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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Energy System of Matter + A Deduction from Terrestrial Energy Phenomena + +Author: James Weir + +Release Date: December 20, 2011 [EBook #38348] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ENERGY SYSTEM OF MATTER *** + + + + +Produced by David Garcia, Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Cathy +Maxam and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net (This book was produced from scanned +images of public domain material from the Google Print +project.) + + + + + + +</pre> + + + + + +<h1>THE ENERGY SYSTEM<br /> +OF MATTER</h1> + + + +<p class="center bigger pb">A DEDUCTION FROM TERRESTRIAL<br /> +ENERGY PHENOMENA</p> + +<p class="center small pt">BY</p> +<p class="center big pb">JAMES WEIR</p> + +<p class="center pspace"><i>WITH 12 DIAGRAMS</i></p> + +<p class="center pt"><span class="big">LONGMANS, GREEN AND CO.</span><br /> +39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON<br /> +NEW YORK BOMBAY, AND CALCUTTA<br /> +1912</p> + +<p class="center smaller pspace">All rights reserved +</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<h2>PREFACE</h2> + + +<p>An intimate study of natural phenomena and a +lengthened experience in physical research have +resulted in the formation of certain generalisations +and deductions which I now present in this +volume. I have reached the conclusion that every +physical phenomenon is due to the operation of +energy transformations or energy transmissions +embodied in material, and takes place under the +action or influence of incepting energy fields. In +any instance the precise nature of the phenomena +is dependent on the peculiar form of energy actively +engaged, on the nature of the material to which +this energy is applied, and on the nature of the +incepting field which influences the process. In +the course of the work several concrete cases are +discussed, in which these features of energy are +illustrated and explained by the use of simple experimental +apparatus. It is hoped that, by this means, +the distinctive differences which exist in the manifestations +of energy, in its transformation, in its +transmission, and in its incepting forms will be +rendered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span> +clear to the reader. I have to express +my indebtedness to Mr. James Affleck, B.Sc., +for his assistance in the preparation of this work +for publication.</p> + +<p class="attr"> +JAMES WEIR.</p> + +<p class="small"><span class="ind1 smcap">Over Courance,</span><br /> +<span class="ind smcap">Lockerbie, Scotland.</span> + +</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></p> +<p class="center bigger">CONTENTS</p> + + + + + +<table cellpadding="4" summary="contents"> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td class="tdr">PAGE</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><span class="smcap"><a href="#INTRODUCTION">Introduction</a></span></td> +<td class="tdr">1</td> +</tr> + +<tr><td> </td></tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class="center big">PART I</td> +<td></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class="center big"><a href="#PART_I">GENERAL STATEMENT</a></td> +<td></td> +</tr> + + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">1.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_1"><span class="smcap">Advantages of General View of Natural Operations</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">7</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">2.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_2"><span class="smcap">Separate Mass in Space</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">8</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">3.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_3"><span class="smcap">Advent of Energy</span>—<span class="smcap">Distortional Effects</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">9</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">4.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_4"><span class="smcap">The Gravitation Field</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">11</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">5.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_5"><span class="smcap">Limits of Rotational Energy</span>—<span class="smcap">Disruptional + Phenomena</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">13</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">6.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_6"><span class="smcap">Passive Function and General Nature of Gravitation + Field</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">17</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">7.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_7"><span class="smcap">Limit of Gravitation Transformation</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">18</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">8.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_8"><span class="smcap">Interactions of two Planetary Bodies</span>—<span class="smcap">Equilibrium + Phenomena</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">19</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">9.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_9"><span class="smcap">Axial Energy</span>—<span class="smcap">Secondary Processes</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">22</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">10.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_10"><span class="smcap">Mechanism of Energy Return</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">27</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">11.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_11"><span class="smcap">Review of Cosmical System</span>—<span class="smcap">General Function of + Energy</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">29</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">12.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_12"><span class="smcap">Review of Cosmical System</span>— +<span class="smcap">Natural Conditions</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">31</td> +</tr> + +<tr><td> </td></tr> + + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class="center big">PART II</td> +<td></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class="center big"><a href="#PART_II">PRINCIPLES OF INCEPTION</a></td> +<td></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">13. </td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_13"><span class="smcap">Illustrative Secondary Processes</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">34</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">14.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_14"><span class="smcap">Incepting Energy Influences</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">40</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">15.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_15"><span class="smcap">Cohesion as an Incepting Influence</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">45</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">16.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_16"><span class="smcap">Terrestrial Gravitation as an Incepting Influence</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">48<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">17.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_17"><span class="smcap">The Gravitation Field</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">51</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">18.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_18"><span class="smcap">The Thermal Field</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">54</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">19.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_19"><span class="smcap">The Luminous Field</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">58</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">20.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_20"><span class="smcap">Transformations</span>—<span class="smcap">Upward Movement of a Mass + against Gravity</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">62</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">21.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_21"><span class="smcap">Transformations</span>— +<span class="smcap">The Simple Pendulum</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">67</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">22.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_22"><span class="smcap">Statical Energy Conditions</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">68</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">23.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_23"><span class="smcap">Transformations of the Moving +Pendulum</span>—<span class="smcap">Energy + of Motion to Energy of Position and Vice + Versa</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">72</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">24.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_24"><span class="smcap">Transformations of the Moving Pendulum</span>—<span class="smcap">Frictional + Transformation at the Bearing Surfaces</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">77</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">25.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_25"><span class="smcap">Stability of Energy Systems</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">79</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">26.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_26"><span class="smcap">The Pendulum as a Conservative System</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">81</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">27.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_27"><span class="smcap">Some Phenomena of Transmission Processes</span>—<span class="smcap">Transmission + of Heat Energy by Solid Material</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">84</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">28.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_28"><span class="smcap">Some Phenomena of Transmission Processes</span>—<span class="smcap">Transmission + by Flexible Band or Cord</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">89</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">29.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_29"><span class="smcap">Some Phenomena of Transmission Processes</span>—<span class="smcap">Transmission + of Energy to Air Masses</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">92</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">30.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_30"><span class="smcap">Energy Machines and Energy Transmission</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">95</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">31.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_31"><span class="smcap">Identification of Forms of Energy</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">107</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">32.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_32"><span class="smcap">Complete Secondary Cyclical Operation</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">114</td> +</tr> + +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class="center big">PART III</td> +<td></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class="center big"><a href="#PART_III">TERRESTRIAL CONDITIONS</a></td> +<td class="tdr"></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">33.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_33"><span class="smcap">Gaseous Expansion</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">118</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">34.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_34"><span class="smcap">Gravitational Equilibrium of Gases</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">124</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">35.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_35"><span class="smcap">Total Energy of Gaseous Substances</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">131</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">36.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_36"><span class="smcap">Comparative Altitudes of Planetary Atmospheres</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">135</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">37.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_37"><span class="smcap">Reactions of Composite Atmosphere</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">139</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">38.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_38"><span class="smcap">Description of Terrestrial Case</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">143</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">39.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_39"><span class="smcap">Relative Physical Conditions of Atmospheric + Constituents</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">150<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">40.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_40"><span class="smcap">Transmission of Energy from Aqueous Vapour to + Air Masses</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">153</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">41.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_41"><span class="smcap">Terrestrial Energy Return</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">160</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">42.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_42"><span class="smcap">Experimental Analogy and Demonstration of the + General Mechanism of Energy Transformation + and Return in the Atmospheric Cycle</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">170</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">43.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_43"><span class="smcap">Application of Pendulum Principles</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">181</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">44.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_44"><span class="smcap">Extension of Pendulum Principles to Terrestrial + Phenomena</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">188</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrp">45.</td> +<td class="hang2"><a href="#sec_45"><span class="smcap">Concluding Review of Terrestrial Conditions</span>—<span class="smcap">Effects + of Influx of Energy</span></a></td> +<td class="tdr">192</td> +</tr> + +</table> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2>THE ENERGY SYSTEM OF MATTER</h2> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="INTRODUCTION" id="INTRODUCTION"></a>INTRODUCTION</h2> + + +<p>The main principles on which the present work is +founded were broadly outlined in the author's <i>Terrestrial +Energy</i> in 1883, and also in a later paper in 1892.</p> + +<p>The views then expressed have since been amply +verified by the course of events. In the march of +progress, the forward strides of science have been +of gigantic proportions. Its triumphs, however, have +been in the realm, not of speculation or faith, but +of experiment and fact. While, on the one hand, +the careful and systematic examination and co-ordination +of experimental facts has ever been leading +to results of real practical value, on the other, the +task of the theorists, in their efforts to explain +phenomena on speculative grounds, has become +increasingly severe, and the results obtained have +been decreasingly satisfactory. Day by day it +becomes more evident that not one of the many +existing theories is adequate to the explanation of +the known phenomena: but, in spite of this obvious +fact, attempts are still constantly being made, even +by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> +most eminent men, to rule the results of experimental +science into line with this or that accepted +theory. The contradictions are many and glaring, +but speculative methods are still rampant. They have +become the fashion, or rather the fetish, of modern +science. It would seem that no experimental +result can be of any value until it is deductively +accommodated to some preconceived hypothesis, +until it is embodied and under the sway of what +is practically scientific dogma. These methods have +permeated all branches of science more or less, +but in no sphere has the tendency to indulge in +speculation been more pronounced than in that +which deals with energetics. In no sphere, also, +have the consequences of such indulgence been more +disastrous. For the most part, the current conceptions +of energy processes are crude, fanciful, and +inconsistent with Nature. They require for their +support—in fact, for their very existence—the acceptance +of equally fantastic conceptions of mythical +substances or ethereal media of whose real existence +there is absolutely no experimental evidence. On +the assumed properties or motions of such media +are based the many inconsistent and useless attempts +to explain phenomena. But, as already pointed out, +Nature has unmistakably indicated the true path of +progress to be that of experimental investigation. +In the use of this method only phenomena can be +employed, and any hypothesis which may be formulated +as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span> +the result of research on these lines is of +scientific value only in so far as it is the correct expression +of the actual facts observed. By this method +of holding close to Nature reliable working hypotheses +can, if necessary, be formed, and real progress made. +It is undeniably the method of true science.</p> + +<p>In recent years much attention has been devoted +to certain speculative theories with respect to the +origin and ultimate nature of matter and energy. +Such hypotheses, emanating as they do from prominent +workers, and fostered by the inherent imaginative +tendency of the human mind, have gained +considerable standing. But it is surely unnecessary +to point out that all questions relating to origins +are essentially outside the pale of true science. Any +hypotheses which may be thus formulated have not +the support of experimental facts in their conclusions; +they belong rather to the realm of speculative philosophy +than to that of science. In the total absence +of confirmatory phenomena, such theories can, at +best, only be regarded as plausible speculations, to +be accepted, it may be, without argument, and +ranking in interest in the order of their plausibility.</p> + +<p>Of modern research into the ultimate constitution +of matter little requires to be said. It is largely +founded on certain radio-active and electrical phenomena +which, in themselves, contribute little information. +But aided by speculative methods and the +use of preconceived ethereal hypotheses, various +elaborate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> +theories have been formulated, explaining +matter and its properties entirely in terms of +ethereal motions. Such conceptions in their proper +sphere—namely, that of metaphysics—would be +no doubt of interest, but when advanced as a +scientific proposition or solution they border on +the ridiculous. In the absence of phenomena bearing +on the subject, it would seem that the last resort +of the modern scientist lies in terminology. To +the average seeker after truth, however, the term +"matter," as applied to the material world, will still +convey as much meaning as the more elaborate +scientific definitions.</p> + +<p>It is not the purpose of this work to add +another thread to the already tangled skein of +scientific theory. It is written, rather, with the +conviction, that it is impossible ever to get really +behind or beyond phenomena; in the belief that +the complete description of any natural process +is simply the complete description of the associated +phenomena, which may always be observed +and co-ordinated but never ultimately explained. +Phenomena must ever be accepted simply as +phenomena—as the inscrutable manifestations of +Nature. By induction from phenomena it is indeed +possible to rise to working hypotheses, and thence, +it may be, to general conceptions of Nature's order, +and as already pointed out, it is to this method, of +accepting phenomena, and of reasoning only from +experimental<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> +facts, that all the advances of modern +science are due. On the other hand, it is the +neglect of this method—the departure, as it were, +from Nature—which has led to the introduction +into the scientific thought of the day of the various +ethereal media with their extreme and contradictory +properties. The use of such devices really amounts +to an admission of direct ignorance of phenomena. +They are, in reality, an attempt to explain natural +operations by a highly artificial method, and, having +no basis in fact, their whole tendency is to proceed, in +ever-increasing degree, from one absurdity to another.</p> + +<p>It is quite possible to gain a perfectly true and +an absolutely reliable knowledge of the properties of +matter and energy, and the part which each plays, +without resorting to speculative aids. All that is required +is simply accurate and complete observation at +first hand. The field of research is wide; all Nature +forms the laboratory. By this method every result +achieved may be tested and verified, not by its concurrence +with any approved theory, however plausible, +but by direct reference to phenomena. The verdict +of Nature will be the final judgment on every scheme.</p> + +<p>It is on these principles, allied with the great +generalisations with respect to the conservation of +matter and energy, that this work is founded. As +the result of a long, varied, and intimate acquaintance +with Nature, and much experimental research in +many spheres, the author has reached the conclusion, +already<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> +foreshadowed in <i>Terrestrial Energy</i>, that +the great principle of energy conservation is true, +not only in the universal and generally accepted +sense, but also in a particular sense with respect to +all really separate bodies, such as planetary masses +in space. Each of these bodies, therefore, forms +within itself a completely conservative energy +system. This conclusion obviously involves the complete +denial of the transmission of energy in any +form across interplanetary space, and the author, in +this volume, now seeks to verify the conclusion by the +direct experimental evidence of terrestrial phenomena.</p> + +<p>Under present-day conditions in science, the +acceptance of the ordinary doctrine of transmission +across space involves likewise the acceptance of the +existence of an ethereal substance which pervades +all space and forms the medium by which such +transmission is carried out. The properties of this +medium are, of course, precisely adapted to its assumed +function of transmission. These properties it +is not necessary to discuss, for when the existence of +the transmission itself has been finally disproved, the +necessity for the transmitting medium clearly vanishes.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="PART_I" id="PART_I"></a>PART I</h2> + +<p class="center big">GENERAL STATEMENT</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_1" id="sec_1"></a>1. <i>Advantages of General View of Natural +Operations</i></h3> + +<p>The object of this statement is to outline and +illustrate, in simple fashion, a broad and general +conception of the operation and interaction of matter +and energy in natural phenomena.</p> + +<p>Such a conception may be of value to the +student of Nature, in several ways. In modern +times the general tendency of scientific work is +ever towards specialisation, with its corresponding +narrowness of view. A broad outlook on Nature +is thus eminently desirable. It enables the observer +to perceive to some extent the links uniting the +apparently most insignificant of natural processes +to those of seemingly greater magnitude and importance. +In this way a valuable idea of the natural +world as a whole may be gained, which will, in turn, +tend generally to clarify the aspect of particular +operations. A broad general view of Nature also +leads to the appreciation of the full significance of +the great doctrines of the conservation of matter +and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> +energy. By its means the complete verification +of these doctrines, which appears to be beyond +human experiment, may be traced on the face of +Nature throughout the endless chain of natural processes. +Such a view also leads to a firm grasp of +the essential nature and qualities of energy itself +so far as they are revealed by its general function +in phenomena.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_2" id="sec_2"></a>2. <i>Separate Mass in Space</i></h3> + +<p>In the scheme now to be outlined, matter and +energy are postulated at the commencement without +reference to their ultimate origin or inherent nature. +They are accepted, in their diverse forms, precisely +as they are familiar from ordinary terrestrial experience +and phenomena.</p> + +<p>For the purpose of general illustration the reader +is asked to conceive a mass of heterogeneous matter, +concentrated round a given point in space, forming +a single body. This mass is assumed to be assembled +and to obtain its coherent form in virtue of that +universal and inherent property of matter, namely, +gravitative or central attraction. This property is +independent of precise energy conditions, its outward +manifestation being found simply in the persistent +tendency of matter on all occasions to press +or force itself into the least possible space. In +the absence of all disturbing influences, therefore, +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> +configuration of this mass of matter, assumed +assembled round the given point, would naturally, +under the influence of this gravitative tendency, +resolve itself into that of a perfect sphere. The +precise magnitude or dimensions of the spherical +body thus constituted are of little moment in the +discussion, but, for illustrative purposes, it may, +in the meantime, be assumed that in mass it is +equivalent to our known solar system. It is also +assumed to be completely devoid of energy, and +as a mass to be under the influence of no external +constraint. Under these conditions, the spherical +body may obviously be assumed as stationary in +space, or otherwise as moving with perfectly uniform +velocity along a precisely linear path. Either +conception is justifiable. The body has no relative +motion, and since it is absolutely unconstrained +no force could be applied to it and no +energy expenditure would be required for its linear +movement.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_3" id="sec_3"></a>3. <i>Advent of Energy—Distortional Effects</i></h3> + +<p>Nature, however, does not furnish us with any +celestial or other body fulfilling such conditions. +Absolutely linear motion is unknown, and matter +is never found divorced from energy. To complete +the system, therefore, the latter factor is +required, and, with the advent of energy to the +mass,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> +its prototype may be found in the natural +world.</p> + +<p>This energy is assumed to be communicated in +that form which we shall term "work" energy +(§§ <a href="#sec_13">13,</a> <a href="#sec_31">31</a>) and which, as a form of energy, will +be fully dealt with later. This "work" energy is +assumed to be manifested, in the first place, as +energy of motion. As already pointed out, no expenditure +of energy can be associated with a linear +motion of the mass, since that motion is under +no restraint, but in virtue of the initial central +attraction or gravitative strain, the form of energy +first communicated may be that of kinetic energy +of rotation. Its transmission to the mass will cause +the latter to revolve about some axis of symmetry +within itself. Each particle of the mass thus pursues +a circular path with reference to that axis, +and has a velocity directly proportional to its radial +displacement from it.</p> + +<p>This energised rotating spherical mass is thus +the primal conception of the energy scheme now +to be outlined. It will be readily seen that, as +a primal conception, it is essentially and entirely +natural; so much so, indeed, that any one familiar +with rotatory motion might readily predict from +ordinary experience the resulting phenomena on +which the scheme is, more or less, based.</p> + +<p>When energy is applied to the mass, the first +phenomenon of note will be that, as the mass +rotates,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> +it departs from its originally spherical shape. +By the action of what is usually termed centrifugal +force, the rotating body will be distorted; it will +be flattened at the polar or regions of lowest +velocity situated at the extremities of the axis of +rotation, and it will be correspondingly distended +at the equatorial or regions of highest velocity. +The spherical body will, in fact, assume a more or +less discoidal form according to the amount of +energy applied to it; there will be a redistribution +of the original spherical matter; certain portions +of the mass will be forced into new positions more +remote from the central axis of rotation.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_4" id="sec_4"></a>4. <i>The Gravitation Field</i></h3> + +<p>These phenomena of motion are the outward +evidence of certain energy processes. The distortional +movement of the material is carried out +against the action and within the field of certain +forces which exist in the mass of material in virtue +of its gravitative or cohesive qualities. It is carried +out also in virtue of the application of energy to +the sphere, which energy has been, as it were, +transformed or worked down, in the distortional +movement, against the restraining action of this +gravitation field or influence. The outward displacement +of the material from the central axis +is thus coincident with a gain of energy to the +mass,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> +this gain of energy being, of course, at the +expense of, and by the direct transformation of, +the originally applied energy. It is stored in the +distorted material as energy of position, potential +energy, or energy of displacement relative to the +central axis. But, in the distortive movement, the +mass will also gain energy in other forms. The +movement of one portion of its material relative +to another will give rise (since it is carried out +under the gravitational influence) to a fractional +process in which, as we know from terrestrial experience, +heat and electrical energy will make their +appearance. These forms of energy will give rise, in +their turn, to all the phenomena usually attendant on +their application to material. As already pointed out +also, the whole mass gains, in varying degree, energy +of motion or kinetic energy. It would appear, then, +that although energy was nominally applied to the +mass in one form only, yet by its characteristic property +of transformation it has in reality manifested itself +in several entirely different forms. It is important to +note the part played in these transformation processes +by the gravitation field or influence. Its action really +reveals one of the vital working principles of energetics. +This principle may be generally stated thus:—</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Every Transformation of Energy is carried +out by the Action of Energised Matter in the +Lines or Field of an Incepting Energy Influence.</span></p> + +<p>In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> +the particular case we have just considered, +the incepting field is simply the inherent gravitative +property of the energised mass. This property is +manifested as an attractive force between portions +of matter. This, however, is not of necessity the +only aspect of an incepting influence. In the course +of this work various instances of transformation +will be presented in which the incepting influence +functions in a guise entirely different. It is important +to note that the incepting influence itself +is in no way changed, altered, or transformed during +the process of transformation which it influences.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_5" id="sec_5"></a>5. <i>Limits of Rotational Energy. Disruptional +Phenomena</i></h3> + +<p>It is clear that the material at different parts +of the rotating spheroid will be energised to varying +degrees. Since the linear velocity of the material +in the equatorial regions of the spheroid is greater +than that of the material about the poles, the +energy of motion of the former will exceed that of +the latter, the difference becoming greater as the +mass is increasingly energised and assumes more and +more the discoidal form.</p> + +<p>The question now arises as to how far this process +of energising the material mass may be carried. +What are its limits? The capacity of the rotating +body for energy clearly depends on the amount +of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> +work which may be spent on its material in +distorting it against the influence of the gravitative +attraction. The amount is again dependent on the +strength of this attraction. But the value of the +gravitative attraction or gravitation field is, by +the law of gravitation, in direct proportion to the +quantity of material or matter present, and hence the +capacity of the body for energy depends on its mass +or on the quantity of matter which composes it.</p> + +<p>Now if energy be impressed on this mass beyond +its capacity a new order of phenomena appears. +Distortion will be followed by disruption and disintegration. +By the action of the disruptive forces +a portion of the primary material will be projected +into space as a planetary body. The manner of +formation of such a secondary body is perhaps best +illustrated by reference to the commonplace yet beautiful +and suggestive phenomenon of the separation +of a drop of water or other viscous fluid under the +action of gravitation. In this process, during the +first downward movement of the drop, it is united +to its source by a portion of attenuated material +which is finally ruptured, one part moving downwards +and being embodied in the drop whilst the +remainder springs upwards towards the source. In +the process of formation of the planetary body we +are confronted with an order of phenomena of +somewhat the same nature. The planetary orb +which is hurled into space is formed in a manner +similar<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> +to the drop of viscous fluid, and under the +action of forces of the same general nature. One +of these forces is the bond of gravitative attraction +between planet and primary which is never severed, +and when complete separation of the two masses +finally occurs, the incessant combination of this +force with the tangential force of disruption acting +on the planet will compel it into a fixed orbit, which +it will pursue around the central axis. When all +material links have thus been severed, the two bodies +will then be absolutely separate masses in space. The +term "separate" is here used in its most rigid and +absolute sense. No material connection of any kind +whatever exists, either directly or indirectly, between +the two masses. Each one is completely isolated +from the other by interplanetary space, and in +reality, so far as material connection is concerned, +each one might be the sole occupant of that space. +This conception of separate masses in space is of +great importance to the author's scheme, but, at +the same time, the condition is one which cannot be +illustrated by any terrestrial experimental contrivance. +It will be obvious that such a device, as +might naturally be conceived, of isolating two +bodies by placing them in an exhausted vessel or +vacuous space, by no means complies with the full +conditions of true separation portrayed above, because +some material connection must always exist +between the enclosed bodies and the containing +vessel.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> +This aspect is more fully treated later +(§ <a href="#sec_30">30</a>). The condition of truly separate masses is, +in fact, purely a celestial one. No means whatever +are existent whereby such a condition may be +faithfully reproduced in a terrestrial environment.</p> + +<p>In their separate condition the primary and planetary +mass will each possess a definite and unvarying +amount of energy. It is to be noted also, that since +the original mass of the primary body has been +diminished by the mass of the planet cast off, the +capacity for energy of the primary will now be +diminished in a corresponding degree. Any further +increment of energy to the primary in any form has +now, however, no direct influence on the energy of +the planet, which must maintain its position of complete +isolation in its orbit. But although thus +separate and distinct from the primal mass in every +material respect, the planet is ever linked to it by +the invisible bond of gravitation, and every movement +made by the planet in approaching or receding +from the primary is made in the field or influence of +this attraction. In accordance, therefore, with the +general principle already enunciated (§ <a href="#sec_4">4</a>), these +actions or movements of the energised planetary +mass, being made in the field of the incepting gravitative +influence, will be accompanied by transformations, +and thus the energy of the planet, although +unvarying in its totality, may vary in its form or +distribution with the inward or outward movement +of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> +the planet in its orbital path. As the planet +recedes from the primary it gains energy of position, +but this gain is obtained solely at the expense, and by +the direct transformation of its own orbital energy of +motion. Its velocity in its orbit must, therefore, +decrease as it recedes from the central axis of the +system, and increase as it approaches that axis. +Thus from energy considerations alone it is clear +that, if the planetary orbit is not precisely circular, +the velocity of the planet must vary at different +points of its path.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_6" id="sec_6"></a>6. <i>Passive Function and General Nature of +Gravitation Field</i></h3> + +<p>From the phenomena described above, it will be +observed that, in the energy processes of transformation +occurring in both primary and planet, the +function of the gravitation field or influence is entirely +passive in nature. The field is, in truth, the persistent +moving or directing power behind the energy +processes, the incepting energy influence or agency +which determines the nature of the transformation +in each case without being, in any way, actively +engaged in it. In accelerating or retarding the +transformation process it has thus absolutely no +effect. These features are controlled by other +factors. Neither does this incepting agency affect, +in any way, the limits of the transformation process, +these<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> +limits being prescribed by the physical or +energy qualities of the acting materials. In general +nature the gravitation field appears to be simply +an energy influence—a peculiar manifestation of +certain passive qualities of energy. This aspect will, +however, become clearer to the reader when the +properties of gravitation are studied in conjunction +with those of other incepting energy influences +(§§ <a href="#sec_17">17,</a> <a href="#sec_18">18,</a> <a href="#sec_19">19</a>).</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_7" id="sec_7"></a>7. <i>Limit of Gravitation Transformation</i></h3> + +<p>In the case of a planetary body, there is a real +limit to the extent of the transformation of its orbital +energy of motion under the influence of the gravitation +field. As the orbit of the planet widens, and its +mean distance from the primary becomes greater, its +velocity in its orbital path must correspondingly +decrease. As already pointed out (§ <a href="#sec_5">5</a>), this decrease +is simply the result of the orbital energy of +motion being transformed or worked down into +energy of position. But since this orbital energy is +strictly limited in amount, a point must ultimately +be reached where it would be transformed in its +entirety into energy of position. When this limiting +condition is attained, the planet clearly could +have no orbital motion; it would be instantaneously +at rest in somewhat the same way as a projectile +from the earth's surface is at rest at the summit of +its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> +flight in virtue of the complete transformation of +its energy of motion into energy of position. In this +limiting condition, also, the energy of position of the +planet would be the maximum possible, and its +orbital energy zero. The scope of the planetary +orbital path is thus rigidly determined by the planetary +energy properties. Assuming the reduction of +gravity with distance to follow the usual law of +inverse squares, the value of the displacement of the +planet from the central axis when in this stationary +or limiting position may be readily calculated if the +various constants are known. In any given case it is +obvious that this limiting displacement must be a +finite quantity, since the planetary orbital energy +which is being worked down is itself finite in amount.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_8" id="sec_8"></a>8. <i>Interactions of Two Planetary Bodies—Equilibrium +Phenomena</i></h3> + +<p>Up to the present point, the cosmical system has +been assumed to be composed of one planetary body +only in addition to the primary mass. It is clear, +however, that by repetition of the process already +described, the system could readily evolve more than +one planet; it might, in fact, have several planetary +masses originating in the same primary, each endowed +with a definite modicum of energy, and each +pursuing a persistent orbit round the central axis of +the system. Since the mass of the primary decreases +as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> +each successive planet is cast off, its gravitative +attractive powers will also decrease, and with every +such decline in the central restraining force the orbits +of the previously constituted planets will naturally +widen. By the formation in this way of a series of +planetary masses, the material of the original primary +body would be as it were distributed over a larger area +or space, and this separation would be accompanied +by a corresponding decrease in the gravitative attraction +between the several masses. If the distributive +or disruptive process were carried to its limit +by the continuous application of rotatory energy to +each separate unit of the system, this limit would be +dependent on the capacity of the system for energy. +As is shown later (§ <a href="#sec_20">20</a>), this capacity would be +determined by the mass of the system.</p> + +<p>For simplicity, let us consider the case in which +there are two planetary bodies only in the system in +addition to the primary. In virtue of the gravitative +attraction or gravitation field between the two, they +will mutually attract one another in their motion, and +each will, in consequence, be deflected more or less +out of that orbital path which it would normally +pursue in the absence of the other. This attraction +will naturally be greatest when the planets are in the +closest proximity; the planet having the widest +orbit will then be drawn inwards towards the central +axis, the other will be drawn outwards. The distance +moved in this way by each will depend on its +mass,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> +and on the forces brought to bear on it by the +combined action of the two remaining masses of the +system. Moving thus in different directions, the +motion of each planet is carried out in the lines of +the gravitation field between the two. One planet, +therefore, gains and the other loses energy of position +with respect to the central axis of the system. The +one planet can thus influence, to some extent, the +energy properties of the other, although there is +absolutely no direct energy communication between +the two; as shown hereafter, the whole action and +the energy change will be due simply to the motion +carried out in the field of the incepting gravitation +influence.</p> + +<p>It is clear, however, that this influence is exerted +on the distribution of the energy, on the form in +which it is manifested, and in no way affects the +energy totality of either planet. Each, as before, +remains a separate system with conservative energy +properties. That planet which loses energy of position +gains energy of motion, and is correspondingly +accelerated in its orbital path; the other, in gaining +energy of position, does so at the expense of its own +energy of motion, and is retarded accordingly. The +action is really very simple in nature when viewed +from a purely energy standpoint. It has been +dealt with in some detail in order to emphasise the +fact that there is absolutely nothing in the nature of +a transmission of energy between one planet and the +other.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> +Taking a superficial view of the operation, it +might be inferred that, as the planets approach one +another, energy of motion (or energy of position) is +transmitted from one to the other, causing one to +retard and the other to accelerate its movement, but +a real knowledge of the energy conditions shows that +the phenomenon is rather one of a simple restoration +of equilibrium, a redistribution or transformation of +the intrinsic energy of each to suit these altering conditions. +Each planet is, in the truest sense, a separate +mass in space.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_9" id="sec_9"></a>9. <i>Axial Energy—Secondary Processes</i></h3> + +<p>Passing now to another aspect of the energy condition +of a planetary body, let the planet be assumed +to be endowed with axial energy or energy of rotation, +so that, while pursuing its orbital path in space, it +also rotates with uniform angular velocity about an +axis within itself. What will be the effect of the +primary mass on the planet under these new energy +conditions? We conceive that the effect is again +purely one of transformation. In this process the +primary mass functions once more as an entirely +passive or incepting agent, which, while exerting a +continuous transforming influence on the planet, does +not affect in any way the inherent energy properties of +the latter. Up to the present point we have only dealt +with one incepting influence in transformation processes, +namely, that of gravitation, which has always +been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> +manifested as an attractive force. It is not to +be supposed, however, that this is the only aspect +in which incepting influences may be presented. +Although attractive force is certainly an aspect of +some incepting influences, it is not a distinctive feature +of incepting influences generally. In many cases, the +aspect of force, in the sense of attraction or repulsion, +is entirely awanting. In the new order of transformations +which come into play in virtue of the +rotatory motion of a planetary mass in the field of +its primary, we shall find other incepting influences +in action entirely different in nature from the gravitation +influence, but, nevertheless, arising from the +same primary mass in a similar way. Now the application +of energy to the planet, causing it to rotate +in the lines or under the influence of these incepting +fields of the primary, brings into existence on the +planet an entirely new order of phenomena. So +long as the planet had no axial motion of rotation, +some of the incepting influences of the primary were +compelled, as it were, to inaction; but with the +advent of axial energy the conditions are at once +favourable to their action, and to the detection of +their transforming effects. In accordance with the +general principle already enunciated (§ <a href="#sec_4">4</a>), the action +of the planetary energised material in the lines of +the various incepting fields of the primary is productive +of energy transformations. The active +energy of these transformations is the axial or +energy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> +rotatory +of the planet itself, and, in virtue +of these transformations, certain other forms of +energy will be manifested on the planet and associated +with the various forms of planetary material. +These manifestations of energy, in fact, constitute +planetary phenomena. Since the action or movement +of the rotating material of the planet through +the incepting fields of the primary is most pronounced +in the equatorial or regions of highest +linear velocity, and least in the regions of low +velocity adjoining the poles of rotation, the transforming +effect may naturally be expected to decrease +in intensity from equator to poles. Planetary +energy phenomena will thus vary according to the +location of the acting material. It will be clear, +also, that each incepting agency or influence associated +with the primary mass will give rise to its own +peculiar transformations of axial energy on the +planetary surface. These leading or primary transformations +of axial energy, in which the incepting +influence is associated with the primary mass only, +we term primary processes. But it is evident that +the various forms of energy thus set free on the +planet as a result of the primary processes will be +communicated to, and will operate on, the different +forms of planetary material, and will give rise to +further or secondary transformations of energy, in +which the incepting agency is embodied in or associated +with planetary material only. The exact +nature<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> +of these secondary transformations will vary +according to the circumstances in which they take +place. Each of them, however, as indicated above, +will be, in itself, carried out in virtue of some action +of the energised planetary material in the lines or +field of what we might term a secondary incepting +influence. The latter, however, must not be confused +with the influences of the primary. It is +essentially a planetary phenomenon, an aspect of +planetary energy; it is associated with the physical +or material machine by means of which the secondary +process of transformation is carried out. The nature +of this secondary influence will determine the nature +of the secondary transformation in each case. Its +precise extent may be limited by other considerations +(§ <a href="#sec_15">15</a>).</p> + +<p>As an example, assume a portion of the axial +energy to be primarily transformed into heat in +virtue of the planet's rotation in the field of an independent +thermal incepting influence exerted by the +primary. To the action of this agency, which we +might term the thermal field, we assume are due all +primary heating phenomena of planetary material. +Now the secondary transformations will take place +when the heat energy thus manifested is applied to +some form of matter. It is obvious, however, that +this application might be carried out in various ways. +Heat may be devoted to the expansion of a solid +against its cohesive forces. It may be expended +against<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> +the elastic forces of a gas, or it may be worked +down against chemical or electrical forces. In every +case a transformation of energy will result, varying +in nature according to the peculiar conditions under +which it is carried out. In this or a similar fashion +each primary incepting influence may give rise to a +series of secondary actions more or less complex in +nature. These secondary transformation processes, +allied with other processes of transmission, will, in +fact, constitute the visible phenomena of the planet, +and in their variety will exactly correspond to these +phenomena.</p> + +<p>With regard to the gravitation field, its general +influence on the rotating mass may be readily predicted. +The material on that part of the planetary +surface which is nearest to or happens to face the +primary in rotation is, during the short time it +occupies that position, subjected to a greater attractive +influence than the remainder which is more remote +from the primary. It will, in consequence, tend to +be more or less distorted or elevated above its normal +position on the planetary surface. This distorting +effect will vary in degree according to the nature +of the material, whether solid, liquid, or gaseous, but +the general effect of the distortional movement, +combined with the rotatory motion of the planet, +will be to produce a tidal action or a periodical rise +and fall of the more fluid material distributed over +the planetary surface. The distortion will, of course, +be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> +accompanied by energy processes in which axial +energy will be transformed into heat and other forms, +which will finally operate in the secondary processes +exactly as in previous cases.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_10" id="sec_10"></a>10. <i>Mechanism of Energy Return</i></h3> + +<p>But the question now arises, as to how this continuous +transformation of the axial energy can be consistent +with that condition of uniformity of rotation of +the planet which was originally assumed. If the total +energy of the planetary mass is limited, and if it can +receive no increment of energy from any external +source, it is clear that the axial energy transformed +must, by some process, be continuously returned to +its original form. Some process or mechanism is +evidently necessary to carry out this operation. +This mechanism we conceive to be provided by +certain portions of the material of the planet, principally +the gaseous matter which resides on its +surface, completely enveloping it, and extending +outwards into space (§ <a href="#sec_38">38</a>). In other words, the +atmosphere of the planet forms the machine or +material agency by which this return of the +transformed axial energy is carried out. It has +already been pointed out (§ <a href="#sec_9">9</a>) how the working +energy of every secondary transformation is derived +from the original axial energy of the planet itself. +Each of these secondary transformations, however, +forms<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> +but one link of one cyclical chain of secondary +transformations, in which a definite quantity of +energy, initially in the axial form, passes, in these +secondary operations, through various other forms, +by different processes and through the medium of +different material machines, until it is eventually +absorbed into the atmosphere of the planet. These +complete series of cyclical operations, by which the +various portions of axial energy are carried to the +atmosphere, may in some cases be of a very simple +nature, and may be continuously repeated over very +short intervals of time; in other cases, the cycle +may seem obscure and complicated, and its complete +operation spread over very long periods, but in all +cases the final result is the same. The axial energy +abstracted, sooner or later, recurs to the atmospheric +machine. By its action in this machine, great masses +of gaseous material are elevated from the surface +of the planet against the attractive force of gravitation; +the energy will thus now appear in the form +of potential energy or energy of position. By a +subsequent movement of these gaseous masses over +the surface of the planet from the regions of high +velocity towards the poles, combined with a movement +of descent to lower levels, the energy of +position with which they were endowed is returned +once more in the original axial form.</p> + +<p>This, roughly, constitutes the working of the +planetary atmospheric machine, which, while in itself +completely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> +reversible and self-contained, forms also +at the same time the source and the sink of all the +energy working in the secondary transformations. +In the ceaseless rounds of these transformations +which form planetary phenomena it links together +the initial and concluding stages of each series by +a reversible process. Energy is thus stored and restored +continuously. The planet thus neither gains +nor loses energy of axial motion; so far as its +energy properties are concerned, it is entirely independent +of every external influence. Its uniformity +of rotation is absolutely maintained. Each +planet of the system will, in the same way, be an +independent and conservative unit.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_11" id="sec_11"></a>11. <i>Review of Cosmical System—General Function +of Energy</i></h3> + +<p>Reviewing the system as a whole, the important +part played by energy in its constitution is readily +perceived. The source of the energy which operates +in all parts of the system is found in that energy +originally applied (§ <a href="#sec_3">3</a>). When the system is finally +constituted, this energy is found distributed amongst +the planets, each of which has received its share, and +each of which is thereby linked to the primary by +its influence. It is part of this same energy which +undergoes transformation in virtue of the orbital +movements of the planets in the field of the gravitative +influence.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> +Again, it is found in the form +of planetary axial energy, and thence, under the +influence of various incepting agencies, it passes in +various forms through the whole gamut of planetary +phenomena, and finally functions in the atmospheric +machine. Every phenomenon of the system, great +or small, is, in fact, but the external evidence either +of the transformation or of the transmission of this +energy—the outward manifestation of its changed +or changing forms. Its presence, which always implies +its transformation (§ <a href="#sec_4">4</a>), is the simple primary +condition attached to every operation. The primal +mass originally responded to the application of +energy by the presentation of phenomena. Every +material portion of the system will similarly respond +according to circumstances. Energy is, in fact, the +working spirit of the whole cosmical scheme. It +is the influence linking every operation of the system +to the original transformations at the central axis, +so that all may be combined into one complete and +consistent whole. It is to be noted, however, that +although they have a common origin the orbital +energy of each planetary mass is entirely distinct +from its energy of axial rotation, and is not interchangeable +therewith. The transformation of the +one form of energy in no way affects the totality +of the other.</p> + +<p>The disruption of the primary mass furnishes a +view of what is virtually the birth of gravitation +as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> +it is conceived to exist between separate bodies. +It may now be pointed out that the attractive influence +of gravitation is, in reality, but one of the +many manifestations of energy of the system. It +is not, however, an active manifestation of the working +energy, but rather an aspect of energy as it is +related to the properties of matter. We have absolutely +no experimental experience of matter devoid +of energy. Gravitation might readily be termed an +energy property of matter, entirely passive in nature, +and requiring the advent of some other form in +order that it may exercise its function as an incepting +agency.</p> + +<p>From a general consideration of the features of +this system, in which every phenomenon is an +energy phenomenon, it seems feasible to conclude +also that every property of matter is likewise an +energy property. It is certain, indeed, that no +reasonable or natural concept of either matter or +energy is possible if the two be dissociated. The +system also presents a direct and clear illustration +of the principles of conservation in the working of +the whole, and also in each planetary unit.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_12" id="sec_12"></a>12. <i>Natural Conditions</i></h3> + +<p>It will be noted that, up to the present point, +the cosmical system has been discussed from a +purely abstract point of view. This method has +been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> +adopted for a definite reason. Although able, +at all points, to bring more or less direct evidence +from Nature, the author has no desire that his +scheme should be regarded in any way as an attempt +to originate or describe a system of creation. The +object has been, by general reasoning from already +accepted properties of matter and energy, to arrive +at a true conception of a possible natural order of +phenomena. It is obvious, however, that the solar +system forms the prototype of the system described +above. The motion of the earth and other planets is +continuously occurring under the influence of gravitation, +thermal, luminous, and other incepting fields +which link them to the central mass, the sun. As a +result of the action of such fields, energy transformations +arise which form the visible phenomena +of the system in all its parts, each transformation, +whether associated with animate or inanimate matter, +being carried out through the medium of some +arrangement of matter hereafter referred to as a +material machine. The conditions are precisely as +laid down above. The system is dominated, in +its separate units, and as a whole, by the great +principle of the conservation of energy. Each +planetary mass, as it revolves in space, is, so far +as its energy properties are concerned, an absolutely +conservative unit of that system. At the +same time, however, each planetary mass remains +absolutely dependent on the primary for those great +controlling<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> +or incepting influences which determine +the transformation of its inherent energy.</p> + +<p>In the special case of the earth, which will be +dealt with in some detail, it is the object of this +work to show that its property of complete energy +conservation is amply verified by terrestrial phenomena. +The extension of the principle from the +earth to the whole planetary system has been made +on precisely the same grounds as Newton extended +the observed phenomena to his famous generalisation +with respect to gravitation.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="PART_II" id="PART_II"></a>PART II</h2> + +<p class="center big">PRINCIPLES OF INCEPTION</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_13" id="sec_13"></a>13. <i>Illustrative Secondary Processes</i></h3> + +<p>In this part of the work, an attempt will be made to +place before the reader some of the purely terrestrial +and other evidential phenomena on which the conclusions +of the preceding General Statement are +founded. The complete and absolute verification of +that Statement is obviously beyond experimental +device. Bound, as we are, within the confines of +one planet, and unable to communicate with the +others, we can have no direct experimental acquaintance +with really separate bodies (§ <a href="#sec_5">5</a>) in space. +But, if from purely terrestrial experience we can +have no direct proofs on such matters, we have strong +evidential conclusions which cannot be gainsayed. +If the same kind of energy operates throughout +the solar system, the experimental knowledge of its +properties gained in one field of research is valuable, +and may be readily utilised in another. The phenomena +which are available to us for study are, of course, +simply the ordinary energy processes of the earth—those +operations which in the foregoing Statement +have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> +been described as secondary energy processes. +Their variety is infinite, and the author has +accordingly selected merely a few typical examples +to illustrate the salient points of the scheme. The +energy acting in these secondary processes is, in +every case, derived, either directly or indirectly, from +the energy of rotation or axial energy of the earth. +In themselves, the processes may be either energy +transformations or energy transmissions or a combination +of both these operations. When the action +involves the bodily movement of material mass in +space, the dynamical energy thus manifested, and +which may be transmitted by the movement of this +material, is termed mechanical or "work" energy +(§ <a href="#sec_31">31</a>); when the energy active in the process is +manifested as heat, chemical, or electrical energy, +we apply to it the term "molecular" energy. The +significance of these terms is readily seen. The +operation of mechanical or "work" energy on a mass +of material may readily proceed without any permanent +alteration in the internal arrangement or +general structure of that mass. Mechanical or +"work" energy is dissociated from any molecular +action. On the other hand, the application of such +forms of energy as heat or electrical energy to +material leads to distinctly molecular or internal +effects, in which some alteration in the constitution +of the body affected may ensue. Hence the use of +the terms, which of course is completely arbitrary.</p> + +<p>The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> +principal object of this part of the work is +to illustrate clearly the general nature, the working, +and the limits of secondary processes. For this +purpose, the author has found it best to refer to +certain more or less mechanical contrivances. The +apparatus made use of is merely that utilised in +everyday work for experimental or other useful +purposes. It is essentially of a very simple nature; +no originality is claimed for it, and no apology is +offered for the apparent simplicity of the particular +energy operations chosen for discussion. In fact, +this feature has rather led to their selection. In +scientific circles to-day, familiarity with the more +common instances of energy operations is apt to +engender the belief that these processes are completely +understood. There is no greater fallacy. +In many cases, no doubt, the superficial phenomena +are well known, but in even the simplest instances +the mechanism or ultimate nature of the process +remains unknown. A free and somewhat loose +method of applying scientific terms is frequently +the cloak which hides the ignorance of the observer. +No attempt will here be made to go beyond the +simple phenomena. The object in view is simply +to describe such phenomena, to emphasise and explain +certain aspects of already well-known facts, +which, up to the present, have been neglected.</p> + +<p>In some of the operations now to be described, +mechanical or "work" energy is the active agent, +and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> +material masses are thereby caused to execute +various movements in the lines or field of restraining +influences. For ordinary experimental convenience, +the material thus moved must of necessity +be matter in the solid form. The illustrative value +of our experimental devices, however, will be very +distinctly improved if it be borne in mind that the +operations of mechanical energy are not restricted +to solids only, but that the various processes of +transformation and transmission here illustrated by +the motions of solid bodies may, in other circumstances, +be carried out in a precisely similar fashion +by the movements of liquids or even of gases. The +restrictions imposed in the method of illustration +are simply those due to the limitations of human +experimental contrivance. Natural operations exhibit +apparatus of a different type. By the movements +of solid materials a convenient means of +illustration is provided, but it is to be emphasised +that, so far as the operations of mechanical energy +are concerned, the precise form or nature of the +material moved, whether it be solid, liquid, or +gaseous, is of no consequence. To raise one pound +of lead through a given distance against the gravitative +attraction of the earth requires no greater +expenditure of energy than to raise one pound of +hydrogen gas through the same distance. The +same principle holds in all operations involving +mechanical energy.</p> + +<p>Another<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> +point of some importance which will be +revealed by the study of secondary operations is +that every energy process has in some manner +definite energy limits imposed upon it. In the +workings of mechanical or "work" energy it is the +mass value of the moving material which, in this +respect, is important. The mass, in fact, is the real +governing factor of the whole process (§ <a href="#sec_20">20</a>). +It determines the maximum amount of energy +which can be applied to the material, and thus +controls the extent of the energy operation.</p> + +<p>But in actions involving the molecular energies, +the operation may be limited by other considerations +altogether. For example, the application of +heat to a solid body gives rise to certain energy +processes (§ <a href="#sec_27">27</a>). These processes may proceed +to a certain degree with increase of temperature, +but a point will finally be attained where change +of state of the heated material takes place. This +is the limiting point of this particular operation. +When change of state occurs, the phenomena will +assume an entirely different aspect. The first set +of energy processes will now be replaced by a set +of operations absolutely different in nature, themselves +limited in extent, but by entirely different +causes. The first operation must thus terminate +when the new order appears. In this manner each +process in which the applied energy is worked will +be confined within certain limiting boundaries. In +any<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> +chain of energy operations each link will thus +have, as it were, a definite length. In chemical +reactions, the limits may be imposed in various +ways according to the precise nature of the action. +Chemical combination, and chemical disruption, must +be looked on as operations which involve not only +the transformation of energy but also the transformation +of matter. In most cases, chemical reactions +result in the appearance of matter in an +entirely new form—in the appearance, in fact, of +actually different material, with physical and energy +properties absolutely distinct from those of the +reacting constituents. This appearance of matter +in the new form is usually the evidence of the +termination, not only of the particular chemical +process, but also of the energy process associated +with it. Transformation of energy may thus be +limited by transformation of matter.</p> + +<p>Examples of the limiting features of energy +operations could readily be multiplied. Even a +cursory examination of most natural operations will +reveal the existence of such limits. In no case do +we find in Nature any body, or any energy system, +to which energy may be applied in unlimited amount, +but in every case, rigid energy limits are imposed, +and, if these limits are exceeded, the whole energy +character of the body or system is completely +changed.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span></p> +<h3><a name="sec_14" id="sec_14"></a>14. <i>Incepting Energy Influences</i></h3> + +<p>In experimental and in physical work generally, +it has been customary, in describing any simple +process of energy transformation, to take account +only of those energies or those forms of energy +which play an active part in the process—the energy +in its initial or applied form and the energy in its +transformed or final form. This method, however, +requires enlarging so as to include another feature +of energy transformation, a feature hitherto completely +overlooked, namely, that of incepting energy. +Now, this conception of incepting energy, or of +energy as an incepting influence, is of such vital +importance to the author's scheme, that it is necessary +here, at the very outset, to deal with it in some +detail. To obtain some idea of the general nature of +these influences, it will be necessary to describe and +review a few simple instances of energy transformation. +One of the most illuminating for this purpose +is perhaps the familiar process of dynamo-electric +transformation.</p> + +<p>A spherical mass A (<a href="#i051">Fig. 1</a>) of copper is caused +to rotate about its central axis in the magnetic field +in the neighbourhood of a long and powerful +electro-magnet. In such circumstances, certain well-known +transformations of energy will take place. +The energy transformed is that dynamical or +"work"<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> +energy which is being applied to the +spherical mass by the external prime mover causing +it to rotate. As a result of this motion in the +magnetic field, an electrical action takes place; eddy +currents are generated in the spherical mass, and the +energy originally applied is, through the medium +of the electrical process, finally converted into heat +and other energy forms. The external evidence of +the process will be the rise +in temperature and corresponding +expansion of the +rotating mass.</p> + + + +<div class="figright"><a id="i051" name="i051"></a> +<img src="images/i051.jpg" alt="" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1</span></p> + +</div> + + +<p>Such is the energy transformation. +Let us now +review the conditions under +which it takes place. Passing +over the features of the +"work" energy applied and +the energy produced in the transformation, it is +evident that the primary and essential condition +of the whole process is the presence of the +magnetic field. In the absence of this influence, +every other condition of this particular energy operation +might have been fulfilled without result. The +magnetic field is, in reality, the determining agency +of the process. But this field of magnetic force is +itself an energy influence. Its existence implies the +presence of energy; it is the external manifestation +of that energy (usually described as stored in the +field)<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> +which is returned, as shown by the spark, when +the exciting circuit of the electro-magnet is broken. +The transformation of the dynamical or "work" +energy (§ <a href="#sec_31">31</a>) applied to the rotating sphere is thus +carried out by the direct agency, under the power, +or within the field of this magnetic energy influence, +to which, accordingly, we apply the expression, +incepting energy influence, or incepting energy.</p> + +<p>There are several points to be noted with regard +to these phenomena of inception. In the first place, +it is clear that the energy which thus constitutes the +magnetic field plays no active part in the main +process of transformation: during the operation it +neither varies in value nor in nature: it is entirely a +passive agent. Neither is any continuous expenditure +of energy required for the maintenance of this +incepting influence. It is true that the magnetic +field is primarily due to a circulatory current in the +coils or winding of the electro-magnet, but after the +initial expenditure of energy in establishing that field +is incurred, the continuous expenditure of energy +during the flow of the current is devoted to simply +heating the coils. A continuous heat transformation +is thus in progress. The magnetic energy influence, +although closely associated with this heat transformation, +yet represents in itself a distinct and +separate energy feature. This last point is, perhaps, +made more clear if it be assumed that, without +altering the system in any way, the electro-magnet +is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> +replaced by a permanent magnet of precisely the +same dimensions and magnetic power. There would +then be no energy expenditure whatever for excitation, +but nevertheless, the main transformation would +take place in precisely the same manner and to +exactly the same degree as before. The incepting +energy influence is found in the residual magnetism.</p> + +<p>If an iron ball or sphere were substituted, in the +experiment, for the copper one, the phenomena +observed on its rotation would be of an exactly +similar nature to those described above. There is, +however, one point of difference. Since the iron is +magnetic, the magnet pole will now exert an attractive +force on the iron mass, and if the latter were in +close proximity to the pole (<a href="#i051">Fig. 1</a>), a considerable +expenditure of energy might be required to separate +the two. It is evident, then, that in the case of iron +and the magnetic metals, this magnetic influence is +such that an expenditure of energy is required, not +only to cause these materials to move in rotation so +as to cut the lines of the field of the magnetic influence, +but also to cause them to move outwards from +the seat of the influence <i>along</i> the lines of the field. +The movements, indeed, involve transformations of +energy totally different in nature. Assuming the +energy to be obtained, in both cases, from the same +external source, it is, in the first instance, converted +by rotatory motion in the field into electrical and heat +energy, whereas, in the second case, by the outward +motion<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> +of displacement from the pole, it is transformed +and associated with the mass in the form of +energy of position or energy of displacement relative +to the pole. Since the attractive force between the +iron mass and the pole may be assumed to diminish +according to a well-known law, the energy transformation +per unit displacement will also diminish at +the same rate. The precise nature and extent of the +influence of the incepting agent thus depend on the +essential qualities of the energised material under its +power. In this case, the magnetic metals, such as +iron, provide phenomena of attraction which are +notably absent in the case of the dia-magnetic metals +such as copper. Other substances, such as wood, +appear to be absolutely unaffected by any movement +in the magnetic field. The precise energy +condition of the materials in the field of the incepting +influence is also an important point. The +incepting energy might be regarded as acting, not +on the material itself, but rather on the energy +associated with that material. From the phenomena +already considered, it is clear that before the incepting +influence of magnetism can act on the copper +ball, the latter must be endowed with energy of +rotation. It is on this energy, then, that the incepting +influence exerts its transforming power. It would +be useless to energise the copper ball, say by raising +it to a high temperature, and then place it at rest +in the magnetic field; the magnetic energy influence +would<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> +not operate on the heat energy, and consequently, +no transformation would ensue.</p> + +<p>It is easy to conceive, also, that in the course +of an energy transformation, the material may +attain an energy condition in which the incepting +influence no longer affects it. Take once +more the case of the iron ball. It is well known +that, at a high temperature, iron becomes non-magnetic. +It would follow, then, that if the +rotational transformation in the magnetic field could +be carried out to the requisite degree, so that, +by the continuous application of that heat energy +which is the final product of the process, the ball had +attained this temperature, then the other transformation +consequent on the displacement of the ball from +the attracting pole could not take place. No change +has really occurred in the incepting energy conditions. +They are still continuous and persistent, +but the energy changes in the material itself have +carried it, to a certain degree, beyond the influence +of these conditions.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_15" id="sec_15"></a>15. <i>Cohesion as an Incepting Influence</i></h3> + +<p>Other aspects of incepting energy may be derived +from the examples cited above. Returning to the +case of the rotating copper sphere, let it be assumed +that in consequence of its rotation in the magnetic +field it is raised from a low to a high temperature. +Due<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> +to the heating effect alone, the mass will expand +or increase in volume. This increase is the +evidence of a definite energy process by which +certain particles or portions of the mass have in distortion +gained energy of position—energy of separation—or +potential energy relative to the centre of +the sphere. In fact, if the mass were allowed to cool +back to its normal condition, this energy might by a +suitable arrangement be made available for some +form of external work. It is obvious, however, that +this new energy of position or separation which has +accrued to the mass in its heated condition has in +reality been obtained by the transformation of the +"work" energy originally applied. The abnormal +displacement of certain particles or portions of the +mass from the centre of the sphere is simply the +external evidence of their increased energy. Now +this displacement, or strain, due to the heat expansion, +is carried out against the action of certain +cohesive forces or stresses existing between the +particles throughout the mass. These cohesive +forces are, in fact, the agency which determines this +transformation of heat into energy of position. +Their existence is essential to the process. But +these cohesive forces are simply the external manifestation +of that energy by virtue of which the +mass tends to maintain its coherent form. They +are the symbol of that energy which might be +termed the cohesion energy of the mass—they +are,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> +in fact, the symbol of the incepting energy +influence of the transformation. This incepting +energy influence of cohesion is one which holds +sway throughout all solid material. It is, therefore, +found in action in every movement involving +the internal displacement or distortion of +matter. It is a property of matter, and accordingly +it is found to vary not only with the material, but +also with the precise physical condition or the energy +state of the material with which it is associated. In +this respect, it differs entirely from the preceding +magnetic influence. The latter, we have seen, has +no direct association with the copper ball, or with +the material which is the actual venue of the transformation. +As an energy influence, it is itself persistent, +and unaffected by the energy state of that +material. On the other hand, the cohesion energy, +being purely a property of the material which is the +habitat of the energy process, is directly affected by +its energy state. This point will be clearer by +reference to the actual phenomena of the heat transformation. +As the process proceeds, the temperature +of the mass as the expansion increases will rise higher +and higher, until, at a certain point, the solid material +is so energised that change of state ensues. At this, +the melting-point of the material, liquefaction takes +place, and its cohesive properties almost vanish. In +this fashion, then, a limit is clearly imposed on the +process of heat transformation in the solid body—a +limit<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> +defined by the cohesive or physical properties +of the particular material. In this limiting power +lies the difference between cohesion and magnetism +as incepting influences. Looking at the whole +dynamo-electric transformation in a general way, it +will be clear that the magnetic influence in no way +limits or affects the amount of dynamical or "work" +energy which may be applied to the rotating sphere. +This amount is limited simply by the cohesive +properties of the material mass in rotation. The +magnetic influence might, in fact, be regarded as the +primary or inducing factor in the system, and the +cohesion influence as the secondary or limiting +factor.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_16" id="sec_16"></a>16. <i>Terrestrial Gravitation as an Incepting +Influence</i></h3> + +<p>The attractive influence of gravitation appears +as an incepting agency in terrestrial as well as in +celestial phenomena. In fact, of all the agencies +which incept energy transformations on the earth, +gravitation, in one form or another, is the most +universal and the most important. Gravitation +being a property of all matter, no mundane body, +animate or inanimate, is exempt from its all-pervading +influence, and every movement of energised +matter within the field of that influence leads inevitably +to energy transformation.</p> + +<p>Let us take a concrete illustration. A block +of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> +solid material is supported on a horizontal table. +By means of a cord attached, energy is applied to +the block from an external source, so that it slides +over the surface of the table. As a result of this +motion and the associated frictional process, heat +energy will make its appearance at the sliding surfaces +of contact. This heat energy is obviously +obtained by the transformation of that energy +originally applied to the block from the external +source. What is the incepting influence in this +process of transformation? The incepting influence +is clearly the gravitative attraction of the earth +operating between the moving block and the table. +The frictional process, it is well known, is dependent +in extent or degree on the pressure between the +surfaces in contact. This pressure is, of course, due +to the gravitative attraction of the earth on the +mass of the block. If it be removed, say by supporting +the block from above, the heat-transformation +process at the surfaces at once terminates. +Gravity, then, is the primary incepting influence of +the process. The effect of gravitation in transformation +has apparently been eliminated by supporting +the block from above and removing the +pressure between block and table. It is not really +so, however, because the pressure due to the gravitative +attraction of the earth on the block has in +reality only been transferred to this new point +of support, and if a movement of the block is +carried<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> +out it will be found that the heat transformation +has been also transferred to that point. +But there are also other influences at work in the +process. The extent of the heat transformation +depends, not only on the pressure, but also on the +nature of the surfaces in contact. It is evident, +that in the sliding movement the materials in the +neighbourhood of the surfaces in contact will be +more or less strained or distorted. This distortion +is carried out in the lines of the cohesive forces of +the materials, and is the real mechanism of the +transformation of the applied work energy into +heat. It is obvious that the nature of the surfaces +in contact must influence the degree of distortion, +that is, whether they are rough or smooth; the +cohesive qualities of the materials in contact will +depend also on the nature of these materials, and +the extent of the heat transformation will be limited +by these cohesive properties in precisely the same +way as described for other examples (§ <a href="#sec_15">15</a>). The +function of gravitation in this transformation is, +obviously, again quite passive in nature, and is in +no way influenced by the extent of the process. +Gravitation is, as it were, only the agency whereby +the acting energy is brought into communication +with the cohesive forces of the sliding materials.</p> + +<p>A little reflection will convey to the reader the +vast extent of this influence of gravitation in frictional +phenomena, and the important place occupied +by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> +such phenomena in the economy of Nature. +From the leaf which falls from the tree to the +mighty tidal motions of air, earth, and sea due to +the gravitative effects of the sun and moon, all +movements of terrestrial material are alike subject +to the influence of terrestrial gravitation, and will +give rise to corresponding heat processes. These +heat processes are continually in evidence in natural +phenomena; the effect of their action is seen alike +on the earth's surface and in its interior (internal +heating). Of the energy operating in them we do +not propose to say anything further at this stage, +except that it is largely communicated to the +atmospheric air masses.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_17" id="sec_17"></a>17. <i>The Gravitation Field</i></h3> + +<p>The foregoing examples of transformation serve +to place before the reader some idea of the general +nature and function of an incepting energy influence. +But for the broadest aspects of the latter agencies +it is necessary to revert once more to celestial +phenomena. As already indicated in the General +Statement, the primary transformations of planetary +axial energy are stimulated by certain agencies inherent +to, and arising from, the central mass of +the system. These energy agencies or effects operate +through space, and are entirely passive in nature. +They are in no way associated with energy transmission; +they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> +are merely the determining causes of +the energy-transforming processes which they induce, +and do not in the least affect the conservative +energy properties of the planetary masses over which +their influence is cast. Of the precise number and +nature of such influences thus exerted by the primary +mass we can say nothing. The energy transformations +which are the direct result of their action are +so extensive and so varied in character that we +would hesitate to place any limit on the number +of the influences at work. Some of these influences, +however, being associated with the phenomena of +everyday experience, are more readily detected in +action than others and more accessible to study. +It is to these that we naturally turn in order to +gain general ideas for application to more obscure +cases.</p> + +<p>Of the many incepting influences, therefore, which +may emanate from the primary mass there are three +only which will be dealt with here. Each exerts +a profound action on the planetary system, and each +may be readily studied and its working verified by +the observation of common phenomena. These +influences are respectively the gravitation, the thermal, +and the luminous fields.</p> + +<p>The general nature and properties of the gravitation +field have to some extent been already foreshadowed +(§§ <a href="#sec_4">4,</a> <a href="#sec_6">6,</a> <a href="#sec_16">16</a>). Other examples will be dealt +with later, and it is unnecessary to go into further +detail<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> +here. The different aspects, however, in which +the influence has been presented may be pointed +out. Firstly, in the separate body in space, as an +inherent property of matter (§ <a href="#sec_2">2</a>); secondly, as +an attractive influence exerted across space between +primary and planet, both absolutely separate bodies +(§ <a href="#sec_5">5</a>); and thirdly, as a purely planetary or secondary +incepting influence (§ <a href="#sec_16">16</a>). In every case alike +we find its function to be of an entirely passive +nature. Its most powerful effect on planetary +material is perhaps manifested in the tidal actions +(§ <a href="#sec_9">9</a>). With respect to these movements, it may +be pointed out that the planetary material periodically +raised from the surface is itself elevated against +the inherent planetary gravitative forces, and also, +to a certain extent, against the cohesive forces of +planetary material. Each of these resisting influences +functions as an incepting agency, and thus +the elevation of the mass involves a transformation of +energy (§ <a href="#sec_4">4</a>). The source of the energy thus transformed +is the axial energy of the planet, and the new +forms in which it is manifested are energy of position +or potential energy relative to the planetary surface, +and heat energy. On the return of the material to +its normal position, its energy of position, due to +its elevation, will be returned in its original form +of axial energy. In the case of the heat transformation, +however, it is to be noted that this process +will take place both as the material is elevated and +also <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> +as it sinks once more to its normal position. +The heat transformation thus operates continuously +throughout the entire movement. The upraising +of the material in the tidal action is brought about +entirely at the expense of inherent planetary axial +energy. The gravitative and cohesive properties +of the planetary material make such a transformation +process possible. It is in virtue of these properties +that energy may be applied to or expended +on the material in this way. The tidal action on +the planetary surface is, in fact, simply a huge +secondary process in which axial energy is converted +into heat. The primary incepting power is +clearly gravitation.</p> + +<p>Of the aspect of gravitation as a purely planetary +influence (§ <a href="#sec_16">16</a>) little requires to be said. The +phenomena are so prominent and familiar that the +reader may be left to multiply instances for himself.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_18" id="sec_18"></a>18. <i>The Thermal Field</i></h3> + +<p>The thermal field which is induced by and +emanates from the primary mass differs from the +gravitation field in that, so far as we know, it +is unaccompanied by any manifestation of force, +attractive or otherwise. Its action on the rotating +planetary mass may be compared to that of the +electro-magnet on the rotating copper sphere (§ <a href="#sec_14">14</a>); +the electro-magnet exerts no force on the sphere, +but an energy expenditure is, nevertheless, required +to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> +rotate the latter through the field of the magnetic +influence.</p> + +<p>To this thermal field, then, in which the planets +rotate, we ascribe all primary planetary heating +phenomena. The mode of action of the thermal +field appears to be similar to that of other incepting +influences. By its agency the energy of axial +rotation of planetary material is directly converted +into the heat form. As already shown (§ <a href="#sec_17">17</a>), +heat energy may be developed in planetary material +as a result of the action of other incepting agencies, +such as gravitation. These processes are, however, +more or less indirect in nature. But the operation +due to the thermal field is a direct one. The heat +energy is derived from the direct transformation +of planetary axial energy of rotation without passing +through any intermediate forms. In common +parlance, the thermal field is the agency whereby +the primary mass heats the planetary system. No +idea of transmission, however, is here implied in +such phraseology; the heating effect produced on +any planetary mass is entirely the result of the +transformation of its own energy; the thermal field +is purely and simply the incepting influence of +the process. Now, in virtue of the configuration +of the rotating planetary masses, their material in +equatorial regions is much more highly energised +than the material in the neighbourhood of the poles, +and will, accordingly, move with much greater linear +velocity<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> +through the thermal field. The heat transformation +will vary accordingly. It will be much +more pronounced at the equator than at the poles, +and a wide difference in temperature will be maintained +between the two regions. The thermal field, +also, does not necessarily produce the same heating +effect on all planetary material alike. Some materials +appear to be peculiarly susceptible—others much +less so. This we may verify from terrestrial experience. +Investigation shows the opaque substances +to be generally most susceptible, and the transparent +materials, such as glass, rock-salt, tourmaline, &c. +almost insusceptible, to the heating effect of the +sun. The influence of the thermal field can, in +fact, operate through the latter materials. A still +more striking and important phenomenon may be +observed in the varying action of the thermal field +on matter in its different forms. It has been already +pointed out that, in the course of transformation +in the field of an incepting influence, a material +may attain a certain energy state in which it is +no longer susceptible to that influence. This has +been exemplified in the case of the iron ball (§ <a href="#sec_14">14</a>) +and a phenomenon of the same general nature is +revealed in the celestial transformation. A piece +of solid material of low melting-point is brought +from the polar regions of the earth to the equator. +Due to the more rapid movement across the sun's +thermal field, and the consequent increased action +of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> +that field, a transformation of the axial energy +of rotation of the body takes place, whereby it is +heated and finally liquefied. In the liquid state +the material is still susceptible to the thermal +field, and the transformation process accordingly +proceeds until the material finally assumes the +gaseous form. At this point, however, it is found +that the operation is suspended; the material, +in assuming the gaseous state, has now attained +a condition (§ <a href="#sec_15">15</a>) in which the thermal field has no +further incepting or transforming influence upon +it. No transformation of its axial energy into +the heat form is now possible by this means; +indeed, so far as the <i>direct</i> heating effect of the +sun is concerned, the free gaseous material on the +planetary surface is entirely unaffected. All the +evidence of Nature points to the conclusion that +all gaseous material is absolutely transparent to +the <i>direct</i> thermal influence of the sun. Matter +in the gaseous form reaches, as it were, an ultimate +or limiting condition in this respect. This fact, +that energised material in the gaseous form is not +susceptible to the thermal field, is of very great +importance in the general economy of Nature. It +is, in reality, the means whereby the great primary +process of the transformation of the axial energy +of the earth into the heat form is limited in extent. +As will be explained later, it is the device whereby +the planetary energy stability is conserved. It will +be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> +apparent, of course, that heat energy may be +readily applied to gaseous masses by other means, +such as conduction or radiation from purely terrestrial +sources. The point which we wish here to emphasise +is, simply, that gaseous material endowed with axial +energy on the planetary surface cannot have this +axial energy directly transformed into heat through +the instrumentality of the thermal field of the +primary.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_19" id="sec_19"></a>19. <i>The Luminous Field</i></h3> + +<p>The planetary bodies are indebted to the +primary mass not only for heat phenomena, but +also for the phenomena of light. These light phenomena +are due to a separate and distinct energy +influence (or influences) which we term the luminous +field.</p> + +<p>The mode of action of the luminous field is +similar to that of other incepting influences. It +operates from the primary, and is entirely passive +in nature. Like the thermal field, it does not appear +to be accompanied by any manifestation of physical +stress or force, except, indeed, the experimental +demonstrations of the "pressure of light" can be +regarded as such. In any case, this in no way affects +the general action of light as an incepting agency. +Its action on energised planetary material gives rise +to certain transformations of energy, transformations +exclusive and peculiar to its own influence. +We<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> +will refer to terrestrial phenomena for illustrations +of its working.</p> + +<p>Perhaps the commonest example of transformation +in which the luminous field appears as the +incepting agency is seen in the growth of plant life +on the surface of the earth. The growth and +development of vegetation and plants generally is +the outward evidence of certain energy transformations. +The processes of growth, however, are of +such a complex nature that it is impossible to state +the governing energy conditions in their entirety, +but, considering them merely in general fashion, it +may be said that energy in various forms (potential, +chemical, &c.) is stored in the tissues of the growing +material. Now the source of this energy is the +axial energy of the earth, and, as stated above, the +luminous field is an incepting factor (there may be +others) in the process of transformation, a factor +whereby this axial energy is converted into certain +new forms. It is well known that, amongst the +factors which influence the growth of vegetation, one +of the most potent is that of light. The presence +of sunlight is one of the essential conditions for +the successful working of certain transformations of +plant life, and these transformations vary not only in +degree but in nature, according to the variation of +the imposed light in intensity and quality. Some of +the processes of growth are no doubt chemical in +nature. Here, again, light may be readily conceived +to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> +have a direct determining influence upon them, +exactly as in the cases of its well-known action in +chemical phenomena—for instance, as in photography. +Other examples will readily occur to the reader. +One of the most interesting is the action of light on +the eye itself. It may be pointed out indeed that +light is, first and foremost, a phenomenon of vision. +Whatever may be its intrinsic nature, it is primarily +an influence affecting the eye. But the action of seeing, +like all other forms of human activity, involves +a certain expenditure of bodily energy. This energy +is, of course, primarily derived from the axial energy +of the earth through the medium of plant and +animal life and the physico-chemical processes of the +body itself. Its presence in one form or another is, +in fact, essential to all the phenomena of life. The +action of seeing accordingly involves the transformation +of a certain modicum of this energy, and the +influence which incepts this transformation is the +luminous field which originates in and emanates +from the central mass of the system, the sun. In a +similar way, planetary material under certain conditions +may become the source of an incepting +luminous field. It is this light influence or luminous +field which, in common parlance, is said to +enter the eye. In that organ, then, is found +the mechanism or machine (§ <a href="#sec_30">30</a>), a complicated +one, no doubt, whereby this process of transformation +is carried out which makes the light +influence<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> +perceptible to the senses. Of the precise +nature of the action little can be said. The theme +is rather one for a treatise on physiology. It +may be pointed out, however, with regard to the +process of transformation, that Dewar has already +demonstrated the fact that when light falls on the +retina of the eye, an electric current is set up in +the optic nerve. The energy associated with this +current is, of course, obtained at the expense of the +bodily energy of the observer, and this energy, after +passing, it may be, through a large number of transformation +processes, will finally be returned to the +source from which it was originally derived, namely, +the axial energy of the earth. The luminous field, +also, like the thermal field, has no transforming effect +whatever on the energy of certain substances. It +may pass completely through some and be reflected +by others without any sign of energy transformation. +Its properties are, in fact, simply the properties of +light, and must be accepted simply as phenomena. +Now, it is very important, in studying matters of +this kind, to realise that it is impossible ever to get +beyond or behind phenomena. It may be pointed +out that in no sphere of physics has the influence +of so-called explanatory mechanical hypotheses been +stronger than in that dealing with the properties of +light. New theories are being expounded almost +daily in attempts to explain or dissect simple +phenomena. But it may be asked, In what does our +really<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> +useful knowledge of light consist? Simply in +our knowledge of phenomena. Beyond this, one +cannot go. We may attempt to explain phenomena, +but to create for this purpose elastic ethereal media +or substances without direct evidential phenomena +in support is not to advance real knowledge. There +are certain properties peculiar to the luminous as to +all other incepting fields, certain conditions under +which each respectively will act, and the true +method of gaining real insight into these agencies +is by the study of these actual properties (or phenomena) +and conditions, and not by attempts to ultimately +explain them. It will be evident that in +most cases of natural energy operations there is +more than one energy influence in action. As a rule +there are several. In a growing plant, for example, +we have the thermal, luminous, gravitation, and +cohesive influences all in operation at the same time, +each performing its peculiar function in transformation, +each contributing its own peculiar energy +phenomena to the whole. This feature adds somewhat +to the complexity of natural operations and to +the difficulties in the precise description of the +various phenomena with which they are associated.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_20" id="sec_20"></a>20. <i>Transformations—Upward Movement of a +Mass against Gravity</i></h3> + +<p>When the significance of energy inception and +the characteristic properties of the various agencies +have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> +been grasped, it becomes much easier to deal +with certain other aspects of energy processes. To +illustrate these aspects it is, therefore, now proposed +to discuss a few simple secondary operations embodied +in experimental apparatus. A few examples +of the operations of transformation and transmission +of energy will be considered. The object in view +is to show the general nature of these processes, +and more especially the limits imposed upon them +by the various factors or properties of the material +machines in which they are of necessity embodied. +The reader is asked to bear in mind also the observations +already made (§ <a href="#sec_13">13</a>) with respect to +experimental apparatus generally.</p> + +<p>The first operation for discussion is that of the +upward movement of a mass of material against the +gravitative attraction of the earth. This movement +involves one of the most simple and at the same +time one of the most important of secondary +energy processes. As a concrete illustration, consider +the case of a body projected vertically upwards +with great velocity from the surface of the +earth. The phenomena of its motion will be somewhat +as follows:—As the body recedes from the +earth's surface in its upward flight, its velocity +suffers a continuous decrease, and an altitude is +finally attained where this velocity becomes zero. +The projectile, at this point, is instantaneously at rest. +Its motion then changes; it commences to fall, and +to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> +proceed once more towards the starting-point +with continuously increasing velocity. Neglecting +the effect of the air (§ <a href="#sec_29">29</a>) and the rotational +movement of the earth, it may be assumed that the +retardation of the projectile in its upward flight is +numerically equal to its acceleration in its downward +flight, and that it finally returns to the starting-point +with velocity numerically equal to the initial +velocity of projection. The process then obviously +involves a complete transformation and return of +energy. At the earth's surface, where its flight +commences and terminates, the body is possessed of +energy of motion to a very high degree. At the +highest point of flight, this form of energy has +entirely vanished; the body is at rest. Its energy +properties are then represented by its position of +displacement from the earth's surface; its energy of +motion in disappearing has assumed this form of +energy of position, energy of separation, or potential +energy. The moving body has thus been the +mechanism of an energy transformation. At each +stage of its upward progress, a definite modicum of +its original energy of motion is converted into energy +of position. Between the extreme points of its +flight, the energy of the body is compounded of +these two forms, one of which is increasing at the +expense of the other. When the summit of flight +is reached the conversion into energy of position is +complete. In the downward motion, the action is +completely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> +reversed, and when the body reaches the +starting-point its energy of position has again been +completely transformed into energy of motion. It +might be well to draw attention here to the fact, +often overlooked, that this energy of position gained +by the rising mass is, in reality, a form of energy, +separate and distinct, brought into existence by the +transformation and disappearance of the energy of +the moving mass. Energy of position is as truly a +form of energy as heat or kinetic energy.</p> + +<p>The transformation here depicted is clearly a +simple process, yet we know absolutely nothing of +its ultimate nature, of the why or wherefore of the +operation. Our knowledge is confined to the circumstances +and conditions under which it takes +place. Let us now, therefore, deal with these conditions. +The transformation is clearly carried out +in virtue of the movement of the body in the lines +or field of an incepting influence. This influence +is that of gravitation, which links the body continually +to the earth. Now the function of gravitation +in this process, as in others already described, +is that of a completely passive incepting agent. +The active energy which suffers change in the +process is clearly the original work energy (§ <a href="#sec_31">31</a>) +communicated to the projected body. The whole +process is, in fact, a purely mechanical operation, +and as in the case of other processes involving +mechanical energy, it is limited by the mass value +of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> +the moving material. It is clear that the +greater the amount of energy communicated to +the projectile at the starting-point, the greater +will be the altitude it will attain in its flight. +The amount of energy, however, which can thus +be communicated is dependent on the maximum +force which can be applied to the projectile. But +the maximum force which can be applied to any +body depends entirely on the resistance offered by +that body, and in this case the resisting force is the +gravitative attraction of the earth on the projectile, +which attraction is again a direct function of its +mass. The greater the mass, the greater the gravitative +force, and the greater the possibility of transformation. +The ultimate limit of the process would +be reached if the projected mass were so great as +to equal half the mass of the earth. In such circumstances, +the earth being assumed to be divided +into two equal masses, the maximum limiting value +of the gravitative attraction would clearly be attained. +Any increase of the one mass over the +other would again lead, however, to a diminution +in the attractive force and a corresponding decrease +in the energy limit for transformation. The precise +manner in which the operations of mechanical energy +are limited by the mass will now be clear. The +principle is quite general, and applicable to all +moving bodies. Mass is ever a direct measure of +energy capacity. A graphical method of representing +energy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> +transformations of this kind, by a system +of co-ordinates, would enable the reader to appreciate +more fully the quantitative relations of the forms +of energy involved and also their various limits.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_21" id="sec_21"></a>21. <i>The Simple Pendulum</i></h3> + +<p>The remaining operations of transformation for +discussion are embodied in the following simple +apparatus. A spherical metallic mass M (<a href="#i077">Fig. 2</a>) is +supported by a rod P which is rigidly connected to +a horizontal spindle HS as shown.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a id="i077" name="i077"></a> +<img src="images/i077.jpg" alt="" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2</span></p> +</div> + +<p>The spindle is supported and free to revolve in +the bearings B<sub>1</sub> and B<sub>2</sub> which form part of the +supporting framework V resting on the ground; the +bearing surfaces at B<sub>1</sub> and B<sub>2</sub> are lubricated, and +the mass M is free to perform, in a vertical plane, +complete revolutions about the axis through the +centre of the spindle. In carrying out this motion +its path will be circular, as shown at DCFE; +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> +whole arrangement is merely an adaptation +of the simple pendulum. As constituted, the +apparatus may form the seat of certain energy +operations. Some of these will only take place with +the application of energy of motion to the pendulum +from an external source, thereby causing it to vibrate +or to rotate: others, again, might be said to be +inherent to the apparatus, since they arise naturally +from its construction and configuration. We shall +deal with the latter first.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_22" id="sec_22"></a>22. <i>Statical Energy Conditions</i></h3> + +<p>The pendulum with its spindle has a definite mass +value, and, assuming it to be at rest in the bearings +B<sub>1</sub> and B<sub>2</sub>, it is acted upon by gravitation, or in +other words, it is under the influence or within the +field of the gravitative attraction of the earth's mass +upon it. The effect of this field is directly proportional +to the mass of the pendulum and spindle, +and to its action is due that bearing pressure which +is transmitted through the lubricant to the bearing +surfaces and thence to the supporting arms N<sub>1</sub> and +N<sub>2</sub> of the framework. Bearings and columns alike +are thus subjected to a downward thrust or pressure. +Being of elastic material, they will be more or less +distorted. This distortion will proceed until the +downward forces are balanced by the upward or reactive +forces called into play in virtue of the cohesive +properties<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> +of the strained material. Corresponding +to a slight downward movement of the pendulum +and spindle in thus straining or compressing them, +the supporting columns will be decreased in length. +This downward movement is the external evidence +of certain energy operations. In virtue of their +elevation above the earth's surface, the pendulum +and spindle possess, to a certain degree, energy of +position, and any free downward movement would +lead to the transformation of this energy into energy +of motion (§ <a href="#sec_20">20</a>). But the downward motion of +pendulum and spindle is not free. It is made against +the resistance of the material of the supporting +columns, and the energy of position, instead of assuming +the form of energy of motion, is simply worked +down or transformed against the opposing cohesive +forces of the supporting materials. This energy, +therefore, now resides in these materials in the form +of energy of strain or distortion. In general nature, +this strain energy is akin to energy of position (§ <a href="#sec_20">20</a>). +Certain portions of the material of the columns have +been forced into new positions against the internal +forces of cohesion which are ever tending to preserve +the original configuration of the columns. This +movement of material in the field of the cohesive +influence involves the transformation of energy (§ <a href="#sec_4">4</a>), +and the external evidence of the energy process is +simply the strained or distorted condition of the +material. If the latter be released, and allowed to +resume<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> +its natural form once more, this stored energy +of strain would be entirely given up. In reality, the +material can be said to play the part of a machine +or mechanism for the energy process of storage and +restoration. No energy process, in fact, ever takes +place unless associated with matter in some form. +The supporting arms, in this case, form the material +factor or agency in the energy operation. All such +energy machines, also, are limited in the extent of +their operation, by the qualities of the material factors. +In this particular case, the energy compass of the +machine is restricted by certain physical properties +of the material, by the maximum value of these +cohesive or elastic forces called into play in distortion. +These forces are themselves the evidence of energy, +of that energy by virtue of which the material +possesses and maintains its coherent form. In this +case this energy is also the factor controlling the +transformation, and appears as a separate and distinct +incepting agency. If the process is to be a reversible +one, so that the energy originally stored in the material +as strain energy or energy of distortion may be completely +returned, the material must not be stressed +beyond a certain point. Only a limited amount of +work can be applied to it, only a limited amount of +energy can be stored in it. Too much energy applied—too +great a weight on the supporting columns—gives +rise to permanent distortion or crushing, and +an entirely new order of phenomena. This energy +limit<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> +for reversibility is then imposed by the cohesive +properties of the material or by its elastic limits. +Up to this point energy stored in the material may be +returned—the process is reversible in nature—but +above this elastic limit any energy applied must +operate in an entirely different manner.</p> + +<p>A little consideration will show also, that the +state of distortion, or energy strain, is not confined +to the material of the supporting columns alone. +Action and reaction are equal. The same stresses +are applied to the spindle through the medium of +bearings and lubricant. In fact, every material substance +of which the pendulum machine is built up +is thus, more or less, strained against internal forces; +all possess, more or less, cohesion or strain energy. +It will be evident, also, that this condition is not +peculiar to this or any other form of apparatus. It +is the energy state or condition of every structure, +either natural or artificial, which is built up of ordinary +material, and which, on the earth's surface, is +subjected to the influence of the gravitation field. +This cohesion or strain energy is one of the forms +in which energy is most widely distributed throughout +material.</p> + +<p>In reviewing the statical condition of the above +apparatus, the pendulum itself has been assumed +to be hanging vertically at rest under the influence of +gravitation. If energy be now applied to the system +from some external source so that the pendulum +is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> +caused to vibrate, or to rotate about the axis of +suspension, a new set of energy processes make their +appearance. The movement of the pendulum mass, +in its circular path around the central axis, is productive +of certain energy reactions, as follows:—</p> + +<blockquote><p><i>a.</i> A transformation of energy of motion into +energy of position and vice versa.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> A frictional transformation at the bearing +surfaces.</p></blockquote> + +<p>These processes will each be in continuous operation +so long as the motion of the pendulum is maintained. +Their general nature is quite independent +of the extent of that motion, whether it be merely +vibratory through a small arc, or completely rotatory +about the central axis. In the articles which immediately +follow, the processes will be treated separately.</p> + + +<h3 class="left hang3"><a name="sec_23" id="sec_23"></a>23. +<i>Transformations of the Moving Pendulum</i>—<br /> +<i>a. Energy of Motion to Energy of Position +and Vice Versa</i></h3> + +<p>In this simple transformation the motion of the +pendulum about the axis of suspension may be either +vibratory or circular, according to the amount of +energy externally applied. In each case, every +periodic movement of the apparatus illustrates the +whole energy operation. The general conditions of +the process are almost identical with those in the +case of the upward movement of a mass against +gravity<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> +(§ <a href="#sec_20">20</a>). Gravitation is the incepting energy +influence of the operation. If the pendulum simply +vibrates through a small arc, then, at the highest +points of its flight, it is instantaneously at rest. Its +energy of motion is here, therefore, zero; its energy +of position is a maximum. At the lowest point of +its flight, the conditions are exactly reversed. Here +its energy of motion is a maximum, while its energy +of position passes through a minimum value. The +same general conditions hold when the pendulum +performs complete revolutions about the central axis. +If the energy of motion applied is just sufficient to +raise it to the highest point E (<a href="#i077">Fig. 2</a>), the mass +will there again be instantaneously at rest with +maximum energy of position. As the mass falls +downwards in completing the circular movement, +its energy of position once more assumes the kinetic +form, and reaches its maximum value at C (<a href="#i077">Fig. 2</a>), +the lowest position. The moving pendulum mass, +so far as its energy properties are concerned, behaves +in precisely the same manner as a body vertically +projected in the field of the gravitative attraction +(§ <a href="#sec_20">20</a>). This simple energy operation of the pendulum +is perhaps one of the most familiar of +energy processes. By its means, however, it is +possible to illustrate certain general features of +energy reactions of great importance to the author's +scheme.</p> + +<p>The energy processes of the pendulum system +are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> +carried out through the medium of the material +pendulum machine, and are limited, both in nature +and degree, by the properties of that machine. As +the pendulum vibrates, the transformation of energy +of motion to energy of position or vice versa is an +example of a reversible energy operation. The +energy active in this operation continually alternates +between two forms of energy: transformation is +continually followed by a corresponding return. +Neglecting in the meantime all frictional and other +effects, we will assume complete reversibility, or that +the energy of motion of the pendulum, after passing +completely into the form of energy of position at the +highest point, is again completely returned, in its +original form, in the descent. Now, for any given +pendulum, the amount of energy which can thus +operate in the system depends on two factors, namely, +the mass of the pendulum and the vertical height +through which it rises in vibration. If the mass +is fixed, then the maximum amount of energy will +be operating in the reversible cycle when the pendulum +is performing complete revolutions round its +axis of suspension. The maximum height through +which the pendulum can rise, or the maximum +amount of energy of position which the system can +acquire, is thus dependent on the length of the +pendulum arm. These two factors, then, the mass +and the length of the pendulum arm, are simply +properties of this pendulum machine, properties by +which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> +its energy compass is restricted. Let us now +examine these limiting factors more minutely.</p> + +<p>It is obvious that energy could readily be +applied to the pendulum system in such a degree +as to cause it to rotate with considerable angular +velocity about the axis of suspension. Now the +motion of the pendulum mass in the lines of the +gravitation field, although productive of the same +transformation process, differs from that of a body +moving vertically upward in that, while the latter +has a linear movement, the former is constrained +into a circular path. This restraint is imposed in +virtue of the cohesive properties of the material of +the pendulum arm, and it is the presence of this +restraining influence that really distinguishes the +pendulum machine from the machine in which the +moving mass is constrained by gravity alone (§ <a href="#sec_20">20</a>). +It has been shown that the energy capacity of a +body projected vertically against gravity is limited +by its mass only; the energy capacity of the +pendulum machine may be likewise limited by its +mass, but the additional restraining factor of cohesion +also imposes another limit. In the course of +rotation, energy is stored in the material of the +pendulum against the internal forces of cohesion. +The action is simply that of what is usually termed +centrifugal force. As the velocity increases, the +pendulum arm lengthens correspondingly until the +elastic limit of the material in tension is reached. +At<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> +this point, the pendulum may be said to have +reached the maximum length at which it can +operate in that reversible process of transformation +in which energy of motion is converted into energy +of position. The amount of energy which would +now be working in that process may be termed the +limiting energy for reversibility. This limiting +energy is the absolute maximum amount of energy +which can operate in the reversible cycle. It is +coincident with the maximum length of the pendulum +arm in distortion. When the stress in the +material of that arm reaches the elastic limit, it +is clear that the transformation against cohesion +will also have attained its limiting value for reversibility. +This transformation, if the velocity of +the pendulum is constant, is of the nature of a +storage of energy. So long as the velocity is constant +the energy stored is constant. If the elastic +limiting stress of the material has not been exceeded, +this energy—neglecting certain minor processes +(§§ <a href="#sec_15">15,</a> <a href="#sec_29">29</a>)—will be returned in its original form +as the velocity decreases. If, however, the material +be stressed beyond its elastic powers, the excess +energy applied will simply lead to permanent distortion +or disruption of the pendulum arm, and to a +complete breakdown and change in the character of +the machine and the associated energy processes (§ <a href="#sec_5">5</a>). +The physical properties of the material thus limit +the energy capacity of the machine. This limiting +feature,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> +as already indicated, is not peculiar to the +pendulum machine alone. Every energy process +embodied in a material machine is limited in a +similar fashion by the peculiar properties of the +acting materials. Every reversible process is carried +out within limits thus clearly defined. Nature +presents no exception to this rule, no example of a +reversible energy system on which energy may be +impressed in unlimited amount. On the contrary, +all the evidence points to limitation of the strictest +order in such processes.</p> + + +<h3 class="left hang3"><a name="sec_24" id="sec_24"></a>24. <i>Transformations of the Moving Pendulum</i>—<br /> +<i>b. Frictional Transformation at the Bearing +Surfaces</i></h3> + +<p>The motion of the pendulum, whether it be +completely rotatory or merely vibratory in nature, +invariably gives rise to heating at the bearings or +supporting points. Since the heating effect is only evident +when motion is taking place, and since the heat +can only make its appearance as the result of some +energy process, it would appear that this persistent +heat phenomenon is the result of a transformation +of the original energy of motion of the pendulum.</p> + +<p>The general energy conditions of the apparatus +already adverted to (§ <a href="#sec_21">21</a>) still hold, and the +lubricating oil employed in the apparatus being +assumed to have sufficient capillarity or adhesive +power<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> +to separate the metallic surfaces of bearings +and journals at all velocities, then every action of +the spindle on the bearings must be transmitted +through the lubricant. The latter is, therefore, +strained or distorted against the internal cohesive +or viscous forces of its material. The general effect +of the rotatory motion of the spindle will be to +produce a motion of the material of the lubricant +in the field of these incepting forces. To this +motion the heat transformation is primarily due. +Other conditions being the same, the extent of the +transformation taking place, in any given case, is +dependent on the physical properties of the lubricant, +such as its viscosity, its cohesive or capillary +power, always provided that the metallic surfaces +are separated, so that the action is really carried +out in the lines or field of the internal cohesive +forces of the lubricant. In itself, this transformation +is not a reversible process; no mechanism +appears by which this heat energy evolved at the +bearing surfaces could be returned once more to its +original form of energy of motion. It may be, in fact, +communicated by conduction to the metallic masses +of the bearings, and thence, by conduction and +radiation, to the air masses surrounding the apparatus. +Its action in these masses is dealt with +below (§ <a href="#sec_29">29</a>). The operation of bearing friction, +though in itself not a reversible process, really forms +one link of a complete chain (§ <a href="#sec_9">9</a>) of secondary +operations<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> +(transmissions and transformations) which +together form a comprehensive and complete cyclical +energy process (§ <a href="#sec_32">32</a>).</p> + +<p>When no lubricant is used in the apparatus, so +that the metallic surfaces of bearings and journals +are in contact, the heat process is of a precisely +similar nature to that described above (see also § <a href="#sec_16">16</a>). +Distortion of the metals in contact takes place in the +surface regions, so that the material is strained against +its internal cohesive forces. The transformation will +thus depend on the physical properties of these +metals, and will be limited by these properties. +Different metallic or other combinations will consequently +give rise to quite different results with +respect to the amounts of heat energy evolved.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_25" id="sec_25"></a>25. <i>Stability of Energy Systems</i></h3> + +<p>The ratio of the maximum or limiting energy for +reversibility to the total energy of the system may +vary in value. If the pendulum vibrates only +through a very small arc, then, neglecting the minor +processes (§§ <a href="#sec_24">24,</a> <a href="#sec_29">29</a>), practically the whole energy of +the system operates in the reversible transformation. +This condition is maintained as the length of the arc +of vibration increases, until the pendulum is just +performing complete revolutions about the central +axis. After this, the ratio will alter in value, because +the greater part of any further increment of energy +does<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> +not enter into the reversible cyclical process, +but merely goes to increase the velocity of rotation +and the total energy of the system. The small +amount of energy which thus enters the reversible +cycle as the velocity increases, does so in virtue of +the increasing length of the pendulum arm in distortion. +To produce even a slight distortion of the arm, +a large amount of energy will require to be applied to +and stored in the system, and thus, at high velocities +of rotation, the energy which operates in the reversible +cycle, even at its limiting value, may form only +a very small proportion of the total energy of the +system. At low velocities or low values of the total +energy, say when the pendulum is not performing +complete rotations, practically the whole energy of +the system is working in the reversible cycle; but, in +these circumstances, it is clear that the total energy +of the system, which, in this case, is all working in +the reversible process, is much less than the maximum +or limiting amount of energy which might so work +in that process. Under these conditions, when the +total energy of the system is less than the limiting +value for reversibility, so that this total energy in its +entirety is free to take part in the reversible process, +then the energy system may be termed stable with +respect to that process. Stability, in an energy +system, thus implies that the operation considered +is not being, as it were, carried out at full energy +capacity, but within certain reversible energy limits.</p> + +<p>We<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> +have emphasised this point in order to draw +attention to the fact that the great reversible processes +which are presented to our notice in natural +phenomena are all eminently stable in character. +Perhaps the most striking example of a natural +reversible process is found in the working of the +terrestrial atmospheric machine (§§ <a href="#sec_10">10</a>, <a href="#sec_38">38</a>). The +energy in this case is limited by the mass, but in +actual operation its amount is well within the maximum +limiting value. The machine, in fact, is stable +in nature. Other natural operations, such as the +orbital movements of planetary masses, (§ <a href="#sec_8">8</a>) illustrate +the same conditions. Nature, although apparently +prodigal of energy in its totality, yet rigidly defines +the bounding limits of her active operations.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_26" id="sec_26"></a>26. <i>The Pendulum as a Conservative System</i></h3> + +<p>Under certain conditions the reversible energy +cycle produces an important effect on the rotatory +motion of the pendulum. For the purpose of illustration, +let it be assumed that the pendulum is an +isolated and conservative system endowed with a +definite amount of rotatory energy. In its circular +movement, the upward motion of the pendulum +mass is accompanied by a gain in its energy of +position. This gain is, in the given circumstances, +obtained solely at the expense of its inherent rotatory +energy, which, accordingly, suffers a corresponding +decrease.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> +The manifestation of this decrease +will be simply a retardation of the pendulum's rotatory +motion. Its angular velocity will, therefore, +decrease until the highest altitude E (<a href="#i077">Fig. 2</a>) is +attained. After this, on the downward path, the +process will be reversed. Acceleration will take +place from the highest to the lowest point of flight, +and the energy stored as energy of position will +be completely returned in its original form of energy +of motion. The effect of the working of the reversible +cycle, then, on the rotatory system, under the +given conditions, is simply to produce alternately a +retardation and a corresponding acceleration. Now, +it is to be particularly noted that these changes in +the velocity of the system are produced, not by any +abstraction from or return of energy to the system, +which is itself conservative, but simply in consequence +of the transformation and re-transformation +of a certain portion of its inherent rotatory energy +in the working of a reversible process embodied in +the system. The same features may be observed +in other systems where the conditions are somewhat +similar.</p> + +<p>In the natural world, we find processes of the +same general nature in constant operation. When +any mass of material is elevated from the surface of +a rotating planetary body against the gravitative +attraction, it thereby gains energy of position (§ <a href="#sec_20">20</a>). +This energy, on the body's return to the surface in +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> +course of its cycle, reappears in the form of +energy of motion. Now the material mass, in rising +from the planetary surface, is not, in reality, separated +from the planet. The atmosphere of the planet +forms an integral portion of its material, partakes of +its rotatory motion, and is bound to the solid core +by the mutual gravitative forces. Any mass, then, +on the solid surface of a planet is, in reality, in the +planetary interior, and the rising of such a mass from +that surface does not imply any actual separative +process, but simply the radial movement, or displacement +of a portion of the planetary material from the +central axis. If the energy expended in the upraisal +of the mass is derived at the expense of the inherent +rotatory energy of the planet, as it would be if the +latter were a strictly conservative energy system, +then the raising of this portion of planetary material +from the surface would have a retarding effect on +the planetary motion of rotation. But if, on the +other hand, the energy of such a mass as it fell +towards the planetary surface were converted once +more into its original form of energy of axial motion, +exactly equivalent in amount to its energy of position, +it is evident that the process would be productive +of an accelerating effect on the planetary +motion of rotation, which would in magnitude +exactly balance the previous retardation. In such a +process it is evident that energy neither enters nor +leaves the planet. It simply works in an energy +machine<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> +embodied in planetary material. This +point will be more fully illustrated later. The +reader will readily see the resemblance of a system +of this nature to that which has already been illustrated +by the rotating pendulum.</p> + +<p>In the meantime, it may be pointed out that +matter displaced from the planetary surface need +not necessarily be matter in the solid form. All +the operations mentioned above could be quite +readily—in fact, more readily—carried out by the +movements of gaseous material, which is admirably +adapted for every kind of rising, falling, or flowing +motion relative to the planetary surface (§ <a href="#sec_13">13</a>).</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_27" id="sec_27"></a>27. <i>Some Phenomena of Transmission Processes—Transmission +of Heat Energy by Solid Material</i></h3> + +<p>The pendulum machine described above furnishes +certain outstanding examples of the operation of +energy transformation. It will be noted, however, +that it also portrays certain processes of energy +transmission. In this respect it is not peculiar. +Most of the material machines in which energy +operates will furnish examples of both energy transmissions +and energy transformations. In some instances, +the predominant operation seems to be +transformation, in others, transmission; and the +machines may be classified accordingly. It is, +however, largely a matter of terminology, since +both<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> +operations are usually found closely associated +in one and the same machine. The apparatus now +to be considered is designed primarily to illustrate +the operative features of certain energy transmissions, +but the description of the machines with their allied +phenomena will show that energy transformations +also play a very important part in their constitution +and working.</p> + +<p>A cylindrical metallic bar about twelve inches +long, say, and one inch in diameter, is placed with +its ends immersed +in water in two +separate vessels, A +and B, somewhat +as shown.</p> + +<div class="figright"><a id="i095" name="i095"></a> +<img src="images/i095.jpg" alt="" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3</span></p> +</div> + +<p>By the application +of heat energy, the temperature of the +water in the vessel A is raised to a point say +100° F. above that of B, and steadily maintained +at that point. It is assumed that B is +also kept at the constant lower temperature. In +these circumstances, a transmission of heat energy +takes place from A to B through the metallic +bar. When the steady temperature condition is +reached, the transmission will be continuous and +uniform; the rate at which it is carried out will +be determined by the length of the bar, by the +material of which it is composed, and by the +temperature difference maintained between its ends. +Now<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> +what has really happened is that by a combination +of phenomena the bar has been converted +into a machine for the transmission of heat energy. +A full description of these phenomena is, in reality, +the description of this machine, and vice versa. Let +us, therefore, now try to outline some of these +phenomena.</p> + +<p>The first feature of note is the gradient of +temperature which exists between the ends of the +bar. Further research is necessary regarding the +real nature of this gradient—it appears to differ +greatly in different materials—but the existence of +such a gradient is one of the main features of the +energy machine, one of the essential conditions of +the transmission process.</p> + +<p>Another feature is that of the expansive motion +of the bar itself. The expansion of the bar due +to the heating varies in value along its length, +from a maximum at the hot end to a minimum +at the cool end. The expansion, also, is the evidence +of a transformation of energy. The bar has +been constrained into its new form against the action +of the internal molecular or cohesive forces of its +material (§ <a href="#sec_16">16</a>). The energy employed and transformed +in producing the expansion is a part of +the original heat energy applied to the bar, and +before any transmission of this heat energy takes +place between its extreme ends, a definite modicum +of the applied energy has to be completely transformed +for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> +the sole purpose of producing this +distortive movement or expansion against cohesion. +This preliminary straining of the bar is, in +fact, a part of the process of building up or constituting +the energy transmission machine, and must +be completely carried out before any transmission +can take place. It is clear, then, that concurrent +with the gradient of temperature, there also exists, +along the bar, what might be termed a gradient +of energy stored against cohesion, and that both +are characteristic and essential features of this particular +energy machine. A point of some importance +to note is the permanency of these features. +Once the machine has been constituted with a +constant temperature difference, the transmission +of energy will take place continuously and at a +uniform rate. But no further transformation against +cohesion takes place; no further expenditure of +energy against the internal forces of the material +is necessary. Neglecting certain losses due to possible +external conditions, the whole energy applied +to the machine at the one end is transmitted in +its entirety to the other, without influencing in any +way either the temperature or the energy gradient.</p> + +<p>Such is the general constitution of this machine +for energy transmission. Its material foundation is, +indeed, the metallic bar, but the temperature and +energy gradients may be termed the true determining +factors of its operation. As already indicated, the +magnitude<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> +of the transformation is dependent on the +temperature difference between the ends of the bar. +But this applies only within certain limits. With +respect to the cool end, the temperature may be as +low as we please—so far as we know, the limit is +absolute zero of temperature; but with the hot end, +the case is entirely different, because here the limit is +very strictly imposed by the melting-point of the +material of the bar. When this melting temperature +is attained, the melting of the bar indicates, simply, +that the heat energy stored or transformed against +the cohesive forces of the material has reached its +limiting value; change of state of the material is +taking place, and the machine is thereby being +destroyed.</p> + +<p>It is evident, then, that the energy which is actually +being transmitted has itself no effect whatever +in restricting the action or scope of the transmission +machine. It is, in reality, the residual energy stored +against the cohesive forces which imposes the limits +on the working. It is the maximum energy which +can be transformed in the field of the cohesive forces +of the material which determines the power of that +material as a transmitting agent. This maximum +will, of course, be different for different materials +according to their physical constitution. It is attained +in this machine in each case when melting of +the bar takes place.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span></p> +<h3><a name="sec_28" id="sec_28"></a>28. <i>Some Phenomena of Transmission Processes—Transmission +by Flexible Band or Cord</i></h3> + +<p>This method is often adopted when energy of +motion, or mechanical energy, is required to be transmitted +from one point to another. For illustration, +consider the case of two parallel spindles or shafts, A +and B (<a href="#i099">Fig. 4</a>), each having a pulley securely keyed +upon it. Spindle A is connected to a source of +of mechanical energy, +and it is desired to +transmit this energy +across the intervening +space to spindle B.</p> + +<div class="figright"><a id="i099" name="i099"></a> +<img src="images/i099.jpg" alt="" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4</span></p> + +</div> + +<p>This, of course, might be accomplished in various +ways, but one of the most simple, and, at the same +time, one of the most efficient, is the direct drive by +means of a flexible band or cord. The band is placed +tightly round, and adheres closely to both pulleys; +the coefficient of friction between band and pulleys +may, in the first instance, be assumed to be sufficiently +great to prevent slipping of the band up to +the highest stress which it is capable of sustaining in +normal working. Connected in this fashion, the +spindles will rotate in unison, and mechanical energy, +if applied at A, may be directly transmitted to B. +The material operator in the transmission is the +connecting flexible band, and associated with this +material<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> +are certain energy processes which are also +essential features of the energy machine. When +transmission of energy is taking place, a definite +tension or stress exists in the connecting band, and +neglecting certain inevitable losses due to bearing +friction (§ <a href="#sec_24">24</a>) and windage (§ <a href="#sec_29">29</a>), practically the +whole of the mechanical or work energy communicated +to the one spindle is transmitted to the other. +Now the true method of studying this or any energy +process is simply to describe the constitution and +principal features of the machine by which it is +carried out. These are found in the phenomena of +transmission. One of the most important is the +peculiar state of strain or tension existing in the +connecting band. This, as already indicated, is an +absolutely essential condition of the whole operation. +No transmission is possible without some stress or +pull in the band. This pull is exerted against the +cohesive forces of the material of the band, so that +before transmission takes place it is distorted and +a definite amount of the originally applied work +energy is expended in straining it against these +forces. This energy is accordingly stored in the +form of strain energy or energy of separation (§ <a href="#sec_22">22</a>), +and, if the velocity is uniform, the magnitude of the +transmission is proportional to this pull in the band, +or to the quantity of energy thus stored against the +internal forces of its material. But, in every case, a +limit to this amount of energy is clearly imposed by +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> +strength of the band. The latter must not be +strained beyond its limiting elastic stress. So long +as energy is being transmitted, a certain transformation +and return of energy of strain or separation is +taking place in virtue of the differing values of the +tensions in the two sides of the band; and if the +latter were stressed beyond the elastic limit, permanent +distortion or disruption of the material would +take place. Under such conditions, the reversible +energy process, involving storage and restoration +of strain energy as the band passes round the +pulleys, would be impossible, and the energy transmission +machine would be completely disorganised. +The magnitude of the energy operation is thus +limited by the physical properties of the connecting +band.</p> + +<p>Another important feature of this energy transmission +machine is the velocity, or rather the kinetic +energy, of the band. The magnitude of the transmission +process is directly proportional to this velocity, +and is, therefore, also a function of the kinetic +energy. At any given rate of transmission, this +kinetic energy, like the energy stored against the +cohesive influence, will be constant in amount, and +like that energy also, will have been obtained at the +expense of the originally applied energy. This +kinetic energy is an important feature in the constitution +of the transmission machine. As in the +case of the strain energy, its maximum value is +strictly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> +limited, and thus imposes a limit on the +general operation of the machine. For, at very +high velocities, owing to the action of centrifugal +force, it is not possible to keep the band in close +contact with the surface of the pulleys. When +the speed rises above a certain limit, although the +energy actually being transmitted may not have +attained the maximum value possible at lower speeds +with greater tension in the band, the latter will, +in virtue of the strain imposed by centrifugal action, +be forced radially outwards from the pulley. The +coefficient of friction will be thereby reduced; slipping +will ensue, and the transmission may cease either +in whole or in part. In this way the velocity or +kinetic energy limit is imposed. The machine for +energy transmission may thus be limited in its +operation by two different factors. The precise way in +which the limit will be applied in any given case will, +of course, depend on the circumstances of working.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_29" id="sec_29"></a>29. <i>Some Phenomena of Transmission Processes—Transmission +of Energy to Air Masses</i></h3> + +<p>The movement of the pendulum (§ <a href="#sec_23">23</a>) is accompanied +by a certain transmission of energy to the +surrounding medium. When this medium is a +gaseous one such as air, the amount of energy thus +transmitted is relatively small. The process, however, +has a real existence. To illustrate its general +nature,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> +let it be assumed that the motion of the +pendulum is carried out, not in air, but in a highly +viscous fluid, say a heavy oil. Obviously, a pendulum +falling from its highest position to its lowest, in +such a medium would transmit its energy almost +in its entirety to the medium, and would reach +its lowest position almost devoid of energy of +motion. The energy of position with which it was +originally endowed would thus be transformed and +transmitted to the surrounding medium. The agent +by which the transmission is carried out is the +moving material of the pendulum, which, as it passes +through the fluid, distorts that fluid in the lines +or field of its internal cohesive or viscous forces +which offer a continuous resistance to the motion. +As the pendulum passes down through the liquid, +the succeeding layers of the latter are thus +alternately distorted and released. The distortive +movement takes place in virtue of the communication +of energy from the moving pendulum +to the liquid, and during the movement energy +is stored in the fluid as energy of strain and as +kinetic energy. At the same time, a transformation +of the applied energy into heat takes place +in the distorted material. The release of this +material from strain, and its movement back towards +its original state, is also accompanied by a +similar transformation, in which the stored strain +energy is, in turn, converted into the heat form. +The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> +whole operation is similar in nature to that +frictional process already described (§ <a href="#sec_16">16</a>) in the +case of a body moving on a rough horizontal +table. The final action of the heat energy thus +communicated to the fluid is to expand the latter +against the internal cohesive or viscous forces of +its material, and also against the gravitative attraction +of the earth.</p> + +<p>Now when the pendulum moves in air, the +action taking place is of the same nature, and +the final result is the same as in oil. It differs +merely in degree. Compared with the oil, the air +masses offer only a slight resistance to the motion, +and thus only an exceedingly small part of the +pendulum's energy is transmitted to them. The +pendulum, however, does set the surrounding air +masses in motion, and by a process similar in +nature to that in the oil, a modicum of the +energy of the falling pendulum is converted into +heat, and thence by the expansion of the air into +energy of position. In the downward motion from +rest, the first stage of the process is a transformation +peculiar to the pendulum itself, namely, energy of +position into energy of motion. The transmission +to the fluid is a necessary secondary result. It is +important to note that this transmission is carried +out in virtue of the actual movement of the material +of the pendulum, and that the energy transmitted +is in reality mechanical or work energy (§ <a href="#sec_31">31</a>). This +mechanical<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> +or work energy, then actually leaves or +is transmitted from the pendulum system, and is +finally absorbed by the surrounding air masses in +the form of energy of position.</p> + +<p>Considered as a whole, there is evidently no +aspect of reversibility about the operation, but it will +be shown later (§ <a href="#sec_32">32</a>) that with the introduction of +other factors, it really forms part of a comprehensive +cyclical process. It is itself a process of direct transmission. +It is carried out by means of a definite +material machine which embodies certain energy +transformations, and which is strictly limited in the +extent of its operations by certain physical factors. +These factors are the cohesive properties of the +moving pendulum mass and the fluid with which it +is in contact (§ <a href="#sec_16">16</a>). It is clear, also, that in an apparatus +in which the motion is carried out in oil, any +heat energy communicated to the oil would inevitably +find its way to the surrounding air masses by +conduction and radiation. The final result of the +pendulum's motion would therefore be the same in +this case as in air; the heat energy would, when +communicated to the surrounding air masses, cause +an expansive movement against gravity.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_30" id="sec_30"></a>30. <i>Energy Machines and Energy Transmission</i></h3> + +<div class="figright"><a id="i107" name="i107"></a> +<img src="images/i107.jpg" alt="" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5</span></p> + +</div> + +<p>The various examples of energy transformation +and transmission which have been discussed above +(§§ <a href="#sec_13">13-27</a>)<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> +will suffice to show the essential differences +which exist in the general nature of these operations. +But they will also serve another purpose in portraying +one striking and important aspect in which these +processes are alike. From the descriptions given +above, it will be amply evident that each of these +processes, whether transformation or transmission, +requires as an essential condition of its existence, the +presence of a certain arrangement of matter; each +process is of necessity associated with and embodied +in a definite physical and material machine. This +material machine is simply the contrivance provided +by Nature to carry out the energy operation. It +differs in construction and in character for different +processes, but in every case there must be in its +constitution some material substance, perceptible to +the senses, with which the acting energy is intimately +associated. This fact is but another aspect of the +principle that energy is never found dissociated from +matter (§ <a href="#sec_11">11</a>). In every energy machine, the +material substance or operator forms the real foundation +or basis of the energy operation, but besides this +there are also always other phenomena of a secondary +nature, totally different, it may be, from the main +energy operation, which combine with that operation +to constitute the whole. These subsidiary energy +phenomena are the incepting factors, and are most +important characteristics. Their presence is just as +essential in energy transmission as it is in energy +transformation.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> +As demonstrated above, they are +usually associated with the physical peculiarities of +the basis or acting material of the energy machine, +and their peculiar function is to conserve or limit the +extent of its action. A complete description of +these phenomena, in any given case, would not only +be equivalent to a complete description of the +machine, but would also serve as a complete description +of the main energy operation embodied in that +machine. Sometimes, however, the description of +the machine is +a matter of extreme +difficulty, +and may be, in +fact, impossible +owing to the lack +of a full knowledge of the intimate phenomena concerned. +An illustrative example of this is provided +by the familiar phenomenon of heat radiation. Take +the case of two isolated solid bodies A and B (<a href="#i107">Fig. 5</a>) +in close proximity on the earth's surface. If the +body A at a high temperature be sufficiently near +to B at a lower temperature, a transmission of energy +takes place from A to B. This transmission is +usually attributed to "radiation," but, after all, the +use of the term "radiation" is merely a descriptive +device which hides our ignorance of the operation. +It is known that a transmission takes place, but the +intimate phenomena are not known, and, accordingly, +it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> +is impossible to describe the machine or mechanism +by which it is carried out. From general considerations, +however, it appears that the material basis +of this machine is to be found in the air medium +which surrounds the two bodies. Experiment shows, +indeed, that if this intervening material medium of +air be even partially withdrawn or removed, the +transmission is immensely reduced in amount. In +fact, this latter phenomenon is largely taken advantage +of in the so-called vacuum flasks or other +devices to maintain bodies at a temperature either +above or below that of the external surrounding +bodies. The device adopted is, simply, as far as +practicable to withdraw all material connection +between the body which it is desired to isolate +thermally and its surroundings. But it is clearly impossible +to isolate completely any terrestrial body in +this way. There must be some material connection +remaining. As already pointed out (§ <a href="#sec_5">5</a>), we have no +experimental experience of really separate bodies or +of an absolute vacuum. It is to be noted that any +vacuous space which we can experimentally arrange +does not even approximately reproduce the conditions +of true separation prevailing in interplanetary +space. Any arrangement of separate bodies which +might thus be contrived is necessarily entirely +surrounded or enclosed by terrestrial material which, +in virtue of its stressed condition, constitutes an +energy machine of the same nature as those already +described<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> +(§ <a href="#sec_21">21</a>). Even although the air could be +absolutely exhausted from a vessel, it is still quite +impossible to enclose any body permanently within +that vessel without some material connection between +the body and the enclosing +walls. If for example, as +shown in <a href="#i109a">Fig. 6</a>, CC represents +a spherical vessel, completely +exhausted, and having two bodies, +A and B at different temperatures, +in its interior, it is obvious +that if these bodies are to +maintain continuously their relative positions of +separation, each must be united by some material +connection to the containing vessel. But when +such a connection is made, say as shown at D +and E (<a href="#i109b">Fig. 7</a>), it is clear +that A and B are no longer +separate bodies in the fullest +sense of the word, but are +now in direct communication +with one another through +the supports at D and E +and the enclosing sides of +the vessel CC. The practicable conditions are thus +far from those of separate bodies in a complete +vacuum. It would seem, indeed, to be beyond +human experimental contrivance to reproduce such +conditions in their entirety. So far as these conditions +can<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> +be achieved, however, and judging +solely by the experimental results already attained +with respect to the effect of exhaustion on radiation, +it may be quite justly averred that, if the conditions +portrayed in <a href="#i109a">Fig. 6</a> could be realised, no +transmission of energy would take place between +two bodies, such as A and B, completely isolated +from one another in a vacuous space. It appears, +in fact, to be a quite reasonable and logical +deduction from the experimental evidence that the +energy operation of transmission of heat from one +body to another by radiation is dependent on +the existence between these bodies of a real and +material substance which forms in some way (at +present unknown) the transmitting medium or +machine. The difficulty which arises in the description +of this machine is due, as already explained +above, simply to lack of knowledge of the intimate +phenomena of its working. Many other energy +processes will, no doubt, occur to the reader in which +the same difficulty presents itself, due to the same +cause.</p> + +<div class="figright"><a id="i109a" name="i109a"></a> +<img src="images/i109a.jpg" alt="" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6</span></p> + +</div> + + +<p>In dealing with terrestrial operations generally, +and particularly when transmission processes are +under consideration, it is important to recognise +clearly the precise nature of these operations and +the peculiar conditions under which they work. It +must ever be borne in mind that the terrestrial +atmosphere is a real and material portion of the +earth's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> +mass, extending from the surface for a +limited distance into space (§ <a href="#sec_34">34</a>), and whatever its +condition of gaseous tenuity, completely occupying +that space in the manner peculiar to a gaseous +substance. When the whole mass of the planet, +including the atmosphere, is taken into consideration, +it is readily seen that all energy operations +embodied in or associated with material on what +is usually termed the surface of the earth take +place at the bottom of this atmospheric ocean, +or, in reality, in the interior of the earth. The +operations themselves are the manifestations of +purely terrestrial energy, which, by its working +in various devices or arrangements of material +is being transformed and transmitted from one +form of matter to another. As will be fully +demonstrated later (<a href="#PART_III">Part III.</a>), the nature of the +terrestrial energy system makes it impossible for +this energy ever to escape beyond the confines of +the planetary atmospheric envelope. These are +briefly the general conditions under which the study +of terrestrial or secondary energy operations is of +necessity conducted, and it is specially important to +notice these conditions when it is sought to apply +the results of experimental work to the discussion +of celestial phenomena. It must ever be borne in +mind that even the direct observation of the latter +must always be carried out through the encircling +planetary atmospheric material.</p> + +<div class="figleft"><a id="i109b" name="i109b"></a> +<img src="images/i109b.jpg" alt="" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 7</span></p> + +</div> + +<p>In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> +this portion of the work it is proposed to +investigate in the light of known phenomena the +possibility of energy transmission between separate +masses. As explained above, the term separate +is here meant to convey the idea of perfect +isolation, and the only masses in Nature which +truly satisfy this condition are the celestial and +planetary bodies, separated as they are from one +another by interplanetary space and in virtue of +their energised condition (§ <a href="#sec_5">5</a>). Since this state of +separation cannot be experimentally realised under +terrestrial conditions, it is obvious, therefore, that no +purely terrestrial energy process can be advanced +either as direct verification or direct disproof of a +transmission of energy between such truly separate +masses as the celestial bodies. But as we are unable +to experiment directly on these bodies themselves +or across interplanetary space, we are forced +of necessity to rely, for experimental facts and conclusions, +on the terrestrial energy phenomena to which +access is possible. As already indicated in the +General Statement (§ <a href="#sec_11">11</a>), the same energy is bestowed +on all parts of the cosmical system, and by +the close observation of the phenomena of its action +in familiar operations the truest guidance may be +obtained as to its general nature and working. In +such investigations, however, only the actual phenomena +of the operation are of scientific or informative +value. There is no gain to real knowledge in assuming, +say<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> +in the examination of the phenomena +of magnetic attraction between two bodies, that the +one is urged towards the other by stresses in an +intervening ethereal medium, when absolutely no +phenomenal evidence of the existence of such a +medium is available. It may be urged that the conception +of an ethereal medium is adapted to the +explanation of phenomena, and appears in many instances +to fulfil this function. But as already +pointed out (see Introduction), it is absolutely impossible +to explain phenomena. So-called explanations +must ever resolve themselves simply into +revelations of further phenomena. While the value +of true working hypotheses cannot be denied, it is +surely evident that such hypotheses, unless they embody +and are under the limitation of controlling +facts, are not only useless, but, from the misleading +ideas they are apt to convey, may even be dangerous +factors in the search for truth. Now, if all speculative +ideas or hypotheses are banished from the mind, +and reliance is placed solely on the evidential phenomena +of Nature, the study of terrestrial energy +operations leads inevitably to certain conclusions on +the question of energy transmission. In the first +place, it must lead to the denial of what has been +virtually the great primary assumption of modern +science, namely, that a mass of material at a high +temperature isolated in interplanetary space would +radiate heat in all directions through that space. +Such<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> +a conception is unsupported by our experimental +or real knowledge of radiation. The fact +that heat radiation takes place from a hot to a +cold body in whatever direction the latter is placed +relatively to the former, does not justify the assumption +that such radiation takes place in all directions +in the absence of a cold body. And since there is +absolutely no manifestation of any real material +medium occupying interplanetary space, no sign of +the material agency or machine which the results of +direct experiment have led us to conclude is a +necessity for the transmission process of heat radiation, +the whole conception must be regarded as at +least doubtful. Even with our limited knowledge +of radiation, the doctrine of heat radiation through +space stands controverted by ordinary experimental +experience. With this doctrine must fall also the +allied conception of the transmission of heat energy +by radiation from the sun to the earth. It is to +be noted, however, that only the actual transmission +of heat energy from the sun to the earth is inadmissible; +the <i>heating effect</i> of the sun on the earth, +which leads to the manifestation of terrestrial energy +in the heat form, is a continuous operation readily +explained in the light of the general principle of +energy transformation already enunciated (§ <a href="#sec_4">4</a>). +With respect to other possible processes of energy +transmission between the sun and the earth or across +interplanetary space, the same general methods of +experimental<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> +investigation must be adopted. The +transmission of energy under terrestrial conditions +is carried out in many different forms and by the +working of a large variety of machines. In every +case, no matter in what form the energy is transmitted, +that energy must be associated with a +definite arrangement of terrestrial material constituting +the transmission machine. Each energy process +of transmission has its own peculiar conditions of +operation which must be completely satisfied. By +the study of these conditions and the allied phenomena +it is possible to gain a real knowledge of +the precise circumstances in which the process can +be carried out. Now let us apply the knowledge of +transmission processes thus gained to the general +celestial case, to the question of energy transmission +between truly separate bodies, and particularly to +the case of the sun and the earth. Do we find in +this case any evidence of the presence of a machine +for energy transmission? It is impossible, within +the limits of this work, to deal with all the forms +in which energy may be transmitted, but let the +reader review any instance of the transmission of +energy under terrestrial conditions, or any energy-transmission +machine with which he is familiar, +noting particularly the essential phenomena and +material arrangements, and let him ask himself if +there is any evidence of the existence of a machine +of this kind in operation between the sun and the +earth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> +or across interplanetary space. We venture +to assert that the answer must be in the negative. +The real knowledge of terrestrial processes of energy +transmission at command, on which all our deductions +must be based, does not warrant in the slightest +degree the assumption of transmission between the +sun and the earth. The most plausible of such assumptions +is undoubtedly that which attributes +transmission to heat radiation, but this has already +been shown to be at variance with well-known facts. +The question of light transmission will offer no +difficulty if it be borne in mind that light is not +in itself a form of energy, but merely a manifestation +of energy as an incepting influence, which like other +incepting influences of a similar nature, can readily +operate across either vacuous or interplanetary +space (§ <a href="#sec_19">19</a>).</p> + +<p>On these general considerations, deduced from +the observation of terrestrial phenomena, allied with +the conception of energy machines and separate +masses in space, the author bases one aspect of +the denial of energy transmission between celestial +masses. The doctrine of transmission cannot be +sustained in the face of legitimate scientific deduction +from natural phenomena. In the later parts +of this work, and from a more positive point of view, +the denial is completely justified.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span></p> +<h3><a name="sec_31" id="sec_31"></a>31. <i>Identification of Forms of Energy</i></h3> + +<p>Before leaving the question of energy transmission, +there are still one or two interesting features +to be considered. Although energy, as already +pointed out, is ever found associated with matter, +this association does not, in itself, always furnish +phenomena sufficient to distinguish the precise +phase in which the energy may be manifested. Some +means must, as a rule, be adopted to isolate and +identify the various forms.</p> + +<p>Now one of the most interesting and important +features of the process of energy transmission is that +it usually provides the direct means for the identification +of the acting energy. Energy, as it were, in +movement, in the process of transmission, is capable +of being detected in its different phases and recognised +in each. The phenomena of transmission +usually serve, either directly or indirectly, to portray +the precise nature of the energy taking part in the +operation. One of the most direct instances of this +is provided by the transmission of heat energy. For +illustrative purposes, let it be assumed that a body A, +possessed of heat energy to an exceedingly high +degree, is isolated within a spherical glass vessel +CC, somewhat as already shown (<a href="#i109a">Fig. 6</a>). If it be +assumed that the space within CC is a perfect vacuum, +and that no material connection exists between the +walls<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> +of the vessel and the body A, the latter is completely +isolated, and no means whatever are available +for the detection of its heat qualities (§ <a href="#sec_30">30</a>). It may +seem that, if the temperature of the body A were +sufficiently high, its energy state might be detected, +and in a manner estimated, by its effect on the eye +or by its luminous properties, but we take this +opportunity of pointing out that luminosity is not +invariably associated with high temperature. On +the contrary, many bodies are found in Nature, both +animate and inanimate, which are luminous and +affect the eye at comparatively low temperatures. +How then is the energy condition of the body to be +definitely ascertained? The only means whereby it +is possible to identify the energy of the body is by +transmitting a portion of that energy to some other +body and observing the resultant phenomena. Suppose, +then, another body, such as B (<a href="#i109a">Fig. 6</a>), at a lower +temperature than A, is brought into contact with A, +so that a transmission of heat energy ensues between +the two. The phenomena which would result in +such circumstances will be exactly as already described +in the case of the transmission of energy +through a solid (§ <a href="#sec_27">27</a>). Amongst other manifestations +it would be noticeable that the material of B +was expanded against its inherent cohesive forces. +Now if, instead of a spherical body such as B, a +mercurial thermometer were utilised, the phenomena +would be of precisely the same nature. A definite +portion<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> +of the heat energy would be transmitted to +the thermometer, and would produce expansion of +the contained fluid. By the amount of this expansion +it becomes possible to estimate the energy condition +and properties of the body A, relative to +its surroundings or to certain generally accepted +standard conditions. Thermometric measurement +is, in fact, merely the employment of a process of +energy transmission for the purpose of identifying +and estimating the heat-energy properties of material +substances.</p> + +<p>In everyday life, rough ideas of heat energy are +constantly being obtained by the aid of the senses. +This method is, however, only another aspect of +transmission, for it will be clear that the sensations +of heat and cold are, in themselves, but the evidence +of the transformation of heat energy to or from the +body.</p> + +<p>The process of energy transmission by a flexible +band or cord (§ <a href="#sec_28">28</a>) also provides evidence leading +to the identification of the peculiar form of energy +which is being transmitted. At first sight, it would +appear as if this energy were simply energy of motion +or kinetic energy. A little reflection, however, on +the general conditions of the process must dispel +this idea, for it is clear that the precise nature of +the energy transmitted has no real connection with +the kinetic properties of the system. The latter, +truly, influence the rate of transmission and impose +certain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> +limits, but evidently, if the pull in the band +increases without any increase in its velocity, the +actual amount of energy transmitted by the system +would increase without altering in any respect the +kinetic properties. It becomes necessary, then, to +distinguish clearly the energy inherent to, or as it +were, latent in the system, from the energy actually +transmitted by the system, to recognise the difference +between the energy transmitted by moving material +and the energy of that material. In this special +instance, to identify the form of energy transmitted +it must of necessity be associated with the peculiar +phenomena of transmission. Now the energy is +evidently transmitted by the movement of the connecting +belt or band. Before any transmission can +take place, however, a certain amount of energy +must be stored in the moving system, partly as +cohesion or strain energy and partly as energy of +motion or kinetic energy. It is this preliminary +storage of energy which, in reality, constitutes +the transmission machine, and for a given rate of +transmission, the energy thus stored will be constant +in value. It is obtained at the expense of the +applied energy, and, neglecting certain minor processes, +will be returned (or transmitted) in its entirety +when the moving system once more comes to +rest. This stored energy, in fact, works in a reversible +process. But when the transmission machine +is once constituted, the energy transmitted is then +that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> +energy which is being continually applied at +the spindle A (<a href="#i099">Fig. 4</a>) and as continually withdrawn +at the spindle B. It must be emphasised that the +energy thus transmitted is absolutely different from +the kinetic or other energy associated with the moving +material of the system. It is the function of this +energised material of the band to transmit the +energy from A to B, but this is the only relationship +which the transmitted energy bears to the material. +The energy thus transmitted by the moving material +we term mechanical or work energy. We may +thus define mechanical or work energy as "<i>that form +of energy transmitted by matter in motion</i>."</p> + +<p>The idea of work is usually associated with that +of a force acting through a certain distance. The +form of energy referred to above as work energy +is, in the same way, always associated with the idea +of a thrust or of a pressure of some kind acting on +moving material. Work energy thus bears two +aspects, which really correspond to the familiar +product of pressure and volume. Both aspects are +manifested in transmission. Since work energy +is invariably transmitted by matter in motion, every +machine for its transmission must possess energy of +motion as one of its essential features. As shown +above (see also § <a href="#sec_28">28</a>), this energy of motion is really +obtained at the expense of the originally applied work +energy, and as it remains unaltered in value during the +progress of a uniform transmission, it may be regarded +as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> +simply transformed work energy, stored or latent in +the system, which will be returned in its entirety and +in its original form at the termination of the operation. +The energy stored against cohesion or other forces +may be regarded in the same way. It is really the +manifestation of the pressure or thrust aspect of +the work energy, just as the kinetic energy is the +manifestation of the translational or velocity aspect.</p> + +<p>Our definition of work energy given above +enables us to recognise its operation in many familiar +processes. Take the case of a gas at high pressure +confined in a cylinder behind a movable piston. +We can at once say that the energy of the gas is +work energy because this energy may quite clearly +be transmitted from the gas by the movement of +the piston. If the latter form part of a steam-engine +mechanism of rods and crank, the energy may, by +the motion of this mechanism, be transmitted to +the crank shaft, and there utilised. This is eminently +a case in which energy is <i>transmitted</i> by matter +in motion. The moving material comprises the +piston, piston-rod, and connecting-rod, which are, +one and all, endowed with both cohesive and kinetic +energy qualities, and form together the transmission +machine. So long as the piston is at rest only one +aspect of the work energy of the gas is apparent, +namely, the pressure aspect, but immediately motion +and transmission take place, both aspects are presented. +The work energy of the gas, obtained in the +boiler<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> +by a <i>transformation</i> of heat energy is thus, by +matter in motion, transmitted and made available +at the crank shaft. The shaft itself is also commonly +utilised for the further transmission of the work +energy applied. By the application of the energy +at the crank, it is thrown into a state of strain, and +at the same time is endowed with kinetic energy of +rotation. It thus forms a machine for transmission, +and the work energy applied at one point of the +shaft may be withdrawn at another point more +remote. The transmission is, in reality, effected by +the movement of the material of the shaft. So long +as the shaft is stationary, it is clear that no actual +transmission can be carried out, no matter how great +may be the strain imposed. If our engine mechanism +were, by a change in design, adapted to the use of +a liquid substance as the working material instead +of a gas, it is clear that no change would be effected +in the general conditions. The energy of a liquid +under pressure is again simply work energy, and +it would be transmitted by the moving mechanism +in precisely the same manner.</p> + +<p>From the foregoing, it will now be evident to +the reader that the energy originally applied to the +primary mass (§ <a href="#sec_3">3</a>) of our cosmical system must be +work energy. It is this form of energy also which +is inherent to each unit of the planetary system +associated with the primary. In this system it is +of course presented outwardly in the two phases of +kinetic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> +energy and energy of strain or distortion. +It is apparent, also, that work energy could be +transmitted from the primary mass to the separate +planets on one condition only, that is, by the movement +of some material substance connecting each +planet to the primary. Since no such material connection +is admitted, the transmission of work energy +is clearly impossible.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_32" id="sec_32"></a>32. <i>Complete Secondary Cyclical Operation</i></h3> + +<p>A general outline of the conditions of working +and the relationships of secondary processes has +already been given in the General Statement (§ <a href="#sec_9">9</a>), +but it still remains to indicate, in a broad way, the +general methods whereby these operations are linked +to the atmospheric machine. In the example of the +simple pendulum, it has been pointed out that the +energy processes giving rise to heating at the bearing +surfaces and transmission of energy to the air masses +are not directly reversible processes, but really form +part of a more extensive cyclical operation, in itself, +however, complete and self-contained. This cyclical +operation may be regarded as a typical illustration of +the manner in which separate processes of energy +transmission or transformation, such as already +described, are combined or united in a continuous +chain forming a complete whole.</p> + +<p>It has been assumed, in all the experiments with +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> +pendulum, that the operating energy is initially +communicated from an outside source, say the hand +of the observer. This energy is, therefore, the acting +energy which must be traced through all its various +phases from its origin to its final destination. At +the outset, it may be pointed out that this energy, +applied by hand, is obtained from the original rotational +energy of the earth by certain definite energy +processes. Due to the influences of various incepting +fields which emanate from the sun (§§ <a href="#sec_17">17-19</a>), a +portion of the earth's rotational energy is transformed +into that form of plant energy which is stored in +plant tissue, and which, by the physico-chemical +processes of digestion, is in turn converted into heat +and the various other forms of energy associated with +the human frame. This, then, is the origin of the +energy communicated to the pendulum. Its progress +through that machine has already been described in +detail (§§ <a href="#sec_21">21-26</a>). The transformation of energy of +motion to energy of position which takes place is +in itself a reversible process and may in the meantime +be neglected. But the final result of the +operations, at the bearing surfaces and in the air +masses surrounding the moving pendulum, was +shown to be, in each case, that heat energy was +communicated to these air masses. The effect of +the heat energy thus impressed, is to cause the +expansion of the air and its elevation from the +surface of the earth in the lines or field of the +gravitative<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> +attraction, so that this heat energy is +transformed, and resides in the air masses as energy +of position. The energy then, originally drawn from +the rotational energy of the earth, has thus worked +through the pendulum machine, and is now stored in +the air masses in this form of energy of position. +To make the process complete and cyclical this +energy must now, therefore, be returned once more +to the earth in its original rotational form. This +final step is carried out in the atmospheric machine +(§ <a href="#sec_41">41</a>). In this machine, therefore, the energy +of position possessed by the air masses is, in their +descent to their original positions at lower levels, +transformed once more into axial or rotational +energy. In this fashion this series of secondary +processes, involving both transformations and transmissions, +is linked to the great atmospheric process. +The amount of energy which operates through the +particular chain of processes we have described is, +of course, exceedingly small, but in this or a similar +manner all secondary operations, great or small, are +associated with the atmospheric machine. Instances +could readily be multiplied, but a little reflection will +show how almost every energy operation, no matter +what may be its nature, whether physical, chemical, +or electrical, leads inevitably to the communication +of energy to the atmospheric air masses and to their +consequent upraisal.</p> + +<p>It is interesting to note the infallible tendency of +energy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> +to revert to its original form of axial energy, +or energy of rotation, by means of the air machine. +All Nature bears witness to this tendency, and +although the path of energy through the maze of +terrestrial transformation often appears tortuous +and uncertain, its final destination is always sure. +The secondary operations are thus interlinked into +one great whole by their association in the terrestrial +energy cycle. Many of these secondary operations +are of short duration; others extend over long periods +of time. Energy, in some cases, appears to slumber, +as in the coal seams of the earth, until an appropriate +stimulus is applied, when it enters into active +operation once more. The cyclical operations are +thus long or short according to the duration of their +constituent secondary energy processes. But the +balance of Nature is ever preserved. Axial energy, +transformed by the working of one cyclical process, +is being as continuously returned by the simultaneous +operation of others.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="PART_III" id="PART_III"></a>PART III</h2> + + +<p class="center big">TERRESTRIAL CONDITIONS</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_33" id="sec_33"></a>33. <i>Gaseous Expansion</i></h3> + + + +<p>Before proceeding to the general description of +the atmospheric machine (§ <a href="#sec_10">10</a>), it is desirable to +consider one or two features of gaseous reaction +which have a somewhat important bearing on its +working. Let it be assumed +that a mass of gaseous material +is confined within the +lower portion of a narrow +tube ABCD (<a href="#i128">Fig. 8</a>) assumed +to be thermally non-conducting; +the upper portion +of the tube is in free communication +with the atmosphere. +The gas within the +tube is assumed to be isolated +from the atmosphere by a movable piston EF, +free to move vertically in the tube, and for the purpose +of illustration, assumed also frictionless and weightless. +With these assumptions, the pressure on the +confined gas will simply be that due to the atmosphere. +If<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> +heat energy be now applied to the gas, +its temperature will rise and expansion will ensue. +This expansion will be carried out at constant +atmospheric pressure; the gaseous material, as it +expands, must lift with it the whole of the superimposed +atmospheric column against the downward +attractive force of the earth's gravitation on that +column. Work is thus done by the expanding gas, +and in consequence of this work done, a definite +quantity of atmospheric material gains energy of +position or potential energy relative to the earth's +surface. At the same time, the rise of temperature +of the gas will indicate an accession of heat energy +to its mass. These familiar phenomena of expansion +under constant pressure serve to illustrate the +important fact that, when heat energy is applied to +a gaseous mass, it really manifests itself therein in +two aspects, namely, heat energy and work energy. +The increment of heat energy is indicated by the +increase in temperature, the increment of work +energy by the increase in pressure. In the example +just quoted, however, there is no increase in +pressure, because the work energy, as rapidly as it is +applied to the gas, is transformed or worked down in +displacing the atmospheric column resting on the +upper side of the moving piston. The energy +applied, in the form of heat from the outside source, +has in reality been introduced into a definite energy +machine, a machine in this case adapted for the +complete<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> +transformation of work energy into energy +of position. As already indicated, when the expansive +movement is completed, the volume and temperature +of the gaseous mass are both increased but +the pressure remains unaltered. While the increase +in temperature is the measure and index of a definite +increase in the heat energy of the gas, it is important +to note that, so far as its work energy is concerned, +the gas is finally in precisely the same condition +as at the commencement of the operation. Work +energy has been, by the working of this energy +machine, as it were passed through the gaseous mass +into the surrounding atmosphere. The pressure of +the gas is the true index of its work energy properties. +So long as the pressure remains unaltered, +the inherent work energy of the material remains +absolutely unaffected. A brief consideration of +the nature of work energy as already portrayed +(§ <a href="#sec_31">31</a>) will make this clear. Work energy has been +defined as "<i>that form of energy transmitted by matter +in motion</i>," and it is clear that pressure is the +essential factor in any transmission of this nature. +Temperature has no direct bearing on it whatever. +It is common knowledge, however, that in the +application of heat energy to a gaseous substance, +the two aspects of pressure and temperature cannot +be really dissociated. They are mutually dependent. +Any increment of heat energy to the gas is accompanied +by an increment of work energy, and vice +versa.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> +The precise mode of action of the work +energy will, of course, depend on the general circumstances +of the energy machine in which it operates. +In the case just considered the work energy does +not finally reside in the gaseous mass itself, but, by +the working of the machine, is communicated to +the atmosphere. If, on the other hand, heat energy +were applied in the same fashion to a mass of gas +in a completely enclosed vessel, that is to say at +constant volume instead of at constant pressure, the +general phenomena are merely altered in degree +according to the change in the precise nature of the +energy machine. In the former case, the nature of +the energy machine was such that the work energy +communicated was expended in its entirety against +gravitation. Under what is usually termed constant +volume conditions, only a portion of the total work +energy communicated is transformed, and the transformation +of this portion is carried out, not against +gravitation, but against the cohesive forces of the +material of the enclosing vessel which restrains the +expansion. No matter how great may be the elastic +properties of this material, it will be distorted, more or +less, by the application of work energy. This distortional +movement is the external evidence of the energy +process of transformation. Energy is stored in the +material against the forces of cohesion (§ <a href="#sec_15">15</a>). But +the energy thus stored is only a small proportion of +the total work energy which accrues to the gas in +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> +heating process. The remainder is stored in the +gas itself, and the evidence of such storage is found +simply in the increase of pressure. Different energy +machines thus offer different facilities for the transformation +or the storage of the applied energy. In +every case where the work energy applied has no +opportunity of expending itself, its presence will be +indicated by an increase in the pressure or work +function of the gas.</p> + +<div class="figleft"><a id="i128" name="i128"></a> +<img src="images/i128.jpg" alt="" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 8</span></p> + +</div> + +<p>The principles which underlie the above phenomena +can readily be applied to other cases of +gaseous expansion. It is a matter of common experience +that if a given mass of gaseous material be +introduced into a vessel which has been exhausted by +an air-pump or other device for the production of a +vacuum, the whole space within the vessel is instantly +permeated by the gas, which will expand until its +volume is precisely that of the containing vessel. +Further phenomena of the operation are that the +expanding gas suffers a decrease in temperature and +pressure corresponding to the degree or ratio of the +expansion. Before the expansive process took place +the gaseous mass, as indicated by its initial temperature +and pressure, is endowed with a definite quantity +of energy in the form of heat and work energy. +After expansion, these quantities are diminished, as +indicated by its final and lower temperature and +pressure. The operation of expansion has thus involved +an expenditure of energy. This expenditure +takes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> +place in virtue of the movement of the gaseous +material (§ <a href="#sec_4">4</a>). It is obvious that if the volume of the +whole is to be increased, each portion of the expanding +gas requires to move relatively to the remainder. +This movement is carried out in the lines +of the earth's gravitative attraction, and to a certain +extent over the surface of the containing vessel. In +some respects, it thus corresponds simply to the +movement of a body over the earth's surface (§ <a href="#sec_16">16</a>). +It is also carried out against the viscous or frictional +forces existing throughout the gaseous material itself +(§ <a href="#sec_29">29</a>). Assuming no influx of energy from without, +the energy expended in the movement of the +gaseous material must be obtained at the expense +of the inherent heat and work energy of the +gas, and these two functions will decrease simultaneously. +The heat and work energy of the gas or +its inherent energy is thus taken to provide the +energy necessary for the expansive movement. This +energy, however, does not leave the gas, but still +resides therein in a form akin to that of energy of +position or separation. It will be clear also, that the +reverse operation cannot, in this case, be carried out; +the gas cannot move back to its original volume in +the same fashion as it expanded into the vacuum, so +that the energy utilised in this way for separation +cannot be directly returned.</p> + +<p>The expansion of the gas has been assumed above +to take place into a vacuous space, but a little consideration +will<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> +show that this condition cannot be +properly or even approximately fulfilled under +ordinary experimental conditions. The smallest +quantity of gas introduced into the exhausted vessel +will at once completely fill the vacuous space, and, +on this account, the whole expansion of the gas does +not in reality take place <i>in vacuo</i> at all. To study +the action of the gas under the latter conditions, it +is necessary to look on the operation of expansion +in a more general way, which might be presented +as follows.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_34" id="sec_34"></a>34. <i>Gravitational Equilibrium of Gases</i></h3> + +<p>Consider a planetary body, in general nature similar +to the earth, but, unlike the earth, possessing no +atmosphere whatever. The space surrounding such +a celestial mass may then be considered as a perfect +vacuum. Now let it be further assumed that in +virtue of some change in the conditions, a portion of +the material of the planetary mass is volatilised and +a mass of gas thereby liberated over its surface. The +gas is assumed to correspond in temperature to that +portion of the planet's surface with which it is in +contact. It is clear that, in the circumstances, the +gas, in virtue of its elastic and energetic properties, +will expand in all directions. It will completely +envelop the planet, and it will also move radially +outwards into space. In these respects, its expansion +will<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> +correspond to that of a gas introduced into a +vacuous space of unlimited extent.</p> + +<p>The question now arises as to the nature of the +action of the gaseous substance in these circumstances. +It is clear that the radial or outward movement +of the gas from the planetary surface is made +directly against the gravitative attraction of the +planet on the gaseous mass. In other words, +matter or material is being moved in the lines or +field of this gravitative force. This movement, +accordingly, will be productive of an energy transformation +(§ <a href="#sec_4">4</a>). In its initial or surface condition +each portion of the gaseous mass is possessed of a +perfectly definite amount of energy indicated by and +dependent on that condition. As it moves upwards +from the surface, it does work against gravity in the +raising of its own mass. But as the mass is thus +raised, it is gaining energy of position (§ <a href="#sec_20">20</a>), and as it +has absolutely no communication with any external +source of energy in its ascent, the energy of position +thus gained can only be obtained at the expense of +its initial inherent heat and work energy. The +operation is, in fact, a simple transformation of this +inherent energy into energy of position, a transformation +in which gravity is the incepting agency. The +external evidence of transformation will be a fall in +temperature of the material. Since the action is +exactly similar for all ascending particles, it is evident +that as the altitude of the gaseous mass increases the +temperature<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> +will correspondingly diminish. This +diminution will proceed so long as the gaseous +particles continue to ascend, and until an elevation +is finally attained at which their inherent energy is +entirely converted into energy of position. The expansion +of the gas, and the associated transformation +of energy, thus leads to the erection of a gaseous +column in space, the temperature of which steadily +diminishes from the base to the summit. At the +latter elevation, the inherent energy of the gaseous +particles which attain to it is completely transformed +or worked out against gravity in the ascent; the energy +possessed by the gas at this elevation is, therefore, +entirely energy of position; the energy properties of +heat and work have entirely vanished, and the temperature +will, therefore, at this elevation, be absolute +zero. It is important to note also that in the building +of such a column or gaseous spherical envelope +round the planet, the total energy of any gaseous +particle of that column will remain unchanged +throughout the process. No matter where the +particle may be situated in the column, its total +energy must always be expressed by its heat and +work energy properties together with its energy of +position. This sum is always a constant quantity. +For if the particle descends from a higher to a lower +altitude, its total energy is still unchanged, because a +definite transformation of its energy of position takes +place corresponding to its fall, and this transformed +energy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> +duly appears in its original form of heat and +work energy in accordance with the decreased altitude +of the particle. Since the temperature of the column +remains unchanged at the base surface and only +decreases in the ascent, it is clear that the entire heat +and work energy of the originally liberated gaseous +mass is not expended in the movement against gravity. +Every gaseous particle—excepting those on the +absolute outer surface of the gaseous envelope—has +still the property of temperature. It is evident, +therefore, that in the constitution of the column, only +a portion of the total original heat and work energy +of the gaseous substance is transformed into energy +of position.</p> + +<p>The space into which the gas expands has been +referred to as unlimited in extent. But although in +one sense it may be correctly described thus, yet in +another, and perhaps in a truer sense, the space is +very strictly limited. It is true there is no enclosing +vessel or bounding surface, but nevertheless the +expansion of the gas is restrained in two ways or +limited by two factors. The position of the bounding +surface of the spherical gaseous envelope depends, +in the first place, on the original energy of the gas +as deduced from its initial temperature and its other +physical properties, and secondly on the value of the +gravitative attraction exerted on the gas by the +planetary body. Looking at the first factor, it is +obvious that since the gaseous mass initially possesses +only<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> +a limited amount of energy, and since only a +certain portion of this energy is really available for +the transformation, the whole process is thereby +limited in extent. The complete transformation and +disappearance of that available portion of the gaseous +energy in the process of erection of the atmospheric +column will correspond to a definite and limited +increase of energy of position of gaseous material. +Since the energy of position is thus restricted in its +totality, and the mass of material for elevation is +constant, the height of the column or the boundary +of expansion of the gas is likewise rigidly defined. +In this fashion, the energy properties of the gaseous +material limit the expansive process.</p> + +<p>Looking at the operation from another standpoint, +it is clear that the maximum height of the +spherical gaseous envelope must also be dependent on +the resistance against which the upward movement +of the gas is carried out, that is, on the value of the +gravitative attraction. The expenditure of energy in +the ascent varies directly as the opposing force; if +this force be increased the ultimate height must +decrease, and vice versa. Each particle might be +regarded as moving in the ascent against the action +of an invisible spring, stretching it so that with +increase of altitude more and more of the energy of +the particle is transformed or stored in the spring in +the extension. When the particle descends to its +original position, the operation is reversed; the spring +is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> +now contracting, and yielding up the stored energy +to the particle in the contraction. The action of the +spring would here be merely that of an apparatus +for the storage and return of energy. In the +case of the gaseous mass, we conceive the action of +gravitation to be exactly analogous to that of a +spring offering an approximately constant resistance +to extension. (The value of gravity is assumed +approximately constant, and independent of the +particle's displacement.) The energy stored or transformed +in the ascension against gravity is returned +on the descent in a precisely similar fashion. The +operation is a completely reversible one. The range +of motion of the gaseous mass or the ultimate height +of the gaseous column will thus depend on the value +of the opposing attractive force controlling the +motion or, in other words, on the value of gravity. +This value is of course defined by the relative mass +of the planet (§ <a href="#sec_20">20</a>).</p> + +<p>It is evident that the spherical envelope which +would thus enwrap the planetary mass possesses +certain peculiar properties which are not associated +with gaseous masses under ordinary experimental +conditions. It by no means corresponds to any +ordinary body of gaseous material, having a homogeneous +constitution and a precise and determinate +pressure and temperature throughout. On the contrary, +its properties are somewhat complex. Throughout +the gaseous envelope the physical condition of +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> +substance is continually changing with change +of altitude. The extremes are found at the inner +and outer bounding surfaces. At any given level, +the gaseous pressure is simply the result of the attractive +action of gravitation on the mass of gaseous +material above that level—or, more simply, to the +weight of material above that level. There is, of +course, a certain decrease in the value of the gravitative +attraction with increase of altitude, but within +the limits of atmospheric height obtained by ordinary +gaseous substances (§ <a href="#sec_36">36</a>) this decrease may be +neglected, and the weight of unit mass of the material +assumed constant at different levels. Increase of +atmospheric altitude is thus accompanied by decrease +in atmospheric pressure. But decrease in pressure +must be accompanied by a corresponding decrease in +density of the gas, so that, if uniform temperature were +for the time being assumed, it would be necessary at +the higher levels to rise through a greater distance to +experience the same decrease in pressure than at the +lower levels. In fact, given uniform conditions of +temperature, if different altitudes were taken in +arithmetical progression the respective pressures and +densities would diminish in geometrical progression. +But we have seen that the energy conditions absolutely +preclude the condition of uniformity of temperature, +and accordingly, the decreasing pressure and +density must be counteracted to some extent at least +by the decreasing temperature. The conditions are +somewhat<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> +complex; but the general effect of the +decreasing temperature factor would seem to be by +increasing the density to cause the available gaseous +energy to be completely worked down at a somewhat +lower level than otherwise, and thus to lessen to +some degree the height of the gaseous envelope.</p> + +<p>It is to be noted that a gaseous column or +atmosphere of this nature would be in a state of +complete equilibrium under the action of the gravitative +attraction—provided there were no external +disturbing influences. The peculiar feature of such +a column is that the total energy of unit mass of its +material, wherever that mass may be situated, is +a constant quantity. In virtue of this property, +the equilibrium of the column might be termed +neutral or statical equilibrium. The gas may then +be described as in the neutral or statical condition. +This statical condition of equilibrium of a gas is +of course a purely hypothetical one. It has been +described in order to introduce certain ideas which +are essential to the discussion of energy changes +and reactions of gases in the lines of gravitational +forces. These reactions will now be dealt with.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_35" id="sec_35"></a>35. <i>Total Energy of Gaseous Substances</i></h3> + +<p>Since the maximum height of a planetary atmosphere +is dependent on the total energy of the +gaseous substance or substances of which it is +composed,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> +it becomes necessary, in determining +this height, to estimate this total energy. This, +however, is a matter of some difficulty. By +the total energy is here meant the entire energy +possessed by the substance, that energy which +it would yield up in cooling from its given +condition down to absolute zero of temperature. +On examination of the recorded properties of the +various gaseous substances familiar to us, it will be +found that in no single instance are the particulars +available for anything more than an exceedingly +rough estimate of this total energy. Each substance, +in proceeding from the gaseous condition towards +absolute zero, passes through many physical phases. +In most cases, there is a lack of experimental +phenomena or data of any kind relating to certain +of these phases; the necessary information on certain +points, such as the values and variations of latent +and specific heats and other physical quantities, is, +in the meantime, not accessible. Experimental research +in regions of low temperature may be said +to be in its infancy, and the properties of matter +in these regions are accordingly more or less unknown. +The researches of Mendeleef and others +tend to show, also, that the comparatively simple +laws successfully applied to gases under normal +conditions are entirely departed from at very low +temperatures. In view of these facts, it is necessary, +in attempting to estimate, by ordinary methods, the +total<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> +energy of any substance, to bear in mind +that the quantity finally obtained may only +be a rough approximation to the true value. +These approximations, however, although of little +value as precise measurements, may be of very +great importance for certain general comparative +purposes.</p> + +<p>Keeping in view these general considerations, +it is now proposed to estimate, under ordinary +terrestrial atmospheric conditions, the total energy +properties of the three gaseous substances, oxygen, +nitrogen, and aqueous vapour. The information +relative to the energy calculation which is in the +meantime available is shown below in tabular form. +As far as possible all the heat and other energy +properties of each substance as it cools to absolute +zero have been taken into account.</p> + +<p class="center pt"><a name="Table_of_Properties" id="Table_of_Properties"></a><i>Table of Properties</i></p> + +<table border="1" cellpadding="10" +style="margin-left: -5%; margin-right: 5%; width: 110%" summary="properties"> + + + +<tr> +<td class="center">I</td> +<td class="center">II</td> +<td class="center">III</td> +<td class="center">IV</td> +<td class="center">V</td> +<td class="center">VI </td> +<td class="center">VII </td> +</tr> + + + +<tr> +<td class="center">Gas</td> + +<td class="center">Specific<br /> +Heat at<br /> +Constant<br /> +Pressure.</td> + +<td class="center" colspan="2">Evaporation<br /> +Temperature<br /> +of Liquid<br /> +at Atmospheric<br /> +Pressure.<br /> +</td> + + +<td class="center">Approximate<br /> +Latent Heat<br /> +of Gas 50° F.</td> + +<td class="center">Latent<br /> +Heat of<br /> +Liquid.</td> + +<td class="center">Vapour<br /> +Pressure<br /> + 50° F.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td class="center">°F.</td> +<td class="center">°F. (Abs.)</td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +</tr> + + + +<tr> +<td class="center">Oxygen</td> +<td class="tdl">0·2175</td> +<td class="center">-296</td> +<td class="center">164</td> +<td class="center">100</td> +<td class="center"> ...</td> +<td class="center"> ...</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="center">Nitrogen</td> +<td class="tdl">0·2438</td> +<td class="center">-320</td> +<td class="center">141</td> +<td class="center">100</td> +<td class="center">...</td> +<td class="center">...</td> +</tr> + + +<tr> +<td class="center">Aqueous<br /> +Vapour</td> +<td class="tdl">0·4</td> +<td class="center">212</td> +<td class="center">673</td> +<td class="center">1080</td> +<td class="center">144</td> +<td class="center">0·176</td> +</tr> + + +</table> + +<p class="pt">Since<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> +no reliable data can be obtained with +regard to the values and variations of specific heats at +extremely low temperatures, they are assumed for the +purpose of our calculation to be in each case that +of the gas, and to be constant under all conditions. +Latent heats are utilised in every case when available.</p> + +<p>With these reservations, the total energy, referred +to absolute zero, of one pound of oxygen gas at +normal temperature of 50° F. or 511° F. (Abs.) will +be approximately</p> + +<p class="center"> +(511 × 0·2175) + 100 = 211 Thermal Units Fahrenheit.<br /> +</p> + +<p>This in work units is roughly equivalent to</p> + +<p class="center"> +211 × 778 = 164,000 ft. lbs.<br /> +</p> + +<p>Adopting the same method with nitrogen gas, +its energy at the same initial temperature will be, +per unit mass,</p> + +<p class="center"> +174,600 ft. lbs.<br /> +</p> + +<p>There is thus a somewhat close resemblance, +not only in the general temperature conditions but +also in the energy conditions, of the two gases +oxygen and nitrogen.</p> + +<p>It will be readily seen, however, that under the +same conditions the energy state of aqueous vapour +differs very considerably from either, for by the +same method as before the energy per pound of +aqueous vapour is equal to</p> + +<p class="center"> +{(511 × 0·4) + 1080 + 144} × 778 = 1,111,000 ft. lbs.<br /> +</p> + +<p>Under<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> +ordinary terrestrial atmospheric conditions, +the energy of aqueous vapour per unit mass is +thus nearly seven times as great as that of either +oxygen or nitrogen gas. It is to be observed, also, +that three-fourths of this energy of the vapour +under the given conditions is present in the form +of latent energy of the gas, or what we have already +termed work energy.</p> + +<p>The values of the various temperatures and other +physical features, which we have included in the +Table of Properties above, and which will be utilised +throughout this discussion, are merely those in everyday +use in scientific work. They form simply the +accessible information on the respective materials. +They are the records of phenomena, and on these +phenomena are based our energy calculations. +Further research may reveal the true values of +other factors which up to the present we have +been forced to assume, and so lead to more accurate +computation of the energy in each case. Such +investigation, however, is unlikely to affect in any +way the general object of this part of the work, +which is simply to portray in an approximate manner +the relative energy properties of the three gaseous +substances under certain assumed conditions.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_36" id="sec_36"></a>36. <i>Comparative Altitudes of Planetary Atmospheres</i></h3> + +<p>The total energy of equal masses of the gases +oxygen, nitrogen, and aqueous vapour, as estimated +by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> +the method above, are respectively in +the ratios</p> + +<p class="center"> +1 : 1·06 : 6·8<br /> +</p> + +<p>Referring back once more to the phenomena +described with reference to the gravitational equilibrium +of a gas, let it be assumed that the +gaseous substance liberated on the surface of the +planetary body is oxygen, and that the planetary +body itself is of approximately the same constitution +and dimensions as the earth. The oxygen gas thus +liberated will expand against gravity, and envelop +the planet in the manner already described (§ <a href="#sec_34">34</a>). +Now the total energy of a mass of one pound of +oxygen has been estimated under certain assumptions +(§ <a href="#sec_35">35</a>) to be 164,000 ft. lbs. The value of the +gravitative attraction of the planet on this mass is +the same as under ordinary terrestrial conditions, +so that if the entire energy of one pound of the gas +were utilised in raising itself against gravity, the +height through which this mass would be raised, and +at which the material would attain the level of +absolute zero of temperature, assuming gravity constant +with increasing altitude, would be simply +164,000 ft. or approximately 31 miles. The whole +energy would not, of course, be expended in the +expansive movement; only the outermost surface +material of the planetary gaseous envelope attains +to absolute zero of temperature. In estimating the +altitude of this surface, however, the precise mass +of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> +gaseous substance assumed for the purpose of +calculation is of little or no importance. Whatever +may be the value of the mass assumed, its total +energy and the gravitative attraction of the planetary +body on it are both alike entirely and directly +dependent on that mass value. It is therefore clear +that no matter how the mass under consideration +be diminished, the height at which its energy +would be completely worked down, and at which its +temperature would be absolute zero, is the same, +namely 31 miles. At the planet's surface, the total +energy of an infinitesimally small portion of the +gaseous mass is proportional to that mass. This +amount of energy is, however, all that is available +for transformation against gravitation in the ascent. +But at the same time, the gravitative force on the +particle, that force which resists its upward movement, +is proportionately small corresponding to the +small mass, so that the particle will in reality require +to rise to the same altitude of 31 miles in +order to completely transform its energy and attain +absolute zero of temperature. When the expansive +process is completed, the outer surface of the spherical +gaseous envelope surrounding the planet is then +formed of matter in this condition of absolute zero; +this height of 31 miles is then the altitude or depth +of the statical atmospheric column at a point on the +planetary surface where the temperature is 50° F.</p> + +<p>It is to be particularly noted that this height is +entirely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> +dependent on the gravitation, temperature, +and energy conditions assumed.</p> + +<p>With respect, also, to the assumption made +above, of constant gravitation with increasing altitude, +the variation in the value of gravity within +the height limits in which the gas operates is so +slight, that the energy of the expanding substance +is completely worked down long before the variation +appreciably affects the estimated altitude of +absolute zero. In any case, bearing in mind the +approximate nature of the estimate of the energy +of the gases themselves, the variation of gravity is +evidently a factor of little moment in our scheme +of comparison.</p> + +<p>Knowing the maximum height to be 31 miles, +a uniform temperature gradient from the planetary +surface to the outermost surface of the atmospheric +material may be readily calculated. In the case of +oxygen, the decrease of temperature with altitude +will be at the rate of 16° F. per mile, or 1° F. +per 330 ft.</p> + +<p>If the planetary atmosphere were composed of +nitrogen instead of oxygen, the height of the statical +atmospheric column under the given conditions +would then be approximately</p> + +<p class="center"> +31 × 1·06 = 33 miles,<br /> +</p> + +<p>and the gradient of temperature 15·5° F. per mile.</p> + +<p>In the case of aqueous vapour, which is possessed +of much more powerful energy properties than +either<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> +oxygen or nitrogen, the height of the statical +column, to correspond to the energy of the material, +is no less than 210 miles and the temperature +gradient only 2·4° F. per mile.</p> + +<p>Each of the gases, then, if separately associated +with the planetary body, would form an atmosphere +around it depending in height on the peculiar +energy properties of the gas. A point to be observed +is that the actual or total mass of any gas +thus liberated at the planet's surface has no bearing +on the ultimate height of the atmosphere which it +would constitute. When the expansive motion is +completed, the density properties of the atmosphere +would of course depend on the initial mass of gas +liberated, but for any given value of gravity it is +the energy properties of the gas per unit mass, or +what might be termed its specific energy properties, +which really determine the height of its atmosphere.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_37" id="sec_37"></a>37. <i>Reactions of Composite Atmosphere</i></h3> + +<p>It is now possible to deal with the case in which +not only one gas but several gases are initially +liberated on the planetary surface. Since the gases +are different, then at the given surface temperature +of the planet they possess different amounts of heat +energy, and for each gas considered statically, the +temperature-altitude gradient will be different from +any of the others. The limiting height of the +gaseous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> +column for each gas, considered separately, +will also depend on the total energy of that gas +per unit mass, at the surface temperature. But it is +evident that in a composite atmosphere, the separate +statical conditions of several gases could not be maintained. +In such a mixture, separate temperature-altitude +gradients would be impossible. Absolute +zero of temperature could clearly not be attained +at more than one altitude, and it is evident that +the temperature-altitude gradient of the mixture +must, in some way, settle down to a definite +value, and absolute zero of temperature must +occur at some determinate height. This can +only be brought about by energy exchanges and +reactions between the atmospheric constituents. +When these reactions have taken place, the atmosphere +as a whole will have attained a condition +analogous to that of statical equilibrium (§ <a href="#sec_34">34</a>). +Each of its constituents, however, will have decidedly +departed from this latter condition. In the +course of the mutual energy reactions, some will +lose a portion of their energy. Others will gain at +their expense. All are in equilibrium as constituents +of the composite atmosphere, but none approach +the condition of statical equilibrium peculiar to an +atmosphere composed of one gas only (§ <a href="#sec_35">35</a>). The +precise energy operations which would thus take +place in any composite atmosphere would of course +depend in nature and extent on the physical properties +of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> +the reacting constituents. If the latter +were closely alike in general properties, the energy +changes are likely to be small. A strong divergence +in energy properties will give rise to more powerful +reactions. A concrete instance will perhaps make +this more clear. Let it be assumed in the first place +that the planetary atmosphere is composed of the +two gases oxygen and nitrogen. From previous +considerations, it will be clear that the natural decrease +of temperature of nitrogen gas with increase +of altitude is, in virtue of its slightly superior energy +qualities, correspondingly slower than that of oxygen. +The approximate rates are 15·5° F. and 16° F. per +mile respectively. The tendency of the nitrogen is +therefore to transmit a portion of its energy to the +oxygen. Such a transmission, however, would +increase the height of the oxygen column and correspondingly +decrease the height of the nitrogen. +When the balance is finally obtained, the height +of the atmospheric column does not correspond to +the energy properties of either gas, but to those of +the combination. In the case of these two materials, +oxygen and nitrogen, the energy reactions necessary +to produce the condition of equilibrium are comparatively +small in magnitude on account of the +somewhat close resemblance in the energy properties +of the two substances. On this account, therefore, +the two gases might readily be assumed to behave +as one gas composing the planetary atmosphere.</p> + +<p>But<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> +what, then, will be the effect of introducing +a quantity of aqueous vapour into an atmosphere +this nature? The general phenomena will be of +the same order as before, but of much greater +magnitude. From the approximate figures obtained +(§§ <a href="#sec_35">35,</a> <a href="#sec_36">36</a>), the inherent energy of aqueous vapour per +unit mass is seen to be, under the same conditions, +enormously greater than that of the other two +gases. In statical equilibrium (§ <a href="#sec_34">34</a>), the altitude +of the gaseous column formed by aqueous vapour +is almost seven times as great as that of the oxygen +or nitrogen with which, in the composite atmosphere, +it would be intermixed. In the given circumstances, +then, aqueous vapour would be forced by these conditions +to give up a very large portion of its energy +to the other atmospheric constituents. The latter +would thus be still further expanded against gravity; +the aqueous vapour itself would suffer a loss of +energy equivalent to the work transmitted from +it. It is therefore clear that in a composite atmosphere +formed in the manner described, any gas +possessed of energy properties superior to the other +constituents is forced of necessity to transmit energy +to these constituents. This phenomenon is merely +a consequence of the natural disposition of the +atmospheric gaseous substances towards a condition +of equilibrium with more or less uniform temperature +gradation. The greater the inherent energy qualities +of any one constituent relative to the others, the +greater<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> +will be the quantity of energy transmitted +from it in this way.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_38" id="sec_38"></a>38. <i>Description of Terrestrial Case</i></h3> + +<p>Bearing in mind the general considerations which +have been advanced above with respect to planetary +atmospheres, it is now possible to place before the +reader a general descriptive outline of the circumstances +and operation of an atmospheric machine in +actual working. The machine to be described is +that associated with the earth.</p> + +<p>In the earth is found an example of a planetary +body of spheroidal form pursuing a clearly defined +orbit in space and at the same time rotating with +absolutely uniform velocity about a central axis +within itself. The structural details of its surface +and the general distribution of material thereon will +be more or less familiar to the reader, and it is +not, therefore, proposed to dwell on these features +here. Attention may be drawn, however, to the +fact that a very large proportion of the surface of +the earth is a liquid surface. Of all the material +familiar to us from terrestrial experience there is +none which enters into the composition of the +earth's crust in so large a proportion as water. In +the free state, or in combination with other material, +water is found everywhere. In the liquid condition +it is widely distributed. Although the liquid or +sea<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> +surface of the planet extends over a large part +of the whole, the real water surface, that is, the +<i>wetted</i> surface, if we except perhaps a few desert +regions, may be said to comprise practically the +entire surface area of the planet. And water is +found not only on the earth's crust but throughout +the gaseous atmospheric envelope. The researches +of modern chemistry have revealed the fact that +the atmosphere by which the earth is surrounded +is not only a mixture of gases, but an exceedingly +complex mixture. The relative proportions of the +rarer gases present are, however, exceedingly small, +and their properties correspondingly obscure. Taken +broadly, the atmosphere may be said to be composed +of air and water (in the form of aqueous +vapour) in varying proportion. The former constituent +exists as a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen +gases of fairly constant proportion over the entire +surface of the globe. The latter is present in +varying amount at different points according to +local conditions. This mixture of gaseous substances, +forming the terrestrial atmosphere, resides +on the surface of the planet and forms, as already +described (§ <a href="#sec_34">34</a>), a column or envelope completely +surrounding it; the quantity of gaseous material +thus heaped up on the planetary surface is such +that it exerts almost uniformly over that surface +the ordinary atmospheric pressure of approximately +14·7 lb. per sq. inch. It is advisable, +also,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> +at this stage to point out and emphasise the +fact that the planetary atmosphere must be regarded +as essentially a material portion of the planet itself. +Although the atmosphere forms a movable shell or +envelope, and is composed of purely gaseous material, +it will still partake of the same complete orbital and +rotatory axial motion as the solid core, and will also +be subjected to the same external and internal influences +of gravitation. Such are the general +planetary conditions. Let us now turn to the +particular phenomena of axial revolution.</p> + +<p>In virtue of the unvarying rotatory movement +of the planetary mass in the lines of the various +incepting fields of its primary the sun, transformations +of the axial or mechanical energy of the planet +will be in continuous operation (§§ <a href="#sec_17">17-19</a>). Although +the gaseous atmospheric envelope of the planet +partakes of this general rotatory motion under the +influence of the incepting fields, the latter have +apparently no action upon it. The sun's influence +penetrates, as it were, the atmospheric veil, and +operating on the solid and liquid material below, +provokes the numerous and varied transformations +of planetary energy which constitute planetary +phenomena. At the equatorial band, where the +velocity or axial energy properties of the surface +material is greatest, these effects of transformation +will naturally be most pronounced. In the polar +regions of low velocity they will be less evident. +One<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> +of the most important of these transforming +effects may be termed the heating action of the +primary on the planet—a process which takes place +in greater or less degree over the entire planetary +surface, and which is the result of the direct transformation +of axial energy into the form of heat +(§ <a href="#sec_18">18</a>). In virtue of this heat transformation, or +heating effect of the sun, the temperature of material +on the earth's surface is maintained in varying values +from regions of high velocity to those of low—from +equator to poles—according to latitude or according +to the displacement of that material, in rotation, +from the central axis. Owing to the irregular distribution +of matter on the earth's surface, and other +causes to be referred to later, this variation in +temperature is not necessarily uniform with the +latitude. This heating effect of the sun on the +earth will provoke on the terrestrial surface all +the familiar secondary processes (§ <a href="#sec_9">9</a>) associated +with the heating of material. Most of these processes, +in combination with the operations of radiation +and conduction, will lead either directly or +indirectly to the communication of energy to the +atmospheric masses (§ <a href="#sec_27">27</a>).</p> + +<p>Closely associated with the heat transformation, +there is also in operation another energy process of +great importance. This process is one of evaporative +transformation. Reference has already been made +to the vast extent of the liquid or wetted surface of +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> +earth. This surface forms the seat of evaporation, +and the action of the sun's incepting influence on +the liquid of this surface is to induce a direct transformation +of the earth's axial or mechanical energy +into the elastic energy of a gas, or in other words into +the form of work energy. By this process, therefore, +water is converted into aqueous vapour. Immediately +the substance attains the latter or gaseous state +it becomes unaffected by, or transparent to, the incepting +influence of the sun (§ <a href="#sec_18">18</a>). And the action of +evaporation is not restricted in locality to the earth's +surface only. It may proceed throughout the atmosphere. +Wherever condensation of aqueous vapour +takes place and water particles are thereby suspended +in the atmosphere, these particles are immediately +susceptible to the sun's incepting field, and if the +conditions are otherwise favourable, re-evaporation +will at once ensue. Like the ordinary heating action +also, that of transformation will take place with +greater intensity in equatorial than in polar regions. +These two planetary secondary processes, of heating +and evaporation, are of vital importance to the +working of the atmospheric machine. But, as already +pointed out elsewhere (§§ <a href="#sec_10">10,</a> <a href="#sec_32">32</a>), every secondary +operation is in some fashion linked to that machine. +Other incepting influences, such as light, are in action +on the planet, and produce transformations peculiar +to themselves. These, in the meantime, will not be +considered except to point out that in every case the +energy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> +active in them is the axial energy of the earth +itself operating under the direct incepting influence +of the sun. The general conditions of planetary +revolution and transformation are thus intimately +associated with the operation of the atmospheric +machine. In this machine is embodied a huge energy +process, in the working of which the axial energy of +the earth passes through a series of energy changes +which, in combination, form a complete cyclical +operation. In their perhaps most natural sequence +these processes are as follows:—</p> + +<p>1. The direct transformation of terrestrial axial +energy into the work energy of aqueous vapour.</p> + +<p>2. The direct transmission of the work energy +of aqueous vapour to the general atmospheric masses, +and the consequent elevation of these masses from +the earth's surface against gravity.</p> + +<p>3. The descent of the atmospheric air masses in +their movement towards regions of low velocity, and +the return in the descent of the initially transformed +axial energy to its original form.</p> + +<p>The first of these processes is carried out through +the medium of the aqueous material of the earth. +It is simply the evaporative transformation referred +to above. By that evaporative process a portion of +the energy of motion or axial energy of the earth is +directly communicated or passed into the aqueous +material. Its form, in that material, is that of +work energy, or the elastic energy of aqueous +vapour,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> +and, as already pointed out, this process of +evaporative transformation reaches its greatest intensity +in equatorial or regions of highest velocity. In +these regions also, in virtue of the working of the +heat process already referred to above, the temperature +conditions are eminently favourable to the +presence of large quantities of aqueous vapour. The +tension or pressure of the vapour, which really +depends on the quantity of gaseous material present, +is directly proportional to the temperature, so that in +equatorial regions not only is the general action of +transformation in the aqueous material most intense, +but the surrounding temperature conditions in these +regions are such as to favour the continuous presence +of large quantities of the aqueous vapour which is +the direct product of the action of transformation. +The equatorial regions of the earth, or the regions of +high velocity, are thus eminently adapted, by the +natural conditions, to be the seat of the most powerful +transformations of axial energy. As already +pointed out, however, these same transformations +take place over the entire terrestrial surface in varying +degree and intensity according to the locality and +the temperature or other conditions which may +prevail. Now this transformation of axial energy +which takes place through the medium of the evaporative +process is a continuous operation. The energy +involved, which passes into the aqueous vapour, +augmented by the energy of other secondary processes +(§ <a href="#sec_32">32</a>),<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> +is the energy which is applied to the atmospheric +air masses in the second stage of the working +of the atmospheric machine. Before proceeding to +the description of this stage, however, it is absolutely +necessary to point out certain very important facts +with reference to the energy condition of the atmospheric +constituents in the peculiar circumstances of +their normal working.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_39" id="sec_39"></a>39. <i>Relative Physical Conditions of Atmospheric +Constituents</i></h3> + +<p>It will be evident that no matter where the +evaporation of the aqueous material takes place, +it must be carried out at the temperature corresponding +to that location, and since the aqueous vapour +itself is not superheated in any way (being transparent +to the sun's influence), the axial energy transformed +and the work energy stored in the material +per unit mass, will be simply equivalent to the latent +heat of aqueous vapour under the temperature conditions +which prevail. In virtue of the relatively +high value of this latent heat under ordinary conditions, +the gas may be regarded as comparatively a +very highly energised substance. It is clear, however, +that since the gas is working at its precise temperature +of evaporation, the maximum amount of energy +which it can possibly yield up at that temperature is +simply this latent heat of evaporation, and if this +energy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> +be by any means withdrawn, either in whole +or in part, then condensation corresponding to the +energy withdrawal will at once ensue. The condition +of the aqueous vapour is in fact that of a true vapour, +or of a gaseous substance operating exactly at its evaporation +temperature, and unable to sustain even the +slightest abstraction of energy without an equivalent +condensation. No matter in what manner the +abstraction is carried out, whether by the direct +transmission of heat from the substance or by the +expansion of the gas against gravity, the result is +the same; part of the gaseous material returns to +the liquid form.</p> + +<p>In the case of the more stable or permanent +constituents of the atmosphere, namely oxygen and +nitrogen, their physical conditions are entirely different +from that of the aqueous vapour. Examination +of the Table of Properties (p. 133) shows that the +evaporation temperatures of these two substances +under ordinary conditions of atmospheric pressure +are as low as -296° F. and -320° F. respectively. +At an ordinary atmospheric temperature of say +50° F. these two gases are therefore so far +above their evaporation temperature that they are +in the condition of what might be termed true +gaseous substances. Although only at a temperature +of 50° F., they may be truly described as highly +superheated gases, and it is evident that they may +be readily cooled from 50° F. through wide ranges +of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> +temperature, without any danger of their condensation +or liquefaction. Oxygen and nitrogen +gases thus present in their physical condition and +qualities a strong contrast to aqueous vapour, and +it is this difference in properties, particularly the +difference in evaporation temperatures, which is of +vital importance in the working of the atmospheric +machine. The two gases oxygen and nitrogen are, +however, so closely alike in their general energy +properties that, in the meantime, the atmospheric +mixture of the two can be conveniently assumed +to act simply as one gas—atmospheric air.</p> + +<p>From these considerations of the ordinary atmospheric +physical properties of air and aqueous vapour +it may be readily seen how each is eminently +adapted to its function in the atmospheric process. +The peculiar duty of the aqueous vapour is the absorption +and transmission of energy. Its relatively +enormous capacity for energy, the high value of its +latent heat at all ordinary atmospheric temperatures, +and the fact that it must always operate precisely +at its evaporation temperature makes it admirably +suited for both functions. Thus, in virtue of its +peculiar physical properties, it forms an admirable +agent for the storage of energy and for its transmission +to the surrounding air masses. The low temperature +of evaporation of these air masses ensures +their permanency in the gaseous state. They +are thus perfectly adapted for expansive and other +movements,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> +for the conversion of their energy +against gravity into energy of position, or for any +other reactions involving temperature change without +condensation.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_40" id="sec_40"></a>40. <i>Transmission of Energy from Aqueous Vapour +to Air Masses</i></h3> + +<p>The working of the second or transmission stage +of the atmospheric machine involves certain energy +operations in which gravitation is the incepting factor +or agency. Let it be assumed that a mass of +aqueous vapour liberated at its surface of evaporation +by the transformation of axial energy, expands upwards +against the gravitative attraction of the earth +(§§ <a href="#sec_34">34,</a> <a href="#sec_38">38</a>). As the gaseous particles ascend and thus +gain energy of position, they do work against +gravity. This work is done at the expense of +their latent energy. Since the aqueous material +is always working precisely at its evaporation temperature, +this gain in energy of position and consequent +loss of latent energy will be accompanied +by an equivalent condensation and conversion of the +rising vapour into the liquid form. This condensation +will thus be the direct evidence and measure +of work done by the aqueous material against the +gravitational forces, and the energy expended or +worked down in this way may now, accordingly, be +regarded as stored in the condensed material or +liquid<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> +particles in virtue of their new and exalted +position above the earth's surface. It is this energy +which is finally transmitted to the atmospheric air +masses. The transmission process is carried out in +the downward movement of the liquid particles. +The latter, in their exalted positions, are at a low +temperature corresponding to that position—that is, +corresponding to the work done—and provided no +energy were transmitted from them to the surrounding +air masses, their temperature would gradually +rise during the descent by the transformation of this +energy of position. In fact the phenomena of descent, +supposing no transmission of energy from the +aqueous material, would simply be the reverse of the +phenomena of ascent. Since, however, the energy of +position which the liquid particles possess is transmitted +from them to the atmospheric masses, then +it follows that this natural increase in their temperature +would not occur in the descent. A new order +of phenomena would now appear. Since the evaporative +process is a continuous one, the liquid particles +in their downward movement must be in intimate +contact with rising gaseous material, and these +liquid particles will, accordingly, at each stage of the +descent, absorb from this rising material the whole +energy necessary to raise their temperature to the +values corresponding to their decreasing elevation. +In virtue of this absorption of energy then, from the +rising material, these liquid particles are enabled to +reach<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> +the level of evaporation at the precise temperature +of that level.</p> + +<p>Now, considering the process as a whole, it will +be readily seen that for any given mass of aqueous +material thus elevated from and returned to a +surface of evaporation, there must be a definite +expenditure of energy (axial energy) at that surface. +Since the material always regains the surface at the +precise temperature of evaporation, this expenditure +is obviously, in total, equal to the latent heat of +aqueous vapour at the surface temperature. It may +be divided into two parts. One portion of the axial +energy—the transmitted portion—is utilised in the +elevation of the material against gravity; the remainder +is expended, as explained above, in the +heating of the returning material. The whole operation +takes place between two precise temperatures, +a higher temperature, which is that of the surface +of evaporation, and a lower temperature, corresponding +to the work done, and so related to the higher +that the whole of the energy expended by the working +aqueous substance—in heating the returning material +and in transmitted work—is exactly equivalent to +the latent heat of aqueous vapour at the high or +surface temperature. But, as will be demonstrated +later, the whole energy transmitted from the aqueous +material to the air masses is finally returned in its +entirety as axial energy, and is thus once more made +available in the evaporative transformation process. +The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> +energy expended in raising the temperature of +the working material returning to the surface of +evaporation is obviously returned with that material. +Both portions of the original expenditure are thus +returned to the source in different ways. The whole +operation is, in fact, completely cyclical in nature; +we are in reality describing "Nature's Perfect +Engine," which is completely reversible and which +has the highest possible efficiency.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> Although the +higher temperature at the evaporation surface may +vary with different locations of that surface, in every +case<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> +the lower temperature is so related to it as to +make the total expenditure precisely equal to the +latent heat at that evaporation temperature.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> It +must be borne in mind also, that all the condensed +material in the upper strata of the atmosphere must +not of necessity return to the planetary liquid surface. +On the contrary, immediately condensation of +the aqueous vapour takes place and the material +leaves the gaseous state, no matter where that +material is situated, it is once more susceptible to the +incepting influences of the sun. Re-evaporation +may thus readily take place even at high altitudes, +and complete cyclical operations may be carried out +there. These operations will, however, be carried +out in every case between precise temperature limits +as explained above.</p> + + +<p>It will be evident, from a general consideration +of this process of transmission of energy from the +aqueous vapour, that relatively large quantities of +that vapour are not required in the atmosphere for +the working of the gaseous machine. The peculiar +property of ready condensation of the aqueous +vapour makes the evaporative process a continuous +one, and the highly energised aqueous material, +although only present in comparatively small amount, +contributes a continuous flow of energy, and is thus +able to steadily convey a very large quantity to the +atmospheric<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> +masses. For the same reason, the +greater part of the energy transmission from the +aqueous vapour to the air will take place at comparatively +low altitudes and between reasonably +high temperatures. The working of any evaporative +cycle may also be spread over very large terrestrial +areas by the free movement of the acting material. +Aqueous vapour rising in equatorial regions may +finally return to the earth in the form of ice-crystals +at the poles. In every complete cycle, however, the +total expenditure per unit mass of material initially +evaporated is always the latent heat at the higher or +evaporation temperature; in the final or return +stages of the cycle, any energy not transmitted to +the air masses is devoted to the heating of returning +aqueous material.</p> + +<p>Referring again to the transmitted energy, and +speaking in the broadest fashion, the function of the +aqueous vapour in the atmosphere may be likened to +that of the steam in the cylinder of a steam-engine. +In both cases the aqueous material works in a +definite machine for energy transmission. In the +case of the steam-engine work energy is transmitted +(§ <a href="#sec_31">31</a>) from the steam through the medium +of the moving piston and rotating shaft, and thence +may be further diverted to useful purposes. In the +planetary atmospheric machine the work energy +of aqueous vapour is likewise transmitted by the +agency of the moving air masses, not to any external +agent,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span> +but back once more to its original source, +which is the planetary axial energy. In neither +case are we able to explain the precise nature of the +transmission process in its ultimate details. We +cannot say <i>how</i> the steam transmits its work +energy by the moving piston, nor yet by what agency +the elevated particles of aqueous material transmit +their energy to the air masses. Our knowledge is +confined entirely to the phenomena, and, fortunately, +these are in some degree accessible. Nature presents +direct evidence that such transmissions actually take +place. This evidence is to be found, in both cases, +in the condensation of the aqueous material which +sustains the loss of its work energy. In the +engine cylinder condensation takes place due to +work being transmitted from the steam; in the atmosphere +the visible phenomena of condensation are +likewise the ever present evidence of the transmission +of work energy from the aqueous vapour to the air +masses. In virtue of this accession of energy these +masses will, accordingly, be expanded upwards against +the gravitational attractive forces. This upward +movement, being made entirely at the expense of +energy communicated from the aqueous vapour, is not +accompanied by the normal fall of temperature due +to the expansion of the air. Planetary axial energy, +originally absorbed by the aqueous vapour, in the +work form, has been transferred to the air masses +in the same form, and is now, after the expansive +movement,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> +resident in these masses in the form of +energy of position. It is the function of the atmospheric +machine in its final stage to return this +energy in the original axial form.</p> + + + +<h3><a name="sec_41" id="sec_41"></a>41. <i>Terrestrial Energy Return</i></h3> + +<p>Let it be assumed that an atmospheric mass has +been raised, by the transmission of work energy, +to a high altitude in the equatorial regions of the +earth. The assumption of locality is made merely +for illustrative purposes; it will be evident to the +reader that the transmission of work energy to +the atmospheric masses and their consequent elevation +will be continuously proceeding, more or less, +over the whole planetary surface. To replace the +gaseous material thus raised, a corresponding mass +of air will move at a lower level, towards the equator +from the more temperate zones adjoining. A circulatory +motion will thus be set up in the atmosphere. +In the upper regions the elevated and +energised air masses move towards the poles; at +lower levels the replacing masses move towards the +equator, and in their passage may be operated on by +the aqueous vapour which they encounter, energised, +and raised to higher levels. The movement will be +continuous. In their transference from equatorial +towards polar regions, the atmospheric masses are +leaving the surfaces or regions of high linear velocity +for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span> +those of low, and must in consequence lose or +return in the passage a portion of that natural energy +of motion which they possess in virtue of their high +linear velocity at the equator. But on the other +hand, the replacing air masses, which are travelling +in the opposite direction from poles to equator, must +gain or absorb a corresponding amount of energy. +The one operation thus balances the other, and the +planetary equilibrium is in no way disturbed. But +the atmospheric masses which are moving from the +equator in the polar direction will possess, in addition, +that energy of position which has been communicated +to them through the medium of the +aqueous vapour and by the working of the second +stage of the atmospheric machine. These masses, +in the circulatory polar movements, move downwards +towards the planetary surface. In this downward +motion (as in the downward motion of a +pendulum mass vibrating under the action of gravitation) +the energy of position of the air mass is +converted once more into energy of motion—that +is, into its original form of axial energy of rotation. +In equatorial regions the really important energy +property of the atmospheric mass was indicated by +its elevation or its energy of position. In the +descent this energy is thus entirely transformed, and +reverts once more to its original form of energy of +rotation.</p> + +<p>The continual transformation of axial energy by +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> +aqueous vapour, and the conversion of that +energy by the upward movement of the air masses +into energy of position, naturally tends to produce a +retardative effect on the motion of revolution of the +earth. But this retardative effect is in turn completely +neutralised or balanced by the corresponding +accelerative effect due to the equally continuous +return as the energy of the air masses reverts in the +continuous polar movement to its original axial +form. Speaking generally, the equatorial regions, or +the regions of high velocity, are the location of the +most powerful transformation or abstraction of axial +energy by the aqueous vapour. Conversely, the +polar or regions of low velocity are the location of +the greatest return of energy by the air. As no +energy return is possible unless by the transference +of the atmospheric material from regions of high to +regions of low velocity, the configuration of the +planet in rotation must conform to this condition. +The spheroidal form of the earth is thus exquisitely +adapted to the working of the atmospheric machine. +As already pointed out, however, the energising and +raising of atmospheric masses is by no means confined +to equatorial regions, but takes place more or +less over the whole planetary surface. The same +applies to the energy return. The complete cycle +may be carried out in temperate zones; gaseous +masses, also, leaving equatorial regions at high altitudes +do not necessarily reach the polar regions, but +may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> +attain their lowest levels at intermediate points. +Neither do such masses necessarily proceed to the +regions of low velocity by purely linear paths. On +the contrary, they may and do move both towards +the poles and downwards by circuitous and even +vortical paths. In fact, as will be readily apparent, +their precise path is of absolutely no moment in the +consideration of energy return.</p> + +<p>It might naturally be expected that such movements +of the atmospheric air masses as have been +described above would give rise to great atmospheric +disturbance over the earth's surface, and that the +transfer of gaseous material from pole to equator and +vice versa would be productive of violent storms of +wind. Such storms, however, are phenomena of +somewhat rare occurrence; the atmosphere, on the +whole, appears to be in a state of comparative tranquillity. +This serenity of the atmosphere is, however, +confined to the lower strata, and may be ascribed to +an inherent stability possessed by the air mass as a +whole in virtue of the accession of energy to it at +high levels. As already explained, the transfer of +energy from the vapour to the air masses is accomplished +at comparatively low altitudes, and when this +reaction is taking place the whole tendency of the +energised material is to move upwards. In so +moving it tends to leave behind it the condensed +aqueous vapour, and would, therefore, rise to the +higher altitudes in a comparatively dry condition. +This<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> +dryness is accentuated by the further loss of +aqueous vapour by condensation as the air moves +toward regions of low velocity. That air which +actually attains to the poles will be practically dry, +and having also returned, in its entirety, the surplus +energy obtained from the aqueous vapour, it will be +in this region practically in the condition of statical +equilibrium of a gas against gravity (§ <a href="#sec_34">34</a>). But +the general state of the atmosphere in other regions +where a transference of energy from the aqueous +vapour has taken or is taking place is very different +from this condition of natural statical equilibrium +which is approached at the poles. In the lower +strata of the atmosphere the condition in some cases +may approximate to the latter, but in the upper +strata it is possessed of energy qualities quite abnormal +to statical equilibrium. Its condition is +rather one of the nature of stable equilibrium. It is +in a condition similar to that of a liquid heated in its +upper layers; there is absolutely no tendency to a +direct or vertical downward circulation. In statical +equilibrium, any downward movement of an air mass +would simply be accompanied by the natural rise in +temperature corresponding to the transformation of +its energy of position, but in this condition of stable +equilibrium any motion downwards must involve, +not only this natural temperature rise, but also a +return, either in whole or in part, of the energy +absorbed from the aqueous vapour. The natural +conditions<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> +are therefore against any direct vertical +return. These conditions, however, favour in every +respect the circulatory motion of the highly energised +upper air masses towards regions of low velocity. +All circumstances combine, in fact, to confine the +more powerfully energised and highly mobile air +masses to high altitudes. In the lower atmosphere, +owing to the continuous action of the aqueous +vapour on the air masses moving from regions of low +to those of high velocity, the circulation tends largely +to be a vertical one, so that this locality is on the +whole preserved in comparative tranquillity. It may +happen, however, that owing to changes in the distribution +of aqueous vapour, or other causes, this +natural stability of the atmosphere may be disturbed +over certain regions of the earth's surface. The +circumstances will then favour a direct or more or +less vertical return of the energy of the air masses in +the neighbourhood of these regions. This return +will then take the form of violent storms of wind, +usually of a cyclonic nature, and affording direct +evidence of the tendency of the air masses to pursue +vortical paths in their movement towards lower +levels.</p> + +<p>Under normal conditions, however, the operation +of the atmospheric machine is smooth and continuous. +The earth's axial energy, under the sun's +incepting influence, steadily flows at all parts of the +earth's surface through the aqueous vapour into the +atmospheric<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> +masses, and the latter, rising from the +terrestrial surface, with a motion somewhat like that +of a column of smoke, spread out and speed towards +regions of lower velocity, and travelling by devious +and lengthened paths towards the surface, steadily +return the abstracted energy in its original form. +Every operation is exactly balanced; energy expenditure +and energy return are complementary; +the terrestrial atmospheric machine as a whole works +without jar or discontinuity, and the earth's motion of +rotation is maintained with absolute uniformity.</p> + +<p>Like every other energy machine, the atmospheric +machine has clearly-defined energy limits. +The total quantity of energy in operation is strictly +limited by the mass of the acting materials. It is +well, also, to note the purely mechanical nature of +the machine. Every operation is in reality the +operation of mechanical energy, and involves the +movement of matter in some way or other relative +to the earth's surface and under the incepting action +of the earth's gravitation (§§ <a href="#sec_16">16,</a> <a href="#sec_20">20</a>). The moving +gaseous masses have as real an existence as masses of +lead or other solid material, and require as real an +expenditure of energy to move them relative to the +terrestrial surface (§ <a href="#sec_18">18</a>). This aspect of the planetary +machine will be more fully treated later.</p> + +<p>Throughout this description we have constantly +assumed the atmospheric mixture of oxygen and +nitrogen to act as one gas, and at ordinary temperatures +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> +respective energy properties of the two +substances (§ <a href="#sec_35">35</a>) make this assumption justifiable. +Both gases are then working far above their respective +evaporation temperatures. But, in the +higher regions of the atmosphere, where very low +temperatures prevail, a point or altitude will be +reached where the temperature corresponds to the +evaporation or condensation temperature of one of +the gases. Since oxygen appears to have the highest +temperature of evaporation (see <a href="#Table_of_Properties">Table of Properties</a>, +p. 133), it would naturally be the first to condense in +the ascent. But immediately condensation takes +place, the material will become susceptible to the +incepting influence of the sun, and working as it +does at its temperature of evaporation it will convey +its energy to the surrounding nitrogen in precisely +the same fashion as the aqueous vapour conveys the +energy to the aerial mixture in the lower atmosphere. +The whole action is made possible simply by the +difference existing in the respective evaporation +temperatures of the two gases. It will give rise to +another cyclical atmospheric energy process exactly +as already described for lower altitudes. Axial +energy of rotation will be communicated to the +nitrogen by the working material, which is now the +oxygen, and by the movement of the nitrogen +masses towards regions of low velocity, this transmitted +energy will be finally returned to its original +axial form.</p> + +<p>It<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> +has been already explained (§§ <a href="#sec_10">10,</a> <a href="#sec_32">32</a>) how all +terrestrial energy processes, also, great or small, are +sooner or later linked to the general atmospheric +machine. The latter, therefore, presents in every +phase of its working completely closed energy +circuits. In no aspect of its operation can we find +any evidence of, or indeed any necessity for, an +energy transmission either to or from any external +body or agent such as the sun. Every phenomenon +of Nature is, in fact, a direct denial of such transmission.</p> + +<p>The student of terrestrial phenomena will readily +find continuous and ample evidence in Nature of the +working of the atmospheric machine. In the rising +vapour and the falling rain he will recognise the +visible signs of the operation of that great secondary +process of transmission by which the inherent axial +energy of the earth is communicated to the air +masses. The movements of bodies, animate and +inanimate, on the earth's surface, the phenomena of +growth and decay, and in fact almost every experience +of everyday life, will reveal to him the persistent +tendency of the energy of secondary processes +to revert to the atmospheric machine. And in the +winds that traverse the face of the globe he will also +witness the mechanism of that energy return which +completes the atmospheric cyclical process. It may +be pointed out here also that the terrestrial cyclical +energy processes are not necessarily all embodied +in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span> +the atmosphere. The author has reason to believe, +and phenomenal evidence is not awanting to show, +that the circulatory motions of the atmosphere are in +some degree reproduced in the sea. The reader will +readily perceive that as regards stability the water +composing the sea is in precisely the same condition +as the atmosphere, namely, that of a liquid heated in +its upper strata, and any circulatory motion of the +water must therefore be accompanied by corresponding +transformations of energy. That such a +circulatory motion takes place is undoubted, and in +the moving mass of sea-water we have therefore a +perfectly reversible energy machine of the same +general nature as the atmospheric machine, but +working at a very much slower rate. It is not +beyond the limits of legitimate scientific deduction +to trace also the working of a similar machine in the +solid material of the earth. The latter is, after all, +but an agglomeration of loose material bound by the +force of gravitation into coherent form. By the +action of various erosive agencies a movement of +solid material is continually taking place over the +earth's surface. The material thus transported, it +may be, from mountain chains, and deposited on +the sea-bed, causes a disturbance of that gravitational +equilibrium which defines the exact form of +the earth. The forces tending to maintain this +equilibrium are so enormous compared with the +cohesive forces of the material forming the earth +that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> +readjustment continuously takes place, as +evidenced by the tremors observed in the earth's +crust. Where the structure of the latter is of such +a nature as to offer great resistance to the gravitational +forces, the readjustment may take the form +of an earthquake. Geological evidence, as a whole, +strongly points to a continuous kneading and flow +of terrestrial material. The structure of igneous +rocks, also, is exactly that which would be produced +from alluvial deposits subjected during these +cyclical movements to the enormous pressure and +consequent heating caused by superimposed material. +The occurrence of coal in polar regions, and of +glacial residue in the tropics, may be regarded as +further corroborative evidence. From this point +of view also, it becomes unnecessary to postulate +a genesis for the earth, as every known geological +formation is shown to be capable of production +under present conditions in Nature, and in fact to +be in actual process of production at all times.</p> + + +<h3 class="left hang3"><a name="sec_42" id="sec_42"></a>42. <i>Experimental Analogy and Demonstration of the +General Mechanism of Energy Transformation +and Return in the Atmospheric Cycle</i></h3> + +<p>In the preceding articles, the atmospheric machine +has been regarded more or less from the purely +physical point of view. The purpose of this demonstration +is now to place before the reader what +might<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> +be termed the mechanical aspects of the +machine; to give an outline, using simple experimental +analogies, of its nature and operation when +considered purely and simply as a mechanism for +the transformation and return of mechanical energy.</p> + +<p>Familiar apparatus is used in illustration. In all +cases, it is merely some adaptation of the simple +pendulum (§ <a href="#sec_21">21</a>). Its minute structural details are +really of slight importance in the discussion, and +have accordingly been ignored, but the apparatus +generally, and the energy operations embodied therein, +are so familiar to physicists and engineers that the +experimental results illustrated can be readily verified +by everyday experience. It is of great importance, +also, in considering these results, to bear in mind the +principles already enunciated (§§ <a href="#sec_13">13,</a> <a href="#sec_20">20</a>) with reference +to the operation of mechanical energy on the +various forms of matter. The general working conditions +of energy systems with respect to energy +limits, stability, and reversibility (§ <a href="#sec_23">23</a>) should also +be kept in view.</p> + +<p>As an introductory step we shall review first a +simple system of rotating pendulums. Two simple +pendulums CM and DM<sub>1</sub> (<a href="#i182">Fig. 9</a>) are mounted by +means of a circular collar CD upon a vertical +spindle AB, which is supported at A and B and free +to rotate. When the central spindle AB is at rest +the pendulums hang vertically; when energy is +applied to the system, and AB is thereby caused +to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> +rotate, the spherical masses M and M<sub>1</sub> will rise +by circular paths about C and D. This upward +movement, considered apart from the centrifugal +influence producing it, corresponds in itself to the +upward movement of the simple pendulum (§ <a href="#sec_21">21</a>) +against gravity. It is representative of a definite +transformation, namely, the transformation of the +work energy originally applied to the system +and manifested in its +rotary motion, into +energy of position. +The movements of +the rotating pendulums +will also be accompanied +by other +energy operations associated +with bearing +friction and windage (§§ <a href="#sec_23">23,</a> <a href="#sec_29">29</a>), but these operations +being part of a separate and complete cyclical energy +process (§ <a href="#sec_32">32</a>), they will in this case be neglected.</p> + +<div class="figleft"><a id="i182" name="i182"></a> +<img src="images/i182.jpg" alt="" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9</span></p> + +</div> + +<p>It will be readily seen, however, that the working +of this rotating pendulum machine, when considered +as a whole, is of a nature somewhat different from +that of the simple pendulum machine in that the +energy of position of the former (as measured by +the vertical displacement of M and M<sub>1</sub> in rotation) +and its energy of rotation must increase concurrently, +and also in that the absolute maximum value of +this energy of position will be attained when the +pendulum<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> +masses reach merely the horizontal level +HL in rotation. The machines are alike, however, +in this respect, that the transformation of energy of +motion into energy of position is in each case a +completely reversible process. In the working of +the rotating pendulums the limiting amount of +energy which can operate in this reversible process +is dependent on and rigidly defined by the maximum +length of the pendulum arms; the longer the arms, +the greater is the possible height through which the +masses at their extremities must rise to attain the +horizontal position in rotation. It will be clear also +that it is not possible for the whole energy of the +rotating system to work in the reversible process +as in the case of the simple pendulum. As the +pendulum masses rise, the ratio of the limiting +energy for reversibility to the total energy of the +system becomes in fact smaller and smaller, until at +the horizontal or position of maximum energy it +reaches a minimum value. This is merely an aspect +of the experimental fact that, as the pendulum +masses approach the ultimate horizontal position, +a much greater increment of energy to the system +is necessary for their elevation through a given +vertical distance than at the lower levels. A larger +proportion of the applied energy is, in fact, stored in +the material of the system in the form of energy +of strain or distortion.</p> + +<p>The two points which this system is designed to +illustrate,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> +and which it is desirable to emphasise, +are thus as follows. Firstly, as the whole system +rotates, the movement of the pendulum masses M +and M<sub>1</sub> from the lower to the higher levels, or from +the regions of low to those of higher velocity, is +productive of a transformation of the rotatory +energy of the system into energy of position—a +transformation of the same nature as in the case +of the simple pendulum system. Neglecting the +minor transformations (§§ <a href="#sec_24">24,</a> <a href="#sec_29">29</a>), this energy process +is a reversible one, and consequently, the return of +the masses from the higher to the lower positions will +be accompanied by the complete return of the transformed +energy in its original form of energy of +rotation. Secondly, the maximum amount of energy +which can work in this reversible process is always +less than the total energy of the system. The latter, +therefore, conforms to the general condition of +stability (§ <a href="#sec_25">25</a>).</p> + +<p>But this arrangement of rotating pendulums may +be extended so as to include other features. To +eliminate or in a manner replace the influence of +gravitation, and to preserve the energy of position +of the system—relative to the earth's surface—at a +constant value, the pendulum arms may be assumed +to be duplicated or extended to the points K and R +(<a href="#i185">Fig. 10</a>) respectively, where pendulum masses equal +to M and M<sub>1</sub> are attached.</p> + +<p>The arms MK and M<sub>1</sub>R are thus continuous. +Each<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> +arm is assumed to be pivoted at its middle +point about a horizontal axis through N, and as the +lower masses M and M<sub>1</sub> rise in the course of the +rotatory movement about AB the upper masses +K and R will fall by corresponding amounts. The +total energy of position of the system—referred to +the earth's surface—thus remains constant whatever +may be the position of the masses in the system. +The restraining influence on the movement of the +masses, formerly exercised +by gravitation, is +now furnished by means +of a central spring F. +A collar CD, connected +as shown to the pendulum +arms, slides on the +spindle AB and compresses +this spring as the +masses move towards the horizontal level HL. As +the masses return towards A and B the spring is +released.</p> + +<div class="figright"><a id="i185" name="i185"></a> +<img src="images/i185.jpg" alt="" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 10</span></p> + +</div> + +<p>If energy be applied to the system, so that +it is caused to rotate about the central axis AB, +the pendulum masses will tend to move outwards +from that axis. Their movement may be said to be +carried out over the surface of an imaginary sphere +with centre on AB at N. The motion of the masses, +as the velocity of rotation increases, is from the +region of lower peripheral velocity, in the vicinity of +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> +axis AB, to the regions of higher velocity, in the +neighbourhood of H and L. This outward movement +from the central axis towards H and L is +representative of a transformation of energy of an +exactly similar nature to that described above in the +simple case. Part of the original energy of rotation +of the system is now stored in the pendulum masses +in virtue of their new position of displacement. But +in this case, the movement is made, not against +gravity, but against the central spring F. The +energy, then, which in the former case might be said +to be stored against gravitation (acting as an invisible +spring) is in this case stored in the form of energy +of strain or cohesion (§ <a href="#sec_15">15</a>) in the central spring, +which thus as it were takes the place of gravitation +in the system. As in the previous case also, the +operation is a reversible energy process. If the +pendulum masses move in the opposite direction +from the regions of higher velocity to those of lower +velocity, the energy stored in the spring will be +returned to the system in its original form of energy +of motion. A vibratory motion of the pendulums +to and from the central axis would thus be productive +of an alternate storage and return of energy. +It is obvious also, that due to the action of centrifugal +force, the pendulum masses would tend to +move radially outwards on the arms as they move +towards the regions of highest velocity. Let this +radial movement be carried out against the action of +four<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span> +radial springs S<sub>1</sub>, S<sub>2</sub>, S<sub>3</sub>, S<sub>4</sub>, as shown (<a href="#i187">Fig. 11</a>). +In virtue of the radial movement of the masses, +these springs will be compressed and energy stored in +them in the form of energy of strain or cohesion (§ <a href="#sec_15">15</a>). +The radial movement implies also that the masses +will be elevated from the surface of the imaginary +sphere over which they are assumed to move. The +elevation from this surface will be greatest in the +regions of high velocity in the neighbourhood +of H and L, and least +at A and B. As the +masses move, therefore, +from H and L towards +the axis AB, they will +also move inwards on +the pendulum arms, relieving +the springs, so +that the energy stored +in them is free to be returned to the system +in its original form of energy of rotation. Every +movement of the masses from the central axis outwards +against the springs is thus made at the +expense of the original energy of motion, and every +movement inwards provokes a corresponding return +of that energy to the system. Every movement also +against the springs forms part of a reversible operation. +The sum total of the energy which works in +these reversible operations is always less than the +complete energy of the rotatory system, and the +latter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> +is always stable (§ <a href="#sec_25">25</a>), with respect to its +energy properties. Let it now be assumed that +the complete system as described is possessed of a +precise and limited amount of energy of rotation, +and that with the pendulum masses in an intermediate +position as shown (<a href="#i187">Fig. 11</a>) it is rotating +with uniform angular velocity. The condition of +the rotatory system might now be described as that +of equilibrium. A definite amount of its original +rotatory energy is now stored in the central spring +and also in the radial springs. If now, without +alteration in the intrinsic rotatory energy of the +system, the pendulum masses were to execute a +vibratory or pendulum motion about the position +of equilibrium so that they move alternately to and +from the central axis, then as they move inwards +towards that axis the energy stored in the springs +would be returned to the system in the original form +of energy of rotation. This inward motion would, +accordingly, produce acceleration. But, in the outward +movement from the position of equilibrium, +retardation would ensue on account of energy of +motion being withdrawn from the system and stored +in the springs.</p> + +<div class="figright"><a id="i187" name="i187"></a> +<img src="images/i187.jpg" alt="" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 11</span></p> + +</div> + +<p>Under the given conditions, then, any vibratory +motion of the pendulum masses to and from the +central axis would be accompanied by alternate retardation +and acceleration of the moving system. +The storage of energy in the springs (central and +radial)<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> +produces retardation, the restoration of this +energy gives rise to a corresponding acceleration. +The angular velocity of the system would rise and +fall accordingly. These are the natural conditions of +working of the system. As already pointed out, the +motion of the pendulum masses may be regarded as +executed over the surface of an imaginary sphere. +Their motion against the radial springs would therefore +correspond to a displacement outwards or +upwards from the spherical surface. A definite part +of the effect of retardation is, of course, due to this +outward or radial displacement of the masses.</p> + +<p>Assuming still the property of constancy of +energy of rotation, let it now be supposed that in +such a vibratory movement of the pendulum masses +as described above, the energy required merely for +the displacement of the masses <i>against the radial +springs</i> is not withdrawn from and obtained at the +expense of the original rotatory energy of the system, +but is obtained from some energy agency, completely +external to the system, and to which energy +cannot be returned. The retardation, normally +due to the outward displacement of the masses +against the radial springs, would not then take place. +But the energy is, nevertheless, stored in the springs. +It now, therefore, forms part of the energy of the +system, and consequently, on the returning or +inward movement of vibration of the masses towards +the central axis, this energy, received from the external +source,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> +would pass directly from the springs +to the rotational energy of the system. It is clear, +then, that while the introduction of energy in this +fashion from an external source has in part eliminated +the effect of retardation, the accelerating effect +must still operate as before. Each vibratory movement +of the pendulum system, under the given conditions, +will lead to a definite increase in its energy +of rotation by the amount stored in the radial springs. +If the vibratory movement is continuous, the rotatory +velocity of the system will steadily increase in value. +Energy once stored in the radial springs can only be +released by the return movement of the masses and +<i>in the form of energy of rotation</i>; the nature of the +mechanical machine is, in fact, such that if any +incremental energy is applied to the displacement of +the masses against the radial springs, it can only be +returned in this form of energy of motion.</p> + +<p>These features of this experimental system are of +vital importance to the author's scheme. They may +be illustrated more completely, however, and in a +form more suitable for their most general application, +by the hypothetical system now to be described. +This system is, of course, devised for purely illustrative +purposes, but the general principles of working +of pendulum systems and of energy return, as demonstrated +above, will be assumed.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span></p> +<h3><a name="sec_43" id="sec_43"></a>43. <i>Application of Pendulum Principles</i></h3> + +<p>The movements of the pendulum masses described +in the previous article have been regarded as carried +out over the surface of an imaginary sphere. Let us +now proceed to consider the phenomena of a similar +movement of material over the surface of an actual +spherical mass. The precise dimensions of the sphere +are of little moment in the discussion, but for the +purpose of illustration, its mass and general outline +may be assumed to correspond to that of the earth +or other planetary body. This spherical mass A +(<a href="#i191">Fig. 12</a>) rotates with uniform angular velocity about +an axis NS through its centre. Associated with the +rotating sphere are four auxiliary spherical masses, +M<sub>1</sub>, M<sub>2</sub>, M<sub>3</sub>, M<sub>4</sub>, also of solid material, which are +assumed to be placed symmetrically round its circumference +as shown. These masses form an inherent +part of the spherical system; they are assumed to +be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span> +united to the main body of material by the attractive +force of gravitation in precisely the same fashion +as the atmosphere or other surface material of a +planet is united to its inner core (§ <a href="#sec_34">34</a>); they will +therefore partake completely of the rotatory motion +of the sphere about its axis NS, moving in paths +similar to those of the rotating pendulum masses +already described (§ <a href="#sec_42">42</a>). The restraining action of +the pendulum arms is, however, replaced in this +celestial case by the action of gravitation, which is +the central force or influence of the system. Opposite +masses are thus only united through the attractive +influence of the material of the sphere. The place +of the springs, both central and radial, in our pendulum +system is now taken by this centripetal force +of gravitative attraction, which therefore forms the +restraining influence or determining factor in all the +associated energy processes. While the auxiliary +masses M<sub>1</sub> M<sub>2</sub>, &c., partake of the general motion of +revolution of the main spherical mass about NS, +they may also be assumed to revolve simultaneously +about the axis WE, perpendicular to NS, and also +passing through the centre of the sphere. Each of +these masses will thus have a peculiar motion, a +definite velocity over the surface of the sphere from +pole to pole—about the axis WE—combined with +a velocity of rotation about the central axis NS. +The value of the latter velocity is, at any instant, +directly proportional to the radius of the circle of +latitude<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span> +of the point on the surface of the sphere +where the mass happens to be situated at that +instant in its rotatory motion from pole to pole; +this velocity accordingly diminishes as the mass withdraws +from the equator, and becomes zero when it +actually reaches the poles of rotation at N and S; +and the energy of each mass in motion, since its +linear velocity is thus constantly varying, will be +itself a continuously varying quantity, increasing or +diminishing accordingly as the mass is moving to +or from the equatorial regions, attaining its maximum +value at the equator and its minimum value at the +poles. Now, since the masses thus moving are +assumed to be a material and inherent portion of the +spherical system, the source of the energy which is +thus alternately supplied to and returned by them +is the original energy of motion of the system; +this original energy being assumed strictly limited +in amount, the increase of the energy of each mass +as it moves towards the equator will, therefore, be +productive of a retardative effect on the revolution +of the system as a whole. But, in a precisely similar +manner, the energy thus gained by the mass would +be fully returned on its movement towards the pole, +and an accelerative effect would be produced corresponding +to the original retardation. In the arrangement +shown (<a href="#i191">Fig. 12</a>), the moving masses are assumed +to be situated at the extremities of diameters at right +angles. With this symmetrical distribution, the +transformation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> +and return of energy would take place +concurrently. Retardation is continually balanced +by acceleration, and the motion of the sphere would, +therefore, be approximately uniform about the +central axis of rotation. It will be clear that the +movements thus described of the masses will be very +similar in nature to those of the pendulum masses in +the experimental system previously discussed. The +fact that the motion of the auxiliary masses over +the surface of the sphere is assumed to be completely +circular and not vibratory, as in the pendulum case, +has no bearing on the general energy phenomena. +These are readily seen to be identical in nature with +those of the simpler system. In each case every +movement of the masses implies either an expenditure +of energy or a return, accordingly as the direction +of that movement is to or from the regions of high +velocity.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a id="i191" name="i191"></a> +<img src="images/i191.jpg" alt="" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 12</span></p> + +</div> + +<p>The paths of the moving auxiliary masses have +been considered, so far, only as parallel to the surface +of the sphere, but the general energy conditions +are in no way altered if they are assumed to have in +addition some motion normal to that surface; if, for +example, they are repelled from the surface as they +approach the equatorial regions, and return towards +it once more as they approach the poles. Such a +movement of the masses normal to the spherical +surface really corresponds to the movement against +the radial springs in the pendulum system; it would +now<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> +be made against the attractive or restraining +influence of gravitation, and a definite expenditure of +energy would thus necessarily be required to produce +the displacement. Energy, formerly stored in the +springs, corresponds now to energy stored as energy +of position (§ <a href="#sec_20">20</a>) against gravitation. If this energy +is obtained at the expense of the inherent rotatory +energy of the sphere, then its conversion in this +fashion into energy of position will again be productive +of a definite retardative effect on the revolution +of the system. It is clear, however, that if each +mass descends to the surface level once more in +moving towards the poles, then in this operation its +energy of position, originally obtained at the expense +of the rotatory energy of the sphere, will be gradually +but completely returned to that source. In a +balanced system, such as we have assumed above, the +descent of one mass in rotation would be accompanied +by the elevation of another at a different +point; the abstraction and return of the energy of +rotation would then be equivalent, and would not +affect the primary condition of uniformity of rotation +of the system. In the circumstances assumed, the +whole energy process which takes place in the movement +of the masses from poles to equator and normal +to the spherical surface would obviously be of a +cyclical nature and completely reversible. It would +be the working of mechanical energy in a definite +material machine, and in accordance with the principles +already<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> +outlined (§ <a href="#sec_20">20</a>) the maximum amount +of energy which can operate in this machine is strictly +limited by the mass of the material involved in the +movement. The energy machine has thus a definite +capacity, and as the maximum energy operating in +the reversible cycle is assumed to be within this +limit, the machine would be completely stable in +nature (§ <a href="#sec_25">25</a>). The movements of the auxiliary +masses have hitherto also been considered as taking +place over somewhat restricted paths, but this convention +is one which can readily be dispensed with. +The general direction of motion of the masses must +of course be from equator to pole or vice versa; but +it is quite obvious that the exact paths pursued by +the masses in this general motion is of no moment +in the consideration of energy return, nor yet the +precise region in which they may happen to be restored +once more to the surface level. Whatever +may be its position at any instant, each mass is possessed +of a definite amount of energy corresponding +to that position; this amount will always be equal +to the total energy abstracted by that mass, less the +energy returned. The nature of the energy system +is, however, such that the various energy phases of +the different masses will be completely co-ordinated. +Since the essential feature of the system is its +property of uniformity of rotation, any return of +energy in the rotational form at any part of the +system—due to the descent of material—produces a +definite<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span> +accelerating effect on the system, which +effect is, however, at once neutralised or absorbed +by a corresponding retardative effect due to that +energy which must be extracted from the system in +equivalent amount and devoted to the upraising of +material at a different point. For simplicity in +illustration only four masses have been considered +in motion over the surface of the sphere, but it will +be clear that the number which may so operate is +really limited only by the dimensions of the system. +The spherical surface might be completely covered +with moving material, not necessarily of spherical +form, not necessarily even material in the solid form +(§ <a href="#sec_13">13</a>), which would rise and fall relative to the surface +and flow to and from the poles exactly in the +fashion already illustrated by the moving masses. +The capacity of the reversible energy machine—which +depends on the mass—would be altered in this +case, but not the general nature of the machine itself. +If the system were energised to the requisite degree, +every energy operation could be carried out as before.</p> + +<p>As already pointed out, the dominating feature +of a spherical system such as we have just described +would be essentially its property of energy conservation +manifested by its uniformity of rotation. +All its operations could be carried out independently +of the direct action of any external energy influences. +For if it be assumed that the energy gained by the +auxiliary moving surface material <i>in virtue of its +displacement<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span> +normal to the spherical surface</i> be derived, +not from the inherent rotational energy of the sphere +itself, but by an influx of energy from some source +completely external to the system, then since there +has been no energy abstraction there will be no +retardative effect on the revolution due to the +upraising of this material. But the influx of energy +thus stored in the material must of necessity work +through the energy machine. In the movement +towards the poles this energy would therefore be +applied to the system in the form of energy of +rotation, and would produce a definite accelerative +effect. If the influx of energy were continuous, and +no means were existent for a corresponding efflux, +the rotatory velocity of the system would steadily +increase. The phenomena would be of precisely +the same nature as those already alluded to in the +case of the system of rotating pendulums (§ <a href="#sec_42">42</a>). +Acceleration would take place without corresponding +retardation. A direct contribution would be continuously +made to the rotatory energy of the system, +and would under the given conditions be manifested +by an increase in its velocity of revolution.</p> + + +<h3><a name="sec_44" id="sec_44"></a>44. <i>Extension of Pendulum Principles to +Terrestrial Phenomena</i></h3> + +<p>The energy phenomena illustrated by the experimental +devices above are to be observed, in their +aspects<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> +of greatest perfection, in the natural world. +In the earth, united to its encircling atmosphere +by the invisible bond of gravitation, we find the +prototype of the hypothetical system just described. +Its uniformity of rotation is an established +fact of centuries, and over its spheroidal surface +we have, corresponding to the motion of our illustrative +spherical masses, the movement of enormous +quantities of atmospheric air in the general directions +from equatorial to polar regions and vice versa. +This circulatory movement, and the internal energy +reactions which it involves, have been already fully +dealt with (§ <a href="#sec_38">38</a>); we have now to consider it in +a somewhat more comprehensive fashion, in the +light of the pendulum systems described above. As +already explained (§ <a href="#sec_13">13</a>), the operation of mechanical +energy is not confined to solid and liquid masses +only, but may likewise be manifested by the movements +of gaseous masses. The terrestrial atmospheric +machine provides an outstanding example. In its +working conditions, and in the general nature of the +energy operations involved, the terrestrial atmospheric +machine is very clearly represented by the rotating +pendulum system (§ <a href="#sec_42">42</a>). The analogy is still closer +in the case of the hypothetical system just described. +The actual terrestrial energy machine differs +from both only in that the energy processes, which +they illustrate by the movements of solid material, are +carried out in the course of its working by the motion +of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> +gaseous masses. It is obvious, however, that this +in no way affects the inherent nature of the energy +processes themselves. They are carried out quite as +completely and efficiently—in fact, more completely +and more efficiently—by the motions of gaseous as +by the motions of solid material.</p> + +<p>The atmospheric circulation, then, may be +readily regarded as the movement, over the terrestrial +surface, of gaseous masses which absorb and +return energy in regions of high and low velocity +exactly in the fashion explained above for solid +material. In their movement from polar towards +equatorial regions these masses, by the action of the +aqueous vapour (§ <a href="#sec_38">38</a>), absorb energy (axial energy) +and expand upwards against gravity. Here we have +an energy operation identical in nature with that +embodied in the movements of a pendulum mass +simultaneously over a spherical surface and against +radial springs as in the system of rotating pendulums, +or identical with the equatorial and radial movement +of the auxiliary masses in the hypothetical system. +The return movement of the aerial masses over the +terrestrial surface in the opposite direction from +equatorial to polar regions provides also exactly +the same phenomena of energy return as the return +movement of the masses in our illustrative systems. +These systems, in fact, portray the general operation +of mechanical energy precisely as it occurs in the +terrestrial atmospheric machine. But obviously they +cannot<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> +illustrate the natural conditions in their entirety. +The passage or flow of the atmospheric air +masses over the earth's surface is a movement of an +exceedingly complex nature, impossible to illustrate +by experimental apparatus. And indeed, such illustration +is quite unnecessary. As already pointed +out (§ <a href="#sec_38">38</a>), no matter what may be the precise path +of an aerial mass in its movement towards the +planetary surface the final energy return is the same. +Sooner or later its energy of position is restored in +the original axial form.</p> + +<p>The terrestrial atmospheric machine will be +thus readily recognised as essentially a material +mechanical machine corresponding in general nature +to the illustrative examples described above. The +combination of its various energy processes is +embodied in a complete cyclical and reversible +operation. Its energy capacity, as in the simpler +cases, is strictly limited by the total mass of the +operating material. The active or working energy +is well within the limit for reversibility (§ <a href="#sec_23">23</a>), and +the machine is therefore essentially stable in nature. +The continuous abstraction of axial energy by the +aqueous vapour is balanced by an equally continuous +return from the air masses, and the system, so far +as its energy properties are concerned, is absolutely +conservative. Energy transmission from or to any +external source is neither admissible nor necessary +for its working.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span></p> +<h3><a name="sec_45" id="sec_45"></a>45. <i>Concluding Review of +Terrestrial Conditions—Effects +of Influx of Energy</i></h3> + +<p>The aspect of the earth as a separate mass in +space, and its energy relationship to its primary the +sun and to the associated planetary masses of the +solar system have been broadly presented in the +General Statement (§§ <a href="#PART_I">1-12</a>). In that statement, based +entirely on the universally accepted properties of +matter and energy, an order of phenomena is described +which is in strict accordance with observed +natural conditions, and which portrays the earth +and the other planetary bodies, so far as their +material or energy properties are concerned, as absolutely +isolated masses in space. The scientific +verification of this position must of necessity be +founded on the terrestrial observation of phenomena. +So far as the orbital movements of the planet are +concerned these are admittedly orderly; each planetary +mass wheels its flight through space with unvarying +regularity; the energy processes, also, associated +with the variations of planetary orbital path, and +which attain limiting conditions at perihelion and +aphelion, are readily acknowledged to be reversible +and cyclical in nature. In fact, even a slight observation +of the movements of celestial masses inevitably +leads to the conviction that the great energy +processes of the solar system are inherently cyclical +in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span> +nature, that every movement of its material and +every manifestation of its energy is part of some +complete operation. The whole appears to be but +the natural or material embodiment of the great +principle of energy conservation. It has been one +of the objects of this work to show that the cyclical +nature of the energy operations of the solar system +is not confined only to the more prominent energy +phenomena, but that it penetrates and is exhibited +in the working of even the most insignificant planetary +processes. Each one of the latter in reality +forms part of an unbroken series or chain of energy +phenomena. Each planet forms in itself a complete, +perfect, and self-contained energy system. Every +manifestation of planetary energy, great or small, +whether associated with animate or inanimate matter, +is but one phase or aspect of that energy as it pursues +its cyclical path.</p> + +<p>It is a somewhat remarkable fact that in this age +of scientific reason the observation of the strictly +orderly arrangement of phenomena in the solar +system as a whole should not have led to some idea +in the minds of philosophical workers of a similar +order of phenomena in its separate parts, but the +explanation lies generally in the continual attempts +to bring natural phenomena into line with certain +preconceived hypotheses, and more particularly to +the almost universal acceptance of the doctrine of +the direct transmission of energy from the sun to +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> +earth and the final rejection or radiation of this +energy into space. There is no denying the eminent +plausibility of this doctrine. The evidence of +Nature <i>prima facie</i> may even appear to completely +substantiate it. But we would submit that the +general circumstances in which this doctrine is now +so readily accepted are very similar to those which +prevailed in more ancient times, when the revolution +of the sun and stars round the earth was the universal +tenet of natural philosophy. This conception, +allied to the belief that the sole function of the +celestial bodies was to provide light and heat to the +terrestrial mass, appeared to be in strict accordance +with observed phenomena, and held undisturbed +possession of the minds of men for centuries, until +it was finally demolished by Copernicus as the +result of simple and accurate observation of and +deduction from natural phenomena. At the present +time, the somewhat venerable belief in the +transmission of energy in various forms from the +sun to the earth appears at first sight to be supported +by actual facts. But a more rigid scrutiny +of the evidence and of the mental processes +must inevitably lead the unbiassed mind to the +conclusion that this belief has no real foundation +on truly scientific observation, but is entirely unsupported +by natural phenomena. Every operation +of Nature, in fact, when considered in its true +relationships is an absolute denial of the whole +conception.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> +Like its predecessor relating to the +motion of the sun and stars round the earth, the +doctrine of energy transmission between separate +masses in space such as the sun and the earth cannot +be sustained in the face of scientific observation. This +doctrine is found on investigation to be supported not +by phenomena but by the conception of an elastic +ethereal medium, of whose existence there is absolutely +no evidential proof, and the necessity for which +disappears along with the hypothesis it supports. +It is, however, not proposed to discuss in any +detail either the supposed transmission of energy +from the sun to the planets or the arbitrary properties +of the transmitting medium, but rather +to adopt a more positive method of criticism +by summarising briefly the evidential phenomena +which show the cyclical nature of the whole terrestrial +energy process, and which remove the basis +of belief in such a transmission.</p> + +<p>To recapitulate the more general conditions, we +find the earth, alike with other planetary masses, +pursuing a defined orbital path, and rotating with +uniform angular velocity in the lines or under the +influence of the gravitation, thermal, luminous, and +other incepting fields (§§ <a href="#sec_17">17,</a> <a href="#sec_18">18,</a> <a href="#sec_19">19</a>) which originate in +the sun. Its axial rotation, in these circumstances, +gives rise to all the secondary transformations (§ <a href="#sec_9">9</a>) +of terrestrial axial energy, which in their operation +provide the varied panorama of terrestrial phenomena. +Terrestrial<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> +axial energy is thus diverted into terrestrial +secondary processes. Each of these processes +is found to be united to or embodied in a definite +material machine (§§ <a href="#sec_27">27-30</a>), and is, accordingly, +limited in nature and extent by the physical properties +and incepting factors associated with the +materials of which the machine is composed. By +ordinary methods of transmission, energy may pass +from one material to another, that is to say from one +machine to another, and by this means definite chains +of energy processes are constituted, through which, +therefore, passes the axial energy originally transformed +by the action of the sun. These series or +chains of energy processes are also found to be one +and all linked at some stage of their progress to the +general atmospheric machine (§ <a href="#sec_29">29</a>). The energy +operating in them is, in every case, after many or +few vicissitudes according to the nature of the intermediate +operations, communicated to the gaseous +atmospheric material. By the movement of this +material in the working of the atmospheric machine +(§ <a href="#sec_38">38</a>) the energy is finally returned in its original +form of axial energy of rotation. The sun's action +is thus in a manner to force the inherent rotatory +energy of the planet into the cyclical secondary +operations, all of which converge alike towards the +general atmospheric mechanism of return. The +passage of the energy through the complete secondary +operations, and its re-conversion into its original axial +form,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span> +may be rapid or slow according to circumstances. +In equatorial regions, where the influence +of the sun's incepting fields is most intense, we find +that the inherent planetary axial energy is communicated +with great rapidity through the medium +of the aqueous vapour to the air masses. By the +movement of the latter it may be just as rapidly +returned, and the whole operation completed in a +comparatively short interval of time. In the same +equatorial regions, the transformations of axial +energy which are manifested in plant life attain their +greatest perfection and vigour. But in this case the +complete return of the operating energy may be very +slow. The stored energy of tropical vegetation may +still in great part remain in the bosom of the earth, +awaiting an appropriate stimulus to be communicated +to more active material for the concluding +stages of that cyclical process which had its commencement +in the absorption of axial energy into +plant tissue. The duration of the complete secondary +operation has, however, absolutely no bearing on the +conservative energy properties of the planet. In +this respect, the system is perfectly balanced. Every +transformation or absorption of rotatory energy, +great or small, for long or short periods of time, is +counteracted by a corresponding return. Absolute +uniformity of planetary axial rotation is thus steadily +maintained.</p> + +<p>It is scarcely necessary at this stage to point out +that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span> +the verification of this description of natural +operations lies simply and entirely in the observation +of Nature's working at first hand. The description is +based on no theory and obscured by no preconceived +ideas, it is founded entirely on direct experimental +evidence. The field of study and of verification is +not restricted, but comprises the whole realm of +natural phenomena. In a lifetime of observation +the author has failed to discern a single contradictory +phenomenon; every natural operation is in reality +a direct confirmation.</p> + +<p>The conception of energy, working only through +the medium of definite material machines with their +incepting and limiting agencies, is one which is of +great value not only in natural philosophy but also +in practical life. By its means it is possible in many +cases to co-ordinate phenomena, apparently antagonistic, +but in reality only different phases of energy +machines. It aids materially also in the obtaining of +a true grasp of the inexorable principle of energy +conservation and its application to natural conditions, +and it emphasises the indefensible nature of +such ideas as the radiation of energy into <i>space</i>.</p> + +<p>It will be evident that in a planetary system such +as described above there is no room for any transmission +of energy to the system from an external +source. The nature of the system is, in fact, such +that a transmission of this kind is entirely unnecessary. +As already demonstrated, every phenomenon +and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span> +every energy operation can be carried out independently +of any such transmission. For the +purpose of illustration, however, it may be assumed +that such a communication of energy does take place; +that according to the accepted doctrines of modern +science the sun pours energy in a continuous stream +into the terrestrial system. Now, no matter in what +form this energy is communicated, it is clear that +once it is associated with or attached to the various +planetary materials it is, as it were, incorporated or +embodied in the planetary energy machines, and +must of necessity work through the secondary energy +operations. But these operations have been shown +to be naturally and irresistibly connected to the +general atmospheric machine. Into this machine, +then, the incremental energy must be carried, and it +will be there directly converted into the form of +axial energy of rotation. Once the incremental +energy is actually in the planet, once it is actually +communicated to planetary material, the nature of +the system absolutely forbids its escape. The effect +of a direct and continuous influx such as we have +assumed would inevitably be an increase in the +angular velocity of the system. This effect has +already been verified from an experimental point of +view by consideration of the phenomena of a rotating +pendulum system (§§ <a href="#sec_42">42,</a> <a href="#sec_43">43</a>). Whilst the influx of +energy proceeds, then in virtue of the increasing +velocity of the planetary material in the lines of the +various<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span> +incepting fields of the sun, all terrestrial +phenomena involving the transformation of rotary or +axial energy would be increased in magnitude and +intensified in degree. The planet would thus rapidly +attain an unstable condition; its material would soon +become energised beyond its normal capacity, and +the natural stability (§ <a href="#sec_25">25</a>) of its constituent energy +machines would be destroyed; the system as a +whole would steadily proceed towards disruption.</p> + +<p>But, happily, Nature presents no evidence of such +a course of events. The earth spins on its axis with +quiet and persistent regularity; the unvarying uniformity +of its motion of axial rotation has been +verified by the observations of generations of philosophers. +Its temperature gradations show no evidence +of change or decay in its essential heat qualities, and +the recurrence of natural phenomena is maintained +without visible sign of increase either in their intensity +or multiplicity. The finger of Nature ever +points to closed energy circuits, to the earth as a +complete and conservative system in which energy, +mutable to the highest degree with respect to its +plurality of form, attains to the perfection of permanence +in its essential character and amount.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p class="center small">Printed by <span class="smcap">Ballantyne, Hanson & Co.</span><br /> +Edinburgh & London</p> + +<div class="notes"><p class="center">FOOTNOTES:</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> The conception of "Nature's Perfect Engine" was originally arrived +at by the author from consideration of the phenomena of the steam-engine. +The following extract from the "Review" of his work (1895) +illustrates the various stages which finally lead to that conclusion:— +</p> + +<p>"My first steps in the right direction came about thus. I had always +been working with a cylinder and piston, and could make no progress, +till at length it struck me to make my cylinder high enough to do +without a piston—that is, to leave the steam to itself and observe its +behaviour when left to work against gravity. The first thing I had to +settle was the height of my cylinder. And I found, by calculation from +Regnault's experiments that it would require to be very high, and that +the exact height would depend on the temperature of the water in the +boiler which was the bottom of this ideal cylinder. Now, at any +ordinary temperature the height was so great that it was impossible to +get known material to support its own weight, and I did not wish to +use a hypothetical substance in the construction of this engine. Finally, +the only course left me was to abolish the cylinder as I had done the +piston. I then discovered that the engine I had been trying to evolve—the +perfect engine—was not the ideal thing I had been groping after but +an actual reality, in full working order, its operations taking place every +day before my eyes. +</p><p> +"Every natural phenomenon fitted in exactly; it had its function to +perform, and the performance of its function constituted the phenomenon. +Let me trace the analogy in a few of its details. The sea corresponds to +the boiler; its cylinder surrounds the earth; it has for its fuel the axial +energy of the earth; it has no condenser because it has no exhaust; +the work it performs is all expended in producing the fuel. Every +operation in the cycle is but an energy transformation, and these various +transformations constitute the visible life of the world."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> For definite numerical examples see the author's <i>Terrestrial +Energy</i> (Chap. 1.).</p></div> +</div> + + +<div class="notes"><p>TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE:</p> + +<p>Obvious typographical errors from the original printed version of this +book have been corrected without comment.</p> + +<p>Footnotes in the html version have been placed at the end of the +book.</p> + +<p>Illustrations have been moved to the nearest paragraph break.</p></div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Energy System of Matter, by James Weir + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ENERGY SYSTEM OF MATTER *** + +***** This file should be named 38348-h.htm or 38348-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/8/3/4/38348/ + +Produced by David Garcia, Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Cathy +Maxam and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net (This book was produced from scanned +images of public domain material from the Google Print +project.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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