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diff --git a/38348.txt b/38348.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..31e2942 --- /dev/null +++ b/38348.txt @@ -0,0 +1,5085 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Energy System of Matter, by James Weir + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Energy System of Matter + A Deduction from Terrestrial Energy Phenomena + +Author: James Weir + +Release Date: December 20, 2011 [EBook #38348] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ENERGY SYSTEM OF MATTER *** + + + + +Produced by David Garcia, Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Cathy +Maxam and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net (This book was produced from scanned +images of public domain material from the Google Print +project.) + + + + + + + + + + +THE ENERGY SYSTEM OF MATTER + + + + + THE ENERGY SYSTEM OF MATTER + + A DEDUCTION FROM TERRESTRIAL + ENERGY PHENOMENA + + BY + JAMES WEIR + + _WITH 12 DIAGRAMS_ + + LONGMANS, GREEN AND CO. + 39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON + NEW YORK BOMBAY, AND CALCUTTA + 1912 + + All rights reserved + + + + +PREFACE + + +An intimate study of natural phenomena and a lengthened experience in +physical research have resulted in the formation of certain +generalisations and deductions which I now present in this volume. I +have reached the conclusion that every physical phenomenon is due to the +operation of energy transformations or energy transmissions embodied in +material, and takes place under the action or influence of incepting +energy fields. In any instance the precise nature of the phenomena is +dependent on the peculiar form of energy actively engaged, on the nature +of the material to which this energy is applied, and on the nature of +the incepting field which influences the process. In the course of the +work several concrete cases are discussed, in which these features of +energy are illustrated and explained by the use of simple experimental +apparatus. It is hoped that, by this means, the distinctive differences +which exist in the manifestations of energy, in its transformation, in +its transmission, and in its incepting forms will be rendered clear to +the reader. I have to express my indebtedness to Mr. James Affleck, +B.Sc., for his assistance in the preparation of this work for +publication. + +JAMES WEIR. + +OVER COURANCE, +LOCKERBIE, SCOTLAND. + + + + +CONTENTS + + + PAGE + + INTRODUCTION 1 + + + PART I + + GENERAL STATEMENT + + 1. ADVANTAGES OF GENERAL VIEW OF NATURAL OPERATIONS 7 + + 2. SEPARATE MASS IN SPACE 8 + + 3. ADVENT OF ENERGY--DISTORTIONAL EFFECTS 9 + + 4. THE GRAVITATION FIELD 11 + + 5. LIMITS OF ROTATIONAL ENERGY--DISRUPTIONAL + PHENOMENA 13 + + 6. PASSIVE FUNCTION AND GENERAL NATURE OF GRAVITATION + FIELD 17 + + 7. LIMIT OF GRAVITATION TRANSFORMATION 18 + + 8. INTERACTIONS OF TWO PLANETARY BODIES--EQUILIBRIUM + PHENOMENA 19 + + 9. AXIAL ENERGY--SECONDARY PROCESSES 22 + + 10. MECHANISM OF ENERGY RETURN 27 + + 11. REVIEW OF COSMICAL SYSTEM--GENERAL FUNCTION OF + ENERGY 29 + + 12. REVIEW OF COSMICAL SYSTEM--NATURAL CONDITIONS 31 + + + PART II + + PRINCIPLES OF INCEPTION + + 13. ILLUSTRATIVE SECONDARY PROCESSES 34 + + 14. INCEPTING ENERGY INFLUENCES 40 + + 15. COHESION AS AN INCEPTING INFLUENCE 45 + + 16. TERRESTRIAL GRAVITATION AS AN INCEPTING INFLUENCE 48 + + 17. THE GRAVITATION FIELD 51 + + 18. THE THERMAL FIELD 54 + + 19. THE LUMINOUS FIELD 58 + + 20. TRANSFORMATIONS--UPWARD MOVEMENT OF A MASS + AGAINST GRAVITY 62 + + 21. TRANSFORMATIONS--THE SIMPLE PENDULUM 67 + + 22. STATICAL ENERGY CONDITIONS 68 + + 23. TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE MOVING PENDULUM--ENERGY + OF MOTION TO ENERGY OF POSITION AND VICE VERSA 72 + + 24. TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE MOVING PENDULUM--FRICTIONAL + TRANSFORMATION AT THE BEARING SURFACES 77 + + 25. STABILITY OF ENERGY SYSTEMS 79 + + 26. THE PENDULUM AS A CONSERVATIVE SYSTEM 81 + + 27. SOME PHENOMENA OF TRANSMISSION PROCESSES--TRANSMISSION + OF HEAT ENERGY BY SOLID MATERIAL 84 + + 28. SOME PHENOMENA OF TRANSMISSION PROCESSES--TRANSMISSION + BY FLEXIBLE BAND OR CORD 89 + + 29. SOME PHENOMENA OF TRANSMISSION PROCESSES--TRANSMISSION + OF ENERGY TO AIR MASSES 92 + + 30. ENERGY MACHINES AND ENERGY TRANSMISSION 95 + + 31. IDENTIFICATION OF FORMS OF ENERGY 107 + + 32. COMPLETE SECONDARY CYCLICAL OPERATION 114 + + + PART III + + TERRESTRIAL CONDITIONS + + 33. GASEOUS EXPANSION 118 + + 34. GRAVITATIONAL EQUILIBRIUM OF GASES 124 + + 35. TOTAL ENERGY OF GASEOUS SUBSTANCES 131 + + 36. COMPARATIVE ALTITUDES OF PLANETARY ATMOSPHERES 135 + + 37. REACTIONS OF COMPOSITE ATMOSPHERE 139 + + 38. DESCRIPTION OF TERRESTRIAL CASE 143 + + 39. RELATIVE PHYSICAL CONDITIONS OF ATMOSPHERIC + CONSTITUENTS 150 + + 40. TRANSMISSION OF ENERGY FROM AQUEOUS VAPOUR TO + AIR MASSES 153 + + 41. TERRESTRIAL ENERGY RETURN 160 + + 42. EXPERIMENTAL ANALOGY AND DEMONSTRATION OF THE + GENERAL MECHANISM OF ENERGY TRANSFORMATION + AND RETURN IN THE ATMOSPHERIC CYCLE 170 + + 43. APPLICATION OF PENDULUM PRINCIPLES 181 + + 44. EXTENSION OF PENDULUM PRINCIPLES TO TERRESTRIAL + PHENOMENA 188 + + 45. CONCLUDING REVIEW OF TERRESTRIAL CONDITIONS--EFFECTS + OF INFLUX OF ENERGY 192 + + + + +THE ENERGY SYSTEM OF MATTER + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +The main principles on which the present work is founded were broadly +outlined in the author's _Terrestrial Energy_ in 1883, and also in a +later paper in 1892. + +The views then expressed have since been amply verified by the course of +events. In the march of progress, the forward strides of science have +been of gigantic proportions. Its triumphs, however, have been in the +realm, not of speculation or faith, but of experiment and fact. While, +on the one hand, the careful and systematic examination and +co-ordination of experimental facts has ever been leading to results of +real practical value, on the other, the task of the theorists, in their +efforts to explain phenomena on speculative grounds, has become +increasingly severe, and the results obtained have been decreasingly +satisfactory. Day by day it becomes more evident that not one of the +many existing theories is adequate to the explanation of the known +phenomena: but, in spite of this obvious fact, attempts are still +constantly being made, even by most eminent men, to rule the results of +experimental science into line with this or that accepted theory. The +contradictions are many and glaring, but speculative methods are still +rampant. They have become the fashion, or rather the fetish, of modern +science. It would seem that no experimental result can be of any value +until it is deductively accommodated to some preconceived hypothesis, +until it is embodied and under the sway of what is practically +scientific dogma. These methods have permeated all branches of science +more or less, but in no sphere has the tendency to indulge in +speculation been more pronounced than in that which deals with +energetics. In no sphere, also, have the consequences of such indulgence +been more disastrous. For the most part, the current conceptions of +energy processes are crude, fanciful, and inconsistent with Nature. They +require for their support--in fact, for their very existence--the +acceptance of equally fantastic conceptions of mythical substances or +ethereal media of whose real existence there is absolutely no +experimental evidence. On the assumed properties or motions of such +media are based the many inconsistent and useless attempts to explain +phenomena. But, as already pointed out, Nature has unmistakably +indicated the true path of progress to be that of experimental +investigation. In the use of this method only phenomena can be employed, +and any hypothesis which may be formulated as the result of research on +these lines is of scientific value only in so far as it is the correct +expression of the actual facts observed. By this method of holding close +to Nature reliable working hypotheses can, if necessary, be formed, and +real progress made. It is undeniably the method of true science. + +In recent years much attention has been devoted to certain speculative +theories with respect to the origin and ultimate nature of matter and +energy. Such hypotheses, emanating as they do from prominent workers, +and fostered by the inherent imaginative tendency of the human mind, +have gained considerable standing. But it is surely unnecessary to point +out that all questions relating to origins are essentially outside the +pale of true science. Any hypotheses which may be thus formulated have +not the support of experimental facts in their conclusions; they belong +rather to the realm of speculative philosophy than to that of science. +In the total absence of confirmatory phenomena, such theories can, at +best, only be regarded as plausible speculations, to be accepted, it may +be, without argument, and ranking in interest in the order of their +plausibility. + +Of modern research into the ultimate constitution of matter little +requires to be said. It is largely founded on certain radio-active and +electrical phenomena which, in themselves, contribute little +information. But aided by speculative methods and the use of +preconceived ethereal hypotheses, various elaborate theories have been +formulated, explaining matter and its properties entirely in terms of +ethereal motions. Such conceptions in their proper sphere--namely, that +of metaphysics--would be no doubt of interest, but when advanced as a +scientific proposition or solution they border on the ridiculous. In the +absence of phenomena bearing on the subject, it would seem that the last +resort of the modern scientist lies in terminology. To the average +seeker after truth, however, the term "matter," as applied to the +material world, will still convey as much meaning as the more elaborate +scientific definitions. + +It is not the purpose of this work to add another thread to the already +tangled skein of scientific theory. It is written, rather, with the +conviction, that it is impossible ever to get really behind or beyond +phenomena; in the belief that the complete description of any natural +process is simply the complete description of the associated phenomena, +which may always be observed and co-ordinated but never ultimately +explained. Phenomena must ever be accepted simply as phenomena--as the +inscrutable manifestations of Nature. By induction from phenomena it is +indeed possible to rise to working hypotheses, and thence, it may be, to +general conceptions of Nature's order, and as already pointed out, it is +to this method, of accepting phenomena, and of reasoning only from +experimental facts, that all the advances of modern science are due. On +the other hand, it is the neglect of this method--the departure, as it +were, from Nature--which has led to the introduction into the scientific +thought of the day of the various ethereal media with their extreme and +contradictory properties. The use of such devices really amounts to an +admission of direct ignorance of phenomena. They are, in reality, an +attempt to explain natural operations by a highly artificial method, +and, having no basis in fact, their whole tendency is to proceed, in +ever-increasing degree, from one absurdity to another. + +It is quite possible to gain a perfectly true and an absolutely reliable +knowledge of the properties of matter and energy, and the part which +each plays, without resorting to speculative aids. All that is required +is simply accurate and complete observation at first hand. The field of +research is wide; all Nature forms the laboratory. By this method every +result achieved may be tested and verified, not by its concurrence with +any approved theory, however plausible, but by direct reference to +phenomena. The verdict of Nature will be the final judgment on every +scheme. + +It is on these principles, allied with the great generalisations with +respect to the conservation of matter and energy, that this work is +founded. As the result of a long, varied, and intimate acquaintance with +Nature, and much experimental research in many spheres, the author has +reached the conclusion, already foreshadowed in _Terrestrial Energy_, +that the great principle of energy conservation is true, not only in the +universal and generally accepted sense, but also in a particular sense +with respect to all really separate bodies, such as planetary masses in +space. Each of these bodies, therefore, forms within itself a completely +conservative energy system. This conclusion obviously involves the +complete denial of the transmission of energy in any form across +interplanetary space, and the author, in this volume, now seeks to +verify the conclusion by the direct experimental evidence of terrestrial +phenomena. + +Under present-day conditions in science, the acceptance of the ordinary +doctrine of transmission across space involves likewise the acceptance +of the existence of an ethereal substance which pervades all space and +forms the medium by which such transmission is carried out. The +properties of this medium are, of course, precisely adapted to its +assumed function of transmission. These properties it is not necessary +to discuss, for when the existence of the transmission itself has been +finally disproved, the necessity for the transmitting medium clearly +vanishes. + + + + +PART I + +GENERAL STATEMENT + + +1. _Advantages of General View of Natural Operations_ + +The object of this statement is to outline and illustrate, in simple +fashion, a broad and general conception of the operation and interaction +of matter and energy in natural phenomena. + +Such a conception may be of value to the student of Nature, in several +ways. In modern times the general tendency of scientific work is ever +towards specialisation, with its corresponding narrowness of view. A +broad outlook on Nature is thus eminently desirable. It enables the +observer to perceive to some extent the links uniting the apparently +most insignificant of natural processes to those of seemingly greater +magnitude and importance. In this way a valuable idea of the natural +world as a whole may be gained, which will, in turn, tend generally to +clarify the aspect of particular operations. A broad general view of +Nature also leads to the appreciation of the full significance of the +great doctrines of the conservation of matter and energy. By its means +the complete verification of these doctrines, which appears to be beyond +human experiment, may be traced on the face of Nature throughout the +endless chain of natural processes. Such a view also leads to a firm +grasp of the essential nature and qualities of energy itself so far as +they are revealed by its general function in phenomena. + + +2. _Separate Mass in Space_ + +In the scheme now to be outlined, matter and energy are postulated at +the commencement without reference to their ultimate origin or inherent +nature. They are accepted, in their diverse forms, precisely as they are +familiar from ordinary terrestrial experience and phenomena. + +For the purpose of general illustration the reader is asked to conceive +a mass of heterogeneous matter, concentrated round a given point in +space, forming a single body. This mass is assumed to be assembled and +to obtain its coherent form in virtue of that universal and inherent +property of matter, namely, gravitative or central attraction. This +property is independent of precise energy conditions, its outward +manifestation being found simply in the persistent tendency of matter on +all occasions to press or force itself into the least possible space. In +the absence of all disturbing influences, therefore, the configuration +of this mass of matter, assumed assembled round the given point, would +naturally, under the influence of this gravitative tendency, resolve +itself into that of a perfect sphere. The precise magnitude or +dimensions of the spherical body thus constituted are of little moment +in the discussion, but, for illustrative purposes, it may, in the +meantime, be assumed that in mass it is equivalent to our known solar +system. It is also assumed to be completely devoid of energy, and as a +mass to be under the influence of no external constraint. Under these +conditions, the spherical body may obviously be assumed as stationary in +space, or otherwise as moving with perfectly uniform velocity along a +precisely linear path. Either conception is justifiable. The body has no +relative motion, and since it is absolutely unconstrained no force could +be applied to it and no energy expenditure would be required for its +linear movement. + + +3. _Advent of Energy--Distortional Effects_ + +Nature, however, does not furnish us with any celestial or other body +fulfilling such conditions. Absolutely linear motion is unknown, and +matter is never found divorced from energy. To complete the system, +therefore, the latter factor is required, and, with the advent of energy +to the mass, its prototype may be found in the natural world. + +This energy is assumed to be communicated in that form which we shall +term "work" energy (Secs. 13, 31) and which, as a form of energy, will be +fully dealt with later. This "work" energy is assumed to be manifested, +in the first place, as energy of motion. As already pointed out, no +expenditure of energy can be associated with a linear motion of the +mass, since that motion is under no restraint, but in virtue of the +initial central attraction or gravitative strain, the form of energy +first communicated may be that of kinetic energy of rotation. Its +transmission to the mass will cause the latter to revolve about some +axis of symmetry within itself. Each particle of the mass thus pursues a +circular path with reference to that axis, and has a velocity directly +proportional to its radial displacement from it. + +This energised rotating spherical mass is thus the primal conception of +the energy scheme now to be outlined. It will be readily seen that, as a +primal conception, it is essentially and entirely natural; so much so, +indeed, that any one familiar with rotatory motion might readily predict +from ordinary experience the resulting phenomena on which the scheme is, +more or less, based. + +When energy is applied to the mass, the first phenomenon of note will be +that, as the mass rotates, it departs from its originally spherical +shape. By the action of what is usually termed centrifugal force, the +rotating body will be distorted; it will be flattened at the polar or +regions of lowest velocity situated at the extremities of the axis of +rotation, and it will be correspondingly distended at the equatorial or +regions of highest velocity. The spherical body will, in fact, assume a +more or less discoidal form according to the amount of energy applied to +it; there will be a redistribution of the original spherical matter; +certain portions of the mass will be forced into new positions more +remote from the central axis of rotation. + + +4. _The Gravitation Field_ + +These phenomena of motion are the outward evidence of certain energy +processes. The distortional movement of the material is carried out +against the action and within the field of certain forces which exist in +the mass of material in virtue of its gravitative or cohesive qualities. +It is carried out also in virtue of the application of energy to the +sphere, which energy has been, as it were, transformed or worked down, +in the distortional movement, against the restraining action of this +gravitation field or influence. The outward displacement of the material +from the central axis is thus coincident with a gain of energy to the +mass, this gain of energy being, of course, at the expense of, and by +the direct transformation of, the originally applied energy. It is +stored in the distorted material as energy of position, potential +energy, or energy of displacement relative to the central axis. But, in +the distortive movement, the mass will also gain energy in other forms. +The movement of one portion of its material relative to another will +give rise (since it is carried out under the gravitational influence) to +a fractional process in which, as we know from terrestrial experience, +heat and electrical energy will make their appearance. These forms of +energy will give rise, in their turn, to all the phenomena usually +attendant on their application to material. As already pointed out also, +the whole mass gains, in varying degree, energy of motion or kinetic +energy. It would appear, then, that although energy was nominally +applied to the mass in one form only, yet by its characteristic property +of transformation it has in reality manifested itself in several +entirely different forms. It is important to note the part played in +these transformation processes by the gravitation field or influence. +Its action really reveals one of the vital working principles of +energetics. This principle may be generally stated thus:-- + + EVERY TRANSFORMATION OF ENERGY IS CARRIED OUT BY THE ACTION OF + ENERGISED MATTER IN THE LINES OR FIELD OF AN INCEPTING ENERGY + INFLUENCE. + +In the particular case we have just considered, the incepting field is +simply the inherent gravitative property of the energised mass. This +property is manifested as an attractive force between portions of +matter. This, however, is not of necessity the only aspect of an +incepting influence. In the course of this work various instances of +transformation will be presented in which the incepting influence +functions in a guise entirely different. It is important to note that +the incepting influence itself is in no way changed, altered, or +transformed during the process of transformation which it influences. + + +5. _Limits of Rotational Energy. Disruptional Phenomena_ + +It is clear that the material at different parts of the rotating +spheroid will be energised to varying degrees. Since the linear velocity +of the material in the equatorial regions of the spheroid is greater +than that of the material about the poles, the energy of motion of the +former will exceed that of the latter, the difference becoming greater +as the mass is increasingly energised and assumes more and more the +discoidal form. + +The question now arises as to how far this process of energising the +material mass may be carried. What are its limits? The capacity of the +rotating body for energy clearly depends on the amount of work which +may be spent on its material in distorting it against the influence of +the gravitative attraction. The amount is again dependent on the +strength of this attraction. But the value of the gravitative attraction +or gravitation field is, by the law of gravitation, in direct proportion +to the quantity of material or matter present, and hence the capacity of +the body for energy depends on its mass or on the quantity of matter +which composes it. + +Now if energy be impressed on this mass beyond its capacity a new order +of phenomena appears. Distortion will be followed by disruption and +disintegration. By the action of the disruptive forces a portion of the +primary material will be projected into space as a planetary body. The +manner of formation of such a secondary body is perhaps best illustrated +by reference to the commonplace yet beautiful and suggestive phenomenon +of the separation of a drop of water or other viscous fluid under the +action of gravitation. In this process, during the first downward +movement of the drop, it is united to its source by a portion of +attenuated material which is finally ruptured, one part moving downwards +and being embodied in the drop whilst the remainder springs upwards +towards the source. In the process of formation of the planetary body we +are confronted with an order of phenomena of somewhat the same nature. +The planetary orb which is hurled into space is formed in a manner +similar to the drop of viscous fluid, and under the action of forces of +the same general nature. One of these forces is the bond of gravitative +attraction between planet and primary which is never severed, and when +complete separation of the two masses finally occurs, the incessant +combination of this force with the tangential force of disruption acting +on the planet will compel it into a fixed orbit, which it will pursue +around the central axis. When all material links have thus been severed, +the two bodies will then be absolutely separate masses in space. The +term "separate" is here used in its most rigid and absolute sense. No +material connection of any kind whatever exists, either directly or +indirectly, between the two masses. Each one is completely isolated from +the other by interplanetary space, and in reality, so far as material +connection is concerned, each one might be the sole occupant of that +space. This conception of separate masses in space is of great +importance to the author's scheme, but, at the same time, the condition +is one which cannot be illustrated by any terrestrial experimental +contrivance. It will be obvious that such a device, as might naturally +be conceived, of isolating two bodies by placing them in an exhausted +vessel or vacuous space, by no means complies with the full conditions +of true separation portrayed above, because some material connection +must always exist between the enclosed bodies and the containing +vessel. This aspect is more fully treated later (Sec. 30). The condition of +truly separate masses is, in fact, purely a celestial one. No means +whatever are existent whereby such a condition may be faithfully +reproduced in a terrestrial environment. + +In their separate condition the primary and planetary mass will each +possess a definite and unvarying amount of energy. It is to be noted +also, that since the original mass of the primary body has been +diminished by the mass of the planet cast off, the capacity for energy +of the primary will now be diminished in a corresponding degree. Any +further increment of energy to the primary in any form has now, however, +no direct influence on the energy of the planet, which must maintain its +position of complete isolation in its orbit. But although thus separate +and distinct from the primal mass in every material respect, the planet +is ever linked to it by the invisible bond of gravitation, and every +movement made by the planet in approaching or receding from the primary +is made in the field or influence of this attraction. In accordance, +therefore, with the general principle already enunciated (Sec. 4), these +actions or movements of the energised planetary mass, being made in the +field of the incepting gravitative influence, will be accompanied by +transformations, and thus the energy of the planet, although unvarying +in its totality, may vary in its form or distribution with the inward or +outward movement of the planet in its orbital path. As the planet +recedes from the primary it gains energy of position, but this gain is +obtained solely at the expense, and by the direct transformation of its +own orbital energy of motion. Its velocity in its orbit must, therefore, +decrease as it recedes from the central axis of the system, and increase +as it approaches that axis. Thus from energy considerations alone it is +clear that, if the planetary orbit is not precisely circular, the +velocity of the planet must vary at different points of its path. + + +6. _Passive Function and General Nature of Gravitation Field_ + +From the phenomena described above, it will be observed that, in the +energy processes of transformation occurring in both primary and planet, +the function of the gravitation field or influence is entirely passive +in nature. The field is, in truth, the persistent moving or directing +power behind the energy processes, the incepting energy influence or +agency which determines the nature of the transformation in each case +without being, in any way, actively engaged in it. In accelerating or +retarding the transformation process it has thus absolutely no effect. +These features are controlled by other factors. Neither does this +incepting agency affect, in any way, the limits of the transformation +process, these limits being prescribed by the physical or energy +qualities of the acting materials. In general nature the gravitation +field appears to be simply an energy influence--a peculiar manifestation +of certain passive qualities of energy. This aspect will, however, +become clearer to the reader when the properties of gravitation are +studied in conjunction with those of other incepting energy influences +(Secs. 17, 18, 19). + + +7. _Limit of Gravitation Transformation_ + +In the case of a planetary body, there is a real limit to the extent of +the transformation of its orbital energy of motion under the influence +of the gravitation field. As the orbit of the planet widens, and its +mean distance from the primary becomes greater, its velocity in its +orbital path must correspondingly decrease. As already pointed out (Sec. +5), this decrease is simply the result of the orbital energy of motion +being transformed or worked down into energy of position. But since this +orbital energy is strictly limited in amount, a point must ultimately be +reached where it would be transformed in its entirety into energy of +position. When this limiting condition is attained, the planet clearly +could have no orbital motion; it would be instantaneously at rest in +somewhat the same way as a projectile from the earth's surface is at +rest at the summit of its flight in virtue of the complete +transformation of its energy of motion into energy of position. In this +limiting condition, also, the energy of position of the planet would be +the maximum possible, and its orbital energy zero. The scope of the +planetary orbital path is thus rigidly determined by the planetary +energy properties. Assuming the reduction of gravity with distance to +follow the usual law of inverse squares, the value of the displacement +of the planet from the central axis when in this stationary or limiting +position may be readily calculated if the various constants are known. +In any given case it is obvious that this limiting displacement must be +a finite quantity, since the planetary orbital energy which is being +worked down is itself finite in amount. + + +8. _Interactions of Two Planetary Bodies--Equilibrium Phenomena_ + +Up to the present point, the cosmical system has been assumed to be +composed of one planetary body only in addition to the primary mass. It +is clear, however, that by repetition of the process already described, +the system could readily evolve more than one planet; it might, in fact, +have several planetary masses originating in the same primary, each +endowed with a definite modicum of energy, and each pursuing a +persistent orbit round the central axis of the system. Since the mass of +the primary decreases as each successive planet is cast off, its +gravitative attractive powers will also decrease, and with every such +decline in the central restraining force the orbits of the previously +constituted planets will naturally widen. By the formation in this way +of a series of planetary masses, the material of the original primary +body would be as it were distributed over a larger area or space, and +this separation would be accompanied by a corresponding decrease in the +gravitative attraction between the several masses. If the distributive +or disruptive process were carried to its limit by the continuous +application of rotatory energy to each separate unit of the system, this +limit would be dependent on the capacity of the system for energy. As is +shown later (Sec. 20), this capacity would be determined by the mass of the +system. + +For simplicity, let us consider the case in which there are two +planetary bodies only in the system in addition to the primary. In +virtue of the gravitative attraction or gravitation field between the +two, they will mutually attract one another in their motion, and each +will, in consequence, be deflected more or less out of that orbital path +which it would normally pursue in the absence of the other. This +attraction will naturally be greatest when the planets are in the +closest proximity; the planet having the widest orbit will then be drawn +inwards towards the central axis, the other will be drawn outwards. The +distance moved in this way by each will depend on its mass, and on the +forces brought to bear on it by the combined action of the two remaining +masses of the system. Moving thus in different directions, the motion of +each planet is carried out in the lines of the gravitation field between +the two. One planet, therefore, gains and the other loses energy of +position with respect to the central axis of the system. The one planet +can thus influence, to some extent, the energy properties of the other, +although there is absolutely no direct energy communication between the +two; as shown hereafter, the whole action and the energy change will be +due simply to the motion carried out in the field of the incepting +gravitation influence. + +It is clear, however, that this influence is exerted on the distribution +of the energy, on the form in which it is manifested, and in no way +affects the energy totality of either planet. Each, as before, remains a +separate system with conservative energy properties. That planet which +loses energy of position gains energy of motion, and is correspondingly +accelerated in its orbital path; the other, in gaining energy of +position, does so at the expense of its own energy of motion, and is +retarded accordingly. The action is really very simple in nature when +viewed from a purely energy standpoint. It has been dealt with in some +detail in order to emphasise the fact that there is absolutely nothing +in the nature of a transmission of energy between one planet and the +other. Taking a superficial view of the operation, it might be inferred +that, as the planets approach one another, energy of motion (or energy +of position) is transmitted from one to the other, causing one to retard +and the other to accelerate its movement, but a real knowledge of the +energy conditions shows that the phenomenon is rather one of a simple +restoration of equilibrium, a redistribution or transformation of the +intrinsic energy of each to suit these altering conditions. Each planet +is, in the truest sense, a separate mass in space. + + +9. _Axial Energy--Secondary Processes_ + +Passing now to another aspect of the energy condition of a planetary +body, let the planet be assumed to be endowed with axial energy or +energy of rotation, so that, while pursuing its orbital path in space, +it also rotates with uniform angular velocity about an axis within +itself. What will be the effect of the primary mass on the planet under +these new energy conditions? We conceive that the effect is again purely +one of transformation. In this process the primary mass functions once +more as an entirely passive or incepting agent, which, while exerting a +continuous transforming influence on the planet, does not affect in any +way the inherent energy properties of the latter. Up to the present +point we have only dealt with one incepting influence in transformation +processes, namely, that of gravitation, which has always been +manifested as an attractive force. It is not to be supposed, however, +that this is the only aspect in which incepting influences may be +presented. Although attractive force is certainly an aspect of some +incepting influences, it is not a distinctive feature of incepting +influences generally. In many cases, the aspect of force, in the sense +of attraction or repulsion, is entirely awanting. In the new order of +transformations which come into play in virtue of the rotatory motion of +a planetary mass in the field of its primary, we shall find other +incepting influences in action entirely different in nature from the +gravitation influence, but, nevertheless, arising from the same primary +mass in a similar way. Now the application of energy to the planet, +causing it to rotate in the lines or under the influence of these +incepting fields of the primary, brings into existence on the planet an +entirely new order of phenomena. So long as the planet had no axial +motion of rotation, some of the incepting influences of the primary were +compelled, as it were, to inaction; but with the advent of axial energy +the conditions are at once favourable to their action, and to the +detection of their transforming effects. In accordance with the general +principle already enunciated (Sec. 4), the action of the planetary +energised material in the lines of the various incepting fields of the +primary is productive of energy transformations. The active energy of +these transformations is the axial or rotatory energy of the planet +itself, and, in virtue of these transformations, certain other forms of +energy will be manifested on the planet and associated with the various +forms of planetary material. These manifestations of energy, in fact, +constitute planetary phenomena. Since the action or movement of the +rotating material of the planet through the incepting fields of the +primary is most pronounced in the equatorial or regions of highest +linear velocity, and least in the regions of low velocity adjoining the +poles of rotation, the transforming effect may naturally be expected to +decrease in intensity from equator to poles. Planetary energy phenomena +will thus vary according to the location of the acting material. It will +be clear, also, that each incepting agency or influence associated with +the primary mass will give rise to its own peculiar transformations of +axial energy on the planetary surface. These leading or primary +transformations of axial energy, in which the incepting influence is +associated with the primary mass only, we term primary processes. But it +is evident that the various forms of energy thus set free on the planet +as a result of the primary processes will be communicated to, and will +operate on, the different forms of planetary material, and will give +rise to further or secondary transformations of energy, in which the +incepting agency is embodied in or associated with planetary material +only. The exact nature of these secondary transformations will vary +according to the circumstances in which they take place. Each of them, +however, as indicated above, will be, in itself, carried out in virtue +of some action of the energised planetary material in the lines or field +of what we might term a secondary incepting influence. The latter, +however, must not be confused with the influences of the primary. It is +essentially a planetary phenomenon, an aspect of planetary energy; it is +associated with the physical or material machine by means of which the +secondary process of transformation is carried out. The nature of this +secondary influence will determine the nature of the secondary +transformation in each case. Its precise extent may be limited by other +considerations (Sec. 15). + +As an example, assume a portion of the axial energy to be primarily +transformed into heat in virtue of the planet's rotation in the field of +an independent thermal incepting influence exerted by the primary. To +the action of this agency, which we might term the thermal field, we +assume are due all primary heating phenomena of planetary material. Now +the secondary transformations will take place when the heat energy thus +manifested is applied to some form of matter. It is obvious, however, +that this application might be carried out in various ways. Heat may be +devoted to the expansion of a solid against its cohesive forces. It may +be expended against the elastic forces of a gas, or it may be worked +down against chemical or electrical forces. In every case a +transformation of energy will result, varying in nature according to the +peculiar conditions under which it is carried out. In this or a similar +fashion each primary incepting influence may give rise to a series of +secondary actions more or less complex in nature. These secondary +transformation processes, allied with other processes of transmission, +will, in fact, constitute the visible phenomena of the planet, and in +their variety will exactly correspond to these phenomena. + +With regard to the gravitation field, its general influence on the +rotating mass may be readily predicted. The material on that part of the +planetary surface which is nearest to or happens to face the primary in +rotation is, during the short time it occupies that position, subjected +to a greater attractive influence than the remainder which is more +remote from the primary. It will, in consequence, tend to be more or +less distorted or elevated above its normal position on the planetary +surface. This distorting effect will vary in degree according to the +nature of the material, whether solid, liquid, or gaseous, but the +general effect of the distortional movement, combined with the rotatory +motion of the planet, will be to produce a tidal action or a periodical +rise and fall of the more fluid material distributed over the planetary +surface. The distortion will, of course, be accompanied by energy +processes in which axial energy will be transformed into heat and other +forms, which will finally operate in the secondary processes exactly as +in previous cases. + + +10. _Mechanism of Energy Return_ + +But the question now arises, as to how this continuous transformation of +the axial energy can be consistent with that condition of uniformity of +rotation of the planet which was originally assumed. If the total energy +of the planetary mass is limited, and if it can receive no increment of +energy from any external source, it is clear that the axial energy +transformed must, by some process, be continuously returned to its +original form. Some process or mechanism is evidently necessary to carry +out this operation. This mechanism we conceive to be provided by certain +portions of the material of the planet, principally the gaseous matter +which resides on its surface, completely enveloping it, and extending +outwards into space (Sec. 38). In other words, the atmosphere of the planet +forms the machine or material agency by which this return of the +transformed axial energy is carried out. It has already been pointed out +(Sec. 9) how the working energy of every secondary transformation is +derived from the original axial energy of the planet itself. Each of +these secondary transformations, however, forms but one link of one +cyclical chain of secondary transformations, in which a definite +quantity of energy, initially in the axial form, passes, in these +secondary operations, through various other forms, by different +processes and through the medium of different material machines, until +it is eventually absorbed into the atmosphere of the planet. These +complete series of cyclical operations, by which the various portions of +axial energy are carried to the atmosphere, may in some cases be of a +very simple nature, and may be continuously repeated over very short +intervals of time; in other cases, the cycle may seem obscure and +complicated, and its complete operation spread over very long periods, +but in all cases the final result is the same. The axial energy +abstracted, sooner or later, recurs to the atmospheric machine. By its +action in this machine, great masses of gaseous material are elevated +from the surface of the planet against the attractive force of +gravitation; the energy will thus now appear in the form of potential +energy or energy of position. By a subsequent movement of these gaseous +masses over the surface of the planet from the regions of high velocity +towards the poles, combined with a movement of descent to lower levels, +the energy of position with which they were endowed is returned once +more in the original axial form. + +This, roughly, constitutes the working of the planetary atmospheric +machine, which, while in itself completely reversible and +self-contained, forms also at the same time the source and the sink of +all the energy working in the secondary transformations. In the +ceaseless rounds of these transformations which form planetary phenomena +it links together the initial and concluding stages of each series by a +reversible process. Energy is thus stored and restored continuously. The +planet thus neither gains nor loses energy of axial motion; so far as +its energy properties are concerned, it is entirely independent of every +external influence. Its uniformity of rotation is absolutely maintained. +Each planet of the system will, in the same way, be an independent and +conservative unit. + + +11. _Review of Cosmical System--General Function of Energy_ + +Reviewing the system as a whole, the important part played by energy in +its constitution is readily perceived. The source of the energy which +operates in all parts of the system is found in that energy originally +applied (Sec. 3). When the system is finally constituted, this energy is +found distributed amongst the planets, each of which has received its +share, and each of which is thereby linked to the primary by its +influence. It is part of this same energy which undergoes transformation +in virtue of the orbital movements of the planets in the field of the +gravitative influence. Again, it is found in the form of planetary +axial energy, and thence, under the influence of various incepting +agencies, it passes in various forms through the whole gamut of +planetary phenomena, and finally functions in the atmospheric machine. +Every phenomenon of the system, great or small, is, in fact, but the +external evidence either of the transformation or of the transmission of +this energy--the outward manifestation of its changed or changing forms. +Its presence, which always implies its transformation (Sec. 4), is the +simple primary condition attached to every operation. The primal mass +originally responded to the application of energy by the presentation of +phenomena. Every material portion of the system will similarly respond +according to circumstances. Energy is, in fact, the working spirit of +the whole cosmical scheme. It is the influence linking every operation +of the system to the original transformations at the central axis, so +that all may be combined into one complete and consistent whole. It is +to be noted, however, that although they have a common origin the +orbital energy of each planetary mass is entirely distinct from its +energy of axial rotation, and is not interchangeable therewith. The +transformation of the one form of energy in no way affects the totality +of the other. + +The disruption of the primary mass furnishes a view of what is virtually +the birth of gravitation as it is conceived to exist between separate +bodies. It may now be pointed out that the attractive influence of +gravitation is, in reality, but one of the many manifestations of energy +of the system. It is not, however, an active manifestation of the +working energy, but rather an aspect of energy as it is related to the +properties of matter. We have absolutely no experimental experience of +matter devoid of energy. Gravitation might readily be termed an energy +property of matter, entirely passive in nature, and requiring the advent +of some other form in order that it may exercise its function as an +incepting agency. + +From a general consideration of the features of this system, in which +every phenomenon is an energy phenomenon, it seems feasible to conclude +also that every property of matter is likewise an energy property. It is +certain, indeed, that no reasonable or natural concept of either matter +or energy is possible if the two be dissociated. The system also +presents a direct and clear illustration of the principles of +conservation in the working of the whole, and also in each planetary +unit. + + +12. _Natural Conditions_ + +It will be noted that, up to the present point, the cosmical system has +been discussed from a purely abstract point of view. This method has +been adopted for a definite reason. Although able, at all points, to +bring more or less direct evidence from Nature, the author has no desire +that his scheme should be regarded in any way as an attempt to originate +or describe a system of creation. The object has been, by general +reasoning from already accepted properties of matter and energy, to +arrive at a true conception of a possible natural order of phenomena. It +is obvious, however, that the solar system forms the prototype of the +system described above. The motion of the earth and other planets is +continuously occurring under the influence of gravitation, thermal, +luminous, and other incepting fields which link them to the central +mass, the sun. As a result of the action of such fields, energy +transformations arise which form the visible phenomena of the system in +all its parts, each transformation, whether associated with animate or +inanimate matter, being carried out through the medium of some +arrangement of matter hereafter referred to as a material machine. The +conditions are precisely as laid down above. The system is dominated, in +its separate units, and as a whole, by the great principle of the +conservation of energy. Each planetary mass, as it revolves in space, +is, so far as its energy properties are concerned, an absolutely +conservative unit of that system. At the same time, however, each +planetary mass remains absolutely dependent on the primary for those +great controlling or incepting influences which determine the +transformation of its inherent energy. + +In the special case of the earth, which will be dealt with in some +detail, it is the object of this work to show that its property of +complete energy conservation is amply verified by terrestrial phenomena. +The extension of the principle from the earth to the whole planetary +system has been made on precisely the same grounds as Newton extended +the observed phenomena to his famous generalisation with respect to +gravitation. + + + + +PART II + +PRINCIPLES OF INCEPTION + + +13. _Illustrative Secondary Processes_ + +In this part of the work, an attempt will be made to place before the +reader some of the purely terrestrial and other evidential phenomena on +which the conclusions of the preceding General Statement are founded. +The complete and absolute verification of that Statement is obviously +beyond experimental device. Bound, as we are, within the confines of one +planet, and unable to communicate with the others, we can have no direct +experimental acquaintance with really separate bodies (Sec. 5) in space. +But, if from purely terrestrial experience we can have no direct proofs +on such matters, we have strong evidential conclusions which cannot be +gainsayed. If the same kind of energy operates throughout the solar +system, the experimental knowledge of its properties gained in one field +of research is valuable, and may be readily utilised in another. The +phenomena which are available to us for study are, of course, simply the +ordinary energy processes of the earth--those operations which in the +foregoing Statement have been described as secondary energy processes. +Their variety is infinite, and the author has accordingly selected +merely a few typical examples to illustrate the salient points of the +scheme. The energy acting in these secondary processes is, in every +case, derived, either directly or indirectly, from the energy of +rotation or axial energy of the earth. In themselves, the processes may +be either energy transformations or energy transmissions or a +combination of both these operations. When the action involves the +bodily movement of material mass in space, the dynamical energy thus +manifested, and which may be transmitted by the movement of this +material, is termed mechanical or "work" energy (Sec. 31); when the energy +active in the process is manifested as heat, chemical, or electrical +energy, we apply to it the term "molecular" energy. The significance of +these terms is readily seen. The operation of mechanical or "work" +energy on a mass of material may readily proceed without any permanent +alteration in the internal arrangement or general structure of that +mass. Mechanical or "work" energy is dissociated from any molecular +action. On the other hand, the application of such forms of energy as +heat or electrical energy to material leads to distinctly molecular or +internal effects, in which some alteration in the constitution of the +body affected may ensue. Hence the use of the terms, which of course is +completely arbitrary. + +The principal object of this part of the work is to illustrate clearly +the general nature, the working, and the limits of secondary processes. +For this purpose, the author has found it best to refer to certain more +or less mechanical contrivances. The apparatus made use of is merely +that utilised in everyday work for experimental or other useful +purposes. It is essentially of a very simple nature; no originality is +claimed for it, and no apology is offered for the apparent simplicity of +the particular energy operations chosen for discussion. In fact, this +feature has rather led to their selection. In scientific circles to-day, +familiarity with the more common instances of energy operations is apt +to engender the belief that these processes are completely understood. +There is no greater fallacy. In many cases, no doubt, the superficial +phenomena are well known, but in even the simplest instances the +mechanism or ultimate nature of the process remains unknown. A free and +somewhat loose method of applying scientific terms is frequently the +cloak which hides the ignorance of the observer. No attempt will here be +made to go beyond the simple phenomena. The object in view is simply to +describe such phenomena, to emphasise and explain certain aspects of +already well-known facts, which, up to the present, have been neglected. + +In some of the operations now to be described, mechanical or "work" +energy is the active agent, and material masses are thereby caused to +execute various movements in the lines or field of restraining +influences. For ordinary experimental convenience, the material thus +moved must of necessity be matter in the solid form. The illustrative +value of our experimental devices, however, will be very distinctly +improved if it be borne in mind that the operations of mechanical energy +are not restricted to solids only, but that the various processes of +transformation and transmission here illustrated by the motions of solid +bodies may, in other circumstances, be carried out in a precisely +similar fashion by the movements of liquids or even of gases. The +restrictions imposed in the method of illustration are simply those due +to the limitations of human experimental contrivance. Natural operations +exhibit apparatus of a different type. By the movements of solid +materials a convenient means of illustration is provided, but it is to +be emphasised that, so far as the operations of mechanical energy are +concerned, the precise form or nature of the material moved, whether it +be solid, liquid, or gaseous, is of no consequence. To raise one pound +of lead through a given distance against the gravitative attraction of +the earth requires no greater expenditure of energy than to raise one +pound of hydrogen gas through the same distance. The same principle +holds in all operations involving mechanical energy. + +Another point of some importance which will be revealed by the study of +secondary operations is that every energy process has in some manner +definite energy limits imposed upon it. In the workings of mechanical or +"work" energy it is the mass value of the moving material which, in this +respect, is important. The mass, in fact, is the real governing factor +of the whole process (Sec. 20). It determines the maximum amount of energy +which can be applied to the material, and thus controls the extent of +the energy operation. + +But in actions involving the molecular energies, the operation may be +limited by other considerations altogether. For example, the application +of heat to a solid body gives rise to certain energy processes (Sec. 27). +These processes may proceed to a certain degree with increase of +temperature, but a point will finally be attained where change of state +of the heated material takes place. This is the limiting point of this +particular operation. When change of state occurs, the phenomena will +assume an entirely different aspect. The first set of energy processes +will now be replaced by a set of operations absolutely different in +nature, themselves limited in extent, but by entirely different causes. +The first operation must thus terminate when the new order appears. In +this manner each process in which the applied energy is worked will be +confined within certain limiting boundaries. In any chain of energy +operations each link will thus have, as it were, a definite length. In +chemical reactions, the limits may be imposed in various ways according +to the precise nature of the action. Chemical combination, and chemical +disruption, must be looked on as operations which involve not only the +transformation of energy but also the transformation of matter. In most +cases, chemical reactions result in the appearance of matter in an +entirely new form--in the appearance, in fact, of actually different +material, with physical and energy properties absolutely distinct from +those of the reacting constituents. This appearance of matter in the new +form is usually the evidence of the termination, not only of the +particular chemical process, but also of the energy process associated +with it. Transformation of energy may thus be limited by transformation +of matter. + +Examples of the limiting features of energy operations could readily be +multiplied. Even a cursory examination of most natural operations will +reveal the existence of such limits. In no case do we find in Nature any +body, or any energy system, to which energy may be applied in unlimited +amount, but in every case, rigid energy limits are imposed, and, if +these limits are exceeded, the whole energy character of the body or +system is completely changed. + + +14. _Incepting Energy Influences_ + +In experimental and in physical work generally, it has been customary, +in describing any simple process of energy transformation, to take +account only of those energies or those forms of energy which play an +active part in the process--the energy in its initial or applied form +and the energy in its transformed or final form. This method, however, +requires enlarging so as to include another feature of energy +transformation, a feature hitherto completely overlooked, namely, that +of incepting energy. Now, this conception of incepting energy, or of +energy as an incepting influence, is of such vital importance to the +author's scheme, that it is necessary here, at the very outset, to deal +with it in some detail. To obtain some idea of the general nature of +these influences, it will be necessary to describe and review a few +simple instances of energy transformation. One of the most illuminating +for this purpose is perhaps the familiar process of dynamo-electric +transformation. + +A spherical mass A (Fig. 1) of copper is caused to rotate about its +central axis in the magnetic field in the neighbourhood of a long and +powerful electro-magnet. In such circumstances, certain well-known +transformations of energy will take place. The energy transformed is +that dynamical or "work" energy which is being applied to the spherical +mass by the external prime mover causing it to rotate. As a result of +this motion in the magnetic field, an electrical action takes place; +eddy currents are generated in the spherical mass, and the energy +originally applied is, through the medium of the electrical process, +finally converted into heat and other energy forms. The external +evidence of the process will be the rise in temperature and +corresponding expansion of the rotating mass. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1] + +Such is the energy transformation. Let us now review the conditions +under which it takes place. Passing over the features of the "work" +energy applied and the energy produced in the transformation, it is +evident that the primary and essential condition of the whole process is +the presence of the magnetic field. In the absence of this influence, +every other condition of this particular energy operation might have +been fulfilled without result. The magnetic field is, in reality, the +determining agency of the process. But this field of magnetic force is +itself an energy influence. Its existence implies the presence of +energy; it is the external manifestation of that energy (usually +described as stored in the field) which is returned, as shown by the +spark, when the exciting circuit of the electro-magnet is broken. The +transformation of the dynamical or "work" energy (Sec. 31) applied to the +rotating sphere is thus carried out by the direct agency, under the +power, or within the field of this magnetic energy influence, to which, +accordingly, we apply the expression, incepting energy influence, or +incepting energy. + +There are several points to be noted with regard to these phenomena of +inception. In the first place, it is clear that the energy which thus +constitutes the magnetic field plays no active part in the main process +of transformation: during the operation it neither varies in value nor +in nature: it is entirely a passive agent. Neither is any continuous +expenditure of energy required for the maintenance of this incepting +influence. It is true that the magnetic field is primarily due to a +circulatory current in the coils or winding of the electro-magnet, but +after the initial expenditure of energy in establishing that field is +incurred, the continuous expenditure of energy during the flow of the +current is devoted to simply heating the coils. A continuous heat +transformation is thus in progress. The magnetic energy influence, +although closely associated with this heat transformation, yet +represents in itself a distinct and separate energy feature. This last +point is, perhaps, made more clear if it be assumed that, without +altering the system in any way, the electro-magnet is replaced by a +permanent magnet of precisely the same dimensions and magnetic power. +There would then be no energy expenditure whatever for excitation, but +nevertheless, the main transformation would take place in precisely the +same manner and to exactly the same degree as before. The incepting +energy influence is found in the residual magnetism. + +If an iron ball or sphere were substituted, in the experiment, for the +copper one, the phenomena observed on its rotation would be of an +exactly similar nature to those described above. There is, however, one +point of difference. Since the iron is magnetic, the magnet pole will +now exert an attractive force on the iron mass, and if the latter were +in close proximity to the pole (Fig. 1), a considerable expenditure of +energy might be required to separate the two. It is evident, then, that +in the case of iron and the magnetic metals, this magnetic influence is +such that an expenditure of energy is required, not only to cause these +materials to move in rotation so as to cut the lines of the field of the +magnetic influence, but also to cause them to move outwards from the +seat of the influence _along_ the lines of the field. The movements, +indeed, involve transformations of energy totally different in nature. +Assuming the energy to be obtained, in both cases, from the same +external source, it is, in the first instance, converted by rotatory +motion in the field into electrical and heat energy, whereas, in the +second case, by the outward motion of displacement from the pole, it is +transformed and associated with the mass in the form of energy of +position or energy of displacement relative to the pole. Since the +attractive force between the iron mass and the pole may be assumed to +diminish according to a well-known law, the energy transformation per +unit displacement will also diminish at the same rate. The precise +nature and extent of the influence of the incepting agent thus depend on +the essential qualities of the energised material under its power. In +this case, the magnetic metals, such as iron, provide phenomena of +attraction which are notably absent in the case of the dia-magnetic +metals such as copper. Other substances, such as wood, appear to be +absolutely unaffected by any movement in the magnetic field. The precise +energy condition of the materials in the field of the incepting +influence is also an important point. The incepting energy might be +regarded as acting, not on the material itself, but rather on the energy +associated with that material. From the phenomena already considered, it +is clear that before the incepting influence of magnetism can act on the +copper ball, the latter must be endowed with energy of rotation. It is +on this energy, then, that the incepting influence exerts its +transforming power. It would be useless to energise the copper ball, say +by raising it to a high temperature, and then place it at rest in the +magnetic field; the magnetic energy influence would not operate on the +heat energy, and consequently, no transformation would ensue. + +It is easy to conceive, also, that in the course of an energy +transformation, the material may attain an energy condition in which the +incepting influence no longer affects it. Take once more the case of the +iron ball. It is well known that, at a high temperature, iron becomes +non-magnetic. It would follow, then, that if the rotational +transformation in the magnetic field could be carried out to the +requisite degree, so that, by the continuous application of that heat +energy which is the final product of the process, the ball had attained +this temperature, then the other transformation consequent on the +displacement of the ball from the attracting pole could not take place. +No change has really occurred in the incepting energy conditions. They +are still continuous and persistent, but the energy changes in the +material itself have carried it, to a certain degree, beyond the +influence of these conditions. + + +15. _Cohesion as an Incepting Influence_ + +Other aspects of incepting energy may be derived from the examples cited +above. Returning to the case of the rotating copper sphere, let it be +assumed that in consequence of its rotation in the magnetic field it is +raised from a low to a high temperature. Due to the heating effect +alone, the mass will expand or increase in volume. This increase is the +evidence of a definite energy process by which certain particles or +portions of the mass have in distortion gained energy of +position--energy of separation--or potential energy relative to the +centre of the sphere. In fact, if the mass were allowed to cool back to +its normal condition, this energy might by a suitable arrangement be +made available for some form of external work. It is obvious, however, +that this new energy of position or separation which has accrued to the +mass in its heated condition has in reality been obtained by the +transformation of the "work" energy originally applied. The abnormal +displacement of certain particles or portions of the mass from the +centre of the sphere is simply the external evidence of their increased +energy. Now this displacement, or strain, due to the heat expansion, is +carried out against the action of certain cohesive forces or stresses +existing between the particles throughout the mass. These cohesive +forces are, in fact, the agency which determines this transformation of +heat into energy of position. Their existence is essential to the +process. But these cohesive forces are simply the external manifestation +of that energy by virtue of which the mass tends to maintain its +coherent form. They are the symbol of that energy which might be termed +the cohesion energy of the mass--they are, in fact, the symbol of the +incepting energy influence of the transformation. This incepting energy +influence of cohesion is one which holds sway throughout all solid +material. It is, therefore, found in action in every movement involving +the internal displacement or distortion of matter. It is a property of +matter, and accordingly it is found to vary not only with the material, +but also with the precise physical condition or the energy state of the +material with which it is associated. In this respect, it differs +entirely from the preceding magnetic influence. The latter, we have +seen, has no direct association with the copper ball, or with the +material which is the actual venue of the transformation. As an energy +influence, it is itself persistent, and unaffected by the energy state +of that material. On the other hand, the cohesion energy, being purely a +property of the material which is the habitat of the energy process, is +directly affected by its energy state. This point will be clearer by +reference to the actual phenomena of the heat transformation. As the +process proceeds, the temperature of the mass as the expansion increases +will rise higher and higher, until, at a certain point, the solid +material is so energised that change of state ensues. At this, the +melting-point of the material, liquefaction takes place, and its +cohesive properties almost vanish. In this fashion, then, a limit is +clearly imposed on the process of heat transformation in the solid +body--a limit defined by the cohesive or physical properties of the +particular material. In this limiting power lies the difference between +cohesion and magnetism as incepting influences. Looking at the whole +dynamo-electric transformation in a general way, it will be clear that +the magnetic influence in no way limits or affects the amount of +dynamical or "work" energy which may be applied to the rotating sphere. +This amount is limited simply by the cohesive properties of the material +mass in rotation. The magnetic influence might, in fact, be regarded as +the primary or inducing factor in the system, and the cohesion influence +as the secondary or limiting factor. + + +16. _Terrestrial Gravitation as an Incepting Influence_ + +The attractive influence of gravitation appears as an incepting agency +in terrestrial as well as in celestial phenomena. In fact, of all the +agencies which incept energy transformations on the earth, gravitation, +in one form or another, is the most universal and the most important. +Gravitation being a property of all matter, no mundane body, animate or +inanimate, is exempt from its all-pervading influence, and every +movement of energised matter within the field of that influence leads +inevitably to energy transformation. + +Let us take a concrete illustration. A block of solid material is +supported on a horizontal table. By means of a cord attached, energy is +applied to the block from an external source, so that it slides over the +surface of the table. As a result of this motion and the associated +frictional process, heat energy will make its appearance at the sliding +surfaces of contact. This heat energy is obviously obtained by the +transformation of that energy originally applied to the block from the +external source. What is the incepting influence in this process of +transformation? The incepting influence is clearly the gravitative +attraction of the earth operating between the moving block and the +table. The frictional process, it is well known, is dependent in extent +or degree on the pressure between the surfaces in contact. This pressure +is, of course, due to the gravitative attraction of the earth on the +mass of the block. If it be removed, say by supporting the block from +above, the heat-transformation process at the surfaces at once +terminates. Gravity, then, is the primary incepting influence of the +process. The effect of gravitation in transformation has apparently been +eliminated by supporting the block from above and removing the pressure +between block and table. It is not really so, however, because the +pressure due to the gravitative attraction of the earth on the block has +in reality only been transferred to this new point of support, and if a +movement of the block is carried out it will be found that the heat +transformation has been also transferred to that point. But there are +also other influences at work in the process. The extent of the heat +transformation depends, not only on the pressure, but also on the nature +of the surfaces in contact. It is evident, that in the sliding movement +the materials in the neighbourhood of the surfaces in contact will be +more or less strained or distorted. This distortion is carried out in +the lines of the cohesive forces of the materials, and is the real +mechanism of the transformation of the applied work energy into heat. It +is obvious that the nature of the surfaces in contact must influence the +degree of distortion, that is, whether they are rough or smooth; the +cohesive qualities of the materials in contact will depend also on the +nature of these materials, and the extent of the heat transformation +will be limited by these cohesive properties in precisely the same way +as described for other examples (Sec. 15). The function of gravitation in +this transformation is, obviously, again quite passive in nature, and is +in no way influenced by the extent of the process. Gravitation is, as it +were, only the agency whereby the acting energy is brought into +communication with the cohesive forces of the sliding materials. + +A little reflection will convey to the reader the vast extent of this +influence of gravitation in frictional phenomena, and the important +place occupied by such phenomena in the economy of Nature. From the +leaf which falls from the tree to the mighty tidal motions of air, +earth, and sea due to the gravitative effects of the sun and moon, all +movements of terrestrial material are alike subject to the influence of +terrestrial gravitation, and will give rise to corresponding heat +processes. These heat processes are continually in evidence in natural +phenomena; the effect of their action is seen alike on the earth's +surface and in its interior (internal heating). Of the energy operating +in them we do not propose to say anything further at this stage, except +that it is largely communicated to the atmospheric air masses. + + +17. _The Gravitation Field_ + +The foregoing examples of transformation serve to place before the +reader some idea of the general nature and function of an incepting +energy influence. But for the broadest aspects of the latter agencies it +is necessary to revert once more to celestial phenomena. As already +indicated in the General Statement, the primary transformations of +planetary axial energy are stimulated by certain agencies inherent to, +and arising from, the central mass of the system. These energy agencies +or effects operate through space, and are entirely passive in nature. +They are in no way associated with energy transmission; they are merely +the determining causes of the energy-transforming processes which they +induce, and do not in the least affect the conservative energy +properties of the planetary masses over which their influence is cast. +Of the precise number and nature of such influences thus exerted by the +primary mass we can say nothing. The energy transformations which are +the direct result of their action are so extensive and so varied in +character that we would hesitate to place any limit on the number of the +influences at work. Some of these influences, however, being associated +with the phenomena of everyday experience, are more readily detected in +action than others and more accessible to study. It is to these that we +naturally turn in order to gain general ideas for application to more +obscure cases. + +Of the many incepting influences, therefore, which may emanate from the +primary mass there are three only which will be dealt with here. Each +exerts a profound action on the planetary system, and each may be +readily studied and its working verified by the observation of common +phenomena. These influences are respectively the gravitation, the +thermal, and the luminous fields. + +The general nature and properties of the gravitation field have to some +extent been already foreshadowed (Secs. 4, 6, 16). Other examples will be +dealt with later, and it is unnecessary to go into further detail here. +The different aspects, however, in which the influence has been +presented may be pointed out. Firstly, in the separate body in space, as +an inherent property of matter (Sec. 2); secondly, as an attractive +influence exerted across space between primary and planet, both +absolutely separate bodies (Sec. 5); and thirdly, as a purely planetary or +secondary incepting influence (Sec. 16). In every case alike we find its +function to be of an entirely passive nature. Its most powerful effect +on planetary material is perhaps manifested in the tidal actions (Sec. 9). +With respect to these movements, it may be pointed out that the +planetary material periodically raised from the surface is itself +elevated against the inherent planetary gravitative forces, and also, to +a certain extent, against the cohesive forces of planetary material. +Each of these resisting influences functions as an incepting agency, and +thus the elevation of the mass involves a transformation of energy (Sec. +4). The source of the energy thus transformed is the axial energy of the +planet, and the new forms in which it is manifested are energy of +position or potential energy relative to the planetary surface, and heat +energy. On the return of the material to its normal position, its energy +of position, due to its elevation, will be returned in its original form +of axial energy. In the case of the heat transformation, however, it is +to be noted that this process will take place both as the material is +elevated and also as it sinks once more to its normal position. The +heat transformation thus operates continuously throughout the entire +movement. The upraising of the material in the tidal action is brought +about entirely at the expense of inherent planetary axial energy. The +gravitative and cohesive properties of the planetary material make such +a transformation process possible. It is in virtue of these properties +that energy may be applied to or expended on the material in this way. +The tidal action on the planetary surface is, in fact, simply a huge +secondary process in which axial energy is converted into heat. The +primary incepting power is clearly gravitation. + +Of the aspect of gravitation as a purely planetary influence (Sec. 16) +little requires to be said. The phenomena are so prominent and familiar +that the reader may be left to multiply instances for himself. + + +18. _The Thermal Field_ + +The thermal field which is induced by and emanates from the primary mass +differs from the gravitation field in that, so far as we know, it is +unaccompanied by any manifestation of force, attractive or otherwise. +Its action on the rotating planetary mass may be compared to that of the +electro-magnet on the rotating copper sphere (Sec. 14); the electro-magnet +exerts no force on the sphere, but an energy expenditure is, +nevertheless, required to rotate the latter through the field of the +magnetic influence. + +To this thermal field, then, in which the planets rotate, we ascribe all +primary planetary heating phenomena. The mode of action of the thermal +field appears to be similar to that of other incepting influences. By +its agency the energy of axial rotation of planetary material is +directly converted into the heat form. As already shown (Sec. 17), heat +energy may be developed in planetary material as a result of the action +of other incepting agencies, such as gravitation. These processes are, +however, more or less indirect in nature. But the operation due to the +thermal field is a direct one. The heat energy is derived from the +direct transformation of planetary axial energy of rotation without +passing through any intermediate forms. In common parlance, the thermal +field is the agency whereby the primary mass heats the planetary system. +No idea of transmission, however, is here implied in such phraseology; +the heating effect produced on any planetary mass is entirely the result +of the transformation of its own energy; the thermal field is purely and +simply the incepting influence of the process. Now, in virtue of the +configuration of the rotating planetary masses, their material in +equatorial regions is much more highly energised than the material in +the neighbourhood of the poles, and will, accordingly, move with much +greater linear velocity through the thermal field. The heat +transformation will vary accordingly. It will be much more pronounced at +the equator than at the poles, and a wide difference in temperature will +be maintained between the two regions. The thermal field, also, does not +necessarily produce the same heating effect on all planetary material +alike. Some materials appear to be peculiarly susceptible--others much +less so. This we may verify from terrestrial experience. Investigation +shows the opaque substances to be generally most susceptible, and the +transparent materials, such as glass, rock-salt, tourmaline, &c. almost +insusceptible, to the heating effect of the sun. The influence of the +thermal field can, in fact, operate through the latter materials. A +still more striking and important phenomenon may be observed in the +varying action of the thermal field on matter in its different forms. It +has been already pointed out that, in the course of transformation in +the field of an incepting influence, a material may attain a certain +energy state in which it is no longer susceptible to that influence. +This has been exemplified in the case of the iron ball (Sec. 14) and a +phenomenon of the same general nature is revealed in the celestial +transformation. A piece of solid material of low melting-point is +brought from the polar regions of the earth to the equator. Due to the +more rapid movement across the sun's thermal field, and the consequent +increased action of that field, a transformation of the axial energy of +rotation of the body takes place, whereby it is heated and finally +liquefied. In the liquid state the material is still susceptible to the +thermal field, and the transformation process accordingly proceeds until +the material finally assumes the gaseous form. At this point, however, +it is found that the operation is suspended; the material, in assuming +the gaseous state, has now attained a condition (Sec. 15) in which the +thermal field has no further incepting or transforming influence upon +it. No transformation of its axial energy into the heat form is now +possible by this means; indeed, so far as the _direct_ heating effect of +the sun is concerned, the free gaseous material on the planetary surface +is entirely unaffected. All the evidence of Nature points to the +conclusion that all gaseous material is absolutely transparent to the +_direct_ thermal influence of the sun. Matter in the gaseous form +reaches, as it were, an ultimate or limiting condition in this respect. +This fact, that energised material in the gaseous form is not +susceptible to the thermal field, is of very great importance in the +general economy of Nature. It is, in reality, the means whereby the +great primary process of the transformation of the axial energy of the +earth into the heat form is limited in extent. As will be explained +later, it is the device whereby the planetary energy stability is +conserved. It will be apparent, of course, that heat energy may be +readily applied to gaseous masses by other means, such as conduction or +radiation from purely terrestrial sources. The point which we wish here +to emphasise is, simply, that gaseous material endowed with axial energy +on the planetary surface cannot have this axial energy directly +transformed into heat through the instrumentality of the thermal field +of the primary. + + +19. _The Luminous Field_ + +The planetary bodies are indebted to the primary mass not only for heat +phenomena, but also for the phenomena of light. These light phenomena +are due to a separate and distinct energy influence (or influences) +which we term the luminous field. + +The mode of action of the luminous field is similar to that of other +incepting influences. It operates from the primary, and is entirely +passive in nature. Like the thermal field, it does not appear to be +accompanied by any manifestation of physical stress or force, except, +indeed, the experimental demonstrations of the "pressure of light" can +be regarded as such. In any case, this in no way affects the general +action of light as an incepting agency. Its action on energised +planetary material gives rise to certain transformations of energy, +transformations exclusive and peculiar to its own influence. We will +refer to terrestrial phenomena for illustrations of its working. + +Perhaps the commonest example of transformation in which the luminous +field appears as the incepting agency is seen in the growth of plant +life on the surface of the earth. The growth and development of +vegetation and plants generally is the outward evidence of certain +energy transformations. The processes of growth, however, are of such a +complex nature that it is impossible to state the governing energy +conditions in their entirety, but, considering them merely in general +fashion, it may be said that energy in various forms (potential, +chemical, &c.) is stored in the tissues of the growing material. Now the +source of this energy is the axial energy of the earth, and, as stated +above, the luminous field is an incepting factor (there may be others) +in the process of transformation, a factor whereby this axial energy is +converted into certain new forms. It is well known that, amongst the +factors which influence the growth of vegetation, one of the most potent +is that of light. The presence of sunlight is one of the essential +conditions for the successful working of certain transformations of +plant life, and these transformations vary not only in degree but in +nature, according to the variation of the imposed light in intensity and +quality. Some of the processes of growth are no doubt chemical in +nature. Here, again, light may be readily conceived to have a direct +determining influence upon them, exactly as in the cases of its +well-known action in chemical phenomena--for instance, as in +photography. Other examples will readily occur to the reader. One of the +most interesting is the action of light on the eye itself. It may be +pointed out indeed that light is, first and foremost, a phenomenon of +vision. Whatever may be its intrinsic nature, it is primarily an +influence affecting the eye. But the action of seeing, like all other +forms of human activity, involves a certain expenditure of bodily +energy. This energy is, of course, primarily derived from the axial +energy of the earth through the medium of plant and animal life and the +physico-chemical processes of the body itself. Its presence in one form +or another is, in fact, essential to all the phenomena of life. The +action of seeing accordingly involves the transformation of a certain +modicum of this energy, and the influence which incepts this +transformation is the luminous field which originates in and emanates +from the central mass of the system, the sun. In a similar way, +planetary material under certain conditions may become the source of an +incepting luminous field. It is this light influence or luminous field +which, in common parlance, is said to enter the eye. In that organ, +then, is found the mechanism or machine (Sec. 30), a complicated one, no +doubt, whereby this process of transformation is carried out which makes +the light influence perceptible to the senses. Of the precise nature of +the action little can be said. The theme is rather one for a treatise on +physiology. It may be pointed out, however, with regard to the process +of transformation, that Dewar has already demonstrated the fact that +when light falls on the retina of the eye, an electric current is set up +in the optic nerve. The energy associated with this current is, of +course, obtained at the expense of the bodily energy of the observer, +and this energy, after passing, it may be, through a large number of +transformation processes, will finally be returned to the source from +which it was originally derived, namely, the axial energy of the earth. +The luminous field, also, like the thermal field, has no transforming +effect whatever on the energy of certain substances. It may pass +completely through some and be reflected by others without any sign of +energy transformation. Its properties are, in fact, simply the +properties of light, and must be accepted simply as phenomena. Now, it +is very important, in studying matters of this kind, to realise that it +is impossible ever to get beyond or behind phenomena. It may be pointed +out that in no sphere of physics has the influence of so-called +explanatory mechanical hypotheses been stronger than in that dealing +with the properties of light. New theories are being expounded almost +daily in attempts to explain or dissect simple phenomena. But it may be +asked, In what does our really useful knowledge of light consist? +Simply in our knowledge of phenomena. Beyond this, one cannot go. We may +attempt to explain phenomena, but to create for this purpose elastic +ethereal media or substances without direct evidential phenomena in +support is not to advance real knowledge. There are certain properties +peculiar to the luminous as to all other incepting fields, certain +conditions under which each respectively will act, and the true method +of gaining real insight into these agencies is by the study of these +actual properties (or phenomena) and conditions, and not by attempts to +ultimately explain them. It will be evident that in most cases of +natural energy operations there is more than one energy influence in +action. As a rule there are several. In a growing plant, for example, we +have the thermal, luminous, gravitation, and cohesive influences all in +operation at the same time, each performing its peculiar function in +transformation, each contributing its own peculiar energy phenomena to +the whole. This feature adds somewhat to the complexity of natural +operations and to the difficulties in the precise description of the +various phenomena with which they are associated. + + +20. _Transformations--Upward Movement of a Mass against Gravity_ + +When the significance of energy inception and the characteristic +properties of the various agencies have been grasped, it becomes much +easier to deal with certain other aspects of energy processes. To +illustrate these aspects it is, therefore, now proposed to discuss a few +simple secondary operations embodied in experimental apparatus. A few +examples of the operations of transformation and transmission of energy +will be considered. The object in view is to show the general nature of +these processes, and more especially the limits imposed upon them by the +various factors or properties of the material machines in which they are +of necessity embodied. The reader is asked to bear in mind also the +observations already made (Sec. 13) with respect to experimental apparatus +generally. + +The first operation for discussion is that of the upward movement of a +mass of material against the gravitative attraction of the earth. This +movement involves one of the most simple and at the same time one of the +most important of secondary energy processes. As a concrete +illustration, consider the case of a body projected vertically upwards +with great velocity from the surface of the earth. The phenomena of its +motion will be somewhat as follows:--As the body recedes from the +earth's surface in its upward flight, its velocity suffers a continuous +decrease, and an altitude is finally attained where this velocity +becomes zero. The projectile, at this point, is instantaneously at rest. +Its motion then changes; it commences to fall, and to proceed once more +towards the starting-point with continuously increasing velocity. +Neglecting the effect of the air (Sec. 29) and the rotational movement of +the earth, it may be assumed that the retardation of the projectile in +its upward flight is numerically equal to its acceleration in its +downward flight, and that it finally returns to the starting-point with +velocity numerically equal to the initial velocity of projection. The +process then obviously involves a complete transformation and return of +energy. At the earth's surface, where its flight commences and +terminates, the body is possessed of energy of motion to a very high +degree. At the highest point of flight, this form of energy has entirely +vanished; the body is at rest. Its energy properties are then +represented by its position of displacement from the earth's surface; +its energy of motion in disappearing has assumed this form of energy of +position, energy of separation, or potential energy. The moving body has +thus been the mechanism of an energy transformation. At each stage of +its upward progress, a definite modicum of its original energy of motion +is converted into energy of position. Between the extreme points of its +flight, the energy of the body is compounded of these two forms, one of +which is increasing at the expense of the other. When the summit of +flight is reached the conversion into energy of position is complete. In +the downward motion, the action is completely reversed, and when the +body reaches the starting-point its energy of position has again been +completely transformed into energy of motion. It might be well to draw +attention here to the fact, often overlooked, that this energy of +position gained by the rising mass is, in reality, a form of energy, +separate and distinct, brought into existence by the transformation and +disappearance of the energy of the moving mass. Energy of position is as +truly a form of energy as heat or kinetic energy. + +The transformation here depicted is clearly a simple process, yet we +know absolutely nothing of its ultimate nature, of the why or wherefore +of the operation. Our knowledge is confined to the circumstances and +conditions under which it takes place. Let us now, therefore, deal with +these conditions. The transformation is clearly carried out in virtue of +the movement of the body in the lines or field of an incepting +influence. This influence is that of gravitation, which links the body +continually to the earth. Now the function of gravitation in this +process, as in others already described, is that of a completely passive +incepting agent. The active energy which suffers change in the process +is clearly the original work energy (Sec. 31) communicated to the projected +body. The whole process is, in fact, a purely mechanical operation, and +as in the case of other processes involving mechanical energy, it is +limited by the mass value of the moving material. It is clear that the +greater the amount of energy communicated to the projectile at the +starting-point, the greater will be the altitude it will attain in its +flight. The amount of energy, however, which can thus be communicated is +dependent on the maximum force which can be applied to the projectile. +But the maximum force which can be applied to any body depends entirely +on the resistance offered by that body, and in this case the resisting +force is the gravitative attraction of the earth on the projectile, +which attraction is again a direct function of its mass. The greater the +mass, the greater the gravitative force, and the greater the possibility +of transformation. The ultimate limit of the process would be reached if +the projected mass were so great as to equal half the mass of the earth. +In such circumstances, the earth being assumed to be divided into two +equal masses, the maximum limiting value of the gravitative attraction +would clearly be attained. Any increase of the one mass over the other +would again lead, however, to a diminution in the attractive force and a +corresponding decrease in the energy limit for transformation. The +precise manner in which the operations of mechanical energy are limited +by the mass will now be clear. The principle is quite general, and +applicable to all moving bodies. Mass is ever a direct measure of energy +capacity. A graphical method of representing energy transformations of +this kind, by a system of co-ordinates, would enable the reader to +appreciate more fully the quantitative relations of the forms of energy +involved and also their various limits. + + +21. _The Simple Pendulum_ + +The remaining operations of transformation for discussion are embodied +in the following simple apparatus. A spherical metallic mass M (Fig. 2) +is supported by a rod P which is rigidly connected to a horizontal +spindle HS as shown. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2] + +The spindle is supported and free to revolve in the bearings B{1} and +B{2} which form part of the supporting framework V resting on the +ground; the bearing surfaces at B{1} and B{2} are lubricated, and the +mass M is free to perform, in a vertical plane, complete revolutions +about the axis through the centre of the spindle. In carrying out this +motion its path will be circular, as shown at DCFE; the whole +arrangement is merely an adaptation of the simple pendulum. As +constituted, the apparatus may form the seat of certain energy +operations. Some of these will only take place with the application of +energy of motion to the pendulum from an external source, thereby +causing it to vibrate or to rotate: others, again, might be said to be +inherent to the apparatus, since they arise naturally from its +construction and configuration. We shall deal with the latter first. + + +22. _Statical Energy Conditions_ + +The pendulum with its spindle has a definite mass value, and, assuming +it to be at rest in the bearings B{1} and B{2}, it is acted upon by +gravitation, or in other words, it is under the influence or within the +field of the gravitative attraction of the earth's mass upon it. The +effect of this field is directly proportional to the mass of the +pendulum and spindle, and to its action is due that bearing pressure +which is transmitted through the lubricant to the bearing surfaces and +thence to the supporting arms N{1} and N{2} of the framework. Bearings +and columns alike are thus subjected to a downward thrust or pressure. +Being of elastic material, they will be more or less distorted. This +distortion will proceed until the downward forces are balanced by the +upward or reactive forces called into play in virtue of the cohesive +properties of the strained material. Corresponding to a slight downward +movement of the pendulum and spindle in thus straining or compressing +them, the supporting columns will be decreased in length. This downward +movement is the external evidence of certain energy operations. In +virtue of their elevation above the earth's surface, the pendulum and +spindle possess, to a certain degree, energy of position, and any free +downward movement would lead to the transformation of this energy into +energy of motion (Sec. 20). But the downward motion of pendulum and spindle +is not free. It is made against the resistance of the material of the +supporting columns, and the energy of position, instead of assuming the +form of energy of motion, is simply worked down or transformed against +the opposing cohesive forces of the supporting materials. This energy, +therefore, now resides in these materials in the form of energy of +strain or distortion. In general nature, this strain energy is akin to +energy of position (Sec. 20). Certain portions of the material of the +columns have been forced into new positions against the internal forces +of cohesion which are ever tending to preserve the original +configuration of the columns. This movement of material in the field of +the cohesive influence involves the transformation of energy (Sec. 4), and +the external evidence of the energy process is simply the strained or +distorted condition of the material. If the latter be released, and +allowed to resume its natural form once more, this stored energy of +strain would be entirely given up. In reality, the material can be said +to play the part of a machine or mechanism for the energy process of +storage and restoration. No energy process, in fact, ever takes place +unless associated with matter in some form. The supporting arms, in this +case, form the material factor or agency in the energy operation. All +such energy machines, also, are limited in the extent of their +operation, by the qualities of the material factors. In this particular +case, the energy compass of the machine is restricted by certain +physical properties of the material, by the maximum value of these +cohesive or elastic forces called into play in distortion. These forces +are themselves the evidence of energy, of that energy by virtue of which +the material possesses and maintains its coherent form. In this case +this energy is also the factor controlling the transformation, and +appears as a separate and distinct incepting agency. If the process is +to be a reversible one, so that the energy originally stored in the +material as strain energy or energy of distortion may be completely +returned, the material must not be stressed beyond a certain point. Only +a limited amount of work can be applied to it, only a limited amount of +energy can be stored in it. Too much energy applied--too great a weight +on the supporting columns--gives rise to permanent distortion or +crushing, and an entirely new order of phenomena. This energy limit for +reversibility is then imposed by the cohesive properties of the material +or by its elastic limits. Up to this point energy stored in the material +may be returned--the process is reversible in nature--but above this +elastic limit any energy applied must operate in an entirely different +manner. + +A little consideration will show also, that the state of distortion, or +energy strain, is not confined to the material of the supporting columns +alone. Action and reaction are equal. The same stresses are applied to +the spindle through the medium of bearings and lubricant. In fact, every +material substance of which the pendulum machine is built up is thus, +more or less, strained against internal forces; all possess, more or +less, cohesion or strain energy. It will be evident, also, that this +condition is not peculiar to this or any other form of apparatus. It is +the energy state or condition of every structure, either natural or +artificial, which is built up of ordinary material, and which, on the +earth's surface, is subjected to the influence of the gravitation field. +This cohesion or strain energy is one of the forms in which energy is +most widely distributed throughout material. + +In reviewing the statical condition of the above apparatus, the pendulum +itself has been assumed to be hanging vertically at rest under the +influence of gravitation. If energy be now applied to the system from +some external source so that the pendulum is caused to vibrate, or to +rotate about the axis of suspension, a new set of energy processes make +their appearance. The movement of the pendulum mass, in its circular +path around the central axis, is productive of certain energy reactions, +as follows:-- + + _a._ A transformation of energy of motion into energy of position + and vice versa. + + _b._ A frictional transformation at the bearing surfaces. + +These processes will each be in continuous operation so long as the +motion of the pendulum is maintained. Their general nature is quite +independent of the extent of that motion, whether it be merely vibratory +through a small arc, or completely rotatory about the central axis. In +the articles which immediately follow, the processes will be treated +separately. + + +23. _Transformations of the Moving Pendulum--a. Energy of Motion to + Energy of Position and Vice Versa_ + +In this simple transformation the motion of the pendulum about the axis +of suspension may be either vibratory or circular, according to the +amount of energy externally applied. In each case, every periodic +movement of the apparatus illustrates the whole energy operation. The +general conditions of the process are almost identical with those in the +case of the upward movement of a mass against gravity (Sec. 20). +Gravitation is the incepting energy influence of the operation. If the +pendulum simply vibrates through a small arc, then, at the highest +points of its flight, it is instantaneously at rest. Its energy of +motion is here, therefore, zero; its energy of position is a maximum. At +the lowest point of its flight, the conditions are exactly reversed. +Here its energy of motion is a maximum, while its energy of position +passes through a minimum value. The same general conditions hold when +the pendulum performs complete revolutions about the central axis. If +the energy of motion applied is just sufficient to raise it to the +highest point E (Fig. 2), the mass will there again be instantaneously +at rest with maximum energy of position. As the mass falls downwards in +completing the circular movement, its energy of position once more +assumes the kinetic form, and reaches its maximum value at C (Fig. 2), +the lowest position. The moving pendulum mass, so far as its energy +properties are concerned, behaves in precisely the same manner as a body +vertically projected in the field of the gravitative attraction (Sec. 20). +This simple energy operation of the pendulum is perhaps one of the most +familiar of energy processes. By its means, however, it is possible to +illustrate certain general features of energy reactions of great +importance to the author's scheme. + +The energy processes of the pendulum system are carried out through the +medium of the material pendulum machine, and are limited, both in nature +and degree, by the properties of that machine. As the pendulum vibrates, +the transformation of energy of motion to energy of position or vice +versa is an example of a reversible energy operation. The energy active +in this operation continually alternates between two forms of energy: +transformation is continually followed by a corresponding return. +Neglecting in the meantime all frictional and other effects, we will +assume complete reversibility, or that the energy of motion of the +pendulum, after passing completely into the form of energy of position +at the highest point, is again completely returned, in its original +form, in the descent. Now, for any given pendulum, the amount of energy +which can thus operate in the system depends on two factors, namely, the +mass of the pendulum and the vertical height through which it rises in +vibration. If the mass is fixed, then the maximum amount of energy will +be operating in the reversible cycle when the pendulum is performing +complete revolutions round its axis of suspension. The maximum height +through which the pendulum can rise, or the maximum amount of energy of +position which the system can acquire, is thus dependent on the length +of the pendulum arm. These two factors, then, the mass and the length of +the pendulum arm, are simply properties of this pendulum machine, +properties by which its energy compass is restricted. Let us now +examine these limiting factors more minutely. + +It is obvious that energy could readily be applied to the pendulum +system in such a degree as to cause it to rotate with considerable +angular velocity about the axis of suspension. Now the motion of the +pendulum mass in the lines of the gravitation field, although productive +of the same transformation process, differs from that of a body moving +vertically upward in that, while the latter has a linear movement, the +former is constrained into a circular path. This restraint is imposed in +virtue of the cohesive properties of the material of the pendulum arm, +and it is the presence of this restraining influence that really +distinguishes the pendulum machine from the machine in which the moving +mass is constrained by gravity alone (Sec. 20). It has been shown that the +energy capacity of a body projected vertically against gravity is +limited by its mass only; the energy capacity of the pendulum machine +may be likewise limited by its mass, but the additional restraining +factor of cohesion also imposes another limit. In the course of +rotation, energy is stored in the material of the pendulum against the +internal forces of cohesion. The action is simply that of what is +usually termed centrifugal force. As the velocity increases, the +pendulum arm lengthens correspondingly until the elastic limit of the +material in tension is reached. At this point, the pendulum may be said +to have reached the maximum length at which it can operate in that +reversible process of transformation in which energy of motion is +converted into energy of position. The amount of energy which would now +be working in that process may be termed the limiting energy for +reversibility. This limiting energy is the absolute maximum amount of +energy which can operate in the reversible cycle. It is coincident with +the maximum length of the pendulum arm in distortion. When the stress in +the material of that arm reaches the elastic limit, it is clear that the +transformation against cohesion will also have attained its limiting +value for reversibility. This transformation, if the velocity of the +pendulum is constant, is of the nature of a storage of energy. So long +as the velocity is constant the energy stored is constant. If the +elastic limiting stress of the material has not been exceeded, this +energy--neglecting certain minor processes (Secs. 15, 29)--will be returned +in its original form as the velocity decreases. If, however, the +material be stressed beyond its elastic powers, the excess energy +applied will simply lead to permanent distortion or disruption of the +pendulum arm, and to a complete breakdown and change in the character of +the machine and the associated energy processes (Sec. 5). The physical +properties of the material thus limit the energy capacity of the +machine. This limiting feature, as already indicated, is not peculiar +to the pendulum machine alone. Every energy process embodied in a +material machine is limited in a similar fashion by the peculiar +properties of the acting materials. Every reversible process is carried +out within limits thus clearly defined. Nature presents no exception to +this rule, no example of a reversible energy system on which energy may +be impressed in unlimited amount. On the contrary, all the evidence +points to limitation of the strictest order in such processes. + + +24. _Transformations of the Moving Pendulum--b. Frictional + Transformation at the Bearing Surfaces_ + +The motion of the pendulum, whether it be completely rotatory or merely +vibratory in nature, invariably gives rise to heating at the bearings or +supporting points. Since the heating effect is only evident when motion +is taking place, and since the heat can only make its appearance as the +result of some energy process, it would appear that this persistent heat +phenomenon is the result of a transformation of the original energy of +motion of the pendulum. + +The general energy conditions of the apparatus already adverted to (Sec. +21) still hold, and the lubricating oil employed in the apparatus being +assumed to have sufficient capillarity or adhesive power to separate +the metallic surfaces of bearings and journals at all velocities, then +every action of the spindle on the bearings must be transmitted through +the lubricant. The latter is, therefore, strained or distorted against +the internal cohesive or viscous forces of its material. The general +effect of the rotatory motion of the spindle will be to produce a motion +of the material of the lubricant in the field of these incepting forces. +To this motion the heat transformation is primarily due. Other +conditions being the same, the extent of the transformation taking +place, in any given case, is dependent on the physical properties of the +lubricant, such as its viscosity, its cohesive or capillary power, +always provided that the metallic surfaces are separated, so that the +action is really carried out in the lines or field of the internal +cohesive forces of the lubricant. In itself, this transformation is not +a reversible process; no mechanism appears by which this heat energy +evolved at the bearing surfaces could be returned once more to its +original form of energy of motion. It may be, in fact, communicated by +conduction to the metallic masses of the bearings, and thence, by +conduction and radiation, to the air masses surrounding the apparatus. +Its action in these masses is dealt with below (Sec. 29). The operation of +bearing friction, though in itself not a reversible process, really +forms one link of a complete chain (Sec. 9) of secondary operations +(transmissions and transformations) which together form a comprehensive +and complete cyclical energy process (Sec. 32). + +When no lubricant is used in the apparatus, so that the metallic +surfaces of bearings and journals are in contact, the heat process is of +a precisely similar nature to that described above (see also Sec. 16). +Distortion of the metals in contact takes place in the surface regions, +so that the material is strained against its internal cohesive forces. +The transformation will thus depend on the physical properties of these +metals, and will be limited by these properties. Different metallic or +other combinations will consequently give rise to quite different +results with respect to the amounts of heat energy evolved. + + +25. _Stability of Energy Systems_ + +The ratio of the maximum or limiting energy for reversibility to the +total energy of the system may vary in value. If the pendulum vibrates +only through a very small arc, then, neglecting the minor processes (Secs. +24, 29), practically the whole energy of the system operates in the +reversible transformation. This condition is maintained as the length of +the arc of vibration increases, until the pendulum is just performing +complete revolutions about the central axis. After this, the ratio will +alter in value, because the greater part of any further increment of +energy does not enter into the reversible cyclical process, but merely +goes to increase the velocity of rotation and the total energy of the +system. The small amount of energy which thus enters the reversible +cycle as the velocity increases, does so in virtue of the increasing +length of the pendulum arm in distortion. To produce even a slight +distortion of the arm, a large amount of energy will require to be +applied to and stored in the system, and thus, at high velocities of +rotation, the energy which operates in the reversible cycle, even at its +limiting value, may form only a very small proportion of the total +energy of the system. At low velocities or low values of the total +energy, say when the pendulum is not performing complete rotations, +practically the whole energy of the system is working in the reversible +cycle; but, in these circumstances, it is clear that the total energy of +the system, which, in this case, is all working in the reversible +process, is much less than the maximum or limiting amount of energy +which might so work in that process. Under these conditions, when the +total energy of the system is less than the limiting value for +reversibility, so that this total energy in its entirety is free to take +part in the reversible process, then the energy system may be termed +stable with respect to that process. Stability, in an energy system, +thus implies that the operation considered is not being, as it were, +carried out at full energy capacity, but within certain reversible +energy limits. + +We have emphasised this point in order to draw attention to the fact +that the great reversible processes which are presented to our notice in +natural phenomena are all eminently stable in character. Perhaps the +most striking example of a natural reversible process is found in the +working of the terrestrial atmospheric machine (Secs. 10, 38). The energy +in this case is limited by the mass, but in actual operation its amount +is well within the maximum limiting value. The machine, in fact, is +stable in nature. Other natural operations, such as the orbital +movements of planetary masses, (Sec. 8) illustrate the same conditions. +Nature, although apparently prodigal of energy in its totality, yet +rigidly defines the bounding limits of her active operations. + + +26. _The Pendulum as a Conservative System_ + +Under certain conditions the reversible energy cycle produces an +important effect on the rotatory motion of the pendulum. For the purpose +of illustration, let it be assumed that the pendulum is an isolated and +conservative system endowed with a definite amount of rotatory energy. +In its circular movement, the upward motion of the pendulum mass is +accompanied by a gain in its energy of position. This gain is, in the +given circumstances, obtained solely at the expense of its inherent +rotatory energy, which, accordingly, suffers a corresponding decrease. +The manifestation of this decrease will be simply a retardation of the +pendulum's rotatory motion. Its angular velocity will, therefore, +decrease until the highest altitude E (Fig. 2) is attained. After this, +on the downward path, the process will be reversed. Acceleration will +take place from the highest to the lowest point of flight, and the +energy stored as energy of position will be completely returned in its +original form of energy of motion. The effect of the working of the +reversible cycle, then, on the rotatory system, under the given +conditions, is simply to produce alternately a retardation and a +corresponding acceleration. Now, it is to be particularly noted that +these changes in the velocity of the system are produced, not by any +abstraction from or return of energy to the system, which is itself +conservative, but simply in consequence of the transformation and +re-transformation of a certain portion of its inherent rotatory energy +in the working of a reversible process embodied in the system. The same +features may be observed in other systems where the conditions are +somewhat similar. + +In the natural world, we find processes of the same general nature in +constant operation. When any mass of material is elevated from the +surface of a rotating planetary body against the gravitative attraction, +it thereby gains energy of position (Sec. 20). This energy, on the body's +return to the surface in the course of its cycle, reappears in the form +of energy of motion. Now the material mass, in rising from the planetary +surface, is not, in reality, separated from the planet. The atmosphere +of the planet forms an integral portion of its material, partakes of its +rotatory motion, and is bound to the solid core by the mutual +gravitative forces. Any mass, then, on the solid surface of a planet is, +in reality, in the planetary interior, and the rising of such a mass +from that surface does not imply any actual separative process, but +simply the radial movement, or displacement of a portion of the +planetary material from the central axis. If the energy expended in the +upraisal of the mass is derived at the expense of the inherent rotatory +energy of the planet, as it would be if the latter were a strictly +conservative energy system, then the raising of this portion of +planetary material from the surface would have a retarding effect on the +planetary motion of rotation. But if, on the other hand, the energy of +such a mass as it fell towards the planetary surface were converted once +more into its original form of energy of axial motion, exactly +equivalent in amount to its energy of position, it is evident that the +process would be productive of an accelerating effect on the planetary +motion of rotation, which would in magnitude exactly balance the +previous retardation. In such a process it is evident that energy +neither enters nor leaves the planet. It simply works in an energy +machine embodied in planetary material. This point will be more fully +illustrated later. The reader will readily see the resemblance of a +system of this nature to that which has already been illustrated by the +rotating pendulum. + +In the meantime, it may be pointed out that matter displaced from the +planetary surface need not necessarily be matter in the solid form. All +the operations mentioned above could be quite readily--in fact, more +readily--carried out by the movements of gaseous material, which is +admirably adapted for every kind of rising, falling, or flowing motion +relative to the planetary surface (Sec. 13). + + +27. _Some Phenomena of Transmission Processes--Transmission of Heat + Energy by Solid Material_ + +The pendulum machine described above furnishes certain outstanding +examples of the operation of energy transformation. It will be noted, +however, that it also portrays certain processes of energy transmission. +In this respect it is not peculiar. Most of the material machines in +which energy operates will furnish examples of both energy transmissions +and energy transformations. In some instances, the predominant operation +seems to be transformation, in others, transmission; and the machines +may be classified accordingly. It is, however, largely a matter of +terminology, since both operations are usually found closely associated +in one and the same machine. The apparatus now to be considered is +designed primarily to illustrate the operative features of certain +energy transmissions, but the description of the machines with their +allied phenomena will show that energy transformations also play a very +important part in their constitution and working. + +A cylindrical metallic bar about twelve inches long, say, and one inch +in diameter, is placed with its ends immersed in water in two separate +vessels, A and B, somewhat as shown. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3] + +By the application of heat energy, the temperature of the water in the +vessel A is raised to a point say 100 deg. F. above that of B, and steadily +maintained at that point. It is assumed that B is also kept at the +constant lower temperature. In these circumstances, a transmission of +heat energy takes place from A to B through the metallic bar. When the +steady temperature condition is reached, the transmission will be +continuous and uniform; the rate at which it is carried out will be +determined by the length of the bar, by the material of which it is +composed, and by the temperature difference maintained between its +ends. Now what has really happened is that by a combination of +phenomena the bar has been converted into a machine for the transmission +of heat energy. A full description of these phenomena is, in reality, +the description of this machine, and vice versa. Let us, therefore, now +try to outline some of these phenomena. + +The first feature of note is the gradient of temperature which exists +between the ends of the bar. Further research is necessary regarding the +real nature of this gradient--it appears to differ greatly in different +materials--but the existence of such a gradient is one of the main +features of the energy machine, one of the essential conditions of the +transmission process. + +Another feature is that of the expansive motion of the bar itself. The +expansion of the bar due to the heating varies in value along its +length, from a maximum at the hot end to a minimum at the cool end. The +expansion, also, is the evidence of a transformation of energy. The bar +has been constrained into its new form against the action of the +internal molecular or cohesive forces of its material (Sec. 16). The energy +employed and transformed in producing the expansion is a part of the +original heat energy applied to the bar, and before any transmission of +this heat energy takes place between its extreme ends, a definite +modicum of the applied energy has to be completely transformed for the +sole purpose of producing this distortive movement or expansion against +cohesion. This preliminary straining of the bar is, in fact, a part of +the process of building up or constituting the energy transmission +machine, and must be completely carried out before any transmission can +take place. It is clear, then, that concurrent with the gradient of +temperature, there also exists, along the bar, what might be termed a +gradient of energy stored against cohesion, and that both are +characteristic and essential features of this particular energy machine. +A point of some importance to note is the permanency of these features. +Once the machine has been constituted with a constant temperature +difference, the transmission of energy will take place continuously and +at a uniform rate. But no further transformation against cohesion takes +place; no further expenditure of energy against the internal forces of +the material is necessary. Neglecting certain losses due to possible +external conditions, the whole energy applied to the machine at the one +end is transmitted in its entirety to the other, without influencing in +any way either the temperature or the energy gradient. + +Such is the general constitution of this machine for energy +transmission. Its material foundation is, indeed, the metallic bar, but +the temperature and energy gradients may be termed the true determining +factors of its operation. As already indicated, the magnitude of the +transformation is dependent on the temperature difference between the +ends of the bar. But this applies only within certain limits. With +respect to the cool end, the temperature may be as low as we please--so +far as we know, the limit is absolute zero of temperature; but with the +hot end, the case is entirely different, because here the limit is very +strictly imposed by the melting-point of the material of the bar. When +this melting temperature is attained, the melting of the bar indicates, +simply, that the heat energy stored or transformed against the cohesive +forces of the material has reached its limiting value; change of state +of the material is taking place, and the machine is thereby being +destroyed. + +It is evident, then, that the energy which is actually being transmitted +has itself no effect whatever in restricting the action or scope of the +transmission machine. It is, in reality, the residual energy stored +against the cohesive forces which imposes the limits on the working. It +is the maximum energy which can be transformed in the field of the +cohesive forces of the material which determines the power of that +material as a transmitting agent. This maximum will, of course, be +different for different materials according to their physical +constitution. It is attained in this machine in each case when melting +of the bar takes place. + + +28. _Some Phenomena of Transmission Processes--Transmission by Flexible + Band or Cord_ + +This method is often adopted when energy of motion, or mechanical +energy, is required to be transmitted from one point to another. For +illustration, consider the case of two parallel spindles or shafts, A +and B (Fig. 4), each having a pulley securely keyed upon it. Spindle A +is connected to a source of of mechanical energy, and it is desired to +transmit this energy across the intervening space to spindle B. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4] + +This, of course, might be accomplished in various ways, but one of the +most simple, and, at the same time, one of the most efficient, is the +direct drive by means of a flexible band or cord. The band is placed +tightly round, and adheres closely to both pulleys; the coefficient of +friction between band and pulleys may, in the first instance, be assumed +to be sufficiently great to prevent slipping of the band up to the +highest stress which it is capable of sustaining in normal working. +Connected in this fashion, the spindles will rotate in unison, and +mechanical energy, if applied at A, may be directly transmitted to B. +The material operator in the transmission is the connecting flexible +band, and associated with this material are certain energy processes +which are also essential features of the energy machine. When +transmission of energy is taking place, a definite tension or stress +exists in the connecting band, and neglecting certain inevitable losses +due to bearing friction (Sec. 24) and windage (Sec. 29), practically the whole +of the mechanical or work energy communicated to the one spindle is +transmitted to the other. Now the true method of studying this or any +energy process is simply to describe the constitution and principal +features of the machine by which it is carried out. These are found in +the phenomena of transmission. One of the most important is the peculiar +state of strain or tension existing in the connecting band. This, as +already indicated, is an absolutely essential condition of the whole +operation. No transmission is possible without some stress or pull in +the band. This pull is exerted against the cohesive forces of the +material of the band, so that before transmission takes place it is +distorted and a definite amount of the originally applied work energy is +expended in straining it against these forces. This energy is +accordingly stored in the form of strain energy or energy of separation +(Sec. 22), and, if the velocity is uniform, the magnitude of the +transmission is proportional to this pull in the band, or to the +quantity of energy thus stored against the internal forces of its +material. But, in every case, a limit to this amount of energy is +clearly imposed by the strength of the band. The latter must not be +strained beyond its limiting elastic stress. So long as energy is being +transmitted, a certain transformation and return of energy of strain or +separation is taking place in virtue of the differing values of the +tensions in the two sides of the band; and if the latter were stressed +beyond the elastic limit, permanent distortion or disruption of the +material would take place. Under such conditions, the reversible energy +process, involving storage and restoration of strain energy as the band +passes round the pulleys, would be impossible, and the energy +transmission machine would be completely disorganised. The magnitude of +the energy operation is thus limited by the physical properties of the +connecting band. + +Another important feature of this energy transmission machine is the +velocity, or rather the kinetic energy, of the band. The magnitude of +the transmission process is directly proportional to this velocity, and +is, therefore, also a function of the kinetic energy. At any given rate +of transmission, this kinetic energy, like the energy stored against the +cohesive influence, will be constant in amount, and like that energy +also, will have been obtained at the expense of the originally applied +energy. This kinetic energy is an important feature in the constitution +of the transmission machine. As in the case of the strain energy, its +maximum value is strictly limited, and thus imposes a limit on the +general operation of the machine. For, at very high velocities, owing to +the action of centrifugal force, it is not possible to keep the band in +close contact with the surface of the pulleys. When the speed rises +above a certain limit, although the energy actually being transmitted +may not have attained the maximum value possible at lower speeds with +greater tension in the band, the latter will, in virtue of the strain +imposed by centrifugal action, be forced radially outwards from the +pulley. The coefficient of friction will be thereby reduced; slipping +will ensue, and the transmission may cease either in whole or in part. +In this way the velocity or kinetic energy limit is imposed. The machine +for energy transmission may thus be limited in its operation by two +different factors. The precise way in which the limit will be applied in +any given case will, of course, depend on the circumstances of working. + + +29. _Some Phenomena of Transmission Processes--Transmission of Energy to + Air Masses_ + +The movement of the pendulum (Sec. 23) is accompanied by a certain +transmission of energy to the surrounding medium. When this medium is a +gaseous one such as air, the amount of energy thus transmitted is +relatively small. The process, however, has a real existence. To +illustrate its general nature, let it be assumed that the motion of the +pendulum is carried out, not in air, but in a highly viscous fluid, say +a heavy oil. Obviously, a pendulum falling from its highest position to +its lowest, in such a medium would transmit its energy almost in its +entirety to the medium, and would reach its lowest position almost +devoid of energy of motion. The energy of position with which it was +originally endowed would thus be transformed and transmitted to the +surrounding medium. The agent by which the transmission is carried out +is the moving material of the pendulum, which, as it passes through the +fluid, distorts that fluid in the lines or field of its internal +cohesive or viscous forces which offer a continuous resistance to the +motion. As the pendulum passes down through the liquid, the succeeding +layers of the latter are thus alternately distorted and released. The +distortive movement takes place in virtue of the communication of energy +from the moving pendulum to the liquid, and during the movement energy +is stored in the fluid as energy of strain and as kinetic energy. At the +same time, a transformation of the applied energy into heat takes place +in the distorted material. The release of this material from strain, and +its movement back towards its original state, is also accompanied by a +similar transformation, in which the stored strain energy is, in turn, +converted into the heat form. The whole operation is similar in nature +to that frictional process already described (Sec. 16) in the case of a +body moving on a rough horizontal table. The final action of the heat +energy thus communicated to the fluid is to expand the latter against +the internal cohesive or viscous forces of its material, and also +against the gravitative attraction of the earth. + +Now when the pendulum moves in air, the action taking place is of the +same nature, and the final result is the same as in oil. It differs +merely in degree. Compared with the oil, the air masses offer only a +slight resistance to the motion, and thus only an exceedingly small part +of the pendulum's energy is transmitted to them. The pendulum, however, +does set the surrounding air masses in motion, and by a process similar +in nature to that in the oil, a modicum of the energy of the falling +pendulum is converted into heat, and thence by the expansion of the air +into energy of position. In the downward motion from rest, the first +stage of the process is a transformation peculiar to the pendulum +itself, namely, energy of position into energy of motion. The +transmission to the fluid is a necessary secondary result. It is +important to note that this transmission is carried out in virtue of the +actual movement of the material of the pendulum, and that the energy +transmitted is in reality mechanical or work energy (Sec. 31). This +mechanical or work energy, then actually leaves or is transmitted from +the pendulum system, and is finally absorbed by the surrounding air +masses in the form of energy of position. + +Considered as a whole, there is evidently no aspect of reversibility +about the operation, but it will be shown later (Sec. 32) that with the +introduction of other factors, it really forms part of a comprehensive +cyclical process. It is itself a process of direct transmission. It is +carried out by means of a definite material machine which embodies +certain energy transformations, and which is strictly limited in the +extent of its operations by certain physical factors. These factors are +the cohesive properties of the moving pendulum mass and the fluid with +which it is in contact (Sec. 16). It is clear, also, that in an apparatus +in which the motion is carried out in oil, any heat energy communicated +to the oil would inevitably find its way to the surrounding air masses +by conduction and radiation. The final result of the pendulum's motion +would therefore be the same in this case as in air; the heat energy +would, when communicated to the surrounding air masses, cause an +expansive movement against gravity. + + +30. _Energy Machines and Energy Transmission_ + +[Illustration: FIG. 5] + +The various examples of energy transformation and transmission which +have been discussed above (Secs. 13-27) will suffice to show the essential +differences which exist in the general nature of these operations. But +they will also serve another purpose in portraying one striking and +important aspect in which these processes are alike. From the +descriptions given above, it will be amply evident that each of these +processes, whether transformation or transmission, requires as an +essential condition of its existence, the presence of a certain +arrangement of matter; each process is of necessity associated with and +embodied in a definite physical and material machine. This material +machine is simply the contrivance provided by Nature to carry out the +energy operation. It differs in construction and in character for +different processes, but in every case there must be in its constitution +some material substance, perceptible to the senses, with which the +acting energy is intimately associated. This fact is but another aspect +of the principle that energy is never found dissociated from matter (Sec. +11). In every energy machine, the material substance or operator forms +the real foundation or basis of the energy operation, but besides this +there are also always other phenomena of a secondary nature, totally +different, it may be, from the main energy operation, which combine with +that operation to constitute the whole. These subsidiary energy +phenomena are the incepting factors, and are most important +characteristics. Their presence is just as essential in energy +transmission as it is in energy transformation. As demonstrated above, +they are usually associated with the physical peculiarities of the basis +or acting material of the energy machine, and their peculiar function is +to conserve or limit the extent of its action. A complete description of +these phenomena, in any given case, would not only be equivalent to a +complete description of the machine, but would also serve as a complete +description of the main energy operation embodied in that machine. +Sometimes, however, the description of the machine is a matter of +extreme difficulty, and may be, in fact, impossible owing to the lack of +a full knowledge of the intimate phenomena concerned. An illustrative +example of this is provided by the familiar phenomenon of heat +radiation. Take the case of two isolated solid bodies A and B (Fig. 5) +in close proximity on the earth's surface. If the body A at a high +temperature be sufficiently near to B at a lower temperature, a +transmission of energy takes place from A to B. This transmission is +usually attributed to "radiation," but, after all, the use of the term +"radiation" is merely a descriptive device which hides our ignorance of +the operation. It is known that a transmission takes place, but the +intimate phenomena are not known, and, accordingly, it is impossible to +describe the machine or mechanism by which it is carried out. From +general considerations, however, it appears that the material basis of +this machine is to be found in the air medium which surrounds the two +bodies. Experiment shows, indeed, that if this intervening material +medium of air be even partially withdrawn or removed, the transmission +is immensely reduced in amount. In fact, this latter phenomenon is +largely taken advantage of in the so-called vacuum flasks or other +devices to maintain bodies at a temperature either above or below that +of the external surrounding bodies. The device adopted is, simply, as +far as practicable to withdraw all material connection between the body +which it is desired to isolate thermally and its surroundings. But it is +clearly impossible to isolate completely any terrestrial body in this +way. There must be some material connection remaining. As already +pointed out (Sec. 5), we have no experimental experience of really separate +bodies or of an absolute vacuum. It is to be noted that any vacuous +space which we can experimentally arrange does not even approximately +reproduce the conditions of true separation prevailing in interplanetary +space. Any arrangement of separate bodies which might thus be contrived +is necessarily entirely surrounded or enclosed by terrestrial material +which, in virtue of its stressed condition, constitutes an energy +machine of the same nature as those already described (Sec. 21). Even +although the air could be absolutely exhausted from a vessel, it is +still quite impossible to enclose any body permanently within that +vessel without some material connection between the body and the +enclosing walls. If for example, as shown in Fig. 6, CC represents a +spherical vessel, completely exhausted, and having two bodies, A and B +at different temperatures, in its interior, it is obvious that if these +bodies are to maintain continuously their relative positions of +separation, each must be united by some material connection to the +containing vessel. But when such a connection is made, say as shown at D +and E (Fig. 7), it is clear that A and B are no longer separate bodies +in the fullest sense of the word, but are now in direct communication +with one another through the supports at D and E and the enclosing sides +of the vessel CC. The practicable conditions are thus far from those of +separate bodies in a complete vacuum. It would seem, indeed, to be +beyond human experimental contrivance to reproduce such conditions in +their entirety. So far as these conditions can be achieved, however, +and judging solely by the experimental results already attained with +respect to the effect of exhaustion on radiation, it may be quite justly +averred that, if the conditions portrayed in Fig. 6 could be realised, +no transmission of energy would take place between two bodies, such as A +and B, completely isolated from one another in a vacuous space. It +appears, in fact, to be a quite reasonable and logical deduction from +the experimental evidence that the energy operation of transmission of +heat from one body to another by radiation is dependent on the existence +between these bodies of a real and material substance which forms in +some way (at present unknown) the transmitting medium or machine. The +difficulty which arises in the description of this machine is due, as +already explained above, simply to lack of knowledge of the intimate +phenomena of its working. Many other energy processes will, no doubt, +occur to the reader in which the same difficulty presents itself, due to +the same cause. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6] + +In dealing with terrestrial operations generally, and particularly when +transmission processes are under consideration, it is important to +recognise clearly the precise nature of these operations and the +peculiar conditions under which they work. It must ever be borne in mind +that the terrestrial atmosphere is a real and material portion of the +earth's mass, extending from the surface for a limited distance into +space (Sec. 34), and whatever its condition of gaseous tenuity, completely +occupying that space in the manner peculiar to a gaseous substance. When +the whole mass of the planet, including the atmosphere, is taken into +consideration, it is readily seen that all energy operations embodied in +or associated with material on what is usually termed the surface of the +earth take place at the bottom of this atmospheric ocean, or, in +reality, in the interior of the earth. The operations themselves are the +manifestations of purely terrestrial energy, which, by its working in +various devices or arrangements of material is being transformed and +transmitted from one form of matter to another. As will be fully +demonstrated later (Part III.), the nature of the terrestrial energy +system makes it impossible for this energy ever to escape beyond the +confines of the planetary atmospheric envelope. These are briefly the +general conditions under which the study of terrestrial or secondary +energy operations is of necessity conducted, and it is specially +important to notice these conditions when it is sought to apply the +results of experimental work to the discussion of celestial phenomena. +It must ever be borne in mind that even the direct observation of the +latter must always be carried out through the encircling planetary +atmospheric material. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7] + +In this portion of the work it is proposed to investigate in the light +of known phenomena the possibility of energy transmission between +separate masses. As explained above, the term separate is here meant to +convey the idea of perfect isolation, and the only masses in Nature +which truly satisfy this condition are the celestial and planetary +bodies, separated as they are from one another by interplanetary space +and in virtue of their energised condition (Sec. 5). Since this state of +separation cannot be experimentally realised under terrestrial +conditions, it is obvious, therefore, that no purely terrestrial energy +process can be advanced either as direct verification or direct disproof +of a transmission of energy between such truly separate masses as the +celestial bodies. But as we are unable to experiment directly on these +bodies themselves or across interplanetary space, we are forced of +necessity to rely, for experimental facts and conclusions, on the +terrestrial energy phenomena to which access is possible. As already +indicated in the General Statement (Sec. 11), the same energy is bestowed +on all parts of the cosmical system, and by the close observation of the +phenomena of its action in familiar operations the truest guidance may +be obtained as to its general nature and working. In such +investigations, however, only the actual phenomena of the operation are +of scientific or informative value. There is no gain to real knowledge +in assuming, say in the examination of the phenomena of magnetic +attraction between two bodies, that the one is urged towards the other +by stresses in an intervening ethereal medium, when absolutely no +phenomenal evidence of the existence of such a medium is available. It +may be urged that the conception of an ethereal medium is adapted to the +explanation of phenomena, and appears in many instances to fulfil this +function. But as already pointed out (see Introduction), it is +absolutely impossible to explain phenomena. So-called explanations must +ever resolve themselves simply into revelations of further phenomena. +While the value of true working hypotheses cannot be denied, it is +surely evident that such hypotheses, unless they embody and are under +the limitation of controlling facts, are not only useless, but, from the +misleading ideas they are apt to convey, may even be dangerous factors +in the search for truth. Now, if all speculative ideas or hypotheses are +banished from the mind, and reliance is placed solely on the evidential +phenomena of Nature, the study of terrestrial energy operations leads +inevitably to certain conclusions on the question of energy +transmission. In the first place, it must lead to the denial of what has +been virtually the great primary assumption of modern science, namely, +that a mass of material at a high temperature isolated in interplanetary +space would radiate heat in all directions through that space. Such a +conception is unsupported by our experimental or real knowledge of +radiation. The fact that heat radiation takes place from a hot to a cold +body in whatever direction the latter is placed relatively to the +former, does not justify the assumption that such radiation takes place +in all directions in the absence of a cold body. And since there is +absolutely no manifestation of any real material medium occupying +interplanetary space, no sign of the material agency or machine which +the results of direct experiment have led us to conclude is a necessity +for the transmission process of heat radiation, the whole conception +must be regarded as at least doubtful. Even with our limited knowledge +of radiation, the doctrine of heat radiation through space stands +controverted by ordinary experimental experience. With this doctrine +must fall also the allied conception of the transmission of heat energy +by radiation from the sun to the earth. It is to be noted, however, that +only the actual transmission of heat energy from the sun to the earth is +inadmissible; the _heating effect_ of the sun on the earth, which leads +to the manifestation of terrestrial energy in the heat form, is a +continuous operation readily explained in the light of the general +principle of energy transformation already enunciated (Sec. 4). With +respect to other possible processes of energy transmission between the +sun and the earth or across interplanetary space, the same general +methods of experimental investigation must be adopted. The transmission +of energy under terrestrial conditions is carried out in many different +forms and by the working of a large variety of machines. In every case, +no matter in what form the energy is transmitted, that energy must be +associated with a definite arrangement of terrestrial material +constituting the transmission machine. Each energy process of +transmission has its own peculiar conditions of operation which must be +completely satisfied. By the study of these conditions and the allied +phenomena it is possible to gain a real knowledge of the precise +circumstances in which the process can be carried out. Now let us apply +the knowledge of transmission processes thus gained to the general +celestial case, to the question of energy transmission between truly +separate bodies, and particularly to the case of the sun and the earth. +Do we find in this case any evidence of the presence of a machine for +energy transmission? It is impossible, within the limits of this work, +to deal with all the forms in which energy may be transmitted, but let +the reader review any instance of the transmission of energy under +terrestrial conditions, or any energy-transmission machine with which he +is familiar, noting particularly the essential phenomena and material +arrangements, and let him ask himself if there is any evidence of the +existence of a machine of this kind in operation between the sun and +the earth or across interplanetary space. We venture to assert that the +answer must be in the negative. The real knowledge of terrestrial +processes of energy transmission at command, on which all our deductions +must be based, does not warrant in the slightest degree the assumption +of transmission between the sun and the earth. The most plausible of +such assumptions is undoubtedly that which attributes transmission to +heat radiation, but this has already been shown to be at variance with +well-known facts. The question of light transmission will offer no +difficulty if it be borne in mind that light is not in itself a form of +energy, but merely a manifestation of energy as an incepting influence, +which like other incepting influences of a similar nature, can readily +operate across either vacuous or interplanetary space (Sec. 19). + +On these general considerations, deduced from the observation of +terrestrial phenomena, allied with the conception of energy machines and +separate masses in space, the author bases one aspect of the denial of +energy transmission between celestial masses. The doctrine of +transmission cannot be sustained in the face of legitimate scientific +deduction from natural phenomena. In the later parts of this work, and +from a more positive point of view, the denial is completely justified. + + +31. _Identification of Forms of Energy_ + +Before leaving the question of energy transmission, there are still one +or two interesting features to be considered. Although energy, as +already pointed out, is ever found associated with matter, this +association does not, in itself, always furnish phenomena sufficient to +distinguish the precise phase in which the energy may be manifested. +Some means must, as a rule, be adopted to isolate and identify the +various forms. + +Now one of the most interesting and important features of the process of +energy transmission is that it usually provides the direct means for the +identification of the acting energy. Energy, as it were, in movement, in +the process of transmission, is capable of being detected in its +different phases and recognised in each. The phenomena of transmission +usually serve, either directly or indirectly, to portray the precise +nature of the energy taking part in the operation. One of the most +direct instances of this is provided by the transmission of heat energy. +For illustrative purposes, let it be assumed that a body A, possessed of +heat energy to an exceedingly high degree, is isolated within a +spherical glass vessel CC, somewhat as already shown (Fig. 6). If it be +assumed that the space within CC is a perfect vacuum, and that no +material connection exists between the walls of the vessel and the body +A, the latter is completely isolated, and no means whatever are +available for the detection of its heat qualities (Sec. 30). It may seem +that, if the temperature of the body A were sufficiently high, its +energy state might be detected, and in a manner estimated, by its effect +on the eye or by its luminous properties, but we take this opportunity +of pointing out that luminosity is not invariably associated with high +temperature. On the contrary, many bodies are found in Nature, both +animate and inanimate, which are luminous and affect the eye at +comparatively low temperatures. How then is the energy condition of the +body to be definitely ascertained? The only means whereby it is possible +to identify the energy of the body is by transmitting a portion of that +energy to some other body and observing the resultant phenomena. +Suppose, then, another body, such as B (Fig. 6), at a lower temperature +than A, is brought into contact with A, so that a transmission of heat +energy ensues between the two. The phenomena which would result in such +circumstances will be exactly as already described in the case of the +transmission of energy through a solid (Sec. 27). Amongst other +manifestations it would be noticeable that the material of B was +expanded against its inherent cohesive forces. Now if, instead of a +spherical body such as B, a mercurial thermometer were utilised, the +phenomena would be of precisely the same nature. A definite portion of +the heat energy would be transmitted to the thermometer, and would +produce expansion of the contained fluid. By the amount of this +expansion it becomes possible to estimate the energy condition and +properties of the body A, relative to its surroundings or to certain +generally accepted standard conditions. Thermometric measurement is, in +fact, merely the employment of a process of energy transmission for the +purpose of identifying and estimating the heat-energy properties of +material substances. + +In everyday life, rough ideas of heat energy are constantly being +obtained by the aid of the senses. This method is, however, only another +aspect of transmission, for it will be clear that the sensations of heat +and cold are, in themselves, but the evidence of the transformation of +heat energy to or from the body. + +The process of energy transmission by a flexible band or cord (Sec. 28) +also provides evidence leading to the identification of the peculiar +form of energy which is being transmitted. At first sight, it would +appear as if this energy were simply energy of motion or kinetic energy. +A little reflection, however, on the general conditions of the process +must dispel this idea, for it is clear that the precise nature of the +energy transmitted has no real connection with the kinetic properties of +the system. The latter, truly, influence the rate of transmission and +impose certain limits, but evidently, if the pull in the band increases +without any increase in its velocity, the actual amount of energy +transmitted by the system would increase without altering in any respect +the kinetic properties. It becomes necessary, then, to distinguish +clearly the energy inherent to, or as it were, latent in the system, +from the energy actually transmitted by the system, to recognise the +difference between the energy transmitted by moving material and the +energy of that material. In this special instance, to identify the form +of energy transmitted it must of necessity be associated with the +peculiar phenomena of transmission. Now the energy is evidently +transmitted by the movement of the connecting belt or band. Before any +transmission can take place, however, a certain amount of energy must be +stored in the moving system, partly as cohesion or strain energy and +partly as energy of motion or kinetic energy. It is this preliminary +storage of energy which, in reality, constitutes the transmission +machine, and for a given rate of transmission, the energy thus stored +will be constant in value. It is obtained at the expense of the applied +energy, and, neglecting certain minor processes, will be returned (or +transmitted) in its entirety when the moving system once more comes to +rest. This stored energy, in fact, works in a reversible process. But +when the transmission machine is once constituted, the energy +transmitted is then that energy which is being continually applied at +the spindle A (Fig. 4) and as continually withdrawn at the spindle B. It +must be emphasised that the energy thus transmitted is absolutely +different from the kinetic or other energy associated with the moving +material of the system. It is the function of this energised material of +the band to transmit the energy from A to B, but this is the only +relationship which the transmitted energy bears to the material. The +energy thus transmitted by the moving material we term mechanical or +work energy. We may thus define mechanical or work energy as "_that form +of energy transmitted by matter in motion_." + +The idea of work is usually associated with that of a force acting +through a certain distance. The form of energy referred to above as work +energy is, in the same way, always associated with the idea of a thrust +or of a pressure of some kind acting on moving material. Work energy +thus bears two aspects, which really correspond to the familiar product +of pressure and volume. Both aspects are manifested in transmission. +Since work energy is invariably transmitted by matter in motion, every +machine for its transmission must possess energy of motion as one of its +essential features. As shown above (see also Sec. 28), this energy of +motion is really obtained at the expense of the originally applied work +energy, and as it remains unaltered in value during the progress of a +uniform transmission, it may be regarded as simply transformed work +energy, stored or latent in the system, which will be returned in its +entirety and in its original form at the termination of the operation. +The energy stored against cohesion or other forces may be regarded in +the same way. It is really the manifestation of the pressure or thrust +aspect of the work energy, just as the kinetic energy is the +manifestation of the translational or velocity aspect. + +Our definition of work energy given above enables us to recognise its +operation in many familiar processes. Take the case of a gas at high +pressure confined in a cylinder behind a movable piston. We can at once +say that the energy of the gas is work energy because this energy may +quite clearly be transmitted from the gas by the movement of the piston. +If the latter form part of a steam-engine mechanism of rods and crank, +the energy may, by the motion of this mechanism, be transmitted to the +crank shaft, and there utilised. This is eminently a case in which +energy is _transmitted_ by matter in motion. The moving material +comprises the piston, piston-rod, and connecting-rod, which are, one and +all, endowed with both cohesive and kinetic energy qualities, and form +together the transmission machine. So long as the piston is at rest only +one aspect of the work energy of the gas is apparent, namely, the +pressure aspect, but immediately motion and transmission take place, +both aspects are presented. The work energy of the gas, obtained in the +boiler by a _transformation_ of heat energy is thus, by matter in +motion, transmitted and made available at the crank shaft. The shaft +itself is also commonly utilised for the further transmission of the +work energy applied. By the application of the energy at the crank, it +is thrown into a state of strain, and at the same time is endowed with +kinetic energy of rotation. It thus forms a machine for transmission, +and the work energy applied at one point of the shaft may be withdrawn +at another point more remote. The transmission is, in reality, effected +by the movement of the material of the shaft. So long as the shaft is +stationary, it is clear that no actual transmission can be carried out, +no matter how great may be the strain imposed. If our engine mechanism +were, by a change in design, adapted to the use of a liquid substance as +the working material instead of a gas, it is clear that no change would +be effected in the general conditions. The energy of a liquid under +pressure is again simply work energy, and it would be transmitted by the +moving mechanism in precisely the same manner. + +From the foregoing, it will now be evident to the reader that the energy +originally applied to the primary mass (Sec. 3) of our cosmical system must +be work energy. It is this form of energy also which is inherent to each +unit of the planetary system associated with the primary. In this system +it is of course presented outwardly in the two phases of kinetic energy +and energy of strain or distortion. It is apparent, also, that work +energy could be transmitted from the primary mass to the separate +planets on one condition only, that is, by the movement of some material +substance connecting each planet to the primary. Since no such material +connection is admitted, the transmission of work energy is clearly +impossible. + + +32. _Complete Secondary Cyclical Operation_ + +A general outline of the conditions of working and the relationships of +secondary processes has already been given in the General Statement (Sec. +9), but it still remains to indicate, in a broad way, the general +methods whereby these operations are linked to the atmospheric machine. +In the example of the simple pendulum, it has been pointed out that the +energy processes giving rise to heating at the bearing surfaces and +transmission of energy to the air masses are not directly reversible +processes, but really form part of a more extensive cyclical operation, +in itself, however, complete and self-contained. This cyclical operation +may be regarded as a typical illustration of the manner in which +separate processes of energy transmission or transformation, such as +already described, are combined or united in a continuous chain forming +a complete whole. + +It has been assumed, in all the experiments with the pendulum, that the +operating energy is initially communicated from an outside source, say +the hand of the observer. This energy is, therefore, the acting energy +which must be traced through all its various phases from its origin to +its final destination. At the outset, it may be pointed out that this +energy, applied by hand, is obtained from the original rotational energy +of the earth by certain definite energy processes. Due to the influences +of various incepting fields which emanate from the sun (Secs. 17-19), a +portion of the earth's rotational energy is transformed into that form +of plant energy which is stored in plant tissue, and which, by the +physico-chemical processes of digestion, is in turn converted into heat +and the various other forms of energy associated with the human frame. +This, then, is the origin of the energy communicated to the pendulum. +Its progress through that machine has already been described in detail +(Secs. 21-26). The transformation of energy of motion to energy of position +which takes place is in itself a reversible process and may in the +meantime be neglected. But the final result of the operations, at the +bearing surfaces and in the air masses surrounding the moving pendulum, +was shown to be, in each case, that heat energy was communicated to +these air masses. The effect of the heat energy thus impressed, is to +cause the expansion of the air and its elevation from the surface of the +earth in the lines or field of the gravitative attraction, so that this +heat energy is transformed, and resides in the air masses as energy of +position. The energy then, originally drawn from the rotational energy +of the earth, has thus worked through the pendulum machine, and is now +stored in the air masses in this form of energy of position. To make the +process complete and cyclical this energy must now, therefore, be +returned once more to the earth in its original rotational form. This +final step is carried out in the atmospheric machine (Sec. 41). In this +machine, therefore, the energy of position possessed by the air masses +is, in their descent to their original positions at lower levels, +transformed once more into axial or rotational energy. In this fashion +this series of secondary processes, involving both transformations and +transmissions, is linked to the great atmospheric process. The amount of +energy which operates through the particular chain of processes we have +described is, of course, exceedingly small, but in this or a similar +manner all secondary operations, great or small, are associated with the +atmospheric machine. Instances could readily be multiplied, but a little +reflection will show how almost every energy operation, no matter what +may be its nature, whether physical, chemical, or electrical, leads +inevitably to the communication of energy to the atmospheric air masses +and to their consequent upraisal. + +It is interesting to note the infallible tendency of energy to revert +to its original form of axial energy, or energy of rotation, by means of +the air machine. All Nature bears witness to this tendency, and although +the path of energy through the maze of terrestrial transformation often +appears tortuous and uncertain, its final destination is always sure. +The secondary operations are thus interlinked into one great whole by +their association in the terrestrial energy cycle. Many of these +secondary operations are of short duration; others extend over long +periods of time. Energy, in some cases, appears to slumber, as in the +coal seams of the earth, until an appropriate stimulus is applied, when +it enters into active operation once more. The cyclical operations are +thus long or short according to the duration of their constituent +secondary energy processes. But the balance of Nature is ever preserved. +Axial energy, transformed by the working of one cyclical process, is +being as continuously returned by the simultaneous operation of others. + + + + +PART III + + + + +TERRESTRIAL CONDITIONS + + +33. _Gaseous Expansion_ + +Before proceeding to the general description of the atmospheric machine +(Sec. 10), it is desirable to consider one or two features of gaseous +reaction which have a somewhat important bearing on its working. Let it +be assumed that a mass of gaseous material is confined within the lower +portion of a narrow tube ABCD (Fig. 8) assumed to be thermally +non-conducting; the upper portion of the tube is in free communication +with the atmosphere. The gas within the tube is assumed to be isolated +from the atmosphere by a movable piston EF, free to move vertically in +the tube, and for the purpose of illustration, assumed also frictionless +and weightless. With these assumptions, the pressure on the confined gas +will simply be that due to the atmosphere. If heat energy be now +applied to the gas, its temperature will rise and expansion will ensue. +This expansion will be carried out at constant atmospheric pressure; the +gaseous material, as it expands, must lift with it the whole of the +superimposed atmospheric column against the downward attractive force of +the earth's gravitation on that column. Work is thus done by the +expanding gas, and in consequence of this work done, a definite quantity +of atmospheric material gains energy of position or potential energy +relative to the earth's surface. At the same time, the rise of +temperature of the gas will indicate an accession of heat energy to its +mass. These familiar phenomena of expansion under constant pressure +serve to illustrate the important fact that, when heat energy is applied +to a gaseous mass, it really manifests itself therein in two aspects, +namely, heat energy and work energy. The increment of heat energy is +indicated by the increase in temperature, the increment of work energy +by the increase in pressure. In the example just quoted, however, there +is no increase in pressure, because the work energy, as rapidly as it is +applied to the gas, is transformed or worked down in displacing the +atmospheric column resting on the upper side of the moving piston. The +energy applied, in the form of heat from the outside source, has in +reality been introduced into a definite energy machine, a machine in +this case adapted for the complete transformation of work energy into +energy of position. As already indicated, when the expansive movement is +completed, the volume and temperature of the gaseous mass are both +increased but the pressure remains unaltered. While the increase in +temperature is the measure and index of a definite increase in the heat +energy of the gas, it is important to note that, so far as its work +energy is concerned, the gas is finally in precisely the same condition +as at the commencement of the operation. Work energy has been, by the +working of this energy machine, as it were passed through the gaseous +mass into the surrounding atmosphere. The pressure of the gas is the +true index of its work energy properties. So long as the pressure +remains unaltered, the inherent work energy of the material remains +absolutely unaffected. A brief consideration of the nature of work +energy as already portrayed (Sec. 31) will make this clear. Work energy has +been defined as "_that form of energy transmitted by matter in motion_," +and it is clear that pressure is the essential factor in any +transmission of this nature. Temperature has no direct bearing on it +whatever. It is common knowledge, however, that in the application of +heat energy to a gaseous substance, the two aspects of pressure and +temperature cannot be really dissociated. They are mutually dependent. +Any increment of heat energy to the gas is accompanied by an increment +of work energy, and vice versa. The precise mode of action of the work +energy will, of course, depend on the general circumstances of the +energy machine in which it operates. In the case just considered the +work energy does not finally reside in the gaseous mass itself, but, by +the working of the machine, is communicated to the atmosphere. If, on +the other hand, heat energy were applied in the same fashion to a mass +of gas in a completely enclosed vessel, that is to say at constant +volume instead of at constant pressure, the general phenomena are merely +altered in degree according to the change in the precise nature of the +energy machine. In the former case, the nature of the energy machine was +such that the work energy communicated was expended in its entirety +against gravitation. Under what is usually termed constant volume +conditions, only a portion of the total work energy communicated is +transformed, and the transformation of this portion is carried out, not +against gravitation, but against the cohesive forces of the material of +the enclosing vessel which restrains the expansion. No matter how great +may be the elastic properties of this material, it will be distorted, +more or less, by the application of work energy. This distortional +movement is the external evidence of the energy process of +transformation. Energy is stored in the material against the forces of +cohesion (Sec. 15). But the energy thus stored is only a small proportion +of the total work energy which accrues to the gas in the heating +process. The remainder is stored in the gas itself, and the evidence of +such storage is found simply in the increase of pressure. Different +energy machines thus offer different facilities for the transformation +or the storage of the applied energy. In every case where the work +energy applied has no opportunity of expending itself, its presence will +be indicated by an increase in the pressure or work function of the gas. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8] + +The principles which underlie the above phenomena can readily be applied +to other cases of gaseous expansion. It is a matter of common experience +that if a given mass of gaseous material be introduced into a vessel +which has been exhausted by an air-pump or other device for the +production of a vacuum, the whole space within the vessel is instantly +permeated by the gas, which will expand until its volume is precisely +that of the containing vessel. Further phenomena of the operation are +that the expanding gas suffers a decrease in temperature and pressure +corresponding to the degree or ratio of the expansion. Before the +expansive process took place the gaseous mass, as indicated by its +initial temperature and pressure, is endowed with a definite quantity of +energy in the form of heat and work energy. After expansion, these +quantities are diminished, as indicated by its final and lower +temperature and pressure. The operation of expansion has thus involved +an expenditure of energy. This expenditure takes place in virtue of the +movement of the gaseous material (Sec. 4). It is obvious that if the volume +of the whole is to be increased, each portion of the expanding gas +requires to move relatively to the remainder. This movement is carried +out in the lines of the earth's gravitative attraction, and to a certain +extent over the surface of the containing vessel. In some respects, it +thus corresponds simply to the movement of a body over the earth's +surface (Sec. 16). It is also carried out against the viscous or frictional +forces existing throughout the gaseous material itself (Sec. 29). Assuming +no influx of energy from without, the energy expended in the movement of +the gaseous material must be obtained at the expense of the inherent +heat and work energy of the gas, and these two functions will decrease +simultaneously. The heat and work energy of the gas or its inherent +energy is thus taken to provide the energy necessary for the expansive +movement. This energy, however, does not leave the gas, but still +resides therein in a form akin to that of energy of position or +separation. It will be clear also, that the reverse operation cannot, in +this case, be carried out; the gas cannot move back to its original +volume in the same fashion as it expanded into the vacuum, so that the +energy utilised in this way for separation cannot be directly returned. + +The expansion of the gas has been assumed above to take place into a +vacuous space, but a little consideration will show that this condition +cannot be properly or even approximately fulfilled under ordinary +experimental conditions. The smallest quantity of gas introduced into +the exhausted vessel will at once completely fill the vacuous space, +and, on this account, the whole expansion of the gas does not in reality +take place _in vacuo_ at all. To study the action of the gas under the +latter conditions, it is necessary to look on the operation of expansion +in a more general way, which might be presented as follows. + + +34. _Gravitational Equilibrium of Gases_ + +Consider a planetary body, in general nature similar to the earth, but, +unlike the earth, possessing no atmosphere whatever. The space +surrounding such a celestial mass may then be considered as a perfect +vacuum. Now let it be further assumed that in virtue of some change in +the conditions, a portion of the material of the planetary mass is +volatilised and a mass of gas thereby liberated over its surface. The +gas is assumed to correspond in temperature to that portion of the +planet's surface with which it is in contact. It is clear that, in the +circumstances, the gas, in virtue of its elastic and energetic +properties, will expand in all directions. It will completely envelop +the planet, and it will also move radially outwards into space. In these +respects, its expansion will correspond to that of a gas introduced +into a vacuous space of unlimited extent. + +The question now arises as to the nature of the action of the gaseous +substance in these circumstances. It is clear that the radial or outward +movement of the gas from the planetary surface is made directly against +the gravitative attraction of the planet on the gaseous mass. In other +words, matter or material is being moved in the lines or field of this +gravitative force. This movement, accordingly, will be productive of an +energy transformation (Sec. 4). In its initial or surface condition each +portion of the gaseous mass is possessed of a perfectly definite amount +of energy indicated by and dependent on that condition. As it moves +upwards from the surface, it does work against gravity in the raising of +its own mass. But as the mass is thus raised, it is gaining energy of +position (Sec. 20), and as it has absolutely no communication with any +external source of energy in its ascent, the energy of position thus +gained can only be obtained at the expense of its initial inherent heat +and work energy. The operation is, in fact, a simple transformation of +this inherent energy into energy of position, a transformation in which +gravity is the incepting agency. The external evidence of transformation +will be a fall in temperature of the material. Since the action is +exactly similar for all ascending particles, it is evident that as the +altitude of the gaseous mass increases the temperature will +correspondingly diminish. This diminution will proceed so long as the +gaseous particles continue to ascend, and until an elevation is finally +attained at which their inherent energy is entirely converted into +energy of position. The expansion of the gas, and the associated +transformation of energy, thus leads to the erection of a gaseous column +in space, the temperature of which steadily diminishes from the base to +the summit. At the latter elevation, the inherent energy of the gaseous +particles which attain to it is completely transformed or worked out +against gravity in the ascent; the energy possessed by the gas at this +elevation is, therefore, entirely energy of position; the energy +properties of heat and work have entirely vanished, and the temperature +will, therefore, at this elevation, be absolute zero. It is important to +note also that in the building of such a column or gaseous spherical +envelope round the planet, the total energy of any gaseous particle of +that column will remain unchanged throughout the process. No matter +where the particle may be situated in the column, its total energy must +always be expressed by its heat and work energy properties together with +its energy of position. This sum is always a constant quantity. For if +the particle descends from a higher to a lower altitude, its total +energy is still unchanged, because a definite transformation of its +energy of position takes place corresponding to its fall, and this +transformed energy duly appears in its original form of heat and work +energy in accordance with the decreased altitude of the particle. Since +the temperature of the column remains unchanged at the base surface and +only decreases in the ascent, it is clear that the entire heat and work +energy of the originally liberated gaseous mass is not expended in the +movement against gravity. Every gaseous particle--excepting those on the +absolute outer surface of the gaseous envelope--has still the property +of temperature. It is evident, therefore, that in the constitution of +the column, only a portion of the total original heat and work energy of +the gaseous substance is transformed into energy of position. + +The space into which the gas expands has been referred to as unlimited +in extent. But although in one sense it may be correctly described thus, +yet in another, and perhaps in a truer sense, the space is very strictly +limited. It is true there is no enclosing vessel or bounding surface, +but nevertheless the expansion of the gas is restrained in two ways or +limited by two factors. The position of the bounding surface of the +spherical gaseous envelope depends, in the first place, on the original +energy of the gas as deduced from its initial temperature and its other +physical properties, and secondly on the value of the gravitative +attraction exerted on the gas by the planetary body. Looking at the +first factor, it is obvious that since the gaseous mass initially +possesses only a limited amount of energy, and since only a certain +portion of this energy is really available for the transformation, the +whole process is thereby limited in extent. The complete transformation +and disappearance of that available portion of the gaseous energy in the +process of erection of the atmospheric column will correspond to a +definite and limited increase of energy of position of gaseous material. +Since the energy of position is thus restricted in its totality, and the +mass of material for elevation is constant, the height of the column or +the boundary of expansion of the gas is likewise rigidly defined. In +this fashion, the energy properties of the gaseous material limit the +expansive process. + +Looking at the operation from another standpoint, it is clear that the +maximum height of the spherical gaseous envelope must also be dependent +on the resistance against which the upward movement of the gas is +carried out, that is, on the value of the gravitative attraction. The +expenditure of energy in the ascent varies directly as the opposing +force; if this force be increased the ultimate height must decrease, and +vice versa. Each particle might be regarded as moving in the ascent +against the action of an invisible spring, stretching it so that with +increase of altitude more and more of the energy of the particle is +transformed or stored in the spring in the extension. When the particle +descends to its original position, the operation is reversed; the +spring is now contracting, and yielding up the stored energy to the +particle in the contraction. The action of the spring would here be +merely that of an apparatus for the storage and return of energy. In the +case of the gaseous mass, we conceive the action of gravitation to be +exactly analogous to that of a spring offering an approximately constant +resistance to extension. (The value of gravity is assumed approximately +constant, and independent of the particle's displacement.) The energy +stored or transformed in the ascension against gravity is returned on +the descent in a precisely similar fashion. The operation is a +completely reversible one. The range of motion of the gaseous mass or +the ultimate height of the gaseous column will thus depend on the value +of the opposing attractive force controlling the motion or, in other +words, on the value of gravity. This value is of course defined by the +relative mass of the planet (Sec. 20). + +It is evident that the spherical envelope which would thus enwrap the +planetary mass possesses certain peculiar properties which are not +associated with gaseous masses under ordinary experimental conditions. +It by no means corresponds to any ordinary body of gaseous material, +having a homogeneous constitution and a precise and determinate pressure +and temperature throughout. On the contrary, its properties are somewhat +complex. Throughout the gaseous envelope the physical condition of the +substance is continually changing with change of altitude. The extremes +are found at the inner and outer bounding surfaces. At any given level, +the gaseous pressure is simply the result of the attractive action of +gravitation on the mass of gaseous material above that level--or, more +simply, to the weight of material above that level. There is, of course, +a certain decrease in the value of the gravitative attraction with +increase of altitude, but within the limits of atmospheric height +obtained by ordinary gaseous substances (Sec. 36) this decrease may be +neglected, and the weight of unit mass of the material assumed constant +at different levels. Increase of atmospheric altitude is thus +accompanied by decrease in atmospheric pressure. But decrease in +pressure must be accompanied by a corresponding decrease in density of +the gas, so that, if uniform temperature were for the time being +assumed, it would be necessary at the higher levels to rise through a +greater distance to experience the same decrease in pressure than at the +lower levels. In fact, given uniform conditions of temperature, if +different altitudes were taken in arithmetical progression the +respective pressures and densities would diminish in geometrical +progression. But we have seen that the energy conditions absolutely +preclude the condition of uniformity of temperature, and accordingly, +the decreasing pressure and density must be counteracted to some extent +at least by the decreasing temperature. The conditions are somewhat +complex; but the general effect of the decreasing temperature factor +would seem to be by increasing the density to cause the available +gaseous energy to be completely worked down at a somewhat lower level +than otherwise, and thus to lessen to some degree the height of the +gaseous envelope. + +It is to be noted that a gaseous column or atmosphere of this nature +would be in a state of complete equilibrium under the action of the +gravitative attraction--provided there were no external disturbing +influences. The peculiar feature of such a column is that the total +energy of unit mass of its material, wherever that mass may be situated, +is a constant quantity. In virtue of this property, the equilibrium of +the column might be termed neutral or statical equilibrium. The gas may +then be described as in the neutral or statical condition. This statical +condition of equilibrium of a gas is of course a purely hypothetical +one. It has been described in order to introduce certain ideas which are +essential to the discussion of energy changes and reactions of gases in +the lines of gravitational forces. These reactions will now be dealt +with. + + +35. _Total Energy of Gaseous Substances_ + +Since the maximum height of a planetary atmosphere is dependent on the +total energy of the gaseous substance or substances of which it is +composed, it becomes necessary, in determining this height, to estimate +this total energy. This, however, is a matter of some difficulty. By the +total energy is here meant the entire energy possessed by the substance, +that energy which it would yield up in cooling from its given condition +down to absolute zero of temperature. On examination of the recorded +properties of the various gaseous substances familiar to us, it will be +found that in no single instance are the particulars available for +anything more than an exceedingly rough estimate of this total energy. +Each substance, in proceeding from the gaseous condition towards +absolute zero, passes through many physical phases. In most cases, there +is a lack of experimental phenomena or data of any kind relating to +certain of these phases; the necessary information on certain points, +such as the values and variations of latent and specific heats and other +physical quantities, is, in the meantime, not accessible. Experimental +research in regions of low temperature may be said to be in its infancy, +and the properties of matter in these regions are accordingly more or +less unknown. The researches of Mendeleef and others tend to show, also, +that the comparatively simple laws successfully applied to gases under +normal conditions are entirely departed from at very low temperatures. +In view of these facts, it is necessary, in attempting to estimate, by +ordinary methods, the total energy of any substance, to bear in mind +that the quantity finally obtained may only be a rough approximation to +the true value. These approximations, however, although of little value +as precise measurements, may be of very great importance for certain +general comparative purposes. + +Keeping in view these general considerations, it is now proposed to +estimate, under ordinary terrestrial atmospheric conditions, the total +energy properties of the three gaseous substances, oxygen, nitrogen, and +aqueous vapour. The information relative to the energy calculation which +is in the meantime available is shown below in tabular form. As far as +possible all the heat and other energy properties of each substance as +it cools to absolute zero have been taken into account. + +_Table of Properties_ + + +--------+---------+----------+----------+-------------+-------+---------+ + | I | II | III | IV | V | VI | VII | + +--------+---------+----------+----------+-------------+-------+---------+ + | |Specific | Evaporation | | | | + | | Heat at |Temperature of Liquid| Approximate | Latent| Vapour | + | Gas | Constant| at Atmospheric | Latent Heat |Heat of|Pressure.| + | |Pressure.| Pressure. |of Gas 50 deg. F.|Liquid.| 50 deg. F. | + | | | deg.F. deg.F. (Abs.)| | | | + +--------+---------+----------+----------+-------------+-------+---------+ + |Oxygen | 0.2175 | -296 | 164 | 100 | ... | ... | + +--------+---------+----------+----------+-------------+-------+---------+ + |Nitrogen| 0.2438 | -320 | 141 | 100 | ... | ... | + +--------+---------+----------+----------+-------------+-------+---------+ + |Aqueous | | | | | | | + |Vapour | 0.4 | 212 | 673 | 1080 | 144 | 0.176 | + +--------+---------+----------+----------+-------------+-------+---------+ + +Since no reliable data can be obtained with regard to the values and +variations of specific heats at extremely low temperatures, they are +assumed for the purpose of our calculation to be in each case that of +the gas, and to be constant under all conditions. Latent heats are +utilised in every case when available. + +With these reservations, the total energy, referred to absolute zero, of +one pound of oxygen gas at normal temperature of 50 deg. F. or 511 deg. F. +(Abs.) will be approximately + + (511 x 0.2175) + 100 = 211 Thermal Units Fahrenheit. + +This in work units is roughly equivalent to + + 211 x 778 = 164,000 ft. lbs. + +Adopting the same method with nitrogen gas, its energy at the same +initial temperature will be, per unit mass, + + 174,600 ft. lbs. + +There is thus a somewhat close resemblance, not only in the general +temperature conditions but also in the energy conditions, of the two +gases oxygen and nitrogen. + +It will be readily seen, however, that under the same conditions the +energy state of aqueous vapour differs very considerably from either, +for by the same method as before the energy per pound of aqueous vapour +is equal to + + {(511 x 0.4) + 1080 + 144} x 778 = 1,111,000 ft. lbs. + +Under ordinary terrestrial atmospheric conditions, the energy of aqueous +vapour per unit mass is thus nearly seven times as great as that of +either oxygen or nitrogen gas. It is to be observed, also, that +three-fourths of this energy of the vapour under the given conditions is +present in the form of latent energy of the gas, or what we have already +termed work energy. + +The values of the various temperatures and other physical features, +which we have included in the Table of Properties above, and which will +be utilised throughout this discussion, are merely those in everyday use +in scientific work. They form simply the accessible information on the +respective materials. They are the records of phenomena, and on these +phenomena are based our energy calculations. Further research may reveal +the true values of other factors which up to the present we have been +forced to assume, and so lead to more accurate computation of the energy +in each case. Such investigation, however, is unlikely to affect in any +way the general object of this part of the work, which is simply to +portray in an approximate manner the relative energy properties of the +three gaseous substances under certain assumed conditions. + + +36. _Comparative Altitudes of Planetary Atmospheres_ + +The total energy of equal masses of the gases oxygen, nitrogen, and +aqueous vapour, as estimated by the method above, are respectively in +the ratios + + 1 : 1.06 : 6.8 + +Referring back once more to the phenomena described with reference to +the gravitational equilibrium of a gas, let it be assumed that the +gaseous substance liberated on the surface of the planetary body is +oxygen, and that the planetary body itself is of approximately the same +constitution and dimensions as the earth. The oxygen gas thus liberated +will expand against gravity, and envelop the planet in the manner +already described (Sec. 34). Now the total energy of a mass of one pound of +oxygen has been estimated under certain assumptions (Sec. 35) to be 164,000 +ft. lbs. The value of the gravitative attraction of the planet on this +mass is the same as under ordinary terrestrial conditions, so that if +the entire energy of one pound of the gas were utilised in raising +itself against gravity, the height through which this mass would be +raised, and at which the material would attain the level of absolute +zero of temperature, assuming gravity constant with increasing altitude, +would be simply 164,000 ft. or approximately 31 miles. The whole energy +would not, of course, be expended in the expansive movement; only the +outermost surface material of the planetary gaseous envelope attains to +absolute zero of temperature. In estimating the altitude of this +surface, however, the precise mass of gaseous substance assumed for the +purpose of calculation is of little or no importance. Whatever may be +the value of the mass assumed, its total energy and the gravitative +attraction of the planetary body on it are both alike entirely and +directly dependent on that mass value. It is therefore clear that no +matter how the mass under consideration be diminished, the height at +which its energy would be completely worked down, and at which its +temperature would be absolute zero, is the same, namely 31 miles. At the +planet's surface, the total energy of an infinitesimally small portion +of the gaseous mass is proportional to that mass. This amount of energy +is, however, all that is available for transformation against +gravitation in the ascent. But at the same time, the gravitative force +on the particle, that force which resists its upward movement, is +proportionately small corresponding to the small mass, so that the +particle will in reality require to rise to the same altitude of 31 +miles in order to completely transform its energy and attain absolute +zero of temperature. When the expansive process is completed, the outer +surface of the spherical gaseous envelope surrounding the planet is then +formed of matter in this condition of absolute zero; this height of 31 +miles is then the altitude or depth of the statical atmospheric column +at a point on the planetary surface where the temperature is 50 deg. F. + +It is to be particularly noted that this height is entirely dependent +on the gravitation, temperature, and energy conditions assumed. + +With respect, also, to the assumption made above, of constant +gravitation with increasing altitude, the variation in the value of +gravity within the height limits in which the gas operates is so slight, +that the energy of the expanding substance is completely worked down +long before the variation appreciably affects the estimated altitude of +absolute zero. In any case, bearing in mind the approximate nature of +the estimate of the energy of the gases themselves, the variation of +gravity is evidently a factor of little moment in our scheme of +comparison. + +Knowing the maximum height to be 31 miles, a uniform temperature +gradient from the planetary surface to the outermost surface of the +atmospheric material may be readily calculated. In the case of oxygen, +the decrease of temperature with altitude will be at the rate of 16 deg. F. +per mile, or 1 deg. F. per 330 ft. + +If the planetary atmosphere were composed of nitrogen instead of oxygen, +the height of the statical atmospheric column under the given conditions +would then be approximately + + 31 x 1.06 = 33 miles, + +and the gradient of temperature 15.5 deg. F. per mile. + +In the case of aqueous vapour, which is possessed of much more powerful +energy properties than either oxygen or nitrogen, the height of the +statical column, to correspond to the energy of the material, is no less +than 210 miles and the temperature gradient only 2.4 deg. F. per mile. + +Each of the gases, then, if separately associated with the planetary +body, would form an atmosphere around it depending in height on the +peculiar energy properties of the gas. A point to be observed is that +the actual or total mass of any gas thus liberated at the planet's +surface has no bearing on the ultimate height of the atmosphere which it +would constitute. When the expansive motion is completed, the density +properties of the atmosphere would of course depend on the initial mass +of gas liberated, but for any given value of gravity it is the energy +properties of the gas per unit mass, or what might be termed its +specific energy properties, which really determine the height of its +atmosphere. + + +37. _Reactions of Composite Atmosphere_ + +It is now possible to deal with the case in which not only one gas but +several gases are initially liberated on the planetary surface. Since +the gases are different, then at the given surface temperature of the +planet they possess different amounts of heat energy, and for each gas +considered statically, the temperature-altitude gradient will be +different from any of the others. The limiting height of the gaseous +column for each gas, considered separately, will also depend on the +total energy of that gas per unit mass, at the surface temperature. But +it is evident that in a composite atmosphere, the separate statical +conditions of several gases could not be maintained. In such a mixture, +separate temperature-altitude gradients would be impossible. Absolute +zero of temperature could clearly not be attained at more than one +altitude, and it is evident that the temperature-altitude gradient of +the mixture must, in some way, settle down to a definite value, and +absolute zero of temperature must occur at some determinate height. This +can only be brought about by energy exchanges and reactions between the +atmospheric constituents. When these reactions have taken place, the +atmosphere as a whole will have attained a condition analogous to that +of statical equilibrium (Sec. 34). Each of its constituents, however, will +have decidedly departed from this latter condition. In the course of the +mutual energy reactions, some will lose a portion of their energy. +Others will gain at their expense. All are in equilibrium as +constituents of the composite atmosphere, but none approach the +condition of statical equilibrium peculiar to an atmosphere composed of +one gas only (Sec. 35). The precise energy operations which would thus take +place in any composite atmosphere would of course depend in nature and +extent on the physical properties of the reacting constituents. If the +latter were closely alike in general properties, the energy changes are +likely to be small. A strong divergence in energy properties will give +rise to more powerful reactions. A concrete instance will perhaps make +this more clear. Let it be assumed in the first place that the planetary +atmosphere is composed of the two gases oxygen and nitrogen. From +previous considerations, it will be clear that the natural decrease of +temperature of nitrogen gas with increase of altitude is, in virtue of +its slightly superior energy qualities, correspondingly slower than that +of oxygen. The approximate rates are 15.5 deg. F. and 16 deg. F. per mile +respectively. The tendency of the nitrogen is therefore to transmit a +portion of its energy to the oxygen. Such a transmission, however, would +increase the height of the oxygen column and correspondingly decrease +the height of the nitrogen. When the balance is finally obtained, the +height of the atmospheric column does not correspond to the energy +properties of either gas, but to those of the combination. In the case +of these two materials, oxygen and nitrogen, the energy reactions +necessary to produce the condition of equilibrium are comparatively +small in magnitude on account of the somewhat close resemblance in the +energy properties of the two substances. On this account, therefore, the +two gases might readily be assumed to behave as one gas composing the +planetary atmosphere. + +But what, then, will be the effect of introducing a quantity of aqueous +vapour into an atmosphere this nature? The general phenomena will be of +the same order as before, but of much greater magnitude. From the +approximate figures obtained (Secs. 35, 36), the inherent energy of aqueous +vapour per unit mass is seen to be, under the same conditions, +enormously greater than that of the other two gases. In statical +equilibrium (Sec. 34), the altitude of the gaseous column formed by aqueous +vapour is almost seven times as great as that of the oxygen or nitrogen +with which, in the composite atmosphere, it would be intermixed. In the +given circumstances, then, aqueous vapour would be forced by these +conditions to give up a very large portion of its energy to the other +atmospheric constituents. The latter would thus be still further +expanded against gravity; the aqueous vapour itself would suffer a loss +of energy equivalent to the work transmitted from it. It is therefore +clear that in a composite atmosphere formed in the manner described, any +gas possessed of energy properties superior to the other constituents is +forced of necessity to transmit energy to these constituents. This +phenomenon is merely a consequence of the natural disposition of the +atmospheric gaseous substances towards a condition of equilibrium with +more or less uniform temperature gradation. The greater the inherent +energy qualities of any one constituent relative to the others, the +greater will be the quantity of energy transmitted from it in this way. + + +38. _Description of Terrestrial Case_ + +Bearing in mind the general considerations which have been advanced +above with respect to planetary atmospheres, it is now possible to place +before the reader a general descriptive outline of the circumstances and +operation of an atmospheric machine in actual working. The machine to be +described is that associated with the earth. + +In the earth is found an example of a planetary body of spheroidal form +pursuing a clearly defined orbit in space and at the same time rotating +with absolutely uniform velocity about a central axis within itself. The +structural details of its surface and the general distribution of +material thereon will be more or less familiar to the reader, and it is +not, therefore, proposed to dwell on these features here. Attention may +be drawn, however, to the fact that a very large proportion of the +surface of the earth is a liquid surface. Of all the material familiar +to us from terrestrial experience there is none which enters into the +composition of the earth's crust in so large a proportion as water. In +the free state, or in combination with other material, water is found +everywhere. In the liquid condition it is widely distributed. Although +the liquid or sea surface of the planet extends over a large part of +the whole, the real water surface, that is, the _wetted_ surface, if we +except perhaps a few desert regions, may be said to comprise practically +the entire surface area of the planet. And water is found not only on +the earth's crust but throughout the gaseous atmospheric envelope. The +researches of modern chemistry have revealed the fact that the +atmosphere by which the earth is surrounded is not only a mixture of +gases, but an exceedingly complex mixture. The relative proportions of +the rarer gases present are, however, exceedingly small, and their +properties correspondingly obscure. Taken broadly, the atmosphere may be +said to be composed of air and water (in the form of aqueous vapour) in +varying proportion. The former constituent exists as a mixture of oxygen +and nitrogen gases of fairly constant proportion over the entire surface +of the globe. The latter is present in varying amount at different +points according to local conditions. This mixture of gaseous +substances, forming the terrestrial atmosphere, resides on the surface +of the planet and forms, as already described (Sec. 34), a column or +envelope completely surrounding it; the quantity of gaseous material +thus heaped up on the planetary surface is such that it exerts almost +uniformly over that surface the ordinary atmospheric pressure of +approximately 14.7 lb. per sq. inch. It is advisable, also, at this +stage to point out and emphasise the fact that the planetary atmosphere +must be regarded as essentially a material portion of the planet itself. +Although the atmosphere forms a movable shell or envelope, and is +composed of purely gaseous material, it will still partake of the same +complete orbital and rotatory axial motion as the solid core, and will +also be subjected to the same external and internal influences of +gravitation. Such are the general planetary conditions. Let us now turn +to the particular phenomena of axial revolution. + +In virtue of the unvarying rotatory movement of the planetary mass in +the lines of the various incepting fields of its primary the sun, +transformations of the axial or mechanical energy of the planet will be +in continuous operation (Secs. 17-19). Although the gaseous atmospheric +envelope of the planet partakes of this general rotatory motion under +the influence of the incepting fields, the latter have apparently no +action upon it. The sun's influence penetrates, as it were, the +atmospheric veil, and operating on the solid and liquid material below, +provokes the numerous and varied transformations of planetary energy +which constitute planetary phenomena. At the equatorial band, where the +velocity or axial energy properties of the surface material is greatest, +these effects of transformation will naturally be most pronounced. In +the polar regions of low velocity they will be less evident. One of the +most important of these transforming effects may be termed the heating +action of the primary on the planet--a process which takes place in +greater or less degree over the entire planetary surface, and which is +the result of the direct transformation of axial energy into the form of +heat (Sec. 18). In virtue of this heat transformation, or heating effect of +the sun, the temperature of material on the earth's surface is +maintained in varying values from regions of high velocity to those of +low--from equator to poles--according to latitude or according to the +displacement of that material, in rotation, from the central axis. Owing +to the irregular distribution of matter on the earth's surface, and +other causes to be referred to later, this variation in temperature is +not necessarily uniform with the latitude. This heating effect of the +sun on the earth will provoke on the terrestrial surface all the +familiar secondary processes (Sec. 9) associated with the heating of +material. Most of these processes, in combination with the operations of +radiation and conduction, will lead either directly or indirectly to the +communication of energy to the atmospheric masses (Sec. 27). + +Closely associated with the heat transformation, there is also in +operation another energy process of great importance. This process is +one of evaporative transformation. Reference has already been made to +the vast extent of the liquid or wetted surface of the earth. This +surface forms the seat of evaporation, and the action of the sun's +incepting influence on the liquid of this surface is to induce a direct +transformation of the earth's axial or mechanical energy into the +elastic energy of a gas, or in other words into the form of work energy. +By this process, therefore, water is converted into aqueous vapour. +Immediately the substance attains the latter or gaseous state it becomes +unaffected by, or transparent to, the incepting influence of the sun (Sec. +18). And the action of evaporation is not restricted in locality to the +earth's surface only. It may proceed throughout the atmosphere. Wherever +condensation of aqueous vapour takes place and water particles are +thereby suspended in the atmosphere, these particles are immediately +susceptible to the sun's incepting field, and if the conditions are +otherwise favourable, re-evaporation will at once ensue. Like the +ordinary heating action also, that of transformation will take place +with greater intensity in equatorial than in polar regions. These two +planetary secondary processes, of heating and evaporation, are of vital +importance to the working of the atmospheric machine. But, as already +pointed out elsewhere (Secs. 10, 32), every secondary operation is in some +fashion linked to that machine. Other incepting influences, such as +light, are in action on the planet, and produce transformations peculiar +to themselves. These, in the meantime, will not be considered except to +point out that in every case the energy active in them is the axial +energy of the earth itself operating under the direct incepting +influence of the sun. The general conditions of planetary revolution and +transformation are thus intimately associated with the operation of the +atmospheric machine. In this machine is embodied a huge energy process, +in the working of which the axial energy of the earth passes through a +series of energy changes which, in combination, form a complete cyclical +operation. In their perhaps most natural sequence these processes are as +follows:-- + +1. The direct transformation of terrestrial axial energy into the work +energy of aqueous vapour. + +2. The direct transmission of the work energy of aqueous vapour to the +general atmospheric masses, and the consequent elevation of these masses +from the earth's surface against gravity. + +3. The descent of the atmospheric air masses in their movement towards +regions of low velocity, and the return in the descent of the initially +transformed axial energy to its original form. + +The first of these processes is carried out through the medium of the +aqueous material of the earth. It is simply the evaporative +transformation referred to above. By that evaporative process a portion +of the energy of motion or axial energy of the earth is directly +communicated or passed into the aqueous material. Its form, in that +material, is that of work energy, or the elastic energy of aqueous +vapour, and, as already pointed out, this process of evaporative +transformation reaches its greatest intensity in equatorial or regions +of highest velocity. In these regions also, in virtue of the working of +the heat process already referred to above, the temperature conditions +are eminently favourable to the presence of large quantities of aqueous +vapour. The tension or pressure of the vapour, which really depends on +the quantity of gaseous material present, is directly proportional to +the temperature, so that in equatorial regions not only is the general +action of transformation in the aqueous material most intense, but the +surrounding temperature conditions in these regions are such as to +favour the continuous presence of large quantities of the aqueous vapour +which is the direct product of the action of transformation. The +equatorial regions of the earth, or the regions of high velocity, are +thus eminently adapted, by the natural conditions, to be the seat of the +most powerful transformations of axial energy. As already pointed out, +however, these same transformations take place over the entire +terrestrial surface in varying degree and intensity according to the +locality and the temperature or other conditions which may prevail. Now +this transformation of axial energy which takes place through the medium +of the evaporative process is a continuous operation. The energy +involved, which passes into the aqueous vapour, augmented by the energy +of other secondary processes (Sec. 32), is the energy which is applied to +the atmospheric air masses in the second stage of the working of the +atmospheric machine. Before proceeding to the description of this stage, +however, it is absolutely necessary to point out certain very important +facts with reference to the energy condition of the atmospheric +constituents in the peculiar circumstances of their normal working. + + +39. _Relative Physical Conditions of Atmospheric Constituents_ + +It will be evident that no matter where the evaporation of the aqueous +material takes place, it must be carried out at the temperature +corresponding to that location, and since the aqueous vapour itself is +not superheated in any way (being transparent to the sun's influence), +the axial energy transformed and the work energy stored in the material +per unit mass, will be simply equivalent to the latent heat of aqueous +vapour under the temperature conditions which prevail. In virtue of the +relatively high value of this latent heat under ordinary conditions, the +gas may be regarded as comparatively a very highly energised substance. +It is clear, however, that since the gas is working at its precise +temperature of evaporation, the maximum amount of energy which it can +possibly yield up at that temperature is simply this latent heat of +evaporation, and if this energy be by any means withdrawn, either in +whole or in part, then condensation corresponding to the energy +withdrawal will at once ensue. The condition of the aqueous vapour is in +fact that of a true vapour, or of a gaseous substance operating exactly +at its evaporation temperature, and unable to sustain even the slightest +abstraction of energy without an equivalent condensation. No matter in +what manner the abstraction is carried out, whether by the direct +transmission of heat from the substance or by the expansion of the gas +against gravity, the result is the same; part of the gaseous material +returns to the liquid form. + +In the case of the more stable or permanent constituents of the +atmosphere, namely oxygen and nitrogen, their physical conditions are +entirely different from that of the aqueous vapour. Examination of the +Table of Properties (p. 133) shows that the evaporation temperatures of +these two substances under ordinary conditions of atmospheric pressure +are as low as -296 deg. F. and -320 deg. F. respectively. At an ordinary +atmospheric temperature of say 50 deg. F. these two gases are therefore so +far above their evaporation temperature that they are in the condition +of what might be termed true gaseous substances. Although only at a +temperature of 50 deg. F., they may be truly described as highly superheated +gases, and it is evident that they may be readily cooled from 50 deg. F. +through wide ranges of temperature, without any danger of their +condensation or liquefaction. Oxygen and nitrogen gases thus present in +their physical condition and qualities a strong contrast to aqueous +vapour, and it is this difference in properties, particularly the +difference in evaporation temperatures, which is of vital importance in +the working of the atmospheric machine. The two gases oxygen and +nitrogen are, however, so closely alike in their general energy +properties that, in the meantime, the atmospheric mixture of the two can +be conveniently assumed to act simply as one gas--atmospheric air. + +From these considerations of the ordinary atmospheric physical +properties of air and aqueous vapour it may be readily seen how each is +eminently adapted to its function in the atmospheric process. The +peculiar duty of the aqueous vapour is the absorption and transmission +of energy. Its relatively enormous capacity for energy, the high value +of its latent heat at all ordinary atmospheric temperatures, and the +fact that it must always operate precisely at its evaporation +temperature makes it admirably suited for both functions. Thus, in +virtue of its peculiar physical properties, it forms an admirable agent +for the storage of energy and for its transmission to the surrounding +air masses. The low temperature of evaporation of these air masses +ensures their permanency in the gaseous state. They are thus perfectly +adapted for expansive and other movements, for the conversion of their +energy against gravity into energy of position, or for any other +reactions involving temperature change without condensation. + + +40. _Transmission of Energy from Aqueous Vapour to Air Masses_ + +The working of the second or transmission stage of the atmospheric +machine involves certain energy operations in which gravitation is the +incepting factor or agency. Let it be assumed that a mass of aqueous +vapour liberated at its surface of evaporation by the transformation of +axial energy, expands upwards against the gravitative attraction of the +earth (Secs. 34, 38). As the gaseous particles ascend and thus gain energy +of position, they do work against gravity. This work is done at the +expense of their latent energy. Since the aqueous material is always +working precisely at its evaporation temperature, this gain in energy of +position and consequent loss of latent energy will be accompanied by an +equivalent condensation and conversion of the rising vapour into the +liquid form. This condensation will thus be the direct evidence and +measure of work done by the aqueous material against the gravitational +forces, and the energy expended or worked down in this way may now, +accordingly, be regarded as stored in the condensed material or liquid +particles in virtue of their new and exalted position above the earth's +surface. It is this energy which is finally transmitted to the +atmospheric air masses. The transmission process is carried out in the +downward movement of the liquid particles. The latter, in their exalted +positions, are at a low temperature corresponding to that position--that +is, corresponding to the work done--and provided no energy were +transmitted from them to the surrounding air masses, their temperature +would gradually rise during the descent by the transformation of this +energy of position. In fact the phenomena of descent, supposing no +transmission of energy from the aqueous material, would simply be the +reverse of the phenomena of ascent. Since, however, the energy of +position which the liquid particles possess is transmitted from them to +the atmospheric masses, then it follows that this natural increase in +their temperature would not occur in the descent. A new order of +phenomena would now appear. Since the evaporative process is a +continuous one, the liquid particles in their downward movement must be +in intimate contact with rising gaseous material, and these liquid +particles will, accordingly, at each stage of the descent, absorb from +this rising material the whole energy necessary to raise their +temperature to the values corresponding to their decreasing elevation. +In virtue of this absorption of energy then, from the rising material, +these liquid particles are enabled to reach the level of evaporation at +the precise temperature of that level. + +Now, considering the process as a whole, it will be readily seen that +for any given mass of aqueous material thus elevated from and returned +to a surface of evaporation, there must be a definite expenditure of +energy (axial energy) at that surface. Since the material always regains +the surface at the precise temperature of evaporation, this expenditure +is obviously, in total, equal to the latent heat of aqueous vapour at +the surface temperature. It may be divided into two parts. One portion +of the axial energy--the transmitted portion--is utilised in the +elevation of the material against gravity; the remainder is expended, as +explained above, in the heating of the returning material. The whole +operation takes place between two precise temperatures, a higher +temperature, which is that of the surface of evaporation, and a lower +temperature, corresponding to the work done, and so related to the +higher that the whole of the energy expended by the working aqueous +substance--in heating the returning material and in transmitted work--is +exactly equivalent to the latent heat of aqueous vapour at the high or +surface temperature. But, as will be demonstrated later, the whole +energy transmitted from the aqueous material to the air masses is +finally returned in its entirety as axial energy, and is thus once more +made available in the evaporative transformation process. The energy +expended in raising the temperature of the working material returning to +the surface of evaporation is obviously returned with that material. +Both portions of the original expenditure are thus returned to the +source in different ways. The whole operation is, in fact, completely +cyclical in nature; we are in reality describing "Nature's Perfect +Engine," which is completely reversible and which has the highest +possible efficiency.[1] Although the higher temperature at the +evaporation surface may vary with different locations of that surface, +in every case the lower temperature is so related to it as to make the +total expenditure precisely equal to the latent heat at that evaporation +temperature.[2] It must be borne in mind also, that all the condensed +material in the upper strata of the atmosphere must not of necessity +return to the planetary liquid surface. On the contrary, immediately +condensation of the aqueous vapour takes place and the material leaves +the gaseous state, no matter where that material is situated, it is once +more susceptible to the incepting influences of the sun. Re-evaporation +may thus readily take place even at high altitudes, and complete +cyclical operations may be carried out there. These operations will, +however, be carried out in every case between precise temperature limits +as explained above. + + [1] The conception of "Nature's Perfect Engine" was originally + arrived at by the author from consideration of the phenomena of the + steam-engine. The following extract from the "Review" of his work + (1895) illustrates the various stages which finally lead to that + conclusion:-- + + "My first steps in the right direction came about thus. I had always + been working with a cylinder and piston, and could make no progress, + till at length it struck me to make my cylinder high enough to do + without a piston--that is, to leave the steam to itself and observe + its behaviour when left to work against gravity. The first thing I + had to settle was the height of my cylinder. And I found, by + calculation from Regnault's experiments that it would require to be + very high, and that the exact height would depend on the temperature + of the water in the boiler which was the bottom of this ideal + cylinder. Now, at any ordinary temperature the height was so great + that it was impossible to get known material to support its own + weight, and I did not wish to use a hypothetical substance in the + construction of this engine. Finally, the only course left me was to + abolish the cylinder as I had done the piston. I then discovered + that the engine I had been trying to evolve--the perfect engine--was + not the ideal thing I had been groping after but an actual reality, + in full working order, its operations taking place every day before + my eyes. + + "Every natural phenomenon fitted in exactly; it had its function to + perform, and the performance of its function constituted the + phenomenon. Let me trace the analogy in a few of its details. The + sea corresponds to the boiler; its cylinder surrounds the earth; it + has for its fuel the axial energy of the earth; it has no condenser + because it has no exhaust; the work it performs is all expended in + producing the fuel. Every operation in the cycle is but an energy + transformation, and these various transformations constitute the + visible life of the world." + + [2] For definite numerical examples see the author's _Terrestrial + Energy_ (Chap. 1.). + +It will be evident, from a general consideration of this process of +transmission of energy from the aqueous vapour, that relatively large +quantities of that vapour are not required in the atmosphere for the +working of the gaseous machine. The peculiar property of ready +condensation of the aqueous vapour makes the evaporative process a +continuous one, and the highly energised aqueous material, although only +present in comparatively small amount, contributes a continuous flow of +energy, and is thus able to steadily convey a very large quantity to +the atmospheric masses. For the same reason, the greater part of the +energy transmission from the aqueous vapour to the air will take place +at comparatively low altitudes and between reasonably high temperatures. +The working of any evaporative cycle may also be spread over very large +terrestrial areas by the free movement of the acting material. Aqueous +vapour rising in equatorial regions may finally return to the earth in +the form of ice-crystals at the poles. In every complete cycle, however, +the total expenditure per unit mass of material initially evaporated is +always the latent heat at the higher or evaporation temperature; in the +final or return stages of the cycle, any energy not transmitted to the +air masses is devoted to the heating of returning aqueous material. + +Referring again to the transmitted energy, and speaking in the broadest +fashion, the function of the aqueous vapour in the atmosphere may be +likened to that of the steam in the cylinder of a steam-engine. In both +cases the aqueous material works in a definite machine for energy +transmission. In the case of the steam-engine work energy is transmitted +(Sec. 31) from the steam through the medium of the moving piston and +rotating shaft, and thence may be further diverted to useful purposes. +In the planetary atmospheric machine the work energy of aqueous vapour +is likewise transmitted by the agency of the moving air masses, not to +any external agent, but back once more to its original source, which is +the planetary axial energy. In neither case are we able to explain the +precise nature of the transmission process in its ultimate details. We +cannot say _how_ the steam transmits its work energy by the moving +piston, nor yet by what agency the elevated particles of aqueous +material transmit their energy to the air masses. Our knowledge is +confined entirely to the phenomena, and, fortunately, these are in some +degree accessible. Nature presents direct evidence that such +transmissions actually take place. This evidence is to be found, in both +cases, in the condensation of the aqueous material which sustains the +loss of its work energy. In the engine cylinder condensation takes place +due to work being transmitted from the steam; in the atmosphere the +visible phenomena of condensation are likewise the ever present evidence +of the transmission of work energy from the aqueous vapour to the air +masses. In virtue of this accession of energy these masses will, +accordingly, be expanded upwards against the gravitational attractive +forces. This upward movement, being made entirely at the expense of +energy communicated from the aqueous vapour, is not accompanied by the +normal fall of temperature due to the expansion of the air. Planetary +axial energy, originally absorbed by the aqueous vapour, in the work +form, has been transferred to the air masses in the same form, and is +now, after the expansive movement, resident in these masses in the form +of energy of position. It is the function of the atmospheric machine in +its final stage to return this energy in the original axial form. + + +41. _Terrestrial Energy Return_ + +Let it be assumed that an atmospheric mass has been raised, by the +transmission of work energy, to a high altitude in the equatorial +regions of the earth. The assumption of locality is made merely for +illustrative purposes; it will be evident to the reader that the +transmission of work energy to the atmospheric masses and their +consequent elevation will be continuously proceeding, more or less, over +the whole planetary surface. To replace the gaseous material thus +raised, a corresponding mass of air will move at a lower level, towards +the equator from the more temperate zones adjoining. A circulatory +motion will thus be set up in the atmosphere. In the upper regions the +elevated and energised air masses move towards the poles; at lower +levels the replacing masses move towards the equator, and in their +passage may be operated on by the aqueous vapour which they encounter, +energised, and raised to higher levels. The movement will be continuous. +In their transference from equatorial towards polar regions, the +atmospheric masses are leaving the surfaces or regions of high linear +velocity for those of low, and must in consequence lose or return in +the passage a portion of that natural energy of motion which they +possess in virtue of their high linear velocity at the equator. But on +the other hand, the replacing air masses, which are travelling in the +opposite direction from poles to equator, must gain or absorb a +corresponding amount of energy. The one operation thus balances the +other, and the planetary equilibrium is in no way disturbed. But the +atmospheric masses which are moving from the equator in the polar +direction will possess, in addition, that energy of position which has +been communicated to them through the medium of the aqueous vapour and +by the working of the second stage of the atmospheric machine. These +masses, in the circulatory polar movements, move downwards towards the +planetary surface. In this downward motion (as in the downward motion of +a pendulum mass vibrating under the action of gravitation) the energy of +position of the air mass is converted once more into energy of +motion--that is, into its original form of axial energy of rotation. In +equatorial regions the really important energy property of the +atmospheric mass was indicated by its elevation or its energy of +position. In the descent this energy is thus entirely transformed, and +reverts once more to its original form of energy of rotation. + +The continual transformation of axial energy by the aqueous vapour, and +the conversion of that energy by the upward movement of the air masses +into energy of position, naturally tends to produce a retardative effect +on the motion of revolution of the earth. But this retardative effect is +in turn completely neutralised or balanced by the corresponding +accelerative effect due to the equally continuous return as the energy +of the air masses reverts in the continuous polar movement to its +original axial form. Speaking generally, the equatorial regions, or the +regions of high velocity, are the location of the most powerful +transformation or abstraction of axial energy by the aqueous vapour. +Conversely, the polar or regions of low velocity are the location of the +greatest return of energy by the air. As no energy return is possible +unless by the transference of the atmospheric material from regions of +high to regions of low velocity, the configuration of the planet in +rotation must conform to this condition. The spheroidal form of the +earth is thus exquisitely adapted to the working of the atmospheric +machine. As already pointed out, however, the energising and raising of +atmospheric masses is by no means confined to equatorial regions, but +takes place more or less over the whole planetary surface. The same +applies to the energy return. The complete cycle may be carried out in +temperate zones; gaseous masses, also, leaving equatorial regions at +high altitudes do not necessarily reach the polar regions, but may +attain their lowest levels at intermediate points. Neither do such +masses necessarily proceed to the regions of low velocity by purely +linear paths. On the contrary, they may and do move both towards the +poles and downwards by circuitous and even vortical paths. In fact, as +will be readily apparent, their precise path is of absolutely no moment +in the consideration of energy return. + +It might naturally be expected that such movements of the atmospheric +air masses as have been described above would give rise to great +atmospheric disturbance over the earth's surface, and that the transfer +of gaseous material from pole to equator and vice versa would be +productive of violent storms of wind. Such storms, however, are +phenomena of somewhat rare occurrence; the atmosphere, on the whole, +appears to be in a state of comparative tranquillity. This serenity of +the atmosphere is, however, confined to the lower strata, and may be +ascribed to an inherent stability possessed by the air mass as a whole +in virtue of the accession of energy to it at high levels. As already +explained, the transfer of energy from the vapour to the air masses is +accomplished at comparatively low altitudes, and when this reaction is +taking place the whole tendency of the energised material is to move +upwards. In so moving it tends to leave behind it the condensed aqueous +vapour, and would, therefore, rise to the higher altitudes in a +comparatively dry condition. This dryness is accentuated by the further +loss of aqueous vapour by condensation as the air moves toward regions +of low velocity. That air which actually attains to the poles will be +practically dry, and having also returned, in its entirety, the surplus +energy obtained from the aqueous vapour, it will be in this region +practically in the condition of statical equilibrium of a gas against +gravity (Sec. 34). But the general state of the atmosphere in other regions +where a transference of energy from the aqueous vapour has taken or is +taking place is very different from this condition of natural statical +equilibrium which is approached at the poles. In the lower strata of the +atmosphere the condition in some cases may approximate to the latter, +but in the upper strata it is possessed of energy qualities quite +abnormal to statical equilibrium. Its condition is rather one of the +nature of stable equilibrium. It is in a condition similar to that of a +liquid heated in its upper layers; there is absolutely no tendency to a +direct or vertical downward circulation. In statical equilibrium, any +downward movement of an air mass would simply be accompanied by the +natural rise in temperature corresponding to the transformation of its +energy of position, but in this condition of stable equilibrium any +motion downwards must involve, not only this natural temperature rise, +but also a return, either in whole or in part, of the energy absorbed +from the aqueous vapour. The natural conditions are therefore against +any direct vertical return. These conditions, however, favour in every +respect the circulatory motion of the highly energised upper air masses +towards regions of low velocity. All circumstances combine, in fact, to +confine the more powerfully energised and highly mobile air masses to +high altitudes. In the lower atmosphere, owing to the continuous action +of the aqueous vapour on the air masses moving from regions of low to +those of high velocity, the circulation tends largely to be a vertical +one, so that this locality is on the whole preserved in comparative +tranquillity. It may happen, however, that owing to changes in the +distribution of aqueous vapour, or other causes, this natural stability +of the atmosphere may be disturbed over certain regions of the earth's +surface. The circumstances will then favour a direct or more or less +vertical return of the energy of the air masses in the neighbourhood of +these regions. This return will then take the form of violent storms of +wind, usually of a cyclonic nature, and affording direct evidence of the +tendency of the air masses to pursue vortical paths in their movement +towards lower levels. + +Under normal conditions, however, the operation of the atmospheric +machine is smooth and continuous. The earth's axial energy, under the +sun's incepting influence, steadily flows at all parts of the earth's +surface through the aqueous vapour into the atmospheric masses, and the +latter, rising from the terrestrial surface, with a motion somewhat like +that of a column of smoke, spread out and speed towards regions of lower +velocity, and travelling by devious and lengthened paths towards the +surface, steadily return the abstracted energy in its original form. +Every operation is exactly balanced; energy expenditure and energy +return are complementary; the terrestrial atmospheric machine as a whole +works without jar or discontinuity, and the earth's motion of rotation +is maintained with absolute uniformity. + +Like every other energy machine, the atmospheric machine has +clearly-defined energy limits. The total quantity of energy in operation +is strictly limited by the mass of the acting materials. It is well, +also, to note the purely mechanical nature of the machine. Every +operation is in reality the operation of mechanical energy, and involves +the movement of matter in some way or other relative to the earth's +surface and under the incepting action of the earth's gravitation (Secs. +16, 20). The moving gaseous masses have as real an existence as masses +of lead or other solid material, and require as real an expenditure of +energy to move them relative to the terrestrial surface (Sec. 18). This +aspect of the planetary machine will be more fully treated later. + +Throughout this description we have constantly assumed the atmospheric +mixture of oxygen and nitrogen to act as one gas, and at ordinary +temperatures the respective energy properties of the two substances (Sec. +35) make this assumption justifiable. Both gases are then working far +above their respective evaporation temperatures. But, in the higher +regions of the atmosphere, where very low temperatures prevail, a point +or altitude will be reached where the temperature corresponds to the +evaporation or condensation temperature of one of the gases. Since +oxygen appears to have the highest temperature of evaporation (see Table +of Properties, p. 133), it would naturally be the first to condense in +the ascent. But immediately condensation takes place, the material will +become susceptible to the incepting influence of the sun, and working as +it does at its temperature of evaporation it will convey its energy to +the surrounding nitrogen in precisely the same fashion as the aqueous +vapour conveys the energy to the aerial mixture in the lower atmosphere. +The whole action is made possible simply by the difference existing in +the respective evaporation temperatures of the two gases. It will give +rise to another cyclical atmospheric energy process exactly as already +described for lower altitudes. Axial energy of rotation will be +communicated to the nitrogen by the working material, which is now the +oxygen, and by the movement of the nitrogen masses towards regions of +low velocity, this transmitted energy will be finally returned to its +original axial form. + +It has been already explained (Secs. 10, 32) how all terrestrial energy +processes, also, great or small, are sooner or later linked to the +general atmospheric machine. The latter, therefore, presents in every +phase of its working completely closed energy circuits. In no aspect of +its operation can we find any evidence of, or indeed any necessity for, +an energy transmission either to or from any external body or agent such +as the sun. Every phenomenon of Nature is, in fact, a direct denial of +such transmission. + +The student of terrestrial phenomena will readily find continuous and +ample evidence in Nature of the working of the atmospheric machine. In +the rising vapour and the falling rain he will recognise the visible +signs of the operation of that great secondary process of transmission +by which the inherent axial energy of the earth is communicated to the +air masses. The movements of bodies, animate and inanimate, on the +earth's surface, the phenomena of growth and decay, and in fact almost +every experience of everyday life, will reveal to him the persistent +tendency of the energy of secondary processes to revert to the +atmospheric machine. And in the winds that traverse the face of the +globe he will also witness the mechanism of that energy return which +completes the atmospheric cyclical process. It may be pointed out here +also that the terrestrial cyclical energy processes are not necessarily +all embodied in the atmosphere. The author has reason to believe, and +phenomenal evidence is not awanting to show, that the circulatory +motions of the atmosphere are in some degree reproduced in the sea. The +reader will readily perceive that as regards stability the water +composing the sea is in precisely the same condition as the atmosphere, +namely, that of a liquid heated in its upper strata, and any circulatory +motion of the water must therefore be accompanied by corresponding +transformations of energy. That such a circulatory motion takes place is +undoubted, and in the moving mass of sea-water we have therefore a +perfectly reversible energy machine of the same general nature as the +atmospheric machine, but working at a very much slower rate. It is not +beyond the limits of legitimate scientific deduction to trace also the +working of a similar machine in the solid material of the earth. The +latter is, after all, but an agglomeration of loose material bound by +the force of gravitation into coherent form. By the action of various +erosive agencies a movement of solid material is continually taking +place over the earth's surface. The material thus transported, it may +be, from mountain chains, and deposited on the sea-bed, causes a +disturbance of that gravitational equilibrium which defines the exact +form of the earth. The forces tending to maintain this equilibrium are +so enormous compared with the cohesive forces of the material forming +the earth that readjustment continuously takes place, as evidenced by +the tremors observed in the earth's crust. Where the structure of the +latter is of such a nature as to offer great resistance to the +gravitational forces, the readjustment may take the form of an +earthquake. Geological evidence, as a whole, strongly points to a +continuous kneading and flow of terrestrial material. The structure of +igneous rocks, also, is exactly that which would be produced from +alluvial deposits subjected during these cyclical movements to the +enormous pressure and consequent heating caused by superimposed +material. The occurrence of coal in polar regions, and of glacial +residue in the tropics, may be regarded as further corroborative +evidence. From this point of view also, it becomes unnecessary to +postulate a genesis for the earth, as every known geological formation +is shown to be capable of production under present conditions in Nature, +and in fact to be in actual process of production at all times. + + +42. _Experimental Analogy and Demonstration of the General Mechanism of + Energy Transformation and Return in the Atmospheric Cycle_ + +In the preceding articles, the atmospheric machine has been regarded +more or less from the purely physical point of view. The purpose of this +demonstration is now to place before the reader what might be termed +the mechanical aspects of the machine; to give an outline, using simple +experimental analogies, of its nature and operation when considered +purely and simply as a mechanism for the transformation and return of +mechanical energy. + +Familiar apparatus is used in illustration. In all cases, it is merely +some adaptation of the simple pendulum (Sec. 21). Its minute structural +details are really of slight importance in the discussion, and have +accordingly been ignored, but the apparatus generally, and the energy +operations embodied therein, are so familiar to physicists and engineers +that the experimental results illustrated can be readily verified by +everyday experience. It is of great importance, also, in considering +these results, to bear in mind the principles already enunciated (Secs. 13, +20) with reference to the operation of mechanical energy on the various +forms of matter. The general working conditions of energy systems with +respect to energy limits, stability, and reversibility (Sec. 23) should +also be kept in view. + +As an introductory step we shall review first a simple system of +rotating pendulums. Two simple pendulums CM and DM{1} (Fig. 9) are +mounted by means of a circular collar CD upon a vertical spindle AB, +which is supported at A and B and free to rotate. When the central +spindle AB is at rest the pendulums hang vertically; when energy is +applied to the system, and AB is thereby caused to rotate, the +spherical masses M and M{1} will rise by circular paths about C and D. +This upward movement, considered apart from the centrifugal influence +producing it, corresponds in itself to the upward movement of the simple +pendulum (Sec. 21) against gravity. It is representative of a definite +transformation, namely, the transformation of the work energy originally +applied to the system and manifested in its rotary motion, into energy +of position. The movements of the rotating pendulums will also be +accompanied by other energy operations associated with bearing friction +and windage (Secs. 23, 29), but these operations being part of a separate +and complete cyclical energy process (Sec. 32), they will in this case be +neglected. + +[Illustration: FIG. 9] + +It will be readily seen, however, that the working of this rotating +pendulum machine, when considered as a whole, is of a nature somewhat +different from that of the simple pendulum machine in that the energy of +position of the former (as measured by the vertical displacement of M +and M{1} in rotation) and its energy of rotation must increase +concurrently, and also in that the absolute maximum value of this energy +of position will be attained when the pendulum masses reach merely the +horizontal level HL in rotation. The machines are alike, however, in +this respect, that the transformation of energy of motion into energy of +position is in each case a completely reversible process. In the working +of the rotating pendulums the limiting amount of energy which can +operate in this reversible process is dependent on and rigidly defined +by the maximum length of the pendulum arms; the longer the arms, the +greater is the possible height through which the masses at their +extremities must rise to attain the horizontal position in rotation. It +will be clear also that it is not possible for the whole energy of the +rotating system to work in the reversible process as in the case of the +simple pendulum. As the pendulum masses rise, the ratio of the limiting +energy for reversibility to the total energy of the system becomes in +fact smaller and smaller, until at the horizontal or position of maximum +energy it reaches a minimum value. This is merely an aspect of the +experimental fact that, as the pendulum masses approach the ultimate +horizontal position, a much greater increment of energy to the system is +necessary for their elevation through a given vertical distance than at +the lower levels. A larger proportion of the applied energy is, in fact, +stored in the material of the system in the form of energy of strain or +distortion. + +The two points which this system is designed to illustrate, and which +it is desirable to emphasise, are thus as follows. Firstly, as the whole +system rotates, the movement of the pendulum masses M and M{1} from the +lower to the higher levels, or from the regions of low to those of +higher velocity, is productive of a transformation of the rotatory +energy of the system into energy of position--a transformation of the +same nature as in the case of the simple pendulum system. Neglecting the +minor transformations (Secs. 24, 29), this energy process is a reversible +one, and consequently, the return of the masses from the higher to the +lower positions will be accompanied by the complete return of the +transformed energy in its original form of energy of rotation. Secondly, +the maximum amount of energy which can work in this reversible process +is always less than the total energy of the system. The latter, +therefore, conforms to the general condition of stability (Sec. 25). + +But this arrangement of rotating pendulums may be extended so as to +include other features. To eliminate or in a manner replace the +influence of gravitation, and to preserve the energy of position of the +system--relative to the earth's surface--at a constant value, the +pendulum arms may be assumed to be duplicated or extended to the points +K and R (Fig. 10) respectively, where pendulum masses equal to M and +M{1} are attached. + +The arms MK and M{1}R are thus continuous. Each arm is assumed to be +pivoted at its middle point about a horizontal axis through N, and as +the lower masses M and M{1} rise in the course of the rotatory movement +about AB the upper masses K and R will fall by corresponding amounts. +The total energy of position of the system--referred to the earth's +surface--thus remains constant whatever may be the position of the +masses in the system. The restraining influence on the movement of the +masses, formerly exercised by gravitation, is now furnished by means of +a central spring F. A collar CD, connected as shown to the pendulum +arms, slides on the spindle AB and compresses this spring as the masses +move towards the horizontal level HL. As the masses return towards A and +B the spring is released. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10] + +If energy be applied to the system, so that it is caused to rotate about +the central axis AB, the pendulum masses will tend to move outwards from +that axis. Their movement may be said to be carried out over the surface +of an imaginary sphere with centre on AB at N. The motion of the masses, +as the velocity of rotation increases, is from the region of lower +peripheral velocity, in the vicinity of the axis AB, to the regions of +higher velocity, in the neighbourhood of H and L. This outward movement +from the central axis towards H and L is representative of a +transformation of energy of an exactly similar nature to that described +above in the simple case. Part of the original energy of rotation of the +system is now stored in the pendulum masses in virtue of their new +position of displacement. But in this case, the movement is made, not +against gravity, but against the central spring F. The energy, then, +which in the former case might be said to be stored against gravitation +(acting as an invisible spring) is in this case stored in the form of +energy of strain or cohesion (Sec. 15) in the central spring, which thus as +it were takes the place of gravitation in the system. As in the previous +case also, the operation is a reversible energy process. If the pendulum +masses move in the opposite direction from the regions of higher +velocity to those of lower velocity, the energy stored in the spring +will be returned to the system in its original form of energy of motion. +A vibratory motion of the pendulums to and from the central axis would +thus be productive of an alternate storage and return of energy. It is +obvious also, that due to the action of centrifugal force, the pendulum +masses would tend to move radially outwards on the arms as they move +towards the regions of highest velocity. Let this radial movement be +carried out against the action of four radial springs S{1}, S{2}, +S{3}, S{4}, as shown (Fig. 11). In virtue of the radial movement of +the masses, these springs will be compressed and energy stored in them +in the form of energy of strain or cohesion (Sec. 15). The radial movement +implies also that the masses will be elevated from the surface of the +imaginary sphere over which they are assumed to move. The elevation from +this surface will be greatest in the regions of high velocity in the +neighbourhood of H and L, and least at A and B. As the masses move, +therefore, from H and L towards the axis AB, they will also move inwards +on the pendulum arms, relieving the springs, so that the energy stored +in them is free to be returned to the system in its original form of +energy of rotation. Every movement of the masses from the central axis +outwards against the springs is thus made at the expense of the original +energy of motion, and every movement inwards provokes a corresponding +return of that energy to the system. Every movement also against the +springs forms part of a reversible operation. The sum total of the +energy which works in these reversible operations is always less than +the complete energy of the rotatory system, and the latter is always +stable (Sec. 25), with respect to its energy properties. Let it now be +assumed that the complete system as described is possessed of a precise +and limited amount of energy of rotation, and that with the pendulum +masses in an intermediate position as shown (Fig. 11) it is rotating +with uniform angular velocity. The condition of the rotatory system +might now be described as that of equilibrium. A definite amount of its +original rotatory energy is now stored in the central spring and also in +the radial springs. If now, without alteration in the intrinsic rotatory +energy of the system, the pendulum masses were to execute a vibratory or +pendulum motion about the position of equilibrium so that they move +alternately to and from the central axis, then as they move inwards +towards that axis the energy stored in the springs would be returned to +the system in the original form of energy of rotation. This inward +motion would, accordingly, produce acceleration. But, in the outward +movement from the position of equilibrium, retardation would ensue on +account of energy of motion being withdrawn from the system and stored +in the springs. + +[Illustration: FIG. 11] + +Under the given conditions, then, any vibratory motion of the pendulum +masses to and from the central axis would be accompanied by alternate +retardation and acceleration of the moving system. The storage of energy +in the springs (central and radial) produces retardation, the +restoration of this energy gives rise to a corresponding acceleration. +The angular velocity of the system would rise and fall accordingly. +These are the natural conditions of working of the system. As already +pointed out, the motion of the pendulum masses may be regarded as +executed over the surface of an imaginary sphere. Their motion against +the radial springs would therefore correspond to a displacement outwards +or upwards from the spherical surface. A definite part of the effect of +retardation is, of course, due to this outward or radial displacement of +the masses. + +Assuming still the property of constancy of energy of rotation, let it +now be supposed that in such a vibratory movement of the pendulum masses +as described above, the energy required merely for the displacement of +the masses _against the radial springs_ is not withdrawn from and +obtained at the expense of the original rotatory energy of the system, +but is obtained from some energy agency, completely external to the +system, and to which energy cannot be returned. The retardation, +normally due to the outward displacement of the masses against the +radial springs, would not then take place. But the energy is, +nevertheless, stored in the springs. It now, therefore, forms part of +the energy of the system, and consequently, on the returning or inward +movement of vibration of the masses towards the central axis, this +energy, received from the external source, would pass directly from the +springs to the rotational energy of the system. It is clear, then, that +while the introduction of energy in this fashion from an external source +has in part eliminated the effect of retardation, the accelerating +effect must still operate as before. Each vibratory movement of the +pendulum system, under the given conditions, will lead to a definite +increase in its energy of rotation by the amount stored in the radial +springs. If the vibratory movement is continuous, the rotatory velocity +of the system will steadily increase in value. Energy once stored in the +radial springs can only be released by the return movement of the masses +and _in the form of energy of rotation_; the nature of the mechanical +machine is, in fact, such that if any incremental energy is applied to +the displacement of the masses against the radial springs, it can only +be returned in this form of energy of motion. + +These features of this experimental system are of vital importance to +the author's scheme. They may be illustrated more completely, however, +and in a form more suitable for their most general application, by the +hypothetical system now to be described. This system is, of course, +devised for purely illustrative purposes, but the general principles of +working of pendulum systems and of energy return, as demonstrated above, +will be assumed. + + +43. _Application of Pendulum Principles_ + +The movements of the pendulum masses described in the previous article +have been regarded as carried out over the surface of an imaginary +sphere. Let us now proceed to consider the phenomena of a similar +movement of material over the surface of an actual spherical mass. The +precise dimensions of the sphere are of little moment in the discussion, +but for the purpose of illustration, its mass and general outline may be +assumed to correspond to that of the earth or other planetary body. This +spherical mass A (Fig. 12) rotates with uniform angular velocity about +an axis NS through its centre. Associated with the rotating sphere are +four auxiliary spherical masses, M{1}, M{2}, M{3}, M{4}, also of +solid material, which are assumed to be placed symmetrically round its +circumference as shown. These masses form an inherent part of the +spherical system; they are assumed to be united to the main body of +material by the attractive force of gravitation in precisely the same +fashion as the atmosphere or other surface material of a planet is +united to its inner core (Sec. 34); they will therefore partake completely +of the rotatory motion of the sphere about its axis NS, moving in paths +similar to those of the rotating pendulum masses already described (Sec. +42). The restraining action of the pendulum arms is, however, replaced +in this celestial case by the action of gravitation, which is the +central force or influence of the system. Opposite masses are thus only +united through the attractive influence of the material of the sphere. +The place of the springs, both central and radial, in our pendulum +system is now taken by this centripetal force of gravitative attraction, +which therefore forms the restraining influence or determining factor in +all the associated energy processes. While the auxiliary masses M{1} +M{2}, &c., partake of the general motion of revolution of the main +spherical mass about NS, they may also be assumed to revolve +simultaneously about the axis WE, perpendicular to NS, and also passing +through the centre of the sphere. Each of these masses will thus have a +peculiar motion, a definite velocity over the surface of the sphere from +pole to pole--about the axis WE--combined with a velocity of rotation +about the central axis NS. The value of the latter velocity is, at any +instant, directly proportional to the radius of the circle of latitude +of the point on the surface of the sphere where the mass happens to be +situated at that instant in its rotatory motion from pole to pole; this +velocity accordingly diminishes as the mass withdraws from the equator, +and becomes zero when it actually reaches the poles of rotation at N and +S; and the energy of each mass in motion, since its linear velocity is +thus constantly varying, will be itself a continuously varying quantity, +increasing or diminishing accordingly as the mass is moving to or from +the equatorial regions, attaining its maximum value at the equator and +its minimum value at the poles. Now, since the masses thus moving are +assumed to be a material and inherent portion of the spherical system, +the source of the energy which is thus alternately supplied to and +returned by them is the original energy of motion of the system; this +original energy being assumed strictly limited in amount, the increase +of the energy of each mass as it moves towards the equator will, +therefore, be productive of a retardative effect on the revolution of +the system as a whole. But, in a precisely similar manner, the energy +thus gained by the mass would be fully returned on its movement towards +the pole, and an accelerative effect would be produced corresponding to +the original retardation. In the arrangement shown (Fig. 12), the moving +masses are assumed to be situated at the extremities of diameters at +right angles. With this symmetrical distribution, the transformation +and return of energy would take place concurrently. Retardation is +continually balanced by acceleration, and the motion of the sphere +would, therefore, be approximately uniform about the central axis of +rotation. It will be clear that the movements thus described of the +masses will be very similar in nature to those of the pendulum masses in +the experimental system previously discussed. The fact that the motion +of the auxiliary masses over the surface of the sphere is assumed to be +completely circular and not vibratory, as in the pendulum case, has no +bearing on the general energy phenomena. These are readily seen to be +identical in nature with those of the simpler system. In each case every +movement of the masses implies either an expenditure of energy or a +return, accordingly as the direction of that movement is to or from the +regions of high velocity. + +[Illustration: FIG. 12] + +The paths of the moving auxiliary masses have been considered, so far, +only as parallel to the surface of the sphere, but the general energy +conditions are in no way altered if they are assumed to have in addition +some motion normal to that surface; if, for example, they are repelled +from the surface as they approach the equatorial regions, and return +towards it once more as they approach the poles. Such a movement of the +masses normal to the spherical surface really corresponds to the +movement against the radial springs in the pendulum system; it would +now be made against the attractive or restraining influence of +gravitation, and a definite expenditure of energy would thus necessarily +be required to produce the displacement. Energy, formerly stored in the +springs, corresponds now to energy stored as energy of position (Sec. 20) +against gravitation. If this energy is obtained at the expense of the +inherent rotatory energy of the sphere, then its conversion in this +fashion into energy of position will again be productive of a definite +retardative effect on the revolution of the system. It is clear, +however, that if each mass descends to the surface level once more in +moving towards the poles, then in this operation its energy of position, +originally obtained at the expense of the rotatory energy of the sphere, +will be gradually but completely returned to that source. In a balanced +system, such as we have assumed above, the descent of one mass in +rotation would be accompanied by the elevation of another at a different +point; the abstraction and return of the energy of rotation would then +be equivalent, and would not affect the primary condition of uniformity +of rotation of the system. In the circumstances assumed, the whole +energy process which takes place in the movement of the masses from +poles to equator and normal to the spherical surface would obviously be +of a cyclical nature and completely reversible. It would be the working +of mechanical energy in a definite material machine, and in accordance +with the principles already outlined (Sec. 20) the maximum amount of +energy which can operate in this machine is strictly limited by the mass +of the material involved in the movement. The energy machine has thus a +definite capacity, and as the maximum energy operating in the reversible +cycle is assumed to be within this limit, the machine would be +completely stable in nature (Sec. 25). The movements of the auxiliary +masses have hitherto also been considered as taking place over somewhat +restricted paths, but this convention is one which can readily be +dispensed with. The general direction of motion of the masses must of +course be from equator to pole or vice versa; but it is quite obvious +that the exact paths pursued by the masses in this general motion is of +no moment in the consideration of energy return, nor yet the precise +region in which they may happen to be restored once more to the surface +level. Whatever may be its position at any instant, each mass is +possessed of a definite amount of energy corresponding to that position; +this amount will always be equal to the total energy abstracted by that +mass, less the energy returned. The nature of the energy system is, +however, such that the various energy phases of the different masses +will be completely co-ordinated. Since the essential feature of the +system is its property of uniformity of rotation, any return of energy +in the rotational form at any part of the system--due to the descent of +material--produces a definite accelerating effect on the system, which +effect is, however, at once neutralised or absorbed by a corresponding +retardative effect due to that energy which must be extracted from the +system in equivalent amount and devoted to the upraising of material at +a different point. For simplicity in illustration only four masses have +been considered in motion over the surface of the sphere, but it will be +clear that the number which may so operate is really limited only by the +dimensions of the system. The spherical surface might be completely +covered with moving material, not necessarily of spherical form, not +necessarily even material in the solid form (Sec. 13), which would rise and +fall relative to the surface and flow to and from the poles exactly in +the fashion already illustrated by the moving masses. The capacity of +the reversible energy machine--which depends on the mass--would be +altered in this case, but not the general nature of the machine itself. +If the system were energised to the requisite degree, every energy +operation could be carried out as before. + +As already pointed out, the dominating feature of a spherical system +such as we have just described would be essentially its property of +energy conservation manifested by its uniformity of rotation. All its +operations could be carried out independently of the direct action of +any external energy influences. For if it be assumed that the energy +gained by the auxiliary moving surface material _in virtue of its +displacement normal to the spherical surface_ be derived, not from the +inherent rotational energy of the sphere itself, but by an influx of +energy from some source completely external to the system, then since +there has been no energy abstraction there will be no retardative effect +on the revolution due to the upraising of this material. But the influx +of energy thus stored in the material must of necessity work through the +energy machine. In the movement towards the poles this energy would +therefore be applied to the system in the form of energy of rotation, +and would produce a definite accelerative effect. If the influx of +energy were continuous, and no means were existent for a corresponding +efflux, the rotatory velocity of the system would steadily increase. The +phenomena would be of precisely the same nature as those already alluded +to in the case of the system of rotating pendulums (Sec. 42). Acceleration +would take place without corresponding retardation. A direct +contribution would be continuously made to the rotatory energy of the +system, and would under the given conditions be manifested by an +increase in its velocity of revolution. + + +44. _Extension of Pendulum Principles to Terrestrial Phenomena_ + +The energy phenomena illustrated by the experimental devices above are +to be observed, in their aspects of greatest perfection, in the natural +world. In the earth, united to its encircling atmosphere by the +invisible bond of gravitation, we find the prototype of the hypothetical +system just described. Its uniformity of rotation is an established fact +of centuries, and over its spheroidal surface we have, corresponding to +the motion of our illustrative spherical masses, the movement of +enormous quantities of atmospheric air in the general directions from +equatorial to polar regions and vice versa. This circulatory movement, +and the internal energy reactions which it involves, have been already +fully dealt with (Sec. 88); we have now to consider it in a somewhat more +comprehensive fashion, in the light of the pendulum systems described +above. As already explained (Sec. 13), the operation of mechanical energy +is not confined to solid and liquid masses only, but may likewise be +manifested by the movements of gaseous masses. The terrestrial +atmospheric machine provides an outstanding example. In its working +conditions, and in the general nature of the energy operations involved, +the terrestrial atmospheric machine is very clearly represented by the +rotating pendulum system (Sec. 42). The analogy is still closer in the case +of the hypothetical system just described. The actual terrestrial energy +machine differs from both only in that the energy processes, which they +illustrate by the movements of solid material, are carried out in the +course of its working by the motion of gaseous masses. It is obvious, +however, that this in no way affects the inherent nature of the energy +processes themselves. They are carried out quite as completely and +efficiently--in fact, more completely and more efficiently--by the +motions of gaseous as by the motions of solid material. + +The atmospheric circulation, then, may be readily regarded as the +movement, over the terrestrial surface, of gaseous masses which absorb +and return energy in regions of high and low velocity exactly in the +fashion explained above for solid material. In their movement from polar +towards equatorial regions these masses, by the action of the aqueous +vapour (Sec. 38), absorb energy (axial energy) and expand upwards against +gravity. Here we have an energy operation identical in nature with that +embodied in the movements of a pendulum mass simultaneously over a +spherical surface and against radial springs as in the system of +rotating pendulums, or identical with the equatorial and radial movement +of the auxiliary masses in the hypothetical system. The return movement +of the aerial masses over the terrestrial surface in the opposite +direction from equatorial to polar regions provides also exactly the +same phenomena of energy return as the return movement of the masses in +our illustrative systems. These systems, in fact, portray the general +operation of mechanical energy precisely as it occurs in the terrestrial +atmospheric machine. But obviously they cannot illustrate the natural +conditions in their entirety. The passage or flow of the atmospheric air +masses over the earth's surface is a movement of an exceedingly complex +nature, impossible to illustrate by experimental apparatus. And indeed, +such illustration is quite unnecessary. As already pointed out (Sec. 38), +no matter what may be the precise path of an aerial mass in its movement +towards the planetary surface the final energy return is the same. +Sooner or later its energy of position is restored in the original axial +form. + +The terrestrial atmospheric machine will be thus readily recognised as +essentially a material mechanical machine corresponding in general +nature to the illustrative examples described above. The combination of +its various energy processes is embodied in a complete cyclical and +reversible operation. Its energy capacity, as in the simpler cases, is +strictly limited by the total mass of the operating material. The active +or working energy is well within the limit for reversibility (Sec. 23), and +the machine is therefore essentially stable in nature. The continuous +abstraction of axial energy by the aqueous vapour is balanced by an +equally continuous return from the air masses, and the system, so far as +its energy properties are concerned, is absolutely conservative. Energy +transmission from or to any external source is neither admissible nor +necessary for its working. + + +45. _Concluding Review of Terrestrial Conditions--Effects of Influx of + Energy_ + +The aspect of the earth as a separate mass in space, and its energy +relationship to its primary the sun and to the associated planetary +masses of the solar system have been broadly presented in the General +Statement (Secs. 1-12). In that statement, based entirely on the +universally accepted properties of matter and energy, an order of +phenomena is described which is in strict accordance with observed +natural conditions, and which portrays the earth and the other planetary +bodies, so far as their material or energy properties are concerned, as +absolutely isolated masses in space. The scientific verification of this +position must of necessity be founded on the terrestrial observation of +phenomena. So far as the orbital movements of the planet are concerned +these are admittedly orderly; each planetary mass wheels its flight +through space with unvarying regularity; the energy processes, also, +associated with the variations of planetary orbital path, and which +attain limiting conditions at perihelion and aphelion, are readily +acknowledged to be reversible and cyclical in nature. In fact, even a +slight observation of the movements of celestial masses inevitably leads +to the conviction that the great energy processes of the solar system +are inherently cyclical in nature, that every movement of its material +and every manifestation of its energy is part of some complete +operation. The whole appears to be but the natural or material +embodiment of the great principle of energy conservation. It has been +one of the objects of this work to show that the cyclical nature of the +energy operations of the solar system is not confined only to the more +prominent energy phenomena, but that it penetrates and is exhibited in +the working of even the most insignificant planetary processes. Each one +of the latter in reality forms part of an unbroken series or chain of +energy phenomena. Each planet forms in itself a complete, perfect, and +self-contained energy system. Every manifestation of planetary energy, +great or small, whether associated with animate or inanimate matter, is +but one phase or aspect of that energy as it pursues its cyclical path. + +It is a somewhat remarkable fact that in this age of scientific reason +the observation of the strictly orderly arrangement of phenomena in the +solar system as a whole should not have led to some idea in the minds of +philosophical workers of a similar order of phenomena in its separate +parts, but the explanation lies generally in the continual attempts to +bring natural phenomena into line with certain preconceived hypotheses, +and more particularly to the almost universal acceptance of the doctrine +of the direct transmission of energy from the sun to the earth and the +final rejection or radiation of this energy into space. There is no +denying the eminent plausibility of this doctrine. The evidence of +Nature _prima facie_ may even appear to completely substantiate it. But +we would submit that the general circumstances in which this doctrine is +now so readily accepted are very similar to those which prevailed in +more ancient times, when the revolution of the sun and stars round the +earth was the universal tenet of natural philosophy. This conception, +allied to the belief that the sole function of the celestial bodies was +to provide light and heat to the terrestrial mass, appeared to be in +strict accordance with observed phenomena, and held undisturbed +possession of the minds of men for centuries, until it was finally +demolished by Copernicus as the result of simple and accurate +observation of and deduction from natural phenomena. At the present +time, the somewhat venerable belief in the transmission of energy in +various forms from the sun to the earth appears at first sight to be +supported by actual facts. But a more rigid scrutiny of the evidence and +of the mental processes must inevitably lead the unbiassed mind to the +conclusion that this belief has no real foundation on truly scientific +observation, but is entirely unsupported by natural phenomena. Every +operation of Nature, in fact, when considered in its true relationships +is an absolute denial of the whole conception. Like its predecessor +relating to the motion of the sun and stars round the earth, the +doctrine of energy transmission between separate masses in space such as +the sun and the earth cannot be sustained in the face of scientific +observation. This doctrine is found on investigation to be supported not +by phenomena but by the conception of an elastic ethereal medium, of +whose existence there is absolutely no evidential proof, and the +necessity for which disappears along with the hypothesis it supports. It +is, however, not proposed to discuss in any detail either the supposed +transmission of energy from the sun to the planets or the arbitrary +properties of the transmitting medium, but rather to adopt a more +positive method of criticism by summarising briefly the evidential +phenomena which show the cyclical nature of the whole terrestrial energy +process, and which remove the basis of belief in such a transmission. + +To recapitulate the more general conditions, we find the earth, alike +with other planetary masses, pursuing a defined orbital path, and +rotating with uniform angular velocity in the lines or under the +influence of the gravitation, thermal, luminous, and other incepting +fields (Secs. 17, 18, 19) which originate in the sun. Its axial rotation, +in these circumstances, gives rise to all the secondary transformations +(Sec. 9) of terrestrial axial energy, which in their operation provide the +varied panorama of terrestrial phenomena. Terrestrial axial energy is +thus diverted into terrestrial secondary processes. Each of these +processes is found to be united to or embodied in a definite material +machine (Secs. 27-30), and is, accordingly, limited in nature and extent by +the physical properties and incepting factors associated with the +materials of which the machine is composed. By ordinary methods of +transmission, energy may pass from one material to another, that is to +say from one machine to another, and by this means definite chains of +energy processes are constituted, through which, therefore, passes the +axial energy originally transformed by the action of the sun. These +series or chains of energy processes are also found to be one and all +linked at some stage of their progress to the general atmospheric +machine (Sec. 29). The energy operating in them is, in every case, after +many or few vicissitudes according to the nature of the intermediate +operations, communicated to the gaseous atmospheric material. By the +movement of this material in the working of the atmospheric machine (Sec. +38) the energy is finally returned in its original form of axial energy +of rotation. The sun's action is thus in a manner to force the inherent +rotatory energy of the planet into the cyclical secondary operations, +all of which converge alike towards the general atmospheric mechanism of +return. The passage of the energy through the complete secondary +operations, and its re-conversion into its original axial form, may be +rapid or slow according to circumstances. In equatorial regions, where +the influence of the sun's incepting fields is most intense, we find +that the inherent planetary axial energy is communicated with great +rapidity through the medium of the aqueous vapour to the air masses. By +the movement of the latter it may be just as rapidly returned, and the +whole operation completed in a comparatively short interval of time. In +the same equatorial regions, the transformations of axial energy which +are manifested in plant life attain their greatest perfection and +vigour. But in this case the complete return of the operating energy may +be very slow. The stored energy of tropical vegetation may still in +great part remain in the bosom of the earth, awaiting an appropriate +stimulus to be communicated to more active material for the concluding +stages of that cyclical process which had its commencement in the +absorption of axial energy into plant tissue. The duration of the +complete secondary operation has, however, absolutely no bearing on the +conservative energy properties of the planet. In this respect, the +system is perfectly balanced. Every transformation or absorption of +rotatory energy, great or small, for long or short periods of time, is +counteracted by a corresponding return. Absolute uniformity of planetary +axial rotation is thus steadily maintained. + +It is scarcely necessary at this stage to point out that the +verification of this description of natural operations lies simply and +entirely in the observation of Nature's working at first hand. The +description is based on no theory and obscured by no preconceived ideas, +it is founded entirely on direct experimental evidence. The field of +study and of verification is not restricted, but comprises the whole +realm of natural phenomena. In a lifetime of observation the author has +failed to discern a single contradictory phenomenon; every natural +operation is in reality a direct confirmation. + +The conception of energy, working only through the medium of definite +material machines with their incepting and limiting agencies, is one +which is of great value not only in natural philosophy but also in +practical life. By its means it is possible in many cases to co-ordinate +phenomena, apparently antagonistic, but in reality only different phases +of energy machines. It aids materially also in the obtaining of a true +grasp of the inexorable principle of energy conservation and its +application to natural conditions, and it emphasises the indefensible +nature of such ideas as the radiation of energy into _space_. + +It will be evident that in a planetary system such as described above +there is no room for any transmission of energy to the system from an +external source. The nature of the system is, in fact, such that a +transmission of this kind is entirely unnecessary. As already +demonstrated, every phenomenon and every energy operation can be +carried out independently of any such transmission. For the purpose of +illustration, however, it may be assumed that such a communication of +energy does take place; that according to the accepted doctrines of +modern science the sun pours energy in a continuous stream into the +terrestrial system. Now, no matter in what form this energy is +communicated, it is clear that once it is associated with or attached to +the various planetary materials it is, as it were, incorporated or +embodied in the planetary energy machines, and must of necessity work +through the secondary energy operations. But these operations have been +shown to be naturally and irresistibly connected to the general +atmospheric machine. Into this machine, then, the incremental energy +must be carried, and it will be there directly converted into the form +of axial energy of rotation. Once the incremental energy is actually in +the planet, once it is actually communicated to planetary material, the +nature of the system absolutely forbids its escape. The effect of a +direct and continuous influx such as we have assumed would inevitably be +an increase in the angular velocity of the system. This effect has +already been verified from an experimental point of view by +consideration of the phenomena of a rotating pendulum system (Secs. 42, +43). Whilst the influx of energy proceeds, then in virtue of the +increasing velocity of the planetary material in the lines of the +various incepting fields of the sun, all terrestrial phenomena involving +the transformation of rotary or axial energy would be increased in +magnitude and intensified in degree. The planet would thus rapidly +attain an unstable condition; its material would soon become energised +beyond its normal capacity, and the natural stability (Sec. 25) of its +constituent energy machines would be destroyed; the system as a whole +would steadily proceed towards disruption. + +But, happily, Nature presents no evidence of such a course of events. +The earth spins on its axis with quiet and persistent regularity; the +unvarying uniformity of its motion of axial rotation has been verified +by the observations of generations of philosophers. Its temperature +gradations show no evidence of change or decay in its essential heat +qualities, and the recurrence of natural phenomena is maintained without +visible sign of increase either in their intensity or multiplicity. The +finger of Nature ever points to closed energy circuits, to the earth as +a complete and conservative system in which energy, mutable to the +highest degree with respect to its plurality of form, attains to the +perfection of permanence in its essential character and amount. + + + + +Printed by BALLANTYNE, HANSON & CO. + +Edinburgh & London + + + + +TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE: + +In this plain-text version, numerical subscripts have been transcribed +within {} brackets, such as: M{1}. + +Obvious typographical errors from the original printed version of this +book have been corrected without comment. + +Footnotes in the plain-text version have been placed at the end of the +paragraph in which the footnote tag appears. + +Illustrations have been moved to the nearest paragraph break. + + + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Energy System of Matter, by James Weir + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ENERGY SYSTEM OF MATTER *** + +***** This file should be named 38348.txt or 38348.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/8/3/4/38348/ + +Produced by David Garcia, Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Cathy +Maxam and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net (This book was produced from scanned +images of public domain material from the Google Print +project.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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