbit is not precisely circular, the +velocity of the planet must vary at different points of its path. + + +6. _Passive Function and General Nature of Gravitation Field_ + +From the phenomena described above, it will be observed that, in the +energy processes of transformation occurring in both primary and planet, +the function of the gravitation field or influence is entirely passive +in nature. The field is, in truth, the persistent moving or directing +power behind the energy processes, the incepting energy influence or +agency which determines the nature of the transformation in each case +without being, in any way, actively engaged in it. In accelerating or +retarding the transformation process it has thus absolutely no effect. +These features are controlled by other factors. Neither does this +incepting agency affect, in any way, the limits of the transformation +process, these limits being prescribed by the physical or energy +qualities of the acting materials. In general nature the gravitation +field appears to be simply an energy influence--a peculiar manifestation +of certain passive qualities of energy. This aspect will, however, +become clearer to the reader when the properties of gravitation are +studied in conjunction with those of other incepting energy influences +(Secs. 17, 18, 19). + + +7. _Limit of Gravitation Transformation_ + +In the case of a planetary body, there is a real limit to the extent of +the transformation of its orbital energy of motion under the influence +of the gravitation field. As the orbit of the planet widens, and its +mean distance from the primary becomes greater, its velocity in its +orbital path must correspondingly decrease. As already pointed out (Sec. +5), this decrease is simply the result of the orbital energy of motion +being transformed or worked down into energy of position. But since this +orbital energy is strictly limited in amount, a point must ultimately be +reached where it would be transformed in its entirety into energy of +position. When this limiting condition is attained, the planet clearly +could have no orbital motion; it would be instantaneously at rest in +somewhat the same way as a projectile from the earth's surface is at +rest at the summit of its flight in virtue of the complete +transformation of its energy of motion into energy of position. In this +limiting condition, also, the energy of position of the planet would be +the maximum possible, and its orbital energy zero. The scope of the +planetary orbital path is thus rigidly determined by the planetary +energy properties. Assuming the reduction of gravity with distance to +follow the usual law of inverse squares, the value of the displacement +of the planet from the central axis when in this stationary or limiting +position may be readily calculated if the various constants are known. +In any given case it is obvious that this limiting displacement must be +a finite quantity, since the planetary orbital energy which is being +worked down is itself finite in amount. + + +8. _Interactions of Two Planetary Bodies--Equilibrium Phenomena_ + +Up to the present point, the cosmical system has been assumed to be +composed of one planetary body only in addition to the primary mass. It +is clear, however, that by repetition of the process already described, +the system could readily evolve more than one planet; it might, in fact, +have several planetary masses originating in the same primary, each +endowed with a definite modicum of energy, and each pursuing a +persistent orbit round the central axis of the system. Since the mass of +the primary decreases as each successive planet is cast off, its +gravitative attractive powers will also decrease, and with every such +decline in the central restraining force the orbits of the previously +constituted planets will naturally widen. By the formation in this way +of a series of planetary masses, the material of the original primary +body would be as it were distributed over a larger area or space, and +this separation would be accompanied by a corresponding decrease in the +gravitative attraction between the several masses. If the distributive +or disruptive process were carried to its limit by the continuous +application of rotatory energy to each separate unit of the system, this +limit would be dependent on the capacity of the system for energy. As is +shown later (Sec. 20), this capacity would be determined by the mass of the +system. + +For simplicity, let us consider the case in which there are two +planetary bodies only in the system in addition to the primary. In +virtue of the gravitative attraction or gravitation field between the +two, they will mutually attract one another in their motion, and each +will, in consequence, be deflected more or less out of that orbital path +which it would normally pursue in the absence of the other. This +attraction will naturally be greatest when the planets are in the +closest proximity; the planet having the widest orbit will then be drawn +inwards towards the central axis, the other will be drawn outwards. The +distance moved in this way by each will depend on its mass, and on the +forces brought to bear on it by the combined action of the two remaining +masses of the system. Moving thus in different directions, the motion of +each planet is carried out in the lines of the gravitation field between +the two. One planet, therefore, gains and the other loses energy of +position with respect to the central axis of the system. The one planet +can thus influence, to some extent, the energy properties of the other, +although there is absolutely no direct energy communication between the +two; as shown hereafter, the whole action and the energy change will be +due simply to the motion carried out in the field of the incepting +gravitation influence. + +It is clear, however, that this influence is exerted on the distribution +of the energy, on the form in which it is manifested, and in no way +affects the energy totality of either planet. Each, as before, remains a +separate system with conservative energy properties. That planet which +loses energy of position gains energy of motion, and is correspondingly +accelerated in its orbital path; the other, in gaining energy of +position, does so at the expense of its own energy of motion, and is +retarded accordingly. The action is really very simple in nature when +viewed from a purely energy standpoint. It has been dealt with in some +detail in order to emphasise the fact that there is absolutely nothing +in the nature of a transmission of energy between one planet and the +other. Taking a superficial view of the operation, it might be inferred +that, as the planets approach one another, energy of motion (or energy +of position) is transmitted from one to the other, causing one to retard +and the other to accelerate its movement, but a real knowledge of the +energy conditions shows that the phenomenon is rather one of a simple +restoration of equilibrium, a redistribution or transformation of the +intrinsic energy of each to suit these altering conditions. Each planet +is, in the truest sense, a separate mass in space. + + +9. _Axial Energy--Secondary Processes_ + +Passing now to another aspect of the energy condition of a planetary +body, let the planet be assumed to be endowed with axial energy or +energy of rotation, so that, while pursuing its orbital path in space, +it also rotates with uniform angular velocity about an axis within +itself. What will be the effect of the primary mass on the planet under +these new energy conditions? We conceive that the effect is again purely +one of transformation. In this process the primary mass functions once +more as an entirely passive or incepting agent, which, while exerting a +continuous transforming influence on the planet, does not affect in any +way the inherent energy properties of the latter. Up to the present +point we have only dealt with one incepting influence in transformation +processes, namely, that of gravitation, which has always been +manifested as an attractive force. It is not to be supposed, however, +that this is the only aspect in which incepting influences may be +presented. Although attractive force is certainly an aspect of some +incepting influences, it is not a distinctive feature of incepting +influences generally. In many cases, the aspect of force, in the sense +of attraction or repulsion, is entirely awanting. In the new order of +transformations which come into play in virtue of the rotatory motion of +a planetary mass in the field of its primary, we shall find other +incepting influences in action entirely different in nature from the +gravitation influence, but, nevertheless, arising from the same primary +mass in a similar way. Now the application of energy to the planet, +causing it to rotate in the lines or under the influence of these +incepting fields of the primary, brings into existence on the planet an +entirely new order of phenomena. So long as the planet had no axial +motion of rotation, some of the incepting influences of the primary were +compelled, as it were, to inaction; but with the advent of axial energy +the conditions are at once favourable to their action, and to the +detection of their transforming effects. In accordance with the general +principle already enunciated (Sec. 4), the action of the planetary +energised material in the lines of the various incepting fields of the +primary is productive of energy transformations. The active energy of +these transformations is the axial or rotatory energy of the planet +itself, and, in virtue of these transformations, certain other forms of +energy will be manifested on the planet and associated with the various +forms of planetary material. These manifestations of energy, in fact, +constitute planetary phenomena. Since the action or movement of the +rotating material of the planet through the incepting fields of the +primary is most pronounced in the equatorial or regions of highest +linear velocity, and least in the regions of low velocity adjoining the +poles of rotation, the transforming effect may naturally be expected to +decrease in intensity from equator to poles. Planetary energy phenomena +will thus vary according to the location of the acting material. It will +be clear, also, that each incepting agency or influence associated with +the primary mass will give rise to its own peculiar transformations of +axial energy on the planetary surface. These leading or primary +transformations of axial energy, in which the incepting influence is +associated with the primary mass only, we term primary processes. But it +is evident that the various forms of energy thus set free on the planet +as a result of the primary processes will be communicated to, and will +operate on, the different forms of planetary material, and will give +rise to further or secondary transformations of energy, in which the +incepting agency is embodied in or associated with planetary material +only. The exact nature of these secondary transformations will vary +according to the circumstances in which they take place. Each of them, +however, as indicated above, will be, in itself, carried out in virtue +of some action of the energised planetary material in the lines or field +of what we might term a secondary incepting influence. The latter, +however, must not be confused with the influences of the primary. It is +essentially a planetary phenomenon, an aspect of planetary energy; it is +associated with the physical or material machine by means of which the +secondary process of transformation is carried out. The nature of this +secondary influence will determine the nature of the secondary +transformation in each case. Its precise extent may be limited by other +considerations (Sec. 15). + +As an example, assume a portion of the axial energy to be primarily +transformed into heat in virtue of the planet's rotation in the field of +an independent thermal incepting influence exerted by the primary. To +the action of this agency, which we might term the thermal field, we +assume are due all primary heating phenomena of planetary material. Now +the secondary transformations will take place when the heat energy thus +manifested is applied to some form of matter. It is obvious, however, +that this application might be carried out in various ways. Heat may be +devoted to the expansion of a solid against its cohesive forces. It may +be expended against the elastic forces of a gas, or it may be worked +down against chemical or electrical forces. In every case a +transformation of energy will result, varying in nature according to the +peculiar conditions under which it is carried out. In this or a similar +fashion each primary incepting influence may give rise to a series of +secondary actions more or less complex in nature. These secondary +transformation processes, allied with other processes of transmission, +will, in fact, constitute the visible phenomena of the planet, and in +their variety will exactly correspond to these phenomena. + +With regard to the gravitation field, its general influence on the +rotating mass may be readily predicted. The material on that part of the +planetary surface which is nearest to or happens to face the primary in +rotation is, during the short time it occupies that position, subjected +to a greater attractive influence than the remainder which is more +remote from the primary. It will, in consequence, tend to be more or +less distorted or elevated above its normal position on the planetary +surface. This distorting effect will vary in degree according to the +nature of the material, whether solid, liquid, or gaseous, but the +general effect of the distortional movement, combined with the rotatory +motion of the planet, will be to produce a tidal action or a periodical +rise and fall of the more fluid material distributed over the planetary +surface. The distortion will, of course, be accompanied by energy +processes in which axial energy will be transformed into heat and other +forms, which will finally operate in the secondary processes exactly as +in previous cases. + + +10. _Mechanism of Energy Return_ + +But the question now arises, as to how this continuous transformation of +the axial energy can be consistent with that condition of uniformity of +rotation of the planet which was originally assumed. If the total energy +of the planetary mass is limited, and if it can receive no increment of +energy from any external source, it is clear that the axial energy +transformed must, by some process, be continuously returned to its +original form. Some process or mechanism is evidently necessary to carry +out this operation. This mechanism we conceive to be provided by certain +portions of the material of the planet, principally the gaseous matter +which resides on its surface, completely enveloping it, and extending +outwards into space (Sec. 38). In other words, the atmosphere of the planet +forms the machine or material agency by which this return of the +transformed axial energy is carried out. It has already been pointed out +(Sec. 9) how the working energy of every secondary transformation is +derived from the original axial energy of the planet itself. Each of +these secondary transformations, however, forms but one link of one +cyclical chain of secondary transformations, in which a definite +quantity of energy, initially in the axial form, passes, in these +secondary operations, through various other forms, by different +processes and through the medium of different material machines, until +it is eventually absorbed into the atmosphere of the planet. These +complete series of cyclical operations, by which the various portions of +axial energy are carried to the atmosphere, may in some cases be of a +very simple nature, and may be continuously repeated over very short +intervals of time; in other cases, the cycle may seem obscure and +complicated, and its complete operation spread over very long periods, +but in all cases the final result is the same. The axial energy +abstracted, sooner or later, recurs to the atmospheric machine. By its +action in this machine, great masses of gaseous material are elevated +from the surface of the planet against the attractive force of +gravitation; the energy will thus now appear in the form of potential +energy or energy of position. By a subsequent movement of these gaseous +masses over the surface of the planet from the regions of high velocity +towards the poles, combined with a movement of descent to lower levels, +the energy of position with which they were endowed is returned once +more in the original axial form. + +This, roughly, constitutes the working of the planetary atmospheric +machine, which, while in itself completely reversible and +self-contained, forms also at the same time the source and the sink of +all the energy working in the secondary transformations. In the +ceaseless rounds of these transformations which form planetary phenomena +it links together the initial and concluding stages of each series by a +reversible process. Energy is thus stored and restored continuously. The +planet thus neither gains nor loses energy of axial motion; so far as +its energy properties are concerned, it is entirely independent of every +external influence. Its uniformity of rotation is absolutely maintained. +Each planet of the system will, in the same way, be an independent and +conservative unit. + + +11. _Review of Cosmical System--General Function of Energy_ + +Reviewing the system as a whole, the important part played by energy in +its constitution is readily perceived. The source of the energy which +operates in all parts of the system is found in that energy originally +applied (Sec. 3). When the system is finally constituted, this energy is +found distributed amongst the planets, each of which has received its +share, and each of which is thereby linked to the primary by its +influence. It is part of this same energy which undergoes transformation +in virtue of the orbital movements of the planets in the field of the +gravitative influence. Again, it is found in the form of planetary +axial energy, and thence, under the influence of various incepting +agencies, it passes in various forms through the whole gamut of +planetary phenomena, and finally functions in the atmospheric machine. +Every phenomenon of the system, great or small, is, in fact, but the +external evidence either of the transformation or of the transmission of +this energy--the outward manifestation of its changed or changing forms. +Its presence, which always implies its transformation (Sec. 4), is the +simple primary condition attached to every operation. The primal mass +originally responded to the application of energy by the presentation of +phenomena. Every material portion of the system will similarly respond +according to circumstances. Energy is, in fact, the working spirit of +the whole cosmical scheme. It is the influence linking every operation +of the system to the original transformations at the central axis, so +that all may be combined into one complete and consistent whole. It is +to be noted, however, that although they have a common origin the +orbital energy of each planetary mass is entirely distinct from its +energy of axial rotation, and is not interchangeable therewith. The +transformation of the one form of energy in no way affects the totality +of the other. + +The disruption of the primary mass furnishes a view of what is virtually +the birth of gravitation as it is conceived to exist between separate +bodies. It may now be pointed out that the attractive influence of +gravitation is, in reality, but one of the many manifestations of energy +of the system. It is not, however, an active manifestation of the +working energy, but rather an aspect of energy as it is related to the +properties of matter. We have absolutely no experimental experience of +matter devoid of energy. Gravitation might readily be termed an energy +property of matter, entirely passive in nature, and requiring the advent +of some other form in order that it may exercise its function as an +incepting agency. + +From a general consideration of the features of this system, in which +every phenomenon is an energy phenomenon, it seems feasible to conclude +also that every property of matter is likewise an energy property. It is +certain, indeed, that no reasonable or natural concept of either matter +or energy is possible if the two be dissociated. The system also +presents a direct and clear illustration of the principles of +conservation in the working of the whole, and also in each planetary +unit. + + +12. _Natural Conditions_ + +It will be noted that, up to the present point, the cosmical system has +been discussed from a purely abstract point of view. This method has +been adopted for a definite reason. Although able, at all points, to +bring more or less direct evidence from Nature, the author has no desire +that his scheme should be regarded in any way as an attempt to originate +or describe a system of creation. The object has been, by general +reasoning from already accepted properties of matter and energy, to +arrive at a true conception of a possible natural order of phenomena. It +is obvious, however, that the solar system forms the prototype of the +system described above. The motion of the earth and other planets is +continuously occurring under the influence of gravitation, thermal, +luminous, and other incepting fields which link them to the central +mass, the sun. As a result of the action of such fields, energy +transformations arise which form the visible phenomena of the system in +all its parts, each transformation, whether associated with animate or +inanimate matter, being carried out through the medium of some +arrangement of matter hereafter referred to as a material machine. The +conditions are precisely as laid down above. The system is dominated, in +its separate units, and as a whole, by the great principle of the +conservation of energy. Each planetary mass, as it revolves in space, +is, so far as its energy properties are concerned, an absolutely +conservative unit of that system. At the same time, however, each +planetary mass remains absolutely dependent on the primary for those +great controlling or incepting influences which determine the +transformation of its inherent energy. + +In the special case of the earth, which will be dealt with in some +detail, it is the object of this work to show that its property of +complete energy conservation is amply verified by terrestrial phenomena. +The extension of the principle from the earth to the whole planetary +system has been made on precisely the same grounds as Newton extended +the observed phenomena to his famous generalisation with respect to +gravitation. + + + + +PART II + +PRINCIPLES OF INCEPTION + + +13. _Illustrative Secondary Processes_ + +In this part of the work, an attempt will be made to place before the +reader some of the purely terrestrial and other evidential phenomena on +which the conclusions of the preceding General Statement are founded. +The complete and absolute verification of that Statement is obviously +beyond experimental device. Bound, as we are, within the confines of one +planet, and unable to communicate with the others, we can have no direct +experimental acquaintance with really separate bodies (Sec. 5) in space. +But, if from purely terrestrial experience we can have no direct proofs +on such matters, we have strong evidential conclusions which cannot be +gainsayed. If the same kind of energy operates throughout the solar +system, the experimental knowledge of its properties gained in one field +of research is valuable, and may be readily utilised in another. The +phenomena which are available to us for study are, of course, simply the +ordinary energy processes of the earth--those operations which in the +foregoing Statement have been described as secondary energy processes. +Their variety is infinite, and the author has accordingly selected +merely a few typical examples to illustrate the salient points of the +scheme. The energy acting in these secondary processes is, in every +case, derived, either directly or indirectly, from the energy of +rotation or axial energy of the earth. In themselves, the processes may +be either energy transformations or energy transmissions or a +combination of both these operations. When the action involves the +bodily movement of material mass in space, the dynamical energy thus +manifested, and which may be transmitted by the movement of this +material, is termed mechanical or "work" energy (Sec. 31); when the energy +active in the process is manifested as heat, chemical, or electrical +energy, we apply to it the term "molecular" energy. The significance of +these terms is readily seen. The operation of mechanical or "work" +energy on a mass of material may readily proceed without any permanent +alteration in the internal arrangement or general structure of that +mass. Mechanical or "work" energy is dissociated from any molecular +action. On the other hand, the application of such forms of energy as +heat or electrical energy to material leads to distinctly molecular or +internal effects, in which some alteration in the constitution of the +body affected may ensue. Hence the use of the terms, which of course is +completely arbitrary. + +The principal object of this part of the work is to illustrate clearly +the general nature, the working, and the limits of secondary processes. +For this purpose, the author has found it best to refer to certain more +or less mechanical contrivances. The apparatus made use of is merely +that utilised in everyday work for experimental or other useful +purposes. It is essentially of a very simple nature; no originality is +claimed for it, and no apology is offered for the apparent simplicity of +the particular energy operations chosen for discussion. In fact, this +feature has rather led to their selection. In scientific circles to-day, +familiarity with the more common instances of energy operations is apt +to engender the belief that these processes are completely understood. +There is no greater fallacy. In many cases, no doubt, the superficial +phenomena are well known, but in even the simplest instances the +mechanism or ultimate nature of the process remains unknown. A free and +somewhat loose method of applying scientific terms is frequently the +cloak which hides the ignorance of the observer. No attempt will here be +made to go beyond the simple phenomena. The object in view is simply to +describe such phenomena, to emphasise and explain certain aspects of +already well-known facts, which, up to the present, have been neglected. + +In some of the operations now to be described, mechanical or "work" +energy is the active agent, and material masses are thereby caused to +execute various movements in the lines or field of restraining +influences. For ordinary experimental convenience, the material thus +moved must of necessity be matter in the solid form. The illustrative +value of our experimental devices, however, will be very distinctly +improved if it be borne in mind that the operations of mechanical energy +are not restricted to solids only, but that the various processes of +transformation and transmission here illustrated by the motions of solid +bodies may, in other circumstances, be carried out in a precisely +similar fashion by the movements of liquids or even of gases. The +restrictions imposed in the method of illustration are simply those due +to the limitations of human experimental contrivance. Natural operations +exhibit apparatus of a different type. By the movements of solid +materials a convenient means of illustration is provided, but it is to +be emphasised that, so far as the operations of mechanical energy are +concerned, the precise form or nature of the material moved, whether it +be solid, liquid, or gaseous, is of no consequence. To raise one pound +of lead through a given distance against the gravitative attraction of +the earth requires no greater expenditure of energy than to raise one +pound of hydrogen gas through the same distance. The same principle +holds in all operations involving mechanical energy. + +Another point of some importance which will be revealed by the study of +secondary operations is that every energy process has in some manner +definite energy limits imposed upon it. In the workings of mechanical or +"work" energy it is the mass value of the moving material which, in this +respect, is important. The mass, in fact, is the real governing factor +of the whole process (Sec. 20). It determines the maximum amount of energy +which can be applied to the material, and thus controls the extent of +the energy operation. + +But in actions involving the molecular energies, the operation may be +limited by other considerations altogether. For example, the application +of heat to a solid body gives rise to certain energy processes (Sec. 27). +These processes may proceed to a certain degree with increase of +temperature, but a point will finally be attained where change of state +of the heated material takes place. This is the limiting point of this +particular operation. When change of state occurs, the phenomena will +assume an entirely different aspect. The first set of energy processes +will now be replaced by a set of operations absolutely different in +nature, themselves limited in extent, but by entirely different causes. +The first operation must thus terminate when the new order appears. In +this manner each process in which the applied energy is worked will be +confined within certain limiting boundaries. In any chain of energy +operations each link will thus have, as it were, a definite length. In +chemical reactions, the limits may be imposed in various ways according +to the precise nature of the action. Chemical combination, and chemical +disruption, must be looked on as operations which involve not only the +transformation of energy but also the transformation of matter. In most +cases, chemical reactions result in the appearance of matter in an +entirely new form--in the appearance, in fact, of actually different +material, with physical and energy properties absolutely distinct from +those of the reacting constituents. This appearance of matter in the new +form is usually the evidence of the termination, not only of the +particular chemical process, but also of the energy process associated +with it. Transformation of energy may thus be limited by transformation +of matter. + +Examples of the limiting features of energy operations could readily be +multiplied. Even a cursory examination of most natural operations will +reveal the existence of such limits. In no case do we find in Nature any +body, or any energy system, to which energy may be applied in unlimited +amount, but in every case, rigid energy limits are imposed, and, if +these limits are exceeded, the whole energy character of the body or +system is completely changed. + + +14. _Incepting Energy Influences_ + +In experimental and in physical work generally, it has been customary, +in describing any simple process of energy transformation, to take +account only of those energies or those forms of energy which play an +active part in the process--the energy in its initial or applied form +and the energy in its transformed or final form. This method, however, +requires enlarging so as to include another feature of energy +transformation, a feature hitherto completely overlooked, namely, that +of incepting energy. Now, this conception of incepting energy, or of +energy as an incepting influence, is of such vital importance to the +author's scheme, that it is necessary here, at the very outset, to deal +with it in some detail. To obtain some idea of the general nature of +these influences, it will be necessary to describe and review a few +simple instances of energy transformation. One of the most illuminating +for this purpose is perhaps the familiar process of dynamo-electric +transformation. + +A spherical mass A (Fig. 1) of copper is caused to rotate about its +central axis in the magnetic field in the neighbourhood of a long and +powerful electro-magnet. In such circumstances, certain well-known +transformations of energy will take place. The energy transformed is +that dynamical or "work" energy which is being applied to the spherical +mass by the external prime mover causing it to rotate. As a result of +this motion in the magnetic field, an electrical action takes place; +eddy currents are generated in the spherical mass, and the energy +originally applied is, through the medium of the electrical process, +finally converted into heat and other energy forms. The external +evidence of the process will be the rise in temperature and +corresponding expansion of the rotating mass. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1] + +Such is the energy transformation. Let us now review the conditions +under which it takes place. Passing over the features of the "work" +energy applied and the energy produced in the transformation, it is +evident that the primary and essential condition of the whole process is +the presence of the magnetic field. In the absence of this influence, +every other condition of this particular energy operation might have +been fulfilled without result. The magnetic field is, in reality, the +determining agency of the process. But this field of magnetic force is +itself an energy influence. Its existence implies the presence of +energy; it is the external manifestation of that energy (usually +described as stored in the field) which is returned, as shown by the +spark, when the exciting circuit of the electro-magnet is broken. The +transformation of the dynamical or "work" energy (Sec. 31) applied to the +rotating sphere is thus carried out by the direct agency, under the +power, or within the field of this magnetic energy influence, to which, +accordingly, we apply the expression, incepting energy influence, or +incepting energy. + +There are several points to be noted with regard to these phenomena of +inception. In the first place, it is clear that the energy which thus +constitutes the magnetic field plays no active part in the main process +of transformation: during the operation it neither varies in value nor +in nature: it is entirely a passive agent. Neither is any continuous +expenditure of energy required for the maintenance of this incepting +influence. It is true that the magnetic field is primarily due to a +circulatory current in the coils or winding of the electro-magnet, but +after the initial expenditure of energy in establishing that field is +incurred, the continuous expenditure of energy during the flow of the +current is devoted to simply heating the coils. A continuous heat +transformation is thus in progress. The magnetic energy influence, +although closely associated with this heat transformation, yet +represents in itself a distinct and separate energy feature. This last +point is, perhaps, made more clear if it be assumed that, without +altering the system in any way, the electro-magnet is replaced by a +permanent magnet of precisely the same dimensions and magnetic power. +There would then be no energy expenditure whatever for excitation, but +nevertheless, the main transformation would take place in precisely the +same manner and to exactly the same degree as before. The incepting +energy influence is found in the residual magnetism. + +If an iron ball or sphere were substituted, in the experiment, for the +copper one, the phenomena observed on its rotation would be of an +exactly similar nature to those described above. There is, however, one +point of difference. Since the iron is magnetic, the magnet pole will +now exert an attractive force on the iron mass, and if the latter were +in close proximity to the pole (Fig. 1), a considerable expenditure of +energy might be required to separate the two. It is evident, then, that +in the case of iron and the magnetic metals, this magnetic influence is +such that an expenditure of energy is required, not only to cause these +materials to move in rotation so as to cut the lines of the field of the +magnetic influence, but also to cause them to move outwards from the +seat of the influence _along_ the lines of the field. The movements, +indeed, involve transformations of energy totally different in nature. +Assuming the energy to be obtained, in both cases, from the same +external source, it is, in the first instance, converted by rotatory +motion in the field into electrical and heat energy, whereas, in the +second case, by the outward motion of displacement from the pole, it is +transformed and associated with the mass in the form of energy of +position or energy of displacement relative to the pole. Since the +attractive force between the iron mass and the pole may be assumed to +diminish according to a well-known law, the energy transformation per +unit displacement will also diminish at the same rate. The precise +nature and extent of the influence of the incepting agent thus depend on +the essential qualities of the energised material under its power. In +this case, the magnetic metals, such as iron, provide phenomena of +attraction which are notably absent in the case of the dia-magnetic +metals such as copper. Other substances, such as wood, appear to be +absolutely unaffected by any movement in the magnetic field. The precise +energy condition of the materials in the field of the incepting +influence is also an important point. The incepting energy might be +regarded as acting, not on the material itself, but rather on the energy +associated with that material. From the phenomena already considered, it +is clear that before the incepting influence of magnetism can act on the +copper ball, the latter must be endowed with energy of rotation. It is +on this energy, then, that the incepting influence exerts its +transforming power. It would be useless to energise the copper ball, say +by raising it to a high temperature, and then place it at rest in the +magnetic field; the magnetic energy influence would not operate on the +heat energy, and consequently, no transformation would ensue. + +It is easy to conceive, also, that in the course of an energy +transformation, the material may attain an energy condition in which the +incepting influence no longer affects it. Take once more the case of the +iron ball. It is well known that, at a high temperature, iron becomes +non-magnetic. It would follow, then, that if the rotational +transformation in the magnetic field could be carried out to the +requisite degree, so that, by the continuous application of that heat +energy which is the final product of the process, the ball had attained +this temperature, then the other transformation consequent on the +displacement of the ball from the attracting pole could not take place. +No change has really occurred in the incepting energy conditions. They +are still continuous and persistent, but the energy changes in the +material itself have carried it, to a certain degree, beyond the +influence of these conditions. + + +15. _Cohesion as an Incepting Influence_ + +Other aspects of incepting energy may be derived from the examples cited +above. Returning to the case of the rotating copper sphere, let it be +assumed that in consequence of its rotation in the magnetic field it is +raised from a low to a high temperature. Due to the heating effect +alone, the mass will expand or increase in volume. This increase is the +evidence of a definite energy process by which certain particles or +portions of the mass have in distortion gained energy of +position--energy of separation--or potential energy relative to the +centre of the sphere. In fact, if the mass were allowed to cool back to +its normal condition, this energy might by a suitable arrangement be +made available for some form of external work. It is obvious, however, +that this new energy of position or separation which has accrued to the +mass in its heated condition has in reality been obtained by the +transformation of the "work" energy originally applied. The abnormal +displacement of certain particles or portions of the mass from the +centre of the sphere is simply the external evidence of their increased +energy. Now this displacement, or strain, due to the heat expansion, is +carried out against the action of certain cohesive forces or stresses +existing between the particles throughout the mass. These cohesive +forces are, in fact, the agency which determines this transformation of +heat into energy of position. Their existence is essential to the +process. But these cohesive forces are simply the external manifestation +of that energy by virtue of which the mass tends to maintain its +coherent form. They are the symbol of that energy which might be termed +the cohesion energy of the mass--they are, in fact, the symbol of the +incepting energy influence of the transformation. This incepting energy +influence of cohesion is one which holds sway throughout all solid +material. It is, therefore, found in action in every movement involving +the internal displacement or distortion of matter. It is a property of +matter, and accordingly it is found to vary not only with the material, +but also with the precise physical condition or the energy state of the +material with which it is associated. In this respect, it differs +entirely from the preceding magnetic influence. The latter, we have +seen, has no direct association with the copper ball, or with the +material which is the actual venue of the transformation. As an energy +influence, it is itself persistent, and unaffected by the energy state +of that material. On the other hand, the cohesion energy, being purely a +property of the material which is the habitat of the energy process, is +directly affected by its energy state. This point will be clearer by +reference to the actual phenomena of the heat transformation. As the +process proceeds, the temperature of the mass as the expansion increases +will rise higher and higher, until, at a certain point, the solid +material is so energised that change of state ensues. At this, the +melting-point of the material, liquefaction takes place, and its +cohesive properties almost vanish. In this fashion, then, a limit is +clearly imposed on the process of heat transformation in the solid +body--a limit defined by the cohesive or physical properties of the +particular material. In this limiting power lies the difference between +cohesion and magnetism as incepting influences. Looking at the whole +dynamo-electric transformation in a general way, it will be clear that +the magnetic influence in no way limits or affects the amount of +dynamical or "work" energy which may be applied to the rotating sphere. +This amount is limited simply by the cohesive properties of the material +mass in rotation. The magnetic influence might, in fact, be regarded as +the primary or inducing factor in the system, and the cohesion influence +as the secondary or limiting factor. + + +16. _Terrestrial Gravitation as an Incepting Influence_ + +The attractive influence of gravitation appears as an incepting agency +in terrestrial as well as in celestial phenomena. In fact, of all the +agencies which incept energy transformations on the earth, gravitation, +in one form or another, is the most universal and the most important. +Gravitation being a property of all matter, no mundane body, animate or +inanimate, is exempt from its all-pervading influence, and every +movement of energised matter within the field of that influence leads +inevitably to energy transformation. + +Let us take a concrete illustration. A block of solid material is +supported on a horizontal table. By means of a cord attached, energy is +applied to the block from an external source, so that it slides over the +surface of the table. As a result of this motion and the associated +frictional process, heat energy will make its appearance at the sliding +surfaces of contact. This heat energy is obviously obtained by the +transformation of that energy originally applied to the block from the +external source. What is the incepting influence in this process of +transformation? The incepting influence is clearly the gravitative +attraction of the earth operating between the moving block and the +table. The frictional process, it is well known, is dependent in extent +or degree on the pressure between the surfaces in contact. This pressure +is, of course, due to the gravitative attraction of the earth on the +mass of the block. If it be removed, say by supporting the block from +above, the heat-transformation process at the surfaces at once +terminates. Gravity, then, is the primary incepting influence of the +process. The effect of gravitation in transformation has apparently been +eliminated by supporting the block from above and removing the pressure +between block and table. It is not really so, however, because the +pressure due to the gravitative attraction of the earth on the block has +in reality only been transferred to this new point of support, and if a +movement of the block is carried out it will be found that the heat +transformation has been also transferred to that point. But there are +also other influences at work in the process. The extent of the heat +transformation depends, not only on the pressure, but also on the nature +of the surfaces in contact. It is evident, that in the sliding movement +the materials in the neighbourhood of the surfaces in contact will be +more or less strained or distorted. This distortion is carried out in +the lines of the cohesive forces of the materials, and is the real +mechanism of the transformation of the applied work energy into heat. It +is obvious that the nature of the surfaces in contact must influence the +degree of distortion, that is, whether they are rough or smooth; the +cohesive qualities of the materials in contact will depend also on the +nature of these materials, and the extent of the heat transformation +will be limited by these cohesive properties in precisely the same way +as described for other examples (Sec. 15). The function of gravitation in +this transformation is, obviously, again quite passive in nature, and is +in no way influenced by the extent of the process. Gravitation is, as it +were, only the agency whereby the acting energy is brought into +communication with the cohesive forces of the sliding materials. + +A little reflection will convey to the reader the vast extent of this +influence of gravitation in frictional phenomena, and the important +place occupied by such phenomena in the economy of Nature. From the +leaf which falls from the tree to the mighty tidal motions of air, +earth, and sea due to the gravitative effects of the sun and moon, all +movements of terrestrial material are alike subject to the influence of +terrestrial gravitation, and will give rise to corresponding heat +processes. These heat processes are continually in evidence in natural +phenomena; the effect of their action is seen alike on the earth's +surface and in its interior (internal heating). Of the energy operating +in them we do not propose to say anything further at this stage, except +that it is largely communicated to the atmospheric air masses. + + +17. _The Gravitation Field_ + +The foregoing examples of transformation serve to place before the +reader some idea of the general nature and function of an incepting +energy influence. But for the broadest aspects of the latter agencies it +is necessary to revert once more to celestial phenomena. As already +indicated in the General Statement, the primary transformations of +planetary axial energy are stimulated by certain agencies inherent to, +and arising from, the central mass of the system. These energy agencies +or effects operate through space, and are entirely passive in nature. +They are in no way associated with energy transmission; they are merely +the determining causes of the energy-transforming processes which they +induce, and do not in the least affect the conservative energy +properties of the planetary masses over which their influence is cast. +Of the precise number and nature of such influences thus exerted by the +primary mass we can say nothing. The energy transformations which are +the direct result of their action are so extensive and so varied in +character that we would hesitate to place any limit on the number of the +influences at work. Some of these influences, however, being associated +with the phenomena of everyday experience, are more readily detected in +action than others and more accessible to study. It is to these that we +naturally turn in order to gain general ideas for application to more +obscure cases. + +Of the many incepting influences, therefore, which may emanate from the +primary mass there are three only which will be dealt with here. Each +exerts a profound action on the planetary system, and each may be +readily studied and its working verified by the observation of common +phenomena. These influences are respectively the gravitation, the +thermal, and the luminous fields. + +The general nature and properties of the gravitation field have to some +extent been already foreshadowed (Secs. 4, 6, 16). Other examples will be +dealt with later, and it is unnecessary to go into further detail here. +The different aspects, however, in which the influence has been +presented may be pointed out. Firstly, in the separate body in space, as +an inherent property of matter (Sec. 2); secondly, as an attractive +influence exerted across space between primary and planet, both +absolutely separate bodies (Sec. 5); and thirdly, as a purely planetary or +secondary incepting influence (Sec. 16). In every case alike we find its +function to be of an entirely passive nature. Its most powerful effect +on planetary material is perhaps manifested in the tidal actions (Sec. 9). +With respect to these movements, it may be pointed out that the +planetary material periodically raised from the surface is itself +elevated against the inherent planetary gravitative forces, and also, to +a certain extent, against the cohesive forces of planetary material. +Each of these resisting influences functions as an incepting agency, and +thus the elevation of the mass involves a transformation of energy (Sec. +4). The source of the energy thus transformed is the axial energy of the +planet, and the new forms in which it is manifested are energy of +position or potential energy relative to the planetary surface, and heat +energy. On the return of the material to its normal position, its energy +of position, due to its elevation, will be returned in its original form +of axial energy. In the case of the heat transformation, however, it is +to be noted that this process will take place both as the material is +elevated and also as it sinks once more to its normal position. The +heat transformation thus operates continuously throughout the entire +movement. The upraising of the material in the tidal action is brought +about entirely at the expense of inherent planetary axial energy. The +gravitative and cohesive properties of the planetary material make such +a transformation process possible. It is in virtue of these properties +that energy may be applied to or expended on the material in this way. +The tidal action on the planetary surface is, in fact, simply a huge +secondary process in which axial energy is converted into heat. The +primary incepting power is clearly gravitation. + +Of the aspect of gravitation as a purely planetary influence (Sec. 16) +little requires to be said. The phenomena are so prominent and familiar +that the reader may be left to multiply instances for himself. + + +18. _The Thermal Field_ + +The thermal field which is induced by and emanates from the primary mass +differs from the gravitation field in that, so far as we know, it is +unaccompanied by any manifestation of force, attractive or otherwise. +Its action on the rotating planetary mass may be compared to that of the +electro-magnet on the rotating copper sphere (Sec. 14); the electro-magnet +exerts no force on the sphere, but an energy expenditure is, +nevertheless, required to rotate the latter through the field of the +magnetic influence. + +To this thermal field, then, in which the planets rotate, we ascribe all +primary planetary heating phenomena. The mode of action of the thermal +field appears to be similar to that of other incepting influences. By +its agency the energy of axial rotation of planetary material is +directly converted into the heat form. As already shown (Sec. 17), heat +energy may be developed in planetary material as a result of the action +of other incepting agencies, such as gravitation. These processes are, +however, more or less indirect in nature. But the operation due to the +thermal field is a direct one. The heat energy is derived from the +direct transformation of planetary axial energy of rotation without +passing through any intermediate forms. In common parlance, the thermal +field is the agency whereby the primary mass heats the planetary system. +No idea of transmission, however, is here implied in such phraseology; +the heating effect produced on any planetary mass is entirely the result +of the transformation of its own energy; the thermal field is purely and +simply the incepting influence of the process. Now, in virtue of the +configuration of the rotating planetary masses, their material in +equatorial regions is much more highly energised than the material in +the neighbourhood of the poles, and will, accordingly, move with much +greater linear velocity through the thermal field. The heat +transformation will vary accordingly. It will be much more pronounced at +the equator than at the poles, and a wide difference in temperature will +be maintained between the two regions. The thermal field, also, does not +necessarily produce the same heating effect on all planetary material +alike. Some materials appear to be peculiarly susceptible--others much +less so. This we may verify from terrestrial experience. Investigation +shows the opaque substances to be generally most susceptible, and the +transparent materials, such as glass, rock-salt, tourmaline, &c. almost +insusceptible, to the heating effect of the sun. The influence of the +thermal field can, in fact, operate through the latter materials. A +still more striking and important phenomenon may be observed in the +varying action of the thermal field on matter in its different forms. It +has been already pointed out that, in the course of transformation in +the field of an incepting influence, a material may attain a certain +energy state in which it is no longer susceptible to that influence. +This has been exemplified in the case of the iron ball (Sec. 14) and a +phenomenon of the same general nature is revealed in the celestial +transformation. A piece of solid material of low melting-point is +brought from the polar regions of the earth to the equator. Due to the +more rapid movement across the sun's thermal field, and the consequent +increased action of that field, a transformation of the axial energy of +rotation of the body takes place, whereby it is heated and finally +liquefied. In the liquid state the material is still susceptible to the +thermal field, and the transformation process accordingly proceeds until +the material finally assumes the gaseous form. At this point, however, +it is found that the operation is suspended; the material, in assuming +the gaseous state, has now attained a condition (Sec. 15) in which the +thermal field has no further incepting or transforming influence upon +it. No transformation of its axial energy into the heat form is now +possible by this means; indeed, so far as the _direct_ heating effect of +the sun is concerned, the free gaseous material on the planetary surface +is entirely unaffected. All the evidence of Nature points to the +conclusion that all gaseous material is absolutely transparent to the +_direct_ thermal influence of the sun. Matter in the gaseous form +reaches, as it were, an ultimate or limiting condition in this respect. +This fact, that energised material in the gaseous form is not +susceptible to the thermal field, is of very great importance in the +general economy of Nature. It is, in reality, the means whereby the +great primary process of the transformation of the axial energy of the +earth into the heat form is limited in extent. As will be explained +later, it is the device whereby the planetary energy stability is +conserved. It will be apparent, of course, that heat energy may be +readily applied to gaseous masses by other means, such as conduction or +radiation from purely terrestrial sources. The point which we wish here +to emphasise is, simply, that gaseous material endowed with axial energy +on the planetary surface cannot have this axial energy directly +transformed into heat through the instrumentality of the thermal field +of the primary. + + +19. _The Luminous Field_ + +The planetary bodies are indebted to the primary mass not only for heat +phenomena, but also for the phenomena of light. These light phenomena +are due to a separate and distinct energy influence (or influences) +which we term the luminous field. + +The mode of action of the luminous field is similar to that of other +incepting influences. It operates from the primary, and is entirely +passive in nature. Like the thermal field, it does not appear to be +accompanied by any manifestation of physical stress or force, except, +indeed, the experimental demonstrations of the "pressure of light" can +be regarded as such. In any case, this in no way affects the general +action of light as an incepting agency. Its action on energised +planetary material gives rise to certain transformations of energy, +transformations exclusive and peculiar to its own influence. We will +refer to terrestrial phenomena for illustrations of its working. + +Perhaps the commonest example of transformation in which the luminous +field appears as the incepting agency is seen in the growth of plant +life on the surface of the earth. The growth and development of +vegetation and plants generally is the outward evidence of certain +energy transformations. The processes of growth, however, are of such a +complex nature that it is impossible to state the governing energy +conditions in their entirety, but, considering them merely in general +fashion, it may be said that energy in various forms (potential, +chemical, &c.) is stored in the tissues of the growing material. Now the +source of this energy is the axial energy of the earth, and, as stated +above, the luminous field is an incepting factor (there may be others) +in the process of transformation, a factor whereby this axial energy is +converted into certain new forms. It is well known that, amongst the +factors which influence the growth of vegetation, one of the most potent +is that of light. The presence of sunlight is one of the essential +conditions for the successful working of certain transformations of +plant life, and these transformations vary not only in degree but in +nature, according to the variation of the imposed light in intensity and +quality. Some of the processes of growth are no doubt chemical in +nature. Here, again, light may be readily conceived to have a direct +determining influence upon them, exactly as in the cases of its +well-known action in chemical phenomena--for instance, as in +photography. Other examples will readily occur to the reader. One of the +most interesting is the action of light on the eye itself. It may be +pointed out indeed that light is, first and foremost, a phenomenon of +vision. Whatever may be its intrinsic nature, it is primarily an +influence affecting the eye. But the action of seeing, like all other +forms of human activity, involves a certain expenditure of bodily +energy. This energy is, of course, primarily derived from the axial +energy of the earth through the medium of plant and animal life and the +physico-chemical processes of the body itself. Its presence in one form +or another is, in fact, essential to all the phenomena of life. The +action of seeing accordingly involves the transformation of a certain +modicum of this energy, and the influence which incepts this +transformation is the luminous field which originates in and emanates +from the central mass of the system, the sun. In a similar way, +planetary material under certain conditions may become the source of an +incepting luminous field. It is this light influence or luminous field +which, in common parlance, is said to enter the eye. In that organ, +then, is found the mechanism or machine (Sec. 30), a complicated one, no +doubt, whereby this process of transformation is carried out which makes +the light influence perceptible to the senses. Of the precise nature of +the action little can be said. The theme is rather one for a treatise on +physiology. It may be pointed out, however, with regard to the process +of transformation, that Dewar has already demonstrated the fact that +when light falls on the retina of the eye, an electric current is set up +in the optic nerve. The energy associated with this current is, of +course, obtained at the expense of the bodily energy of the observer, +and this energy, after passing, it may be, through a large number of +transformation processes, will finally be returned to the source from +which it was originally derived, namely, the axial energy of the earth. +The luminous field, also, like the thermal field, has no transforming +effect whatever on the energy of certain substances. It may pass +completely through some and be reflected by others without any sign of +energy transformation. Its properties are, in fact, simply the +properties of light, and must be accepted simply as phenomena. Now, it +is very important, in studying matters of this kind, to realise that it +is impossible ever to get beyond or behind phenomena. It may be pointed +out that in no sphere of physics has the influence of so-called +explanatory mechanical hypotheses been stronger than in that dealing +with the properties of light. New theories are being expounded almost +daily in attempts to explain or dissect simple phenomena. But it may be +asked, In what does our really useful knowledge of light consist? +Simply in our knowledge of phenomena. Beyond this, one cannot go. We may +attempt to explain phenomena, but to create for this purpose elastic +ethereal media or substances without direct evidential phenomena in +support is not to advance real knowledge. There are certain properties +peculiar to the luminous as to all other incepting fields, certain +conditions under which each respectively will act, and the true method +of gaining real insight into these agencies is by the study of these +actual properties (or phenomena) and conditions, and not by attempts to +ultimately explain them. It will be evident that in most cases of +natural energy operations there is more than one energy influence in +action. As a rule there are several. In a growing plant, for example, we +have the thermal, luminous, gravitation, and cohesive influences all in +operation at the same time, each performing its peculiar function in +transformation, each contributing its own peculiar energy phenomena to +the whole. This feature adds somewhat to the complexity of natural +operations and to the difficulties in the precise description of the +various phenomena with which they are associated. + + +20. _Transformations--Upward Movement of a Mass against Gravity_ + +When the significance of energy inception and the characteristic +properties of the various agencies have been grasped, it becomes much +easier to deal with certain other aspects of energy processes. To +illustrate these aspects it is, therefore, now proposed to discuss a few +simple secondary operations embodied in experimental apparatus. A few +examples of the operations of transformation and transmission of energy +will be considered. The object in view is to show the general nature of +these processes, and more especially the limits imposed upon them by the +various factors or properties of the material machines in which they are +of necessity embodied. The reader is asked to bear in mind also the +observations already made (Sec. 13) with respect to experimental apparatus +generally. + +The first operation for discussion is that of the upward movement of a +mass of material against the gravitative attraction of the earth. This +movement involves one of the most simple and at the same time one of the +most important of secondary energy processes. As a concrete +illustration, consider the case of a body projected vertically upwards +with great velocity from the surface of the earth. The phenomena of its +motion will be somewhat as follows:--As the body recedes from the +earth's surface in its upward flight, its velocity suffers a continuous +decrease, and an altitude is finally attained where this velocity +becomes zero. The projectile, at this point, is instantaneously at rest. +Its motion then changes; it commences to fall, and to proceed once more +towards the starting-point with continuously increasing velocity. +Neglecting the effect of the air (Sec. 29) and the rotational movement of +the earth, it may be assumed that the retardation of the projectile in +its upward flight is numerically equal to its acceleration in its +downward flight, and that it finally returns to the starting-point with +velocity numerically equal to the initial velocity of projection. The +process then obviously involves a complete transformation and return of +energy. At the earth's surface, where its flight commences and +terminates, the body is possessed of energy of motion to a very high +degree. At the highest point of flight, this form of energy has entirely +vanished; the body is at rest. Its energy properties are then +represented by its position of displacement from the earth's surface; +its energy of motion in disappearing has assumed this form of energy of +position, energy of separation, or potential energy. The moving body has +thus been the mechanism of an energy transformation. At each stage of +its upward progress, a definite modicum of its original energy of motion +is converted into energy of position. Between the extreme points of its +flight, the energy of the body is compounded of these two forms, one of +which is increasing at the expense of the other. When the summit of +flight is reached the conversion into energy of position is complete. In +the downward motion, the action is completely reversed, and when the +body reaches the starting-point its energy of position has again been +completely transformed into energy of motion. It might be well to draw +attention here to the fact, often overlooked, that this energy of +position gained by the rising mass is, in reality, a form of energy, +separate and distinct, brought into existence by the transformation and +disappearance of the energy of the moving mass. Energy of position is as +truly a form of energy as heat or kinetic energy. + +The transformation here depicted is clearly a simple process, yet we +know absolutely nothing of its ultimate nature, of the why or wherefore +of the operation. Our knowledge is confined to the circumstances and +conditions under which it takes place. Let us now, therefore, deal with +these conditions. The transformation is clearly carried out in virtue of +the movement of the body in the lines or field of an incepting +influence. This influence is that of gravitation, which links the body +continually to the earth. Now the function of gravitation in this +process, as in others already described, is that of a completely passive +incepting agent. The active energy which suffers change in the process +is clearly the original work energy (Sec. 31) communicated to the projected +body. The whole process is, in fact, a purely mechanical operation, and +as in the case of other processes involving mechanical energy, it is +limited by the mass value of the moving material. It is clear that the +greater the amount of energy communicated to the projectile at the +starting-point, the greater will be the altitude it will attain in its +flight. The amount of energy, however, which can thus be communicated is +dependent on the maximum force which can be applied to the projectile. +But the maximum force which can be applied to any body depends entirely +on the resistance offered by that body, and in this case the resisting +force is the gravitative attraction of the earth on the projectile, +which attraction is again a direct function of its mass. The greater the +mass, the greater the gravitative force, and the greater the possibility +of transformation. The ultimate limit of the process would be reached if +the projected mass were so great as to equal half the mass of the earth. +In such circumstances, the earth being assumed to be divided into two +equal masses, the maximum limiting value of the gravitative attraction +would clearly be attained. Any increase of the one mass over the other +would again lead, however, to a diminution in the attractive force and a +corresponding decrease in the energy limit for transformation. The +precise manner in which the operations of mechanical energy are limited +by the mass will now be clear. The principle is quite general, and +applicable to all moving bodies. Mass is ever a direct measure of energy +capacity. A graphical method of representing energy transformations of +this kind, by a system of co-ordinates, would enable the reader to +appreciate more fully the quantitative relations of the forms of energy +involved and also their various limits. + + +21. _The Simple Pendulum_ + +The remaining operations of transformation for discussion are embodied +in the following simple apparatus. A spherical metallic mass M (Fig. 2) +is supported by a rod P which is rigidly connected to a horizontal +spindle HS as shown. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2] + +The spindle is supported and free to revolve in the bearings B{1} and +B{2} which form part of the supporting framework V resting on the +ground; the bearing surfaces at B{1} and B{2} are lubricated, and the +mass M is free to perform, in a vertical plane, complete revolutions +about the axis through the centre of the spindle. In carrying out this +motion its path will be circular, as shown at DCFE; the whole +arrangement is merely an adaptation of the simple pendulum. As +constituted, the apparatus may form the seat of certain energy +operations. Some of these will only take place with the application of +energy of motion to the pendulum from an external source, thereby +causing it to vibrate or to rotate: others, again, might be said to be +inherent to the apparatus, since they arise naturally from its +construction and configuration. We shall deal with the latter first. + + +22. _Statical Energy Conditions_ + +The pendulum with its spindle has a definite mass value, and, assuming +it to be at rest in the bearings B{1} and B{2}, it is acted upon by +gravitation, or in other words, it is under the influence or within the +field of the gravitative attraction of the earth's mass upon it. The +effect of this field is directly proportional to the mass of the +pendulum and spindle, and to its action is due that bearing pressure +which is transmitted through the lubricant to the bearing surfaces and +thence to the supporting arms N{1} and N{2} of the framework. Bearings +and columns alike are thus subjected to a downward thrust or pressure. +Being of elastic material, they will be more or less distorted. This +distortion will proceed until the downward forces are balanced by the +upward or reactive forces called into play in virtue of the cohesive +properties of the strained material. Corresponding to a slight downward +movement of the pendulum and spindle in thus straining or compressing +them, the supporting columns will be decreased in length. This downward +movement is the external evidence of certain energy operations. In +virtue of their elevation above the earth's surface, the pendulum and +spindle possess, to a certain degree, energy of position, and any free +downward movement would lead to the transformation of this energy into +energy of motion (Sec. 20). But the downward motion of pendulum and spindle +is not free. It is made against the resistance of the material of the +supporting columns, and the energy of position, instead of assuming the +form of energy of motion, is simply worked down or transformed against +the opposing cohesive forces of the supporting materials. This energy, +therefore, now resides in these materials in the form of energy of +strain or distortion. In general nature, this strain energy is akin to +energy of position (Sec. 20). Certain portions of the material of the +columns have been forced into new positions against the internal forces +of cohesion which are ever tending to preserve the original +configuration of the columns. This movement of material in the field of +the cohesive influence involves the transformation of energy (Sec. 4), and +the external evidence of the energy process is simply the strained or +distorted condition of the material. If the latter be released, and +allowed to resume its natural form once more, this stored energy of +strain would be entirely given up. In reality, the material can be said +to play the part of a machine or mechanism for the energy process of +storage and restoration. No energy process, in fact, ever takes place +unless associated with matter in some form. The supporting arms, in this +case, form the material factor or agency in the energy operation. All +such energy machines, also, are limited in the extent of their +operation, by the qualities of the material factors. In this particular +case, the energy compass of the machine is restricted by certain +physical properties of the material, by the maximum value of these +cohesive or elastic forces called into play in distortion. These forces +are themselves the evidence of energy, of that energy by virtue of which +the material possesses and maintains its coherent form. In this case +this energy is also the factor controlling the transformation, and +appears as a separate and distinct incepting agency. If the process is +to be a reversible one, so that the energy originally stored in the +material as strain energy or energy of distortion may be completely +returned, the material must not be stressed beyond a certain point. Only +a limited amount of work can be applied to it, only a limited amount of +energy can be stored in it. Too much energy applied--too great a weight +on the supporting columns--gives rise to permanent distortion or +crushing, and an entirely new order of phenomena. This energy limit for +reversibility is then imposed by the cohesive properties of the material +or by its elastic limits. Up to this point energy stored in the material +may be returned--the process is reversible in nature--but above this +elastic limit any energy applied must operate in an entirely different +manner. + +A little consideration will show also, that the state of distortion, or +energy strain, is not confined to the material of the supporting columns +alone. Action and reaction are equal. The same stresses are applied to +the spindle through the medium of bearings and lubricant. In fact, every +material substance of which the pendulum machine is built up is thus, +more or less, strained against internal forces; all possess, more or +less, cohesion or strain energy. It will be evident, also, that this +condition is not peculiar to this or any other form of apparatus. It is +the energy state or condition of every structure, either natural or +artificial, which is built up of ordinary material, and which, on the +earth's surface, is subjected to the influence of the gravitation field. +This cohesion or strain energy is one of the forms in which energy is +most widely distributed throughout material. + +In reviewing the statical condition of the above apparatus, the pendulum +itself has been assumed to be hanging vertically at rest under the +influence of gravitation. If energy be now applied to the system from +some external source so that the pendulum is caused to vibrate, or to +rotate about the axis of suspension, a new set of energy processes make +their appearance. The movement of the pendulum mass, in its circular +path around the central axis, is productive of certain energy reactions, +as follows:-- + + _a._ A transformation of energy of motion into energy of position + and vice versa. + + _b._ A frictional transformation at the bearing surfaces. + +These processes will each be in continuous operation so long as the +motion of the pendulum is maintained. Their general nature is quite +independent of the extent of that motion, whether it be merely vibratory +through a small arc, or completely rotatory about the central axis. In +the articles which immediately follow, the processes will be treated +separately. + + +23. _Transformations of the Moving Pendulum--a. Energy of Motion to + Energy of Position and Vice Versa_ + +In this simple transformation the motion of the pendulum about the axis +of suspension may be either vibratory or circular, according to the +amount of energy externally applied. In each case, every periodic +movement of the apparatus illustrates the whole energy operation. The +general conditions of the process are almost identical with those in the +case of the upward movement of a mass against gravity (Sec. 20). +Gravitation is the incepting energy influence of the operation. If the +pendulum simply vibrates through a small arc, then, at the highest +points of its flight, it is instantaneously at rest. Its energy of +motion is here, therefore, zero; its energy of position is a maximum. At +the lowest point of its flight, the conditions are exactly reversed. +Here its energy of motion is a maximum, while its energy of position +passes through a minimum value. The same general conditions hold when +the pendulum performs complete revolutions about the central axis. If +the energy of motion applied is just sufficient to raise it to the +highest point E (Fig. 2), the mass will there again be instantaneously +at rest with maximum energy of position. As the mass falls downwards in +completing the circular movement, its energy of position once more +assumes the kinetic form, and reaches its maximum value at C (Fig. 2), +the lowest position. The moving pendulum mass, so far as its energy +properties are concerned, behaves in precisely the same manner as a body +vertically projected in the field of the gravitative attraction (Sec. 20). +This simple energy operation of the pendulum is perhaps one of the most +familiar of energy processes. By its means, however, it is possible to +illustrate certain general features of energy reactions of great +importance to the author's scheme. + +The energy processes of the pendulum system are carried out through the +medium of the material pendulum machine, and are limited, both in nature +and degree, by the properties of that machine. As the pendulum vibrates, +the transformation of energy of motion to energy of position or vice +versa is an example of a reversible energy operation. The energy active +in this operation continually alternates between two forms of energy: +transformation is continually followed by a corresponding return. +Neglecting in the meantime all frictional and other effects, we will +assume complete reversibility, or that the energy of motion of the +pendulum, after passing completely into the form of energy of position +at the highest point, is again completely returned, in its original +form, in the descent. Now, for any given pendulum, the amount of energy +which can thus operate in the system depends on two factors, namely, the +mass of the pendulum and the vertical height through which it rises in +vibration. If the mass is fixed, then the maximum amount of energy will +be operating in the reversible cycle when the pendulum is performing +complete revolutions round its axis of suspension. The maximum height +through which the pendulum can rise, or the maximum amount of energy of +position which the system can acquire, is thus dependent on the length +of the pendulum arm. These two factors, then, the mass and the length of +the pendulum arm, are simply properties of this pendulum machine, +properties by which its energy compass is restricted. Let us now +examine these limiting factors more minutely. + +It is obvious that energy could readily be applied to the pendulum +system in such a degree as to cause it to rotate with considerable +angular velocity about the axis of suspension. Now the motion of the +pendulum mass in the lines of the gravitation field, although productive +of the same transformation process, differs from that of a body moving +vertically upward in that, while the latter has a linear movement, the +former is constrained into a circular path. This restraint is imposed in +virtue of the cohesive properties of the material of the pendulum arm, +and it is the presence of this restraining influence that really +distinguishes the pendulum machine from the machine in which the moving +mass is constrained by gravity alone (Sec. 20). It has been shown that the +energy capacity of a body projected vertically against gravity is +limited by its mass only; the energy capacity of the pendulum machine +may be likewise limited by its mass, but the additional restraining +factor of cohesion also imposes another limit. In the course of +rotation, energy is stored in the material of the pendulum against the +internal forces of cohesion. The action is simply that of what is +usually termed centrifugal force. As the velocity increases, the +pendulum arm lengthens correspondingly until the elastic limit of the +material in tension is reached. At this point, the pendulum may be said +to have reached the maximum length at which it can operate in that +reversible process of transformation in which energy of motion is +converted into energy of position. The amount of energy which would now +be working in that process may be termed the limiting energy for +reversibility. This limiting energy is the absolute maximum amount of +energy which can operate in the reversible cycle. It is coincident with +the maximum length of the pendulum arm in distortion. When the stress in +the material of that arm reaches the elastic limit, it is clear that the +transformation against cohesion will also have attained its limiting +value for reversibility. This transformation, if the velocity of the +pendulum is constant, is of the nature of a storage of energy. So long +as the velocity is constant the energy stored is constant. If the +elastic limiting stress of the material has not been exceeded, this +energy--neglecting certain minor processes (Secs. 15, 29)--will be returned +in its original form as the velocity decreases. If, however, the +material be stressed beyond its elastic powers, the excess energy +applied will simply lead to permanent distortion or disruption of the +pendulum arm, and to a complete breakdown and change in the character of +the machine and the associated energy processes (Sec. 5). The physical +properties of the material thus limit the energy capacity of the +machine. This limiting feature, as already indicated, is not peculiar +to the pendulum machine alone. Every energy process embodied in a +material machine is limited in a similar fashion by the peculiar +properties of the acting materials. Every reversible process is carried +out within limits thus clearly defined. Nature presents no exception to +this rule, no example of a reversible energy system on which energy may +be impressed in unlimited amount. On the contrary, all the evidence +points to limitation of the strictest order in such processes. + + +24. _Transformations of the Moving Pendulum--b. Frictional + Transformation at the Bearing Surfaces_ + +The motion of the pendulum, whether it be completely rotatory or merely +vibratory in nature, invariably gives rise to heating at the bearings or +supporting points. Since the heating effect is only evident when motion +is taking place, and since the heat can only make its appearance as the +result of some energy process, it would appear that this persistent heat +phenomenon is the result of a transformation of the original energy of +motion of the pendulum. + +The general energy conditions of the apparatus already adverted to (Sec. +21) still hold, and the lubricating oil employed in the apparatus being +assumed to have sufficient capillarity or adhesive power to separate +the metallic surfaces of bearings and journals at all velocities, then +every action of the spindle on the bearings must be transmitted through +the lubricant. The latter is, therefore, strained or distorted against +the internal cohesive or viscous forces of its material. The general +effect of the rotatory motion of the spindle will be to produce a motion +of the material of the lubricant in the field of these incepting forces. +To this motion the heat transformation is primarily due. Other +conditions being the same, the extent of the transformation taking +place, in any given case, is dependent on the physical properties of the +lubricant, such as its viscosity, its cohesive or capillary power, +always provided that the metallic surfaces are separated, so that the +action is really carried out in the lines or field of the internal +cohesive forces of the lubricant. In itself, this transformation is not +a reversible process; no mechanism appears by which this heat energy +evolved at the bearing surfaces could be returned once more to its +original form of energy of motion. It may be, in fact, communicated by +conduction to the metallic masses of the bearings, and thence, by +conduction and radiation, to the air masses surrounding the apparatus. +Its action in these masses is dealt with below (Sec. 29). The operation of +bearing friction, though in itself not a reversible process, really +forms one link of a complete chain (Sec. 9) of secondary operations +(transmissions and transformations) which together form a comprehensive +and complete cyclical energy process (Sec. 32). + +When no lubricant is used in the apparatus, so that the metallic +surfaces of bearings and journals are in contact, the heat process is of +a precisely similar nature to that described above (see also Sec. 16). +Distortion of the metals in contact takes place in the surface regions, +so that the material is strained against its internal cohesive forces. +The transformation will thus depend on the physical properties of these +metals, and will be limited by these properties. Different metallic or +other combinations will consequently give rise to quite different +results with respect to the amounts of heat energy evolved. + + +25. _Stability of Energy Systems_ + +The ratio of the maximum or limiting energy for reversibility to the +total energy of the system may vary in value. If the pendulum vibrates +only through a very small arc, then, neglecting the minor processes (Secs. +24, 29), practically the whole energy of the system operates in the +reversible transformation. This condition is maintained as the length of +the arc of vibration increases, until the pendulum is just performing +complete revolutions about the central axis. After this, the ratio will +alter in value, because the greater part of any further increment of +energy does not enter into the reversible cyclical process, but merely +goes to increase the velocity of rotation and the total energy of the +system. The small amount of energy which thus enters the reversible +cycle as the velocity increases, does so in virtue of the increasing +length of the pendulum arm in distortion. To produce even a slight +distortion of the arm, a large amount of energy will require to be +applied to and stored in the system, and thus, at high velocities of +rotation, the energy which operates in the reversible cycle, even at its +limiting value, may form only a very small proportion of the total +energy of the system. At low velocities or low values of the total +energy, say when the pendulum is not performing complete rotations, +practically the whole energy of the system is working in the reversible +cycle; but, in these circumstances, it is clear that the total energy of +the system, which, in this case, is all working in the reversible +process, is much less than the maximum or limiting amount of energy +which might so work in that process. Under these conditions, when the +total energy of the system is less than the limiting value for +reversibility, so that this total energy in its entirety is free to take +part in the reversible process, then the energy system may be termed +stable with respect to that process. Stability, in an energy system, +thus implies that the operation considered is not being, as it were, +carried out at full energy capacity, but within certain reversible +energy limits. + +We have emphasised this point in order to draw attention to the fact +that the great reversible processes which are presented to our notice in +natural phenomena are all eminently stable in character. Perhaps the +most striking example of a natural reversible process is found in the +working of the terrestrial atmospheric machine (Secs. 10, 38). The energy +in this case is limited by the mass, but in actual operation its amount +is well within the maximum limiting value. The machine, in fact, is +stable in nature. Other natural operations, such as the orbital +movements of planetary masses, (Sec. 8) illustrate the same conditions. +Nature, although apparently prodigal of energy in its totality, yet +rigidly defines the bounding limits of her active operations. + + +26. _The Pendulum as a Conservative System_ + +Under certain conditions the reversible energy cycle produces an +important effect on the rotatory motion of the pendulum. For the purpose +of illustration, let it be assumed that the pendulum is an isolated and +conservative system endowed with a definite amount of rotatory energy. +In its circular movement, the upward motion of the pendulum mass is +accompanied by a gain in its energy of position. This gain is, in the +given circumstances, obtained solely at the expense of its inherent +rotatory energy, which, accordingly, suffers a corresponding decrease. +The manifestation of this decrease will be simply a retardation of the +pendulum's rotatory motion. Its angular velocity will, therefore, +decrease until the highest altitude E (Fig. 2) is attained. After this, +on the downward path, the process will be reversed. Acceleration will +take place from the highest to the lowest point of flight, and the +energy stored as energy of position will be completely returned in its +original form of energy of motion. The effect of the working of the +reversible cycle, then, on the rotatory system, under the given +conditions, is simply to produce alternately a retardation and a +corresponding acceleration. Now, it is to be particularly noted that +these changes in the velocity of the system are produced, not by any +abstraction from or return of energy to the system, which is itself +conservative, but simply in consequence of the transformation and +re-transformation of a certain portion of its inherent rotatory energy +in the working of a reversible process embodied in the system. The same +features may be observed in other systems where the conditions are +somewhat similar. + +In the natural world, we find processes of the same general nature in +constant operation. When any mass of material is elevated from the +surface of a rotating planetary body against the gravitative attraction, +it thereby gains energy of position (Sec. 20). This energy, on the body's +return to the surface in the course of its cycle, reappears in the form +of energy of motion. Now the material mass, in rising from the planetary +surface, is not, in reality, separated from the planet. The atmosphere +of the planet forms an integral portion of its material, partakes of its +rotatory motion, and is bound to the solid core by the mutual +gravitative forces. Any mass, then, on the solid surface of a planet is, +in reality, in the planetary interior, and the rising of such a mass +from that surface does not imply any actual separative process, but +simply the radial movement, or displacement of a portion of the +planetary material from the central axis. If the energy expended in the +upraisal of the mass is derived at the expense of the inherent rotatory +energy of the planet, as it would be if the latter were a strictly +conservative energy system, then the raising of this portion of +planetary material from the surface would have a retarding effect on the +planetary motion of rotation. But if, on the other hand, the energy of +such a mass as it fell towards the planetary surface were converted once +more into its original form of energy of axial motion, exactly +equivalent in amount to its energy of position, it is evident that the +process would be productive of an accelerating effect on the planetary +motion of rotation, which would in magnitude exactly balance the +previous retardation. In such a process it is evident that energy +neither enters nor leaves the planet. It simply works in an energy +machine embodied in planetary material. This point will be more fully +illustrated later. The reader will readily see the resemblance of a +system of this nature to that which has already been illustrated by the +rotating pendulum. + +In the meantime, it may be pointed out that matter displaced from the +planetary surface need not necessarily be matter in the solid form. All +the operations mentioned above could be quite readily--in fact, more +readily--carried out by the movements of gaseous material, which is +admirably adapted for every kind of rising, falling, or flowing motion +relative to the planetary surface (Sec. 13). + + +27. _Some Phenomena of Transmission Processes--Transmission of Heat + Energy by Solid Material_ + +The pendulum machine described above furnishes certain outstanding +examples of the operation of energy transformation. It will be noted, +however, that it also portrays certain processes of energy transmission. +In this respect it is not peculiar. Most of the material machines in +which energy operates will furnish examples of both energy transmissions +and energy transformations. In some instances, the predominant operation +seems to be transformation, in others, transmission; and the machines +may be classified accordingly. It is, however, largely a matter of +terminology, since both operations are usually found closely associated +in one and the same machine. The apparatus now to be considered is +designed primarily to illustrate the operative features of certain +energy transmissions, but the description of the machines with their +allied phenomena will show that energy transformations also play a very +important part in their constitution and working. + +A cylindrical metallic bar about twelve inches long, say, and one inch +in diameter, is placed with its ends immersed in water in two separate +vessels, A and B, somewhat as shown. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3] + +By the application of heat energy, the temperature of the water in the +vessel A is raised to a point say 100 deg. F. above that of B, and steadily +maintained at that point. It is assumed that B is also kept at the +constant lower temperature. In these circumstances, a transmission of +heat energy takes place from A to B through the metallic bar. When the +steady temperature condition is reached, the transmission will be +continuous and uniform; the rate at which it is carried out will be +determined by the length of the bar, by the material of which it is +composed, and by the temperature difference maintained between its +ends. Now what has really happened is that by a combination of +phenomena the bar has been converted into a machine for the transmission +of heat energy. A full description of these phenomena is, in reality, +the description of this machine, and vice versa. Let us, therefore, now +try to outline some of these phenomena. + +The first feature of note is the gradient of temperature which exists +between the ends of the bar. Further research is necessary regarding the +real nature of this gradient--it appears to differ greatly in different +materials--but the existence of such a gradient is one of the main +features of the energy machine, one of the essential conditions of the +transmission process. + +Another feature is that of the expansive motion of the bar itself. The +expansion of the bar due to the heating varies in value along its +length, from a maximum at the hot end to a minimum at the cool end. The +expansion, also, is the evidence of a transformation of energy. The bar +has been constrained into its new form against the action of the +internal molecular or cohesive forces of its material (Sec. 16). The energy +employed and transformed in producing the expansion is a part of the +original heat energy applied to the bar, and before any transmission of +this heat energy takes place between its extreme ends, a definite +modicum of the applied energy has to be completely transformed for the +sole purpose of producing this distortive movement or expansion against +cohesion. This preliminary straining of the bar is, in fact, a part of +the process of building up or constituting the energy transmission +machine, and must be completely carried out before any transmission can +take place. It is clear, then, that concurrent with the gradient of +temperature, there also exists, along the bar, what might be termed a +gradient of energy stored against cohesion, and that both are +characteristic and essential features of this particular energy machine. +A point of some importance to note is the permanency of these features. +Once the machine has been constituted with a constant temperature +difference, the transmission of energy will take place continuously and +at a uniform rate. But no further transformation against cohesion takes +place; no further expenditure of energy against the internal forces of +the material is necessary. Neglecting certain losses due to possible +external conditions, the whole energy applied to the machine at the one +end is transmitted in its entirety to the other, without influencing in +any way either the temperature or the energy gradient. + +Such is the general constitution of this machine for energy +transmission. Its material foundation is, indeed, the metallic bar, but +the temperature and energy gradients may be termed the true determining +factors of its operation. As already indicated, the magnitude of the +transformation is dependent on the temperature difference between the +ends of the bar. But this applies only within certain limits. With +respect to the cool end, the temperature may be as low as we please--so +far as we know, the limit is absolute zero of temperature; but with the +hot end, the case is entirely different, because here the limit is very +strictly imposed by the melting-point of the material of the bar. When +this melting temperature is attained, the melting of the bar indicates, +simply, that the heat energy stored or transformed against the cohesive +forces of the material has reached its limiting value; change of state +of the material is taking place, and the machine is thereby being +destroyed. + +It is evident, then, that the energy which is actually being transmitted +has itself no effect whatever in restricting the action or scope of the +transmission machine. It is, in reality, the residual energy stored +against the cohesive forces which imposes the limits on the working. It +is the maximum energy which can be transformed in the field of the +cohesive forces of the material which determines the power of that +material as a transmitting agent. This maximum will, of course, be +different for different materials according to their physical +constitution. It is attained in this machine in each case when melting +of the bar takes place. + + +28. _Some Phenomena of Transmission Processes--Transmission by Flexible + Band or Cord_ + +This method is often adopted when energy of motion, or mechanical +energy, is required to be transmitted from one point to another. For +illustration, consider the case of two parallel spindles or shafts, A +and B (Fig. 4), each having a pulley securely keyed upon it. Spindle A +is connected to a source of of mechanical energy, and it is desired to +transmit this energy across the intervening space to spindle B. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4] + +This, of course, might be accomplished in various ways, but one of the +most simple, and, at the same time, one of the most efficient, is the +direct drive by means of a flexible band or cord. The band is placed +tightly round, and adheres closely to both pulleys; the coefficient of +friction between band and pulleys may, in the first instance, be assumed +to be sufficiently great to prevent slipping of the band up to the +highest stress which it is capable of sustaining in normal working. +Connected in this fashion, the spindles will rotate in unison, and +mechanical energy, if applied at A, may be directly transmitted to B. +The material operator in the transmission is the connecting flexible +band, and associated with this material are certain energy processes +which are also essential features of the energy machine. When +transmission of energy is taking place, a definite tension or stress +exists in the connecting band, and neglecting certain inevitable losses +due to bearing friction (Sec. 24) and windage (Sec. 29), practically the whole +of the mechanical or work energy communicated to the one spindle is +transmitted to the other. Now the true method of studying this or any +energy process is simply to describe the constitution and principal +features of the machine by which it is carried out. These are found in +the phenomena of transmission. One of the most important is the peculiar +state of strain or tension existing in the connecting band. This, as +already indicated, is an absolutely essential condition of the whole +operation. No transmission is possible without some stress or pull in +the band. This pull is exerted against the cohesive forces of the +material of the band, so that before transmission takes place it is +distorted and a definite amount of the originally applied work energy is +expended in straining it against these forces. This energy is +accordingly stored in the form of strain energy or energy of separation +(Sec. 22), and, if the velocity is uniform, the magnitude of the +transmission is proportional to this pull in the band, or to the +quantity of energy thus stored against the internal forces of its +material. But, in every case, a limit to this amount of energy is +clearly imposed by the strength of the band. The latter must not be +strained beyond its limiting elastic stress. So long as energy is being +transmitted, a certain transformation and return of energy of strain or +separation is taking place in virtue of the differing values of the +tensions in the two sides of the band; and if the latter were stressed +beyond the elastic limit, permanent distortion or disruption of the +material would take place. Under such conditions, the reversible energy +process, involving storage and restoration of strain energy as the band +passes round the pulleys, would be impossible, and the energy +transmission machine would be completely disorganised. The magnitude of +the energy operation is thus limited by the physical properties of the +connecting band. + +Another important feature of this energy transmission machine is the +velocity, or rather the kinetic energy, of the band. The magnitude of +the transmission process is directly proportional to this velocity, and +is, therefore, also a function of the kinetic energy. At any given rate +of transmission, this kinetic energy, like the energy stored against the +cohesive influence, will be constant in amount, and like that energy +also, will have been obtained at the expense of the originally applied +energy. This kinetic energy is an important feature in the constitution +of the transmission machine. As in the case of the strain energy, its +maximum value is strictly limited, and thus imposes a limit on the +general operation of the machine. For, at very high velocities, owing to +the action of centrifugal force, it is not possible to keep the band in +close contact with the surface of the pulleys. When the speed rises +above a certain limit, although the energy actually being transmitted +may not have attained the maximum value possible at lower speeds with +greater tension in the band, the latter will, in virtue of the strain +imposed by centrifugal action, be forced radially outwards from the +pulley. The coefficient of friction will be thereby reduced; slipping +will ensue, and the transmission may cease either in whole or in part. +In this way the velocity or kinetic energy limit is imposed. The machine +for energy transmission may thus be limited in its operation by two +different factors. The precise way in which the limit will be applied in +any given case will, of course, depend on the circumstances of working. + + +29. _Some Phenomena of Transmission Processes--Transmission of Energy to + Air Masses_ + +The movement of the pendulum (Sec. 23) is accompanied by a certain +transmission of energy to the surrounding medium. When this medium is a +gaseous one such as air, the amount of energy thus transmitted is +relatively small. The process, however, has a real existence. To +illustrate its general nature, let it be assumed that the motion of the +pendulum is carried out, not in air, but in a highly viscous fluid, say +a heavy oil. Obviously, a pendulum falling from its highest position to +its lowest, in such a medium would transmit its energy almost in its +entirety to the medium, and would reach its lowest position almost +devoid of energy of motion. The energy of position with which it was +originally endowed would thus be transformed and transmitted to the +surrounding medium. The agent by which the transmission is carried out +is the moving material of the pendulum, which, as it passes through the +fluid, distorts that fluid in the lines or field of its internal +cohesive or viscous forces which offer a continuous resistance to the +motion. As the pendulum passes down through the liquid, the succeeding +layers of the latter are thus alternately distorted and released. The +distortive movement takes place in virtue of the communication of energy +from the moving pendulum to the liquid, and during the movement energy +is stored in the fluid as energy of strain and as kinetic energy. At the +same time, a transformation of the applied energy into heat takes place +in the distorted material. The release of this material from strain, and +its movement back towards its original state, is also accompanied by a +similar transformation, in which the stored strain energy is, in turn, +converted into the heat form. The whole operation is similar in nature +to that frictional process already described (Sec. 16) in the case of a +body moving on a rough horizontal table. The final action of the heat +energy thus communicated to the fluid is to expand the latter against +the internal cohesive or viscous forces of its material, and also +against the gravitative attraction of the earth. + +Now when the pendulum moves in air, the action taking place is of the +same nature, and the final result is the same as in oil. It differs +merely in degree. Compared with the oil, the air masses offer only a +slight resistance to the motion, and thus only an exceedingly small part +of the pendulum's energy is transmitted to them. The pendulum, however, +does set the surrounding air masses in motion, and by a process similar +in nature to that in the oil, a modicum of the energy of the falling +pendulum is converted into heat, and thence by the expansion of the air +into energy of position. In the downward motion from rest, the first +stage of the process is a transformation peculiar to the pendulum +itself, namely, energy of position into energy of motion. The +transmission to the fluid is a necessary secondary result. It is +important to note that this transmission is carried out in virtue of the +actual movement of the material of the pendulum, and that the energy +transmitted is in reality mechanical or work energy (Sec. 31). This +mechanical or work energy, then actually leaves or is transmitted from +the pendulum system, and is finally absorbed by the surrounding air +masses in the form of energy of position. + +Considered as a whole, there is evidently no aspect of reversibility +about the operation, but it will be shown later (Sec. 32) that with the +introduction of other factors, it really forms part of a comprehensive +cyclical process. It is itself a process of direct transmission. It is +carried out by means of a definite material machine which embodies +certain energy transformations, and which is strictly limited in the +extent of its operations by certain physical factors. These factors are +the cohesive properties of the moving pendulum mass and the fluid with +which it is in contact (Sec. 16). It is clear, also, that in an apparatus +in which the motion is carried out in oil, any heat energy communicated +to the oil would inevitably find its way to the surrounding air masses +by conduction and radiation. The final result of the pendulum's motion +would therefore be the same in this case as in air; the heat energy +would, when communicated to the surrounding air masses, cause an +expansive movement against gravity. + + +30. _Energy Machines and Energy Transmission_ + +[Illustration: FIG. 5] + +The various examples of energy transformation and transmission which +have been discussed above (Secs. 13-27) will suffice to show the essential +differences which exist in the general nature of these operations. But +they will also serve another purpose in portraying one striking and +important aspect in which these processes are alike. From the +descriptions given above, it will be amply evident that each of these +processes, whether transformation or transmission, requires as an +essential condition of its existence, the presence of a certain +arrangement of matter; each process is of necessity associated with and +embodied in a definite physical and material machine. This material +machine is simply the contrivance provided by Nature to carry out the +energy operation. It differs in construction and in character for +different processes, but in every case there must be in its constitution +some material substance, perceptible to the senses, with which the +acting energy is intimately associated. This fact is but another aspect +of the principle that energy is never found dissociated from matter (Sec. +11). In every energy machine, the material substance or operator forms +the real foundation or basis of the energy operation, but besides this +there are also always other phenomena of a secondary nature, totally +different, it may be, from the main energy operation, which combine with +that operation to constitute the whole. These subsidiary energy +phenomena are the incepting factors, and are most important +characteristics. Their presence is just as essential in energy +transmission as it is in energy transformation. As demonstrated above, +they are usually associated with the physical peculiarities of the basis +or acting material of the energy machine, and their peculiar function is +to conserve or limit the extent of its action. A complete description of +these phenomena, in any given case, would not only be equivalent to a +complete description of the machine, but would also serve as a complete +description of the main energy operation embodied in that machine. +Sometimes, however, the description of the machine is a matter of +extreme difficulty, and may be, in fact, impossible owing to the lack of +a full knowledge of the intimate phenomena concerned. An illustrative +example of this is provided by the familiar phenomenon of heat +radiation. Take the case of two isolated solid bodies A and B (Fig. 5) +in close proximity on the earth's surface. If the body A at a high +temperature be sufficiently near to B at a lower temperature, a +transmission of energy takes place from A to B. This transmission is +usually attributed to "radiation," but, after all, the use of the term +"radiation" is merely a descriptive device which hides our ignorance of +the operation. It is known that a transmission takes place, but the +intimate phenomena are not known, and, accordingly, it is impossible to +describe the machine or mechanism by which it is carried out. From +general considerations, however, it appears that the material basis of +this machine is to be found in the air medium which surrounds the two +bodies. Experiment shows, indeed, that if this intervening material +medium of air be even partially withdrawn or removed, the transmission +is immensely reduced in amount. In fact, this latter phenomenon is +largely taken advantage of in the so-called vacuum flasks or other +devices to maintain bodies at a temperature either above or below that +of the external surrounding bodies. The device adopted is, simply, as +far as practicable to withdraw all material connection between the body +which it is desired to isolate thermally and its surroundings. But it is +clearly impossible to isolate completely any terrestrial body in this +way. There must be some material connection remaining. As already +pointed out (Sec. 5), we have no experimental experience of really separate +bodies or of an absolute vacuum. It is to be noted that any vacuous +space which we can experimentally arrange does not even approximately +reproduce the conditions of true separation prevailing in interplanetary +space. Any arrangement of separate bodies which might thus be contrived +is necessarily entirely surrounded or enclosed by terrestrial material +which, in virtue of its stressed condition, constitutes an energy +machine of the same nature as those already described (Sec. 21). Even +although the air could be absolutely exhausted from a vessel, it is +still quite impossible to enclose any body permanently within that +vessel without some material connection between the body and the +enclosing walls. If for example, as shown in Fig. 6, CC represents a +spherical vessel, completely exhausted, and having two bodies, A and B +at different temperatures, in its interior, it is obvious that if these +bodies are to maintain continuously their relative positions of +separation, each must be united by some material connection to the +containing vessel. But when such a connection is made, say as shown at D +and E (Fig. 7), it is clear that A and B are no longer separate bodies +in the fullest sense of the word, but are now in direct communication +with one another through the supports at D and E and the enclosing sides +of the vessel CC. The practicable conditions are thus far from those of +separate bodies in a complete vacuum. It would seem, indeed, to be +beyond human experimental contrivance to reproduce such conditions in +their entirety. So far as these conditions can be achieved, however, +and judging solely by the experimental results already attained with +respect to the effect of exhaustion on radiation, it may be quite justly +averred that, if the conditions portrayed in Fig. 6 could be realised, +no transmission of energy would take place between two bodies, such as A +and B, completely isolated from one another in a vacuous space. It +appears, in fact, to be a quite reasonable and logical deduction from +the experimental evidence that the energy operation of transmission of +heat from one body to another by radiation is dependent on the existence +between these bodies of a real and material substance which forms in +some way (at present unknown) the transmitting medium or machine. The +difficulty which arises in the description of this machine is due, as +already explained above, simply to lack of knowledge of the intimate +phenomena of its working. Many other energy processes will, no doubt, +occur to the reader in which the same difficulty presents itself, due to +the same cause. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6] + +In dealing with terrestrial operations generally, and particularly when +transmission processes are under consideration, it is important to +recognise clearly the precise nature of these operations and the +peculiar conditions under which they work. It must ever be borne in mind +that the terrestrial atmosphere is a real and material portion of the +earth's mass, extending from the surface for a limited distance into +space (Sec. 34), and whatever its condition of gaseous tenuity, completely +occupying that space in the manner peculiar to a gaseous substance. When +the whole mass of the planet, including the atmosphere, is taken into +consideration, it is readily seen that all energy operations embodied in +or associated with material on what is usually termed the surface of the +earth take place at the bottom of this atmospheric ocean, or, in +reality, in the interior of the earth. The operations themselves are the +manifestations of purely terrestrial energy, which, by its working in +various devices or arrangements of material is being transformed and +transmitted from one form of matter to another. As will be fully +demonstrated later (Part III.), the nature of the terrestrial energy +system makes it impossible for this energy ever to escape beyond the +confines of the planetary atmospheric envelope. These are briefly the +general conditions under which the study of terrestrial or secondary +energy operations is of necessity conducted, and it is specially +important to notice these conditions when it is sought to apply the +results of experimental work to the discussion of celestial phenomena. +It must ever be borne in mind that even the direct observation of the +latter must always be carried out through the encircling planetary +atmospheric material. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7] + +In this portion of the work it is proposed to investigate in the light +of known phenomena the possibility of energy transmission between +separate masses. As explained above, the term separate is here meant to +convey the idea of perfect isolation, and the only masses in Nature +which truly satisfy this condition are the celestial and planetary +bodies, separated as they are from one another by interplanetary space +and in virtue of their energised condition (Sec. 5). Since this state of +separation cannot be experimentally realised under terrestrial +conditions, it is obvious, therefore, that no purely terrestrial energy +process can be advanced either as direct verification or direct disproof +of a transmission of energy between such truly separate masses as the +celestial bodies. But as we are unable to experiment directly on these +bodies themselves or across interplanetary space, we are forced of +necessity to rely, for experimental facts and conclusions, on the +terrestrial energy phenomena to which access is possible. As already +indicated in the General Statement (Sec. 11), the same energy is bestowed +on all parts of the cosmical system, and by the close observation of the +phenomena of its action in familiar operations the truest guidance may +be obtained as to its general nature and working. In such +investigations, however, only the actual phenomena of the operation are +of scientific or informative value. There is no gain to real knowledge +in assuming, say in the examination of the phenomena of magnetic +attraction between two bodies, that the one is urged towards the other +by stresses in an intervening ethereal medium, when absolutely no +phenomenal evidence of the existence of such a medium is available. It +may be urged that the conception of an ethereal medium is adapted to the +explanation of phenomena, and appears in many instances to fulfil this +function. But as already pointed out (see Introduction), it is +absolutely impossible to explain phenomena. So-called explanations must +ever resolve themselves simply into revelations of further phenomena. +While the value of true working hypotheses cannot be denied, it is +surely evident that such hypotheses, unless they embody and are under +the limitation of controlling facts, are not only useless, but, from the +misleading ideas they are apt to convey, may even be dangerous factors +in the search for truth. Now, if all speculative ideas or hypotheses are +banished from the mind, and reliance is placed solely on the evidential +phenomena of Nature, the study of terrestrial energy operations leads +inevitably to certain conclusions on the question of energy +transmission. In the first place, it must lead to the denial of what has +been virtually the great primary assumption of modern science, namely, +that a mass of material at a high temperature isolated in interplanetary +space would radiate heat in all directions through that space. Such a +conception is unsupported by our experimental or real knowledge of +radiation. The fact that heat radiation takes place from a hot to a cold +body in whatever direction the latter is placed relatively to the +former, does not justify the assumption that such radiation takes place +in all directions in the absence of a cold body. And since there is +absolutely no manifestation of any real material medium occupying +interplanetary space, no sign of the material agency or machine which +the results of direct experiment have led us to conclude is a necessity +for the transmission process of heat radiation, the whole conception +must be regarded as at least doubtful. Even with our limited knowledge +of radiation, the doctrine of heat radiation through space stands +controverted by ordinary experimental experience. With this doctrine +must fall also the allied conception of the transmission of heat energy +by radiation from the sun to the earth. It is to be noted, however, that +only the actual transmission of heat energy from the sun to the earth is +inadmissible; the _heating effect_ of the sun on the earth, which leads +to the manifestation of terrestrial energy in the heat form, is a +continuous operation readily explained in the light of the general +principle of energy transformation already enunciated (Sec. 4). With +respect to other possible processes of energy transmission between the +sun and the earth or across interplanetary space, the same general +methods of experimental investigation must be adopted. The transmission +of energy under terrestrial conditions is carried out in many different +forms and by the working of a large variety of machines. In every case, +no matter in what form the energy is transmitted, that energy must be +associated with a definite arrangement of terrestrial material +constituting the transmission machine. Each energy process of +transmission has its own peculiar conditions of operation which must be +completely satisfied. By the study of these conditions and the allied +phenomena it is possible to gain a real knowledge of the precise +circumstances in which the process can be carried out. Now let us apply +the knowledge of transmission processes thus gained to the general +celestial case, to the question of energy transmission between truly +separate bodies, and particularly to the case of the sun and the earth. +Do we find in this case any evidence of the presence of a machine for +energy transmission? It is impossible, within the limits of this work, +to deal with all the forms in which energy may be transmitted, but let +the reader review any instance of the transmission of energy under +terrestrial conditions, or any energy-transmission machine with which he +is familiar, noting particularly the essential phenomena and material +arrangements, and let him ask himself if there is any evidence of the +existence of a machine of this kind in operation between the sun and +the earth or across interplanetary space. We venture to assert that the +answer must be in the negative. The real knowledge of terrestrial +processes of energy transmission at command, on which all our deductions +must be based, does not warrant in the slightest degree the assumption +of transmission between the sun and the earth. The most plausible of +such assumptions is undoubtedly that which attributes transmission to +heat radiation, but this has already been shown to be at variance with +well-known facts. The question of light transmission will offer no +difficulty if it be borne in mind that light is not in itself a form of +energy, but merely a manifestation of energy as an incepting influence, +which like other incepting influences of a similar nature, can readily +operate across either vacuous or interplanetary space (Sec. 19). + +On these general considerations, deduced from the observation of +terrestrial phenomena, allied with the conception of energy machines and +separate masses in space, the author bases one aspect of the denial of +energy transmission between celestial masses. The doctrine of +transmission cannot be sustained in the face of legitimate scientific +deduction from natural phenomena. In the later parts of this work, and +from a more positive point of view, the denial is completely justified. + + +31. _Identification of Forms of Energy_ + +Before leaving the question of energy transmission, there are still one +or two interesting features to be considered. Although energy, as +already pointed out, is ever found associated with matter, this +association does not, in itself, always furnish phenomena sufficient to +distinguish the precise phase in which the energy may be manifested. +Some means must, as a rule, be adopted to isolate and identify the +various forms. + +Now one of the most interesting and important features of the process of +energy transmission is that it usually provides the direct means for the +identification of the acting energy. Energy, as it were, in movement, in +the process of transmission, is capable of being detected in its +different phases and recognised in each. The phenomena of transmission +usually serve, either directly or indirectly, to portray the precise +nature of the energy taking part in the operation. One of the most +direct instances of this is provided by the transmission of heat energy. +For illustrative purposes, let it be assumed that a body A, possessed of +heat energy to an exceedingly high degree, is isolated within a +spherical glass vessel CC, somewhat as already shown (Fig. 6). If it be +assumed that the space within CC is a perfect vacuum, and that no +material connection exists between the walls of the vessel and the body +A, the latter is completely isolated, and no means whatever are +available for the detection of its heat qualities (Sec. 30). It may seem +that, if the temperature of the body A were sufficiently high, its +energy state might be detected, and in a manner estimated, by its effect +on the eye or by its luminous properties, but we take this opportunity +of pointing out that luminosity is not invariably associated with high +temperature. On the contrary, many bodies are found in Nature, both +animate and inanimate, which are luminous and affect the eye at +comparatively low temperatures. How then is the energy condition of the +body to be definitely ascertained? The only means whereby it is possible +to identify the energy of the body is by transmitting a portion of that +energy to some other body and observing the resultant phenomena. +Suppose, then, another body, such as B (Fig. 6), at a lower temperature +than A, is brought into contact with A, so that a transmission of heat +energy ensues between the two. The phenomena which would result in such +circumstances will be exactly as already described in the case of the +transmission of energy through a solid (Sec. 27). Amongst other +manifestations it would be noticeable that the material of B was +expanded against its inherent cohesive forces. Now if, instead of a +spherical body such as B, a mercurial thermometer were utilised, the +phenomena would be of precisely the same nature. A definite portion of +the heat energy would be transmitted to the thermometer, and would +produce expansion of the contained fluid. By the amount of this +expansion it becomes possible to estimate the energy condition and +properties of the body A, relative to its surroundings or to certain +generally accepted standard conditions. Thermometric measurement is, in +fact, merely the employment of a process of energy transmission for the +purpose of identifying and estimating the heat-energy properties of +material substances. + +In everyday life, rough ideas of heat energy are constantly being +obtained by the aid of the senses. This method is, however, only another +aspect of transmission, for it will be clear that the sensations of heat +and cold are, in themselves, but the evidence of the transformation of +heat energy to or from the body. + +The process of energy transmission by a flexible band or cord (Sec. 28) +also provides evidence leading to the identification of the peculiar +form of energy which is being transmitted. At first sight, it would +appear as if this energy were simply energy of motion or kinetic energy. +A little reflection, however, on the general conditions of the process +must dispel this idea, for it is clear that the precise nature of the +energy transmitted has no real connection with the kinetic properties of +the system. The latter, truly, influence the rate of transmission and +impose certain limits, but evidently, if the pull in the band increases +without any increase in its velocity, the actual amount of energy +transmitted by the system would increase without altering in any respect +the kinetic properties. It becomes necessary, then, to distinguish +clearly the energy inherent to, or as it were, latent in the system, +from the energy actually transmitted by the system, to recognise the +difference between the energy transmitted by moving material and the +energy of that material. In this special instance, to identify the form +of energy transmitted it must of necessity be associated with the +peculiar phenomena of transmission. Now the energy is evidently +transmitted by the movement of the connecting belt or band. Before any +transmission can take place, however, a certain amount of energy must be +stored in the moving system, partly as cohesion or strain energy and +partly as energy of motion or kinetic energy. It is this preliminary +storage of energy which, in reality, constitutes the transmission +machine, and for a given rate of transmission, the energy thus stored +will be constant in value. It is obtained at the expense of the applied +energy, and, neglecting certain minor processes, will be returned (or +transmitted) in its entirety when the moving system once more comes to +rest. This stored energy, in fact, works in a reversible process. But +when the transmission machine is once constituted, the energy +transmitted is then that energy which is being continually applied at +the spindle A (Fig. 4) and as continually withdrawn at the spindle B. It +must be emphasised that the energy thus transmitted is absolutely +different from the kinetic or other energy associated with the moving +material of the system. It is the function of this energised material of +the band to transmit the energy from A to B, but this is the only +relationship which the transmitted energy bears to the material. The +energy thus transmitted by the moving material we term mechanical or +work energy. We may thus define mechanical or work energy as "_that form +of energy transmitted by matter in motion_." + +The idea of work is usually associated with that of a force acting +through a certain distance. The form of energy referred to above as work +energy is, in the same way, always associated with the idea of a thrust +or of a pressure of some kind acting on moving material. Work energy +thus bears two aspects, which really correspond to the familiar product +of pressure and volume. Both aspects are manifested in transmission. +Since work energy is invariably transmitted by matter in motion, every +machine for its transmission must possess energy of motion as one of its +essential features. As shown above (see also Sec. 28), this energy of +motion is really obtained at the expense of the originally applied work +energy, and as it remains unaltered in value during the progress of a +uniform transmission, it may be regarded as simply transformed work +energy, stored or latent in the system, which will be returned in its +entirety and in its original form at the termination of the operation. +The energy stored against cohesion or other forces may be regarded in +the same way. It is really the manifestation of the pressure or thrust +aspect of the work energy, just as the kinetic energy is the +manifestation of the translational or velocity aspect. + +Our definition of work energy given above enables us to recognise its +operation in many familiar processes. Take the case of a gas at high +pressure confined in a cylinder behind a movable piston. We can at once +say that the energy of the gas is work energy because this energy may +quite clearly be transmitted from the gas by the movement of the piston. +If the latter form part of a steam-engine mechanism of rods and crank, +the energy may, by the motion of this mechanism, be transmitted to the +crank shaft, and there utilised. This is eminently a case in which +energy is _transmitted_ by matter in motion. The moving material +comprises the piston, piston-rod, and connecting-rod, which are, one and +all, endowed with both cohesive and kinetic energy qualities, and form +together the transmission machine. So long as the piston is at rest only +one aspect of the work energy of the gas is apparent, namely, the +pressure aspect, but immediately motion and transmission take place, +both aspects are presented. The work energy of the gas, obtained in the +boiler by a _transformation_ of heat energy is thus, by matter in +motion, transmitted and made available at the crank shaft. The shaft +itself is also commonly utilised for the further transmission of the +work energy applied. By the application of the energy at the crank, it +is thrown into a state of strain, and at the same time is endowed with +kinetic energy of rotation. It thus forms a machine for transmission, +and the work energy applied at one point of the shaft may be withdrawn +at another point more remote. The transmission is, in reality, effected +by the movement of the material of the shaft. So long as the shaft is +stationary, it is clear that no actual transmission can be carried out, +no matter how great may be the strain imposed. If our engine mechanism +were, by a change in design, adapted to the use of a liquid substance as +the working material instead of a gas, it is clear that no change would +be effected in the general conditions. The energy of a liquid under +pressure is again simply work energy, and it would be transmitted by the +moving mechanism in precisely the same manner. + +From the foregoing, it will now be evident to the reader that the energy +originally applied to the primary mass (Sec. 3) of our cosmical system must +be work energy. It is this form of energy also which is inherent to each +unit of the planetary system associated with the primary. In this system +it is of course presented outwardly in the two phases of kinetic energy +and energy of strain or distortion. It is apparent, also, that work +energy could be transmitted from the primary mass to the separate +planets on one condition only, that is, by the movement of some material +substance connecting each planet to the primary. Since no such material +connection is admitted, the transmission of work energy is clearly +impossible. + + +32. _Complete Secondary Cyclical Operation_ + +A general outline of the conditions of working and the relationships of +secondary processes has already been given in the General Statement (Sec. +9), but it still remains to indicate, in a broad way, the general +methods whereby these operations are linked to the atmospheric machine. +In the example of the simple pendulum, it has been pointed out that the +energy processes giving rise to heating at the bearing surfaces and +transmission of energy to the air masses are not directly reversible +processes, but really form part of a more extensive cyclical operation, +in itself, however, complete and self-contained. This cyclical operation +may be regarded as a typical illustration of the manner in which +separate processes of energy transmission or transformation, such as +already described, are combined or united in a continuous chain forming +a complete whole. + +It has been assumed, in all the experiments with the pendulum, that the +operating energy is initially communicated from an outside source, say +the hand of the observer. This energy is, therefore, the acting energy +which must be traced through all its various phases from its origin to +its final destination. At the outset, it may be pointed out that this +energy, applied by hand, is obtained from the original rotational energy +of the earth by certain definite energy processes. Due to the influences +of various incepting fields which emanate from the sun (Secs. 17-19), a +portion of the earth's rotational energy is transformed into that form +of plant energy which is stored in plant tissue, and which, by the +physico-chemical processes of digestion, is in turn converted into heat +and the various other forms of energy associated with the human frame. +This, then, is the origin of the energy communicated to the pendulum. +Its progress through that machine has already been described in detail +(Secs. 21-26). The transformation of energy of motion to energy of position +which takes place is in itself a reversible process and may in the +meantime be neglected. But the final result of the operations, at the +bearing surfaces and in the air masses surrounding the moving pendulum, +was shown to be, in each case, that heat energy was communicated to +these air masses. The effect of the heat energy thus impressed, is to +cause the expansion of the air and its elevation from the surface of the +earth in the lines or field of the gravitative attraction, so that this +heat energy is transformed, and resides in the air masses as energy of +position. The energy then, originally drawn from the rotational energy +of the earth, has thus worked through the pendulum machine, and is now +stored in the air masses in this form of energy of position. To make the +process complete and cyclical this energy must now, therefore, be +returned once more to the earth in its original rotational form. This +final step is carried out in the atmospheric machine (Sec. 41). In this +machine, therefore, the energy of position possessed by the air masses +is, in their descent to their original positions at lower levels, +transformed once more into axial or rotational energy. In this fashion +this series of secondary processes, involving both transformations and +transmissions, is linked to the great atmospheric process. The amount of +energy which operates through the particular chain of processes we have +described is, of course, exceedingly small, but in this or a similar +manner all secondary operations, great or small, are associated with the +atmospheric machine. Instances could readily be multiplied, but a little +reflection will show how almost every energy operation, no matter what +may be its nature, whether physical, chemical, or electrical, leads +inevitably to the communication of energy to the atmospheric air masses +and to their consequent upraisal. + +It is interesting to note the infallible tendency of energy to revert +to its original form of axial energy, or energy of rotation, by means of +the air machine. All Nature bears witness to this tendency, and although +the path of energy through the maze of terrestrial transformation often +appears tortuous and uncertain, its final destination is always sure. +The secondary operations are thus interlinked into one great whole by +their association in the terrestrial energy cycle. Many of these +secondary operations are of short duration; others extend over long +periods of time. Energy, in some cases, appears to slumber, as in the +coal seams of the earth, until an appropriate stimulus is applied, when +it enters into active operation once more. The cyclical operations are +thus long or short according to the duration of their constituent +secondary energy processes. But the balance of Nature is ever preserved. +Axial energy, transformed by the working of one cyclical process, is +being as continuously returned by the simultaneous operation of others. + + + + +PART III + + + + +TERRESTRIAL CONDITIONS + + +33. _Gaseous Expansion_ + +Before proceeding to the general description of the atmospheric machine +(Sec. 10), it is desirable to consider one or two features of gaseous +reaction which have a somewhat important bearing on its working. Let it +be assumed that a mass of gaseous material is confined within the lower +portion of a narrow tube ABCD (Fig. 8) assumed to be thermally +non-conducting; the upper portion of the tube is in free communication +with the atmosphere. The gas within the tube is assumed to be isolated +from the atmosphere by a movable piston EF, free to move vertically in +the tube, and for the purpose of illustration, assumed also frictionless +and weightless. With these assumptions, the pressure on the confined gas +will simply be that due to the atmosphere. If heat energy be now +applied to the gas, its temperature will rise and expansion will ensue. +This expansion will be carried out at constant atmospheric pressure; the +gaseous material, as it expands, must lift with it the whole of the +superimposed atmospheric column against the downward attractive force of +the earth's gravitation on that column. Work is thus done by the +expanding gas, and in consequence of this work done, a definite quantity +of atmospheric material gains energy of position or potential energy +relative to the earth's surface. At the same time, the rise of +temperature of the gas will indicate an accession of heat energy to its +mass. These familiar phenomena of expansion under constant pressure +serve to illustrate the important fact that, when heat energy is applied +to a gaseous mass, it really manifests itself therein in two aspects, +namely, heat energy and work energy. The increment of heat energy is +indicated by the increase in temperature, the increment of work energy +by the increase in pressure. In the example just quoted, however, there +is no increase in pressure, because the work energy, as rapidly as it is +applied to the gas, is transformed or worked down in displacing the +atmospheric column resting on the upper side of the moving piston. The +energy applied, in the form of heat from the outside source, has in +reality been introduced into a definite energy machine, a machine in +this case adapted for the complete transformation of work energy into +energy of position. As already indicated, when the expansive movement is +completed, the volume and temperature of the gaseous mass are both +increased but the pressure remains unaltered. While the increase in +temperature is the measure and index of a definite increase in the heat +energy of the gas, it is important to note that, so far as its work +energy is concerned, the gas is finally in precisely the same condition +as at the commencement of the operation. Work energy has been, by the +working of this energy machine, as it were passed through the gaseous +mass into the surrounding atmosphere. The pressure of the gas is the +true index of its work energy properties. So long as the pressure +remains unaltered, the inherent work energy of the material remains +absolutely unaffected. A brief consideration of the nature of work +energy as already portrayed (Sec. 31) will make this clear. Work energy has +been defined as "_that form of energy transmitted by matter in motion_," +and it is clear that pressure is the essential factor in any +transmission of this nature. Temperature has no direct bearing on it +whatever. It is common knowledge, however, that in the application of +heat energy to a gaseous substance, the two aspects of pressure and +temperature cannot be really dissociated. They are mutually dependent. +Any increment of heat energy to the gas is accompanied by an increment +of work energy, and vice versa. The precise mode of action of the work +energy will, of course, depend on the general circumstances of the +energy machine in which it operates. In the case just considered the +work energy does not finally reside in the gaseous mass itself, but, by +the working of the machine, is communicated to the atmosphere. If, on +the other hand, heat energy were applied in the same fashion to a mass +of gas in a completely enclosed vessel, that is to say at constant +volume instead of at constant pressure, the general phenomena are merely +altered in degree according to the change in the precise nature of the +energy machine. In the former case, the nature of the energy machine was +such that the work energy communicated was expended in its entirety +against gravitation. Under what is usually termed constant volume +conditions, only a portion of the total work energy communicated is +transformed, and the transformation of this portion is carried out, not +against gravitation, but against the cohesive forces of the material of +the enclosing vessel which restrains the expansion. No matter how great +may be the elastic properties of this material, it will be distorted, +more or less, by the application of work energy. This distortional +movement is the external evidence of the energy process of +transformation. Energy is stored in the material against the forces of +cohesion (Sec. 15). But the energy thus stored is only a small proportion +of the total work energy which accrues to the gas in the heating +process. The remainder is stored in the gas itself, and the evidence of +such storage is found simply in the increase of pressure. Different +energy machines thus offer different facilities for the transformation +or the storage of the applied energy. In every case where the work +energy applied has no opportunity of expending itself, its presence will +be indicated by an increase in the pressure or work function of the gas. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8] + +The principles which underlie the above phenomena can readily be applied +to other cases of gaseous expansion. It is a matter of common experience +that if a given mass of gaseous material be introduced into a vessel +which has been exhausted by an air-pump or other device for the +production of a vacuum, the whole space within the vessel is instantly +permeated by the gas, which will expand until its volume is precisely +that of the containing vessel. Further phenomena of the operation are +that the expanding gas suffers a decrease in temperature and pressure +corresponding to the degree or ratio of the expansion. Before the +expansive process took place the gaseous mass, as indicated by its +initial temperature and pressure, is endowed with a definite quantity of +energy in the form of heat and work energy. After expansion, these +quantities are diminished, as indicated by its final and lower +temperature and pressure. The operation of expansion has thus involved +an expenditure of energy. This expenditure takes place in virtue of the +movement of the gaseous material (Sec. 4). It is obvious that if the volume +of the whole is to be increased, each portion of the expanding gas +requires to move relatively to the remainder. This movement is carried +out in the lines of the earth's gravitative attraction, and to a certain +extent over the surface of the containing vessel. In some respects, it +thus corresponds simply to the movement of a body over the earth's +surface (Sec. 16). It is also carried out against the viscous or frictional +forces existing throughout the gaseous material itself (Sec. 29). Assuming +no influx of energy from without, the energy expended in the movement of +the gaseous material must be obtained at the expense of the inherent +heat and work energy of the gas, and these two functions will decrease +simultaneously. The heat and work energy of the gas or its inherent +energy is thus taken to provide the energy necessary for the expansive +movement. This energy, however, does not leave the gas, but still +resides therein in a form akin to that of energy of position or +separation. It will be clear also, that the reverse operation cannot, in +this case, be carried out; the gas cannot move back to its original +volume in the same fashion as it expanded into the vacuum, so that the +energy utilised in this way for separation cannot be directly returned. + +The expansion of the gas has been assumed above to take place into a +vacuous space, but a little consideration will show that this condition +cannot be properly or even approximately fulfilled under ordinary +experimental conditions. The smallest quantity of gas introduced into +the exhausted vessel will at once completely fill the vacuous space, +and, on this account, the whole expansion of the gas does not in reality +take place _in vacuo_ at all. To study the action of the gas under the +latter conditions, it is necessary to look on the operation of expansion +in a more general way, which might be presented as follows. + + +34. _Gravitational Equilibrium of Gases_ + +Consider a planetary body, in general nature similar to the earth, but, +unlike the earth, possessing no atmosphere whatever. The space +surrounding such a celestial mass may then be considered as a perfect +vacuum. Now let it be further assumed that in virtue of some change in +the conditions, a portion of the material of the planetary mass is +volatilised and a mass of gas thereby liberated over its surface. The +gas is assumed to correspond in temperature to that portion of the +planet's surface with which it is in contact. It is clear that, in the +circumstances, the gas, in virtue of its elastic and energetic +properties, will expand in all directions. It will completely envelop +the planet, and it will also move radially outwards into space. In these +respects, its expansion will correspond to that of a gas introduced +into a vacuous space of unlimited extent. + +The question now arises as to the nature of the action of the gaseous +substance in these circumstances. It is clear that the radial or outward +movement of the gas from the planetary surface is made directly against +the gravitative attraction of the planet on the gaseous mass. In other +words, matter or material is being moved in the lines or field of this +gravitative force. This movement, accordingly, will be productive of an +energy transformation (Sec. 4). In its initial or surface condition each +portion of the gaseous mass is possessed of a perfectly definite amount +of energy indicated by and dependent on that condition. As it moves +upwards from the surface, it does work against gravity in the raising of +its own mass. But as the mass is thus raised, it is gaining energy of +position (Sec. 20), and as it has absolutely no communication with any +external source of energy in its ascent, the energy of position thus +gained can only be obtained at the expense of its initial inherent heat +and work energy. The operation is, in fact, a simple transformation of +this inherent energy into energy of position, a transformation in which +gravity is the incepting agency. The external evidence of transformation +will be a fall in temperature of the material. Since the action is +exactly similar for all ascending particles, it is evident that as the +altitude of the gaseous mass increases the temperature will +correspondingly diminish. This diminution will proceed so long as the +gaseous particles continue to ascend, and until an elevation is finally +attained at which their inherent energy is entirely converted into +energy of position. The expansion of the gas, and the associated +transformation of energy, thus leads to the erection of a gaseous column +in space, the temperature of which steadily diminishes from the base to +the summit. At the latter elevation, the inherent energy of the gaseous +particles which attain to it is completely transformed or worked out +against gravity in the ascent; the energy possessed by the gas at this +elevation is, therefore, entirely energy of position; the energy +properties of heat and work have entirely vanished, and the temperature +will, therefore, at this elevation, be absolute zero. It is important to +note also that in the building of such a column or gaseous spherical +envelope round the planet, the total energy of any gaseous particle of +that column will remain unchanged throughout the process. No matter +where the particle may be situated in the column, its total energy must +always be expressed by its heat and work energy properties together with +its energy of position. This sum is always a constant quantity. For if +the particle descends from a higher to a lower altitude, its total +energy is still unchanged, because a definite transformation of its +energy of position takes place corresponding to its fall, and this +transformed energy duly appears in its original form of heat and work +energy in accordance with the decreased altitude of the particle. Since +the temperature of the column remains unchanged at the base surface and +only decreases in the ascent, it is clear that the entire heat and work +energy of the originally liberated gaseous mass is not expended in the +movement against gravity. Every gaseous particle--excepting those on the +absolute outer surface of the gaseous envelope--has still the property +of temperature. It is evident, therefore, that in the constitution of +the column, only a portion of the total original heat and work energy of +the gaseous substance is transformed into energy of position. + +The space into which the gas expands has been referred to as unlimited +in extent. But although in one sense it may be correctly described thus, +yet in another, and perhaps in a truer sense, the space is very strictly +limited. It is true there is no enclosing vessel or bounding surface, +but nevertheless the expansion of the gas is restrained in two ways or +limited by two factors. The position of the bounding surface of the +spherical gaseous envelope depends, in the first place, on the original +energy of the gas as deduced from its initial temperature and its other +physical properties, and secondly on the value of the gravitative +attraction exerted on the gas by the planetary body. Looking at the +first factor, it is obvious that since the gaseous mass initially +possesses only a limited amount of energy, and since only a certain +portion of this energy is really available for the transformation, the +whole process is thereby limited in extent. The complete transformation +and disappearance of that available portion of the gaseous energy in the +process of erection of the atmospheric column will correspond to a +definite and limited increase of energy of position of gaseous material. +Since the energy of position is thus restricted in its totality, and the +mass of material for elevation is constant, the height of the column or +the boundary of expansion of the gas is likewise rigidly defined. In +this fashion, the energy properties of the gaseous material limit the +expansive process. + +Looking at the operation from another standpoint, it is clear that the +maximum height of the spherical gaseous envelope must also be dependent +on the resistance against which the upward movement of the gas is +carried out, that is, on the value of the gravitative attraction. The +expenditure of energy in the ascent varies directly as the opposing +force; if this force be increased the ultimate height must decrease, and +vice versa. Each particle might be regarded as moving in the ascent +against the action of an invisible spring, stretching it so that with +increase of altitude more and more of the energy of the particle is +transformed or stored in the spring in the extension. When the particle +descends to its original position, the operation is reversed; the +spring is now contracting, and yielding up the stored energy to the +particle in the contraction. The action of the spring would here be +merely that of an apparatus for the storage and return of energy. In the +case of the gaseous mass, we conceive the action of gravitation to be +exactly analogous to that of a spring offering an approximately constant +resistance to extension. (The value of gravity is assumed approximately +constant, and independent of the particle's displacement.) The energy +stored or transformed in the ascension against gravity is returned on +the descent in a precisely similar fashion. The operation is a +completely reversible one. The range of motion of the gaseous mass or +the ultimate height of the gaseous column will thus depend on the value +of the opposing attractive force controlling the motion or, in other +words, on the value of gravity. This value is of course defined by the +relative mass of the planet (Sec. 20). + +It is evident that the spherical envelope which would thus enwrap the +planetary mass possesses certain peculiar properties which are not +associated with gaseous masses under ordinary experimental conditions. +It by no means corresponds to any ordinary body of gaseous material, +having a homogeneous constitution and a precise and determinate pressure +and temperature throughout. On the contrary, its properties are somewhat +complex. Throughout the gaseous envelope the physical condition of the +substance is continually changing with change of altitude. The extremes +are found at the inner and outer bounding surfaces. At any given level, +the gaseous pressure is simply the result of the attractive action of +gravitation on the mass of gaseous material above that level--or, more +simply, to the weight of material above that level. There is, of course, +a certain decrease in the value of the gravitative attraction with +increase of altitude, but within the limits of atmospheric height +obtained by ordinary gaseous substances (Sec. 36) this decrease may be +neglected, and the weight of unit mass of the material assumed constant +at different levels. Increase of atmospheric altitude is thus +accompanied by decrease in atmospheric pressure. But decrease in +pressure must be accompanied by a corresponding decrease in density of +the gas, so that, if uniform temperature were for the time being +assumed, it would be necessary at the higher levels to rise through a +greater distance to experience the same decrease in pressure than at the +lower levels. In fact, given uniform conditions of temperature, if +different altitudes were taken in arithmetical progression the +respective pressures and densities would diminish in geometrical +progression. But we have seen that the energy conditions absolutely +preclude the condition of uniformity of temperature, and accordingly, +the decreasing pressure and density must be counteracted to some extent +at least by the decreasing temperature. The conditions are somewhat +complex; but the general effect of the decreasing temperature factor +would seem to be by increasing the density to cause the available +gaseous energy to be completely worked down at a somewhat lower level +than otherwise, and thus to lessen to some degree the height of the +gaseous envelope. + +It is to be noted that a gaseous column or atmosphere of this nature +would be in a state of complete equilibrium under the action of the +gravitative attraction--provided there were no external disturbing +influences. The peculiar feature of such a column is that the total +energy of unit mass of its material, wherever that mass may be situated, +is a constant quantity. In virtue of this property, the equilibrium of +the column might be termed neutral or statical equilibrium. The gas may +then be described as in the neutral or statical condition. This statical +condition of equilibrium of a gas is of course a purely hypothetical +one. It has been described in order to introduce certain ideas which are +essential to the discussion of energy changes and reactions of gases in +the lines of gravitational forces. These reactions will now be dealt +with. + + +35. _Total Energy of Gaseous Substances_ + +Since the maximum height of a planetary atmosphere is dependent on the +total energy of the gaseous substance or substances of which it is +composed, it becomes necessary, in determining this height, to estimate +this total energy. This, however, is a matter of some difficulty. By the +total energy is here meant the entire energy possessed by the substance, +that energy which it would yield up in cooling from its given condition +down to absolute zero of temperature. On examination of the recorded +properties of the various gaseous substances familiar to us, it will be +found that in no single instance are the particulars available for +anything more than an exceedingly rough estimate of this total energy. +Each substance, in proceeding from the gaseous condition towards +absolute zero, passes through many physical phases. In most cases, there +is a lack of experimental phenomena or data of any kind relating to +certain of these phases; the necessary information on certain points, +such as the values and variations of latent and specific heats and other +physical quantities, is, in the meantime, not accessible. Experimental +research in regions of low temperature may be said to be in its infancy, +and the properties of matter in these regions are accordingly more or +less unknown. The researches of Mendeleef and others tend to show, also, +that the comparatively simple laws successfully applied to gases under +normal conditions are entirely departed from at very low temperatures. +In view of these facts, it is necessary, in attempting to estimate, by +ordinary methods, the total energy of any substance, to bear in mind +that the quantity finally obtained may only be a rough approximation to +the true value. These approximations, however, although of little value +as precise measurements, may be of very great importance for certain +general comparative purposes. + +Keeping in view these general considerations, it is now proposed to +estimate, under ordinary terrestrial atmospheric conditions, the total +energy properties of the three gaseous substances, oxygen, nitrogen, and +aqueous vapour. The information relative to the energy calculation which +is in the meantime available is shown below in tabular form. As far as +possible all the heat and other energy properties of each substance as +it cools to absolute zero have been taken into account. + +_Table of Properties_ + + +--------+---------+----------+----------+-------------+-------+---------+ + | I | II | III | IV | V | VI | VII | + +--------+---------+----------+----------+-------------+-------+---------+ + | |Specific | Evaporation | | | | + | | Heat at |Temperature of Liquid| Approximate | Latent| Vapour | + | Gas | Constant| at Atmospheric | Latent Heat |Heat of|Pressure.| + | |Pressure.| Pressure. |of Gas 50 deg. F.|Liquid.| 50 deg. F. | + | | | deg.F. deg.F. (Abs.)| | | | + +--------+---------+----------+----------+-------------+-------+---------+ + |Oxygen | 0.2175 | -296 | 164 | 100 | ... | ... | + +--------+---------+----------+----------+-------------+-------+---------+ + |Nitrogen| 0.2438 | -320 | 141 | 100 | ... | ... | + +--------+---------+----------+----------+-------------+-------+---------+ + |Aqueous | | | | | | | + |Vapour | 0.4 | 212 | 673 | 1080 | 144 | 0.176 | + +--------+---------+----------+----------+-------------+-------+---------+ + +Since no reliable data can be obtained with regard to the values and +variations of specific heats at extremely low temperatures, they are +assumed for the purpose of our calculation to be in each case that of +the gas, and to be constant under all conditions. Latent heats are +utilised in every case when available. + +With these reservations, the total energy, referred to absolute zero, of +one pound of oxygen gas at normal temperature of 50 deg. F. or 511 deg. F. +(Abs.) will be approximately + + (511 x 0.2175) + 100 = 211 Thermal Units Fahrenheit. + +This in work units is roughly equivalent to + + 211 x 778 = 164,000 ft. lbs. + +Adopting the same method with nitrogen gas, its energy at the same +initial temperature will be, per unit mass, + + 174,600 ft. lbs. + +There is thus a somewhat close resemblance, not only in the general +temperature conditions but also in the energy conditions, of the two +gases oxygen and nitrogen. + +It will be readily seen, however, that under the same conditions the +energy state of aqueous vapour differs very considerably from either, +for by the same method as before the energy per pound of aqueous vapour +is equal to + + {(511 x 0.4) + 1080 + 144} x 778 = 1,111,000 ft. lbs. + +Under ordinary terrestrial atmospheric conditions, the energy of aqueous +vapour per unit mass is thus nearly seven times as great as that of +either oxygen or nitrogen gas. It is to be observed, also, that +three-fourths of this energy of the vapour under the given conditions is +present in the form of latent energy of the gas, or what we have already +termed work energy. + +The values of the various temperatures and other physical features, +which we have included in the Table of Properties above, and which will +be utilised throughout this discussion, are merely those in everyday use +in scientific work. They form simply the accessible information on the +respective materials. They are the records of phenomena, and on these +phenomena are based our energy calculations. Further research may reveal +the true values of other factors which up to the present we have been +forced to assume, and so lead to more accurate computation of the energy +in each case. Such investigation, however, is unlikely to affect in any +way the general object of this part of the work, which is simply to +portray in an approximate manner the relative energy properties of the +three gaseous substances under certain assumed conditions. + + +36. _Comparative Altitudes of Planetary Atmospheres_ + +The total energy of equal masses of the gases oxygen, nitrogen, and +aqueous vapour, as estimated by the method above, are respectively in +the ratios + + 1 : 1.06 : 6.8 + +Referring back once more to the phenomena described with reference to +the gravitational equilibrium of a gas, let it be assumed that the +gaseous substance liberated on the surface of the planetary body is +oxygen, and that the planetary body itself is of approximately the same +constitution and dimensions as the earth. The oxygen gas thus liberated +will expand against gravity, and envelop the planet in the manner +already described (Sec. 34). Now the total energy of a mass of one pound of +oxygen has been estimated under certain assumptions (Sec. 35) to be 164,000 +ft. lbs. The value of the gravitative attraction of the planet on this +mass is the same as under ordinary terrestrial conditions, so that if +the entire energy of one pound of the gas were utilised in raising +itself against gravity, the height through which this mass would be +raised, and at which the material would attain the level of absolute +zero of temperature, assuming gravity constant with increasing altitude, +would be simply 164,000 ft. or approximately 31 miles. The whole energy +would not, of course, be expended in the expansive movement; only the +outermost surface material of the planetary gaseous envelope attains to +absolute zero of temperature. In estimating the altitude of this +surface, however, the precise mass of gaseous substance assumed for the +purpose of calculation is of little or no importance. Whatever may be +the value of the mass assumed, its total energy and the gravitative +attraction of the planetary body on it are both alike entirely and +directly dependent on that mass value. It is therefore clear that no +matter how the mass under consideration be diminished, the height at +which its energy would be completely worked down, and at which its +temperature would be absolute zero, is the same, namely 31 miles. At the +planet's surface, the total energy of an infinitesimally small portion +of the gaseous mass is proportional to that mass. This amount of energy +is, however, all that is available for transformation against +gravitation in the ascent. But at the same time, the gravitative force +on the particle, that force which resists its upward movement, is +proportionately small corresponding to the small mass, so that the +particle will in reality require to rise to the same altitude of 31 +miles in order to completely transform its energy and attain absolute +zero of temperature. When the expansive process is completed, the outer +surface of the spherical gaseous envelope surrounding the planet is then +formed of matter in this condition of absolute zero; this height of 31 +miles is then the altitude or depth of the statical atmospheric column +at a point on the planetary surface where the temperature is 50 deg. F. + +It is to be particularly noted that this height is entirely dependent +on the gravitation, temperature, and energy conditions assumed. + +With respect, also, to the assumption made above, of constant +gravitation with increasing altitude, the variation in the value of +gravity within the height limits in which the gas operates is so slight, +that the energy of the expanding substance is completely worked down +long before the variation appreciably affects the estimated altitude of +absolute zero. In any case, bearing in mind the approximate nature of +the estimate of the energy of the gases themselves, the variation of +gravity is evidently a factor of little moment in our scheme of +comparison. + +Knowing the maximum height to be 31 miles, a uniform temperature +gradient from the planetary surface to the outermost surface of the +atmospheric material may be readily calculated. In the case of oxygen, +the decrease of temperature with altitude will be at the rate of 16 deg. F. +per mile, or 1 deg. F. per 330 ft. + +If the planetary atmosphere were composed of nitrogen instead of oxygen, +the height of the statical atmospheric column under the given conditions +would then be approximately + + 31 x 1.06 = 33 miles, + +and the gradient of temperature 15.5 deg. F. per mile. + +In the case of aqueous vapour, which is possessed of much more powerful +energy properties than either oxygen or nitrogen, the height of the +statical column, to correspond to the energy of the material, is no less +than 210 miles and the temperature gradient only 2.4 deg. F. per mile. + +Each of the gases, then, if separately associated with the planetary +body, would form an atmosphere around it depending in height on the +peculiar energy properties of the gas. A point to be observed is that +the actual or total mass of any gas thus liberated at the planet's +surface has no bearing on the ultimate height of the atmosphere which it +would constitute. When the expansive motion is completed, the density +properties of the atmosphere would of course depend on the initial mass +of gas liberated, but for any given value of gravity it is the energy +properties of the gas per unit mass, or what might be termed its +specific energy properties, which really determine the height of its +atmosphere. + + +37. _Reactions of Composite Atmosphere_ + +It is now possible to deal with the case in which not only one gas but +several gases are initially liberated on the planetary surface. Since +the gases are different, then at the given surface temperature of the +planet they possess different amounts of heat energy, and for each gas +considered statically, the temperature-altitude gradient will be +different from any of the others. The limiting height of the gaseous +column for each gas, considered separately, will also depend on the +total energy of that gas per unit mass, at the surface temperature. But +it is evident that in a composite atmosphere, the separate statical +conditions of several gases could not be maintained. In such a mixture, +separate temperature-altitude gradients would be impossible. Absolute +zero of temperature could clearly not be attained at more than one +altitude, and it is evident that the temperature-altitude gradient of +the mixture must, in some way, settle down to a definite value, and +absolute zero of temperature must occur at some determinate height. This +can only be brought about by energy exchanges and reactions between the +atmospheric constituents. When these reactions have taken place, the +atmosphere as a whole will have attained a condition analogous to that +of statical equilibrium (Sec. 34). Each of its constituents, however, will +have decidedly departed from this latter condition. In the course of the +mutual energy reactions, some will lose a portion of their energy. +Others will gain at their expense. All are in equilibrium as +constituents of the composite atmosphere, but none approach the +condition of statical equilibrium peculiar to an atmosphere composed of +one gas only (Sec. 35). The precise energy operations which would thus take +place in any composite atmosphere would of course depend in nature and +extent on the physical properties of the reacting constituents. If the +latter were closely alike in general properties, the energy changes are +likely to be small. A strong divergence in energy properties will give +rise to more powerful reactions. A concrete instance will perhaps make +this more clear. Let it be assumed in the first place that the planetary +atmosphere is composed of the two gases oxygen and nitrogen. From +previous considerations, it will be clear that the natural decrease of +temperature of nitrogen gas with increase of altitude is, in virtue of +its slightly superior energy qualities, correspondingly slower than that +of oxygen. The approximate rates are 15.5 deg. F. and 16 deg. F. per mile +respectively. The tendency of the nitrogen is therefore to transmit a +portion of its energy to the oxygen. Such a transmission, however, would +increase the height of the oxygen column and correspondingly decrease +the height of the nitrogen. When the balance is finally obtained, the +height of the atmospheric column does not correspond to the energy +properties of either gas, but to those of the combination. In the case +of these two materials, oxygen and nitrogen, the energy reactions +necessary to produce the condition of equilibrium are comparatively +small in magnitude on account of the somewhat close resemblance in the +energy properties of the two substances. On this account, therefore, the +two gases might readily be assumed to behave as one gas composing the +planetary atmosphere. + +But what, then, will be the effect of introducing a quantity of aqueous +vapour into an atmosphere this nature? The general phenomena will be of +the same order as before, but of much greater magnitude. From the +approximate figures obtained (Secs. 35, 36), the inherent energy of aqueous +vapour per unit mass is seen to be, under the same conditions, +enormously greater than that of the other two gases. In statical +equilibrium (Sec. 34), the altitude of the gaseous column formed by aqueous +vapour is almost seven times as great as that of the oxygen or nitrogen +with which, in the composite atmosphere, it would be intermixed. In the +given circumstances, then, aqueous vapour would be forced by these +conditions to give up a very large portion of its energy to the other +atmospheric constituents. The latter would thus be still further +expanded against gravity; the aqueous vapour itself would suffer a loss +of energy equivalent to the work transmitted from it. It is therefore +clear that in a composite atmosphere formed in the manner described, any +gas possessed of energy properties superior to the other constituents is +forced of necessity to transmit energy to these constituents. This +phenomenon is merely a consequence of the natural disposition of the +atmospheric gaseous substances towards a condition of equilibrium with +more or less uniform temperature gradation. The greater the inherent +energy qualities of any one constituent relative to the others, the +greater will be the quantity of energy transmitted from it in this way. + + +38. _Description of Terrestrial Case_ + +Bearing in mind the general considerations which have been advanced +above with respect to planetary atmospheres, it is now possible to place +before the reader a general descriptive outline of the circumstances and +operation of an atmospheric machine in actual working. The machine to be +described is that associated with the earth. + +In the earth is found an example of a planetary body of spheroidal form +pursuing a clearly defined orbit in space and at the same time rotating +with absolutely uniform velocity about a central axis within itself. The +structural details of its surface and the general distribution of +material thereon will be more or less familiar to the reader, and it is +not, therefore, proposed to dwell on these features here. Attention may +be drawn, however, to the fact that a very large proportion of the +surface of the earth is a liquid surface. Of all the material familiar +to us from terrestrial experience there is none which enters into the +composition of the earth's crust in so large a proportion as water. In +the free state, or in combination with other material, water is found +everywhere. In the liquid condition it is widely distributed. Although +the liquid or sea surface of the planet extends over a large part of +the whole, the real water surface, that is, the _wetted_ surface, if we +except perhaps a few desert regions, may be said to comprise practically +the entire surface area of the planet. And water is found not only on +the earth's crust but throughout the gaseous atmospheric envelope. The +researches of modern chemistry have revealed the fact that the +atmosphere by which the earth is surrounded is not only a mixture of +gases, but an exceedingly complex mixture. The relative proportions of +the rarer gases present are, however, exceedingly small, and their +properties correspondingly obscure. Taken broadly, the atmosphere may be +said to be composed of air and water (in the form of aqueous vapour) in +varying proportion. The former constituent exists as a mixture of oxygen +and nitrogen gases of fairly constant proportion over the entire surface +of the globe. The latter is present in varying amount at different +points according to local conditions. This mixture of gaseous +substances, forming the terrestrial atmosphere, resides on the surface +of the planet and forms, as already described (Sec. 34), a column or +envelope completely surrounding it; the quantity of gaseous material +thus heaped up on the planetary surface is such that it exerts almost +uniformly over that surface the ordinary atmospheric pressure of +approximately 14.7 lb. per sq. inch. It is advisable, also, at this +stage to point out and emphasise the fact that the planetary atmosphere +must be regarded as essentially a material portion of the planet itself. +Although the atmosphere forms a movable shell or envelope, and is +composed of purely gaseous material, it will still partake of the same +complete orbital and rotatory axial motion as the solid core, and will +also be subjected to the same external and internal influences of +gravitation. Such are the general planetary conditions. Let us now turn +to the particular phenomena of axial revolution. + +In virtue of the unvarying rotatory movement of the planetary mass in +the lines of the various incepting fields of its primary the sun, +transformations of the axial or mechanical energy of the planet will be +in continuous operation (Secs. 17-19). Although the gaseous atmospheric +envelope of the planet partakes of this general rotatory motion under +the influence of the incepting fields, the latter have apparently no +action upon it. The sun's influence penetrates, as it were, the +atmospheric veil, and operating on the solid and liquid material below, +provokes the numerous and varied transformations of planetary energy +which constitute planetary phenomena. At the equatorial band, where the +velocity or axial energy properties of the surface material is greatest, +these effects of transformation will naturally be most pronounced. In +the polar regions of low velocity they will be less evident. One of the +most important of these transforming effects may be termed the heating +action of the primary on the planet--a process which takes place in +greater or less degree over the entire planetary surface, and which is +the result of the direct transformation of axial energy into the form of +heat (Sec. 18). In virtue of this heat transformation, or heating effect of +the sun, the temperature of material on the earth's surface is +maintained in varying values from regions of high velocity to those of +low--from equator to poles--according to latitude or according to the +displacement of that material, in rotation, from the central axis. Owing +to the irregular distribution of matter on the earth's surface, and +other causes to be referred to later, this variation in temperature is +not necessarily uniform with the latitude. This heating effect of the +sun on the earth will provoke on the terrestrial surface all the +familiar secondary processes (Sec. 9) associated with the heating of +material. Most of these processes, in combination with the operations of +radiation and conduction, will lead either directly or indirectly to the +communication of energy to the atmospheric masses (Sec. 27). + +Closely associated with the heat transformation, there is also in +operation another energy process of great importance. This process is +one of evaporative transformation. Reference has already been made to +the vast extent of the liquid or wetted surface of the earth. This +surface forms the seat of evaporation, and the action of the sun's +incepting influence on the liquid of this surface is to induce a direct +transformation of the earth's axial or mechanical energy into the +elastic energy of a gas, or in other words into the form of work energy. +By this process, therefore, water is converted into aqueous vapour. +Immediately the substance attains the latter or gaseous state it becomes +unaffected by, or transparent to, the incepting influence of the sun (Sec. +18). And the action of evaporation is not restricted in locality to the +earth's surface only. It may proceed throughout the atmosphere. Wherever +condensation of aqueous vapour takes place and water particles are +thereby suspended in the atmosphere, these particles are immediately +susceptible to the sun's incepting field, and if the conditions are +otherwise favourable, re-evaporation will at once ensue. Like the +ordinary heating action also, that of transformation will take place +with greater intensity in equatorial than in polar regions. These two +planetary secondary processes, of heating and evaporation, are of vital +importance to the working of the atmospheric machine. But, as already +pointed out elsewhere (Secs. 10, 32), every secondary operation is in some +fashion linked to that machine. Other incepting influences, such as +light, are in action on the planet, and produce transformations peculiar +to themselves. These, in the meantime, will not be considered except to +point out that in every case the energy active in them is the axial +energy of the earth itself operating under the direct incepting +influence of the sun. The general conditions of planetary revolution and +transformation are thus intimately associated with the operation of the +atmospheric machine. In this machine is embodied a huge energy process, +in the working of which the axial energy of the earth passes through a +series of energy changes which, in combination, form a complete cyclical +operation. In their perhaps most natural sequence these processes are as +follows:-- + +1. The direct transformation of terrestrial axial energy into the work +energy of aqueous vapour. + +2. The direct transmission of the work energy of aqueous vapour to the +general atmospheric masses, and the consequent elevation of these masses +from the earth's surface against gravity. + +3. The descent of the atmospheric air masses in their movement towards +regions of low velocity, and the return in the descent of the initially +transformed axial energy to its original form. + +The first of these processes is carried out through the medium of the +aqueous material of the earth. It is simply the evaporative +transformation referred to above. By that evaporative process a portion +of the energy of motion or axial energy of the earth is directly +communicated or passed into the aqueous material. Its form, in that +material, is that of work energy, or the elastic energy of aqueous +vapour, and, as already pointed out, this process of evaporative +transformation reaches its greatest intensity in equatorial or regions +of highest velocity. In these regions also, in virtue of the working of +the heat process already referred to above, the temperature conditions +are eminently favourable to the presence of large quantities of aqueous +vapour. The tension or pressure of the vapour, which really depends on +the quantity of gaseous material present, is directly proportional to +the temperature, so that in equatorial regions not only is the general +action of transformation in the aqueous material most intense, but the +surrounding temperature conditions in these regions are such as to +favour the continuous presence of large quantities of the aqueous vapour +which is the direct product of the action of transformation. The +equatorial regions of the earth, or the regions of high velocity, are +thus eminently adapted, by the natural conditions, to be the seat of the +most powerful transformations of axial energy. As already pointed out, +however, these same transformations take place over the entire +terrestrial surface in varying degree and intensity according to the +locality and the temperature or other conditions which may prevail. Now +this transformation of axial energy which takes place through the medium +of the evaporative process is a continuous operation. The energy +involved, which passes into the aqueous vapour, augmented by the energy +of other secondary processes (Sec. 32), is the energy which is applied to +the atmospheric air masses in the second stage of the working of the +atmospheric machine. Before proceeding to the description of this stage, +however, it is absolutely necessary to point out certain very important +facts with reference to the energy condition of the atmospheric +constituents in the peculiar circumstances of their normal working. + + +39. _Relative Physical Conditions of Atmospheric Constituents_ + +It will be evident that no matter where the evaporation of the aqueous +material takes place, it must be carried out at the temperature +corresponding to that location, and since the aqueous vapour itself is +not superheated in any way (being transparent to the sun's influence), +the axial energy transformed and the work energy stored in the material +per unit mass, will be simply equivalent to the latent heat of aqueous +vapour under the temperature conditions which prevail. In virtue of the +relatively high value of this latent heat under ordinary conditions, the +gas may be regarded as comparatively a very highly energised substance. +It is clear, however, that since the gas is working at its precise +temperature of evaporation, the maximum amount of energy which it can +possibly yield up at that temperature is simply this latent heat of +evaporation, and if this energy be by any means withdrawn, either in +whole or in part, then condensation corresponding to the energy +withdrawal will at once ensue. The condition of the aqueous vapour is in +fact that of a true vapour, or of a gaseous substance operating exactly +at its evaporation temperature, and unable to sustain even the slightest +abstraction of energy without an equivalent condensation. No matter in +what manner the abstraction is carried out, whether by the direct +transmission of heat from the substance or by the expansion of the gas +against gravity, the result is the same; part of the gaseous material +returns to the liquid form. + +In the case of the more stable or permanent constituents of the +atmosphere, namely oxygen and nitrogen, their physical conditions are +entirely different from that of the aqueous vapour. Examination of the +Table of Properties (p. 133) shows that the evaporation temperatures of +these two substances under ordinary conditions of atmospheric pressure +are as low as -296 deg. F. and -320 deg. F. respectively. At an ordinary +atmospheric temperature of say 50 deg. F. these two gases are therefore so +far above their evaporation temperature that they are in the condition +of what might be termed true gaseous substances. Although only at a +temperature of 50 deg. F., they may be truly described as highly superheated +gases, and it is evident that they may be readily cooled from 50 deg. F. +through wide ranges of temperature, without any danger of their +condensation or liquefaction. Oxygen and nitrogen gases thus present in +their physical condition and qualities a strong contrast to aqueous +vapour, and it is this difference in properties, particularly the +difference in evaporation temperatures, which is of vital importance in +the working of the atmospheric machine. The two gases oxygen and +nitrogen are, however, so closely alike in their general energy +properties that, in the meantime, the atmospheric mixture of the two can +be conveniently assumed to act simply as one gas--atmospheric air. + +From these considerations of the ordinary atmospheric physical +properties of air and aqueous vapour it may be readily seen how each is +eminently adapted to its function in the atmospheric process. The +peculiar duty of the aqueous vapour is the absorption and transmission +of energy. Its relatively enormous capacity for energy, the high value +of its latent heat at all ordinary atmospheric temperatures, and the +fact that it must always operate precisely at its evaporation +temperature makes it admirably suited for both functions. Thus, in +virtue of its peculiar physical properties, it forms an admirable agent +for the storage of energy and for its transmission to the surrounding +air masses. The low temperature of evaporation of these air masses +ensures their permanency in the gaseous state. They are thus perfectly +adapted for expansive and other movements, for the conversion of their +energy against gravity into energy of position, or for any other +reactions involving temperature change without condensation. + + +40. _Transmission of Energy from Aqueous Vapour to Air Masses_ + +The working of the second or transmission stage of the atmospheric +machine involves certain energy operations in which gravitation is the +incepting factor or agency. Let it be assumed that a mass of aqueous +vapour liberated at its surface of evaporation by the transformation of +axial energy, expands upwards against the gravitative attraction of the +earth (Secs. 34, 38). As the gaseous particles ascend and thus gain energy +of position, they do work against gravity. This work is done at the +expense of their latent energy. Since the aqueous material is always +working precisely at its evaporation temperature, this gain in energy of +position and consequent loss of latent energy will be accompanied by an +equivalent condensation and conversion of the rising vapour into the +liquid form. This condensation will thus be the direct evidence and +measure of work done by the aqueous material against the gravitational +forces, and the energy expended or worked down in this way may now, +accordingly, be regarded as stored in the condensed material or liquid +particles in virtue of their new and exalted position above the earth's +surface. It is this energy which is finally transmitted to the +atmospheric air masses. The transmission process is carried out in the +downward movement of the liquid particles. The latter, in their exalted +positions, are at a low temperature corresponding to that position--that +is, corresponding to the work done--and provided no energy were +transmitted from them to the surrounding air masses, their temperature +would gradually rise during the descent by the transformation of this +energy of position. In fact the phenomena of descent, supposing no +transmission of energy from the aqueous material, would simply be the +reverse of the phenomena of ascent. Since, however, the energy of +position which the liquid particles possess is transmitted from them to +the atmospheric masses, then it follows that this natural increase in +their temperature would not occur in the descent. A new order of +phenomena would now appear. Since the evaporative process is a +continuous one, the liquid particles in their downward movement must be +in intimate contact with rising gaseous material, and these liquid +particles will, accordingly, at each stage of the descent, absorb from +this rising material the whole energy necessary to raise their +temperature to the values corresponding to their decreasing elevation. +In virtue of this absorption of energy then, from the rising material, +these liquid particles are enabled to reach the level of evaporation at +the precise temperature of that level. + +Now, considering the process as a whole, it will be readily seen that +for any given mass of aqueous material thus elevated from and returned +to a surface of evaporation, there must be a definite expenditure of +energy (axial energy) at that surface. Since the material always regains +the surface at the precise temperature of evaporation, this expenditure +is obviously, in total, equal to the latent heat of aqueous vapour at +the surface temperature. It may be divided into two parts. One portion +of the axial energy--the transmitted portion--is utilised in the +elevation of the material against gravity; the remainder is expended, as +explained above, in the heating of the returning material. The whole +operation takes place between two precise temperatures, a higher +temperature, which is that of the surface of evaporation, and a lower +temperature, corresponding to the work done, and so related to the +higher that the whole of the energy expended by the working aqueous +substance--in heating the returning material and in transmitted work--is +exactly equivalent to the latent heat of aqueous vapour at the high or +surface temperature. But, as will be demonstrated later, the whole +energy transmitted from the aqueous material to the air masses is +finally returned in its entirety as axial energy, and is thus once more +made available in the evaporative transformation process. The energy +expended in raising the temperature of the working material returning to +the surface of evaporation is obviously returned with that material. +Both portions of the original expenditure are thus returned to the +source in different ways. The whole operation is, in fact, completely +cyclical in nature; we are in reality describing "Nature's Perfect +Engine," which is completely reversible and which has the highest +possible efficiency.[1] Although the higher temperature at the +evaporation surface may vary with different locations of that surface, +in every case the lower temperature is so related to it as to make the +total expenditure precisely equal to the latent heat at that evaporation +temperature.[2] It must be borne in mind also, that all the condensed +material in the upper strata of the atmosphere must not of necessity +return to the planetary liquid surface. On the contrary, immediately +condensation of the aqueous vapour takes place and the material leaves +the gaseous state, no matter where that material is situated, it is once +more susceptible to the incepting influences of the sun. Re-evaporation +may thus readily take place even at high altitudes, and complete +cyclical operations may be carried out there. These operations will, +however, be carried out in every case between precise temperature limits +as explained above. + + [1] The conception of "Nature's Perfect Engine" was originally + arrived at by the author from consideration of the phenomena of the + steam-engine. The following extract from the "Review" of his work + (1895) illustrates the various stages which finally lead to that + conclusion:-- + + "My first steps in the right direction came about thus. I had always + been working with a cylinder and piston, and could make no progress, + till at length it struck me to make my cylinder high enough to do + without a piston--that is, to leave the steam to itself and observe + its behaviour when left to work against gravity. The first thing I + had to settle was the height of my cylinder. And I found, by + calculation from Regnault's experiments that it would require to be + very high, and that the exact height would depend on the temperature + of the water in the boiler which was the bottom of this ideal + cylinder. Now, at any ordinary temperature the height was so great + that it was impossible to get known material to support its own + weight, and I did not wish to use a hypothetical substance in the + construction of this engine. Finally, the only course left me was to + abolish the cylinder as I had done the piston. I then discovered + that the engine I had been trying to evolve--the perfect engine--was + not the ideal thing I had been groping after but an actual reality, + in full working order, its operations taking place every day before + my eyes. + + "Every natural phenomenon fitted in exactly; it had its function to + perform, and the performance of its function constituted the + phenomenon. Let me trace the analogy in a few of its details. The + sea corresponds to the boiler; its cylinder surrounds the earth; it + has for its fuel the axial energy of the earth; it has no condenser + because it has no exhaust; the work it performs is all expended in + producing the fuel. Every operation in the cycle is but an energy + transformation, and these various transformations constitute the + visible life of the world." + + [2] For definite numerical examples see the author's _Terrestrial + Energy_ (Chap. 1.). + +It will be evident, from a general consideration of this process of +transmission of energy from the aqueous vapour, that relatively large +quantities of that vapour are not required in the atmosphere for the +working of the gaseous machine. The peculiar property of ready +condensation of the aqueous vapour makes the evaporative process a +continuous one, and the highly energised aqueous material, although only +present in comparatively small amount, contributes a continuous flow of +energy, and is thus able to steadily convey a very large quantity to +the atmospheric masses. For the same reason, the greater part of the +energy transmission from the aqueous vapour to the air will take place +at comparatively low altitudes and between reasonably high temperatures. +The working of any evaporative cycle may also be spread over very large +terrestrial areas by the free movement of the acting material. Aqueous +vapour rising in equatorial regions may finally return to the earth in +the form of ice-crystals at the poles. In every complete cycle, however, +the total expenditure per unit mass of material initially evaporated is +always the latent heat at the higher or evaporation temperature; in the +final or return stages of the cycle, any energy not transmitted to the +air masses is devoted to the heating of returning aqueous material. + +Referring again to the transmitted energy, and speaking in the broadest +fashion, the function of the aqueous vapour in the atmosphere may be +likened to that of the steam in the cylinder of a steam-engine. In both +cases the aqueous material works in a definite machine for energy +transmission. In the case of the steam-engine work energy is transmitted +(Sec. 31) from the steam through the medium of the moving piston and +rotating shaft, and thence may be further diverted to useful purposes. +In the planetary atmospheric machine the work energy of aqueous vapour +is likewise transmitted by the agency of the moving air masses, not to +any external agent, but back once more to its original source, which is +the planetary axial energy. In neither case are we able to explain the +precise nature of the transmission process in its ultimate details. We +cannot say _how_ the steam transmits its work energy by the moving +piston, nor yet by what agency the elevated particles of aqueous +material transmit their energy to the air masses. Our knowledge is +confined entirely to the phenomena, and, fortunately, these are in some +degree accessible. Nature presents direct evidence that such +transmissions actually take place. This evidence is to be found, in both +cases, in the condensation of the aqueous material which sustains the +loss of its work energy. In the engine cylinder condensation takes place +due to work being transmitted from the steam; in the atmosphere the +visible phenomena of condensation are likewise the ever present evidence +of the transmission of work energy from the aqueous vapour to the air +masses. In virtue of this accession of energy these masses will, +accordingly, be expanded upwards against the gravitational attractive +forces. This upward movement, being made entirely at the expense of +energy communicated from the aqueous vapour, is not accompanied by the +normal fall of temperature due to the expansion of the air. Planetary +axial energy, originally absorbed by the aqueous vapour, in the work +form, has been transferred to the air masses in the same form, and is +now, after the expansive movement, resident in these masses in the form +of energy of position. It is the function of the atmospheric machine in +its final stage to return this energy in the original axial form. + + +41. _Terrestrial Energy Return_ + +Let it be assumed that an atmospheric mass has been raised, by the +transmission of work energy, to a high altitude in the equatorial +regions of the earth. The assumption of locality is made merely for +illustrative purposes; it will be evident to the reader that the +transmission of work energy to the atmospheric masses and their +consequent elevation will be continuously proceeding, more or less, over +the whole planetary surface. To replace the gaseous material thus +raised, a corresponding mass of air will move at a lower level, towards +the equator from the more temperate zones adjoining. A circulatory +motion will thus be set up in the atmosphere. In the upper regions the +elevated and energised air masses move towards the poles; at lower +levels the replacing masses move towards the equator, and in their +passage may be operated on by the aqueous vapour which they encounter, +energised, and raised to higher levels. The movement will be continuous. +In their transference from equatorial towards polar regions, the +atmospheric masses are leaving the surfaces or regions of high linear +velocity for those of low, and must in consequence lose or return in +the passage a portion of that natural energy of motion which they +possess in virtue of their high linear velocity at the equator. But on +the other hand, the replacing air masses, which are travelling in the +opposite direction from poles to equator, must gain or absorb a +corresponding amount of energy. The one operation thus balances the +other, and the planetary equilibrium is in no way disturbed. But the +atmospheric masses which are moving from the equator in the polar +direction will possess, in addition, that energy of position which has +been communicated to them through the medium of the aqueous vapour and +by the working of the second stage of the atmospheric machine. These +masses, in the circulatory polar movements, move downwards towards the +planetary surface. In this downward motion (as in the downward motion of +a pendulum mass vibrating under the action of gravitation) the energy of +position of the air mass is converted once more into energy of +motion--that is, into its original form of axial energy of rotation. In +equatorial regions the really important energy property of the +atmospheric mass was indicated by its elevation or its energy of +position. In the descent this energy is thus entirely transformed, and +reverts once more to its original form of energy of rotation. + +The continual transformation of axial energy by the aqueous vapour, and +the conversion of that energy by the upward movement of the air masses +into energy of position, naturally tends to produce a retardative effect +on the motion of revolution of the earth. But this retardative effect is +in turn completely neutralised or balanced by the corresponding +accelerative effect due to the equally continuous return as the energy +of the air masses reverts in the continuous polar movement to its +original axial form. Speaking generally, the equatorial regions, or the +regions of high velocity, are the location of the most powerful +transformation or abstraction of axial energy by the aqueous vapour. +Conversely, the polar or regions of low velocity are the location of the +greatest return of energy by the air. As no energy return is possible +unless by the transference of the atmospheric material from regions of +high to regions of low velocity, the configuration of the planet in +rotation must conform to this condition. The spheroidal form of the +earth is thus exquisitely adapted to the working of the atmospheric +machine. As already pointed out, however, the energising and raising of +atmospheric masses is by no means confined to equatorial regions, but +takes place more or less over the whole planetary surface. The same +applies to the energy return. The complete cycle may be carried out in +temperate zones; gaseous masses, also, leaving equatorial regions at +high altitudes do not necessarily reach the polar regions, but may +attain their lowest levels at intermediate points. Neither do such +masses necessarily proceed to the regions of low velocity by purely +linear paths. On the contrary, they may and do move both towards the +poles and downwards by circuitous and even vortical paths. In fact, as +will be readily apparent, their precise path is of absolutely no moment +in the consideration of energy return. + +It might naturally be expected that such movements of the atmospheric +air masses as have been described above would give rise to great +atmospheric disturbance over the earth's surface, and that the transfer +of gaseous material from pole to equator and vice versa would be +productive of violent storms of wind. Such storms, however, are +phenomena of somewhat rare occurrence; the atmosphere, on the whole, +appears to be in a state of comparative tranquillity. This serenity of +the atmosphere is, however, confined to the lower strata, and may be +ascribed to an inherent stability possessed by the air mass as a whole +in virtue of the accession of energy to it at high levels. As already +explained, the transfer of energy from the vapour to the air masses is +accomplished at comparatively low altitudes, and when this reaction is +taking place the whole tendency of the energised material is to move +upwards. In so moving it tends to leave behind it the condensed aqueous +vapour, and would, therefore, rise to the higher altitudes in a +comparatively dry condition. This dryness is accentuated by the further +loss of aqueous vapour by condensation as the air moves toward regions +of low velocity. That air which actually attains to the poles will be +practically dry, and having also returned, in its entirety, the surplus +energy obtained from the aqueous vapour, it will be in this region +practically in the condition of statical equilibrium of a gas against +gravity (Sec. 34). But the general state of the atmosphere in other regions +where a transference of energy from the aqueous vapour has taken or is +taking place is very different from this condition of natural statical +equilibrium which is approached at the poles. In the lower strata of the +atmosphere the condition in some cases may approximate to the latter, +but in the upper strata it is possessed of energy qualities quite +abnormal to statical equilibrium. Its condition is rather one of the +nature of stable equilibrium. It is in a condition similar to that of a +liquid heated in its upper layers; there is absolutely no tendency to a +direct or vertical downward circulation. In statical equilibrium, any +downward movement of an air mass would simply be accompanied by the +natural rise in temperature corresponding to the transformation of its +energy of position, but in this condition of stable equilibrium any +motion downwards must involve, not only this natural temperature rise, +but also a return, either in whole or in part, of the energy absorbed +from the aqueous vapour. The natural conditions are therefore against +any direct vertical return. These conditions, however, favour in every +respect the circulatory motion of the highly energised upper air masses +towards regions of low velocity. All circumstances combine, in fact, to +confine the more powerfully energised and highly mobile air masses to +high altitudes. In the lower atmosphere, owing to the continuous action +of the aqueous vapour on the air masses moving from regions of low to +those of high velocity, the circulation tends largely to be a vertical +one, so that this locality is on the whole preserved in comparative +tranquillity. It may happen, however, that owing to changes in the +distribution of aqueous vapour, or other causes, this natural stability +of the atmosphere may be disturbed over certain regions of the earth's +surface. The circumstances will then favour a direct or more or less +vertical return of the energy of the air masses in the neighbourhood of +these regions. This return will then take the form of violent storms of +wind, usually of a cyclonic nature, and affording direct evidence of the +tendency of the air masses to pursue vortical paths in their movement +towards lower levels. + +Under normal conditions, however, the operation of the atmospheric +machine is smooth and continuous. The earth's axial energy, under the +sun's incepting influence, steadily flows at all parts of the earth's +surface through the aqueous vapour into the atmospheric masses, and the +latter, rising from the terrestrial surface, with a motion somewhat like +that of a column of smoke, spread out and speed towards regions of lower +velocity, and travelling by devious and lengthened paths towards the +surface, steadily return the abstracted energy in its original form. +Every operation is exactly balanced; energy expenditure and energy +return are complementary; the terrestrial atmospheric machine as a whole +works without jar or discontinuity, and the earth's motion of rotation +is maintained with absolute uniformity. + +Like every other energy machine, the atmospheric machine has +clearly-defined energy limits. The total quantity of energy in operation +is strictly limited by the mass of the acting materials. It is well, +also, to note the purely mechanical nature of the machine. Every +operation is in reality the operation of mechanical energy, and involves +the movement of matter in some way or other relative to the earth's +surface and under the incepting action of the earth's gravitation (Secs. +16, 20). The moving gaseous masses have as real an existence as masses +of lead or other solid material, and require as real an expenditure of +energy to move them relative to the terrestrial surface (Sec. 18). This +aspect of the planetary machine will be more fully treated later. + +Throughout this description we have constantly assumed the atmospheric +mixture of oxygen and nitrogen to act as one gas, and at ordinary +temperatures the respective energy properties of the two substances (Sec. +35) make this assumption justifiable. Both gases are then working far +above their respective evaporation temperatures. But, in the higher +regions of the atmosphere, where very low temperatures prevail, a point +or altitude will be reached where the temperature corresponds to the +evaporation or condensation temperature of one of the gases. Since +oxygen appears to have the highest temperature of evaporation (see Table +of Properties, p. 133), it would naturally be the first to condense in +the ascent. But immediately condensation takes place, the material will +become susceptible to the incepting influence of the sun, and working as +it does at its temperature of evaporation it will convey its energy to +the surrounding nitrogen in precisely the same fashion as the aqueous +vapour conveys the energy to the aerial mixture in the lower atmosphere. +The whole action is made possible simply by the difference existing in +the respective evaporation temperatures of the two gases. It will give +rise to another cyclical atmospheric energy process exactly as already +described for lower altitudes. Axial energy of rotation will be +communicated to the nitrogen by the working material, which is now the +oxygen, and by the movement of the nitrogen masses towards regions of +low velocity, this transmitted energy will be finally returned to its +original axial form. + +It has been already explained (Secs. 10, 32) how all terrestrial energy +processes, also, great or small, are sooner or later linked to the +general atmospheric machine. The latter, therefore, presents in every +phase of its working completely closed energy circuits. In no aspect of +its operation can we find any evidence of, or indeed any necessity for, +an energy transmission either to or from any external body or agent such +as the sun. Every phenomenon of Nature is, in fact, a direct denial of +such transmission. + +The student of terrestrial phenomena will readily find continuous and +ample evidence in Nature of the working of the atmospheric machine. In +the rising vapour and the falling rain he will recognise the visible +signs of the operation of that great secondary process of transmission +by which the inherent axial energy of the earth is communicated to the +air masses. The movements of bodies, animate and inanimate, on the +earth's surface, the phenomena of growth and decay, and in fact almost +every experience of everyday life, will reveal to him the persistent +tendency of the energy of secondary processes to revert to the +atmospheric machine. And in the winds that traverse the face of the +globe he will also witness the mechanism of that energy return which +completes the atmospheric cyclical process. It may be pointed out here +also that the terrestrial cyclical energy processes are not necessarily +all embodied in the atmosphere. The author has reason to believe, and +phenomenal evidence is not awanting to show, that the circulatory +motions of the atmosphere are in some degree reproduced in the sea. The +reader will readily perceive that as regards stability the water +composing the sea is in precisely the same condition as the atmosphere, +namely, that of a liquid heated in its upper strata, and any circulatory +motion of the water must therefore be accompanied by corresponding +transformations of energy. That such a circulatory motion takes place is +undoubted, and in the moving mass of sea-water we have therefore a +perfectly reversible energy machine of the same general nature as the +atmospheric machine, but working at a very much slower rate. It is not +beyond the limits of legitimate scientific deduction to trace also the +working of a similar machine in the solid material of the earth. The +latter is, after all, but an agglomeration of loose material bound by +the force of gravitation into coherent form. By the action of various +erosive agencies a movement of solid material is continually taking +place over the earth's surface. The material thus transported, it may +be, from mountain chains, and deposited on the sea-bed, causes a +disturbance of that gravitational equilibrium which defines the exact +form of the earth. The forces tending to maintain this equilibrium are +so enormous compared with the cohesive forces of the material forming +the earth that readjustment continuously takes place, as evidenced by +the tremors observed in the earth's crust. Where the structure of the +latter is of such a nature as to offer great resistance to the +gravitational forces, the readjustment may take the form of an +earthquake. Geological evidence, as a whole, strongly points to a +continuous kneading and flow of terrestrial material. The structure of +igneous rocks, also, is exactly that which would be produced from +alluvial deposits subjected during these cyclical movements to the +enormous pressure and consequent heating caused by superimposed +material. The occurrence of coal in polar regions, and of glacial +residue in the tropics, may be regarded as further corroborative +evidence. From this point of view also, it becomes unnecessary to +postulate a genesis for the earth, as every known geological formation +is shown to be capable of production under present conditions in Nature, +and in fact to be in actual process of production at all times. + + +42. _Experimental Analogy and Demonstration of the General Mechanism of + Energy Transformation and Return in the Atmospheric Cycle_ + +In the preceding articles, the atmospheric machine has been regarded +more or less from the purely physical point of view. The purpose of this +demonstration is now to place before the reader what might be termed +the mechanical aspects of the machine; to give an outline, using simple +experimental analogies, of its nature and operation when considered +purely and simply as a mechanism for the transformation and return of +mechanical energy. + +Familiar apparatus is used in illustration. In all cases, it is merely +some adaptation of the simple pendulum (Sec. 21). Its minute structural +details are really of slight importance in the discussion, and have +accordingly been ignored, but the apparatus generally, and the energy +operations embodied therein, are so familiar to physicists and engineers +that the experimental results illustrated can be readily verified by +everyday experience. It is of great importance, also, in considering +these results, to bear in mind the principles already enunciated (Secs. 13, +20) with reference to the operation of mechanical energy on the various +forms of matter. The general working conditions of energy systems with +respect to energy limits, stability, and reversibility (Sec. 23) should +also be kept in view. + +As an introductory step we shall review first a simple system of +rotating pendulums. Two simple pendulums CM and DM{1} (Fig. 9) are +mounted by means of a circular collar CD upon a vertical spindle AB, +which is supported at A and B and free to rotate. When the central +spindle AB is at rest the pendulums hang vertically; when energy is +applied to the system, and AB is thereby caused to rotate, the +spherical masses M and M{1} will rise by circular paths about C and D. +This upward movement, considered apart from the centrifugal influence +producing it, corresponds in itself to the upward movement of the simple +pendulum (Sec. 21) against gravity. It is representative of a definite +transformation, namely, the transformation of the work energy originally +applied to the system and manifested in its rotary motion, into energy +of position. The movements of the rotating pendulums will also be +accompanied by other energy operations associated with bearing friction +and windage (Secs. 23, 29), but these operations being part of a separate +and complete cyclical energy process (Sec. 32), they will in this case be +neglected. + +[Illustration: FIG. 9] + +It will be readily seen, however, that the working of this rotating +pendulum machine, when considered as a whole, is of a nature somewhat +different from that of the simple pendulum machine in that the energy of +position of the former (as measured by the vertical displacement of M +and M{1} in rotation) and its energy of rotation must increase +concurrently, and also in that the absolute maximum value of this energy +of position will be attained when the pendulum masses reach merely the +horizontal level HL in rotation. The machines are alike, however, in +this respect, that the transformation of energy of motion into energy of +position is in each case a completely reversible process. In the working +of the rotating pendulums the limiting amount of energy which can +operate in this reversible process is dependent on and rigidly defined +by the maximum length of the pendulum arms; the longer the arms, the +greater is the possible height through which the masses at their +extremities must rise to attain the horizontal position in rotation. It +will be clear also that it is not possible for the whole energy of the +rotating system to work in the reversible process as in the case of the +simple pendulum. As the pendulum masses rise, the ratio of the limiting +energy for reversibility to the total energy of the system becomes in +fact smaller and smaller, until at the horizontal or position of maximum +energy it reaches a minimum value. This is merely an aspect of the +experimental fact that, as the pendulum masses approach the ultimate +horizontal position, a much greater increment of energy to the system is +necessary for their elevation through a given vertical distance than at +the lower levels. A larger proportion of the applied energy is, in fact, +stored in the material of the system in the form of energy of strain or +distortion. + +The two points which this system is designed to illustrate, and which +it is desirable to emphasise, are thus as follows. Firstly, as the whole +system rotates, the movement of the pendulum masses M and M{1} from the +lower to the higher levels, or from the regions of low to those of +higher velocity, is productive of a transformation of the rotatory +energy of the system into energy of position--a transformation of the +same nature as in the case of the simple pendulum system. Neglecting the +minor transformations (Secs. 24, 29), this energy process is a reversible +one, and consequently, the return of the masses from the higher to the +lower positions will be accompanied by the complete return of the +transformed energy in its original form of energy of rotation. Secondly, +the maximum amount of energy which can work in this reversible process +is always less than the total energy of the system. The latter, +therefore, conforms to the general condition of stability (Sec. 25). + +But this arrangement of rotating pendulums may be extended so as to +include other features. To eliminate or in a manner replace the +influence of gravitation, and to preserve the energy of position of the +system--relative to the earth's surface--at a constant value, the +pendulum arms may be assumed to be duplicated or extended to the points +K and R (Fig. 10) respectively, where pendulum masses equal to M and +M{1} are attached. + +The arms MK and M{1}R are thus continuous. Each arm is assumed to be +pivoted at its middle point about a horizontal axis through N, and as +the lower masses M and M{1} rise in the course of the rotatory movement +about AB the upper masses K and R will fall by corresponding amounts. +The total energy of position of the system--referred to the earth's +surface--thus remains constant whatever may be the position of the +masses in the system. The restraining influence on the movement of the +masses, formerly exercised by gravitation, is now furnished by means of +a central spring F. A collar CD, connected as shown to the pendulum +arms, slides on the spindle AB and compresses this spring as the masses +move towards the horizontal level HL. As the masses return towards A and +B the spring is released. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10] + +If energy be applied to the system, so that it is caused to rotate about +the central axis AB, the pendulum masses will tend to move outwards from +that axis. Their movement may be said to be carried out over the surface +of an imaginary sphere with centre on AB at N. The motion of the masses, +as the velocity of rotation increases, is from the region of lower +peripheral velocity, in the vicinity of the axis AB, to the regions of +higher velocity, in the neighbourhood of H and L. This outward movement +from the central axis towards H and L is representative of a +transformation of energy of an exactly similar nature to that described +above in the simple case. Part of the original energy of rotation of the +system is now stored in the pendulum masses in virtue of their new +position of displacement. But in this case, the movement is made, not +against gravity, but against the central spring F. The energy, then, +which in the former case might be said to be stored against gravitation +(acting as an invisible spring) is in this case stored in the form of +energy of strain or cohesion (Sec. 15) in the central spring, which thus as +it were takes the place of gravitation in the system. As in the previous +case also, the operation is a reversible energy process. If the pendulum +masses move in the opposite direction from the regions of higher +velocity to those of lower velocity, the energy stored in the spring +will be returned to the system in its original form of energy of motion. +A vibratory motion of the pendulums to and from the central axis would +thus be productive of an alternate storage and return of energy. It is +obvious also, that due to the action of centrifugal force, the pendulum +masses would tend to move radially outwards on the arms as they move +towards the regions of highest velocity. Let this radial movement be +carried out against the action of four radial springs S{1}, S{2}, +S{3}, S{4}, as shown (Fig. 11). In virtue of the radial movement of +the masses, these springs will be compressed and energy stored in them +in the form of energy of strain or cohesion (Sec. 15). The radial movement +implies also that the masses will be elevated from the surface of the +imaginary sphere over which they are assumed to move. The elevation from +this surface will be greatest in the regions of high velocity in the +neighbourhood of H and L, and least at A and B. As the masses move, +therefore, from H and L towards the axis AB, they will also move inwards +on the pendulum arms, relieving the springs, so that the energy stored +in them is free to be returned to the system in its original form of +energy of rotation. Every movement of the masses from the central axis +outwards against the springs is thus made at the expense of the original +energy of motion, and every movement inwards provokes a corresponding +return of that energy to the system. Every movement also against the +springs forms part of a reversible operation. The sum total of the +energy which works in these reversible operations is always less than +the complete energy of the rotatory system, and the latter is always +stable (Sec. 25), with respect to its energy properties. Let it now be +assumed that the complete system as described is possessed of a precise +and limited amount of energy of rotation, and that with the pendulum +masses in an intermediate position as shown (Fig. 11) it is rotating +with uniform angular velocity. The condition of the rotatory system +might now be described as that of equilibrium. A definite amount of its +original rotatory energy is now stored in the central spring and also in +the radial springs. If now, without alteration in the intrinsic rotatory +energy of the system, the pendulum masses were to execute a vibratory or +pendulum motion about the position of equilibrium so that they move +alternately to and from the central axis, then as they move inwards +towards that axis the energy stored in the springs would be returned to +the system in the original form of energy of rotation. This inward +motion would, accordingly, produce acceleration. But, in the outward +movement from the position of equilibrium, retardation would ensue on +account of energy of motion being withdrawn from the system and stored +in the springs. + +[Illustration: FIG. 11] + +Under the given conditions, then, any vibratory motion of the pendulum +masses to and from the central axis would be accompanied by alternate +retardation and acceleration of the moving system. The storage of energy +in the springs (central and radial) produces retardation, the +restoration of this energy gives rise to a corresponding acceleration. +The angular velocity of the system would rise and fall accordingly. +These are the natural conditions of working of the system. As already +pointed out, the motion of the pendulum masses may be regarded as +executed over the surface of an imaginary sphere. Their motion against +the radial springs would therefore correspond to a displacement outwards +or upwards from the spherical surface. A definite part of the effect of +retardation is, of course, due to this outward or radial displacement of +the masses. + +Assuming still the property of constancy of energy of rotation, let it +now be supposed that in such a vibratory movement of the pendulum masses +as described above, the energy required merely for the displacement of +the masses _against the radial springs_ is not withdrawn from and +obtained at the expense of the original rotatory energy of the system, +but is obtained from some energy agency, completely external to the +system, and to which energy cannot be returned. The retardation, +normally due to the outward displacement of the masses against the +radial springs, would not then take place. But the energy is, +nevertheless, stored in the springs. It now, therefore, forms part of +the energy of the system, and consequently, on the returning or inward +movement of vibration of the masses towards the central axis, this +energy, received from the external source, would pass directly from the +springs to the rotational energy of the system. It is clear, then, that +while the introduction of energy in this fashion from an external source +has in part eliminated the effect of retardation, the accelerating +effect must still operate as before. Each vibratory movement of the +pendulum system, under the given conditions, will lead to a definite +increase in its energy of rotation by the amount stored in the radial +springs. If the vibratory movement is continuous, the rotatory velocity +of the system will steadily increase in value. Energy once stored in the +radial springs can only be released by the return movement of the masses +and _in the form of energy of rotation_; the nature of the mechanical +machine is, in fact, such that if any incremental energy is applied to +the displacement of the masses against the radial springs, it can only +be returned in this form of energy of motion. + +These features of this experimental system are of vital importance to +the author's scheme. They may be illustrated more completely, however, +and in a form more suitable for their most general application, by the +hypothetical system now to be described. This system is, of course, +devised for purely illustrative purposes, but the general principles of +working of pendulum systems and of energy return, as demonstrated above, +will be assumed. + + +43. _Application of Pendulum Principles_ + +The movements of the pendulum masses described in the previous article +have been regarded as carried out over the surface of an imaginary +sphere. Let us now proceed to consider the phenomena of a similar +movement of material over the surface of an actual spherical mass. The +precise dimensions of the sphere are of little moment in the discussion, +but for the purpose of illustration, its mass and general outline may be +assumed to correspond to that of the earth or other planetary body. This +spherical mass A (Fig. 12) rotates with uniform angular velocity about +an axis NS through its centre. Associated with the rotating sphere are +four auxiliary spherical masses, M{1}, M{2}, M{3}, M{4}, also of +solid material, which are assumed to be placed symmetrically round its +circumference as shown. These masses form an inherent part of the +spherical system; they are assumed to be united to the main body of +material by the attractive force of gravitation in precisely the same +fashion as the atmosphere or other surface material of a planet is +united to its inner core (Sec. 34); they will therefore partake completely +of the rotatory motion of the sphere about its axis NS, moving in paths +similar to those of the rotating pendulum masses already described (Sec. +42). The restraining action of the pendulum arms is, however, replaced +in this celestial case by the action of gravitation, which is the +central force or influence of the system. Opposite masses are thus only +united through the attractive influence of the material of the sphere. +The place of the springs, both central and radial, in our pendulum +system is now taken by this centripetal force of gravitative attraction, +which therefore forms the restraining influence or determining factor in +all the associated energy processes. While the auxiliary masses M{1} +M{2}, &c., partake of the general motion of revolution of the main +spherical mass about NS, they may also be assumed to revolve +simultaneously about the axis WE, perpendicular to NS, and also passing +through the centre of the sphere. Each of these masses will thus have a +peculiar motion, a definite velocity over the surface of the sphere from +pole to pole--about the axis WE--combined with a velocity of rotation +about the central axis NS. The value of the latter velocity is, at any +instant, directly proportional to the radius of the circle of latitude +of the point on the surface of the sphere where the mass happens to be +situated at that instant in its rotatory motion from pole to pole; this +velocity accordingly diminishes as the mass withdraws from the equator, +and becomes zero when it actually reaches the poles of rotation at N and +S; and the energy of each mass in motion, since its linear velocity is +thus constantly varying, will be itself a continuously varying quantity, +increasing or diminishing accordingly as the mass is moving to or from +the equatorial regions, attaining its maximum value at the equator and +its minimum value at the poles. Now, since the masses thus moving are +assumed to be a material and inherent portion of the spherical system, +the source of the energy which is thus alternately supplied to and +returned by them is the original energy of motion of the system; this +original energy being assumed strictly limited in amount, the increase +of the energy of each mass as it moves towards the equator will, +therefore, be productive of a retardative effect on the revolution of +the system as a whole. But, in a precisely similar manner, the energy +thus gained by the mass would be fully returned on its movement towards +the pole, and an accelerative effect would be produced corresponding to +the original retardation. In the arrangement shown (Fig. 12), the moving +masses are assumed to be situated at the extremities of diameters at +right angles. With this symmetrical distribution, the transformation +and return of energy would take place concurrently. Retardation is +continually balanced by acceleration, and the motion of the sphere +would, therefore, be approximately uniform about the central axis of +rotation. It will be clear that the movements thus described of the +masses will be very similar in nature to those of the pendulum masses in +the experimental system previously discussed. The fact that the motion +of the auxiliary masses over the surface of the sphere is assumed to be +completely circular and not vibratory, as in the pendulum case, has no +bearing on the general energy phenomena. These are readily seen to be +identical in nature with those of the simpler system. In each case every +movement of the masses implies either an expenditure of energy or a +return, accordingly as the direction of that movement is to or from the +regions of high velocity. + +[Illustration: FIG. 12] + +The paths of the moving auxiliary masses have been considered, so far, +only as parallel to the surface of the sphere, but the general energy +conditions are in no way altered if they are assumed to have in addition +some motion normal to that surface; if, for example, they are repelled +from the surface as they approach the equatorial regions, and return +towards it once more as they approach the poles. Such a movement of the +masses normal to the spherical surface really corresponds to the +movement against the radial springs in the pendulum system; it would +now be made against the attractive or restraining influence of +gravitation, and a definite expenditure of energy would thus necessarily +be required to produce the displacement. Energy, formerly stored in the +springs, corresponds now to energy stored as energy of position (Sec. 20) +against gravitation. If this energy is obtained at the expense of the +inherent rotatory energy of the sphere, then its conversion in this +fashion into energy of position will again be productive of a definite +retardative effect on the revolution of the system. It is clear, +however, that if each mass descends to the surface level once more in +moving towards the poles, then in this operation its energy of position, +originally obtained at the expense of the rotatory energy of the sphere, +will be gradually but completely returned to that source. In a balanced +system, such as we have assumed above, the descent of one mass in +rotation would be accompanied by the elevation of another at a different +point; the abstraction and return of the energy of rotation would then +be equivalent, and would not affect the primary condition of uniformity +of rotation of the system. In the circumstances assumed, the whole +energy process which takes place in the movement of the masses from +poles to equator and normal to the spherical surface would obviously be +of a cyclical nature and completely reversible. It would be the working +of mechanical energy in a definite material machine, and in accordance +with the principles already outlined (Sec. 20) the maximum amount of +energy which can operate in this machine is strictly limited by the mass +of the material involved in the movement. The energy machine has thus a +definite capacity, and as the maximum energy operating in the reversible +cycle is assumed to be within this limit, the machine would be +completely stable in nature (Sec. 25). The movements of the auxiliary +masses have hitherto also been considered as taking place over somewhat +restricted paths, but this convention is one which can readily be +dispensed with. The general direction of motion of the masses must of +course be from equator to pole or vice versa; but it is quite obvious +that the exact paths pursued by the masses in this general motion is of +no moment in the consideration of energy return, nor yet the precise +region in which they may happen to be restored once more to the surface +level. Whatever may be its position at any instant, each mass is +possessed of a definite amount of energy corresponding to that position; +this amount will always be equal to the total energy abstracted by that +mass, less the energy returned. The nature of the energy system is, +however, such that the various energy phases of the different masses +will be completely co-ordinated. Since the essential feature of the +system is its property of uniformity of rotation, any return of energy +in the rotational form at any part of the system--due to the descent of +material--produces a definite accelerating effect on the system, which +effect is, however, at once neutralised or absorbed by a corresponding +retardative effect due to that energy which must be extracted from the +system in equivalent amount and devoted to the upraising of material at +a different point. For simplicity in illustration only four masses have +been considered in motion over the surface of the sphere, but it will be +clear that the number which may so operate is really limited only by the +dimensions of the system. The spherical surface might be completely +covered with moving material, not necessarily of spherical form, not +necessarily even material in the solid form (Sec. 13), which would rise and +fall relative to the surface and flow to and from the poles exactly in +the fashion already illustrated by the moving masses. The capacity of +the reversible energy machine--which depends on the mass--would be +altered in this case, but not the general nature of the machine itself. +If the system were energised to the requisite degree, every energy +operation could be carried out as before. + +As already pointed out, the dominating feature of a spherical system +such as we have just described would be essentially its property of +energy conservation manifested by its uniformity of rotation. All its +operations could be carried out independently of the direct action of +any external energy influences. For if it be assumed that the energy +gained by the auxiliary moving surface material _in virtue of its +displacement normal to the spherical surface_ be derived, not from the +inherent rotational energy of the sphere itself, but by an influx of +energy from some source completely external to the system, then since +there has been no energy abstraction there will be no retardative effect +on the revolution due to the upraising of this material. But the influx +of energy thus stored in the material must of necessity work through the +energy machine. In the movement towards the poles this energy would +therefore be applied to the system in the form of energy of rotation, +and would produce a definite accelerative effect. If the influx of +energy were continuous, and no means were existent for a corresponding +efflux, the rotatory velocity of the system would steadily increase. The +phenomena would be of precisely the same nature as those already alluded +to in the case of the system of rotating pendulums (Sec. 42). Acceleration +would take place without corresponding retardation. A direct +contribution would be continuously made to the rotatory energy of the +system, and would under the given conditions be manifested by an +increase in its velocity of revolution. + + +44. _Extension of Pendulum Principles to Terrestrial Phenomena_ + +The energy phenomena illustrated by the experimental devices above are +to be observed, in their aspects of greatest perfection, in the natural +world. In the earth, united to its encircling atmosphere by the +invisible bond of gravitation, we find the prototype of the hypothetical +system just described. Its uniformity of rotation is an established fact +of centuries, and over its spheroidal surface we have, corresponding to +the motion of our illustrative spherical masses, the movement of +enormous quantities of atmospheric air in the general directions from +equatorial to polar regions and vice versa. This circulatory movement, +and the internal energy reactions which it involves, have been already +fully dealt with (Sec. 88); we have now to consider it in a somewhat more +comprehensive fashion, in the light of the pendulum systems described +above. As already explained (Sec. 13), the operation of mechanical energy +is not confined to solid and liquid masses only, but may likewise be +manifested by the movements of gaseous masses. The terrestrial +atmospheric machine provides an outstanding example. In its working +conditions, and in the general nature of the energy operations involved, +the terrestrial atmospheric machine is very clearly represented by the +rotating pendulum system (Sec. 42). The analogy is still closer in the case +of the hypothetical system just described. The actual terrestrial energy +machine differs from both only in that the energy processes, which they +illustrate by the movements of solid material, are carried out in the +course of its working by the motion of gaseous masses. It is obvious, +however, that this in no way affects the inherent nature of the energy +processes themselves. They are carried out quite as completely and +efficiently--in fact, more completely and more efficiently--by the +motions of gaseous as by the motions of solid material. + +The atmospheric circulation, then, may be readily regarded as the +movement, over the terrestrial surface, of gaseous masses which absorb +and return energy in regions of high and low velocity exactly in the +fashion explained above for solid material. In their movement from polar +towards equatorial regions these masses, by the action of the aqueous +vapour (Sec. 38), absorb energy (axial energy) and expand upwards against +gravity. Here we have an energy operation identical in nature with that +embodied in the movements of a pendulum mass simultaneously over a +spherical surface and against radial springs as in the system of +rotating pendulums, or identical with the equatorial and radial movement +of the auxiliary masses in the hypothetical system. The return movement +of the aerial masses over the terrestrial surface in the opposite +direction from equatorial to polar regions provides also exactly the +same phenomena of energy return as the return movement of the masses in +our illustrative systems. These systems, in fact, portray the general +operation of mechanical energy precisely as it occurs in the terrestrial +atmospheric machine. But obviously they cannot illustrate the natural +conditions in their entirety. The passage or flow of the atmospheric air +masses over the earth's surface is a movement of an exceedingly complex +nature, impossible to illustrate by experimental apparatus. And indeed, +such illustration is quite unnecessary. As already pointed out (Sec. 38), +no matter what may be the precise path of an aerial mass in its movement +towards the planetary surface the final energy return is the same. +Sooner or later its energy of position is restored in the original axial +form. + +The terrestrial atmospheric machine will be thus readily recognised as +essentially a material mechanical machine corresponding in general +nature to the illustrative examples described above. The combination of +its various energy processes is embodied in a complete cyclical and +reversible operation. Its energy capacity, as in the simpler cases, is +strictly limited by the total mass of the operating material. The active +or working energy is well within the limit for reversibility (Sec. 23), and +the machine is therefore essentially stable in nature. The continuous +abstraction of axial energy by the aqueous vapour is balanced by an +equally continuous return from the air masses, and the system, so far as +its energy properties are concerned, is absolutely conservative. Energy +transmission from or to any external source is neither admissible nor +necessary for its working. + + +45. _Concluding Review of Terrestrial Conditions--Effects of Influx of + Energy_ + +The aspect of the earth as a separate mass in space, and its energy +relationship to its primary the sun and to the associated planetary +masses of the solar system have been broadly presented in the General +Statement (Secs. 1-12). In that statement, based entirely on the +universally accepted properties of matter and energy, an order of +phenomena is described which is in strict accordance with observed +natural conditions, and which portrays the earth and the other planetary +bodies, so far as their material or energy properties are concerned, as +absolutely isolated masses in space. The scientific verification of this +position must of necessity be founded on the terrestrial observation of +phenomena. So far as the orbital movements of the planet are concerned +these are admittedly orderly; each planetary mass wheels its flight +through space with unvarying regularity; the energy processes, also, +associated with the variations of planetary orbital path, and which +attain limiting conditions at perihelion and aphelion, are readily +acknowledged to be reversible and cyclical in nature. In fact, even a +slight observation of the movements of celestial masses inevitably leads +to the conviction that the great energy processes of the solar system +are inherently cyclical in nature, that every movement of its material +and every manifestation of its energy is part of some complete +operation. The whole appears to be but the natural or material +embodiment of the great principle of energy conservation. It has been +one of the objects of this work to show that the cyclical nature of the +energy operations of the solar system is not confined only to the more +prominent energy phenomena, but that it penetrates and is exhibited in +the working of even the most insignificant planetary processes. Each one +of the latter in reality forms part of an unbroken series or chain of +energy phenomena. Each planet forms in itself a complete, perfect, and +self-contained energy system. Every manifestation of planetary energy, +great or small, whether associated with animate or inanimate matter, is +but one phase or aspect of that energy as it pursues its cyclical path. + +It is a somewhat remarkable fact that in this age of scientific reason +the observation of the strictly orderly arrangement of phenomena in the +solar system as a whole should not have led to some idea in the minds of +philosophical workers of a similar order of phenomena in its separate +parts, but the explanation lies generally in the continual attempts to +bring natural phenomena into line with certain preconceived hypotheses, +and more particularly to the almost universal acceptance of the doctrine +of the direct transmission of energy from the sun to the earth and the +final rejection or radiation of this energy into space. There is no +denying the eminent plausibility of this doctrine. The evidence of +Nature _prima facie_ may even appear to completely substantiate it. But +we would submit that the general circumstances in which this doctrine is +now so readily accepted are very similar to those which prevailed in +more ancient times, when the revolution of the sun and stars round the +earth was the universal tenet of natural philosophy. This conception, +allied to the belief that the sole function of the celestial bodies was +to provide light and heat to the terrestrial mass, appeared to be in +strict accordance with observed phenomena, and held undisturbed +possession of the minds of men for centuries, until it was finally +demolished by Copernicus as the result of simple and accurate +observation of and deduction from natural phenomena. At the present +time, the somewhat venerable belief in the transmission of energy in +various forms from the sun to the earth appears at first sight to be +supported by actual facts. But a more rigid scrutiny of the evidence and +of the mental processes must inevitably lead the unbiassed mind to the +conclusion that this belief has no real foundation on truly scientific +observation, but is entirely unsupported by natural phenomena. Every +operation of Nature, in fact, when considered in its true relationships +is an absolute denial of the whole conception. Like its predecessor +relating to the motion of the sun and stars round the earth, the +doctrine of energy transmission between separate masses in space such as +the sun and the earth cannot be sustained in the face of scientific +observation. This doctrine is found on investigation to be supported not +by phenomena but by the conception of an elastic ethereal medium, of +whose existence there is absolutely no evidential proof, and the +necessity for which disappears along with the hypothesis it supports. It +is, however, not proposed to discuss in any detail either the supposed +transmission of energy from the sun to the planets or the arbitrary +properties of the transmitting medium, but rather to adopt a more +positive method of criticism by summarising briefly the evidential +phenomena which show the cyclical nature of the whole terrestrial energy +process, and which remove the basis of belief in such a transmission. + +To recapitulate the more general conditions, we find the earth, alike +with other planetary masses, pursuing a defined orbital path, and +rotating with uniform angular velocity in the lines or under the +influence of the gravitation, thermal, luminous, and other incepting +fields (Secs. 17, 18, 19) which originate in the sun. Its axial rotation, +in these circumstances, gives rise to all the secondary transformations +(Sec. 9) of terrestrial axial energy, which in their operation provide the +varied panorama of terrestrial phenomena. Terrestrial axial energy is +thus diverted into terrestrial secondary processes. Each of these +processes is found to be united to or embodied in a definite material +machine (Secs. 27-30), and is, accordingly, limited in nature and extent by +the physical properties and incepting factors associated with the +materials of which the machine is composed. By ordinary methods of +transmission, energy may pass from one material to another, that is to +say from one machine to another, and by this means definite chains of +energy processes are constituted, through which, therefore, passes the +axial energy originally transformed by the action of the sun. These +series or chains of energy processes are also found to be one and all +linked at some stage of their progress to the general atmospheric +machine (Sec. 29). The energy operating in them is, in every case, after +many or few vicissitudes according to the nature of the intermediate +operations, communicated to the gaseous atmospheric material. By the +movement of this material in the working of the atmospheric machine (Sec. +38) the energy is finally returned in its original form of axial energy +of rotation. The sun's action is thus in a manner to force the inherent +rotatory energy of the planet into the cyclical secondary operations, +all of which converge alike towards the general atmospheric mechanism of +return. The passage of the energy through the complete secondary +operations, and its re-conversion into its original axial form, may be +rapid or slow according to circumstances. In equatorial regions, where +the influence of the sun's incepting fields is most intense, we find +that the inherent planetary axial energy is communicated with great +rapidity through the medium of the aqueous vapour to the air masses. By +the movement of the latter it may be just as rapidly returned, and the +whole operation completed in a comparatively short interval of time. In +the same equatorial regions, the transformations of axial energy which +are manifested in plant life attain their greatest perfection and +vigour. But in this case the complete return of the operating energy may +be very slow. The stored energy of tropical vegetation may still in +great part remain in the bosom of the earth, awaiting an appropriate +stimulus to be communicated to more active material for the concluding +stages of that cyclical process which had its commencement in the +absorption of axial energy into plant tissue. The duration of the +complete secondary operation has, however, absolutely no bearing on the +conservative energy properties of the planet. In this respect, the +system is perfectly balanced. Every transformation or absorption of +rotatory energy, great or small, for long or short periods of time, is +counteracted by a corresponding return. Absolute uniformity of planetary +axial rotation is thus steadily maintained. + +It is scarcely necessary at this stage to point out that the +verification of this description of natural operations lies simply and +entirely in the observation of Nature's working at first hand. The +description is based on no theory and obscured by no preconceived ideas, +it is founded entirely on direct experimental evidence. The field of +study and of verification is not restricted, but comprises the whole +realm of natural phenomena. In a lifetime of observation the author has +failed to discern a single contradictory phenomenon; every natural +operation is in reality a direct confirmation. + +The conception of energy, working only through the medium of definite +material machines with their incepting and limiting agencies, is one +which is of great value not only in natural philosophy but also in +practical life. By its means it is possible in many cases to co-ordinate +phenomena, apparently antagonistic, but in reality only different phases +of energy machines. It aids materially also in the obtaining of a true +grasp of the inexorable principle of energy conservation and its +application to natural conditions, and it emphasises the indefensible +nature of such ideas as the radiation of energy into _space_. + +It will be evident that in a planetary system such as described above +there is no room for any transmission of energy to the system from an +external source. The nature of the system is, in fact, such that a +transmission of this kind is entirely unnecessary. As already +demonstrated, every phenomenon and every energy operation can be +carried out independently of any such transmission. For the purpose of +illustration, however, it may be assumed that such a communication of +energy does take place; that according to the accepted doctrines of +modern science the sun pours energy in a continuous stream into the +terrestrial system. Now, no matter in what form this energy is +communicated, it is clear that once it is associated with or attached to +the various planetary materials it is, as it were, incorporated or +embodied in the planetary energy machines, and must of necessity work +through the secondary energy operations. But these operations have been +shown to be naturally and irresistibly connected to the general +atmospheric machine. Into this machine, then, the incremental energy +must be carried, and it will be there directly converted into the form +of axial energy of rotation. Once the incremental energy is actually in +the planet, once it is actually communicated to planetary material, the +nature of the system absolutely forbids its escape. The effect of a +direct and continuous influx such as we have assumed would inevitably be +an increase in the angular velocity of the system. This effect has +already been verified from an experimental point of view by +consideration of the phenomena of a rotating pendulum system (Secs. 42, +43). Whilst the influx of energy proceeds, then in virtue of the +increasing velocity of the planetary material in the lines of the +various incepting fields of the sun, all terrestrial phenomena involving +the transformation of rotary or axial energy would be increased in +magnitude and intensified in degree. The planet would thus rapidly +attain an unstable condition; its material would soon become energised +beyond its normal capacity, and the natural stability (Sec. 25) of its +constituent energy machines would be destroyed; the system as a whole +would steadily proceed towards disruption. + +But, happily, Nature presents no evidence of such a course of events. +The earth spins on its axis with quiet and persistent regularity; the +unvarying uniformity of its motion of axial rotation has been verified +by the observations of generations of philosophers. Its temperature +gradations show no evidence of change or decay in its essential heat +qualities, and the recurrence of natural phenomena is maintained without +visible sign of increase either in their intensity or multiplicity. The +finger of Nature ever points to closed energy circuits, to the earth as +a complete and conservative system in which energy, mutable to the +highest degree with respect to its plurality of form, attains to the +perfection of permanence in its essential character and amount. + + + + +Printed by BALLANTYNE, HANSON & CO. + +Edinburgh & London + + + + +TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE: + +In this plain-text version, numerical subscripts have been transcribed +within {} brackets, such as: M{1}. + +Obvious typographical errors from the original printed version of this +book have been corrected without comment. + +Footnotes in the plain-text version have been placed at the end of the +paragraph in which the footnote tag appears. + +Illustrations have been moved to the nearest paragraph break. + + + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Energy System of Matter, by James Weir + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ENERGY SYSTEM OF MATTER *** + +***** This file should be named 38348.txt or 38348.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/8/3/4/38348/ + +Produced by David Garcia, Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Cathy +Maxam and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net (This book was produced from scanned +images of public domain material from the Google Print +project.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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